General Rescue Manual
March 2006
Table of contents
Table of contents
1 Introduction...... 1 1.1 Purpose ...... 1 1.2 Definition of USAR...... 1
2 General rescue background...... 3 2.1 Objectives ...... 3 2.2 The aim of rescue ...... 3 2.3 Functions ...... 3 2.4 The psychology of rescue ...... 3 2.5 Rescue workers ...... 4 2.6 Personal traits of the rescue worker...... 5 2.7 Personal behaviour ...... 6 2.8 Team composition...... 6 2.9 Activation ...... 7 2.10 Deployment...... 7
3 Safety in training and operations ...... 8 3.1 Objectives ...... 8 3.2 Introduction ...... 8 3.3 The responsibility for safety ...... 8 3.4 Strategies to improve safety ...... 9 3.5 Basic precautions...... 10 3.6 Personal protective equipment (PPE) ...... 10 3.7 Rescue fall protection ...... 11 3.8 Casualty safety ...... 12 3.9 Confined space operations ...... 12 3.10 Moving in an unknown environment...... 13 3.11 Searching a darkened room...... 14 3.12 Moving on stairs...... 15 3.13 Vehicle safety...... 15 3.14 Equipment safety ...... 15 3.15 Public utility hazards ...... 16 3.16 Correct lifting techniques ...... 16 3.17 Team lifting ...... 17 3.18 Warning signals ...... 17
4 Incident ground actions ...... 19 4.1 Objectives ...... 19 4.2 Incident management ...... 19 4.3 Initial action strategies ...... 20 4.4 Site control...... 20 4.5 Rescue by stages ...... 25
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4.6 Continuing action ...... 28 4.7 Precautions in operations ...... 28 4.8 Crush injuries...... 29 4.9 Debris clearance...... 29 4.10 When debris clearance is necessary ...... 30 4.11 Methods of debris clearance...... 30 4.12 Precautions in operations ...... 30 4.13 The appreciation process...... 31 4.14 Introduction to Search and Victim Marking ...... 32 4.15 Disaster victim identification (DVI) ...... 34 4.16 Suspicious circumstances...... 34 4.17 Conduct at the scene ...... 34
5 Ropes...... 36 5.1 Objectives ...... 36 5.2 Introduction ...... 36 5.3 Types of rope...... 36 5.4 Synthetic ropes ...... 37 5.5 Kernmantle Construction ...... 37 5.6 Characteristics of Static Kernmantle Rope ...... 38 5.7 Characteristics of rescue ropes...... 38 5.8 Breaking force...... 39 5.9 Safe working load (SWL) ...... 39 5.10 Care and maintenance...... 39 5.11 Washing ropes...... 40 5.12 Inspection ...... 40 5.13 Retiring a rope ...... 41 5.14 Terminology ...... 42 5.15 Rope packaging...... 43 5.16 Identification...... 44 5.17 Record systems ...... 44 5.18 Climbing tapes ...... 45 5.19 Construction...... 45 5.20 Size...... 46 5.21 Abrasion...... 46 5.22 Tape strength...... 46 5.23 The use of tape...... 46 5.24 Care and maintenance...... 47 5.25 Safety...... 47 5.26 Flexible steel wire rope ...... 47 5.27 Safe working load (SWL) ...... 47 5.28 Construction...... 48 5.29 Precautions in operations ...... 48 5.30 Inspection of steel wire rope ...... 48 ii General Rescue Manual - March 2006 Table of contents
5.31 Storage of steel wire ropes ...... 49
6 Knots...... 50 6.1 Objectives ...... 50 6.2 Introduction ...... 50 6.3 Stopper knots...... 50 6.4 Figure 8 knots ...... 50 6.5 Figure 8 knot (Single figure 8)...... 51 6.6 Figure 8 on a bight (Double figure 8) ...... 51 6.7 Rethreaded figure 8 ...... 51 6.8 Figure 8 joining knot (Figure 8 bend) ...... 52 6.9 Double figure 8 on a bight (Anchor 8 or Industrial 8)...... 53 6.10 Round turn and two half hitches...... 53 6.11 Alpine butterfly ...... 54 6.12 Double fisherman’s knot ...... 54 6.13 Prusik knot ...... 55 6.14 Clove hitch ...... 55 6.15 Friction hitch...... 56 6.16 Joining ropes...... 56
7 Ladders...... 57 7.1 Objectives ...... 57 7.2 Introduction ...... 57 7.3 Construction...... 57 7.4 Terminology ...... 58 7.5 Extension ladders ...... 59 7.6 Step ladders...... 59 7.7 Inspection of ladders...... 60 7.8 Maintenance of ladders...... 60 7.9 Single rescuer ladder raise ...... 60 7.10 Erecting and extending the ladder (2 rescuer) ...... 61 7.11 Erecting and extending the ladder (3 rescuer) ...... 61 7.12 Angle of ladder when raised ...... 62 7.13 Overlaps ...... 63 7.14 Securing ladders...... 63 7.15 Securing the head of the ladder...... 63 7.16 Securing the foot of the ladder...... 63 7.17 Halving ladders ...... 64 7.18 Ladder climbing...... 64 7.19 Rules of 3...... 65 7.20 Helping a casualty down a ladder ...... 65
8 Managing casualties...... 66 8.1 Objectives ...... 66
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8.2 Introduction ...... 66 8.3 START ...... 66 8.4 Labelling ...... 67 8.5 Consumer Code of Rights- Health and Disability Commission ...... 68
9 Stretchers ...... 69 9.1 Objectives ...... 69 9.2 Introduction ...... 69 9.3 Folding or pole stretchers ...... 69 9.4 Board rescue stretchers...... 70 9.5 Basket stretchers ...... 71 9.6 Wrap-around stretchers ...... 71 9.7 Blanketing the stretcher ...... 72 9.8 Blanketing - Lateral/Recovery position...... 72 9.9 Loading the stretcher ...... 73 9.10 The four rescuer method...... 73 9.11 Blanket lift (four or six rescuers)...... 74 9.12 Clothing lift (Three rescuers)...... 75 9.13 Webbing bands (Five rescuers) ...... 75 9.14 Specialist lifting/loading devices...... 76 9.15 Summary of stretcher types and uses...... 76 9.16 Lashing the casualty to the stretcher ...... 76 9.17 Lashing the folding stretcher...... 77 9.18 Lashing - Lateral/Recovery position...... 77 9.19 Lashing - Board rescue stretcher...... 78 9.20 Alternate Board rescue stretcher lashing ...... 78 9.21 Securing a basket stretcher with securing straps...... 79 9.22 Securing a basket stretcher by lashing ...... 79 9.23 Improvised casualty harness ...... 80 9.24 Moving a stretcher over uneven ground...... 80 9.25 Moving a stretcher in restricted spaces...... 81 9.26 Improvised stretchers...... 82
10 Stretcher based rescue techniques ...... 84 10.1 Objectives ...... 84 10.2 Introduction ...... 84 10.3 Definitions ...... 84 10.4 Additional equipment ...... 85 10.5 Low angle rescue techniques ...... 85 10.6 Attachment of the line ...... 85 10.7 Creation of the friction/“catch”...... 87 10.8 Limited High angle rescue techniques ...... 87 10.9 Guide lines...... 88 10.10 Single point lower...... 88
iv General Rescue Manual - March 2006 Table of contents
10.11 Two point lower...... 89 10.12 Four point lower ...... 90 10.13 Ladder Slide...... 91 10.14 Ladder Hinge ...... 93
11 Non-stretcher based rescue techniques...... 94 11.1 Objectives ...... 94 11.2 Introduction ...... 94 11.3 Vertical Lift Knot...... 95
12 Improvised casualty movement...... 96 12.1 Objectives: ...... 96 12.2 Introduction ...... 96 12.3 One rescuer techniques...... 96 12.4 Two rescuer techniques...... 98
13 Anchors and holdfasts ...... 100 13.1 Objectives ...... 100 13.2 Introduction ...... 100 13.3 Natural anchors...... 100 13.4 Constructed anchors...... 100 13.5 Improvised anchors...... 103 13.6 Precautions in operations ...... 103 13.7 Selection of anchors ...... 103 13.8 Sling loading angles...... 104 13.9 Attachment to anchors ...... 105 13.10 Safety summary...... 106
14 Pulley systems and lifting...... 107 14.1 Objectives ...... 107 14.2 Introduction ...... 107 14.3 Terminology ...... 107 14.4 Types of pulleys...... 108 14.5 Characteristics of the lightweight rescue pulley ...... 108 14.6 Constructing pulley systems ...... 109 14.7 Types of pulley systems...... 109 14.8 Mechanical advantage ...... 109 14.9 Precautions in use ...... 110 14.10 Lift/Lower rope rescue devices ...... 110 14.11 Commercial pulley systems ...... 111 14.12 Drum systems...... 111 14.13 Standard procedures for use ...... 111 14.14 Levers ...... 112 14.15 Fulcrum blocks...... 112 14.16 Lifting ...... 112
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 v Table of contents
15 Additional general rescue equipment ...... 113 15.1 Objectives ...... 113 15.2 Introduction ...... 113 15.3 Karabiners ...... 113 15.4 Accidental gate opening...... 114 15.5 Concerns with screwgate karabiners ...... 114 15.6 Karabiner usage...... 114 15.7 Shackles ...... 115 15.8 Safety in operation...... 115 15.9 Generators...... 115 15.10 ELCB’S and RCD’S ...... 116 15.11 Power output of the generator ...... 116 15.12 Precautions in operations ...... 117 15.13 Electrical safety precautions ...... 117 15.14 Generator maintenance and regular checks ...... 118 15.15 Generator storage...... 118 15.16 Lighting ...... 119 15.17 Positioning lighting ...... 119
vi General Rescue Manual - March 2006 Section 1: Introduction
1 Introduction
1.1 Purpose The purpose of the General Rescue Manual is to provide guidelines for standard methods of training for General Rescue techniques in New Zealand. It is written to accompany the USAR Awareness Student Manual and reference to this manual is made frequently.
The development of the USAR structure in New Zealand has provided the impetus for the review in 2004 of the General Rescue Manual. This, with an increased emphasis on safety, has meant some techniques have been modified, others deleted or replaced. Interestingly, some of the core skills developed over the years in New Zealand have stood the test of time and are a credit to the pioneers of general rescue in New Zealand.
USAR Awareness and General Rescue combine to provide rescue workers with a range of core skills to safely and effectively locate, extract and rescue victims from a variety of events. It is not intended to be exhaustive, but rather provide a framework for the development of individual rescue workers, and ultimately rescue teams.
NOTE: This manual has been developed to support and accompany practical training sessions delivered by suitably qualified trainers.
1.2 Definition of USAR An integrated multi agency response which is beyond the capability of normal rescue arrangements, to provide initial medical care and removal of entrapped persons from damaged structures or other environments in a safe and expeditious manner.
New Zealand has made some significant steps in the development of the USAR structure in recent years. The USAR Awareness Manual covers more about the history and structure of USAR in New Zealand, but of particular note are:
• The USAR Tier System • The Responder certification (Orange Card) • USAR Registered Response Teams and USAR Taskforces.
Individuals receive Responder certification, and an Orange Card when they have completed recognised, unit standard based training in USAR Awareness, the Co- ordinated Incident Management System (CIMS), First Aid and General Rescue.
A USAR Awareness course should, in most cases, be completed in conjunction with training in General Rescue.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 1 Section 1: Introduction
A Registered New Zealand Response Team is a team of people who have a collective level of skill (based on Responder certification) have met the minimum equipment requirements and have Standard Operating Procedures.
A USAR Taskforce is a national team of Taskforce Technicians plus support and specialists.
A Task Force Technician is a person trained to carry out specialist structural collapse rescue. More information on USAR Responders, Technicians and Specialists can be found by visiting www.usar.govt.nz.
2 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 2: General rescue background
2 General rescue background
2.1 Objectives On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: should know: • The aim of rescue
and demonstrate awareness of: • the 3 categories of rescue workers • personal traits of the rescue worker • some important areas of personal behaviour related to rescue
2.2 The aim of rescue To save the greatest number of lives in the shortest possible time and to minimise further injury to people and damage to property.
2.3 Functions Common rescue functions include: • Access to, and the support and removal of, trapped people in the course of rescue operations. • Assistance with the recovery of the dead (managed and conducted by NZ Police). • Provision of support on request to other services, authorities or specialist teams.
WARNING NOTE: In order to achieve the aim of rescue, all rescuers must be trained in basic life sustaining first aid to recognised standards.
2.4 The psychology of rescue A moments reflection is all that is needed to realise that any situation requiring a rescue operation, by definition is one which contains either dangerous or potentially dangerous elements.
People tend to react differently to danger, but the most general responses are anxiety and fear, perhaps the most powerful of all emotions. It must be remembered that it is not just the victim who faces the danger; in order to rescue the victim the rescuer must first enter the site of the dangerous situation and face the same danger.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 3 Section 1: Introduction
Even if the main danger has struck and passed, additional dangers are still often present. The difference between the victim and the rescuer is that the rescuer is better able to cope with, or handle, the situation. This is because the rescuer has the knowledge and the resources to minimise risk and remedy the situation.
It is normal to be anxious and feel fear in the face of danger. These are emotional reactions common to both victim and rescuer. Many other emotional responses may become manifest during a rescue situation - pity, disgust, contempt, pride, concern, and many more. These are often exaggerated beyond all reason by the urgency and pressures of the situation, thus lowering the efficiency of the overall operation.
The rescuer must be aware of the psychological needs of the victims, not just their physical needs, and be prepared to meet these psychological needs.
2.5 Rescue workers An event requiring rescue operations will usually create three categories of rescue workers:
Category 1 – Survivors The immediate reaction of survivors in a major incident, once they have discovered that they are not injured, is to help their neighbours and families. They often do not know what to do, but obviously it is a serious situation and thus they feel they must do something.
These good intentions could aggravate the conditions of those being ‘helped’ to the point where the loss of life may be greater than it should be. They could also get in the way and interrupt the functioning of trained rescue teams. However, uninjured and slightly injured survivors could well be the only hope of survival for many victims (e.g. if toxic gases, dangerous chemicals, fire, or danger of fire exist at the site of the emergency). The first group to commence rescue work at a site consists of those survivors still physically capable of doing so. The potential for good is enormous but the danger inherent in rescue work by untrained personnel is also enormous.
Category 2 – Untrained personnel The second ‘wave’ of rescue workers is drawn from people either witnessing the event from the immediate vicinity, or are drawn to the site by curiosity and a desire to assist the victims. Although not quite as emotionally involved as the survivors, the danger inherent in utilising untrained personnel is still a factor which must be considered. On the positive side, they often bring necessary resources with them and can be effective if brought under control and properly supervised.
Unfortunately, a large number of the ‘curious’ are just that. They have no desire to help, but just look. They get in the way, shout advice, and generally add to the excitement of the site – the very thing that is least needed, especially from the standpoint of victims.
4 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 2: General rescue background
Category 3 – Trained personnel The last group to arrive at the scene is the trained rescuers: Police, Fire, Civil Defence, etc. It takes some time for various emergency services to mobilise and arrive at the scene. The quicker they can arrive, the less time there will have been for the first two groups to aggravate the situation and create more dangers to surviving victims and themselves. The well-trained team will know what to do, and how to utilise the available resources and untrained personnel in efficiently carrying out the necessary tasks in a manner that will not further endanger anyone.
Note: Experience overseas shows that up to 80% of rescues are carried out by category 1 and 2 personnel. Category 3 personnel rescue 15% with the last 5% being rescued by highly trained specialist teams such as USAR Taskforces.
2.6 Personal traits of the rescue worker Rescue work is not an easy task, nor is it necessarily a ‘glamorous’ one. Certainly not all people are suited to such work. Physical fitness, personality, and emotional stability are all factors in determining one’s suitability.
Ideally, the rescuer will have the following qualities: • Interest- A genuine interest in rescue work, not just because of peer pressure, trying to impress etc. • Training- The will to continually undergo training to maintain a professional standard. • Cooperation- Rescue work is usually a team effort, hence cooperation with others is vital. • Dependability- The lives of victims and team members rely on the rescuer. • Initiative- The nature of rescue operations is such that it is often impossible to closely supervise each team member. Each must be able to see what needs doing, set priorities and do the tasks at hand. • Versatility- Each situation is unique. An individual must be able to apply a wide range of skills and knowledge to new situations. • Physical fitness- Rescue work of any kind is physically demanding and often continues for long periods. Any physical limitations must be recognised and taken into consideration. • Leadership qualities- Required by all rescuers at various times and to varying degrees. Through the capable leadership of trained rescuers, many more untrained personnel may be utilised. • Control over fears and phobias- It is important that rescuers know what they can and cannot do. Part of this knowledge consists of being aware of any phobias. It is also vital that the leader of a rescue team knows of any phobias in team members. Some phobias that could seriously affect a rescuer and which may be identified in training are: o The fear of the sight of blood (Hemophobia) o The fear of heights (Acrophobia) o The fear of confined spaces (Claustrophobia)
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 5 Section 1: Introduction
o The fear of water (Hydrophobia) • Good dress and bearing- Appearance should instill confidence in others.
2.7 Personal behaviour The conduct of individuals says a lot about their psychological makeup and personality. The nature of rescue work is such that it is particularly important that personal conduct does not aggravate matters, but rather assists in creating a feeling that the situation is in competent hands, and everything possible is being done to rescue and care for the victims. Bad behavior by an individual, e.g. bad language, reflects negatively on the whole team and its leadership.
A few of the more important general areas of conduct or behaviours follow: • Attitude—A serious, professional attitude must be maintained to gain confidence and support. Arrogance and superiority create instant antagonism. Loud talking, joking, and horseplay reduce credibility; they create a feeling of resentment and disgust and add to the confusion, thus hindering the work and adding to the state of anxiety of the victims. Rescuers cannot consider themselves ‘professional’ if they add to the confusion by loud shouting or frantic gestures. • Emotions—Emotions are hard to control in the best of circumstances. In a disaster the control of emotions is a very difficult task but every effort must be made to prevent emotions from influencing good judgement and competence. Regardless of the excitement and the severity of the incident, the rescuer must be able to remain calm, and be sympathetic without becoming emotionally involved. • Courtesy—Courtesy, tact, and good judgement are vital if the rescue task is to be completed quickly and effectively. Courtesy must be given to all concerned. • Confidentiality—During rescue activities and training there may be times when rescuers will see and hear things which will be deemed confidential. It is essential that they understand this, be ‘professional’ and do not discuss these matters with others.
A Code of Ethics for rescue workers is currently being developed by the International Search and Rescue Advisory Group (INSARAG) and when finalised should be used as a guiding document.
2.8 Team composition Team composition will be determined by the various organisations within each area on the basis of safe accomplishment of set tasks. Regardless of the team composition, a team leader must be appointed. A team of 6 – 8 members is required for effective general rescue teamwork. Teams may be larger, but these are often split into squads of 6-8 rescuers to allow them to be easily managed.
6 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 2: General rescue background
2.9 Activation Each team should have a callout system established, and have determined the time necessary to ensure a full team response. This system should include such details as: • Who calls out the team • Who will be responsible for them • Where to report • What functions the team will perform • What equipment to take • Likely duration of task or event.
2.10 Deployment On call-out, teams should clearly state to the organisation requesting their support details of accommodation and any feeding assistance that may be required. If practical, each team should be self-sufficient in the provision of food for the first 24 hours.
Note: Minimum requirements for team number, structure, activation and deployment are established for teams wanting to register as a New Zealand Response Team.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 7 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
3 Safety in training and operations
3.1 Objectives On completion of study and/or instruction on this chapter of the General Rescue Manual individuals: should know: • Who is responsible for safety at training and rescue operations
Demonstrate awareness of: • Safe Person Concept or Risk Assessment Management System • Safe lifting techniques
Practically demonstrate a technique for, in an unknown environment: • opening a door • climbing stairs • searching a darkened room
3.2 Introduction The task of rescue involves the training of individuals and teams in a variety of skills, some of which, unless properly carried out, may well prove dangerous to the individual rescuer, the team, casualties, or bystanders. In all cases, the safety of rescuers is of prime importance.
It is therefore necessary, particularly in the early stages of training and exercises, to pay a great deal of attention to safety measures, and to emphasise the need to strictly observe and enforce these measures.
WARNING NOTE: All rescue training and operations must be carried out with due regard to safe work practices, occupational health and safety requirements, and codes of practice and guidelines.
Many of the safety precautions to be observed are merely common sense. Unfortunately, they are so basic and simple they are often overlooked.
3.3 The responsibility for safety Safety is the principal consideration in any rescue activity and it is the responsibility of each rescuer to ensure that safety procedures and Occupational Health and Safety requirements are followed, instructions observed, and operations carried out with a minimum of risk.
8 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
There are a number of guidelines, codes of practice, regulations, and procedures that relate to safety, and to operational aspects such as critical incident stress, and risk management. These are constantly being amended and updated – it is the responsibility of organisations to keep their procedures and policies in line with the current guidelines, codes of practice and regulations. Reference to the most relevant of these are made throughout this manual, and were correct at the time of printing.
Additionally, individual services have procedures for the management of these factors, and for determining individual and organisational responsibilities. All of these factors must be taken into account in the management of rescue activities.
This section covers the key points of safety in training and operations as they affect the rescuer, the casualty, or the bystander. Specific safety points will be covered with each rescue technique, as they affect how the particular rescue technique is conducted.
3.4 Strategies to improve safety There are a number of strategies/systems that have been developed to improve the safety of rescue operations. No matter what system is used, the objectives are the same: Identify hazards and risks and take steps to: • eliminate • isolate or • minimise the risk
For example:
Risk Assessment Management System (RAMS) RAMS is a process where the activities planned to be undertaken are evaluated for their hazard/risk and the steps that can be taken to reduce the risk are identified in a systematic way.
Safe Person Concept (SPC) The safe person concept provides a framework for the application of the risk assessment and management process. It is used extensively by the New Zealand Fire Service, and can easily be adapted for the general rescue environment.
The SPC uses a 5-step risk assessment and review: 1. Identify potential hazards and risks 2. Likelihood - what is the likelihood of these occurring - certain, very likely, unlikely or rare 3. Consequences - what are the likely consequences - catastrophic, major, moderate or insignificant 4. Level of risk - what is the level of risk? Risk = likelihood x consequence 5. Actions - what actions can be taken to eliminate, isolate or minimise the risk.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 9 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
This is often presented in a table: eg for General Rescue Training Potential Likelihood Consequences Level of risk Actions to be hazard (Certain, Very (catastrophic, Major, (Extreme, High, taken Likely, Unlikely, Minimal, Low) Mod, Low) Rare) Rope breaking Rare Major Moderate All ropes used to meet standard (M) Only approved knots used (M)…
3.5 Basic precautions Safety Officers should be appointed for any rescue activity. Team Leaders and Safety Officers are responsible for safety at all times, but every team member needs to be aware of their responsibility to raise safety concerns at any time. The orders given by these officers are to be obeyed without question or delay, as they are vital to safety. In general, the Safety Officer should not undertake any other role - their focus is on safety.
Equipment must be regularly and carefully checked both before and after use. Ropes can wear and rot, batteries can corrode equipment, and machinery can break down. Faulty equipment can cost lives.
Any faulty or suspect equipment must be labeled immediately and removed for repair or replacement (e.g. the rope that a rescuer used, inadvertently damaged, but did not check, may kill someone next time it is used).
Personnel ‘at risk’ by working at heights or depths must be protected by properly established and monitored safety lines and systems.
Wherever possible, rescuers should adhere to standard techniques and practices.
In any rescue technique, safety limits and margins have been built in for casualty and rescuer protection. These must never be ignored or exceeded.
WARNING NOTE: Under no circumstances is smoking permitted in the rescue environment.
3.6 Personal protective equipment (PPE) PPE should be issued/made available to each rescuer and is a key in ensuring the safety of rescue personnel.
10 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
The following is a list of basic PPE for rescue workers - consistent with USAR Awareness Student Manual:
• Helmet • Whistle • Full-length clothing • Headlamp • Torch • Goggles • Dust masks • Gloves • First aid kit • Knife or shears • Boots • Hearing protection • Knee and elbow pads (advised for USAR Awareness)
It is important that each piece of PPE is appropriate for the task being undertaken, and meets the appropriate AS/NZ or international standard.
Helmets, in particular, must be worn at all times of risk, whether great or small. All safety equipment must be maintained and replaced in accordance with the manufacturer’s recommendations.
3.7 Rescue fall protection Rescue personnel who work in situations where they could fall three meters or more are required, under the Health and Safety in Employment Act 1992 to protect themselves from this potential fall. Consideration should also be given at heights of less than three meters if the result of the fall could lead to an injury.
Personnel should wear a harness if there is a potential risk of falling. This harness should meet the requirements of AS/NZS 1891.1: 1985 Safety Belts and Harnesses or equivalent standard, and preferably be of the full body type.
As there are many types of harnesses available including sit harnesses, fall arrest harnesses and rescue harnesses. Advice should be sought when deciding on what type of harness you require.
Fall protection can be provided under two basic categories. The first of these is fall prevention where the person is restricted from gaining access to the edge where they could fall, i.e. guardrails or a length of line attached to an anchorage and the person’s harness which is short enough to stop them reaching the edge. The second method is fall arrest where some device is used to stop a person from hitting a lower surface after a fall i.e. using a shock absorbing lanyard or rope grabbing device.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 11 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
For further information regarding safe work at height the Occupational Safety and Health Service’s Guidelines for the Prevention of Falls should be consulted.
3.8 Casualty safety The safety of casualties is very important. Every effort, including the use of protective equipment, must be made to ensure that casualties come to no further harm once a rescue team arrives at the scene.
WARNING NOTE: Horseplay or casual handling of casualties is unsafe and must not be tolerated.
For the sake of realism in training it is an advantage to use live casualties in exercises and drills. Teams should bear in mind the added safety required when dealing with heights, water, and contaminated areas, where dummy casualties may be substituted. In most cases, it is only by handling live casualties in training and exercises that rescuers will appreciate the problems they will encounter on operations.
3.9 Confined space operations
WARNING NOTE: Confined spaces are very dangerous Activities in a confined space must only be undertaken by appropriately trained and qualified personnel.
In rescue operations, many environments may fall within the definition of confined spaces as laid down in Standard ASNZ 2865:2001 (Safe Work in Confined Spaces).
A confined space is defined as an enclosed or partially enclosed space which: • Is at atmospheric pressure during occupancy • Is not intended or designed primarily as a place of work • May have restricted means for entry and exit • May have an atmosphere which contains potentially harmful levels of contaminant • Does not have a safe oxygen level • May cause you to be buried.
Rescue activities in such environments must be carried out with particular regard to the problems of breathing in dangerous atmospheres.
12 General Rescue Manual – March 2006 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
The RAPID® programme, has produced a self-paced training module for confined space awareness.
RAPID is a join initiative of the Ministry of Civil Defence & Emergency Management (MCDEM) and the Local Government Industry Training Organisation (LGITO).
3.10 Moving in an unknown environment When in strange surroundings and unable to see, the safest course of action is to work by touch. The need for caution is obvious and accidents can be avoided by remembering a few simple points:
If you do not know what is behind the door into a room, check the temperature of the door with the back of your hand.
If it is hot to touch, do not open the door, as the temperature inside is excessive and/or a fire may be exacerbated.
The procedure for opening a door that opens away from the rescuer, if they are unsure what is on the other side.
The rescuer is bent over so that the majority of their weight is over their back leg. This position reduces the likelihood of the rescuer being pulled into the room if the door tries to swing all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure.
The procedure for opening a door that opens towards the rescuer, if they are unsure what may be on the other side.
The rescuer’s front foot is placed firmly on the floor about 20-30cm away from the door. This prevents the door swinging all the way open in the case of strong wind or a difference in air pressure. It allows the rescuer to close it if the environment appears to be too hazardous to enter.
General Rescue Manual – March 2006 13 Section 3: Safety in training and operations
WARNING NOTE: Rescue workers should only enter smoke/dust filled room if required for their evacuation from a building during an emergency situation.
If you need to leave a smoke-filled room, crawl on your hands and knees. In this position you are below dangerous heated gases and the bulk of the smoke.
You will also be above toxic, heavier- than-air gases that may have been generated by burning plastics and natural materials.
If moving in upright position, shuffle, don’t walk. The weight of the body should be kept poised on the rear foot until the advancing foot has tested that it is safe to move forward; do not lift the feet from the ground – they should slide forward as this will help detect obstructions and dangers.
As you move forward raise your free hand in front of your face, lightly clenched, with the back uppermost, to feel for obstructions. If the back of your hand touches a live electric wire, shock will throw it clear. Your hand will not grasp the wire as it would if it were open.
3.11 Searching a darkened room