Ancient Civihzations of the Americas
a Problems in Reconstructing the History of Native American Civilization a Mesoamerica
a The Formative Period and the Emergence of Mesoamerican Civilization a The Classic Period in Mesoamerica a The Post-Classic Period a Andean South America
a The Preceramic and the lnitial Periods
a Chavin de Huantar and the Early Horizon a The Early lntermediate Period
a The Middle Horizon Through the Late lntermediate Period
a The lnca Empire
uIL\NS [;tnst' St'r n.F,])'iltFt r\\tt.l,ltc,t\ glaciers rcccclecl thc ocerans rosc, 1'lor;c'ling thc llering Cloxttxrx't's Lrehl,een 12,000 arrcl Straits ancl severing Asia lrorn Anerica. I)espiter ,i0.000 \'crrlrs :rgo. At that time glaciers some continuercl ct;ntact in the Arctic ancl perhaps locked up nruclr oft the u'orld's rvAter, sporailic contacts eiseu,here, ther inhabitants o[]the lou,cring tlrc sca levc,l and opening a i\rnc:ricas \\,erc no\\, isolatccl frorn tl-re inhabitants of briclge of'clri' lancl betrvecrr Sibcria ancl Altrica and Eurasitl ancl rvoi:lcl remairr so until over- ,\lasl ffi HI Y i L a -l ,.',? ')t L-q \: ,,n +" *, * i'*a h*" ,llu*- "- Civilization in the Americas before 1492 agriculture, engineering, and public works of these states- developed independently of civilization in as exemplified by the famous Aztec drainage systems, the the Old World. As the pharaohs of Egypt floating gardens or chiampas of Lake Texcoco, and the lnca were erecting their pyramid tombs, the system of roads-exquisitely demonstrate an ability to mas- people of the desert coast of Peru were ter the most challenging environments. erecting temple platforms. While King The encounter between Old World and New, however, The Americas Solomon ruled in Jerusalem, the Olmec proved devastating for American civilization. The technology were creating their monumental stone that allowed Europeans to embark on the voyages of discov- heads. As Rome reached its apogee and then decilned, so ery and fight destructive wars among themselves caught the did the great city of Teotrhuacdn in the Valley of Mexico. As great native empires unprepared. More important, however, lslam spread from its heartland, the rulers of Tikal brought was what historian Alfred Crosby has called the "Columbian their city to its greatest splendor before its abrupt collapse. Exchangel'The peoples of the New World exchanged trade Maya mathematics and astronomy rivaled those of any other goods, ideas, technology, and microbes among themselves, peoples of the ancient world. And as the aggressive nation- along north-south trade routes that linked the American states of Europe were emerging from their feudal past, the Southeast and Southwest to Mesoamerica, and the peoples Aztecs and lncas were consolidating their great empires. The of the northern Andes to those of the central and southern shilictl |ronr hunting enrl gathe rirr.g ti; a setticrl. irgri- culturc. l:lu1 in lrotlr. Natir.r' i\nrcrican trrrclitions cultural n,ar, ol' li{c. ,'\nd iir sorlcr plrci:s cir,iliziitron havc crnclun'cl, ovcrlaicl ancl cornbincc{ in corrlrler crlcrgecl irs socictv greu. incrcirsinglv strut.i['iccl. r,ii- nlvs u'itir I Iisp.ruic culturc, 1o provicle clues tu the lagc,s coalerscerd into urlrln lcntcts, utonr-rincnt:tl prr:-[{is1;rnic past. architerr:1urc itl)pealc:rl, rrrcl r:rirl't spccialists tlevcl- oped sophisticatcd rrtjstic traditions. 'l'hc tri'o rlosl plorliitcnt ccntcrs oI cii ilization, '. Problems in Reconstructing the History ancl [he lircLrs ol' this chapler-\\'crL) hlcsoanr:rica" of Native American Civilization in t.r'hat is loclav \'lcrico anc{ (,cntral i\rncricl. ;rncl the ,'\ndean rcsion oI Stir-rth r\rlcricu. llotlr rergions Several difficulties confront scholars trying to understand the h,ivc a long, riclr liiston of cir,ilization thrt rlirchcs ancient civilizations of the Americas. One is simply the nature of the evidence. Andean civilizations never devel- bacl. thous:rnds o{: \,cri.irs. At the tirnc ol' thc l'.Lrro- oped ivriting, and in Nlesoamerica much of the written llcan cou(irrest of tl-rc,\nrcricas itr lhe sirtcenl[r ccn- record was destroyed by time and conquest, and what lLlr\', both regiorrs \\,cre) rlurninatecl b1' pon.i:rl'uI remained u,as until recently undeciphered. The primary erpensionist curpires-t.hr' \ in ,\ztccs, or lcrica. source of information has thus been archaeology, the study ilesoamcricir" ancl tlie Incir in thc Anr]ers. ln both of the physical remains left by past cultures. Archaeologists rr:gions Spanislr con(lncr{)rs oblitcratccl tlrc rratir.'e har.'e been successful at teasing out many detalls of the ctrl-rircs anc] ncurlv succccclcd in oblitcrltirrg nrrtiit' American past. Turning from the study of monumental 404 -,- I 90t roJ setueu rJLIlo e^eLI 'esrnoo .Jo '{oq,!\ saldoad uEJrJeruV aqt 1o seldoed aqt.1o uorleredas 1ecrs.,{qd 3uo1 eq1 :rer.- 's.roranbuol a^rlr?N 11e ot burpualxa '1cn1s reruousrur su1l,'suerpul,, sosrer €urruallp sli{I aql Jo suorlelcadv . ueeqqllpD ur aldoad 'sarpul sparu r(aqt rlrnrL, allt laru '(eqt erll palleJ lseE eqt pue lsanbuoc aql .{q parolor ere eqt pallrper peq ,taqt 8ui'rerlaq '191 rardeq3 aas) sraroldxa ot alqrssodul lsotule sr tr 'uorleu;oJul saJlnoi : ^\ou1 Jo :'- ipea raqto pue snqunloD erlreurv se,\\ lr aro.Jeq eJueuy -nlp^ur are slunorre asaqt q8noqlly lsanbuoJ eLIt .Jo 3o acuauedxe aLIt aqlrJSap ol pasn uaaq e^pq sanle^ aql ur slprrr1.Jo pue serreuorssrru qsrueds ot palpler e]e'. -- pue 'sarro8aler 'spJo,\\ ueadornE 'ure8e pue ure8y 'suorlezrp'rrl ueJuetuv eArlef{ leer8 1se1 aLIl 'eJul puE s-:l aceldar uor8riar e^PL[ osle e.\'- iitruerlsrrq3 {tpr 11 pue uerrraurv eql Jo erntlnc pue 'fuotsrq aql Jo stunorre e,\rleN atprrpera o1 lqBnos oq.u 'spreruedg aqt 'aldurexe 'sulnl lualls aloJolalaq ol \-.: - ,ro3-de8 srqt pateqrar€xo oAeLl alueSole pue srapurlq Iernl pue 'salep 'saureu cl3rceds L[J€l]e pue 8ut1tr,n rraqr rar. - 'edorng 'Sur8ueqc uor-:- -1n3 ltl.rn op o1 Surqtou peq tpqi saouauadxa 1ern1 ot alqe uaeq {lluacar e^eq sreloqJs sI -lnJ pue saldoad az,{1eue pue eqrrrsep o1 lq8noqt ueadorng srql-e{e1N aqt-ra^a,'!\oq'eldoed uerlreruposel,'\ tu.' 'uorlez1ll^lr . 3o sarroFalec pue aBen8uel aLIl uo {1ar o1 perl e^er{ ,{rolsiq auo lseai lp roC uelsernE roJ elqlssod apeu- slr lJnJlsuoJal Pue uorlezrlr^iJ ueJrJeiuv a,\Il€N lsanbuoc sproJar uellrr,!\ 3o sreeA Jo spuesnoql leql ,ftotsIq a.\l:'-, -e.rd puetsrapun ot Surlaas sreloqJs retel pue peralunorua Jo puq aql ecnpord touueJ auole .{8o1oa€qJr€ lng -qL , ;(eqt s:apuo,\\ aqt .lo esuas eleur ol Sunlaas sroranbuol -rArJ uEJrJe[rV ]uarJue 1o uorlezrue8Jo ]erJos pue JIur , qsruedg Jqt qtog 'poteuruopard seq alntlnJ ueedorn3 'ra,ra aql lo erntcrd qcrr {lSursearJul ue eleerr ol alqE '[[a,\,\ -,$orl 'lsenbuoJ aql ef,urq se uorleredas 1ern11nc lear8 e'req .,taql 'sa.trl iep,fta^e rraql ur aldoad i.reutpro e peteerr edorng pue ersv 3o seldoad eqt ruoq splraurv sureurar aqt 3o ipnls aql ol srelual ueqrn lecr8 ut s,.. zsuorlezrlr^rc uecuourv -rnrc raqlo Aue,to lelll o)rl 'suorlezrlr^rc plroMMeN +o '-:-; - 'lectLlcrerottl :-.' +o uotleullo+ eq1 ur Aeld ]uoLruoll^ua aq] p!p elol ]eqM oql leq] roquioL.uoJ ol lueuodutt st ]l pue 'c:: -uec 'pezrueoro oraM sorlercos oselll osnesoq Alasrca.: .: -, socrnos roleur rno ele ]eqM zuorleLurolur ]to oq] pue scolzv oq] 'plroM MoN eqt ur sorlercos aqr -- :;l ZSeoueulv or1l +o soldoad aLl] +o Arolsrq oql +o slrelop -ue6ro ]sour eql 0urlddo1 ur A;prder lsoul papeocons s,=:= .,1 eLll re^ocsrp ot llncr#rp os ]r sr Aq11 lsueadornf ,to le^ure ueedorn3 oqI sprocer uouu^^ +o ocuesqe oql +o asn?:=: i:r" oql ero+eq seuolsrq qcu pue 6uo1 peq puoM MeN oLl} +o o] ]sol sr Arolsrq ]ell] +o qcnur +r uena ,,'Irolsrq lnoqlrM : -:ad suolleztlt^r3 aqt ]eq} putLlJ ul ieoq o1 lueuoduJt ]l sl AqM e,, 'sploM s,ueuolsrq ouo ur '1ou Alelrurlep oroM Ae-- = r -ouJLUr .ro crlels eJeM solnllnc lroLll tou Aeql lor.llroN := {6 -uloq] Suollezlll^lC eql jO Oinleu eLll SeM 'lOnOMoL :-:rL -ezrpnrc peoue^pe osoLll ronbuoc o1 sueodolnl ,to s,3:*** eprs srL.l Aq stoutem o^tleu 000'0t ]seol llBuJs ,to lrlrqe oq] 6urpuelsrepun ur luepoduir A;1en:_ le qlrM os plp oq 'ugllllqcouoI'A1rc lelrdec Jreql ro+ elgeq a^rs 'plroMMeN eqi -. -:?ldi -rcop oql ur scalzv aLl] pocel sguo3 ueqM'LUoq] ro+ 6urlq6r+ -oed eqt 1o lsenbuoc eql ul elor Ae>1 peAeld 'o6po le3 i: :;urr oql +o qcnuJ op ol OurllrM se;doed o^rleu al.ll 6uoue serl1e -Asd e sueedornf all] 6urpro;te pue eldoad ,to sioqlL-- puno+ 'niad ur 'luolxe lossel e ol 'pue ocrxen ur qsruedS 6ut1;r1 'seseesrp osor.l] lolunocuo oq] ro4e Arnluec :s- - i'tipit eq] snql'Au-rouolne roql Uesse o1 Alrunuoddo ue sueedotn3 6uung Alrunr-uur ssossod tou plp pltoMMeN eqt +o s: :: aq1 +o le^ure oLl] ur Mes pue uorle0nlqns rreql peluesol eql qlqM lsureoe soseesrp crueprde Meu pecnpo--- LuoqM ,to Aueur 'se;doed luoloJ+rp Je^o polnJ lelncryed -uedg aqt 'luecrlruOrs lson 'ocueleq lecr6oloce eql p!? :: ut 'se3ul pue scelzv oq] ]eLll llecol ol iuel:odu.lr osle st 1l ,to sureped oq] Llloq peqrnlsrp Alpunolo:d qsruedg au- -: 'sueedolnf +o le^rlle oql -uroc eql'puoAeq pue uorOer so)el leorC oql qlrM e: -. oroleq sluaurdo;enep leurolur ol pe)url Attr.l6tt sean 'uorlezrl lluoN urolsee 6ur1ur1 selnor lsoM-lsee se lloM se 's-- .t' L t ( {;I +'\ \ I t- .f ',' tir 406 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.t. to 1500 c.e Aztec Calendar Stone. When the Aztec "calendar" tools from obsidian, a volcanic glass capa- was unearthed in Mexico in 1790 it conrfirmed the great- ble of holding a razor-sharp edge, anc ness and complexity of the Americas' pre-Columbian for that reason a valued trade civi lizations. commodity. N{esoamerican history befbre the Spanish conquest is conven- tionally divided into four major themselves. The name America itself periods: The term Classic, with is European, taken from Amerigo its associations to ancient Vespucci (1451-l 512), a Florentine Greece and its connotations oi u,ho explored the coast of Brazil in "best" or "highest," derives from l50l and 1502. European historical frameu'orks. It reflects the view of manr early N4esoamericanists that the Mesoamerica Classic period, which corresponds more or less to the time during which the Nlesocunerica (the name means "middle America") extends Maya civilizations of the southern Yucatiin erected from central Mexico into Central America (see Map 14-1). dated stone monuments, was the high point of This is a region of great physical diversity, ranging from low- Mesoamerican civilization. That view is no longer so land tropical rain forests to temperate highlands with fertile prevalent, but the terminology has endured. The basins and valleys. Lorvland regions include the Yucatdn chronology continues to provide a useful framework for Peninsula and the Guif and Pacific coasts. Highland regions understanding Mesoamerican history. include Mexico's central plateau, with the Valiey of Mexico The transition from hunting and gathering to settled and the Oaxaca region, and the mountainous areas of village life occurred gradually in Mesoamerica during the Guatemala. Most of N{esoamerica's mineral resources are Archaic period. The cornerstone of the process was the found in the highlands. The lowlands were the source of domestication of maize (corn) and other staple crops, many important trading goods, including hardrvoods, plant including beans and squash. Other plants native to the dves, and the prized feathers of exotic birds. Americas that were domesticated in this period include Mesoamerica aiso designates a distinctive and enduring tomatoes, chili peppers, and avocado. N{aize and beans cultural tradition that emerged in this region betrveen 1000 were particularly important because together they provide and 2000 B.c.E., manifested itself in a succession of impres- a rich source of protein compared to the grains that rn"ere sive and porverful states until the coming of European con- the basis of the Neolithic revolution in the ancient Near querors in the sixteenth century and continues to express East and China. In those regions domesticated animals itself in the lives of the region's Native American peoples. supplied the protein settled agriculturalists needed in their This is not to say that N{esoamerica was or is culturally diet. N{esoamerica, however, was poor in sources of animal homogeneous. The peoples of N{esoamerica rvere and are protein. It had only a lew small domesticated animais- ethnically and linguistically diverse. There was no single among them dogs and turkeys-and no large herd animals N'lesoamerican civilization, nor n'as there a single linear like the cattle, sheep, and goats of the Old World development of civilization in the region. Nonetheless, (see Figure 14-1). N,Iesoamerican civilizations shared many traits, including The domestication of maize, beans, and other plants u'riting, a sophisticated calendrical system, many gods and secured the people of Mesoamerica an adequate and religious ideas, a ritual ball game, and urban centers rvith dependable diet. Over time they devised myriad ways to religious and administrative buildings symmetrically prepare and store these staples. N{aize has also been one of arranged around large plazas. Nllesoamerica's major contributions to the u'orld. Since the Throughout its history the peoples of the region rvere conquest, maize cultivation has spread to many other parts linked by long-distance trade. Unlike the Andean region, of the rvorld. Corn is now one ol North America's most rvhere sophisticated metallurgy developed early, metallurgy important crops, and it is used to leed livestock in both came late to N{esoamerica. When it did come, it was used North and South America. primarily for ceremonial objects rather than for rveapons and Probably because they had no large draft animals-no tools. Instead, N4esoamericans made weapons and other horses or oxen-the people of the Americas, including It etAa1aq6 pq3U epu fi I W tl pue uaqaa arn0rl ueunq palapua.r A1;ecr1sll -elnleu e LllrM eiuaA el l0 alts 3aull0 Oql u.tOlJ ]uaLUnuour peruec eOte1 V'luounuop caul0 tnoqe Irtun peqsrrnog ratuer aq1 'eue8 ]leq ueJrJatu€osalN ,{rolsrq ueJrJaLLr: - : eqt p roJ trnoJ tserlJea aqt .{lqeqord se^\ teq,\\ pue 'spuod 1errr; lnoqBnorqt eJuearasqo Ienlrr pue uor8rlar ur elor :: -ltre 01 palull ua1s.,{s a8eure;p e 's8urplnq crlqnd papnlrur ]i pue 'uorssardxa crlsrlre toJ tunrparu e osle sr .{ra11o6 : , tl g'3's 00ZI lnoqe ,{q reluer tuauruord e otur pado1a.l,ap leqr pelliJ slessa^ ,{eyc pue 'op sraureJ ]nq 'a8erots jr , ' peq pue 's'D's 00S I tnoqe pardncco tsrrJ sem ozuaro-I elnll e^eq srareqt€3-ratunq rrpeuro5l 'pareadde .{3o1.- - - ues parpnls ,{1a,r.rsualur se ueaq lou e^eq sJeluer rar.ulo Jtueref, pue 'slassa^,{e1r parr3 e{eu ot ue8aq aldoad :., 'Etue1 'uor8ar - - ralito e-I pue ozuero-l ues Jo salrs lecrSoloaellJre aq1 -deq srql uaqM plro A plo eqr ur sy eLIi Jo - LLrorJ 's'D's sauroJ sJeullo aLIl lnoqe u^\oul sr leq^\ Jo tsol\J ul plor{ ue{et peq aJIi lerntlnrr"r8e palnas 000a .- 'BJrJalueoSaN 'ecrrarueosalN lno .{g Jo suor8ar puelmol pue puelq8rq u- -q8norqt erurl aures aql lnoqe Sur8ratua aJeA\ sarlerJos xeld readde o1 ue8aq sa8el1$ 'E'D's 00SZ pue 000S uaa.\u:: ,{Felrrurs 'sJaIPIos . -uor leqi Surlelnuncce sr eruepr^a lnq ,,'arntlnc looJ Jo SeIuIJe uaa,{\lJq sAe rr'- Jeqlotu,, s,eJrJaureosary se Jo lq8noql eJuo ala,&\ Jaulo aq1 (eJuatuv qtnos ueepuy ur pue) errreru€osaN ur e-:- lqrrr Ilos ler.tnlle Jo seare ,,(q pareproq sueerls Suuapueau 'slorreqo pue sesrorl ou arem ereqt esnpcaq puy 3u '.\\ols .lseor r{lrm uor8ar pa1e1a8a,,r .,{lasuap e sr srql JInD eqt IIe plp sueunq errrarueosa6 u1 's,(o1 paleaq.\\ r : s,orrxalN Jo spuel.&\ol eql uo paratuer '.rar.ulo aqt Jo teql sr .{aql q8noqtle '.laaq.t\ aqt pedole^ep Ja^au 'BJueLu. ,, sarntlnr porred a^rleurroC ,{peE aqt Jo lueururord rsou aq1 T;::l' :.; t, 14"t,-u _:= pup'surlall'sun0 puolt: " u1il1N /1A /il la0ts -- paldepy '(t+t de6 aes) suoltlperl uoLS sopuv aq] ut puno+ ole qctqm'(seJedle) seuJell :Se3t.tat*; : palecrlsauop sean sarcads euo Alug ueqlul pue 'oluec lleg '1eA'o1eg": JIlsIlre peleorlsrqdos acua8raula aql pue 'suorEar Suoue "._: 3o Jsopurai 's^aluop 'slauJes ueulJeg 'slaulec uerqe.lv'sasloq's0td 'sMc_ ,_: eperl aJuelslp-3uo1 'sasselc JauoururoJ pue alrla olur .{larcos 'daaqs :fu rnbr1ue ur etselnl ut paleotlsaulop atann sarceds uaa!tql spt' : :, uorsr^rP 'aJnlJetrqJre Jo aql l€luetunuol'U pue su^\ol r{lr,{\ Ja^o o6era^e aqi u0 0urq0raM leululeul pltM e se pautlap st sa :::: - 'sellarJos paleorlduoc aroru oJur aJsaleoJ o1 Suruur8aq ere,rt saBe1l,t sl€rrraureosery .!.D.s lnoqe ,{g lerntlncrr8e 9651 0 tt sarcadg palec -:.- sPsr.roulv PJtJlv uo!lez!l!^!3 erlerlsnv 0q1 ueleqgs-qns etselnl uecuotueosalN ocuaotoruf lo luautlu0S or,ll pue poued a^lleuroJ aql *pereduoS selcedg polecllsauoq lo toqunN '1'tr1 arnb= L0n secuoLuV aql l0 su0rlpzrlr^lJ ]usrcuv 71 reldeqS ,r,,lli5X$i' 408 Part3 Consolidation and lnteracti0n of World Civilizations. 500 c.r to 1500 c r Pav6n a MEXICO Teotihuacdn C-ATAN Y U e El op6no Dzibilchalt&n * echupicuaro Mayap6na **..ian,"n.o't,,, ETula s EI Trapiche E oElvl'rtturr c1 a , TiatilB*o-"'"''r"e\ Veion Capacha irQ- 3i:i:*:l&;"R* 2:";llf,ili**""' tol Becan .'^ffi,r;::::i".';il"'"*" un Iocmllo ^ .. 'h;i;I;;"'ct)'\( olag'na delos-Cerros {ttr)[r "o::,unuao.^-r' Mezcaraa u"nl'-"; " :l::,-.:: sonsan Lo..r"of,otLorenzof '\ o",..o,gPalenque ogal6*ir---oBala --- - i l--l n."u of olmec influente Juxtlahuaca Cut"\f,u*totit15n^--\!oxtoritun t: Sanlerrlnemoa- - \ +Bonampak - +Zania \ '\ f---'l area of Maya inlluence *San Jos6 Mosote |t_\- Ll c.a. rooo i.r. Monte Albrinl oD{r,n *chiapa de Corzo r*1t"'iJJs"..iri.to. l-'l additional area ot Mava influence o r\."dffi"&l; Ll c.a. 8OO c.F. a X,q-4c4 ^ 'r BocadeRio-+p"*,",.pj,"1T3_(^,,-*-*0" MonteArban P'o,1,",,11:11"X{ ,"oJli:"X:r".'iii"ii", ["",,.n,r",f_f Piiiiiapan / cu/ffn\P^__:..._., ,..,. site setrted by. or influenced by, the olmecs - 3OO KII,ONIETERS Map 14-1. Mesoamerica: The Formative and Classic Periods. 'Ihought 900 e.c.s. but then urent into decline and had been aban- to be portraits of Olmec rulers, these lr,ere carved doned by about 400 B.c.E. As San Lorenzo declined, La lrom basalt from quarries as much as sixtv-five miles distant Venta rose to prominence, flourishing from about 900 to and transported, probably by raft, to the centers. The Olmec 400 e.c.E. La Venta's most conspicuous feature ls a 1i0- also caned other large basalt monuments, including altars foot, scalloped pyramid, knor,r'n as the Great Pvramid, and seated figures. rvhich stands at one end of a group of platforms and plazas The population of San Lorenzo and La Venta rvas never aligned along a north-south axis. Archaeologists have great, probably less than I,000 people. The monumental recovered mant, caches of carved jade, serpentine, and architecture and sculpture at these sites nonetheless sug- granite artifacts that had been buried along the center line gests that Olmec society rn'as dominated by an elite class of this axis. Like San Lorenzo. La Venta also had an elabo- of ruler-priests able to command the labor of the rest of rate drainage sVStem. the population. The elite probably lived in the cenrers, Probablv the best knorvn Olmec ',vorks of art are the supported by farmers r,r,ho lived in villages of pole-and- massive stone heads, some neighing more than tu'entv tons, thatch houses. that have been found at both San Lorenzo and La Venta. Among the most pen asive images in Olmec art is that of the rvere-jaguar, a half-human, half-feline creature. 'l'he .,r.'ere-jaguar may have been a divine ancestor figure, per- haps providing the elite rvith the justilication for their authority. Similarities between the were-jaguar iconography and that of later 1\"Iesoamerican deities suggests some of the Major Periods in Ancient Mesoamerican Civilization underlving continuities linking N4esoamerican societies orrer time. 8000-2000 s.c.r. Archaic The raw material for man1, Olmec artifacts, such as jade and obsidian, comes from other regions of 2000 a.c.e.-l50 c.e. Formative (or Pre-Classic) N'lesoamerica. Likervise, Olmec goods and Olmec iconog- 150-900 c.e. Classic raphv like the were-jaguar are found in other regions, all suggesting that from an early the l\'{esoamer- 900-t521 c.r. Post-Classic time parts of ica'nl'ere linked in a lveb of trade. These contacts lr,oulcl '*',;---- Tx;' n 's3let sass\/ duq u\poowitapry 8 le, 1i peac 0Lll,0 anua^v 'arelq0noroq] aql lerluoJ ]ear0 A s,ue3enqr]00f +0 pu0 uroqln0s aq} reau spuels arnlcnlls leluaul -nu0ur srll 'uns oql lo prueild '8urtu,n crqd,{13orarq perue^pe lsoru s,BlreuleosalN pue srr -tetueLllplu 1o rua1s.,(s paleorlsrqdos e padola.rap '.ugterntr ure -sprD rsarpcr' aqr.1o ra,'*ocl Bui,norB "tllllTil?"l' -qtnos eqt.Jo slsarol urer a1 60t seJuourv oq] j0 suorlezrlr^13 ]uarcuv tr1 reldeq3 410 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.r. to 1500 c.E. Indeed, Classic urban life in Mesoamerica was richer and terizing N{esoamerica at the time of the Spanish conquest on a larger scale than in Europe north of the Alps at the It is now clear, hor,r'ever, that warfare was common durins same time. the Classic period and that Classic rulers did not hesitate tc Archaeologists and art historians have recently made use force to expand their influence and maintain thei: enormous strides in understanding Classic civilization. authority. The ritual sacrifice of captive enemies rvas also ; Progress in deciphering Ntlaya hieroglyphics has opened a feature of Classic societies. rvindorv on the politics and statecraft of the Maya elite. Archaeological studies have broadened our understanding ';. il:-: i i i i : i ;-r : . 'l r j of TeotihuacSn and Maya cities, revealing their extent and structure and providing clues to the lives of the people who In the Late Formative period two centers competed for lived in them. dominance over the rapidly grorving population of the Classic cities, with their many temples, plazas, and Valley of Mexico. One of these, Cuicuilco, u,as located ar administrative buildings, were religious and administrative the southern end of the valley. The other, Teotihuacdn, r,r'as centers whose rulers combined secular and religious author- located about thirty miles northeast of Nlexico Cit-v When ity. It was once thought that Classic society was composed a volcano destroyed Cuicuilco in the first century C.r.. of peaceful theocracies, without the chronic warfare charac- Teotihuac6n was left unopposed and grew explosively into a great city, perhaps Mesoamerica's first true clty-state, dominating central N{exico for man, centuries and strongly influencing the rest ol Nlesoamerica. Several natural advantages contributed to Teotihuac6n's rise. The original source of its prestige may have been a netu'ork of caves recentlv discovered under its most prominent monument, the Pyramid of the Sun (the name by which the Aztecs kneu' it). These caves mav have been considered an entrance to the under- rvorld. Recent studies indicate that stone quar- ried from them was used to construct the citr,. creating a direct symbolic link between the city's buildings and its sacred origins. Teoti- huacdn is also located near an important source of obsidian, straddling a trade route to the Gulf coast and southern Mesoamerica. The quarry- ing of obsidian and the manufacture and trade of obsidian goods were apparently major sources of the city's wealth and influence. Finall,v, Teoti- huacdn is surrounded by fertile farmland sus- ceptible to intensive cultivation with terracing and irrigation. At its helght about 500 c.E. this remarkable city extended over almost nine square miles and had a population of more than 150,000, making it one of the largest cities in the world at the time. Its size and organization suggest that it was ruled by a powerful, centralized authority. It was laid out on a rigid grid plan dominated by a ,\ r,\- { Teotihuac6n. Temple faEade showing Ouetzatcoatl, the feath { ered serpent, as well as the god Tlalc, with round eyes. I .rfriill - se slxal snor8ileJ a^rl€u 'pasdelloc lpooisrapun pal\ar,r oq^\'sJsarrd qsruedg) .{lrroqtne str .(pood IIIts ere t- - 'tsanbuoo qsruedg aql pue eturl Jo sa8el€r eql pe^r^rns a^eq suosear ,ro3 ',{.rnluao {lq8ra eql ur arurl aruos pu€ 'au: 'ue.ie11 'raded ruaqt Jo rnoJ '{qooq asaqt Jo InJpueq e .{1ug o1 ueseq eJuanlJur s,ugrenlllroal r ,.":;,:rJ:rj:_ Ireq ro apri_lreep q]lM apBr.u qooq ploJuaarJs ro pallorrs uo uolleurJo3ur snor8rlar Surprooar pue IeJrJolslq 'a]e"ra1r1 pacrlcerd osle {aql teLlt seteJrpur selduat ledrt; - - ereA\ pJr.rerueoselN serlerJos Jo qsruedg-ard aql IN s,,ftrc aqt Jo euo rapun Ierrnq sseur V'spo8 aql ot err1rj-. 'ugtern uraqlnos aql 3o sapunf Jo ruJoJ e se poolq u^\o Jraql ,trarp 'saldoad uecuarueos.' puel^\ol aql ur eJuaJsarolJ elqelr€ruar B pecuarradxa uorlezrl rrleI pup eXe6 eqr rIIl 'a1rla uBJenq!]o{ rr{t teql tsr:: -r,rrr e,,{etrq 'por.rad crssel3 aLIl Suunq porrad a^rteruroC ale-I osle slernN 'ueJln>ln) se e,,{e6 aqt pue lleoclezlanf -' rtll ul "3 .)'tl 00€ Punole ol rleP srlls uPqrn e,{e61 ilanrtrurtslp padrqsro,n sJelzv eqt po8 al{t ot tuaparatue {1qezrul .. tsarpea aq1 dppeals asrr ot ue8eq uortelndod aql reuearaql sr oq^\ luadras parallleeJ e padrrls.ro,n osle ugrenqlto:_- , 'enrrltqnrqJleqD - pue '':'c'g unruuellnu lsrrJ aql Surrnp uor8ar srql ur Jleslr aldoad aLII 'lrosuoc srq pue 'co1e11 - peqsllq€tse a311 a8e111 rope^les IE pue sernpuoH 3o stred pue uIBr s,Jelzv aql ot lull e slsaSSns uorleluesardel a! - 'ezrlag 'elnsurua4 ugt€Jn eql 'eletualen3 urapou sepnlf,ur 'lredrelunoc ssappoB srq pue po8 urols e are u€ r: - , 'sacrlcerd - qrrq,n 'errrallreoseN uJaqlnos ur asoJe uoqezrl.L{lJ e{elN -ltoel Jo sartrap aql Suoruy lentrr pup spoE aLIl Jo slernu pue sarnldlnrs epetu ,{11n311r1s '8ur1rrrs -. peleroJep aram uecen{1ltoal ur s8urplrnq aql 3o {ue11 'sluarureS Ien::- . 'lsanbuoc ';::-- penle^ 'sur1s ren8ei pue prrq lezlanb eqt Jo sreqtee.J qsruedg eqt Jo erurt eql le atrs a8eurrrSlrd pere^er e llrts aql aIII sruatr roJ ,{lapr.,n paBueqcxa ara,rt .{ra11od pr:. sE,!\ lr Pue ,,'spoD aqt Jo .,{1r3,, Suruearu proM Jelzv ue sr -plsqo s,.(]ic aq1 'stuer{Jreur oueJenqlloeJ roJ sarur. . : 'sueadorng 'uerenqlloal 'tr ,nou1 e^\ LIJrrl^\.,tq aureu aq1 uaaq a^eq ,{eu 'aldurexe roJ '{€leuelenC urapou Jo :: -- lalel Jo suorleur8eul aql uo aluoH pue eJeerD JuerJue -q8rq eql ur n.,(n[leurue) Jo a]rs aqt le a1.{ls lerniJa-.-' sulnJ ar.{l alll qcntu 'ra.r,a,noq 'suecrraureoseN suorle 'lsenbuof, Jo Jo aArlJurlsrp s,ugrenr{rloaI ur sBurplrng -. " -;aua8 Surpaaccns 3o uorteur8etur eql uo ploq slr peurelar ralller sarl Surperl asolr petJelJer a^eq .{eu suor8a: t--:,- ll 'snlels JeurroJ slt peure8a.r JaAau lr ',(1rr aql ur uo arou 'raqlo ur aJuenlJur s,,trc aq1 'arrdua ueJ€nqu :_ pe^rl uortelndod lerluelsqns e q8noqllv 'tlo^ar Ieutatur lJeJrp pue lsenbuoc SurlsaSSns 'ueJenr*' , , ue 8urlur{1 atrla saJuaprsar -lorluoJ 1e pue aql Jo aqi pue reluer ot '(pe1ru1s lno plel sraluar ra8rel olur paleprlosuor --: Ientlr aql 3ur,{orlsap ,{1rc aql q8norqt tda.tts err3 y slueualiles pasradsrp 'spuelq8rq lertueJ eqt ul pr -:- -oseN lnoq8norql papuatxe eJuanlJur t,u"r"n,lltol,. ." s,,,{1rc aql ra,mod aLIl uorteJrpur reqloue 'u93pn'.' : ,, fun1uac q1qOra aU ur llrme) ueqJ 3o Jo ol elour pue sa8e11r.,r, rreql uopueqe ot paJroJ . nnesel Dur;1 l0] qixo] e se ]ltnq seM Ual aq uo a1due1 paseoltels aq1 'leI11 uaea -redde peq sraureJ 1eco1 '.trar8 ,{]rr aql sy ',{reqduai . aqt pardncco sreureJ rood 3o s8urlla.up elqunq aq-L .. eqt se se aldoad uounuoJ aLIl .- IIa^\ Jo esoqt 3urpn1cu " ' -pllnQ .(uetu Jo srouatur eqt paurope s]ernru pue s8u - - 'uor8a.r eJexeo eql pue ueqlv atuo6 uoq aldoad or : - se,tr 'alduexe ro3 'pooqroqq8rau auo 'sraperl u8ra: - 'sarllerJads pe^rasal era/r .(Jrr eql 3o sued al'uos raq: : - 'ryo,n uerprsqo ,{ra11od ot peto^ep spooqroqq8rau qlr\.. :-" -JeJnueru - UerJ Jo sralueJ osle aJeM spunoduoo esaL - -uer eql urorJ reqlreJ spunoduoo luaulrede pallei\\ u - : sluaprsar s,,{1rc aql Jo lsotr\l 'reluer aql lsarpau arl : 're]u: s,,{1rc aqt Jo sauoq aqt 'asaqt Jo rlsr.l,€l tsolu aL[I l eqt punorrns sarnlrnrts Iertuaprsar 000'Z ueql aroi\ eqt Jo prurer,{6 q8rq-loo.;-6 I Z aqt sr 'eprs euo ol 'lr .rpr - - {uoo6 aqt Jo pruer,{4 pa11eo-os aqt sr peaq eqt Jo r: - I aqt Jo pua euo 1y dlrr aqt Jo retuer eqt .{dncco i:'.-- - e pue sarnlrnrls alrlertsrunup€ pue snor8rlag'peaq r-. anua^V eql se u^\ou{ are3q8noroql 8uo1-a1rw-aarllt :. JLT secusu.rv aq] +0 suorleztltA!J luarJUV trt reldeq3 412 Part3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 cE t0 1500 c.E This segment of the Maya creation myth is from the PopolVwlt. a compendium of Maya mythology and his- tory transcribed into European script by a Quiche Maya noble in the sixteenth century. I How does this myth describe the world before creation? Who are the beings that exist before creati0n and decide how it is to be carried out? What did they do to create the earth? There was not yet one person, one animal, bird, fish, crab, plate and platform, then comes the sowing, the dawning tree, rock, hollow, canyon, meadow, forest. Only the sky of the sky-earth. But there will be no high days and no alone is there; the face of the earth is not clear. Only the bright praise for our work, our desrgn, until the rise of the sea alone is pooled under all the sky; there is nothing human work, the human designj' they said. whatever gathered together. lt is at rest; not a single thing And then the earth rose because of them; it was sim- stirs. lt is held back; kept at rest under the sky. ply their word that brought it forth. For the forming of the Whatever might be is simply not there; only murmurs, earth, they said, "Earthl' lt arose suddenly, just like a ripples, in the dark, in the night. Only the Maker, Modeler cloud, like a mist, now forming, unfolding.Then the moun- alone, Sovereign Plumed Serpent, the Bearers, Begetters tains were separated from the water, all at once the great are in the water, a glittering light. . . . mountains came forth. By their genius alone, by their cut- So there were three of them, as Heart of Sky, who ting edge alone they carried out the conception of the came to the Sovereign Plumed Serpent, when the dawn mountain-plain, whose face grew instant groves of of life was conceived: cypress and pine. "How should it be sown, how should it dawn? Who is to be the provider, nurturer?" "Let Reprinted with the permission of Simon & Schuster Adult Publishing it be this way, think about it: this water should be Group, from Popol Vuh, by Dennis Tedlock. Copyright O 1996 by removed, emptied out for the formation of the earth's own Dennis Tedlock. .fhe idolatrous, burned almost all of them.) Nlaya ol the Archaeologists have shou,n that N{ava centers \\,ere Classic period, '"',,ho developed N'Iesoamerica's most indeed cities, and that the largest of them, Tilial, probabl.v advanced urriting system, uere unique in the extent to had a population of betu,een 50,000 and 70,000 at its r,r,hich they inscribed rvriting and calendrical symbols in height. They have also found evidence of terracing, irriga- stone, pottery and other imperishable materials. tion systems, and other agricultural technologies that lvould Thanks to rapid advances in the decipherment of N{ava have increased yields enough to support dense populations. ,,1'riting and to intensive archaeological work at N'Iaya cities, Poi,r,erful ruling families and their elite retainers dominated our understanding of the nature of Classic N{aya civilization these cities, supported by a far larger class of farmer- has changed radically in recent decades. According to earlier commoners. The inscriptions are almost entirelv devoted tcr vieivs, N4a,va cities u'ere not realll, cities but empty ceremonial recounting important events in the lives of these rulers. centers inhabited by scholar-priests. The inscriptions u-ere Cities competed for dominance, and u'arfare betrveen them thought to be concerned entirely with astronomical and cal- rvas chronic. As murals and sculptures show, captured pris- endrical observations tied to Nlaya ritual. Scattered farming oners were sacrificed to appease the gods and glorif,v the vic- communities were thought to have surrounded the centers, torious ruler. supporting the priestly elite. Relations between centers \4'ere Religion deeply informed the social and political realm thought to be peaceful. Contributing to this vieu' rvas the of the N'Iaya. They believed that the u,orld had gone through belief that intensive agriculture capable of supporting dense se'"'era1 cvcles of creation before the present one. (See Doc- populations rvas impossible in the tropical forests ol the umcnt, "A Niaya N{yth of Creation.") They recognized no southern Yucattin rvhere Classic Maya civilization developed. clear distinction betu,een a natural and a supernatural _{qff, I :^luerunuour a^rlelouraururoJ aLIJ'serlerJos ueJuaueosalN 'Za! d '\t6bl ss.r.r.1 i. .niupr ,rareqS .i lueTJuP Jeqlo Jo.J u,!\ou{un uorsrJerd e qlr,r\ sluerunuour proJuptc :y3 'pro.luetg) pa qtg tuantLv ar1,1 e,{el\l elep uel os pue 'tepueleJ ueadornE ar{1 L{lr,n repualeJ Buol aqr arelelror or atqe runoD r""q seullleuros : - "^:rX;il[,:.rt",,," I'PaJlJlJJes se^\ tu€el eql Pue 'p]ro^\rapun aL[] Jo sprol eq] pue sur^[ or;-_ s1t ro3 ra,ucld pue a8rlsard salJnos uaaq e^eq - Jo 1ue ];odur uaamlaq uoileluoguoJ eql Jo lueurlJeueeJ crloclru_i. Js^nur Jelseru o1 parrnbar aijpa1,nou1 lr JlJelosa eql pue araql pa,{e1d saue8 aqI sunoJ IIeq peq sertrl r i.' 'seJrol eur^rp r,[Jr,!\ uor]erJossp sJr '{JepualeJ el{l Jo aJuel 'qulqar luanbasqns rlalll pue plro^\tapun eLIl otur t'i:- -rodur eq T. 'rels Surua,ra aql Sururou pue aql Llloq sr ]{ Jtaql lJeueer Surllas pue Sursir reln8ar rreql ur pue : - - leql saldoed raqlo eroJaq pazruSocar pue snua1Jo suorleA rall]o ai{] Pue uns eqt auereq auo perrJuJps =. -resqo aternrre epeur osle ,{aq1 'reai( re]os aLIt .1o qt8ual rerye a.JI] ot peurntar pue aue8 l]eq aqi ur plro,_:r. lentJe aLIt roJ srea,{ deal rno elll suorsrAord peq e^€q eLIt spots aqt pet€eJap surm1 oraH aqt sllr: _' Jo ^\oLI ,{eru pue (siep 99'67) a1o,{c reunl eqt 3o ql8ual Ientre 'qilru srqt ol palurl uaoq seq 1re e.,{etrq rrssclD ul .---'" 'uor1e^resqo - eqt rol repualer leunl rrei{t patsnfpe iaql drnluar qtuaatxrs eLIl ur e]qou eIe111 e .{q ldrrcs LrF:- . ur sllDls e,{e14 Ierrurouorlse tcal3ar repueler rraqi 3o .{ce.r otur peqrrJsuert 1ooq e,{e14 e 't1n1pclo4 arll ur p::- -nrre pup ,{lrxaldruoc eqJ 'serlrep se-snua1 pue ,uooru ql.{Lu uortea"rc e,{etrq e ur petregar sr ,{Boloap . 'uns aLIt Surpnlcur-parl sp,!\ tepueleJ rlJrq,,!\ eLIl ol sar ur aue8 IIeq aLIl pu€ errJrrr€s Jo erueJr3ru8rs . - -Poq aLIl sluaLlralour aLIt pamer^ ,(aq1 .eie1q 'seue8 Ierlselal Jo IIeq pue 'sa,ttde: - eLIl roJ ecueoryru8rs lecrlcerd se lle^\ se snorBrlar teerB peq -IrJps eLIt 'seruoruelac 3ur1qe1poo1q pepnlrui slpnli- :. repueler aq1 ised aqt ur turod paxiJ e ot part ,lunoC nuol 'rapJo JrursoJ Jr.{l pue spo8 aqi urelsns ol slentrJ :.. rrepue[eJ eql se u^\oul a]nlob^qe ue padola,rap e,(e1,,11 aql -rad .{aql pue 'ra.trod lalll pazrloqu.,(s teqt erle8a: - 'sarlerJos ueJrJa[reosal\ rall]o qlr.{\ paJer{s ,{ar1t se1c.,{r ero,tr ,taq1 dluoqlne rraqt AJItsn[ oi spo8 eq] qtr \ {"p-Sgt pue -092 Surloolratur uo rr?pue -osse 'sarlrr peseq punor paturelr srelng lralll .lo sezeld pue srlt:-. -1er rea{-7g eLIl ol uorllppe uJ oraz yo tdacuor eql tue^ur uI sl€ntr.l aleroqela q8norql spo8 pue sueunq uaa., -:. - ol aL[] ur saldoad P]ro,tr lsrrJ eLIl Suoue ara^\ pue sJrleur -ielpaw dluoqlne leorlrlod pue snori3rlar peurcpuot :, -aLlteu peleorlsiqdos e padola,tap e,(etr1 JrsselD lueJenqr]oal aql pue srelnr Jo oslp enrl ,Llqeqo,rd se.u s1 v- {ra}'r: le ffifflir ga L1 )h\:a @'8.9 !- v ,::-'*r \ i$k @,Eg !) 'slolqel 0u0is u0 poqussut i:- "IE:{' ',8 @ E; '#)ridr @ 'J sem JepuoleJ eq1 '#l !'), g'oq C leur0uo !: I OE C suorlcrpard leJtuouollse C a-*ePl @, Q,@ C pue su0rleAJasq0 lecUpu0leJ w,5 '&a1 a' gE a- paIelap &t @,a C sMoqs xapOc t' uopsarC oq] ulotl a0ed e 1o Adoc srql repuele3 ele;61 tlt secuaurv sql +0 suotleztlt^l3 luatouv tr1 reldeq3 414 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.E. to 1500 c.r. Mayan Mural. This reproduction of one of the remarkable murals found at the Maya site of Bonampak shows the presentation of captives to the city's ruler a: Chan Muan. Copyright @ President and Fellows of Harvard College 1998. All rights reserved. Peabody Museum, Harvard University. Phatograph by Hillel Burger. erected by Classic Maya rulers to record their accomplish- systems that lead both to the Gulf and the Caribbean coasts. ments almost always have Long Count dates. As a result, it giving it control of the trade between those regions. is now possible to reconstruct the dynastic histories of many A single dynasty of thirty-nine rulers reigned in Tikal Maya cities in detail, keeping in mind, of course, that Maya from the Early Classic until the eighth century. The earlv rulers-like rulers everywhere throughout history-may rulers in this Jaguar Paw line were buried in a structure have exaggerated their accomplishments to put themselves known as the NorthAcropolis, and the inscriptions associated in a favorable light. with their tombs provide us with details about them, includ- During the Classic period no single center dominated ing in many cases their names, the dates of their rule, and the Maya region. Rather, many independent units, each the dates of major military victories. Monuments associated composed of a capital city and smaller subject towns and vil- with the ruler Great Jaguar Paw, for example, suggests that in lages, alternately vied and cooperated with each other, rising 378 c.E. he conquered the city of Uaxactrin and installed a and falling in relative prominence. Tikal, at its height the relative on its throne. largest Classic Maya city, is also one of the most thoroughly Late in the fourth century links developed between studied. The residential center covers more than fourteen Tikal and Teotihuaciln. One ruler, Curl Nose, who ascended square miles and has more than 3,000 structures. The city to the throne in 379, may have married into the ruling fam- follows the uneven terrain of the rain forest and is not, ily from the Teotihuacdn-dominated city of Kaminaljuyu in unlike Teotihuacdn, laid out on a grid. Monumental cause- the southern highlands. rvays link the major structures of the site. For about 100 years beginning in the mid-sixth century Tikal emerged as an important center in the Late Forma- Tikal and most other lowland Maya sites experienced a hiatus tive, benefiting from its strategic position. The city is located during rvhich there was little new construction. The city lost near a source of flint, valued as a raw material for stone tools. much of its influence and may have suffered a serious defeat It is also located near swamps that, with modification, might at the hands of the city of Caracol. Then in 682 the ruler Ah have been agriculturally productive. And it has access to river Cacau (r.682-723?) ascended the throne and initiated a new sstpaJaqd- 3ul 'sa6aq lllag/ps 0jxas plnl ]uatcue ur postej ptrxpl^d ca]l0I lualcue aq] +o suteutal ,sanlels aq] do]e puels 'salusllv aql se uM0ul snoul.loua as0q1 u0tleztlt^tc 3all01 aql lo leltdec .fuen1egg aql sem'oJrxan '00leptH MOU 'elnl e;n1 .pa8raua dorllp{ parJluoJ punore paretual .{ueu setels -cnpord aseeJJur ol sldruelle pue ,uortr-._, ,pesearcur lernllncrr8e Jrlsrrelrlrur talleurs Iere^as pue areJre1A finluac uorlelndod paseerJur't{luo.r8 uorlelndod,are.1.re.,. - t{tq8ra eqt ur asdelloJ str e1e,,lr aqt ur ugoenqrtoal acelder 'rerealJ Jo -ualur are uaqt Suouy Suruocaq aJe :e.\a,,.. _ o1 .(lalerpaurtur asoJe ra,uod .Buorls ,&\au .arns pazrlerlual oN painqrrluoJ a,teq ,{eu teqt srotJeJ aqJ roJ u ,. _- sl (uorlelncads IIIts pue asualur 3o lcafqns e uaaq :- _ .pauopueqe pouad clsselc-lsod orll asdellor eqt Jo asner aqJ ,{11entrr,r a:: lear8 aql pue 'peseec salep tuno3 3uo1 qtru :--, Pue eJnlJelrqJJe Ieluaunuour Jo uorlJnrlsuoJ aL{: : , 'sJaluaJ Surladuoc .spuel.t\ol ot atueJ 11e sarlseufp Eurlnr aq1 uJo!1f: : : '.lleus otur pap$lp peq e,{etr41 aqt pue ,.{e,ns peq ool .E.D lso1 pasdelloo uortezrlrlrJ JrsseiD 006 pue 00g uaa.,._: _ 1r lsanbuoc qsruedg eqt Jo eurt aql .{g relueJ e,,(e141 ureu 'salrs JrsselS raqlo tE u€-- _r]l .eare aqt e{.uereq uede.,(e1,q ' an important source of obsidian. The Toltecs them- selves u,ere apparently descendants of one of manr "barbarian" northern peoples (like the later Aztecs who began migrating into N4esoamerica during the Late Classic. Aztec mvthology glorified the Toltecs, seelng theni as the fount of civilization and attributing to them a *E vast and powerful empire to which the Aztecs u,ere the legitimate heirs. Other N,lesoamerican peoples at the time of the conquest also attributed legendary status to ffi fl#- the Toltecs. The archaeological evidence for a Toltec empire, hor.r,ever, is ambiguous. Aithough a substantial city with a population of betu'een 35,000 and 60,000 people, Tula was never as large or as organized as Teoti- K- \,ftm .t&,18 huac6n. Toltec influence reached many regions ol l\,lesoamerica-as already noted, there were many st\'- ru* listic affinities between Tula and the N"{ava city ol Chich6n ltz6-but archaeologists are uncertaln u'hether that influence translated into political control. Toltec iconography: rvhich stresses human sacri- fice, death, blood, and military symbolism, supports their n'arlike reputation. Their deities are clearlv antecedent to those worshiped by the Aztecs, includ- ing the feathered serpent Quetzalcoatl and the rvarlike trickster'lezcatlipoca. Whatever the reality of Toltec power, it rvas short- lived. By about ii00 Ti-rla rvas in decline and its influ- ence Elone. ,' TheFoundingofTenochtitl6n.Accordingtolegend,thetribal godHuitzilopochtli led themselves as the Mexica, a name that lives on as the Aztecs/Mexica t0 a spot where an eagle sat atop a prickly pear cactus ltenochtliJ Mexico. At the time ol the arrival of the Spanish in growingoutof arockandtoldthemtobuildtheircapital there.Thissymbol now 1519 the Aztecs controlled a powerful empire that gracestheMexicanflag.ThisimagefirstappearedinlheCodexMendoza,a pictorial dominated much of Mesoamerica. Their capital city, history of the Aztecs, presumably prepared for the first viceroy o{ New Spain, Antonio Mendoza, around 1541 \",],,i'i" T:::.i:"iil'l,lfl,,,'ll",nl southern^;:,"#:::, part of Lake Texcoco in the Valley of N{erico, it u,as home to some 200,000 to 300,000 people. Its great temples and palaces gleamed in the sun. Bearing cities. At the same time interregional trade and market sys- tribute to its rulers and goods to its great markets, canoes tems became increasingly important, and secular and reli- crou,ded the city's canais and people on foot thronged its gious authoritv closely linked during the Classic period, streets and the great causeways linking it to the mainland. began to diverge. The citv's traders brought precious goods from distant regions; vast wealth f'lor,ved in constantly from subject terri- ri:::1::1i,.,;j,...: tories.Yetthepeopleresponsiblefortheseaccclmplishments u,ere relative newcomers, the foundation of their power About 900 c.E. a people knou'n as the Tbltecs rose to promi- being less than tu'o hundred years old. nence. 'fheir capital, Tula, is located near the northern Because of the dramatic ciash with Spanish adventurers peripher"v of N,'lesoamerica. Llke Teotihuacdn, it lay close to that brought their empire to an end, rve have more direct fr { 'sJatzv eql LI]L!\ erpJre.\\ u:alled p otlir :: 9,: Ipnlu Jo a'pu q : r'p, q Lu e u ot4a a r d ta r'.lil"1|T..",",il -p :) ) ) J flI, o :rrirrt# I ss.)lilllruou tnq prnpqnsun prurDrlil'clnJXnll 9t. d '(2861 'uotsurr,\\ pup lreLlaurU ',1n11 ,1ro^ nr"yl -ttuorcl lsoru 's1a1cod Lulear Jalzv aql urlltr , ,ipnoq yntadtuJ lV:orr.yaJ!' sra::\i arlJ. 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',illcelpur (saJuJr.rr ,{eqi lng elnr rraqt Bursodur ':a,nod ur pue lJelur pue sJoleJlsrurllrpe lsanbuorlsod pue - 'aldoad atlle Ierol aLIt Uel illensn sJalzv aql 'tsanbuoJ € raUV a^rl peryoJer sropelsrnbuoJ eql Jo ,(ue1,q uerr-.. -rertxa se,n arrduq ratzv aLIf e4dwl aulperyxj JIEV aq! lsanbuorard raqlo iue ueqt sretzv eqt lnoqe r. . Ltt secuou.rv aql +0 suorlezrlr^lJ ]uarouv tr1 reldeq3 ry :* k U L& :,. 1 .'i l '" \.1 418 re" t puE ralnr eql saleled aq1 ate3 rreql stullrr^ Jo latu IerJrJrrJes alePltullul ol uaaq a,,req .,{luretral lsnur traJJa . - 'Jolell s.ratzy eLIt Jo tsotu teqt aJaq se^\ tl po8 urer aql pue a.neq lq8ru araql ll roJ suosear raqlo ra^alEu... rltLlrodolzlrnH . ot pet€rrpap aldrual alqnop e ,,{q paleurruop alli Jo aleJs aql uo tr peJrlJerd aldoad upt -r.- Itrr agt eror aql le leur aseql .puelureu eql Jo Ieruouerar Jeqlo ou lnq'sarlarJos ueJrJaurBoselN Jo ot ugllrtrlrouel pa{ull s,{e,trasnec lear8 aerql ugltltlttcoua! -reqJ uaaq 3uo1 peq aJrJrJJes u€unq 'uaas a.rpc' : 'u9llllt{lou:' - iL 'sretzv atll pa8uayleqJ ar{ ueq.&\ srq 3ul(e1d ue8aq ecodrlleJzej- \au aqt 'paci3rrle. . - iii sglroD rllr,\\ ur 't loi rreql ol 3ur11.,n ara.n saldoad lcaf 'a1dua1 eqt Jo sdets aqt pepueJse aq sV'alpl r,- - -qns ^\orql ,(ueru os ,{q.n Burureldxa teaS pue lueulueser pal e^eq ue ro3 ,{1rc aqt Ual suerpren8 srq pue aq uaqf -' osle ,(eu aJrJrrJes uewnq 'atnqpt Jo ueprnq ,{,reaq aqr qtr.u ra1nr,{11enlrrl sem at{ s.{ep.,na3 e roJ pue rorrre.\\ r i: : ,,,,lll" :aqta3o1 'uorllaqer 3o ,{lrpqrssod aqt lr rllrm pue 'sacur,tord se^\ aq qleap sn{ aroJaq s,{ep ,{1ua,n1 'salrl\ se ur- l paranbuoc urorJ uetu a8e-3urlq8r3 uortelndod aql rnog ua,rr8 ll ll' 3o se.\\ eq u8rar srq Jo pue aLIt aroJaq qt* - - 'saldoad Burcnpa: Jo treJJa aqt peq e^€LI osle .{eu 11 lcalc1ns aqt 8ur,{e1d pue poB aqt se pesserp ,firc aqt q8no: -.: . . 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(gg-99 dd) ldtecx3 'LllJee aql uo a^tl -3: j 'LulH ol reeu 'ap s : - 'pe4o^u! t eg !6u1ql auo Aluc : . : 'Lll.tea eLll uo alnJ 'snoLue] eq 'uJ!H spu!].-' 'epls slH p sdeqted eq un auo oN 'LllJee eql uo e^tl -?: :lt ou4 slJeeq Jno se ,t-utl"_ ^ 3 - s6urq1 e1ueqc notrAlug 'epls slH le 'pa4o^ut s 3- 'Lluea 'snouJe| eLll uo elnJ aq :el!-l lo )e^r9 e -- -- 'epls s!H p sdeqted eq uec euo oN eleLu+ut aq ol elqe s :_ _- _-- 'eJeL4 Sn Selectxolut oH 'elqe s! a.teL 3-: : 'sn 'tluea se5eLue eJt-l lo )eNg eLll aLtl uo ryAnos eJe euJe] sr11 't,-- : : - epts )noLle pue noAJeeu eq illM oM 'palueueAsoHsa3?: : _ 'au.ll UoLls e rc1 fiuo 'pe4oAu! st eH sac?: : 'pelqnoL eq llM sueeq rno 'po) :llesLutH slue^ut oL,"' : :- 'epts tnoLle eJe eM eltqM 6urq1fuena syua^ut oLl/y'\ 3- : 'Lluee eLll uo eNl oqA eM 'quea eqt uo ry1nos ue eweq sr11 't -: : . - 'no[4ees eM snrll 'pelueueA st eH se3t : : - 'euoeutos 4ees lLl1tu eM 'pe4o^u! st ep1 seceld , t , -' : 'sle/Aol] eq1 Ououte se \uO llesuJlH slue^u! oqMeH ]o esnoq eql eq uec a)e : : _ - esja^lc - 0uotttB auoautos Outqaes qllm aln J0 JoArg aql 0urloos aleduoc lonuts aql saop Arli.' 1,Oulaq slql qllm anatqse s0ureq ueurnq uec drqsu0llelar l0 pull leqM i,,llasrutH sluanut oqi,' 0H,,l0 scllsllolceJeqo aql aJe lPL{M eaco0lg pue '}dA0l 'etpUl 'eutql }0 suot}eztllntc Al.iE; 0tlli0 su0lllpeil sn0l0llor pue lq0noq] aLll l0 n0A purruor 0uos slql ss0p sl{em leqM ul a {llu4p aql qllr'. .:.nur -uoltrelal asole due ,,Qluyr1p Eunarqce 3o flrpqrssodtur aqt sazrseqdua aq atull etues aql 1B lnq slql alo!-r- un s8uraq uerunq al{t srualur 3o ft;11qe Jo pue Jlastuq oqa\ eJlT Jo ra^rC ar{l Jo acuasard aql Jo s8urs aq =*ur slt{l uI '3uu-.raqdosoyqd se ,11o,(oclenrrs5* e parllupe se,{l pue ZLVI ol ZAVI ruo{ pe^rl 'ococxal Jo relnr 6tt seJuaurv aq] l0 suotlezrlt^!3 luatJuV j1 taldeqg 420 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.r. to 1500 c.e Diego Mufloz Camargo (1528?-1599) was a mestizo whowrote a historyof the Tlascalapeople, who had been neighbors of the Aztecs, and who through remarkable perseverance and stubbornness remained inde- pendent of Aztec control, but at avery high price. TheAztecs had built a remarkable empire. Often they did so through warfare and have been known over the centuries for their ferocity. They did, however, pur- sue other modes of political dominance. The Tlascalans were a warlike people living east of the Valley of Mexico. The Aztecs attempted to conquer them militarily but failed. Then the Aztecs turned to a different tactic. They isolated the Tlascalans and permitted them to have no trade with other peoples. As a result the Tlascalans retained their independence, but at the cost of a much diminished standard of living and culture. t What claims of political sovereignty did the Aztecs make? How did the Tlascalans respond? What kinds of g00ds did the Aztecs keep the Tlascalans from receiving? Why was the difficulty in the Tlascalans importing plumes important? How did the standard of living of the Tlascalans suffer? The Tlascalans, seeing the great enmity of the Mexicans easily seize the province of Tlascala and subjugate it as lthat is the Aztecsl towards them, defended their interests they had done with the others. And so they fell upon the as best they could. . . . Engaged in this strife, they sent Tlascalans and engaged them in so many class and skir- ambassadors to the Mexican princes, asking why they mishes that within a few years they had forced them made war upon them, since they had given no cause for back into their own lands and provinces. They kept the hostilities or for the maltreatment of their people. . . . To Tlascalans encircled for more than sixty years, depriving which the Mexican replied that the great lord of Mexico them of all their human wants, for they had no cotton was the lord of the whole world, to whom all men were with which to clothe themselves, nor gold and silver for vassals . and whoever would not yield obedience to their adornment, nor green plumes (which they favor them he would destroy and raze their towns to their foun- most for their emblems and plumages), nor plumes of dations, settling them with new people. . . . To which the any other color for their festivals, nor cocoa to drink, nor ambassadors of Tlascala replied: "Most powerful lords, salt for their food. All these and other things they lacked Tlascala is no vassal of yours; furthermore, not since they during the more than sixty years that they were encir- came out of the seven caves have theTlascalans paid trib- cled. They became so accustomed to eating no salt that ute or tax to any king or prince in the world, for they have to this day they have no taste for it and attach no worth always retained their freedom, and . . . they will not obey to it, and even their children who have been reared you, for they would rather die than consent to such a among us use very little salt. . . . thing. . . ." lTJhe people of Tlascala thenceforth lived on their guard against whatever misfortune might before them; Diego Munoz Camargo, Histona de Tlaxcala (Mexico, 19471, pp 11T123, Benjamin Keen, trans., as reprinted in Benjamin Keen, ed., and since the Mexicans had greater part conquered the Readings in Latin American Civilization 1492 to the Present (Boston: of this New World, . . they thought that they could Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955), pp. 13-14. high nobles lay just outside the central precinct. The ruler's formed of streets and canals. Agricultural plots of great fertil- palace was the empire's administrative center, r.vith govern- ity known as chinampa.s bordered the canal and the lake ment officials, artisans and laborers, gardens, and a zoo of shores. Aqueducts carried fresh u,ater from springs on the exotic animals. The rest of the city was divided into four lake shore into the city. A massive dike kept the briny water quarters, and these further divided into numerous u'ards of the northern part of Lake Texcoco from contaminating the (calpulli). Some calpulli were specialized, reserved for mer- waters around Tenochtitl6n. The neighboring city ol chants (pochteca) or artisans. The city was laid out on a grid Tlatelolco u'as noted for its great marketplace. *qilm; il roJ pa^resel sloorlrs IerJads ur selqou '3ururer1 ifue1r1ru uaru 3uno1 seldr-ua1 asrql ol pcqJelle sasnoL. : '3u1too3 p palrrrer uaur Sunoi 11y l?r\ uo poots -itaL.-ros aqt ur ,{3o1oapl pue Ienlu ur i3ururerl pa^reJar urlplrL. - eltur aql 'qrns se iru.re Surpuels ou selr araqt q8noqtly -tuel Lrr\o stl pei{ qJ!11^\ Jo rlJee 'tllllLll9r e ot paBgr,-. ',Ie,rr rasla rq pazrue8ro se,n ilarcos Jetzv IIe e^oqv -uoruulor 11y slraforci crlclnd roJ roqp] papr,ro.rd pr-i, 'eEueqcxa eqt rrlo$ rlsrJ palsal\req'sodlunurqr er{l pelurel oll ,. stunrpatu 'stauoluuroJ ' Jo se pa,Llas slpoll uolloJ pup supaq opJeD sr?^\ ll 5^e.M uorle]nclod eql Jo llnq JLi 'suollJesu€rt 'uaur se 'pooqlsarrd patelnBer llerrt se ueuro,!\ 'srolerlsr rLIl Pue i(cerlnr.- -urupe te>lrel/\J ',{1rep ararlt 1ue,u alcload 000'09 ueqt a.roJ,{ aLIt pellq ot1rt 'nu11d1d aqt ara'n Llraqt ,\\oleq pu\- .. 'areqt paperl spoo8 lo {teue^ aLIt pue 'ssaurpapro 'azrs aleurProqns Jo sprol 'uqn4al Jr.{1 ereA\ urarli nolafl slr ro.+ sprerueds leer8 rqt passaldrur oclolatell le lelrpiu -llLIJouaL lo tuuotolt otll spA\ lsaq;rq eqt 'tuelJl .Io :Jr-!.: eq1 'aJII JrruouoJa learts retzy ol lErtuar ela/!\ staIrBI/\ a1dr"r1 aqt lo sarlrJ aarql aql .Jo srelnr eq] ale\\ tsrLiFl- 'snlels e u,tro '1iun lercads pa'\ofua pue qlndluc 'aseql 31; 1ecr1r1od roleLu e Jo ralnr ro'(anbow7 I.-- rlelil pell osle sqtrursploB pue 'sra1.ro,n raqtea.J 'saur:prde1 rua(41111 Jo lPql selr .'(trlrclou arll ur >1uer lsaqBrq au - 'sruolsnr Surpnlrur spoo8 irnxnl JO sups^ruv dr:1dsrp snorlelueJs^o pue sMel lerou Suryearq roJ uarpll{J u,\\o.rraL.- : peproAe pue Hurce33a-Jlas eq ol pepuat iaqt 'llnscr e sy -eXe ueAo plno^\ sluared 'etlle aql SuoLue paqsrund r',-. dlarcos telzv ur uortrs^od snonBrquu ue ur ruaqt lnd qllea,n pue uodn pau,\\o{ Spr\ SSeuuelun-rq ''\qc.rererll eql Lrr . rlaqf ssaursnq Surop roJ surolsnJ pue smel u^\o rrerlt peqsrl auo req8rq aql parroJue .{ltruls arour ara,,!\ sesuello i ' 'ugl]rtrlJoual - -qetsa pup splrnB u,no laql pazrue8ro ,(aq,1. pue lenxas JoJ sluoluilsrund pue 'slauouruol rol upllt j: Jo sprol eqt loJ spoo8 ifunxn1 snortard lceq tqBnorcl Jrar\ i(triiqou eql loJ sprepuplq'ere^es luatuqsrun.. suotltpadxa Surqcear-re1 rrar{I'eruangur letzyi3ulp€etds ur JJUIS eralu s,\\p-l uorlerapolu pue 'eurlcircsrp 'ssaulnJ]r1 .rolce3 e ara,\\ 'sarrule eJJoJ aLIl ,{q {eJuelpaqo 'a;atsne - '{e>1 Jalzv ruoq Jo leaJql panle,r i(aq1 ,i11c"rou ala,\\ sralz\ ru palJeq 'sar1r,rr1:re ,rrar{,L r{tarcos Jalzv ur :^ern8r.J luelroclur 'slti: , . eraw-oralllcod-sluequeLu puu sraperl leuorssaJoJd aldrurs 'q8nor Jee,!\ ol perrnbar eJeA\ sJauourruo3 (- 'uauleIqou aql ult{lr,\\ IU€l pup slalrouJrlroJ ruo-rJ salqou prrl. -- Jo seletse eLll paYo/!\ s|es Jo sse]t v sesueJJo l€urrurrr -srp erle8ar peroloJ .{1tuer11rrq pue eleroqelg 'suorsr \lF JuIos rol sa^pls aruoJeq osp? lq8rru i(eq1 'selels aLlroJaq perlolurer ssarp ol 8ur1elar suorleln8at pue s^\lll ,' ' lq8lur alnqul parrnbal lallt ro stqap ied ot elqpun sreuoLu pue qtlea,!\ lear8 pa,{olue dlrlrclou aq1 ',fuo8a1ec eterpJ.- - -ruo-) 'suorleHrlqo arnclul str pallrllnJ !!!ni\ac eqt teqt 8ur ue Eurruro3 sur?sTue urplJeJ pue sllreLlJlau LIlr,!\ 'Jaltc,--., -rnsse roJ alqrsuodsa,r ere^\ slerrrJlo s,ueLLr 's^essPlJ q1ncl1u3'asnoll PUP rlqoLl PPOrq o,t\l otul PaPnlp sp1\\ ll rllst-:, 8uno.{ n 't11ocqcodpl eq) ur Sururerl irelrlnu peArareJ pue 'uerrelrroqlnp 'leJrqrJ€Jerll S€r{ Alatcos oalzy he3ncs a3 iilt'tl0H UvieleJS rp]le aldua] B u0 acrluces len1u oalzy 0urluas 'ouerq3oaqerloeyl ard xapo3 aq] se UMOU) 'aulnlo^ ]duJS -nueur era-leru0l0c e uol+ u0tlellsnlll 'ectltrces ueulnH LZn sesuaurv aq] JO suorlezr|l^!3 tuol]uv il, roldeqS 422 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.r t0 1500 c.e. From near the equator south, a narrow strip of desert, one of the driest in the world, lines the Pacific coast. Beyond this strip the Andes Mountains rise abruptly. Small river va1- leys descend the western face of the mountains, cutting the Periods of Andean Givilization desert plain to create a series of oases from north to south. The cold waters of the Humboldt current sweep north along ca. 3000-ca. 20fi1 s.c.e. Preceramic the coast from the Antarctic, carrying rich nutrients that ca.2fi)0-ca. 800 n.c.t. lnitial support abundant sea life. Withln the Andes are regions ol peaks steep regions grassland (puna), ca. 80$-ca. 200 s.c.r. Early Horizon high and terrain, of and deep, warm, fertile intermontane valleys. The eastern ca. 200 B.c.E.-ca. 5fi1 c.r. Early lntermediate slopes of the mountains, covered with dense vegetation, ca. 600 c.E.-ca. 800/1000 c.r. Middle Horizon descend into the great tropical rain forest of the Amazon basin (see Figure 14-2). ca. 800/llXXI-ca. 1475 Late lntermediate From ancient times, the people of the coast lived bv ca.147$-1532 Late Horizon (lnca Empire) exploiting the marine resources of the Pacific and by cul- tivating maize, beans, squash, and cotton. They also engaged in long-distance trade by sea along the Pacific coast. them, commoners in rheir calpulli schools. Battles were The people of the highlands domesticated several plants fought to capture new territory, punish rebellious or recal- native to the Andean region, including the potato, other citrant tributaries, protect trading expeditions, and secure tubers, and a grain called quinoa. They cultivated (and still access to important natural resources. Some battles-the cultivate) these crops on the high slopes of the Andes. In the flowery wars-rvere fought just to secure sacrificial vic- intermontane valleys they cultivated maize. And in the puna tims. Combat rvas a matter of individual contests, not the grasslands they kept herds of llamas and alpacas-the confrontation of massed infantry. A warrior's goal u'as to Andean camelids-using them for their fur, their meat, and subdue and capture prisoners for sacrifice. Prowess in bat- as beasts of burden. Highland communities since ancient tle, as measured by the number of prisoners a warrior cap- times have maintained access to the different resources tured, was key to social advancement and rewards for both available in different altitude zones, with holdings in each commoners and nobles. Failure in battle brought social zone that can be far distant from each other. They share this disgrace. adaptation, which anthropologists sometime s call't erticality, Women in Aztec society could inherit and own prop- erty. They traded in the marketplace and served as market officials. With their craftwork they could provide their fam- ilies with extra income. Girls and boys alike were educated in the song houses, and women had access to priestly roles, although they were barred from high religious positions. In general, however, the Aztec emphasis on warfare left women in a subordinate position, tending hearth and home and excluded from positions of high authority. As a man's primary role u,as to be a warrior, a woman's was to bear chil- dren, and childbirth was compared to battle. Death in childbirth, like death in battle, guaranteed rewards in the -- Dr'coasta| alterlife. n*"Hiii..-t. ,&,..q. I *. "*:* Grassy plain 13,000 ft. above sea level Uplands: 10,500-12,500 ft. above sea level Andean South America Frost-free valleys 7,500-10,000 ft. above sea level Lower slopes of mountains: 2,400-7,000 ft. above sea level l:e -\ndean region of South America-primarily modern Dry coastal region: 2,400 ft. above sea level u and Bolivia-had, like Mesoamerica, a long history ol !inous civilization u'hen Spanish conquerors arrived in Figure 14-2. The Andean environment packs tremendous ecological diversity into a small space. ,i:centh century. This is a region of dramatic contrasts. raldeqJ stql ut passncstp solts ecul-erd .t-tt dehl :uopuol pup lro ,r\JN) rrurrr"rO rr"r,lf'O:, S:rn'r:;;rl.5,l';- , A'IIHf, ,azreru -ourareJ anrssardurr pue a8rel lllnq pue Bun: , ,puelur ue8aq 'sua1s,{s uorle8url llrnq sJuetualuri : Pa^o(u ,,{aq1 'saornosar eturlrrBtu uo se llalr sp ;-'-. tr .lSE - -rrEe uo ,{lSursearcur : . o luapuadap aureJaq a1doa6 nleue^\rf' I ' o ,v uo suralled eJualsrsqns pue luauailes ur -roi._ IU]PNUP1 UIr{s spuodsarroc pue porred lertrul aqt ;o Suruur8aq aq. . .-- ., o sprprer 'g'D's punore nrad ot,{"rattod VIAI'IOfl fr,.'1-1' ou 0002 Jo uortJnportul a-_ 'serlerJos r) uer-re1r1e8a .{1a,rr1e1er roJ Ipn. - nuad ,o -nruruoJ o Jo sralual ueeq a^eq o1 readde spuelq8rq ;-: : , usoro\ a eqt .Jrurerera-: t /t. utH:aS tseor qloq Jo serntf,nrls crlqnd aql - ,uorlv :p u;neq3' iu;q:a5 or:a3 aql IoJ uorterrJrtprts IerJos Jo aJuapr^a alllll sI ara__ u€q] ueq]. 'l'D's 00SZ lnoqs Aq Palsri:.. * aP o u es es r ,{11n3 .sraqnt l?,H ara,n secedle pue seurel-I puelqBrq -. - ,r',i,1i"llh, ,JrLuerJJJ-_ pue saolelod se {{arr\ se ezreur 3ur1e,tr11nr , aqi Surrnp aldoad lelseoc ueql eJnllnru8e uo luap'ir_ . .uotltpltrl ..., '/ ero(u araA\ aldoad puelqBrg snot?rla.r aqt palleJ a,req slsrSoloaeLlrJe leqt sJarlaq snorBrlar - ,qsolo) e aldoad r : . uocYnf,E pareqs puelq8rq teql slsaSSns Jo r: - .- le PeIJIluePl lsrrJ 'sarntrnrts asaql Jo uortnqrrlslp aq -taJJo lenllr urnq ol pasn 1rd arrJ ualuns e Sursolru: ,.." .E.D.u -Jnrts palle,\\-auots ,(11ecid,{1 ere esaqJ 00ca r- 'tq8req ot etep spuelq8rq aqt ur sBurpllnq crlqnd aL.' aq1 stl te 000'€ sdeqrad 3o uorlelndod e qtr,n llnc lserpea ,]saro3 'uorlrP.- _ : snor8tla"r 1n3ra,nod e Jo ralueJ ar{j se^\ u;^eqD urer -xat ueapuv palerrlsrqdos eqt _ 1ecrdo.r1 puel,\\ol eql pue lseoJ aql ueer\teQ elnor eperl e uo Jo Suruur8aq aqt tuas-. Palerol '(g-f t detrq aas) aruan]Jur ur 8ultror8 se,lr teluenpl pouad srqt Jo salrtxat Jeqlo pue stau Surqsr- - ,.g.J.rr -loJ ar.{I 'uolloJ pue-slrsue]n puB sJeureluoJ sp ap u,r^ELID 'spuelq8rq arlt ur atrs e 008 punore Buru a!- -urBeq pete^rtlnJ osle ,(aq1 .sranrr eqt i _ . 'erurl eLues eLIj tnoqe tV.l.)'B unruuellrru lsrrJ ar{l ur -sprno8 letseoJ Jo .ipee -poolJ aql ur pete^rtlnr sraddad pue ,sueaq .u.. - - peurlcap por.rad Iertrul aqt Jo sretueJ lplseoJ a8"rel aq1 I{lQc t{ll^\ slarp rraql Surluaualddns 'eas eL[] Jo serlunc,: :. uo ,{lrreurrd uozuoH Ape3 oql pue leluenH pelsrsqns aturl siql 1e aldoad lelspo-- op u!^eqc 'n-:, ,{ra1]od Jo uortJnporlur ar{t alepard pue sezeld pue spr* - .aJoqs lsrsuoJ sralueJ lsarllea aseql eLi: : - 'sBurdnor8 IeruoruaJaJ Jo -: leorlrlod .{ltsotu tseoJ aqt uo pelero-I 'rd.{3g spnuer,{4 : . raErel aruapr^e ,re,ra,noq ,reqloue 3o tEOrn lsaSSns ol alllll qtr.ll {.reroduatuoc ,.t.D'a . qtr.tr .,(lqBnor runruuellru prlqr " auo Jo luepuadapul paureurar .{lluaredde sreluaD .lrrlluor aLIl ol saleP nJed ur ernlJelrqJJe leluaulnuotu lserllp: : _, Hur,nor8 tsaSSns eruseD aqt ur otlv uJqJaS pue u,rqJas orreD te speaq pare^as qtr.{\ serpoq 3o s8ui,rrec pasrJul 'perJrterls spouad eql pue cltuetocetd eql ,(lSursearcur tnq ,(11enpe-r8 aueoaq ,{larcos pue lelllul ,nar8 uorlelndo4 'palurecl {llq8rrq are,tr sepe5e1 riaqt pue 'arnldlncs aqope pue auols qtr^\ paurope ere,r\ sreluaC ''ilts: ' l 'sarnlrnrls ur.io3leld a3.re1 pue slrnoJ ualuns relnrrrr a8rel crlsr1.r{1s leuor8ar,{q pazrratceteql are spoued elerpatll-:,_ patsrsuor .{aqt .sdoro Jo tseoc qlrou aql ug IetseoJ aql aql'eare epr^\ e ra.,r,o pea.rds a1.{1s ire snoaueSoruoq e qr-_ leql rale^\ aql arrnos eql pue surplunou aql ur spolrad are ,elppllN Paqsrrnou Jo suozrroH ale.I pue i{peg aq1 :spc -: _ premot 'puelur paJeJ tpqt sarntrnrls padeqs-3 a8rey 1o ,{1u uenes olur pepplp ,{lleuorlua,ruoJ sr uorlezrlr^rJ ueepu\' -eurrd palsrsuoJ .{aql 'alduexa ro3 ,lseoc el{t uO iertuar t?'se^eleturH al{t : - 'uorEar .{q per.re.,r, srelueJ asaqt .sta]ual Jo ruroJ aL[J Ieru sdly aql se qJns 'suor8ar snouretunoru raqlo ur aldoad u_ tzn secusurv aqt ]0 suotleztp^lJ ]uorouv tr1 reldeq3 424 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.r. to 1500 c.r. architecture of its central temple complex, u'hich includes skeletal remains at Chavin, for example, suggests that per U-shaped structures and a sunken circular courtvard, ple u,ho lived closer to the ceremonial center ate better tha reflects coastal influence. Its artistic iconography draws on people living on the margins of the site. many tropical forest animals, including monkeys, serpents, and jaguars. 'fhe structure knou'n as the Old Temple is honeycombed rvith passage\\rays and drains. Archaeologists think that rvater could deliberately be channeled through The Early lntermediate Period these drains to produce a roaring sound. At the end of the central passageway is an imposing stela in the shape of a Signs of increasing rnnarfare accompanv the collapse of thr knife with the blade in the floor and the handle in the ceil- Chavin culture and the ldeological unity it had brought t, ing. Known as the Lanzon, this stela is carved in the image the Andes. The subsequent Earlir Intermediate period sav of a fanged deity that combines human and feline features. increasing regional dlversity combined u,lth increasing polit- A small hole in the ceiling above the Lanzon suggests that it ical centralization and the emergence of rn'hat u,ere probabl, may have been an oracle whose "voice" $'as that of a priest the first territorial states in the Andes. We rvill discus. in the gallery above. brieflv here only the tr,r'o best-known cultures ol this period. Betu,een about 400 and 200 e.c.g. Chavin influence that of Nazca on the south coast of Peru, and of N,loche or: spread nidely throughout Peru, from the Nazca valley in the the north coast. south to beyond Cajamarca in the north. This spread is seen in both the distribution ol goods made at Chavin and in the incorporaticin of Chavin iconography into local traditions. Archaeologists believe Chavin influence reflects the prestige The Nazca culture, rvhich flourished from about 100 e.c.r. of its cult, not political or military expansion. The florescence to about 700 c.u., u,as centered in the Ica and Nazca valleys. of Chavin was also marked by important technological inno- The people of the Nazca vallel, built underground aque- vations in ceramics, rveaving, and metallurgy. ducts to tap ground rvater in the middle ol the valley and Excavations at Chavin and other Early Horizon sites divert it into irrigation canals. Cahuachi, the largest Nazca point to increaslng social stratification. Examination of site, u,as once thought to be a large, permanentll, occupied The Nazca Geoglyph located in the Peruvian desert depicts a vast hummingbird. The lines were constructed by the Nazca people probably sometime between 250 c.e. and 600 c.t. They appear t0 have been sacred paths walked by Nazca people perhaps some- what as medieval Europeans walked a labyrinth. At the summer solstice the final par- allel line p0ints t0 the sun. The features of this and other geoglyphs can only be discerned from the air, and their exact purpose remains a matter of speculation. MariIyn BrtdgesiCorbis Bet{rnan. **F 'strelqns rraql Jo roqel -elanbaf aLI] ur 01116 ap 9so[ uES pue .{a11e,r anf - 3L{t la.\o slalnl nIBUe^\rJ, eqt re^\od aql saleJrpur . Jo pue aqt ur uedrg Jo etrs aql te srainr aLIJoN Jo sqlLr _ snoruJoua se.,!\ slueurnuou eseql JoJ auols eql SurlJodsu€Jl -srpun aLIl Jo s0g6l etel aqt ur .{ra,rocsrp aq1 :_ ur papuadxa ar1J 's{e,nate8 lroJJe leruouareJ pue sarnl .{q ulo,n erle8a.r Jo pury aqt pue arnlretrilrre aL{rol\ -cnrts crlqnd a,ussardur pue a8rel lereles dq paleuruop sr 1r -readde aql lnoqe eJuaprla apr.,rord slasse^ ral{t6 : 'pi:3 e uo 'tt{8raq .a.rE_-: lno pleT sir 1e aldoad 000,0t-000,g7 aruos 1en1ce lrrdap ,{eu s{essoA trertrod Jrlsrleag uortelndod e peq a^eq .{eur pue '(selru arenbs oml euo : 3o ot 'uor8rlar 'aJII aqJoN tnoqe qrnu lBe^er telll slassa.. - pardncco itrc aq1 ',{rnluac ur s"rea,( qtua^ala eql relel 665 pue paplotu Surcnpord 'sra1lod pallqs eram aqroJ\ : _ auos 'r'il pasdelloJ pue 009-00S tnoqp eseqd tsruorsuedxa 'oJuplg orraD se eBrel se Jsourle s:l slr ue8aq 'E') ll 002 tnoqe elrs arlt 1e ue8aq.{ltuaredde uorl anba,{eque1 eql ur alrs er.{rory e 'apuerC edrue; . - -JnrlsuoD plro,!\ luercu€ aqt ur lelrdec tsatlSrq aql lr 8ur>1eur u,\\o slr ruorl sprol aqJolN ,{q palnr da11e,t qcea pu, 'la^al eas j= e^oqP leal 009'zl ueqt arou te sarl nleue^\rl uraqlnos pue urequou olur papnlp uaaq a,req _ 'rual{l ueaA{1eq drqsuortelet eql ro rrenH eI{JoN aql pealsul'pazrl€rlual os uaaq a.neq tou.ie-_ . pue n>leueulf {8o1ouorr.{J eqt uo drr8 urrrJ a^eq eLIl Jo € tou leqt la,ra,troq ',trou sreadde ll errdua aqrol\ :- _ op stsr8oloaeqcry ',$oloapl snor8rler SurtsaB IIIIs parer.{s e 3o lerrdec aLIl se^\ oruelg orra3 teqt lq8noql aJuo sr: , -3ns 'sarn1ea3 ,(ueu sareqs osle q]oq 1o ursrloqru.{s JrJsrlre 'suorle8rlqo etnqFt rrrL{t :: pJul aq1 a"rrdug ralel eql Jo saJrtrerd a,rrlerlsrurupe aql sdnorB tcalqns ]€qt arns eq ot sprol eqcol{ palqp'.:: - s.\\opeqsaroJ leLll pue-sauoz leorSoloce perre^ s,uor8a.r aql aqi lult{t stsrSoloaeqcrv 'tr aperu l€ql dnolB e;- - troldra ot stuauiallles Surpuas acrtoerd aql-,{trleJ -uapr ,s1rr: . lno 3o ,{lqeqord leqt lretu e peLI LIrrr{^\ Jo qrea - -IUe_\ uerpuv stralJet .]aa.} lpql uerJatels Jo ruroJ e Jo eruapr^e uorllrru €tl ueql erour r{lr.{\ epeur se^\ tl 0g \\otls J L{loq pue 'sarBolouLlJai Iernllncrr8e ,.lrau a,rrlcnpord e ot sdats ur eso.r pue apr^\ teeJ 00S.{q 3uo1 ta.- tltl\\ paterJoss€ arp Llloq 'sIE^\ iueru ur ragrp.{aqt q8noqtly auros sel\ 'spJrJerxv aql ur aJnlJnrls aqope lsa8rel : _, nred spuelq8rq ,rren11 Jo lertuaJ-qtnos aLIl ur le raqto eql eqt Jo prurel,{4 pedeqs-ssort aqJ etis srql 'eJerrtrf loolre.\. pup aIB-I .jo aroqs qtnos aLIt reau oueldrtye uehrlog aqt Jo pluer{4 aqt pue unq eqt prtuerld aL'- .spuelq8nl Jo eqt ur nleue^\rJ le paratuar sB^\ aseqt Jo auo -cnr1s a8nq o,rrI oJueJfl oJJa-\ ol lxau lelual lsab-i: u€apuy aql ur Sur8raue ara,lt saldrue lsruorsuedxe lsJr.J uorleJol aql .{a11e.l eLIJo[,\ eq] ruorJ aureu slr salpt :-- aqt 'eJrraureosal/N ur sir Surqcear lr{8raq s€^\ ugJenqlloal eq,L'salriu 0/€ aruos Jo aJuelsrp e'qtnos aqt ur ir,_ sp pue a:rdu3 uptuog ar{l Jo uorler8alursrp aLIl ol Surpeal ot tluou aL[] ur ernrd ruorJ s,,{a11e,n ra^rr - ,.3.D,{Jnluac IetsL- ara.\\ suorse^ur JrueurJaD e{l ualrr\ LIUIJ eql 'nrad ul IIe peteuruop tl lq8raq str tV Jo tseoJ L{1rou :, 'E D 00/ ol 002 tnoqe ulou peqsrrnolJ arntlnJ aLIrci. poued alelpetutolul 'rle elel oql qonorql uozuoH elpp!ru eql eLIt iuo{ elqls4,{1uo are pue slel; edrued erz:.. : uo u \\elp JJe 'surJoJ tLltauoaB pue saurl Surterpe.r jo :. -uoc .,(11ensn 'sraLItO dq-srassed ol elqls$ seplsllrll uo f :, .(11ensn are esaql .{rallod eJZeN uo readde 1€qt sa1eq ,.. -. 'slro^\ eleJrJlur 'llelus a]eeJJ pue 's"raprds 'sp.rrq8uruunq a>lll sarnBrg lcrdap sl{c : - ot ssacord ,slool - xe,lr-lsol eql pesn pue lernllncrr8e pue atuos eJeJrns peroloJ-relqBrl e ol tresep aql : " .sapuy lea,tar Jo suodea.rr lseo 'sio11e elrlelouur padola,tep ,{aq1 eqt Ir€p aqt de.,ne Surtlsnrq,{q palea:r are^\ aseql .seurl : r.- ur sqlrLLrs paleJrls^rrldos lsout aql osle eJa^\ eqJoN er{I peller-os aql 'sqd,(18oeB ro 'syo.,nquee lessolor rraql to- -: .ssatserrd eLIt Jo 1t\oq 'lsnoureJ tsotu eq deu,{aq1 'sleturue pue s1ue1d ur:. erleBar aLIt ur j€ ,.{re11od pelrnq ser\ orolN ap 9so[ ups squro] eql lo 3o sa8eur qtr.\\ pelerorap ,{lateroqela eluoru l auo tueclnJJo ar{l pue '.lseud ' Jo roure^\ aql 30 erleSar eql aurJ rreql se IIa^\ se selrlxal rraqt rol peuA{ouor are oot .r uI paunq se,tr uedrg le sqtuot eql Jo euo ur prol aLIJolN aqJ 'selrlxet eleJrrtur lsoru pup lseurJ s.plroM aqt :,_ 'sselsarrd Jo aql eql reqlou€ pue lserrd rorrrp.A\ aql sarn8rs pacnpord tseoJ Lllnos eql uo arnllnr s€Jered rerlrca eLlI .srauosud Ierluar aLIl Jo auo paleqel a,req stsr8oloeer4JrV 'lrun Jaqtuaur e Surluasardal s:.- peJrJirJes poolq aql Huqurrp sarn8r3 ,uorterapaJuoJ Jo pessarp .{lereroqele -1eyd a1due1 {ueu s1r Jo qree qlr,n pr-: .rroqs ,{uorualaJ eJlJrrJES eLIl suorlcrdaq .lenlrJ Jo aLIJoN e 3o letrdec eql uaeq a,req {etu lJ sle^rlseJ snorBrlar bu - uB ss,\\-ALroruaJaJ eJrJrJJes aqt-,iqderSouocr surrrSlrd 3ur11r3 IenlJe qtr,u.{lleorpcrrred teed aqt JO tsoiu {tclur ,. aqrolN ur etuallt Iertuar e teqt stsaSSns .ia11e.r anbad ll leql seleJrpur ta^a,\\ol{'qcteesar ]ueJeu'ra]ual u.--- gzn sesuourv oql ]0 suorleztlt^!! ]uatsuv tr1 raldeq3 426 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations, 500 c.E. t0 1500 c.r. Moche Earspool. This magnificent ear- spool of gold, turquoise, quartz, and shell Although there is evidence of was found in the tomb of the Warrior Huari influence on the Peru- Priest in the Moche site of Sipan, Peru, 300 c.t. Courle.sty a{ UCLA Fauuler vian north coast. it is ltluseunt af Cultural HistoryiSusan Ern- unlikell' to have taken stein/Cltristapher B Dannan. the form of direct polit- ical control. After the demise of N{oche r I" authority, t\4/o ne\\ states emerged on the north coast. C)ne. liY} named for the site of Sican, rvas centered in the Lambayeque val- le,v The central figure in Sican iconographr. A system of raised- the Sican Lord, mar iield agriculture on the have been a representa- shores of Lake Titicaca pro- tion of a mythical founder r ided Tirvanaku with its eco- figure named Nyamlap. nomic base. This system involved d, mentioned in postconquest farming on artificial platforms capped Spanish chronicles. Like their rvith rich topsoil and separated by basins Moche preciecessors in the Lam- of water. Experimental reconstructions have bayeque valley, the Sican people were shor,vn it to be extremely productive. skllled smiths r.vho produced sumptuc-rus gold Tiwanaku dominated the Titicaca basin and neighboring objects. regions. It probably exerted its influence through its religious The other new north coast state, known as Chimu. ., prestige and by establishing colonies and religious-adminis- was centered in the Moche valley. In two waves of expan- I trative structures in distant territories. sion the Chimu built an empire that incorporated the The Huari Empire flourished from about 600 to 800 c.E., Lambayeque Valley and stretched lor 800 miles along the dominating the highlands from near Cuzco in the south to coast, from the border of Ecuador in the north to the Cajamarca in the north. For a brief period it also extended a Chillon valley in the south. The administrative capital of lortified colony into Tiwanaku territory. The capital, Huari, this empire, Chan Chan, in the Moche valley, was a vast covers about one and a half square miles. It consists of a city. Its walls enclosed eight square miles and its central spranl of large, high-walled stone enclosures, and had a core covered over two square miles. The focus of the citt' population of 20,000-30,000 people. are some ten immense adobe-walled enclosures known as Huari is located in an intermontane valley and its rise is ciudadelas. With their large open plazas, their administra- associated with the deveiopment of techniques for terracing tive and storage facilities, and their large burial mounds, and irrigating the slopes of the valley to increase their pro- these probably housed the empire's ruiing elite. Surround- ductivity. The spread of this beneficial technology may have ing them were smaller compounds that probably housed lacilitated the expansion of the Huari Empire, explaining its the lesser nobility: And surrounding these were the homes acceptance in most places without signs of overt military and workshops of the artisans and workers who served the domination. Huarl administrative centers were undefended elite. Two areas were apparently transport centers, where and built in accessible places. N{any archaeologists think llama caravans brought raw materials to the capital from thev may have functioned like later Inca administrative cen- the empire's territories. The total population of the citv ters. housing a small Huari elite that organized local labor was between 30,000 and 40,000. rojects. Again like the Inca, Huari administrators About 1470, only sixty years before the arrival of the rr.r record-keeping devices made of string. Inca Spaniards, the Chimu Empire was swept away by a pou/- J\vever, used knots, u'hereas Huari quipu used erful new state from the southern highlands of Peru, the colored string. Inca Empire. ,*i ,-* il rl 's ua 4r t) p0.!d,\ass/'p a/4.1 au u aqau sopuv oql +o sadols uialsea oql uo s)jead oMl uoaMloq alppss e u0 soqciad nqcsrd nqsey\ ]0 i(lrc esul aql'nqscrd nqcpw :,.#.3,-,,. ::. .. :Etii= saurleruos {aq1 'arrdtue rieql Jo seJrnosar eqr troldxe tsaq leuadur Jo tuaurala ue.,{pea1c sr eJaql'plro\\ .-': o1 'secuelsrp leer8 saurlaruos '1noqe uaql Sur,roru 'sbewry11ry Jo tser aqt ot uoltezill^lr Jo s8urssalq aqt 8ur:c , s€ serlrunruuroJ aJrlua paleu8rsap osl€ eJul aql 'suor8ar rleql papu€dxa stossaorns slq pue eq :tlpir:,- - parre^ .,(11eor3o1oca Surzruolor 3o arrlcerd ueepuV eql Jo suorlePunoJ aql Plel aq '.Ilnr€qJed alueu r;- - 'llo^ar stJagar teql icrlod e ul 'seplslllq Surcerrat pue 'aldtuexa ro3 aql PeqsnrJ Pue aJuelslsal Jloreq e Pa' -- 'speor pue sarlrr Burplrnq 's1calord s1.ro.lr crlqnd uo pue {rure s,,{1ro eql Jo uos'inbuednl eJul 'orzn3 paic---.' aql ur palras osle ualyslueruurelJelue IenlIJ parosuods leql aldoad eJuer{D er.lt Jo tlo^er e Jo e{e,\\ aL'- - -alels qsr^el pue sqr8 urnler ur Suluaoat 'srseq reln8ar e qlueaulJ eql ur .,{1uo ue8aq uorsuedxe ecul 'sL , - uo etets eqt roJ pa>lrom eldoad IeJoI'eilw aqt se u^\ou1 tual rreqt ol Surproccy'ernrsqo are eJul aql Jo sur: . -s.,(s e u1 'spo8 aql pu€ at€ts aLIt roJ sreqto 3urruasar pue pod 'ra^lrs pue plo8 qt1,tr pe:.: . -dns u,no rraql roJ auros ureler og suorlelndod 1eco1 3ur,no11e pue uns aqt ot pateJlpap 'selduat ledrouud s-- 'uor1 -- 'sarro8alec lera^as otur spuel lerntlncr.rBe pap4lp,{aq1 -8eu pue ropualds tear8 3o ,{trc e se,tr tl 'atlla F- 'suorsrlrp -exel roqel Jo sLuroJ snorr€A uo perlar erul aLIl 'seldoad tcef (ecu1) ralnr eqt ot etuoH aseqt Jo uo.--: rsratzv 'sretren$ -qns rraqt tuog atnqlrt Patrertxe oq/\\ aql e{liun le ,{e1 'oczn3 'letrdec rraql rnog aq: - (,,'a.rrdurE riaql ezrue8ro serul eqJ,, 'tuetu 'nlnsutluomal ureruop rreq] peller se^lasrual{t :- - -nroc eeg) 'sapuy u€r^nrad eqt ur ua>1ods ilaplu IIIis sl enqcenQ 'tlnsar e sy'a;rdtua aqt 3o a8en8uel e^rtertsrurupe ur paraqunu uorlelndod asre^rp ,(llecrlsrnBur' . , 'Q-Vt . aql se 'enqcono 'a8enBuel rlaLll Jo uoISreA e pasodur pue -qte stl de6 aas) allqD uraqtrou ot i eJnlJnJls e^rlerlsrurulPe IeJrqJJeJerq e olur uleer Jraql Pazr 'sellur 009'z aulos rol urseq uozeluv aql PUP ::- 'lsanbuor -ue8ro.{aq1 se ile^\ se uorlepltullur pue aJuerlle Jo aLIl uee,&\leq eaJB aql passeduoJue sulpLl* uorteurquoJ e q8norql arrdura rraqt pa8relua eruJ eql ur arrdug uetuoilO aqt pue eulq3 8ur1e,ur : - 'tlo^ar €JueLID aLIt aJoJeq salrntuer sdeqrad pue sepeJap se1e1s lsa8rel aLIl Jo euo sem arrdug eJul eq: - roJ aJuangur rraqt Surpuedxa uaaq peq .{aql leqt slsa8 -deq suorueduroJ srr{ pue oJJezId oJSIJUeJC u:- -8ns acuapr,ta qtueaqlJ eql uI lecrSoloaeqrre tnq '{rnluao olldu3 mLl .,{llecrreuerp puedxa plp erul aq;'pua8al sIL[] uI epueBedo.rd LZn seouaurv aq] ]o suorlezrlr^!J IuarJuV tr1 tegdeq3 428 Part3 Consolldation and lnteracti0n of World Civilizations 500 c.r. t0 1500cr ::,:,:i,i+r :.ii].. ":':.:,::.'1., :i::;::.::--i.:.:: :, rr.i.,r : I ::l ...... ti ,,."tt- i . _-,r ,. l l,,lr' j:rrl;',::.:-r:',:.ilr:1.' lrlil The Incas were remarkable for their ability to organize a vast and diverse empire. One of their chief devices of government was the movement of large groups of people to neq unfamiliar provinces. The Incas were also very sensitive to the power of religion and religious rituals. Once they had moved a population, thev required that the chief object of worship belonging to that people be moved to the Inca capital of Cuzco, where it was attended by representatives of its original worshipers. This latter group was changed from time to time, allowing portions of the transferred population to become familiar with the language and customs of the court city of Cuzco. These processes of government are described in the following passage by Bernab6 Cobo (1582_1657), a Jesuit, whose account is regarded as among the most complete and accu- rate discussions of Inca culture. I To what extent did the lncas appear to be following a classic m0ds of rule by dividing and cCInquering? How didthe Incas use one groupto balancelhethreattotheir rule frorn another group? llow did they use religion and languaEe t0 strengthen their authority? The first thing that these kings did after conquering a the natives; thus, through this scheme of domiciling the province was to remove six or seven thousand families . majority of the people of some province in other parts, . . and to transfer these families to the quiet, peaceful the king was made secure against revolts in his domin- provinces, assigning them to different towns. ln their ions. . . .The lncas required everyone to absorb their lan- stead they introduced the same number of people, guage, laws, and religlon with all the beliefs about these taken from the places to which the former families had matters that were established at Cuzco. . . . ln order to been sent or from such other places as seemed conven- introduce and establish these things more effectively, . . ient. . . . ln these transfers of population they saw to it . they would remove the principal idol from a conquered that the migrants, both the newly conquered persons province and set it up in Cuzco with the same attendance and the others, were moved to lands whose climate and and worship that it had formerly had; all this was seen to conditions were the same as, or similar to, those which by persons who had come f rom that province. . . . For this they had left behind them. . . . reason lndians from every province of the kingdom were The lncas introduced these changes of domicile in at all times in residence in the capital and court, occupied order to maintain their rule with greater ease, quiet, and in guarding and ministering to their own idols. Thus they security. [TJhey ordered the majority of the learned the usages and customs of the court; and when mitimaes [the groups transferred] whom they sent to they were replaced by others . . . they taught their people the recently conquered towns to make their homes in what they had seen and learned in the court. the provincial caprtals, where they served as gar- risons. . . . As soldiers they received certain privileges to make them appear of nobler rank, and they were ordered always to obey the slightest commands of their captains and governors. Under this plan, if the natives revolted, Ihe mitimaes, being devoted to the governors, soon From Historia del Nuevo Mundo, by Bernab6 Cobe (Seville, 1890-1893), 3.222-225, Benjamin Keen, trans., as reprinted in Benlamin Keen, reduced them to obedience lnca; the ed., to the and if Readings in Lattn Amertcan Civilization 1492 to the Present (Boston: mitimaes rioted they were repressed and punished by Houghton Mifflin Company, 1955), pp. 29-30. settled loval people in hostile regions and moved hostile celibate and carefully regulated lives in cities and tolr,ns people to lor ul rcgions. throughout the empire. Mcnnakuna might also be given in The Inca emploved several groups of people in ."r,hat marriage b,v Inca rulers to cement alliances. These so-called amounted to full-time state senice. One of these. the \trgins of the Sun pla,ved an important economlc as u'ell as mamakuna, consisted of u,omen u,ho lived pril'ileged but religious role, rvear,'ing and brer,l'ing the maize beer l s0uuls aq] ]0 s.r0loJ aq] ut pap0cua seM u0tlPuJJ0]ul sauolstq p:-_: . sra]]eur anrlellstutulpe ploJaJ o] pasn 's0ur.tls pal]oul t0 opeL_ :, - 'ndinb e 0urploq uMoqs lalnseatJ puetO aql 'colewndpg ec! er_ 'srep€Aur qsruedg Aq a:rdrua aL{t Jo uortrnrlsap eLll eArAJfis lou plno^\ leql .r C.. d nc nodaf, Suraq-11e.rr Jo ernseeur e aldoad s1r 1q8no.rc1 reql it-uouoca a,ulrnpord e paraaur8ue e^€r{ o1 readde plul al{t 'suortrperl ucapuv tuarJue uo Surppng .iepot ueql uorl€ArllnJ .rapun puel arou Sur8urrq '.rrord pue .redsord ol Luaqt pa.{\olle leql lueuuor -r rua SurBuell€r1r rreLl] o1 uorleldepe ue padoya,rep sapu\ aqt 3o aldoad aqt ,irolsrq 3uo1 laql ra.Lg 'errdrua aql Jo seqrear ipJ eLIt ruoJJ oJZnD o1 sa8esseu pads srauunr .ie1e: ua1s,(s 'sadols 3o y daats 3o tuaJse aqt paspa sie.rrrrels pue 'ste,uJ pue saS.ro8 pessoJJ sa8prrq uorsuadsns adog 'sa:e3q8noroqt ap1,n ot sqled .peor \\olrpLr ruo.r3 peBuer asaLII Jo sallru 000,r1 uprlt arour tltnq erul eql ,{lluarcrlge arrdura i:rL{t .Jo LIllea.&\ aql atnqrrtsrp pue,sureuop j:llll JJlsIuiLupe ':^OrrlrJ€ Jraql a^oLU oI 'ndtnb payw sarr^ep Surlunolce 8urr1s uo sprorer e.\rlerlsrumrpe pelrelap 1da1 ,{aqt ,Burtr.r,lr palJel erul eqt q8noqlly .atlla eJul eqt pallrrrue pue :irure aqt palllolJ pue poJ .s:;.toqel a{uL aLIt peuretsns 'sasnoqarols ur pelJelloJ ,arrdure aql Jo Lltlea,\\ eqJ ']entrr pue Suitsea3 qtrm ajels eql Jo aJuaJrJauaq pue .ra.uod aqt uaql uodn ssardrur o1 pue eJr,\res rcqel oill1t ur paSe8ua aldoad paal !asnoq ri ! pue 'azruebro ol pa^res sreluaJ eqJ .speor I/ 'it 3o ruals,is elqe)iteLuar e.{q palur{ sasno!arBA\ (. pue sJaluaJ oArl€rlsrurrxpe ieuor8ar q8norql arrdua I rlaql ur tlal eJuaserd rraql apeu spJul aL{J 'spoo8 UerJ laLIlo pu€ pooJ qir.{\ se IIa,!\ se selrlxet qll^\ pe]IrJ ara/\\ sasnoqarp^\ Brul pue 'atels aql ,(q perrnbar eJr,\ras roqel Jo sluroJ eql Suoue se^\ uorlJnpord a1r1xa1 .uorlerlrJJe rrulllr vqwl't3(0JD0d3( 6Zi secuaurv 0q] i0 su0tlpztltA!3 ]uatsuv tr1 taldeq3 Part 3 Consolidation and lnteraction of World Civilizations. 500 c.e . to 1500 c.r. The Aztec Empire depended on tribute from conquered quest, intimidation, and alliances with other peoples. The peoples. Aztec society was organized for war and was Inca exacted taxation in terms of forced labor and con- divided into nobles and commoners, with merchants and structed over 14,000 miles of roads and numerous ropc certain artisans forming intermediate categories. The Aztecs bridges. Although the Inca lacked writing, they kept detailec practiced wide-scale human sacrifice; most of the victims accounts using knotted strings. were captured warriors. Women could own property and participate in trade but were subordinate to men and excluded from high authority. Andean South America. N4onumental architecture and public buildings in Peru date from rhe rhird millennium l. Describe the rise of civilization in Mesoamerica ani B.C.E. Over the next 3,000 years, the Andean peoples Andean South America. What does it have in common developed pottery, urban centers, intricate cotton weav- with the rise of civilization in Africa and Eurasia? In ing, and sophisticated agriculture. The first expansionist what ways was it different? empires emerged in the Andean hlghlands in the fifth century C.E. 2. The appearance of monumental architecture in the The Incas built the most extensive Andean empire. It ancient world was often associated u,ith hierarchical extended for 2,600 miles from Ecuador to Chile between agricultural societies. Was this the case for the Peruvian the Pacific and the Amazon basin. Inca rule relied on con- coast? Empires in the New World Having built complex societies that were politically expan- sive, economically prosperous, and religiously devout as well ln the following primary source docu- as brutally warlike, indigenous Americans posed something ments, very different perspectives 0f of a contradictory puzzle to the arriving Spanish. Use the Mesoamerican and South American following s0urces to examine how the Aztecs and lncas cultures are readily apparent. These organized and ruled their empires. primary sources describe indigenous American cultures in Mesoamerica and Sources from Chapter 14 South America during the early period of "The Aztecs Economically lsolate an Enemy" (p. a20). contact by the Spanish in the sixteenth century. 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