International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 & Approaches to Deepening with the Greater Wholeness of Being, usually called “God” in Western cultures. I define religion as the Personal Meaning social organization of that spiritual impulse, which sometimes helps channel it, and sometimes unfor- Adam Blatner tunately interferes with this mission). At the end of the 1960s, the of Transpersonal Psychol- ABSTRACT ogy was founded (Walsh & Vaughan, 1993; Scotton, Chinen, & Battista, 1996). Essentially, it proposed This paper briefly reviews several contemporary that an exploration of people’s spiritual dimension trends that help people acquire a greater sense of could help them work out their spiritually related personal meaning. It will show that psychotherapy personal problems. has moved beyond Freud’s narrow focus on re- solving infantile conflicts, and has moved towards quickly moved beyond Victor Frankl’s emphasis on personal meaning and the challenge of purely clinical concerns—helping ’s concept of social interest. This brief individuals or families with personal problems—and overview will serve the purpose of showing the became involved with a somewhat larger concern breadth of meaning-oriented approaches to psy- for expansion, including ecology and chology and psychotherapy. social activism. Over the last few decades, a number of organizations and journals have been founded to MEANING-CENTERED PSYCHOTHERAPY support this effort, such as the Institute of the Noetic AND COUNSELLING Sciences (IONS); ReVision: A Journal of Conscious- ness and Transformation; The Journal of Conscious- ness Studies; and numerous other magazines. There is also a radio program called “New Dimensions.” At mid-twentieth century, two forces dominated the field of psychology: in academic circles Another development emerging from this field has and in clinical circles. Neither fully been an expansion of philosophical ideas, such as addressed the more humanistic capacities of play, those worked out by (2000), who has , and other meaning-filled dimensions created a model for integrating many seeming op- of life. Thus, a “third force” emerged, led by vision- posites, such as science and spirituality. Other areas of ary , such as , Rollo academic philosophy have begun to build on May, Charlotte Buhler, James Bugental, and oth- these ideas. ers. They were influenced by existential psychiatrists and psychologists, such as , Ludwig Carl G. Jung’s Binswanger. They addressed such phenomena as “peak experiences” and talked about authenticity and By the 1950s, for various reasons, Jung’s ideas had actively considered questions of personal meaning not become as well-known as Freud’s, but around as a factor in psychotherapy (Goble, 1971). Many the mid-late 1960s they enjoyed a renaissance. Per- of their ideas continue to be a source of insight in haps no other approach addressed the richness of humanistic and existential psychology. the psychedelic experience. Once intellectuals began contemplating “the farther reaches of human nature,” Transpersonal Psychology and Psychiatry a psychology with a wider scope was needed. Jung’s inclusion of many dimensions, spirituality as well as Out of humanistic psychology emerged another sexuality and all the other archetypes invited people trend, one that extended psychology into the realm of to think about the more general goals of life (Blatner, spirituality (I define spirituality as that activity of de- 2002). veloping a deeper relationship or sense of connection www.ExistentialPsychology.org 1 International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 Psychology & Psychotherapy In the last few decades, a number of writers have become widely known, such as Thomas Moore, James Hillman, Jean Shinoda Bolen (Bolen, 1990). These This approach began as a treatment of those who writers have addressed the challenges of personal were mentally ill, but later, various group-oriented meaning from a variety of fascinating standpoints. methods were applied to helping healthy people One common underlying theme is that life becomes as well. Beginning with the “T-Groups” in the late more meaningful when lived in “depth” and expe- 1940s, group work began to be integrated with rienced simultaneously at several levels, such as art, humanistic psychology in evolving into sensitivity philosophy, and social concern, in addition to the training—some of it used in business—and then into immediate problems of survival. Of course, analytical encounter groups. Different support groups have psychology is also an influential element in the afore- sprung up to help people with life threatening illness, mentioned field of transpersonal psychology. bereavement groups, and recovery from addiction. Personal meaning was a natural subject for sharing in The Creative Arts Therapies these settings.

Using music, dance and movement, art, poetry, sculpture, and drama as vehicles for therapy emerged with the creative efforts of many innovators. By the Instead of trying to discover insight into the past, 1980s, these diverse efforts had become sub-fields this approach concerns itself with simply clarify- in themselves and interdisciplinary efforts emerged ing the meanings of stories people tell about them- (Indeed, a related field called “expressive arts therapy” selves. The therapy primarily consists of re-telling promotes the integration of several modalities). Also, or re-authoring the story from a problem-saturated like many aspects of psychotherapy, the creative arts account to a more constructive, life-affirming nar- therapies offered much not only to sick people want- rative. The problem with traditional psychodynamic ing to get better, but also to healthy people who want approaches, especially as applied to family work, from to become healthier and even more resilient. Many of which narrative therapy chiefly emerged, was that their techniques may be applied in workshops aimed everyone in the family had a different version of his- at deepening personal meaning. tory and it became a fruitless task to seek to discover “what really happened.” Narrative therapy’s empha- sis on co-creating the past helps redirect the family towards a more positive future. It became clear that In the mid-1930s, Dr. J. L. Moreno developed an ap- such artful constructions benefit from an inclusion of proach which emerged as an alternative to the pri- people’s higher aspirations. The process of identifying marily verbal method (on the couch) of psychoanaly- and clarifying these values and ideals before weav- sis. Psychodrama utilizes the power of role-playing ing them into a more meaningful story is similar to to help people explore their problems in action. This (Sarbin, 1986). method influenced many other approaches, such as , some forms of , and Experiential Therapies the encounter group (Blatner, 2000a). At the 2002 Meaning Conference, I gave a workshop that showed Various forms of experimental therapies have how psychodramatic methods were particularly effec- emerged, addressing dimensions that had been over- tive in promoting a deeper sense of personal meaning looked in conventional talk-therapy. These include (Blatner, 2002). Psychodrama also at times integrates “Body Therapies,” especially the post-Reichian form many of the elements in the creative arts therapies, of Bioenergetic Analysis, “Imagery Therapies,” the as well as experiential therapy, narrative therapy, and Gestalt Therapy. Experimental therapies make people group therapy. aware of a wider range of their experiences, including their bodily sensations, the feeling of the streaming of bodily “energy,” and the vividness of imagery evoked www.ExistentialPsychology.org 2 International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 Psychology & Psychotherapy by quasi-hypnotic techniques. These and other ap- ideas on Jung’s theories), was popularized in a public proaches also help people develop a more holistic television series hosted by Bill Moyers. One theme sense of personal meaning. from this series and his then popular books is that we can all participate in a kind of “hero’s journey.” Since Other Developments then, several of books on “personal mythology” have been subsequently written in order to elaborate on Rehabilitation psychology and occupational therapy this general theme (Some examples of these include: have shown increasing interest in the role of mean- Feinstein & Krippner, 1988; Keen & Fox, 1989; and ing in rehabilitation. These fields need to help clients Pearson, 1991). rise above their trauma and disability and rediscover a sense of meaning and purpose. Trauma counselling, Another effect of the exploration of myths of other sexual abuse counselling and grief counselling are also cultures is that it brought sharper awareness into the concerned with issues related to shattered assump- “myths,” i.e., unquestioned assumptions and implicit tions and loss of meaning. These developments high- attitudes of our own Western culture. Modern culture light the vital role of meaning of life (Baumeister, presumed to be scientific, rational, and beyond the 1991) and meaning-centered counselling and therapy grip of “myth,” but the combination of cross-cultural (Wong, 1998). studies and dynamic psychology revealed that our own society was riven with a host of norms based on CULTURAL DEVELOPMENTS a combination of tradition and the sustaining of fa- miliar power structures—we, too, had our own myths. From the mid-twentieth century onward, dynamic In our own time of rapidly changing circumstances, psychology has increasingly penetrated the fabric of international travel and mixing of cultural influences, culture, in the humanities, academia, the media, and the impact of new technologies, etc., we are being even in popular cartoons, and has in turn stimulated a forced to re-evaluate what seem to be fixed truths, more popular resurgence in philosophy. In addition, a but in actuality relative value systems, and knowing number of general developments in the wider culture about comparative religions and mythologies help to have added to the wealth of approaches available for identify such assumptions, better bringing conscious- the deepening of personal meaning. ness to their revision and refinement.

Comparative Mythology and Religion The Human Potential Movement

Research deriving from anthropology, history, The Human Potential Movement, which emerged in cross-cultural sociology, and other fields supported the 1960s, invited people to explore the frontiers of a natural emergence of interdisciplinary studies. mind and socially constructive behavior. Beginning Religion has moved from being a denominationally- primarily at in California, it soon biased mode of inculcating the young to a subject of spread nationally and internationally, with “growth impartial and cross-cultural study. Efforts were made centers” in the late 60s and throughout the 70s, host- to elucidate the common elements that could be ing a wide range of workshops relating to psychol- discerned in many if not all religions (Walsh, 1999). ogy, spirituality, body awareness, etc. The “encounter” One impetus to this effort was the influx of Asian in- group was a prominent element for a decade, but fluences after the Second World War: Zen Buddhism then fell out of fashion, transforming into many more and the resurgence of Yoga. Tibetan Buddhism, focused programs for personal development. Native American Indian religions, and the mystical The present movement can be streams within the major Western and Eastern reli- considered a continuation of humanistic psychol- gious traditions have also become important players ogy and the human potential movement. Although in the therapeutic community and popular culture. positive psychology focuses on scientific research, In the early 1980s, the work of the comparative my- this movement has inspired large numbers of posi- thologist, Joseph Campbell (who based many of his tive psychologists, life coaches, and happiness coaches www.ExistentialPsychology.org 3 International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 Psychology & Psychotherapy who help clients to develop their full potentials and A growing theme for seniors—and also for others— lead happy and successful lives. is that of creating autobiographies, memoirs, or even just collections of stories. New developments in gene- New Trends in Spirituality alogy, the possibilities of creating CD-ROMs, videos, scanning photographs, websites, and desktop publish- An increasing percentage of people—more among ing, all make it more possible for the sharing of these young adults—has begun to explore nontraditional stories with family, or archiving them. avenues in religion. Some of these efforts involve re-discovering or re-creating greater depth within A combination of the themes of group work and the mainstream traditions, with a greater emphasis narrative mentioned above can be applied as a form on personal experience and social action, while others of recreation or community theatre by sharing our try out different, sometimes rather “foreign” spiritual stories or dramatizing them. For example, the recent traditions. The activity of finding one’s most satisfac- psychodramatic-theatrical innovation called “Play- tory spiritual path has itself become a common phase back Theatre” (Fox & Dauber, 1999). Several books in the life journey (McLennan, 1999). This incredibly have been written about how to write your own rich trend in contemporary culture deserves to be memoir. Group work shows some more specific tech- vividly recognized (Taylor, 1999; Smolley & Kin- niques for telling your story. Discovering the depths ney, 1999; Drury, 1999). This spiritual renaissance, of of meaning in the tapestry of your life is the subject course, brings into sharp focus the question of mean- of the workshop I am presenting at this conference. ing in life. Thanatology Another effort has been in the direction of interfaith dialogue. At a recent World Congress of Religion The study of the dying process, somewhat of a taboo (Barcelona, 2004), a number of leaders in the field of subject before the late 1960s, has become the focus religion met to explore this frontier. Notable in this of increased attention. In addition to seeking ways of effort has been the work of the late Brother Wayne helping the dying become more comfortable, there Teasdale. has also been a focus on promoting opportunities to experience and review life in order to make its end- With roots in the Human Potential Movement and ing a more meaningful experience. The popularity of new trends in spirituality, the idea of becoming more the recently published and persistently best-selling conscious about a wide range of other issues—polit- book, Tuesdays with Morrie, (Albom, 1997) reflects ical, social, environmental—also relates to our view the spread of this growing sensitivity to this subject. of the meaning of our lives. The point here is that Recent research on death attitudes has shifted from meaning is not merely a matter of acting for oneself, death anxiety to death acceptance, most of this re- but also to foster the greater advance of the species in search focus on the vital role of meaning and spiritu- harmony with all of life. ality (Wong, 2007).

Vital Aging OTHER ELABORATIONS

With advances in health care, increasing numbers A number of other related threads of development of people are living beyond 70 and doing so with also have implications for cultivating and deepening remarkable vitality. A significant cultural trend has the sense of personal meaning. been towards addressing the needs of this sector of the population. One aspect of this is the recogni- Enchantment tion of the need for more meaning in reviewing and living life, and also for contemplating its ending Another dimension of meaning is enhanced by the (Schachter-Shalomi, 1997). elaboration of imagery and fantasy. In the last forty years these dimensions were given new life by the www.ExistentialPsychology.org 4 International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 Psychology & Psychotherapy popularity among older youngsters and many adults One of the roots of this approach arose from the of the Tolkien books, The Hobbit and Lord of the problem of multiple personality disorder; the thera- Rings, in the late 1960s, through Castaneda’s writ- peutic approach is treating each subpersonality with ings about his Mexican sorcerer-teacher, Don Juan, respect, helping these personality fragments to have through the “Dungeons and Dragons” games, and a voice, speak for its own needs, as a way of negotiat- now in the best-selling Harry Potter books. Themes ing some movement towards integration. This ap- of wizards and magical creatures, dragons and angels, proach was expanded for use with people who were fairies and gnomes have become more prominent in not dissociated so much as merely in conflict among literature and toy stores, television cartoons different roles. This is actually an old psychodramatic and movies. technique, which became well-known when co-opted it and made it part of Gestalt Therapy. In many ways, as mentioned above, the early part of The idea of having different parts of yourself talk to the last century was characterized more by a tendency each other is fairly simple and, if done correctly, is towards de-mythologization, a tendency to explain very useful, not just in therapy, but also as a technique phenomena “scientifically,” in order to pull away that can become part of ordinary life, as a form of more distinctively from the forces of mere supersti- ongoing mental hygiene (Blatner, 2003). The practical tion. However, later there came a relative lack in the implication of a pluralistic model of the mind is that celebration of personally meaningful images, and as people can begin to celebrate their own multifaceted with other aspects of spirituality and the dimensions nature, exulting, as did Walt Whitman in his Leaves of imagination and playfulness: the pendulum is of Grass, “Do I contradict myself? Very well, then, I swinging back. contradict myself! I am great! I contain multitudes!”

Re-mythologization is emerging, as is reflected in Ceremonies and Rituals the title phrase of a recently published book (Moore, 1996), The Re-Enchantment of Everyday Life. Like As an extension of a combination of the arts thera- romance, a measure of magic adds a kind of sparkle. pies, drama therapy, and narrative, there have been It involves a cultural re-balancing, a re-owning of the several books encouraging people to create new magic of childhood’s imagination and spontaneity. ceremonies and rituals to celebrate life transitions The key point is integrating into one’s life imagery, in ways that feel more meaningful to all concerned. poetry, song, ornamentation, and art, and developing Such rituals anchor the feeling of meaning in life personal symbols. (Blatner, 2000b).

Many Parts of the Self SUMMARY

Another development in the field of psychology has The need for personal meaning is being addressed been the emergence of a pluralistic model of mind, in many ways at this conference; however, a vision that is, instead of thinking of self as one person, a gathers strength when it has some sense of how that personality with a given set of traits; we are coming vision may be implemented. The trends mentioned to find that many people are not only multi-faceted, above include a wealth of methods, techniques, but actually healthier and more resilient because of it concepts, all of which offer a rich palette of colors for (Rowan, 1990). The postmodern condition can lead the individual to create a sense of deepened personal to a kind of “identity diffusion,” as Erikson called it, meaning. but it can also lead to what I have termed “multiple personality order.” The point here is not that there People’s capacity for deepening their sense of person- may be a plethora of roles, but rather that the man- al meaning has been facilitated by the emergence of a agement of the employment of those roles can be rela- number of trends in contemporary culture. From the tively more or less competent (Blatner, 2000a; Lifton, fields of psychology, psychotherapy, and comparative 1993). religion, and from many “grass-roots” trends, includ- www.ExistentialPsychology.org 5 International Journal of Existential Volume 1, Issue 2 Psychology & Psychotherapy ing literature, popular fashions, and the emergence of theme of personal meaning is an integral element in a new interest in consciousness-expansion, a wealth that creative advance. of approaches are now available for integration. For the first time in history, we are capable of consider- This list is meant to be evocative rather than exhaus- ing a new possibility, that of expanding consciousness tive; its purpose is to stimulate your thinking about to a new level of self-awareness and self-reflective all the emerging trends that also relate to the enrich- behavior. This, in turn, opens us to the possibility that ing of people’s capacity to seek to live more meaning- purposeful cultural evolution may be the next step ful lives, or to find meaning at the end of those lives. in the evolution of our own species. Considering the

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