113 Heinold, William D. "The Establishment of a Sports Spectator Typology U tilizing Q-Methodology." Unpublished Master's th e s is , The Pennsylvania State University, 1972.

Hutslar, John L. "Social Factors Influencing Superior Male Bowling," Unpublished Ph.D. d isse rta tio n , The Ohio State U niversity, 1975.

Kingsmore, John. "The Effect of a Professional Wrestling and a Professional Basketball Contest Upon the Aggressive Tendencies of Male Spectators." Unpublished Ph.D. disserta­ tion, University of Maryland, College Park, 1968.

Kiviaho, Pekka and Mustikkamaa, Volevi. "Intra-Group Conflict in Sport Audiences During Inter-Group Competition: A Test of the Conflict-Integratlon Hypothesis." Paper presented at the International Congress of Physical Activity Sciences, Quebec, Canada, July 11-16, 1976.

Klelnman, Seymour. "A Study to Determine the Factors that Influence the Behavior of Sports Crowds." Unpublished Ph.D. d isse rta ­ tion, The Ohio State University, 1960.

Patriksson, Goran. "Attitudes Toward Olympic Games of Swedish Adolescents." Paper presented at the International Congress of Physical Activity Sciences in Quebec, Canada, July 11-16, 1976.

Spinrad, William. "The Function of Spectator Sports." Paper pre­ sented at the Seventh World Congress of the International Sociological Association, Verna, Bulgaria, 1970.

Stone, Gregory. "Some Meanings of American Sports." College of Physical Education Association, The Sixtieth Annual Proceedings, 1957, 6-29.

Toyama, Judith S. "The Language of Sport: A Study of the Knowledge of Sport Terminology as a Function of Exposure to the Mass Media." Unpublished M aster's thesis, University o f Wisconsin, 1971.

Turner, Edward T. "The Effects of Viewing College Football, Basketball and Wrestling on th.e E licited Aggressive Responses o f Male Spectators," Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1968. 112 The Official Report of the Eleventh Olympic GSmes, Berlin, 1936 By the Organlsationshomites for the Eleventh Olympiade, Berlin, 1936, E. V., published by Wilhelm Limpert, B erlin, Germany, 1936.

The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games f the Fifteenth Olympiad, Helsinki^ 1952." Published by Wern Soderstrom Osakeghito, Helsinki, Finland, 1952.

The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games 6f the Sixteenth Olympiad, Melbourne. 1956T Printed by W. M. Houston, Government P rinter, Melbourne, A ustralia, 1956.

The Organization. Produced by the Organizing Committee of the Games of the Nineteenth Olympiad, Mexico, 1968, printed in Mexico City, Mexico, 1968.

The Organization. The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the Twentieth Olympiad, Munich, 1972, Vol^ 1, prinlted in Munich, Germany, 1972.

President's Commission on Olympic Sports. Washington, D.C., February 9, 1976.

Miscellaneous

Anser, Harry. "Facts and Figures, The NFL Audience," Spancer Advertising Company, New York, 1966.

Bennett, Jeanine, M. "Sport Fans and Others. A Comparison of Personality Characteristics of Sport Fans who Attend Professional Games with Persons with Religious Attendance and Persons Who Indicate No Formal Social Affiliations." Unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1975.

Brown, Howard S. "The Development of Spectator Sports in the United States," Unpublished Master's thesis, University of North Carolina, 1946.

Chiasson, Giller. Letter to Asher Mashiach, December 1, 1976

Cohen, Joseph M. "Philadelphia Flyers and Philadelphia Seventy-Sixers Fans: An Original Comparative Study with Analysis Emphasizing Marketing Implications for Management." Unpublished Master's thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1970. I ll

Newspapers

Howard, Susan. "More Participation Needed 1n Colleges." New York Times, 11, April, 1976.

Montreal S tar, 26, (28), July, 10, 1976.

"NBA Players Sign Rich Pact." Columbus Citizen Journal, 13, A pril, 1976.

St. Louis Globe, 6 , September, 1904.

Soloman, George. "Football Fans A ffluent." Washington Star, 2, December, 1973.

Reports

Lambros, P. and P olites, N. The Olympic Games. B.C. 776-A.D. 1896. Published by the American Olympic Committee, 1896.

Olympic Games, 1936. Official Organ of the XI Olympic Games, No. 12, Berlin, Germany. 1936.

The Games of the Tenth Olympiad. Los Angeles. 1932. The Official Report, published by the Tenth Olympiad Committee, Los Angeles, U.S.A., 1932.

The Games of the Seventeenth Olympiad. Rome,- I960. The Official Report of the Organizing Committee. Copyright, 1960, by the Organizing Committee of the Games of the Seventeenth Olympiad, Rome, Italy , 1960.

The Games of the Eighteenth Olympiad. Tokyo, 1964. The Official Report of the Organizing Committee. Copyright, 1964 by the Organizing Committee for the Games of the Eighteenth Olympiad, Tokyo, Japan, 1964.

The Fifth Olympiad. The O fficial Report of the Olympic Games of Stockholm, published by Wahlstrom and Widstrand, Stockholm, Sweden, 1912.

The Fourth Olympiad. The O fficial Report of the Olympic Games of 1908 Celebrated in London, published by the British Olympic Association, London, England, 1908.

The Ninth Olympiad. The O fficial Report of the Olympic Games of 1928, Celebrated a t Amsterdam, printed and published by J. H. DeBossy, Ltd., Amsterdam, Holland, 1928. s

n o

Howard, George E. "Social Psychology of the Spectator." The American Journal of Sociology, 18 (July, 1912), 36.

Oanls, J. R. "The Great God Football." Harper’s Magazine, November 1927, 744.

Johnson, William. "TV Made 1t All a New Game." Sports Illustrated, XXXI, 26 (December 22, 1969), 87.

Leach, Glenn C. "Solving the Spectator Problem." School Activities, (December, 1960), 99-101.

L ichtenstein, Grace. "They’d Rather Break a Date Than Miss a Game." TV Guide, 24, 10 (March 6 , 1976), 7-11.

Oktave, Frank L. "Spectator Sports." Child Study, (April, 1933), 198-200.

______. "Spectator Sports." Recreation, (October, 1933), 320-22.

"A Review of the Year 1n Interscholastic Athletics . '1 A thletic Journal, 18 (April, 1938), 18-22.

Rousseau, Edward L. "The Great American Ritual." The Nation, (October, 1958), 188-191.

Salario, Isadore. "Spectators, Sports and American Education." Chicago Schools Journal, (January, 1965), 155-160.

Schwartz, Michael. "Causes and Effects of Spectator Sports." International Review of Sport Sociology. 8 , 3-4, Warsau, 1973.

Smolkin, Shelley. "Spectating, The Eyes Have It." Women Sports, III (March, 1976), 60-61.

"Spectator Sportsmanship." School Activities, (December, 1962), 116-18.

Storey, Charles J. "On the Grandstand." Recreation, (April, 1935), 3-4.

"The F antastics." Newsweek, May 4, 1970, 67-68.

"The Ugly Sports Fan." Newsweek, June 17, 1974, 93-94.

Tunis, John R. "A Nation of Onlookers." The Athletic Monthly, 160 (July, 1937), 141-150. 109

The Gallup Opinion Index. 92 (February, 1973), p. 26.

Webster, Merriam. Websters Sports Dictionary. Springfield, Massachusetts: 0 and C Merriam Company Publishers, 1976.

Weiss, Paul. Sport, A Philosophic Inquiry. Southern Illinois University Press, 1971.

Winer, Ben S. Statistical Principles In Experimental Design. New York: Mebsar Hill Book Company, 1971.

Yiannakls, Andrew, McLntyre, Thomas D., Melnick, Merrill 0., and Hart, Dale P. Sport Sociology, Contemporary Themes. Dubuque, Iowa: Kendall Hunt Publishing Company, 1976.

Periodicals

Ambrose, Walter L. "Guidelines for Good Spectator Sportsmanship." School and Community, (October, 1968), 15-31.

B1en, Harvey J. "Spectator Behavior a t Basketball Games." High Points, (June, 1964), 67-69.

Borst, Evelyne. "Too Many Spectators 1" Recreation, (February, 1942), 682.

B rill, A. A. "The Why of a Fan." The North American Review, 228 (October, 1929), 429-434.

Ciupak, Sofia. "Sport Spectators—An Attempt at a Sociological Analysis." International Review of Sport Sociology, 8 3-4. Warsau, 1973.

"Crowd Control at Athletic Events." Journal of Health, Physical Education and Recreation, (April, 1969).

"Destroy the Stadium." The Nation, (November 6 , 1929), 513.

Goldstein, Jeffrey H. and Arms, Robert L. "Effects of Observing Athletic Contests on Hostility." Sociometery, 34, 1 (1971), 83-90.

Goodman, Frederick L. "Speculations Concerning Some Users of Gaming." Theory Into P ractice, XII, 5 (December, 1973), 316-319.

Hemming, James. "The Morality of Sport." New Society, 14 (December, 1972).

0 100

LeBon, Gustave. The Crowd. New York: The Viking Press, 1969.

Lipsyte, Robert. Sports World: An American Dreamland. New York: The New York Times Book Company, 1975.

Loy, John W. and Kenyon, Gerald S. Sport Culture and Society. New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, In c., 1967.

Luschen, Gunther. The Cross-Cultural Analysis of Sports and Games. Champaign, Illin o is: Stripes Publishing Company, 1970.

Lyman, Robert H. The World Alamanac and Book of Facts for 1933. New York: The New York World Telegram, 1933.

McIntosh, Peter C. Sport in Society. London: C. A. Watts and Company, L td., 1963.

Menke, Frank. Encyclopedia of Sports. New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1946.

Nash, Jay B. Spectatority. New Yof'k: A. S. Barnes and Company, 1938.

Natan, A. Sport and Society. London: Bower and Bower, 1958.

Olsen, Marvin E. The Process of SoLial Organization. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1968.

Parker, Stanly. The Future of Work and Leisure. New York: Praeger Publishers, 1971.

Riseman, David. The Lonely Crowd. New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950.

Sage, George H. Sport and American Society. Menlo Park: Addison Wesley Publishing Company, m u

Scott, Jack. The Athletic Revolution. New York: Free Press, 1970.

SI usher, Howard. Man, Sport and Existence. Philadelphia: Lea and Febiger, 1967.

Spectator Sportsmanship. Washington, D.C.: American Association for health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1961.

Spence, Janet T., Cotton, John W., Underwood, Benton J . , and Duncan, Carol P. Elementary Statistics. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prentice-Hall, Inc., 1976.

Talaminl, John T. and Page, Charles H. Sport and Society, An Anthology. Boston: L ittle Brown and Company, 1973. 107

* • Edwards, Harry. Sociology of Sport. Homewood, Illin o is : The Dorsey Press, 1973.

Edwards, Richard H. C hristianity and Amusements. New York: Association Press, 19l5.

Ethan, Ellen P. Crowd and Riot Control In Schools. Lawrence, Kansas: A Report. Governmental Research Center, The University of Kansas, 1966.

Flshwlck, M. American Heroes, Myth and Reality. Washington, D.C.: Publ1c Affairs Press, 1954.

Fromm, Erich. The Sane Society. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, 1955.

Goodhart, Philip and Chataway, Cristopher. War Without Weapons. London: W. A. Allen, 1968.

Grazla, Sebastian De. Of Time, Work orLeisure. Garden City, New York: Anchor Books Doubleday and Company, Inc., 1962.

Hart, Marie. Sport 1n the Sociocultural Process. Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1976.

Holliman, Jennie. American Sports, 1785-1835. Dunham, N.C.: The Sereman Press, 1931.

Hollingworth, H. L. The Psychology of the Audience. New York: American Book Company, 1935.

Holmes, Lawrence K. More Than a Game.New York: The MacMillan Company, 1967.

Kando, Thomas M. Leisure and Popular Culture in Transition. St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1975.

Kaplan, Max. Leisure Theory and Policy.New York: John Wiley and Sons, Inc., 1975.

Kerllnger, Fred N. Foundations of Behavioral Research. New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973.

Klapp, Orrin E. Heroes, Villians and Fools. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: • Prentice-H all, Inc. 1962.

Landers, Daniel M. Social Problems in A th letics. Urbana: University of Illin o is Press, 1976. N

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Books

Babble, R. Earl. The Practice of Social Research. Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1975.

B all, Donald W. and Loy, John W. Sport and Social Order. Menlo Park: Wesley Publishing Company, 1975.

Beasy, Elmer. The Philosophy of Athletics. New York: A. S. Basset and Company, 1927.

Belsser, Arnold R. The Madness in Sports. New York: Appleton- Century-Crofts, 1967.

B etts, John R. American Sporting Heritage, 1850-1950. Menlo Park: Addlson-Wesley Publishing Company, 1974.

Bogart, Leo. The Age of T elevision. New York: Federick Ungar Publishing Company, Inc. 1972.

Boyle, Robert H. Sport, Mirror of American Life. Boston: Little Brown and Company, 1963.

Brightbm, Charles K. The Challenge of Leisure. Englewood Cliffs, New Jersey: Prent1ce-Hall, Inc. 1960.

Canettl, Esllas. Crowds and Power. New York: Viking Press, 1962.

Coleman, James S. The Adolescent Society. New York: The Free Press of Glencoe, ^1961.

Crowd Control. Washington, D.C.: American Association for Health, Physical Education and Recreation, 1970.

Denny, Reuel. The Astonished Muse. Chicago: The University of Ch1cago Press, 1957.

Dulles, Foster. P. A History of Recreation: Americans Learn to Play. New York: Meredith Publishing Company, 1965.

106

4 105

* Sports could and should contribute to betterment of all segments of our society—however, there are many danger signals ahead— *

1. Winning Athletes — Far too much recognition A. by a ll media B. some professionals—too much pay 2. Not enough emphases on participating a c tiv itie s for a ll —young and old. * * ★

....Regardless of political hassels, International strife, and Internal problems within the various athletic organizations, I still feel that the Olympics represent the greatest challenge for an athlete. To compete for your country and yourself—to me this is the ultimate. To witness the events, where dedicated athletes have given so much for this opportunity, will be a worthwhile, educational and social experience. It's all just our kind of thing! 104 COMMENTS CONCERNING SPORT AND THE

OLYMPICS IN GENERAL

The reason for this addition to your survey 1s that I felt I could not honestly answer your questions with a simple "yes-no-maybe" answer, so I am adding the following notes for clarification of my answers. Please refer to this letter for specific answers.

F irst, as an American, I would like to see Americans win. as many medals as they can. As to which countries I would like to see win most medals, I can only say that participants win medals, not countries. If a participant is deserving of a medal, he or she wins—not the country.

I believe, to participate in sports, one doesn't need to belong to a club or organization (depending on the sport).

I believe as I do because I feel that some per- formance-point-judgment evaluations are not truly “unbiased." I found this particularly true 1n the judging of some events (i.e., diving) in the '72 Olympics.

* Seeing how other nations in the world subsidize their athletes to the point of professionalism, I think the term "amateurism" must be redefined. I definitely feel our athletes are being discriminated against.

Part of the thrill of this Olympics for us (my wife and I) is not only seeing the games, but also is getting to meet people—the Canadians with which we'll be staying, the people (hopefully from other nations) that we'll meet at the games or because of our mutual In terest in them, the people we've already met because of our in te rest in the Olympics, the carryover i t w ill have for our students in school — this trip 1s the desire of a lifetime. I sure hope i t ' s what some would call "the Olympic S p irit." * * * I think the definitions of "amateur" and "professional" should be revamped. Many other countries subsidize, support and/or fund their athletes by various means and somehow manage to define their competitors as amateurs. * * * 103 COMMENTS CONCERNING THE FUTURE

OF THE OLYMPIC GAMES

The Olympics should be reserved as a final proving ground where amateur athletes from a ll over the world can come to compete against one another. Any ties that the atheltes have to their country should be emphasized to a minimal degree, i f at a ll.

Perhaps a small, unobtrusive emblem on a standard uniform would be a step toward achieving this goal of non-nationalism. Another step along these lines which could be implemented right away would be to cease playing any national anthems at the awards ceremonies. In th is manner the ath lete would be the focus of the world's praise, and rightly so. * * * ....Some people feel that the Olympics are a waste of money and should be abolished. I strongly disagree, of course. Poverty, crime, e tc ., will always exist on earth, and although we must be com­ passionate to fellow humans, absolute idealism, total dedication to bettering the world, are folly. Sports, like art, gives order to a chaotic existence. And like art, it 1s, at best, inspiring, uplifting, pleasurable, and beautiful. Without the arts, and without sports, l if e would be less bearable. We need them psychologically... .Thanks for listening.

★ * * . The question of "amateur" status is the biggest question of the Olympic Committee to straighten out. Countries that subsidize their athletes should either be "controlled" or a semi-professional be granted to other countries. An International School of Judges should be established and they should work together until a more uniformed method of judging be established. * * * Because of the difficulty of definition, and the difference among social systems, I should like to see all qualified athletes admitted to the Olympics, regardless of amateur or professional status. * * * Athletes from all competing nations should be subject to some rules covering amateur status, otherwise, le t anyone compete— amateur and professional. * * ★ After Moscow, I believe the Olympics should be held 1n Greece every four years, with permanent fa c ilitie s for athletes and v isito rs. The "home" country, now, does not have any advantage for tic k e ts, e tc .— so why have rotating host countries. •»

102

COMMENTS CONCERNING THE U.S. OLYMPIC TEAM

....W e must find a new set of rules to govern the a th lete s. The U.S. is way behind. We must ask professional sports to help us send our best. We had a good walker in our own area but he went extremely in debt trying to compete in Munich. He was disqualified in the trials, so did not go, although he was better than the others. We must get together through our government and get more support from our large corporations and professional sports teams. Awarding of profes­ sional contracts could wait (such as basketball). Large corporations with tax rebates could contribute through release time for athletes from th e ir employment so they can continue to support th e ir family while away at tr ia ls and games. We must also select athletes 1n other than ju s t one event. Sometimes in juries 1n one must knock out the best. Perhaps a series of competition in various sections of the country would not only select our best overall performers but would increase fan and spectator appeal. * ■* ★ I hope part of your research will prove th at the government must help our a th lete s, as all the other countries do. Also to drop our amateur status that the U.S.A. makes our competitors be—all the other countries competitors are really pledged professionals competing against our amatures! Good Luck! I'm sure you will find there is s t i l l hope in the U.S.! ★ ★ ★ I strongly believe the Federal Government should appoint a cabinet level "National Sports Commissioner" or something along that lin e , which hopefully would s e ttle the AAU/NCAA problem and appoint some knowledgeable people to the U.S. Olympic Committee. * * * I am a Health and Physical Education major and you may wonder why I would lik e other countries to do well in the Olympics. If the U.S. has a poor showing in the Olympics, the U.S. will Improve th e ir physical education programs instead of cutting them out of the school programs due to budgets. ★ ★ * The media make for too much of nationalism. I t would be b e tte r 1f the athletes did not enter the area by countries. The U.S. seems to show more concern for officials and managers than for athletes. *1

APPENDIX E

101 PAST OLYMPIC SITES ATTENDED BY

THE SPECTATORS OF THE STUDY

1. . Munich

2. Mexico City

3. Tokyo

4. Rome

5. Helsinki

6 . Innsbruck

7. Lake Placid

8 . St. Moritz

9. London

10. Berlin

11. Grenoble

12. Melbourne

13. Sapuro

14. Los Angeles SPORTS, LEISURE AND RECREATION ACTIVITIES

1. A thletics 33. Ice Hockey 2. Archery 34. Jogging 3. Basketbal1 35. Judo 4. Bicycling 36. Karate 5. Belly Dancing 37. Lacrosse 6 . Basebal1 38. Long Distance Running 7. Badminton 39. Marksmanship 8 . Bowling 40. Mountaineering 9. Boxing 41. Paddle Tennis 10. Back Packing 42. Paddle Ball 11. Boating 43. Ping-Pong, Table Tennis 12. Canoeing 44. Rock and Ice Climbing 13. Car Racing 45. Rugby 14. Camping 46. Skiing—Snow 15. Curling 47. Skating 16. Chess 48. Swimming 17. Cross-Country Running 49. Softball 18. Cross-Country Skiing 50. Sailing 19. Dancing 51. Soccer 20. Dragsters 52. Squash 21. Dressage 53. Scuba Diving 22. Diving 54. Soaring 23. Equestrian Events 55. Shooting 24. Field Hockey 56. Snowmoblling 25. Football 57. Tennis 26. Fishing 58. Track 27. Fencing 59. Volleyball 28. Golf 60. Water Polo 29. Gymnastics 61. Water Skiing 30. Handball 62. Weightlifting 31. Hiking 63. Wrestling 32. Ice Skating 64. Raquet Ball 65. Team Handball N

APPENDIX D

98 s

97 * 2. Managers and proprietors of medium sized concerns, teachers, nurses, pharmacists, engineers, pro-athletes. ( )

3. Administrative personnel of large concerns, >owner of small business, or police officer. / ( )

A. Clerical and sales personnel, technician^,;firemen, police patrolmen. / 1/ l ( )

5. Semi-skilled workers—examples: farmer, pucker, seamstress, assembly line. /\ ( )

6 . Unskilled worker—examples: domest1c\work, janitor, . service station attendant. W { )

30. Which of the following income level ijvas closest to your total income before taxes in 1975? ^(166-174)

Less than $5,000/year $25,000 - $29,999/year { ) 1 . / 6 - 2 . $5,000 - $9,999/year (VVf : 7. $30,000 - $50,000/year ( ) 3. $10,000 - SI4,999/year ( ) 8 . $51,000 - $100,000/year ( ) 4. $15,000 - $19,999/y£ar( 9. Over $100,000/year ( ) 5. $20,000 - $24,999/year ( ) 31. Describe your present home surroundings. (175-182)

1. Rural or farm \ J ( 1 2. Rural community vess than1,000 ( ) 3. Community less than 10,000 ( ) 4. City lesi'Wian 50,000 ( ) 5. City less than 500,000 6 . City over 500,000 7. C1tv over 1 million

32. How wduloSyou describe yourself politically? (183-189)

Far left ( ) 4. Conservative Liberal { ) 5. Far right Moderate ( ) 6 . Unknown ( *** ★★★ ★** ★★★ **•* *** ★** ★** self-addressed stamped envelope to return your completed ques- lonna/ire. THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION If^ou have any questions or comments about this study, please write them below or on the reverse side. s

96 SA A U D SO T 2 3 7 T

N. I want to see people who will not give up. ( ) {)()(){)

0. I would like to see what kind of competi­ tion is ahead of mein my sport. ( ) ()()()()

P. Other ( ) ()()()()

23. How important do you think i t is for you see/the Olympic Games 1n Montreal? (142-144)

1. Very Important ( ) 3. Not important at all ( ) 2. Important ( ) rv/ .

24. What was your age at your last birthqay?______

25. Are you male or female

26. What is your current status? (T47-150)VT47-1

1. Single ( ) \ 4. Separated ( ) 2. Married ( ) 5. Widow(er) ( ) 3. Divorced

27. How many years of dSucatnon have you completed? (151-157)

1. 8 years or less^ ( ) 5. College degree . 2. Some high school (B.S., B.A., etc.) ( ) (completed 7/11 grades) ( ) 6 . Some graduate work 3. High sphoVlillploma ( ) (M.S., M.A., Ph.D) ( ) Some college (completed 1-2 years) ( )

28. Where Are your ancestors from? What countries? (158-159)

29\ Which/of the following categories is closest to your occupation? ,(160/165)

Executives and proprietors of large concerns and major professionals (professors, lawyers, physicians). ( ) 95 How would you express your reason for going to see the Olympic Games by using the following statements? Please indicate whether you strongly agree (SA), agree (A), undecided (U), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SD).

I am going to see the Olympic Games in Montreal because: (127-141)

U D SD 3 * T I like to feel the international excitement

1 want to cheer for the American team.

A member of my family is competlnfvand I would like to see him/her. \ A

To prove to everyone th at what happened in Munich is not going to st

I am a sports "freak" and I wamr to wit­ ness the grace and beauty •of line best athletes in the world. \

There is considerable prestige in going to the games, and t(i be able to say I saw the "big" games.V/

I have the otfimrt unity to be in Montreal on summer vacatnon

I want to see wnat other cultures are doing for sports activity.

1 want M/study the sports of other societies

want to see the U.S.A. competing gainst "all the world" and beat them.

he games are held relatively close to n\y hometown.

I am not interested in sports at all, but I am going because my husband/wife is.

I really believe that the "Olympic Spirit" in amateur sport still exists. 94

* ♦ 16. Who do you think will win the most Olympic medals? (106-109)

1. U.S.A. ( ) 3. East German^ ( ) 2. U.S.S.R. ( ) 4. Others / ( )

17. I would like you to tell me whether you thlnlT't/y; contests in the Olympics are run honestly, or whether .you fjrink they are biased? Would you say that most, a few gf none of the contests are biased?

1. Most ( ) 3. ^None ' ( ) 2 . A few { ) 4. IVo opinion ( )

18. Do you think the Olympic Games do mone good than harm to in te r­ national goodwill? (114-117)

1. More good than harm j 1 / 3, No effect either way- j ) 2. More harm than good ( p S 4 , Undecided ( )

19. Do you think that athletes who have received more money than allowed amateur status should be declared professionals, and thus forbidden to enter as amateurs and represent the U.S.A. at the Olympic Games? (118-120)

1. Should be decla^W professionals j J 2. Should not be detfleared professionals ( ) 3. Do not krtciw ( )

20. Do you think \ne Olympic Games will improve relations between the countries taking part, harm them, or make no difference? (121-123)

1. Improve .them ( ) 3. No difference { ) 2 . HarAthdm ( )

21. The e)u>enses of training and sending athletes to the Olympic Gaines now paid entirely by gifts from citizens. Do you think it would be a good policy, or a poor policy, to ask the govern­ ment to pay part of these expenses?

1. Good policy j ) 3. No opinion ( ) 2. Poor policy ( ) *

93 12. How much time do you estimate you spend watching sports in one week? (73-77)

1. One hour or less ( ) 4. Between 5 and 7 2. Between 1 and 5 hours hours ( ) 5. 7 hours or/more II 3. Between 3 and 5 hours ( )

13. How would you rate yourself as a spectator oY/SpbrtsDT l/o\ events on the following scale? (78-82) / y

1. Very avid ( ) 4. Wjftch only sporadi- 2. Watch quite often /oally ( ) but not avidly ( ) 5. *Waich very seldom 3. Watch occasionally ( ) or not at all ( )

14. Do you belong to one of the following clubs? (83-88)

1. Country Club ( ) 4. Y.M.C.A. ( ) 2. Tennis Club ( ) A 5. J.C.C. ( ) 3. Health Spa ( ) W , ‘ 6 . Others ( )

15. In general, how would you cndracterize your participation in the following activities during the time you were in high school, college? (85-105) \

High School Varsity AthletlV 3. L ittle II 4. None IS IntramuralXActivities

) 3. L ittle 4. None II Cone Varsity Athletics

/ 1. Much ( ) 3. L ittle I/ I 2. Some ( ) 4. None i t Intramural Activities

1. Much ) 3. L ittle 2. Some 4. None II 92 11. Football (soccer) (v I ) 27. Yachting j ) 12. Gymnastics ( ) 28. ClosingCeremonies ( ) 13. Handball - M 14. Handball - W ii 6 . What countries would you lik e to see win the most gold medals? (47-50)

1. 3. _

2. 4.

7. Do you yourself take part in any sport? Da you play in any sport? (51-56)

1. No | | y^a. I f yes, what? 2. Yes

8 . How much time do you estimate\you spend participating in sports in one week? (57-61)

1. One hour or less 1 \ ) ) 4. Between 5 and 7 2. Between 1 and 3 . \\/ hours f ) hours \ \T) 5. More than 7 hours ( ) 3. Between 3 and 5 \ hours ( )

9. How often do yiwyead the sports page of the newspaper? (62-67)

1. Almost every day ( ) 4. Less than once 2. Mor/lthan once a week, but a week ( ) than every day { ) 5. Hardley at all { ) 3. OnfceYa week ( ) 6 . Never ( )

10. Do you subscribe to any sport journal? (68-69)

y2^N o I i 11. If you do watch sports events, what medium do you use most? (70-72)

1. Television ( ) 3. Do not watch sports 2. Live sporting events ( ) events ( ) 91 OLYMPIC SPECTATORS STUDY

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

Either a pen or pencil may be used to complete this questicuvna/re. Most of the questions may be answered by simply placing an in the appropriate box; other questions ask for written-in answers/ Please ignore the numbers beside the questions and answersAthey are for computer tabulation only. / \

1. How long ago did you decide to go to see tn^Olympic Games? (1-5)'

1. Six months ago ( ) 4. Three \e a rs ago 2. One year ago j j 5. ^ou(four years ago 1) 3. Two years ago ( )

2 . With whom are you going to see .the games? (6-12)

1. Alone ( ) \>. Father 2. Wife/Husband ( j 6. Mother 3. Children j \ ,7 . Friend(s) 4. All the family (

3. Have you ever been e Olympics before, as a spectator? (13-15)

1. No | j 3a. I f yes, where? 2. Yes

4. Have you ever ctually participated in an event in the Olympics? (16-18) n 4a. If yes, where? What a the events that you plan to see in the Olympics? (19-46)

Opening Ceremonies ( ) 15. Hockey (field) . rtrchery ( ) 16. Judo ./Athletics 17. Modern Pentathalon ./ (track and field) ( ) 18. Rowing A* Basketball - M ( ) 19. Shooting 5, Basketball - W j ) 20. Swimming y 6 . Boxing ( ) 21. Diving 7. Canoeing 22. Water Polo 8 . Cycling II 23. Volleyball - M I 9. Equestrian Sports ( ) 24. Volleyball - W (horsemanship 25. W eightlifting II 10. Fencing ( ) 26. Wrestling ( ) June 16, 1978

Dear Olympic Spectator:

I would like to thank you for taking the time to fill in the questionnaire that I sent you to determine ^he factors that influence spectators to go to see the Olympic Games this coming summer in Montreal, Canada.

If you have not returned the questionnaire I would appreciate receiving it at your earliest convenience. Your result w ill help to insure the accuracy of my fin d in g s .

Thank you for your help.

S in c e r e ly ,

Asher Mashiach 612 Jasonway Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43214 APPENDIX C

89 %

88

2. Managers and proprietors of medium sized concerns, teachers, nurses, pharmacists, engineers, pro-athletes.

3. Administrative personnel of large concerns, owner of small business, or police officer.

4. Clerical and sales personnel, technicians, firemen, police patrolmen.

5. Semi-skilled workers—examples: farmer, trucker, seamstress, assembly line.

6 . Unskilled worker—examples: domestic work, janitor, service station attendant.

30. Which of the following income levels was closest to your total income before taxes in 1975? (166-174)

1 . Less than $5,000/year ( ]1 6 . 2 . $5,000 - $9,999/year ( J> 7. 3. $10,000 - $14,999/year ( \ ] 8 . 4. $15,000 - $19,999/year () 9. 5. $20,000 - $24,999/year ( 1 ]

31. Describe your present home surroundings. (175-182)

1. Rural or farm ( ) 2. Rural community less than 1,000 ( ) 3. Community less than 10,000 4. City less than 50,000 5. City less than 500,000 6 . City over 500,000 7. City over 1 m illion

32. How would you describe yourself politically? (183-189)

1. Far left { ) 4. Conservative 2. Liberal j j 5. Far right 3. Moderate ( ) 6 . Unknown *** *** *** **★ *** *** *** *** *** *** *** **★ Use the self-addressed stamped envelope to return your completed ques­ tionnaire. THANK YOU FOR YOUR COOPERATION If you have any questions or comments about th is study, please w rite them below or on the reverse side. 87 SA A U D SD T 2 3 ^ 5

N. I want to see people who will not give up. ( ) (>()()() 0 . I would lik e to see what kind of competi­ tion is ahead of me in my sport. ( ) ()()()()

P. Other ( ) ()()()()

23. How Important do you think i t 1s for you to see the Olympic Games in Montreal? (142-144)

1. Very Important ( ) 3. Not important at all ( ) 2. Important ( )

24. What was your age at your last birthday?______

25. Are you m ale or fem ale ?

26. What Is your current status? (147-150)

1. Single 4. Separated 2. Married 5. Widow(er) 3. Divorced

27. How many years of education have you completed? (151-157)

1. 8 years or less ( ) 5. College degree 2. Some high school (B.S., B.A., etc.) ( ) (completed 7-11 grades) ( 1 6 . Some graduate work 3. High school diploma ( ) (M.S., M.A., Ph.D) ( ) 4. Some college (completed 1-2 years) ( )

28. Where are your ancestors from? What countries? (158-159)

1. ______2. _____

29. Which of the following categories is closest to your occupation? (160-165)

1. Executives and proprietors of large concerns and major professionals (professors, lawyers, physicians). ( ) 86 • 22. How would you express your reason for going to see the Olympic Games by using the following statements? Please indicate whether you strongly agree (SA)t agree (A), undecided (U), disagree (D), or strongly disagree (SO).

I am going to see the Olympic Games 1n Montreal because: (127-141)

SA A U SD T I J T

A. I like to feel the international excitement

B. I want to cheer for the American team.

C. A member of my family is competing and I would like to see him/her.

D. To prove to everyone that what happened 1n Munich is not going to stop the games

E. I am a sports "freak" and I want to wit­ ness the grace and beauty of the best athletes 1n the world.

F. There 1s considerable prestige in going to the games, and to be able to say I saw the "big" games.

G. 1 have the opportunity to be 1n Montreal on summer vacation

H. I want to see what other cultures are doing for sports activity.

I. I want to study the sports of other societies

J. I want to see the U.S.A. competing against "all the world" and beat them.

K. The games are held relatively close to my hometown.

L. I am not interested in sports at all, but I am going because my husband/wife is.

M. I really believe th at the "Olympic S p irit" in amateur sport still exists. 85

• ■ 16. Who do you think will win the most Olympic medals? (106-109)

1. U.S.A. ( ) 3. East Germany ( ) 2. U.S.S.R. ( ) 4. Others ( )

17. I would like you to te ll me whether you think the contests in the Olympics are run honestly, o r whether you think they are biased? Would you say that most, a few or none of the contests are biased?

1. Most ( ) 3. None ( ) 2. A few ( ) 4. No opinion ( )

18. Do you think the Olympic Games do more good than harm to in te r­ national goodwill? (114-117)

1. More good than harm ( ) 3. No e ffect e ith e r way j ) 2. More harm than good ( ) 4. Undecided ( )

19. Do you think that athletes who have received more money than allowed amateur status should be declared professionals, and thus forbidden to enter as amateurs and represent the U.S.A. a t the Olympic Games? (118-120)

1. Should be declared professionals j 2. Should not be decleared professionals ( 3. Do not know (

20. Do you think the Olympic Games w ill improve relations between the countries taking part, harm them, or make no difference? (121-123)

1. Improve them ( ) 3. No difference ( ) 2. Harm them ( )

21. The expenses of training and sending athletes to the Olympic Games are now paid entirely by gifts from citizens. Do you think it would be a good policy, or a poor policy, to ask the govern­ ment to pay part of these expenses?

1. Good policy ( ) 3. No opinion ( ) 2. Poor policy ( ) 84 * 12. How much time do you estimate you spend watching sports 1n one week7 (73-77)

1. One hour or less ( ) 4. Between 5 and 7 2. Between 1 and 5 hours hours ( ) 5. 7 hours or more II 3. Between 3 and 5 hours ( )

13. How would you rate yourself as a spectator of sports events on the following scale? (78-82)

1. Very avid ( ) 4. Watch only sporadi­ 2. Watch quite often cally ( ) but not avidly j j 5. Watch very seldom 3. Watch occasionally or not at all ( )

14. Do you belong to one of the following clubs? (83-88)

1. Country Club 4. Y.M.C.A. 2. Tennis Club 5. J.C.C. 3. Health Spa ) 6 . Others 15. In general, how would you characterize your participation in the following activities during the time you were in high school, college? (85-105)

High School Varsity Athletics

1. Much 3. L ittle 2. Some 11 4. None II Intramural Activities

1. Much 3. L ittle 2. Some II 4. None II College Varsity Athletics

1. Much 3. L ittle 2. Some n 4. None II Intramural Activities

1. Much 3. L ittle 2. Some II 4. None II 11. Football (soccer) 27. Yachting 12. Gymnastics 28. Closing Ceremonies 13. Handball - N 14. Handball - W

6 . What countries would you lik e to see win the most gold medals? (47-50)

1. ______3. ______

2. ______4. .______

7. Do you yourself take part in any sport? Do you play 1n any sport? (51-56)

1. No ( ) 7a. I f yes, what? 2. Yes )______

8 . How much time do you estimate you spend participating in sports in one week? (57-61)

1. One hour or less { ) 4. Between 5 and 7 2. Between 1 and 3 hours ( ) hours ( ) 5. More than 7 hours ( ) 3. Between 3 and 5 hours ( )

9. How often do you read the sports page of the newspaper? (62-67)

1. Almost every day ( ) 4. Less than once 2. More than once a week, but a week ( less than every day ( ) 5. Hardley at all ( 3. Once a week ( ) 6 . Never (

10. Do you subscribe to any sport journal? (68-69)

1. Yes ( ) 2. No ( )

11. I f you do watch sports events, what medium do you use most? (70-72)

1. Television ( ) 3. Do not watch sports 2. Live sporting events ( ) events ( ) 82 * OLYMPIC SPECTATORS STUDY

GENERAL INSTRUCTIONS:

Either a pen or pencil may be used to complete this questionnaire. Most of the questions may be answered by simply placing an "X" in the appropriate box; other questions ask for wr1tten-1n answers. Please Ignore the numbers beside the questions and answers; they are for computer tabulation only.

1. How long ago did you decide to go to, see the Olympic Games? (1-5)

1. Six months ago J 1 4. Three years ago 2. One year ago ( j 5, Four years ago H 3. Two years ago ( )

2. With whom are you going to see the games? (6-12)

1. Alone ( ) 5. Father 2. Wife/Husband ( 1 6, Mother 3. Children ( J 7. Fr1end(s) 4. All the family ( )

3. Have you ever been to the Olympics before, as a spectator? (13-15)

1. No | | 3a. I f yes, where? 2. Yes

4. Have you ever actually participated in an event in the Olympics? (16-18)

1, No | j 4a. I f yes, where? 2. Yes

5. What are the events that you plan to see in the Olympics? (19-46)

1. Opening Ceremonies { ) 15. Hockey (field ) ( ) 2. Archery ( ) 16. Judo 3. A thletics 17. Modern Pentathalon 1 (track and field) ( 1 18. Rowing 4. Basketball - M [ i 19. Shooting 5. Basketball - W r 1 20. Swimming 6. Boxing ( ) 21. Diving 7. Canoeing ( 22. Water Polo 8 . Cycling ( ) 23. Volleyball - M 9. Eauestrian Sports ( ) 24. Volleyball - W (horsemanship 25. Weightlifting 10.Fencing( ) 26. Wrestling THE 01(10 STATU UNIVERSITY

Dear Olynpic Spectator#

You aro one of a select group of people in the United States that can go to see the Olynpic Gaines this caning sterner in Montreal, Canada. I am conducting a study to determine the., factors that influenco spectators to go to sea those games. ‘ This study w ill be a major part of my Ph.D. dissertation at Ohio State University in the Sociology of Sport. A question­ naire is enclosed that will only take abcut ten minutes to complete. I would appreciate your cooperation in filling out this questionnaire and then using the self-addressed, stanped envelope to mail it back to ms.

Sane outstanding people in the field of Sport Sociology . have cooperated in g e ttin g th is study o f f th e ground. However, in order for the study to bo really successful, it is important that you answer tho enclosed questionnaire, regardless of whether you are going to see only one Olynpiu event or a dozen events. This information will help to moke a realistic factual picture of the spectators in the Olynpic Gomes. Only the tabulated results of large ruiribers of persons w ill be made public.

The results of this study w ill be used to learn more abcut participation of American spectators in international sports events and more generally the uses of "leisure” time. The tabulated results of the study w ill be made available to the United States Olynpic Carmittce, the International olynpic OOmnittee, and the Mantganery Word Auto club for future reference on the factors that influence American people to see international games and competition.

S in cerely ,

Asher Mashiach encl.

h M 4 H1 1 U S )w l nm liM t wd IniniM i . Ill W«H ITtk Aiimw . CWwnlWv O ta 4MI0 fliwrtHML'-JW i

appendix b

80

/ October 11, 1976

Hr. Asher Maahlach 613 Jasonway Avenuo Columbus, Ohio 43214 Dear Mr. Kaahiachi Thank you for your letter of September 9, 1976 and your check in the amount of $450.00 to cover your share of tho expenses for sending the Olympic questionnaires. X w ill answer your questions in the order in which you asked them. 1. R. X>. Polk has sent a copy of their letter of Octobor 7 to you. Xn the event you did not receive it, X am enclos­ ing another copy. 2. The total number of tickets sold by Montgomery Ward was $735,000. 3. We received approximately 35,000 orders. Over 100,000 people used the tickets. If you need any additional information, please do not hesitate to let me know. Very tr u ly yours.

R, E. Cxemer P resid en t Enclosure

U4 uun inoui ir n 78

R.-L-FOLK. Sc CO.

Mr* Dtck Cremer October 7, 1976 page 2

3) 102.138 + 92.138 rounds to 194. so 194th record 1s selected. 4 194.276 + 92.138 rounds to 286, so 286th record Is selected. , S}*286.414 + 92.138 rounds to 379t so 279th record Is selected. (and so on, until)

6) next to last record + 92.138 rounds to 92056, so 92056th record Is the last record selected.

* Note: First point where rounding upward takes place.!

This formula can be used to select any size file from a larger file on a random basis. If you have any further questions please feci free to call me.

Ve»y truly yours, R. 1. POLK & CO.

Susan R. Henderson Account Executive SRK:nw CC: Hr. Asher Machlach S' School of Health, Physical Education and Recreation Ohio State University 337 H. 17th Avenue Columbus, Ohio 43210 Hrs. Fran Barry

# Ttltphena 3112TJ-4S10

R. L PO L K & CO.

MARKSTING SERVICES DIVISION

Continental O/flu Plato * U fl D u Phtn*» A nn • Suit* u l 414 • D u Plaintt. llUnoit tOOII

October 7, 1976 Hr. Dick Cremer President, The Signature Agency Montgomery Ward One Montgomery Ward Plaza Chicago, IL 60671 SUBJECT: Nth Name Selection of Names • . from the Olympic Ticket Buy­ er's File. Dear Hr. Cremer: In preparation for the mailing of the Olympic Questionnaires done by Mr. Asher Machlach we were asked to select 1000 names on a random basis from the file of Olympic Ticket Buyers. To do this we used an "Nth .Name Random Selection" scheme described below. The "Nth Name Random Selection" scheme 1s designed to Insure that . every record 1n the selection file is given an equal chance to be selected 1n order to produce a statistically valid random mall sam­ ple. Selection Process Assume that lOOO names are to be selected from a file of 92,138. Step 1: Select a random start point between 1 and 92. {In the following example we selected 10 as the random start point.) Step 2: Starting with that random start point, we selected 1000 'names on a fractional nth basis. I.e. 1:92.138 92.138 Is additive, rounding to the nearest whole number for the "take:, then reverting to the fraction for addition. Note: The "take" 1s the selection of the name from the larger file. Example: 1) Random Start B 10, so 10th record Is first selected. 2) 10 + 92.138 rounds to 102, so 102nd record 1s selected.

MARKETING SERVICES DIVISION OFFICES • Bo*ton * • CUvtluul * Detroit Houston • Nsw York • Philadelphia • Photrnls • St. Louis • Los An*st» • Toronto August 17( 1976

Hr. Asher Hashlsch 612 Jasonway Avenue Columbus, Oil 43214

Dear Asher:

As discussed, enclosed Is an invoice covering the coat for two nailInga of th e Olympic q u estionnaire.

Your portion of the expense la the one-time charge of $100.00, plus the postage for one mailing which Is $350.00, for a total of $450.00. You suy make a check payable to th e Montgomery Ward Auto Club and forward I t to Mr. R. E. Cremer a t th is address.

I was pleased to learn about the highly aucceasful response to your ■ailingi and we look forward to learning the results of the study. I have reminded Mr. Cremer about th e inform ation on how th e names were selected from the computer.

Our very b est reg ard s. S incerely.

,. Tassey' D irecto r, Community A ffairs

HRT/dg

enclosure

cct R. E. Cremer

c o w o m io:ncitwoNinovi i K w n h U t< ;,jj 75

May 3 , 1976

Hr. Asher Mashlach 612 Jesonvay Avenue Columbus, OU 43214

Deer Mr. Meshlachi

Confirming our phono conversation ve v lll be pleased to cooperate In the distribution of your Olympic questionnaire as outl: ned In your letter of A pril 20.

Our m ailing-handling c o a ts .w ill be $100 plus postage. Assuming the envelopes can bo mailed for $.13 each, your total cost reimbursement to Montgomery Ward v lll be $230.

As Indicated, I v lll appreciate your letting me know at least a week In advance the date you v lll bring the materials to Chicago s? that ve may have adequate time to schedule the vork.

In the meantime 1 v lll attempt to find oat hov the random se le c tio n of names v lll bo made and whether this v lll be done by computer.

With very best wishes.

Slpcerely. A

ugh R. Tassey

HRJ/dJ ce» R. E. Cremer H. V. Cuelich

cosKNuii orricf i one wosioomerv ward km a / Chicago/ n t» *oi$ t w ■ ' w o w n m a s t-io o o 74

Robert V. Guolicb/Vice President end Public Relations Director Montgomery Ward 619 Wost Chicago Avenue Chicago, Illinois 60607

A pril 20 1 1976

Asher Mashiaoh 612 Jasonway Ave. Columbus, Ohio hj214 Dear Mr. Guolich, 1 am sending you a sample of the questionnaire and the support letter that I would like to be sent to speotators who are going to see the Olympic Games. The first envelope (6" X 9") will be a self-addressed, stamped envelope to me. The second envelope (7tf" X 10#") w ill be addressed to the spectators by Montgomery Ward. The questionnaire and the smaller envelope w ill already be inside the larger envelope when sent to you if your addressor can handle this arrangement. If this set-up is satisfactory for you and your people p le a se write or phone me as soon as p o ssib le. I f everything is okay, I personally will come to Chicago to bring the questionnaire to Montgomery Ward. I hope to hear from you as soom as p o ssib le. Bincerely yours,

Asher Kashiach nOBlRT V. GUELICH/V1CE PflESIOCHT fltto public ftELAiionr, oioectoh

March 2 2, 1976

Mr. Asher Mashlach 612 Jasonway Avenue Columbus, OH 43214

Dear Mr. Mashlach:

1 am writing In response to your questions to Mr. Richard Cremer, President, Montgomery Ward Auto Club for a lis t of 1,000 names and addresses of persons who plan to attend the Olympic Games In Montreal.

We w ill not be able to supply you the list of names as requested because of the need to protect the privacy of the persons involved.

We w ill, however attempt to cooperate with you in your research project in an alternate approach. If you are w illing to assume a ll expense for postage, Montgomery Ward w ill serve as intermediary to forward your survey materials to a selected list of Olympic ticket purchasers. This offer presumes that you w ill ship materials to us ready for re-mailing after the application of names and addresses by Montgomery Ward.

Our offer also presumes that a ll completed survey materials w ill be returned directly to you and that Montgomery Ward w ill not be involved in the collection or handling of responses.

Please let us know .if this arrangement is satisfactory and if you wish to proceed with this approach.

S in c e r e ly ,

Robert V. G uelich cc: R. E. Cremer Mr. Richard E. Crener Montgomery Word Auto Club One Montgomery Ward Plaza Chicago, 111. 60671 March 12, 1976 Asher Mashlach 612 Jasonway Ave. Columbus, Ohio 43214- Dear Mr. Cremer, Today I received a letter from Mr. C.J. Kuahell IV informing me to direct my enquiries to you. I am a Ph.D. candidate at Ohio State University in Columbus Ohio, at the College of Physical Education. I am working towards my Ph.D. in Sociology of Sport. For my dissertation, Iwould like to conduct a study which will detormine the factors which influence spectators to go to see the Olympic Games in Montreal. For this particular project,I need a list of 1000 names and addresses of people who intend to see the Olympic Games in Montreal. After I receive the names, my Ph.D. committee and I will put together a questionnaire. As of this time my headings w ill be: Who are the peop le who go to the Olympic Games? By what means are th ese people motivated? Is there any correlation between what the people do in their leisure time and what they go to the Games to watch? These headings w ill, of course, be broken down into a number of questions. All the information that I will receive from the questionnaires w ill be kept confidential and only the results w ill be published. This project is very interesting to me, to my advioor from tho university, Dr. Harper, and some outstanding professors of tho Sociology of Sport. I have to have the names as soon as possible because I want to send the questionnaire before the Olympic Games. My budget is flexible because no one as yet has offered to sponsor this project. I am sure that this project will be benificial to tho International Olynpic Committee,the U.S. Olympic Committee,and it would bo a very substantial contribution to tho study of Sociology of Sport. I am also sure the r e s u lt s w ill be of in t e r e s t to th o Montgomery Ward Auto Club for future reference on the factors that influence American people to see international games and competition. I am looking forward to your response and I hope you look upon my request favorably.

Thank you very much

Asher Mashiach March 9. 1976

Mr. Asher Maehiach 612 Jasonway Avenue Columbus. OK <0214 Dear Ur. Kaehlaoh. As Z mentioned in our telephone discussion today. I have only recently been able to obtain the information in reference to your requost for Olympic Customer file records. Please write personally toi Mr* Richard E. Cremer Montgomery Ward Auto Club One Montgomery Ward Plata Chicago. 1L 60671 I have spoken to Mr. Cremer in this regard and he is an­ ticipating your correspondence. Plenee inform him of your requirements In detail including budget, critical dates, and copy of your Intended calling. undertaking.

u s l I‘rV. ICuehelllu sh ell IVIV‘Or'V Special Events Manager P. 0. Box 2000 Phoenix. AZ 86001

rctO lfK tB o * 330 • South Btnd. Imti*ni 46014 * 319/73)3711 70

Mr. C. J. Kushell, IV Special Events Manager P. 0. Box 2000 Phoenix, AZ 85001

Asher Mashiach 612 Jasonway Ave. Columbus, Ohio 43214

Dear Mr. Kushell:

I'm a Ph.D. student a t Ohio State University in Columbus, Ohio working toward a degree 1n the Sociology of Sport.

For my dissertation, I would like to conduct a study on the American Olympic Spectators. For this particular project, I need the help of Montgomery Ward Auto Club by permitting me to use your Olympic Customer File Records. I would have to use a t le a st 1,000 names of the 11st by method of random sampling.

I'm looking forward to hear from you.

Thank you,

Asher Mashlach f

APPENDIX A

69

0 68

television and the reporting of International meets and world championships 1n the papers.

4. To educate the people 1n the United States that our athletes be able to compete against the Eastern block countries. "Our 'amateurs' com­ peting against their 'professionals' is a false Issue."9/ By their own definition, Eastern European countries have no professional ath letes.

Further Research

The investigator offers the following recommendations for further studies:

1. A parallel study of sports spectators in the World Cup soccer in Argentina, 1978.

2. A sim ilar study in Europe where the maneuver­ ability of spectators among countries is much greater.

3. A comparison of sports spectators from d if­ ferent countries.

4. A follow-up study on the same population before the 1980 Olympic Games in Moscow.

5. Comparative analysis of female and male spec­ tators at different international sporting events.

6 . A sim ilar study relating the American public at the 1979 Pan-American Games, a t Puerto Rico.

7. A comparison of the International sports spec­ tators to an average sports spectator.

8 . A comparison of spectators 1n this study with those of the above studies.

^ P re sid e n t's Commission on Olympic Sports, February 9, 1976, Washington, D.C. I

67 t Recommendations

The recommendations fo r the future research and study section has been divided into two parts. The first section deals with the opportunities for further spectator study in the educational world.

The other deals with further research on spectators.

The Role of Education

The whole role of education as it relates to sports involve­ ment, whether as a spectator or as a participant, has yet to be determined. Educators should make efforts to systematically teach

"wise" or "useful" consumption of sports as a spectator. If the need for active intervention is assumed by education in this area, a major part is likely to come from the physical educators. They must be equipped with as much knowledge of present status of spectatlon as possible if they are to have any worthwhile influence. Knowledge of the motivations for Involvement is certainly a basic step toward th a t understanding, and the relationship between education and spectating may have far reaching effects.

1. It 1s the responsibility of the physical educator to teach and emphasize in school different games that the children are not fam iliar with, such as handball, archery, and volleyball.

2. To teach the correct rules and regulations and to play by those International rules. For instance, basketball should be played according to the international rules in high school and colleges.

3. I t is the responsibility of the educational world to influence the media to report on games that interest the people, such as soccer games on national team. The fans do not abandon teams when they are no longer winners; what counts 1s the number of gold, silv er, and bronze medals.

The fans want to know who won the "war," who came out on top with the most gold medals. The expansion of spectator sports worldwide Indi­ cates that today even those sections of the population that have not themselves taken active part 1n sports and who for that reason have not had the ideology of sports and the norms of “fair play" impressed upon them, are now interested and involved 1n sports as enthusiasts and

“identifiers" of their nation.

Heinila96 tries to explain the inter-group conflicts 1n inter­ national sports, and one of his assumptions is that when two countries fulfill the expectation of the society by equal chance of victory and their national teams representing the cultural life, the economic life, and the social life of that particular country, it is understandably a victorious team In the Olympic Games. For instance, it explains why people in the United States would understand a Soviet Union victory at the Games, but not an East Germany victory, which might mean

"national defeat" to different countries.

With the world transportation as advanced as i t is , more and more people cross thousands of miles to watch and to be part of Inter­ national sporting events. events, and a more positive view of the benefits of spectator)stn,

rather than emphasis on the negative aspects of 1t. It 1s a fact

that tens of thousands of sports fans from all walks of life within a

large and different background and present surroundings, from all

parts of the U.S.A., were by chance brought together 1n data because

of one major common denominator—the Olympic Games. The Interna­

tional sports spectator, as a frame of reference, 1s only one step In

understanding the total domain of spectatorshlp. The Interrelation­

ships of motives and'factors of expression may prove to have far « reaching implications about which we are only beginning to become

aware.

The structure of the world powers—the dominating countries—

shifted th eir emphasis for world prestige, from the b a ttle field to

the sports arena. Luschen95 suggests that the vicarious feelings of

power and overpowering may be a force which brings spectators to the

game, and perhaps the most significant speculation to the results of

this study is that watching International sporting events 1s the only way, at the present time, of expressing nationalistic feelings toward your country and hostile feelings against other countries the "easy

way."

The Olympic Games 1s a war without weapons that occurs once

every four years. The athletes only have a limited chance to win a

medal, but the spectator has several chances to root and cheer for his

95Gunther Luschen, The Cross-Cultural Analysis of Sports and Games (Champaign, Illin o is: Stipes Publishing Company, 1970). 64 • • 1. Going to the Games only because his wife went, without any Interest 1n sports at all.

2 . Seeing a member of his family competing.

3. Seeing what kind of competition 1s ahead of him 1n his sport.

4. Proving to everyone that what happened 1nMunich 1s not going to stop the Games.

5. The opportunity to be 1n Montreal on summer vaca­ tion.

6 . Being able to say I saw the "big" Gaines and the amount of prestige with 1t.

7. Studying the sports of other societies.

According to the statistics, 1t was more important for the

American women (83.5 percent) to go to see the Olympic Games than for the American men (74.2 percent). It 1s sad that neither the females nor the males went to Montreal to prove to the world that what happened 1n Munich Is not going to stop the Games.

This study supported a current behavioral theory that common behavior 1s not determined by a single motive or factor, but by a . myriad of reasons. This Is essentially Important 1n the area of sports spectatorship, since we are constantly surrounded by so many opportunities to watch others perform.

Spectator behavior has been viewed by some as a singular kind of behavior with a singular kind of motivation, however, it is clear from the results of this study that the motivations for going to the

Games occurs because of several underlying factors. Awareness and

knowledge of these varying factors and motives could lead to better

understanding for spectator Involvement In International sporting 2. Seeing a member of her family competing 1n the Games.

3. Seeing what kind of competition 1s ahead of her 1n her sport.

4. Proving to everyone th at what happened 1n Munich 1s not going to stop the Games.

5. The Games were held relatively near to her home­ town.

6. Being able to say I saw the "big" Games and the amount of prestige that comes with 1t,

7. Seeing the U.S.A. competing against "all the world" and beat them.

8 . An opportunity to be 1n Montreal on summer vaca­ tion.

9. Studying the sports of other societies.

The American male went to the Olympic Games because of the following factors:

1. He wanted.to feel the International excitement. * 2. He wanted to cheer for the American team.

3. He really believes that the "Olympic Spirit" 1n amateur sports still exists.

4. He 1s a sports "freak" and he wanted to witness the best athletes 1n the world.

5. He wanted to see people who will not give up.

6. The Games were held relatively close to his home­ town.

7. He wanted to see the U.S.A. team competing against “all the world" and beat them.

8 . He wanted to see what other cultures are doing for sports activity.

The American male did not consider the following factors as influence in his decision to attend the Olympic Games: » 62

The spectators' Income 1s above the national average, and they would be classified as upper-middle class, with a good educational background. At the present time, most of them participate 1n and devote much of their time to some sort of recreational activities— mainly tennis 1n private clubs. Both sexes like to watch sporting events on television and very few of them go to live sporting events.

Only a small percentage of subjects have had any experience with the

Olympic Games before, and the majority of them do not have any know­ ledge about the international sports arena (See. Table 19 on page 55).

The conclusion of this study indicates that the American females and males went to the Olympic Games for the following reasons, on a scale from the most important to the least important.

The American female went to the Olympic Games because:

1. She liked to feel the international excitement.

2. She wanted to cheer for the American teams.

3. She went to the Games because she really believed that the "Olympic Spirit" in amateur sports still exists.

4. She is a sports "freak" and she wanted to witness the grace and beauty of the best athletes in the world.

5. She wanted to see people who will not give up.

6. She wanted to see what other cultures are doing In sports activity.

The American female did not consider the following factors as an Influence in her decision to attend the Olympic Games:

1. Going to the Games only because her husband went, without any interest in sports at all.

# CHAPTER V

SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

Summary

This investigation was undertaken to determine what factors influenced American spectators to go to see the Summer Olympic Games at Montreal, 1976. The literature was gleaned for psychological and sociological reasons attributed to the sports spectator. Very little research has been conducted in this particular area of sport, the sports spectator in international sporting events.

The subjects were randomly selected from an Olympic tick et purchasing list, and 764 subjects out of 1,000 answered the question­ naire as part of this study.

Conclusions

In many earlier studies it has been shown that there are clear differences between males and females concerning physical activity and competition, interests in sport and in direct and Indirect sport involvement. In all of these studies, males were more involved in sport than females. Based on analysis of the data of this study, some major differences were found. The same relationship between the sexes could not be seen when compared to attitu d es toward the Olympic Games.

61 the subjects believe that the government should help support the athletes. This strong idea toward helping the athletes comes from the premise that the eastern European athletes are being helped by their governments, and are considered professional athletes. This 1s why the subjects indicated that they want to see the four countries who represent the "western world"—the United States, Canada, West

Germany, and Great B ritain—win the most gold medals. Actually, in the Games, the Soviet Union, East Germany, and the United States won the most gold medals. In determining who 1s going to win the most

Olympic medals, the subjects chose exactly as it happended—the Soviet

Union, the United S tates, and East Germany. 59

handball - women 1.6 percent shooting 2.0 percent yachting 2.1 percent archery 2.7 percent modem decathalon 4.1 percent handball - men 8.3 percent

Males tend to be attracted to "women sports" the same as women them­ selves:

women basketball 13.1 percent women handball 1.6 percent women volleyball 20.6 percent

The most important discovery in this stage was that almost

50 percent of the male spectators—46.1--watched some soccer. In summary, of the distribution of watching the events, individual sports that represent national teams, track and field, gymnastics, and swim­ ming were the most popular events which were watched by both sexes.

Team sports, such as basketball, soccer, volleyball, water polo, and handball, were second on the popularity scale. Again, sports that are very popular in foreign countries are unfamiliar to the American spectator, such as team handball, yachting, and archery. The overall picture that we get from the popularity of different events 1s that two major sports, that several years ago were almost unknown to the

American spectator, have become a major sport attraction for the public—gymnastics and soccer.

The subjects had very strong opinions toward the Olympic Creed.

More than 50 percent of the males believe that athletes who receive money should not be declared professionals, and almost 70 percent of

* archery 6.0 percent modern decathalon 6.5 percent handball - men 7.0 percent

It Is important to indicate the small number of females who went to watch women sports, because i t seems th a t more females would go to see women sports.

women basketball 16.5 percent women handball 3.0 percent women volleyball 19.0 percent

We can see that traditional "heavy events" and "men's sports" attracted a lo t of women: boxing 14.5 percent judo 10.0 percent weightlifting 13.5 percent w restling 8.0 percent

In the author's point of view, the most important finding about events which were watched by females isth at 40.0 percent of the women watched some soccer games, a game th a t a few years ago was l i t t l e known to the American public.

The most popular events in the Olympics th at were watched by males were:

track and fie ld 78.9 percent basketball - men 47.5 percent soccer 46.1 percent swimming 40.8 percent gymnastics 40.6 percent boxing 34.6 percent

The least popular sports events were: sports clubs, where 54.5 percent of the females and 85.8 percent of males belong.

It looks as jf the subjects like sports that come the easy way. In other words, most of them read the sports page 1n the news­ paper, but only 57.7 percent of the males subscribe to a sports journal; 54.0 percent of the females do not subscribe at all. Another example 1s th at most of the subjects—more than 80 percent—watch sporting events on television, and only 10.8 percent of the males and

15.8 percent of the females go to see live sporting events. What 1s encouraging 1s that only 9.5 percent of the females and 10.5 percent of the males watch sports events more than seven hours a week. The time spent in participating in sports and the time spent in watching sports 1s almost equal.

The majority of the subjects decided to go to the Games only a year before they began, and most of them saw 1t as a social event by going with their close family or with friends. The most popular events for females 1n the Olympics were (See Table 15 on page 51):

track and field 62.5 percent gymnastics 51.5 percent soccer 40.0 percent swimming 39.5 percent equestrian sports 34.0 percent basketball - men 32.0 percent

The least popular sports for females were:

yachting 2.5 percent handball - women 3.0 percent shooting 3.5 percent 56

Discussion of Results

The results indicated that different types of spectators went

to the Montreal Olympic Games, but they had a lo t in common. I t

actually showed that the Olympic spectators were a special group of

people. They had a high educational background, which goes together with the professional occupations of the subjects. The mean income of the subjects is between $15,000 to $19,999, which is above the

national average.

The peak of the athletic activities of the subjects was in

high school when they participated in varsity athletics and intra­

mural activities. A major change toward sports activities occurred

between high school and college, when a c tiv itie s dropped d rastic ally .

The worst change is in female activities; in high school, 30.5 per­

cent participated in Intramural activities, but this figure dropped

to 12.5 percent in college. Girls who never participated 1n any

sports jumped from 27.5 percent in high school to 39.5 percent 1n

college.

Today, sport leisure and recreation activities are playing a

major role in the life of the subjects. This is substantiated by the

fact that 82.0 percent of the subjects take part in different activi­

ties. Tennis Is, undoubtedly, the leader In recreation activities for

males as well as for females. Sports participation takes up a major

portion of the free time of the subjects, when 22 percent of both

males and females engage 1n more than seven hours of sports activities

per week. Most of those activities take place in different forms of

* TABLE 19 PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OP THE REASONS BEHIND GOING TO SEE THE GAMES

Females . Kales Strongly .Strongly . Strongly Strongly Agree IMetlded Disagree 1 Agree Undecided Disagree Aoree Disagree Aoree Dtsacree

A. I like to feel the International 45.0 37.0 9.0 8.0 * 1.5 36.3 43.8 6.6 7.8 1.4 eacltenent.

1. I w«nt to cheer for the American team. 43.0 31.5 8.0 10.5 2.5 32.6 45.2 6.6 8.9 2.8

C. A w t e r of wy flatly It coape ting end 1.0 1.5 5.0 20.5 47.5 3.4 0.5 6.2 19.3 45.7 ( would like to tee him/her.

0. To prove to everyone that what happened In Munich It not going to stop the 7.0 17.5 18.5 23.5 28.5 5.7 13.3 12.6 25.7 34.8 gares.

E. I an a tpcrtt 'freak* and I want to witness the grace and beauty of the 30.S 31.0 8.5 17.5 5.5 29.3 33.7 7.6 12.9 10.3 best athletes In the world.

r. There it considerable prestige In going to tne ga«rs, and to be able to say 1 6.5 26.5 9.0 20.5 29.5 8.9 27.3 8.7 26.8 21.8 taw the 'big* games.

G. I have the opportunity to be in 7.5 . 27.0 7.0 23.0 25.0 7.3 22.7 9.4 25.9 25.7 Montreal on sunrer vacation.

H. I want to tee what other cultures are 35.5 11.5 19.5 10.5 6.4 34.9 17.2 21.6 12.4 doing for sports activity. 14.5

! want to ttudy the sports of other I. 6.5 21.0 17.0 29.0 15.5 3.4 19.5 22.0 31.4 14.4 societies. J. I want to see the U.S.A. competing egainst 'all the world* and beat them. 13.0 17.5 13.0 76.5 23.0 17.2. 27.0 11.5 23.2 16.0

A. T*t e«res are held relatively close to notetown 16.0 19.5 4.0 25.5 25.5 16.1 33.2 5.9 16.3 21.1

L. 1 an not interested 1n sports at allt but I an ooing because my husband/ 1.0 — 1.5 21.5 63.0 0.4 0.5 2.1 19.1 65.8 wile Is going.

K. 1 really believe that the ‘Olympic Spirit' In amateur sports still exists. 37.0 40.0 13.5 4.0 4.5 25.2 39.5 14.7 10.1 6.6

XJ. I want to s«e people who will not 76.0 32.5 16.5 11.5 5.5 20.9 37.4 15.8 14.5 5.0 give up.

0. 1 would like to see what kind of 8.0 5.0 8.2 10.1 27.1 26.9 rocpeiition Is ahead of me in ty sport. 11.0 10.5 24.5 33.5 TABLE 17

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON THE QUESTION OF AMATEURS AND PROFESSIONALS

Females Males

1 * Should be declared professionals 36.0 32.6

Should not be declared professionals 37.5 50.4

Do not know 22.5 13.9

TABLE 18

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON THE QUESTION OF GOVERNMENT SUPPORT OF THE ATHLETES FOR THE OLYMPIC GAMES

Females Males

Good Policy 69.5 67.9

Poor Policy 23.0 27.5

No Opinion 5.5 3.5 53

Profile of Subjects Based on Their Feeling

Towards the Olympic Movement

Of those surveyed, 71.0 percent of the subjects believe that only a few of the contests in the Olympics are biased, 13.2 believe that none of them are biased. In regard to international goodwill,

79.0 percent believe th at the Olympic Games do more good than harm,

11.6 percent do not see any effect either way, and only 3.3 percent see the Olympic Games as doing more harm than good to international goodwill. Pertaining to their opinions as to whether the Olympic Games improve relations between the countries, 58.9 percent of the subjects think that the Olympic Games do improve relations between countries taking part, 37.4 percent believe participating in the Olymic Games makes no difference in improving relations among nations, and only 1.8 percent believe i t would harm them. Of the subjects surveyed, 50.4 percent do not think that athletes who have received more money than allowed for amateur status should be declared professionals and forbidden to represent the U.S.A. in the Olympic Games; 32.6 percent think they should be declared professionals (See Table 17 on page 54).

A sensitive question was, "Should the government of the country pay part of the expenses of training and sending athletes to the

Olympic Games?" In answering this question, 68.5 percent of the sub­ je c ts believe i t is a good policy to ask for government support, 26.2 t percent believe it is poor policy, and 4.0 percent had no opinion

(See Table 18 on page 54). 52

* countries were:

1. United States 2. Canada 3. West Germany 4. Great Britain

When the question was stated, "Who do you think will win the most Olympic medals?", 49.3 percent of the subjects said the

Soviet Union, 42.? percent mentioned the United S tates, and 2.1 per- cent said East Germany.

The ancestors of the subjects came from forty-six different countries; the most common ones were:

1. Great B ritain 2. Germany

Regarding the importance of seeing the Olympic Games in

Montreal, 48.6 percent of the subjects indicated that for them it was important, 29.7 said It is very important, and 22.8 percent said

It is not important at all to see the Games (See Table 16).

TABLE 16

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF 1HE IMPORTANCE OF SEEING THE OLYMPIC GAMES IN MONTREAL

Not Very Important Important Important At All

Female 34.0 49.5 15.5

Male 28.8 45.4 25.9 TABLE 15

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF WATCHING THE EVENTS IN THE OLYMPICS

Female Male

Yes No Yes No

Opening ceremonies 23.5 76.0 16.3 83.0 Archery 6.0 93.5 2.7 96.5 * Athletics (track and field) 62.5 37.0 78.9 20.2 Basketball — men 32.0 67.0 47.5 52.0 Basketball — women 16.5 83.0 13.1 86.3 Boxing 14.5 84.5 34.6 64.9 Canoeing 15.5 83.5 13.7 85.8 Cycling 14.0 85.5 17.6 81.9 Equestrian Sports (horsemanship) 34.0 65.5 14.2 85.3 Fencing 9.5 89.5 11.2 88.3 Football (soccer) 40.0 59.0 46.1 53.4 Gymnastics 51.5 48.0 40.6 58.9 Handball — men 7.0 92.0 8.3 91.1 Handball — women 3.0 96.5 1.6 97.7 Hockey 18.0 81.5 16.3 83.2 Judo 10.0 89.0 12.6 86.9 Modern Decathalon G. 5 92.5 4.1 95.4 Rowing 13.0 86.5 9.6 89.9 Shooting 3.5 95.5 2.0 97.3 Swimming 39.5 60.0 40.8 58.7 Diving 27.5 72.0 25.7 73.8 Water Polo 14.0 85.0 19.5 80.0 Volleyball — men 20.5 78.5 30.7 68.8 Volleyball — women 19.0 80.5 20.6 78.7 Weightlifting 13.5 85.5 16.7 82.8 Wrestling 8.0 91.0 20.7 78.7 Yachting 2.5 97.0 2.1 97.3 Closing Ceremonies 23.0 76.5 17.6 81.9 4

TABLE 13

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION ON HOW THE SPECTATORS RATE THEMSELVES

Watch Quite Watch Very Very Watch Watch Only Often- But Occasionally Sporadically Seldom or Avid Not Avidly Not at All

Female 27.0 31.5 24.5 11.0 5.5

Male . 35.5 38.8 17.6 5.7 2.0

TABLE 14

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF BEING AT PAST OLYMPICS

Yes No

Female 6.5 93.0

Male 12.4 87.2

4 The subjects who are spectators of sporting events rate them­ selves as follows: 33.2 percent watch very avidly, 36.7 percent watch quite often, but not avidly, and 19.4 percent watch occasionally

(See Table 13 on page 50).

Profile of Subjects Based on Past and Present

Experience with the Olympic Games

Those deciding to attend the Games one year before they began accounted for 39.2 percent of the subjects, 28.1 percent decided four years before, and 23.0 percent decided two years before. Of the female subjects, 40.5 percent went to Montreal with a friend or friends, 19.5 percent went with all the family, and 16 percent with their husbands. Of the male subjects, 37.5 percent went to Montreal with their wives, 24.6 percent with a friend or friends, and 20.7 percent went with all the family. Those subjects who had never attended the Olympic Games before and those who had attended were

88.7 percent and 10.9 percent, respectively (See Table 14 on page

50).

Of those who went to past Olympics, 4.2 percent were in

Munich Germany in 1972, 2.5 percent were in Mexico City, Mexico in

1968, and 1.6 percent were in Rome, Ita ly in 1960 (See Appendix D).

Those who had never participated in the Olympic Games accounted for 97.8 percent of the subjects. Three persons did parti­ cipate in the 1936 Olympics a t B erlin, Germany.

The subjects chose fifty-two different countries as their favorite to win the mostgold medals in the Games. The first four TABLE 11

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF WATCHING SPORTS EVENTS

1 11 ' 1 Live Do Not Television Sporting Watch Events At All

Femal e 82.0 15.5 2.0

Male 86.9 10.8 1.8

TABLE 12

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF TIME ESTIMATE WATCHING SPORTS EVENTS IN A WEEK

Between Between Between Seven One Hour One Hour Three Hours Five Hours Hours or Less and Three and Five and Seven or Hours Hours Hours More

Female 31.0 33.0 19.0 7.0 9.5

Male 13.5 40.8 23.8 10.3 10.5 47

TABLE 9

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF WEEKLY TIME IN SPORTS ACTIVITIES

- Between Between Between More Than One Hour One and Three Five and Seven and Five or Less- Three Seven Hours Hours Hours Hours

Female 27.0 16.0 20.0 11.0 22.0

Male 16.8 23.2 19.7 15.1 22.0

TABLE 10

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF READING THE SPORTS PAGE IN THE NEWSPAPER

Almost More Than Once Less Than Hardly Every Once a Once a t Never Day A Week Week A Week All

Female 44.5 23.5 9.0 4.5 13.0 5.5

Male 78.0 12.6 2.8 2.1 3.4 0.4

* 46

The percentage of time the subjects spent in the sports acti­ vities is as follows: 22.1 percent spend more than seven hours a week, 21.4 percent spend between one hour and three hours, and 19.7 percent spend between three hours and five hours a week (See Table 9 on page 47).

Most of the subjects belong to some form of club:

* Femal e Male

Country Club 8.0 14.4 Tennis Club 9.0 11.2 Health Spa 8.0 5.0 Y.M.C.A. 7.5 7.6 Others 22.0 17.6

Most of the subjects read the sports page every day; 69.0 per­ cent and 15.5 percent read i t more than once a week. Only 1.7 percent never read the sports page (See Table 10 on page 47).

Only 52.9 percent of the subjects subscribe to at least one sports journal. In the men's division, 57.7 percent subscribed and

43.6 percent did not subscribe; in the women's division, 45.5 percent subscribed and 54.0 percent do not. Sports events viewed on television included 85.4 percent of the subjects and 12.2 percent attend live sporting events (See Table 11 on page 48).

Of those who watch sports events, 38.5 percent watch between one hour and three hours, 22.4 percent watch between three hours and five hours, and 18.4 percent watch one hour or less (See Table 12 on page 48). TABLE 7

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF HIGH SCHOOL ATHLETIC ACTIVITIES

Varsity Athletics

Much Some L ittle None

Female 36.5 10.5 11.5 39.5

Male 55.0 19.3 10.4 14.0

Intramural A ctivities

Femal e 30.5 26.0 14.0 27.5

Male • 25.2 31.7 15.6 21.1

TABLE 8

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION Op COLLEGE ATHLETIC ACTIVITIES

Varsity Athletics

Much Some L ittle None

Female 17.5 11.0 8.5 49.0

Male 22.3 14.4 9.9 40.8

Intramural A ctivities

Female 12.5 20.5 13.0 39.5

Male 23.0 25.2 15.6 21.3 44 and 30.1 percent participated in some intramural activities (See Table

7 on page 45).

In college, the role of sports activities did not play a large role among the students; 43.0 percent did not participate in any varsity a th letics and only 21.2 percent participated in varsity athletics. In intramural activities, 26.0 percent did not partici­ pate at all, and only 23.8 percent participated in some intramural activities (See Table 8 on page 45).

Leisure and sports activities play a major function in the life of the subjects. Those taking part in sports activities and those not taking part in any activity were 82.0 percent and 16.5 per­ cent, respectively. The percentage distribution for this area is 75.5 percent of the females do participate, 22.0 percent do not participate, and 84.2 percent of the males take part in sports and 14.7 do not take part in sports. The subjects chose sixty-five different activities which they participate in (See Appendix D).

The frequency distribution for the most common activities for females and males are:

Female A ctiv ities

1. Tennis 2. Swimming 3. Equestrian events 4. Volleyball

Hale A ctivities

1. Tennis 2. Basketball 3. Golf 4. Swimming I 43

TABLE 6

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF POLITICAL VIEW

Far Far Liberal Moderate Conservative Unknown Left Riqht

Females None 25.5 37.0 20.0 0.5 14.0

Males 1.2 21.2 39.4 27.3 0.5 6.4 TABLE 5

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF INCOKE

Less $5,000 $10,000 - $15,000 $20,000 $25,000 $30,000 $51.000 Over Than to to to to to to to $100,000 S5.000 $9,999 $14,000 $19,999 $24,000 $29,999 $50,000 $100,000 Per Per Year Per Year Per Year Per Year Per Year Per Year Per Year Per Year Year Female 21.0 14.5 20.5 13.0 8.0 5.5 6.5 2.5 None Kale 10.1 7.6 14.9 18.3 13.7 10.8 12.6 6.2 2.5 The occupation category shows the subjects to be a very professional group; 41.1 percent are managers and proprietors of medium-sized concerns, teachers, nurses, pharmacists, engineers, and professional athletes, 22.3 are executives and proprietors of large concerns and major professionals, 11.7 percent are clerical and sales personnel, technicians, firemen, and police patrolmen, with 11.6 * * percent being adm inistrative personnel of large concerns, owners of small businesses or police officers (See Table 4 on page 40).

Income level 1s another important variable that distinguishes th is group. Subjects earning between $15,000 and $19,999 accounted for 16.8 percent, 16.3 percent earned between $10,000 and $15,999, and

13.0 percent earned less than $5,000 per year (See Table 5 on page

42).

Cities with less than 50,000 accounted for 24.3 percent of the subjects, 21.2 percent came from a city of less than 500,000, 19.7 percent came from a community of less than 1,000, and 15.2 percent came from a city of over one m illion.

Politically, 38.5 percent of the subjects are moderate, 25.3 percent are conservative, and 22.3 percent are liberal (See Table 6 on page 43).

Profile of Subjects Based on Past and Present

Involvement in Sports Activities

Sports participation played a major role when the subjects were in high school. Fifty percent participated in varsity athletics * 40 TABLE 2

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF CURRENT MARITAL STATUS

Single Married Di vorced

Female 54.0 38.5 5.0

Male 24.6 71.1 2.5

TABLE 3

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF EDUCATIONAL BACKGROUND

■ ...... Some Graduate College Some High College Work Degree School M.S., M.A., College B .S., B.A. Diploma Ph.D.

Female 38.5 20.5 24.0 10.0

Male 43.1 28.5 16.5 8.0

TABLE 4

PERCENTAGE DISTRIBUTION OF OCCUPATION

Executives and Managers and Administrative Clerical Proprietors of Proprietors Personnel of and Sales Large Concerns of Medium- Large Concerns Personnel, and Major Sized Owner of Technicians Professionals Concerns Small Business

Female 9.5 51.5 7.0 14.5

Male 27.0 ,37.8 1 13.1 10.6 CHAPTER IV

ANALYSIS OF DATA

The analysis of the data obtained from the subjects will be facilitated by extensive tabular presentation of the data. A frequency analysis will occupy a position of major importance in presenting and analyzing the findings of this study. A description of the subjects is presented based on their analysis.

Profile of Subjects Based on

Demographic Variables

Of the total number of 764 subjects, 74 percent (564) were males and 26 percent (200) were females. The mean age of the subjects was 35.94 years, with an age range of eight to seventy-seven.

The mean age of the females was 31.42 years, with an age range of eight to sixty-three, and the mean age of the males was 37.62 years, with an age range from eighteen to seventy-seven.

The current marital status of the subjects was 62.2 percent married and 32.2 percent single. Only 3.1 percent were divorced

(See Table 2 on page 40).

As a group, the subjects represented had very high educational backgrounds. Those with some graduate and college work was 41.7 per­ cent, 26.3 percent had college degrees, and 18.5 percent had some college background (See Table 3 on page 40). 38

Treatment of Data

The results of the questionnaires were posted on keypunching forms, IBM Fortran Coding Form, and were keypunched by the Ohio State

University Computer Center. The data were analyzed on the IBM 370

Model 168 computer at The Ohio State University. All data were sub­ mitted for computer processing and analysis under the supervision of \ * a statistical consultant from the Computer Center, The Ohio State

University and the investigator. 37 the Olympics. The la s t day of receiving the return questionnaires was set as August 1, 1976* the la s t day of the Olympics. Two-and-one-half weeks after the first questionnaires were sent, a follow-up letter with an additional questionnaire .(Appendix C) was sent to the same

1,000 subjects.

The investigator's adviser suggested that at least 50 percent return of the questionnaire should be a criterion. This was established as the minimal standard in th is study. As of August 1,

1976, the investigator received a 76.4 percent return.

The Questionnaire

93 The questionnaire (Appendix B) for this study was designed Q4 and composed by the investigator, with the help of his committee members. The questionnaire was designed not to require longer than ten minutes for completion. The questionnaire is composed of eight pages, thirty-two different questions, which accumulated to eighty- six different variables. The questionnaire was designed to cover the demographic aspects of the subjects, th e ir sports background as a . participant and spectator, their current activities in sports, and additional information related to the Olympic Games.

^Earl R. Babbie, The Practice of Social Research (Belmont, California: Wadsworth Publishing Company, Inc., 1975),

®^Fred N. Kerlinger, Foundations of Behavioral Research (New York: Holt, Rinehart and Winston, Inc., 1973). CHAPTER III

PROCEDURE

Selection of Subjects and Collection of Data

Data for this study was collected from the file of Olympic

Ticket Buyers, and the subjects for th is investigation were randomly selected by Montgomery Ward Auto Club. Montgomery Ward was named as the official and exclusive ticket agency in the United States for the 1976 Sunnier Olympic Games in Montreal, Canada by the Organizing

Committee of the Games and the United States Olympic Committee.

Until the beginning of the Games, Montgomery Ward sold more than

750,000 tick ets th at were used by 100,000 to 150,000 American spectators.

The investigator of this study, after an extensive correspon­ dence with Montgomery Ward (Appendix A), received, in March, 1976,

Montgomery Ward's acceptance to serve as a liaison between the author and the subjects. Montgomery Ward was willing to distribute all questionnaires to a random sample of subjects from their file. The random selection was made by R. L. Polk and Company, Marketing Services

Division (Appendix A).

The questionnaires, with the head le tte r (Appendix B), were * sent to 1,000 subjects at the beginning of May, 1976, two months before Summary

The review of the literature has been divided into two parts.

The first part covers the development of spectator sports in the

United States since the turn of the century. This part consists of three segments:

1. The development of spectator sports from the beginning of the century to World War I.

2. The development of spectator sports from the end of World War I to the beginning of World War II.

3. The development of spectator sports since the end of World War II to the present time.

The second part covers the number of spectators who attended the

Olympic Games since 1896.

The author has tried to give the reader a description of the major development o f spectator sports in the United States, and what each period felt toward spectators, fans, and audiences of sporting events. Also, there were attempts to show the development of the major sporting events of this country. 260.000 (250.000) 240.000 220.000 200.000 (196.000) (188,388) 180.000 160,000 140.000 120.000 (138.000) 100,000 80.000 60,000 40.000 20.000 (30.000) (10.500) _L JL _L JL _L X 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 -1972 1976

Figure 3. Total Hunter o f Foreign V isitors In Each Olympic Games. (735.542 TJ 750.000 F~ r E *-

100.000 90.000 80.000 70.000 (66.233 T) — "(68,070 T) 60.000 50.000 40.000 (34,004 V) ■ 30.000 20.000 (14,408 ,000 V) 10.000 (923 V) JL JL J_ ± J I 1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976

Nurter of Visitors Norter of Tickets

Figure 2. Total Number o f American V isitors at Each Olympic Games and .Total Number o f Tickets Sold to Americans for Each Olympic Games. 3.900,000 (3.769.892)

3.600,000

3,300.000

3,000.000

2.700.000

2.400.000 2.100.000

(1,436,091) (1,247,580) (1,376.512) 1,200.000 (1.341.483)

900,000

600.000 (300,000) (665.549) 300.000 (350.000

1896 1900 1904 1908 1912 1920 1924 1928 1932 1936 1948 1952 1956 1960 1964 1968 1972 1976

Figure 1. Total Nuober o f People Who Watched Each Olynptc Canes. 31

1964 -- Tokyo, Japan

The Japanese expected 30,000 visitors from abroad during the Games.86 They sold 68,070 tickets to Americans in the U.S.A. before the Games.87

1968 -- Mexico City, Mexico

From September 15 to the end of October, 1968, a total of 188,388 foreign tourists entered the country.88

1972 -- Municht Germany

« * The Organizing Committee registered 138,000 beds in commercial lodging establishments and in private dwellings for foreign visitors.89 By December 31, 1971, approximately 1.1 m illion tic k ets had been sold in foreign countries.98 It 1s interesting to note h ere'th at from the 3,474,058 tick ets which were av ail­ able to sell, 89.68 percent were actually sold.91

1976 — Montreal, Canada

According to sources close to the Canadian Organizing Committee for the Olympic Games, 3,316,420 people attended the Games. The Canadian Department of Immigration says that 735,942 tickets were sold to Americans.92 (See Figure 3 on page 34)

86The Games of the XVIII Olympiad, Tokyo, 1964. O fficial Report of the Organizing Committee, Copyright 1964, by the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVIII Olympiad, p. 46.

87Ib id ., p. 418.

88The Organization, produced by the Organizing Committee of the Games of the XIX Olympiad, Mexico, 1968, printed in Mexico, p. 167. p Q The Organization, Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XX Olympiad, Munich, 1972, Vol. 1, p. 302.

90Ib id ., p. 307.

91 Ib id ., p. 311. 92 Letter from Gilles Chiasson, Manager of the Sports Information Resource Center, December, 1976. • 30

1948 — London, England

Not available.

1952 — Helsinki, Finland

248,682 tickets were sold in foreign countries before the Games.80 A committee set up in 1949 to investi­ gate housing needs, arrived at a figure of 180,000 v isito rs, of whom 60,000-70,000 would come from abroad. The total spectator attendance was 1,376,512.81

1956 — Melbourne. A ustralia

2,580,000 tickets were printed, 1,341,483 were sold. Approximately 110,000 tickets were sold overseas; of these 56,000 went to New Zealand and the Pacific Island, 22,000 to U.S.A. and Canada, and 18,000 to the United Kingdom. Some 14,000 were spread over the. rest of the world, some sixty overseas countries.82

1960 — Rome, Italy 83 The total tic k ets sold were 1,436,091. Americans bought 66,233 tickets in the U.S.A. before the Games, and 34,004 American v isito rs came to Rome between August 23, 1960 and November 9, 1960.8/*

The total of foreign visitors 1n Rome in this period of time was 196,986, with 1,234,972 present throughout the period.85

80 The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XV Olympiad, Helsinki, 1952, published by Weme** Soderstrom Osakeyhtio, Helsinki, p. 167.

81 Ib id ., p. 175. 82 The Official Report of the Organizing Committee for the Games of the XVI Olympiad, Melbourne, 1956, printed by W. M. Houston, Government P rinter, Melbourne, A ustralia, p. 116.

8^The Games of theXVII Olympiad, Rome, 1960. O fficial Report of the Organizing Committee, Copyright, 1960, by the Organizing Committee of the Games of the XVII Olympiad, p. 515.

84Ib id ., p. 617. B5Ib id ., p. 617.

* 29

• Denmark - 309, Finland - 266, Poland - 138, France - 129, Romania - 95, Belgium - 92, Norway - 60, Switzerland - 44, Spain - 34. There were also 180 visitors from twenty- five other countries, making a total of 10,500.73 (see Figure 2 on page 33)

The total number of paying spectators was 665,549.74

1932 — Los Angeles. California, U.S.A.

The Games in Los Angeles were the largest until th is Games. They drew 1,247,58075 spectators. Some of the events averaged thousands of spectators; for instance swimming - 8,096, gymnastics - 16,949, and rowing 18,973.76

1936 — Berlin, Germany

The total number of spectators during all the events was 3,769,892.77 The total number of American visitors in Berlin during July-August, 1936 was 14,408.78 (See Figure 1 on page 32)

That about 250,000 foreigners will come to Berlin for the Games.79

73 The Ninth Olympiad, The Official Report of the Olympic Games of 1928, Celebrated at Amsterdam. Printed and published by J. H. DeBossy, Ltd., Amsterdam, p. 240.

74Ib id ., p. 245. 75 The Games of the Tenth Olympiad, Los Angeles, 1932. The Official Report, published by the Tenth Olympiad Committee, p. 109.

78Ib id., p. 109.

77The Eleventh Olympic Games, Berlin, 1936. The Official Report by the Organization skomites fer due XI Olympiade, Berlin, 1936, E. V., published by Wilhelm Limpert, Berlin, S.W. 68, p. 498.

78Ib id ., p. 42. 79 Olympic Games, 1936, Official Organ of the XI Olympic Games, Berlin, 1936, No. 12, p. 40,

» 28

* event.

...as the Hungarian finished the 100 yard swim a victor, the 10,000 spectators th at surrounded the lake and crowded the stands and floats gave him a rousing recep­ tion. 70

1908 — London, England

The report about the Fourth Olympiad states for the first time how many people watched the Games.

...a total of at least 30,0Q0 persons must have seen the Games 1n a ll.7*

1912 — Stockholm. Sweden

The Fifth Olympiad "was v isited by about 350,000 persons."72

1920 — Antwerp, Belgium

Not available.

1924 — Paris, France

Not available.

1928 — Amsterdam. Holland

Records from the Olympiad show fo r the f i r s t time a breakdown for countries—foreign visitors:

Germany - 4,200, U.S.A. - 923, Italy - 660, Sweden - 585, Hungary - 564, Austria - 517, Great Britain - 469, Czechoslovakia - 373,

^°The St. Louis Globe-Democrat, September 6, 1904.

^The Fourth Olympiad, Being the O fficial Report of the Olympic Games of 1908, Celebrated 1n London, published by the B ritish Olympic Association, 1908, p. 391.

7^The Fifth Olympiad, The O fficial Report of the Olympic Games of Stockholm, 1912, published by Wahlstrom and Uldstrand, Stockholm, p. 828.

i 27

« sports not only have Increased 1n live sporting events, but also television has played a major role of the Increasing number of spectators through the media. One example 1s the January 12, 1967

Super Bowl, which was watched by sixty m illion people, and cost Its 68 sponsors $135,000 a minute to advertise. .

Spectators Attendance at the Olympic Games m *

* Since the revival of the Modern Olympic Games in 1896, i t is known th at thousands of spectators came to watch each Olympiad.

Through research of the official reports of each Games, the author tried to find the precise number of spectators at each Game. Here are his findings:

1896 — Athens, Greece

The exact number of spectators is not available, but we can learn about the number of people who watched the Games.

...we are proud to be able to state that a crowd of 150,000 people lined the principle roads and hills surrounding the stadium.69

1900 — Paris. France

Not available.

1904 -- St. Louis, U.S.A.

The exact number, again, is not available, but we can learn about the number of people who watched a swim

®®Will1am Johnson, "TV Made i t All a New Game," Sports Illu s tra te d ,. XXXI, 26 (December 22, 1969), p. 87.

®®S. P. Lambros and N. G. P olltes,'T he Olympic Games, B.C. 776- A.D. 1896," Published by the American Olympic Committee, 1896, p. 88. spectators 1n Philadelphia, an 1ce hockey fan of the Philadelphia

Flyers and a basketball fan of the Philadelphia Seventy-Sixers, with emphasis on marketing and Implication for management. In 1966,

Spencer's Advertising Company did an audience survey on facts and figures about the NFL audience through the NFL Illustrated, which 1s the o fficial program-magazlne purchased by spectators a t games of the National Football League. The purpose of the study was to define the NFL audience, and to do this, the survey card covered a broad

range of subjects, Including sex, age, education, Income, marital status, brand preferences, travel, and ownership. Some of the findings showed that 56.1 percent of the NFL Illustrated readers are business owners, professional people, or corporation executives, that

44.6 percent own more than one car, that 72.8 percent own credit cards (45.4 percent Diners Club), and that 30.7 percent own rifles ’ 65 and 28.3 percent own shotguns.

Today, in the last part of the 1970's, spectator sports is becoming a national religion. In 1973, football was America's number one spectator sport; 32 percent of all American adults named

football as their favorite sport to watch, compared to 14 percent who 66 named baseball, and 9 percent for basketball. Average attendance

for the NBA rose 18 percent in the 1975-1976 season, with game 67 average throughout the league placed at about 10,500. Spectator

65Harry Anser, "Facts and Figures the NFL Audience,” (New York: Spencer Advertising Company, 1966).

6^The Gallup Opinion Index, Report No. 92 (February, 1973), p. 26. ^"NBA Players Sign Rich Pact," Columbus Citizen Journal, April 13, 1976. term teaching aspirations, and direct involvement of the principal

in establishing and enforcing behavior boundaries will be positively

reflected in improved crowd sportsmanship. Some recent studies by 62 Heinold that tried to establish a sports spectator typology recommended that there are underlying factors that influence the gq average sports spectator, and Toyama, in her classic study on the language of sports, derived the following components which build the sports spectator.

Sports Sport Language

| Mass Med1a~|

Spectator J

The academic world was not the only area that was interested

in spectator sports. Cohen6^ tried to compare two different

Will1am D. Heinold, "The Establishment of a Sports Spectator Typology U tilizing Q-Methodology" (unpublished Master's th esis, The Pennsylvania State University, 1972).

63Judith S. Toyama, "The Language of Sport: A Study of the Knowledge of Sport Terminology as a Function of Exposure to the Mass Media" (unpublished Master's thesis, University of Wisconsin, 1971).

64Joseph M. Cohen, "Philadelphia Flyers and Philadelphia Seventy-Sixers Fans: An Original Comparative Study with Analysis Emphasizing Marketing Implications for Management" (unpublished Master' thesis, University of Pennsylvania, 1970). At the end of the sixties, violence 1n high school sporting events

calmed down a fte r a massive educational e ffo rt by local school and 57 community organizations, and by nationwide physical education organizations.®®

The second development was that study and research 1n the area of spectator sports started to appear. Most of those studies were concerned with the psychological aspects of the spectator

sports and not with the sociological components of the spectator.

Klngsmore59 attempted to measure the effect of professional wrestling and professional basketball contests on the aggressive

responses of spectators, and Turner®0 trie d to find the effects of

viewing college football, basketball and wrestling on the aggressive

responses of male spectators. A few years before Turner and 61 Klngsmore, Klelnman trie d to study the crowd behavior at high

school basketball games and found th at employment of coaches with long

®^Walter L. Ambrose, "Guidelines for Good Spectator Sportsmanship," School and Community (October, 1965), pp. 15-31.

Crowd Control at Athletic Events," Journal of Health, Physical Education, and Recreation (April, 19697!

50John Kingsmore, "The Effect of a Professional Wrestling and a Professional Basketball Contest Upon the Aggressive Tendencies of Male Spectators" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1968).

60Edward T. Turner, "The Effects of Viewing College Football, Basketball, and Wrestling on the Elicited Aggressive Responses of Male Spectators" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, University of Maryland, College Park, 1968).

Seymour Klelnman, "A Study to Determine the Factors that Influence the Behavior of Sports Crowd" (unpublished Ph.D. dissertation, The Ohio State University, 1960).

4 SI as a promotional device. He concludes that

American spectator tension may be strong because 1t is a special instance of the general case. The American of the twentieth.century is an inveterate and compulsive spectator of himself. And the fact that the mass media has generally been occupied with an extensive attempt to teach people how to behave as spectators suggest that anxiety is still strongly connected with the role.52 53 Rousseau tried to point out that the violence is part of the * * American ritual, that everyone wants a winning team by the old saying, that nice guys finish last.

In the early sixties, violence became a big problem in high school sporting events. Leach^ suggested that schools, as a tool to eliminate violence, play afternoon games only, allot the number of tickets sold, and supply strong supervision at games. Bien continues on the same line by suggesting that "spectator behavior at athletic 55 events should be discussed in all classrooms," and School

Activities pointed out that part of the bad spectator sportsmanship 56 is due to the fact that the average fan does not know the rules.

^Reuel Denny, The Astonished Muse (Chicago: The University of Chicago Press, 1957).

52Ibid., p. 137.

®^Edward L. Rousseau, "The Great American Ritual," The Nation (October 4, 1958), pp. 188-191.

®^Glen C. Leach, "Solving the Spectator Problem," School Activities (December, I960), pp. 99-101.

55Harvey J. Bien, "Spectator Behavior at Basketball Games," High Points (June, 1964), pp. 67-69. Eg "Spectator Sportsmanship," School A ctivities (December, 1962), pp. 116-118. for using leisure time.

A more popular version of this form of leisure 1s " s it and watch.” I t is the type of diversion which keeps the eyes o f m illions o f Americans glued to their television screens.49

Bogart5^ found out that 1n 1969, 8 percent of all television

households watched the average professional baseball game, 21 per­

cent watched the World Series, and 9 percent the typical NBA game, ♦ » 13 percent the average college football game on the ABC network, over

10 percent the average professional football game, and 40 percent the

Super Bowl. Television 1s the most important factor for the

Increasing popularity of spectator sports in the last twenty to

twenty-five years.

At the end of the 1950's, and the beginning of the 1960's,

two major developments started to influence spectator sports. The

f i r s t one was the great concern of the public toward good and bad

sportsmanship by the spectators. Reuel Denney tried to consider

three reasons for this. First, that management has favored situations where players fig h t rules, umpires, judges and referees. Second,

management itself 1s controlled by gangsters, and third, spectator

violence 1s a response to player violence and 1s used by the management

^Charles K. Brlghtbill, The Challenge of Leisure (Englewood CUffs, New Jersey: Prent1ce-Hall, Inc., i960), p. 22.

®°Leo Bogart, The Age of Television (New York: Federick Ungar Publishing Company, Inc., 1972), p. 415, TABLE 1

RISE IN SPECTATORS OF SPORTS EVENTS, 1950-1972

1950 1960 1969 1972

Major League Baseball* 17,659 20,261 27,698 27,330

Professional Basketball N.A. 1,986 5,891 9.431

College Football 18,962 20.403 27,626 30,829

Professional Football 2,008 4,153 9,334 11,096

Horse Racing 29,291 46,897 68,099 70,795

*A11 Figures are in Thousands,

SOURCE: Thomas M. Kando, Leisure and Popular Culture in T ransition. St. Louis: The C.V. Mosby Company, T975, p. 216. 20

With Riseman when he stated that the spectator 1s simply a product of the society. He 1s part of the national character, and his fun 1s on the market, along with other products.^

The rise of spectatorshlp did not reduce the number of participants in games and sports, according, to Thomas Kando.

...attendance figures or receipts—spectator sports have over the period 1950-19Z2, Increased th e ir popularity by 118% to 141%.

See Table 1, on page 20.

For Instance, while attendance at professional baseball went up 1n the two decades from about 17.5 million to 27.5 million, participation in amateur softball went up from 8 to 19 million in the la s t decade alone. And the number of golfers grew from 3.25 to

9.5 m illion from 1950 to 1970. In the early 1950's, one of the biggest innovations 1n human history was developed, which 1n later years had the biggest effect on spectator sports—television.

Television presented a new medium for the average citizen, a medium which he could use In his own living room without dragging himself to the grandstand. Sales of television sets rose from ten to sixty million within a decade and broadcasting stations multiplied from

100 to 700. Once television hit Its full stride, it presented programs that In many ways exceeded In popular Interest anything that the more limited radio broadcasting could possibly offer. Television

Introduced a new term, the "armchair spectator," which was a product

A 7 Erich Fromm, The Sane Society (New York: Holt, Rinehart, and Winston, 1955). 48 Kando, Leisure and Popular Culture, p. 216.

0 19 t Spectator!tis is the cause of a particular type of fatigue which must be given special consideration. The spectator is subject to a tenseness; he is sub­ jected to the stimulus to start acting; he becomes adrenalized but, as a spectator, it is impossible for him to act. Hence, all of these sta rts to a c tiv ity must be inhibited, Incomplete combustion resu lts. The individual 1s adrenalized but there is no way of using or burning up th is product. Hence, the indivi­ dual is subjected to a very peculiar and specialized type of fatigue. That which the individual had expected to be relaxation, a time for the recupera­ tion of a fatigued body, turns out not to be relaxa­ tion at all, but actually adds to the fatigued condition of the body....from this great world the spectator must be excluded.45

The Development of Spectator Sports Since the End of World War II to the Present Time

During the f i r s t few years a fte r World War II, a c tiv itie s in

all lines of spectator sports were booming—horse racing, track and

• field events, heavyweight boxing, baseball, football, basketball,

softball—and the feeling toward the future was that there was

nothing to prevent the coming years from being the greatest in all

sports history. Riseman has described a sequence of social evolution

that began with the "tradition-directed" character, moved to the

"inner-dlrected" character, and, finally, to the "other-directed"

character of the modern sports spectator in a modern society.

Riseman felt that our "over-manned" society has alienated the

individual and that all of our motives, for spectating as well, were

extrinsic and determined by society.^6 Eric Fromm agreed partially

45Ib id ., p. 95.

^D avid Riseman, The Lonely Crowd (New Haven: Yale University Press, 1950). la

The change toward spectator sports has not only been 1n the number of spectators who watch the events. Oktave40 said that both watching and doing have a place 1n a well-rounded school sports program, and his article was so popular that Recreation re­ published 1t a few months a fte r the f i r s t publication. Even though spectating at that time was popular, in the m1d-th1rt1es questions such as, "why do.so many people go to see things rather than do things" and "do they receive the same recreative benefits in watching as 1n doing?"^1 started to rise. A strong opposition 42 43 44 toward spectator sports by Tunis, Borst, and Nash developed at the beginning of World War II; Nash was the extreme one. He painted a picture of a uniquely American disease, putting somewhat of a stigma on spectating, which has persisted up to the present time.

Nash attempted to frighten the Inactive people; however, his descrip­ tion of the "disease" had little effect.

^°Frank L. Oktave, "Spectator Sports," Child Study (April, 1933), pp. 198-200.

^Charles J. Storey, "On the Grandstand," Recreation (April, 1935), pp. 3-4.

^2John R. Tunis, "A Nation of Onlookers?" The Athletic Monthly, 160 (July, 1937), pp. 141-150.

^Evelyn Borst, "Too Many Spectators!" Recreation (February, 1942), p. 682.

4^Jay B. Nash, Spectatority (New York: A. S. Barens and and Company, 1938). ' 17 37 end of that decade, 1t was the same number of spectators. Football was most popular in th is decade. In 1938, eighty million Americans watched football games. At th is time, universities started to build stadiums accommodating 70,000 to 100,000 fans, and the overall feeling toward the game was that

... football is more than merely a game. It is at present a religion—sometimes i t seems to be almost our national religion.38

But in terms of the number of spectators who paid admission, basket­ ball was 1n first place.

Many factors have contributed to the growth of basketball popularity: the enjoyable nature of the game, the-fast continuous action, the Increased skill by present-day players, and the increased publicity through regular scheduled games, league play, double- header exhibitions, and season end tournaments. Tournaments were, first developed by the college and then Introduced to high schools and

Increased in number during this period because of their popularity.

In 1938, the 26th Annual College Basketball Tournament in Minnesota drew 26,000 spectators; a three-day college tournament 1n Columbus,

Ohio had 34,700 people, and the championship game had a total attendance of 9,197.39

3^Menke Frank, Encyclopedia of Sports (New York: A. S. Barens and Company, 1945).

38J. R, Janis, "The Great God Football," Harper's Magazine, November, 1928, p. 744.

39"A Review of the Year in Interscholastic Athletics," Athletic Journal, XVIII (June, 1938), pp. 18-22. all kinds of strife. If my man lands the knockout punch, my ego struts within me. Not only that, but unconsciously my appetite 1s sharpened, my digestion 1s toned up, the rhythm of my breathing 1s deeper, my very muscles feel a flow of power.35 . .

And he continued to say that people who will give up sports activi­

ties and become sports spectators will be better Individuals, better

citizens, and better husbands and fathers.

This attitude toward sports participation and spectator sports

started to change during the Great Depression and during the 1932

Olympic Games. In February, 1932, the Winter Olympic Games were

' held at beautiful Lake Placid, New York, and In July of that year, the

Summer Olympic Games were held 1n Los Angeles. The to tal attendance 36 for the series of events was 1,750,000 people. The Interest of

spectators since 1932 has increased 1n almost every major sporting

event. It was estimated that 1n the late thirties, there were 800 / annual horse race meetings, to which 70,000,000 spectators paid

admission. Boxing again became a big sport through names like

Dempsey, Tunney, and Joe Louis, the "Brown Bomber from D etroit," and

in the 1937-38 sports year, more than 22,500,000 people paid more

than $13 million admission to boxing bouts In the United States.

Baseball continued to draw m illions of people, even though

the attendance showed a slight decline. In 1930, the total attendance

for the World Series was almost eleven million spectators, and at the

35Ib id ., p. 433. 36 Robert H. Lyman, The World Almanac and Book of Facts for 1933 (New York: The New York World-Telegram, 1933), p. 842. became a major Identification symbol of the American sports specta­ to rs.

During the twenties, a negative attitude developed against athletic participation 1n sports, basically from the educational world. The universities were concerned that the public attention was upon the athlete and his athletic achievements and not his academic achievements; Educators around the country tried tofind out how they would be able to channel the spirit and the enthusiastic behavior of sport spectators to other college and community op activities. The Nation even called to destroy the stadiums!

What does m atter is th at the commercial invest­ ment in athletics, with its attendant publicity, Its exploitation of young men and brawn, and Its resul­ tant demoralization of college life, has enormously Increased.33

The results of .these attitudes were unavoidable. People were encouraged not to participate in games and sports and the general feeling was that many of the people might better watch games more often and play them less. B r ill34 called on the people to give up sports activities for their psychic health,

I obtain more pleasure as a fight fan. Even I f my man has taken the count of ten, I have achieved purgation by identifying myself with him In a few tense moments of the most elementary of

32Elmer Beasy, The Philosophy of A thletics (New York: A. S. Barnes and Company, 192771

33"Destroy the Stadiums!" The Nation (November 6, 1929), p. 513. 3V A, B rill, "The Why of the Fan," The North American Review, 228 (October, 1929), pp. 429-434. 14 events ever received. In spite of the fact that track meets were not considered as interesting as other competitive sports at the begin­ ning of the twentieth century, intercollegiate meets, indoor games, dual meets, International games, Olympic trials, and the Olympic 29 Games served as great attractions for thousands of spectators.

The Development o f Spectator Sports from the End • of World War I to the Beginning of World War II

A fter the F irst World War, a major change started to appear in the American society concerning spectator sports. The academic world started to devote more and more time in a rtic le s , journals, and books

for explaining and studying the phenomenon of fans, spectators, and audiences 1n sporting events. One of the first articles to deal with 30 the problem appeared before the War in 1912. Howard w tried to point out the dangers that he saw in sports spectatoring; drawing the

society from a c tiv ity to p assivity, even though he noted that athletic events have their own benefit, that they provide a social

gain because they are powerful democratic agents. The term

“spectator!t1 s'* was introduced for the first time in 1915, "the 31 disease of Spectatorltis 1s abound 1n the land." This term later

29Ib id ., p. 47-54.

^George E. Howard, "Social Psychology of the Spectator," The American Journal of Sociology, XVIII (July, 1912), 33-50.

^R ichard H. Edwards, C hristianity and Amusements (New York: Association Press, 1915), p. 14. the new religion of society; even in 1903 the death toll of football players during games reached the tremendous number of forty-four.

Under pressure from the public, a football conference was called to t meet 1n New York at the end of 1905 for the purpose of making changes in the rules. Football was played by most colleges and a few high schools before the United States became involved In World War I.

The scholastic games also played a very minor role at that time, in which college football was undeniably the leading spectacle of the

American sports world.

Basketball was unique. It was the sole popular American sport not derived from some English sport. When James Naismith

Invented the game 1n 1891, one of the functions that he wanted to incorporate was that the game provide an indoor activity for the winter as a practical substitute for baseball and football. At the opening of the twentieth century, the game of basketball was widely played by college teams. In 1901-1902, the first organizational leagues were formed, and these leagues provided sources of very good 28 publicity for basketball and entertained thousands of spectators.

By the beginning of World War I, basketball was recognized as one of the most important sports in America and played an Increasingly

Important part In leisure and recreation.

One of the sports, and maybe the only sport that profited from the Olympic Games, was track and field. The revival of the

Olympic Gaines was the greatest single stimulant that track and field of leisure and pleasure. The greatest effect was shown' in spectator sports. The Interest of the people was shifted from Individual sports events to more team sports and team events. Institutions like horse racing failed to heed this trend when they saw the warning signs

of gambling. From 1908 to 1911 the racing seasons were so disastrous th at many owners sold th e ir horses, and others sent th e ir 's to compete 23 on continental tracks. The period between 1900 and 1910 was almost

as bad for the American boxing fans as the horse racing fans.

Spectators*did not go to see the fights,and public opposition was so

strong that 1n New York the sport was outlawed for ten years.24

Baseball, at the turn of the century, became one of the

biggest drawing sports for spectators, beginning 1n 1903 with the 25 World Series, which 1n 1913 drew 180,000 spectators, and as Kando

Indicated

...baseball unquestionably established Itself as the national recreational past-time, particularly as a spectator sport.26

Football was very popular at the end of the nineteenth century

and games were drawing as many as 5,000 spectators In the west and 27 30,000 1n New York. Since the turn of the century, football became

23Ib id ., p. 45.

24Ibid., p. 66.

25Ib id ., p. 72.

Thomas M. Kando, Leisure and Popular Culture in Transition (St. Louis: The C. V. Mosby Company, 1975), p. 209. 27 Brown, "Development of Spectator Sports," p. 84. a c tiv itie s which were participated 1n by the s e ttle rs . The Puritan attitu d e banned playful a c tiv itie s and kept sports from making much 19 progress.

The first to be responsible for the beginning of what is termed spectator sports were the cities 1n the mid-1800's.

The City crowds early developed the habit of watching others perform in the field of sport which has so often given rise to the charge that Americans are a nation of onlookers.20

This phenomenon of spectator sports from the 18001s showed that several sporting events drew thousands of people from all members of society. Those events were horse racing, rowing and sailin g regattas, 21 foot races, prize fighting, boxing, baseball, football, and basket- 22 b a ll.

It is in the twentieth century that sports assumed the pro­ portion of a national obsession. The growth of sports at all three levels, professional, amateur, and college/high school, since 1900 pales all preceding developments. The growth of industry and further scientific and technological advances, new trends In urban and suburban living, the remarkable increase in leisure time for the great masses of the people all had their effect on the popular pursuit

19 Howard S. Brown, "The Development of Spectator Sports in the United States," (unpublished Master's thesis, University of North Carolina, 1946). 20 Foster R. Dulles, A History of Recreation; America Learns to Play (New York: Meredith Publishing Company, 1965), p. 136.

21Ib id ., pp. 139-146. 22 Brown, "Development of Spectator Sports." CHAPTER II

REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE

This chapter presents a survey of the literature, however, little research pertains directly to the topic of this investigation.

Much has been written about sports spectators in the United States, and the literature on this topic is extensive, but no empirical studies have been done pertaining to the spectator 1n international sporting events. In the absence of empirical documents regarding the sports spectator in international contests, the author has decided that the review of the literature will consist of two parts. Part

One will cover the development of spectator sports in the United

States since the turn of the century, and Part Two will study the number of spectators who attended each Olympic Game from Athens,

Greece in 1896 to Montreal, Canada, 1976.

The Development of Spectator Sports in the United States

The Development o f Spectator Sports From the Beginning of the Century to World War I

The origin of spectator sports goes back to the mid-sixteenth century, when the first immigrants came to the "Hew World." Travelers who traveled through the new colonies reported on different sport Individual who has both a high personal Investment 17 1n and a high personal commitment to a given sport."

Spectator — A spectator is one who watches but does not take part 1n a sport.

Spectator Sports — A term applied to a sport in which the spectators habitually outnumber the participants. A sport (as baseball, football, or auto racing) that appeals to spectators as distinguished from a sport (as hunting, fishing, or scuba diving) which is engaged in principally for the pleasure it offers the participant.18

17 John W. Loy and Gerald S. Kenyon, Sport Culture and Society (New York: Macmillan Publishing Company, Inc., 1967), p. 70. 18 Merrian Webster, Webster's Sports Dictionary (Springfield, Massachusetts: G. and C. Merrian Company Publishers, 1976), p. 409. . the Montreal Olympic Games. The purpose of the study is to try and

determine the factors that influenced those spectators who go to see

the games. More specifically, this study attempts to explore the

influence of past sport experience, demographic differences, motiva­

tional differences on the decision to go to. the Games. A special

interest of the Investigator is whether there are significant

differences between the male and the female spectators attending the

Olympics.

Deliminations

1. The subjects for th is study were randomly selected from an Olympic tic k e t purchasing l i s t .

2. The principle Investigative phase of the study was conducted from May, 1976, two months before the Olympics, to August 1, 1976, the la s t day of the Olympics.

3. The interest of the Investigator was not to describe the function or disfunction of spec­ tator sports in respect to hostile feelings, violence, mobs, or riots. The study was conducted from the internal and external factors that Influenced people to see the Games.

4. Results of the study must be interpreted within the meaning and lim itations of the measuring information.

Definition of Terms

This section contains some of the commonly encountered terms

used 1n this study.

Fan — A fan is an enthusiastic follower, supporter, or spectator of a sport. Loy defined fan “as an of sending the best teams, and they have not received the full atten­ tion of the media, 1n terms of newspaper, radio, and television coverage. Today, there are two major sports events that over­ whelmingly capture the attention of all the world for two full weeks once every four years—the Summer Olympic Games and the World Cup

Soccer. Those two events draw not only the attention of hundreds of millions of people around the world, they attracted millions of people who came to watch the Olympic Games in Tokyo, Mexico City,

Munich, and Montreal, and the World Cup Series in Chile, England,

Mexico, and Germany. According to the Organizing Committee of the

1976 Olympic Games, Montreal expected up to 3.5 million tourists during the fifteen day spectacle.

This author was a spectator a t the la s t two Olympics a t

Munich and Montreal, and was astonished by the lack of empirical research about the personality and the motivation of the individuals who go to see international sporting events. No research has focused on the individual as a spectator of the Olympic Games. This study will begin such an investigation, which will study what appears to be the reasons why the "average American Olympic spectator" goes to the Olympic Games.

Statement of the Problem

This study will be an initial search for some characteristics, b e lie fs, and value systems of American sports spectators who went to

^The Montreal Star, Vol. 26, No. 28, July 10, 1976. What are some of the motives behind spectator sports:

...p lea su re from observing excellence, the need for excitement toward a renewal of life, release of tensions and expression of socially-based frustrations, affirmation of values, desire for sociability, need for continuity 1n life, establishment of sexual Identity, group conformity, and goal-directed consuma- t i o n J 3

Today, spectator sports in the United States 1s one of the biggest economic*enterprises. Houston's Astrodome cost over

$45,000,000 and the Superdome in New Orleans cost well over $100 m illion.^ Because of the large investment in facilities for the spectators, scholars believe that the phenomenon of spectator sports should be Investigated and researched more. Gregory Stone, the sociologist who has studied participants and spectators, stated;

...sport 1s meaningful and basically symbolic, consequently, it's analysis must take Into account the sport audience.1®

Need for the Study

One of the areas 1n spectator sports which has been neglected for years is the area of spectator sports in international events and competitions. Regional games and world championships have not received the full attention of the countries who participate, in terms

1 ^ Schwartz, "Cause and E ffects," p. 37.

^M arle Hart, Sport in the Sociocultural Process (Dubuque, Iowa: W. C. Brown Company Publishers, 1976), pp. $27-364,

^Gregory Stone, "Some Meaning of American Sports,", College of Physical Education Association 60th Annual Proceedings, 1957, pp. 6-29. tennis, swimming, golf, boxing, bowling, wrestling, track, and f ie ld .11

Paul Weiss says th at the basis for spectator sports lie s In the drive of people for seeking excellence, 1f 1t 1s in art, music, religion, politics, or sports. From this basic structure of spectator sports, Harry Edwards derived the theory of the hero worship, which has been supported by Orrln Klapp and F1shw1ck:

"Just as a pier holds up the bridge, so does the hero support 12 society." EUas and Dunning stated 1n reference to spectator sports, that people do not desire release from tension in their leisure activities, but, Instead, seek a particular type of tension. No other sports awaken 1n the spectator such a feeling of unity, of

Interdependence, of oneness with the team itself, of desire to help the team as the fighting games, especially football. I t 1s th e ir team, their fight, their college, their victory, or their defeat.

The fan tries to identify himself with the team and with the organi­ zation or the Institution. He becomes a representative of his team and he reflects the team in the society. Freudian analysis of a simple baseball game reveals that the players represent the person's

1d or unrestricted desires, the hated umpire symbolizes the super-ego, and the spectators play the role of the ego, which mediates between the Id and the super-ego.

^ Spectator Sportsmanship—How to Improve It (Washington, D.C., 1961), pp. 1-2.

Flshwick, American Heroes, Mvth and Reality (Washington, D.C.: Public Affairs Press, 1954), p. 226. soccer team may help a youth in his search for indi­ vidual and group identity. Soccer has been seen as the basis of a common culture—a link between the social classes and between d ifferen t races and nations. Me have been much impressed by the amount of knowledge and memory for detail of football possessed by fans of limited education and intel­ lectual background. Their fluency on the subject of football 1s in striking contrast to their inability to discourse on other topics. From this point of view, football must be regarded not as much as a common culture, but a common language and mode of communication.9

South American countries, such as B razil, Argentina, and

Mexico are well known for th e ir sports rio ts . In May, 1964, a rio t precipitated by a referee's decision erupted at a soccer match in

Lima, Peru, killing a number of spectators. In 1969, the "Soccer

Mar" between Honduras and El Salvador began when El Salvador won a

Morld Cup match. The outcome of the match did nothing to lessen the existing tensions between the two countries, and a four-day armed conflict ensued.^®

Many theories have been developed concerning spectator sports 1n the la s t few years. Some of the major works were developed in the United States as a result of a massive move toward spectator sports, either in live sporting events or through the media— mainly television. Over two hundred m illion people watch football, basketball, and baseball annually. More than fifteen million watch

q Philip Goodhart and Cristopher Chataway, Mar Mithout Meapons (London: M. A. Allen, 1968).

^Jeffrey H. Goldstein and Robert L. Arms, "Effects of Observing Athletic Contests on Hostility," Sociometery, XXXIV (1), 1971, pp. 83-90. In the eighteenth and the nineteenth century» sports were limited to the upper class and were closely related to the Industrial development of the country. England waj development of these attitudes. The aristocrats organized and supported not only horse races, but also engaged in different sports a c tiv itie s and sports clubs which encouraged the involvement of spectators.®

Since the turn of the century, spectator sports have become an integral part of almost every society 1n the world. Spectator sports

...in a vital sense, is a miniature society: A veritable microcosm or epitome pf the macrocosm of the larger society. .J

In Poland,

....the stadium is the center of sport life for all people, irrespective of th^ attitude they adopt in regard to physical culture or irrespective of their motives for participation. All the motivation meets in one point; those who were spectators o f a sports event treated their presence at the stadium as something very personal, something pleasant, facilitating life.'

In England,

...the psychological importance of football to young should not be underestima ted. Supporting a

®Peter C. McIntosh, Sport in Society (Longon: C. A. Watts and Company, Ltd., 1963).

^George E. Howard, "Social Psychology of the Spectator," The American Journal of Sociology, XVIII (July, 1912), p. 36. O Zofia Clupak, "Sports Spectators—An Attempt at a Sociological Analysis," International Review of Sport Sociology, III-IV (8), 1973. 776 B.C. and 395 A.D.( saw the a rt of spectating as a means of showing mere appreciation of sport 1n the Olympic Games. Attending an athletic event was almost a worship, a means of paying homage to the human body. The Greek Olympic Games not only Included sports, but 3 also provided religious celebration, a rt, dancing, poetry, and drama.

The Romans shifted the emphasis in spectator sports from worshipping the human body to applauding its destruction, and some of the gladiatorial contests lasted for days, while spectators filled the Roman Coliseum. In Rome was the first time that the spectator fu lfille d such an Important and active role in the contest.

Thumbs up from the crowd signalled a pleasing performance, and the combatant's life was spared, thumbs down and another 11on was breathing down the guy's neck.4 .

During the "Dark Ages," sports activities, sport participa­ tion, and spectator sports almost vanished for several hundred years.

Only different private bouts became popular with European royalty, such as wrestling and different knight contests.

Spectator involvement was known in the sixteenth century in

Italy, when spectators 1n sport contests used to bring their own weapons with them, should the outcome of the contest not be to th e ir lik in g .5

3Michael Schwartz, "Causes and Effects of Spectator Sports," International Review of Sport Sociology, III-IV (8), 1973.

^Shelley Smolkln, "Spectating, The Eyes Have It," Women Sports, III (March, 1976), pp. 60-61.

5Ibid., p. 60. CHAPTER I

INTRODUCTION

The Problem

• * Spectator sports have been, for a lony time, a principle interest for psychologists and sociologists around the world.

Spectators viewing sports events, either 1n person or through the media, have developed negative attitudes toward sporting events, mainly because of the display of riots and hostile feelings at these events.

Why not? Fans are always told they had bought the right to cheer and boo, that the sports arena was not a classroom or a courtroom or an office, 1t was one place where they could righteously express themselves. Everything else has escalated—prices, anxieties, dangers, and crime—why not self- expression? And I f you c a n 't be heard anymore, you have to throw something.*

During one Cincinnati game 1n 1974, a Houston outfield er, Bob

Watson, h it the wall and fell nearly unconscious; several spectators responded by pouring beer over his body. Another day, somebody hit 2 Umpire Satch Davidson with a beer can.

Spectator sports are not a new phenomenon, for it had a major role 1n ancient cultures. The ancient Greeks, between the years

^Robert Lipsyte, Sports World: An American Dreamland (New York: New York Times Book Company, 1975), p. 279.

Z,*The Ugly Sports Fan," Newsweek, (June 17, 1974), p. 93. LIST OF FIGURES

Figure Page

1 Total Number of People Who Watched Each Olympic Games...... 32

2 The Total Number of American V isitors a t Each Olympic Games, and the Total Number of Tickets Which Were Sold to Americans for Each OlympicGames ...... 33

3 The.Total Number of Foreign Visitors in Each Olympic Games...... 34

x 4 Table Page

16 Percentage Distribution of the Importance of Seeing the Olympic Games in Montreal ...... 52

17 Percentage Distribution on the Question of Amateurs and Professionals ...... 54

18 Percentage Distribution on the Question of Government Support of the Athletics for the Olympic Games...... 54

19 Percentage D istribution of the Reasons Behind Going to See the Games ...... 55

1x LIST OF TABLES

Table . Page 1 Rise 1n Spectators of Sports Events, 1950-1972 ...... 21

2 Percentage Distribution of Current Marital Status.. 40

3 Percentage Distribution of Educational Background.. 40

4 Percentage Distribution of Occupation ...... 40

5 Percentage D istribution of Income ...... 42

6 Percentage Distribution of Political View ...... 43

7 Percentage D istribution of High School •Athletic Activities ...... 45 <4 8 Percentage Distribution of College Athletic A c tiv itie s ...... 45

9 Percentage Distribution of Time 1n Sports A ctiv ities ...... 49

10 Percentage*Distribution of Reading the Sports Page In the Newspaper...... 47

11 Percentage D istribution of Watching Sports Events ...... 48

12 Percentage Distribution of Time Estimate Watching Sports Events 1n a Week ...... 48

13 Percentage Distribution on How the Spectators Rate Themselves ...... 50

14 Percentage Distribution of Being at Past Olympics...... 50

15 Percentage D istribution of Watching the Events 1n the Olympics ...... 51

vl 11 Chapter Page

IV ANALYSIS OF DATA...... 39

Profile of Subjects Based on Demographic Variables...... 39 Profile of Subjects Based on Past and Present Involvement 1nSports Activities 41 Profile of Subjects Based on Past and Present Experience with the Olympic Games...... 49 Profile of Subjects Based on their Feeling Toward the Olympic Movement ...... 53 Discussion of Results ...... ‘...... 56

V SUMMARY, CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS...... 61

Summary...... 61 Conclusions ...... 61 Recommendations for FutureStudy ...... 67

APPENDIX

A...... 69

B...... 80

C...... 89

D...... 98

E...... 101

BIBLIOGRAPHY...... 106

v11 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Page

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS...... 1v

VITA...... v

LIST OF TABLES...... v111

LIST OF FIGURES...... x

Chapter

I INTRODUCTION...... 1

The Problem...... 1 Need for the Study ...... 6 Statement of the Problem ...... 7 Del 1m1 nations ...... 8 Definition of Terms ...... 8

II REVIEW OF THE LITERATURE...... 10

The Development of Spectator Sports In the United States ...... 10

Development of Spectator Sports from the Beginning of the Centuryto World War I.... 10 Development of Spectator Sports from the End of World War I to the Beginning of World War I I ...... 14 Development of Spectator Sports Since the End of World War II tothe PresentTime.... 10

Spectators Attendance at'theOlympic Games 27 Sunmary ...... 30

III PROCEDURE...... 36

Selection of Subjects and Collection ofData.... 36 The Questionnaire ...... 37 Treatment of Data ...... 38

v1 VITA

March 28, 1948...... Born - Haifa, Israel

1972 ...... Coaching C ertificate in Basketball, Wingate In stitu te ' Coaches School, Israel

1970-1973...... Teaching Certificate 1n Physical Education, Physical Education Teachers College, Wingate Institute, Israel

1973-197 4 ...... B.S., University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio

1974-1975 ...... M.S., University of Dayton, Dayton, Ohio.

✓ FIELDS OF STUDY

Major Field: Physical Education

Studies 1n Sport Sociology.

Studies 1n International Sports.

Studies 1n Comparative Physical Education and Sport.

Studies 1n Leisure and Recreation Activities.

v ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to express his sincere appreciation to his adviser, Dr. Donald Harper, and to the other members of his committee,

Dr. Barbara Nelson and Professor Alfred Clark, for their guidance and assistance 1n the preparation of this manuscript. Special gratitude goes to n\y colleagues. Dr. Adrian Avenl and Dr. Robert

J1obu.

My gratefulness to my family and special friends for their concern, encouragement and help, and special thanks to all the staff of Montgomery Ward Auto Club, without whose cooperation th is study would have been Impossible to complete.

1v To n\y wife, Bonnie, for her devotion, patience, Interest and sacrifice throughout the years of study.

111 A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE FACTORS WHICH INFLUENCED

AMERICAN SPECTATORS TO GO TO SEE THE SUMMER

OLYMPIC GAMES IN MONTREAL, 1976

DISSERTATION

•

Presented in Partial Fulfillment of the Requirements for

the Degree Doctor of Philosophy 1n the Graduate

School of The Ohio State'U niversity

By

Asher Mashlach, B.S., M.S.

* * * * ^

The Ohio State University

1977

Approved By

Reading Committee:

Dr. Donald D. Harper, Chairman Dr. Barbara Nelson Department of Physical Dr. Alfred Clark Education 77 - 31,931

MASHIACH, Asher, 1948- A STUDY TO DETERMINE THE FACTORS .WHICH INFLUENCED AMERICAN SPECTATORS TO 60 TO SEE THE SUMMER OLYMPIC GAMES IN MONTREAL, 1976.

The Ohio State University, Ph.D., 1977 Education, physical

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