392 CANNON ET AL. Chapter 7 - Prehistoric bison in , : new evidence from the Goetz Site (48TE455) Kenneth P. Cannon USU Archeological Services, Inc., USA

Molly Boeka Cannon Museum of Anthropology, Utah State University, USA

Jon Peart USU Archeological Services, Inc., USA

The prehistoric record of bison in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) extends back 10,000 years (Cannon 1992, 2008), but the record is fragmentary. Nineteenth- century observations suggest that bison ranged throughout the lower elevation meadows with probable summer migrations into the high alpine meadows (Cannon 2007; Fryxell 1926; Meagher 1973:appendix II). For example, Ferris (1940:163) provides two first-hand accounts of bison in the Jackson Hole area:

… found a large herd of buffalo in the valley, and killed several; also a large bear, which paid with his life [for] the temerity of awaiting our approach [31 May 1833 about four miles west of the Gros Ventre River in Jackson Hole]; and

At the foot of the bluff, are the bones of many buffaloes and , that have been precipitated over it and killed [4 June 1833 probably near the Red Hills in Jackson Hole].

Today, bison are restricted to public lands in Yellowstone National Park (YNP) and Jackson Hole. Migrations beyond these political boundaries result in either hazing or death (Peacock 1997). A general paucity of bison in the archeological record, as well as low and fluctuating numbers of modern bison in Yellowstone and Jackson Hole, led Wright (1984:28) to conclude that “bison were always relatively rare in northwestern Wyoming, and that they would have been too unpredictable in numbers to provide a stable food source.” He continues, “since populations were small, one successful kill of adults would have reduced the reproductive potential of the herd to a level where it would no longer have been a significant part of the ecosystem.” Mary Meagher (1973:14), on the other hand, suggests that “substantial numbers of bison inhabited the Yellowstone Plateau at all seasons, and long before PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 393 the killing of the northern herd of Great Plains bison in the early 1880s.” Since these two perspectives illustrate extremely different views, it is clear we have much to learn about the details (Cannon 2001a). In this paper, we would like to begin a discussion of the economic, and by exten- sion the ecological, role of bison in the mountainous west. To go beyond “their fam- iliar plains habitats” (Roe 1970:69) and begin to understand this species in a larger context. For example, how did mountain populations interact with larger plains herds to maintain local populations? Was bison expansion into the intermountain west a result of population expansion during periods of favorable climate that increased the carrying capacity of shortgrass prairies and desert grasslands? Were bison a consistent part of precontact mountain economies or only during specific periods?. These are important larger questions, but first let us begin exploring the role of bison in Jackson Hole, Wyoming.

Bison in Jackson Hole Since both Wright and Meagher presented their views, new information has become available concerning both modern and prehistoric populations. Part of Wright’s argument for low numbers of bison in the prehistoric record was based on an extra- polation of population dynamics of modern bison in both Yellowstone and Jackson Hole. While bison in both these areas received protection by the Department of Interior, Wright failed to mention that bison were often removed from the herds based upon various management decisions (GRTE/NER 1996). Examining bison winter counts in Jackson Hole shows that since the mid-1960s when the National Park Service implemented a noninterventionist approach to natural resource man- agement, bison numbers have increased to a high in 2007 of 1059 (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2008). Supplemental feeding of bison on the began in 1980 and may be contributing to the population’s fecundity. In 1969, the free-roaming Jackson Hole bison herd was begun with 16 founders with high fecundity rates that are causing exponential annual population growth rates of 16 to 19 percent (Cain et al. 1998). Currently, the natural mortality of bison is very low, for example, between 1995 and 2005 natural mortality ranged from 0.4 to 7.3 percent. The annual growth rate of 12 percent more than compen- sates for the low natural mortality and historic harvesting by hunters (Wyoming Game and Fish Department 2008), suggesting significant populations of bison can exist in the valley. Reconstructing population dynamics of precontact bison populations from modern managed herds is problematic. However, what the modern record does provide is evidence that the region can support a fairly sizeable population. Based on new information re-evaluating the role of bison in the Jackson Hole ecosystem and the prehistoric economy is warranted. A review of the prehistoric record of the Greater Yellowstone Area provides a minimum of 71 components from 31 archeological and three paleontological sites with bison (Table 1). These data represent 30 open archeological sites, one archeo- logical cave site (Mummy Cave), and three paleontological sites (Dot Island, Lamar 394 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 1 INVENTORY OF PREHISTORIC LOCALES WITH BISON REMAINS FROM THE GREATER YELLOWSTONE AREA

Site Provenience Age Nisp/ Reference Mnia

Dot Island, YNP Cutbank Unknown 6/1 Cannon (1997a) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 5 Late Holocene 2/1 Hadly (1995) 960 ± 60 Lamar Cave, YNP Level 7 Late Holocene 2/1 Hadly (1995) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 8 Late Holocene 1/1 Hadly (1995) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 9 Late Holocene 1/1 Hadly (1995) 1670 ± 60 Lamar Cave, YNP Level 10 Late Holocene 1/1 Hadly (1995) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 11 Late Holocene 2/1 Hadly (1995) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 12 Late Holocene 10/1 Hadly (1995) 1110 ± 60 Lamar Cave, YNP Level 14 Late Holocene 2/1 Hadly (1995) Lamar Cave, YNP Level 15 Late Holocene 2/1 Hadly (1995) 24PA195 n/a Middle Holocene n/a L.B. Davis, personal communication, Corwin Springs Late Bitterroot (1992) 24PA504 SU8 Late Holocene −/5 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 5 to 20 cmbs 790 ± 90 24PA504 SU7 Late Holocene −/4 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 20 to 40.5 cmbs 1470 ± 70 24PA504 SU6 Late Holocene −/5 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 2300 to 1450 BP 24PA504 SU5 Late Holocene −/5 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 56 to 71 cmbs 2300 ± 120 24PA504 SU4 Late Holocene −/4 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 3150 ± 110 24PA504 SU3 Middle Holocene −/3 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 4680 ± 220 5950 ± 150 24PA504 SU1 Early Holocene −/2 Lahren (1976) Meyers-Hindman 8450 ± 190 9400 ± 200 24PA508 Units 1 to 4, Upper Levels n/a −/− Deaver et al. (1989) The Sphinx Site 24SW651 n/a Late Holocene n/a L.B. Davis, personal communication, Jarrett Site 2820 ± 120 (1992) 24YE353 TU2/F89-1 Late Holocene 1/1 Cannon (1997a) 20 to 30 cmbs 1260 ± 50 24YE366 TU1 Late Holocene 2/1 Cannon (1997a) 40 to 50 cmbs 24YE366 TU1 Late Holocene 2/1 Cannon (1997a) 60 to 70 cmbs 1420 ± 90 Continued PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 395

TABLE 1 CONTINUED Site Provenience Age Nisp/ Reference Mnia

24YE366 TU1 Late Holocene (?) 1/1 Cannon (1997a) 90 to 100 cmbs >1420 BP 24YE366 TU2A/F89-1 Late Holocene 2/1 Cannon (1997a) 0 to 10 cmbs 1220 ± 80 24YE366 TU2A/F89-1 Late Holocene 1/1 Cannon (1997a) 10 to 20 cmbs 24YE366 TU2A/F89-1 Late Holocene 1/1 Cannon (1997a) 15 cmbs 48FR308 Post-Early Plains Archaic Late Holocene (?) 1/1 Larson et al. (1995) Lookingbill Level 48FR308 Early Plains Archaic Level Early Holocene 2/− Larson et al. (1995) Lookingbill 48FR308 Early Paleoindian Level Terminal Pleistocene 1/1 Larson et al. (1995) Lookingbill 48PA202 Early Holocene 1/1 S. Hughes, personal communication, Mummy Cave (1999) 48PA551 Site Area 4 Late Prehistoric n/a Jameson (1984) Dead Indian Creek 48PA551 Site Area 5 Late Prehistoric n/a Jameson (1984) Dead Indian Creek 48PA551 Middle Holocene 43/4 Scott and Wilson (1984) Dead Indian Creek 3800 ± 110 4180 ± 250 4430 ± 250 48PA852 Block B1 Late Holocene Eakin and Sutter (1991) 15 to 30 cmbs 48SU1042 Component 2 Late Holocene 1 Hoefer (1991) Stewart Flat <1000 BP 48SU1042 Component 1 Late Holocene 1 Hoefer (1991) Stewart Flat 1050 ± 50 1200 ± 60 1300 ± 70 48TE342 ∼3 ft. Terminal Pleistocene −/− Love (1972); Ives et al. (1964) Astoria Hot Springs 11,940 ± 500 48TE350 Late Holocene (?) −/1 Wright (1975) Blacktail Butte 7 N56/E128 Late Holocene (?) −/1 Wright and Marceau (1981) 48TE352 Test Pit 1 Late Holocene (?) 2/1 Wright and Marceau (1981) Blacktail Butte 6 48TE391 Test Pits 2-2A, 32 to 35 cm Late Holocene (?) 1/1 Wright and Marceau (1981) Blacktail Butte 12 48TE455 Late Holocene /4 Cannon, (2015) Goetz Site 800 ± 40 48TE1067 Surface Late Holocene 3/1 Cannon (1991) Continued 396 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 1 CONTINUED Site Provenience Age Nisp/ Reference Mnia

48TE1079 Block G Mid-Holocene 2/2 Cannon et al. (2001) Crescent H Ranch 48TE1090 Surface Late Holocene 371/17 Cannon (1991) 770 ± 80 48TE1101 Surface Late Holocene 63/6 Cannon (1991) 48TE1102 Surface Late Holocene 107/8 Cannon (1991) 1380 ± 80 48TE1104 Surface Late Holocene 6/1 Cannon (1991) 48TE1107 Surface Historic 2/1b Cannon (1991) 48TE1111 Surface Late Holocene 4/1 Cannon (1991) 48TE1114 Surface Late Holocene 91/4 Cannon (1991) 48TE1119 Surface Late Holocene 22/1 Cannon (1991) 48TE1573 Blocks A, G, L, J and K Late Archaic to Late -/5 Page (2015) Game Creek Prehistoric 540 ± 30 570 ± 30 690 ± 30 730 ± 30 820 ± 30 870 ± 30 880 ± 30 900 ± 30 1930 ± 30 2070 ± 30 2150 ± 30 2190 ± 30 2340 ± 30 48TE1573 Block E Middle Archaic −/1 Page (2015) Game Creek 4740 ± 30 48TE1573 Blocks A, D, E, and H Early Archaic −2 Page (2015) Game Creek 6650 ± 30 6780 ± 30 7060 ± 40 7150 ± 40 7190 ± 40 7580 ± 40 48TE1573 Block A Mountain-Foothill −/1 Page (2015) Game Creek Paleoindian 7860 ± 40 8070 ± 40 8120 ± 40 Continued PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 397

TABLE 1 CONTINUED Site Provenience Age Nisp/ Reference Mnia

48TE1573 Blocks A and B Late Paleoindian −/1 Page (2015) Game Creek 8690 ± 40 8690 ± 40 8780 ± 40 9030 ± 50 9170 ± 40 9180 ± 50 9230 ± 50 9280 ± 50 9310 ± 50 48YE215 0N/14E Late Prehistoric 1/1 Aaberg (1996) Level 2 48YE215 0N/14E Late Prehistoric 4/1 Aaberg (1996) Level 3 48YE215 12N/12E Late Prehistoric 4/1 Aaberg (1996) Surface 48YE215 12N/12E Late Prehistoric 15/1 Aaberg (1996) Surface 48YE215 12N/12E Late Prehistoric 15/1 Aaberg (1996) Surface 48YE215 12N/12E Late Prehistoric 2/1 Aaberg (1996) Surface 48YE216 Surface Late Prehistoric 1/1 Aaberg (1996) 48YE217 0N/14E Late Prehistoric (?) 1/1 Aaberg (1996) Shovel Test 48YE217 0N/14E Late Prehistoric (?) 1/1 Aaberg (1996) Shovel Test 48YE217 0N/14E Late Prehistoric (?) 6/1 Aaberg (1996) Shovel Test 48YE697 N959/E1025 Late Holocene (?) 1/1 Cannon (1997a) 144 cmbd 48YE697 N928-9/E1057-58 Late Holocene 92/1 Cannon (1997a) 800 ± 60

Ages are presented as radiocarbon years before the present, unless otherwise indicated. aNISP, number of identified specimens; MNI, minimum number of individuals. bSpecimens attributed to Bison/Bos could not be distinguished based upon morphology, nor context.

Cave, Astoria Hot Springs), but do not include the various drive sites in Paradise Valley north of YNP (Cannon 2001a). George Arthur (1966:45–56) estimated that at least 10 bison kill sites are present in Paradise Valley, including a large complex of drive lines and rock cairns known as the Emigrant Buffalo Jump (24PA308). Fourteen sites in Jackson Hole produced bison (Figure 1). The earliest evidence of bison in the region is reported from south of Jackson Hole on the Snake River at Johnny Flats Count near Hoback. During excavation for the development of 398 CANNON ET AL.

figure 1 Map of archeological sites in Jackson Hole from which bison were recovered. Inset shows view of Goetz site area to the southwest toward Long Hollow.

Astoria Hot Springs (48TE342) “a layer of mixed bison bone and shell was exposed … Several bison skulls were retrieved from this layer … [and] … were not of any bison larger than modern populations” (Love 1972:50). Mollusk shell was collected from this site, from a “trench intersecting 2-ft shell bed at depth of 3 ft” by J.D. Love PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 399 in 1959 and submitted to the U.S. Geological Survey which produced an age of 11,940 ± 500 yrs BP (W-1070; Ives et al. 1964:60). With our current understanding of the process of radiocarbon dating (e.g., Goslar and Pazdur 1985), especially in close proximity to geothermal features, we would suggest that this age might be pro- blematic. For example, Preece et al. (1983:253) explain that a theoretical maximum of 50 percent of dead carbon could be incorporated into freshwater shell by inges- tion, “introducing an apparent error for such shells with respect to contempora- neous terrestrial vegetation of up to one 14C half-life (5730 ± 40 years).” The implications of Love’s age should be used cautiously. Four sites, including the Goetz site, are within habitat currently utilized by bison in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. The sites, at the southern end of Blacktail Butte, were investigated by Wright and his students and produced bison remains. Blacktail Butte 6 (48TE352) produced “two cranial fragments of a large mammal, apparently a bison” in Test Pit 1 (Wright and Marceau 1981:5). At the Tiny Pine site (48TE350), excavations in 1974 revealed a midden containing bison remains including a serrated obsidian corner notched point associated with part of a bison scapula (Wright and Marceau 1981:8–9). Wright and Marceau also report two obsi- dian hydration dates on artifacts recovered from the midden, A.D. 92 and A.D. 172, although these should be considered cautiously (Cannon 2001b:VI-7) due to the lack of discussion by the authors on the methods used to calculate the hydration age (e.g., geochemistry of artifacts not identified nor the hydration rate used in the calculations [Cannon 2001c:VIII-6-7]). Additional testing in 1974 revealed “the broken ulna of a young bison” at a depth of 40 cm (Wright 1975:72). The exca- vations at Blacktail Butte 12 (48TE391) produced “a fragment of tooth enamel of a large mammal, possible bison” and “the proximal end of a bison radius” in Test Pits 2 and 2A in Level 1 and at 32 and 35 cm, respectively. Despite the fact that the pre- dominant species recovered by Wright was bison (Table 2), he still thought that they were unimportant. To date, the largest assemblage of bison recovered in the Jackson Hole area comes from late Holocene contexts on the former Snake River delta, now inundated by Jackson Lake. Archeological investigations by the Midwest Archeological Center (MWAC) in 1987 and 1988 under the direction of Connor (1997) produced the remains of at least 39 bison (Cannon 1991). While it is unclear whether humans were responsible for the entire assemblage, the association of the bone with artifacts and limited evidence of butchering suggest that some of the animals were the result of human predation, while others may be natural deaths. The bison recovered from the Snake River Delta sites clearly represent a majority of the mammalian assemblage. Excavations at 48TE1079 in 1998 by MWAC produced fragmentary bison tooth remains in association with lithic debris and fired rock. The context of the material in redeposited Pleistocene loess suggests a mid-Holocene age (Cannon et al. 1999). Based upon stratigraphic position and radiocarbon dating, the ages for the tooth fragments have been calculated to 4700 BP and 6300 BP (Cannon et al. 2001: XIV-4). The Game Creek site (48TE1573) south of Jackson has recently produced a well- stratified assemblage of bison. A minimum of 12 bison have been identified, 400 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 2 LIST OF TAXA IDENTIFIED FOR SELECTED REGIONAL ASSEMBLAGES

Site Total taxa Total fauna Total mammal Bison Ungulates Carnivores Other Mammals

Upper Yellowstone River Sites (Cannon 1997a:table 12) 24YE353 13 78/23 75/22 1/1 20/9 – 51/12 24YE366 18 166/34 121/14 11/3 67/12 1/1 24/9 Lookingbill 8 699/− 699/− 4/− 685/− – 10/− Site 48FR308a Bugas-Holding 4 1913/32 1913/32 1108/15 805/17 –– 48PA563b Stewart Flat 8 40/12 34/11 5/2 26/6 – 3/3 48SU1042 Snake River Delta Sites (Cannon 1991:table 158) Survey Area 5 3 5/3 5/3 2/1 3/2 –– 48TE509 1 1/1 1/1 –– 1/1 – 48TE1067 3 26/3 25/2 3/1 22/1 –– 48TE1090 10 427/31 426/30 371/17 5/3 3/3 47/7 48TE1099 8 29/10 24/7 – 22/5 – 2/2 48TE1101 1 63/6 63/6 63/6 ––– 48TE1102 1 107/8 107/8 107/8 ––– 48TE1104 3 13/3 13/3 6/1 6/1 1/1 – 48TE1106 1 1/1 1/1 –– – 1/1 48TE1107c 26 472/78 431/66 2/1 297/38 55/16 77/11 48TE1108 1 1/1 1/1 – 1/1 –– 48TE1111 6 21/6 21/6 4/1 17/5 –– 48TE1114 6 104/9 103/8 91/4 12/4 –– 48TE1115 1 1/1 1/1 –– – 1/1 48TE1119 2 25/2 25/2 22/1 3/1 ––

The count includes only those specimens that were identified to the Family level and higher. First number in each column represents number of identified specimens (NISP) and second number represents minimum number of individuals (MNI). Ungulates include all hoofed animals (e.g., , deer, antelope, elk, moose) with the exception of bison, and other mammals include all small mammals with the exception of carnivores. aData from Larson et al. (1995:table 17). bNot all species represented are reported by Rapson and Todd (1999), only artiodactyls. c48TE1107 is a late nineteenth-century Euroamerican site. including fetal and a late term/infant, dating from the Late Paleoindian through Late Prehistoric Period (Page 2015). Analysis of the remains is ongoing.

The Goetz site One of the archeological sites to produce bison remains in Jackson Hole is the Goetz site (48TE455). Despite only a descriptive analysis of the faunal and lithic assem- blage presented by Love (1972), the site has been interpreted in the literature as PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 401 either a “a game trap and quartzite quarry” (Wright and Marceau 1981:13) or a “bison trap” (Wright 1984:Table 3).1 The Goetz site (48TE455) is located in a narrow, steep-walled drainage in the northeast portion of the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service’s National Elk Refuge that heads on the flanks of Sheep Mountain in the Gros Ventre Wilderness (Figure 1). The mouth of the drainage opens onto Long Hollow, a sagebrush-grassland underlain by loess-mantled gravel. Many plant species, several of economic importance, have been identified (Cannon and Cannon 2006). The valley walls are steep and the valley bottom is roughly 50 m wide, and may have served as a natural game trap. The entire area was covered by glaciers of the penultimate glaciation and the valley occupied by streams during the Bull Lake recession, as well as during the Pinedale Glaciation. Finer grained Holocene alluvial, eolian, and colluvial deposits overlie the older Pleistocene deposits and contain the archeological deposits. A spring at the base of the valley slope probably attracted both large mammals and humans.

The 1971 investigations Trying to reconstruct the original 1971 investigations has been difficult, and no orig- inal documentation (e.g., field notes and excavation maps) has been located. However, according to the annual report of the National Elk Refuge manager between August 19 and 22, 1971, George Frison (University of Wyoming) con- ducted “a preliminary exploration” of the site (Redfearn 1971:32). The investi- gation was in response to a dragline operation to increase flow at a nearby spring. A second season of excavation in 1972 was also proposed, but to our knowl- edge was never conducted. Love (1972:69–71) provides the following narrative of the investigations: A dragline operation to open up the spring brought up quantities of butchered bison bone and flake materials. An incomplete bear mandible was recovered from this site in an earlier test hole. A 5 by 10 foot test pit into an undisturbed portion revealed the scattered remains of three separate butchered bison as well as numerous flakes, choppers, bifacial fragments, and projectile point pieces. Over twenty pounds of flakes, core pieces, scrapers, and chopper or knife-like bifaces were obtained from the single test pit … A thin layer of carbon at a depth of approximately 9 inches was collected and subsequently dated at A. D. 1560 ± 115 … At this level and below were found a reworked obsidian edge- ground lanceolate point, a thin straight edged, square-based, unnotched brown chert point, a piece of obsidian corner notched point, and what appears to be a McKean-like stem base of an obsidian point … A great deal of fire-cracked rock was distributed throughout the test pit as well as other undiagnostic tools … Possibly two layers of bone and materials are present, though a specific dividing line between them could not be drawn. According to Frison, the excavation was salvage in nature (personal communi- cation, October 1999). The relationship of the bone and the cultural material is dif- ficult to assess, and Love’s radiocarbon age of A.D. 1560 should be considered minimum. 402 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 3 FREQUENCY OF SKELETAL ELEMENTS FOR THE GOETZ SITE (48TE455)

Element MNE MNI % MNI MAU % MAU VDa STD Vsb (S)MAVGTPc

Cranium 12 1 25 1.0 25.0 –– 14.2 Mandible Left 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.49 78.7 – Right 1 1 25 Cervical vertebrae Atlas 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.52 57.1 6.4 Axis 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.38 – 7. 8 3–7 10 2 50 2.0 50.0 0.37 – 56.6 Thoracic vert. 1–14 20 1.43 35.75 1.43 35.75 0.42 44.6 84.7 Lumbar vert. 1–5 1 0.20 5.0 0.2 5.0 0.31 52.3 82.9 Sacrum 4 4 100 4.0 100.0 0.27 33.5 54.7 Ribs Left 12 1 25 .92 23.0 0.34 – 100 Right 14 1 25 Ind. 106 1 25 Sternum 0 0 0 0 0 – 52.9 Scapula Left 0 0 0 0.5 12.5 0.50 46.8 31.6 Right 1 1 25 Humerus, proximal Left 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.24 72.3 31.6 Right 1 1 25 Humerus, distal Left 1 1 25 0.5 12.5 0.38 – 25.1 Right 0 0 0 Radius, proximal Left 0 0 0 0 0 0.48 – 18.5 Right 0 0 0 Radius, distal Left 0 0 0 0 0 0.35 64.6 12.1 Right 0 0 0 Ulna Left 2 2 50 1.0 25.0 0.34 –– Right 0 0 0 Carpals 2 + 3, left 1 1 25 2.0 50.0 0.50 – 6.6 Continued PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 403

TABLE 3 CONTINUED Element MNE MNI % MNI MAU % MAU VDa STD Vsb (S)MAVGTPc

2 + 3, right 3 3 75 Radial, left 2 2 50 2.0 50.0 0.42 – 6.6 Radial, right 2 2 50 Intermediate, left 0 0 0 0.5 12.5 0.35 – 6.6 Intermediate, right 1 1 25 Ulnar, left 0 0 0 0 0 0.43 – 6.6 Ulnar, right 0 0 0 4th, left 0 0 0 0.5 12.5 0.44 – 6.6 4th, right 1 1 25 Accessory, left 0 0 0 0 0 – Accessory, right 0 0 0 Metacarpal, proximal Left 2 2 50 1.0 25.0 0.59 80.9 3.9 Right 0 0 0 Metacarpal, distal Left 1 1 25 0.5 12.5 0.46 – 2.6 Right 0 0 0 5th Metacarpal 0 0 0 0 0 0.62 – Metapodial, ind. 1 1 25 0.5 12.5 distal end, ind. 0 0 0 Proximal sesamoid 5 0.31 7.8 0.31 7.75 –– Distal sesamoid 0 0 0 –– 1st Phalanx 14 1.75 43.75 1.75 43.75 0.48 74.5 2.9 2nd Phalanx 9 1.12 28 1.12 28.0 0.41 2.9 3rd Phalanx 1 0.12 3 0.12 3.0 0.32 57.9 2.9 Innominate Left 1 1 25 0.5 12.5 0.53 – 54.7 Right 0 0 0 Femur, proximal Left 3 3 75 2.0 50.0 0.31 65.9 69.4 Right 1 1 25 Femur, distal Left 2 2 50 2.5 62.5 0.26 – 69.4 Right 3 3 75 Continued 404 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 3 CONTINUED Element MNE MNI % MNI MAU % MAU VDa STD Vsb (S)MAVGTPc

Patella Left 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 –– Right 1 1 25 Tibia, proximal Left 2 2 50 1.5 37.5 0.41 80.6 40.8 Right 1 1 25 Tibia, distal Left 4 4 100 2.0 50.0 0.41 – 25.5 Right 0 0 0 Tarsals Astragalus, left 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.72 94.0 13.6 Astragalus, right 1 1 25 Calcaneous, left 1 1 25 1.0 25.0 0.66 84.6 13.6 Calcaneous, right 1 1 25 Naviculo-cuboid, left 0 0 0 0 0 – 13.6 Naviculo-cuboid, right 0 0 0 2+3, left 0 0 0 0 0 – 13.6 2+3, right 0 0 0 1st, left 0 0 0 0 0 – 1st, right 0 0 0 lateral malleolus, left 0 0 0 0 0 0.56 – 13.6 lateral maleolus, right 0 0 0 Metatarsal, proximal Left 0 0 0 1.0 25.0 0.52 100.0 7.5 Right 2 2 50 Metatarsal, distal Left 0 0 0 1.5 37.5 0.48 – 4.5 Right 3 3 75 Ind. 0 0 0 2nd Metatarsal 0 0 0 0 0 –

MNI, 4 based upon left tibia. aVolume density values (VD) from Kreutzer (1992:table 2). bStandardized settling velocity (STD Vs from Todd (1990:table 5). c(S)MAVGTP values from Emerson (1990:table 8.6). PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 405

Reanalysis In May 1999, the recovered bone was obtained from the curation facilities at Western Wyoming College and the zooarchaeological lab at the University of Wyoming for analysis that includes an inventory of the bone and its condition for taphonomic interpretations. The analytical conventions used for the description of the Goetz site faunal material was modified from Todd (1987), with subsequent modifications by Burgett (1990), and Rapson (1990).

The skeletal assemblage The condition of the bison bone (Order Artidactyla, Family Bovidae, Bison bison)is generally good. Most bones are fairly well preserved although exfoliation has occurred on a number of specimens. Some of the damage probably occurred follow- ing recovery, as indicated by the difference in color of the cortical bone. The state of the bones suggests burial relatively soon after site abandonment. However, some specimens show more advanced stages of weathering and associated cracking, split- ting, and exfoliation. The observed differences in weathering may be associated with the different aged deposits noted by Love. At present, however, we are unable to confirm this association.

Numbers of bones and bison The counts of skeletal elements and of bison are presented in three formats: minimum number of elements (MNE), minimum number of individuals (MNI), and minimum animal units (MAU). Each format is appropriate for certain analyses and each has been discussed by Binford (1978), Todd (1987), and Lyman (1994) among others. The age of the individual was taken into account when calculating MNI. Two hundred and sixty identifiable elements and element fragments (NISP) were analyzed in the assemblage (Table 3). A minimum (MNI) of four bison are represented in the Goetz assemblage based on the presence of both four sacra and four distal left tibiae (Table 3). Love (1972:69) suggested the UW excavations produced “the scattered remains of three separate butchered bison.” However, he does not explain the basis of his estimation, and field notes have not been found. The relative frequency of other elements varies greatly. For example, the percent MAU for the third phalanx is 3.0, while the sacrum is 100. MAU is also highly variable at 0 for radius and 40 for tibia (Figure 2). Iden- tifying the cause(s) of human and non-human skeletal variability is of fundamental significance and must precede inferences about butchery and carcass use by humans (Todd 1987).

Carnivore scavenging Little evidence supports carnivore scavenging as a significant cause of assemblage characteristics (Figure 3). First, physical evidence of carnivore gnawing is absent. Second, the ratios of proximal to distal ends of the humeri and of the tibiae indicate a negligible role for scavenging (Binford 1981). In this respect, the Goetz assemblage falls within what Binford (1981:217, figure 5.07) calls the “area of no destruction” 406 CANNON ET AL.

figure 2 Percentage of MAU as calculated from the Goetz site assemblage.

figure 3 Percent MAU values of proximal and distal humeri comparing Plains kill-butchery sites to Goetz site (modified from Todd 1987:figure 5.25). PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 407

figure 4 Bivariate plot of percent MAU and Standardized Settling Velocity (Todd 1990) of the Goetz site bison bone. by scavenging carnivores (Todd 1987:figure 5.25). However, with a small assem- blage this result should be interpreted cautiously.

Water transport The location of the Goetz site along the edge of a stream suggests the possibility that water transport may have played a significant role in assemblage formation. Corre- lation of elements by percent MAU with the Voorhies transport groups (Voorhies 1969) indicates a complicated pattern, however, suggesting water transport may have been of minor influence (Table 4). In a detailed study of the effects of fluvial processes on bison bone, Todd (1990) developed a method for quantifying the settling velocity of individual elements. A comparison of the percent MAU value for the Goetz assemblage with the settling velocity values for bison bones indicates that the two variables are not correlated (Figure 4; r = 0.013, p = 0.960). If the bones had been affected by stream action, the expected assemblage would consist of either

TABLE 4 PERCENTAGE OF MAU FOR EACH OF THE VOORHIES GROUPS

Group I Group II Group III

Ribs 23.0 Femur 56.25 Skull 25.0 Vertebrae 28.15 Tibia 43.75 Mandibles 25.0 Sacrum 100.0 Humerus 18.75 Sternum 0 Metapodials 12.5 Scapula 12.5 Pelvis 12.5 Phalanges 24.92 Radius 0 Ulna 25.0 408 CANNON ET AL.

figure 5 Bivariate plot of percent MAU and Volume Density (Kreutzer 1992) for the Goetz site bison bone. light, easily transported elements or heavy elements. The Goetz assemblage consists of a variety of elements with varying settling velocities. Therefore, water sorting does not appear to have changed the composition of the assemblage.

Decomposition The generally good condition of the bone suggests that decomposition did not sig- nificantly eliminate bones from the assemblage. However, a systematic means for assessing decomposition developed by Kreutzer (1992) shows no significant correlation between the Goetz assemblage and bone volume (Figure 5; r = 0.130, p = 0.452; ANOVA). Density-mediated destruction, therefore, does not explain the pattern of skeletal elements of the Goetz site. The results of the density analysis and the generally good condition of the specimens suggests that burial was probably quite rapid.

Human predation Ruling out other post-depositional processes leaves humans as the likely agent for having impacted the assemblage. Examination of the percent MAU indicates that elements that represent high-quality yields (e.g., the hind quarters) are represented in low quantities and may have been removed from the kill site (Figure 2). A sys- tematic examination of element frequency was conducted by comparing the percent MAU to total product yields of bison (Emerson 1990). The results of the Goetz assemblage indicate a low correlation between element frequency and their nutritional value (Figure 6; r = 0.260, p = 0.126; ANOVA). The recovered assem- blage lacks elements that have high-nutritional value and suggests that hunters pur- posefully removed these elements based upon their nutritional quality. However, without more detailed knowledge of the context of the material, it is possible that sampling (e.g., limited excavation) may also be an issue. PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 409

figure 6 Bivariate plot of percent MAU and Total Product Model (Emerson 1990) for the Goetz site bison bone.

Evidence of butchering in the form of score marks has been identified on 39 elements or element fragments. The largest number of cut marks are present on rib bodies (n = 18) and femur shaft fragments (n = 8). Frison (1970:19) suggests that cut marks on ribs indicate removal of this desired portion of the carcass. Cut marks are also present on the bodies of two thoracic vertebrae and one possible lumbar vertebra. These may represent removal of the longissimus muscle (Frison 1970:20). Removal of meat from the hind quarters may explain the score marks present on the distal (n = 3), medial (n = 3), and proximal (n = 2) shaft of the femur and the shaft of the tibia (Frison 1970:14–16). The score marks on the meta- tarsal may reflect removal of the hide (Frison 1970:10). Score marks are also present on the proximal shaft of the ulna (n = 1), a cranial fragment (n = 1), the distal shaft of

figure 7 Comparison of modern and archeological bison metatarsals in comparison with Goetz specimens (solid diamonds). Measurements are provided in Table 5. Solid circles are modern females, solid triangles are JALP females, open circles are modern males, open triangles are JLAP males, and open squares are prehistoric YNP males. 410 CANNON ET AL. the humerus (n = 2), and on the ala (n = 1) and lateral crest (n = 1) from one individ- ual, and the fused first and second vertebrae of the sacrum (n = 1) from another.

Age and sex ratios To assess the demographic structure of the assemblage, three measurements were made on two of the recovered metatarsals. The metatarsals were chosen because they are weight-bearing elements with size being proportional to weight and are best preserved elements in the Goetz assemblage that have been demonstrated to illustrate sexual dimorphism (e.g., Bedford 1974). The measurements follow those of Bedford (1974): maximum length (ML), maximum transverse width at the center of the metatarsal, and the transverse width of the distal end. Plotting the width of the distal end against the ratio of the central width to the ML multiplied by 100 distinguishes between male and female elements. This relationship between bison of known sex with those of the Goetz site (Table 5) shows that the two Goetz site metatarsals are most likely males (Figure 7). Completeness of fusion indicates that both adults and subadults are present in the assemblage. Adults are represented by either complete fusion of the epiphyses (60.53 percent) or complete fusion with the line still visible (7.89 percent). The best evidence for the presence of subadults comes from the unfused left femoral head and the unfused olecranon of a left ulna.

Dating Two elements from the 1972 assemblage were subjected to radiocarbon assays. A right metatarsal (FS455.1.49) was submitted to Beta Analytic using the AMS tech- nique. Processing produced good quality collagen and analytical steps proceeded normally. An age of 800 ± 40 yrs BP (Beta-133690; δ13C=−21.0‰) was returned on the specimen which calibrated to 1216–1268 cal A.D. (one-sigma, Calib 6.1.1; Stuiver and Reimer 1993). A second age from the 1972 assemblage was obtained from the roots of an iso- lated bison lower third molar. The age of 370 ± 40 yrs BP or 1453–1521 cal A.D. (Beta-241894; 13C = −18.8‰) of the specimen suggests multiple depositional events and supports Love’s (1972:71) observation at the time of excavation that “[p]ossibly two layers of bone and materials are present, though a specific dividing line between them could not be drawn.” Both dates are earlier than the minimum age (1560 A.D.) presented by Love (1972) and suggest periodic encounter hunting of bison. A test of significance (Calib 6.1.1) of the two dated bison specimens indicates that 2 they are statistically different (T = 57.78; χ.05 = 3.84). The two radiocarbon ages indicate that at least two episodes of hunting are represented in this assemblage. Unfortunately, the bones were not cataloged in a manner that allowed specimens to be separated and so the assemblage is interpreted in this paper as a late Holocene event. PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 411

TABLE 5 MEASUREMENTS FOR BISON METATARSALS FROM ARCHEOLOGICAL AND MODERN SPECIMENS

Specimen no. Sex/side Maximum length Proximal end width Central width Distal end width

Goetz Site (48TE455) 1.49 M/R 252.00 55.47 36.86 67.94 1.5 M/R 255.00 54.71 36.65 65.58 Dot Island M/L 255.00 57.74 35.35 64.06 M/R 255.50 57.09 35.37 65.65 Windy Bison Site (48YE697) 20818 M/L/ 251.00 59.56 39.06 70.39 Jackson Lake Archaeological Project 43919 F/ 247.00 45.00 33.00 56.00 43915 M/ 257.00 57.00 33.00 71.00 43920 M 254.00 57.00 33.00 70.00 43923 M/ 269.00 58.00 33.00 73.00 43917 M/ 254.00 58.00 41.00 69.00 MT17 M/ 257.00 61.00 39.00 72.00 43922 M/ 271.00 60.00 41.00 73.00 45515 M/ 261.00 50.68 34.59 62.88 45107 F/ 226.00 n/a 28.48 51.47 Midwest Archaeological Center Modern Specimens 272 M/R 266.00 61.03 37.66 69.53 274 M/R 269.50 59.52 39.43 71.32 399 M/R 252.50 59.29 36.14 66.52 University of Wyoming Modern Specimens 8402 M/L 261.00 57.00 38.00 67.00 8216 F/L 242.00 48.00 30.00 58.00 8217 F/L 235.00 49.00 27.00 56.00 8222 F/R 260.00 51.00 31.00 60.00 8330 M/L 252.00 58.00 37.00 67.00 8331 F/L 241.00 48.00 29.00 56.00 8500 F/L 241.00 48.00 30.00 56.00 8501 F/L 248.00 47.00 31.00 59.00 8502 F/L 231.00 46.00 28.00 54.00 8503 F/L 244.00 48.00 29.00 57.00 8505 F/L 255.00 47.00 28.00 57.00 8506 F/L 244.00 43.00 26.00 54.00 8511 F/L 240.00 n/a 25.00 55.00 Continued 412 CANNON ET AL.

TABLE 5 CONTINUED Specimen no. Sex/side Maximum length Proximal end width Central width Distal end width

8529 M/R 256.00 54.00 34.00 66.00 8530 M/L 252.00 58.00 37.00 67.00

All measurements are in millimeters. The measurements are described in Bedford (1974:figure 6.1). The University of Wyoming modern sample data were obtained from Adams (1989).

Bison diet and ecology As part of an ongoing study of prehistoric bison ecology in the GYE (Cannon 2001a), two right metatarsals from the Goetz assemblage were submitted to Mike Chapman of the Augustana College Biology Department for stable isotope analysis. The δ13C values for the elements are –19.17‰ (FS455.1.49) and –18.59‰ (FS455.1.50). These values are more positive than either modern YNP bison or the Fawn Creek bison, a protohistoric bison from the Salmon River Mountains of central (Cannon 1997b: Figure 8, Table 6). Calculation of the dietary percen- tage of C3 (cool season) is 87.38 and 83.38 percent, respectively (Hoppe et al. 2006: equation 1; Table 7)). Modern bison in YNP subsist exclusively on a C3 diet accord- ing to ruminant studies by Meagher (1973) and have a more restricted resource use than other large herbivores in YNP (Singer and Norland 1994). This is confirmed in isotopic studies of modern individuals (Cannon 2008:159, 171; Feranec 2007). Two molars from the Goetz site (48TE455) in Jackson Hole were also sampled (Cannon 2008). Because teeth, in contrast to bone, preserve a detailed record of an individual’s foraging history through incremental growth of the tooth enamel, we can obtain a geochemical record reflective of that history. That record can provide an individual’s foraging history at the seasonal or subannual scale. (Cannon et al. 2010; Gadbury et al. 2000; Larson et al. 2001; Widga 2006). Both tooth specimens were recovered in 1971 by University of Wyoming exca- vations. Specimen 455.1 is undated, but presumed to be late Holocene in age. The

figure 8 Calculated percentage of C4 plants in the diet of North American bison. Goetz specimens are represented by solid triangles. PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 413

TABLE 6 RESULTS OF STABLE-ISOTOPE ANALYSIS OF THE GOETZ SITE BISON AND OTHER ARCHEOLOGICAL AND MODERN NORTH AMERICAN SPECIMENS

Specimen Collagen rank Percent yield % N % C C/N δ13C δ15N δ18O

Goetz 1.49 (MT) 3 44.18 14.44 40.12 3.24 −19.17 7.2 Goetz 1.50 (MT) 3 40.24 14.15 39.26 3.24 −18.59 7.2 Goetz 455.1 (M3)a −8.01 21.45 Goetz 455.2 (m3)a −9.64 20.32 Fawn Creek 3 25.9 14.8 41.5 3.3 −19.6 6.5 Alaska −20.5 4.4 Kona, KS −13.8 5.5 Niobrara, NE −15.9 2.9 Wind Cave, SD 6.5 3.22 −18.7 ± 0.2 6.4 ± 0.23 Wood Buffalo, NWT −23.9 6.6 Yellowstone, WY −23.4 6.9

Stable isotope data presented in ppm (‰). Alaska data from Bocherens et al. (1994:table 4), Konza, Niobrara, Wood Buffalo, and Yellowstone data from Tieszen et al. (1996), and Wind Cave data from Tieszen (1994:table 5). All values are reported in permil (‰) units relative to PDB (δ13C) and SMOW (δ18O) standard. aStable isotopic measurements are presented as the mean for the downtooth specimens (Cannon 2008:table 7.3). second sample (specimen 455.2) was directly dated to 370 ± 40 B.P. The specimens illustrate similar patterns of variability, particularly in δ18O values, which reflect sea- sonal migration. The range of δ13C values is limited (0.51 and 0.59‰) and reflects a diet dominated by C3 vegetation. The calculated values for percentage of C4 veg- etation range from 6.61 to 10.71 percent (Δ 4.1 percent) for specimen 455.1 and 19.00 to 24.43 percent (Δ 5.43) for specimen 455.2. The δ18O values are quite vari- able (2.36 and 3.13‰) and reflect migratory patterns on the order (>3‰) described by Hughes (2003). However, the δ18O patterns reflect enrichment during what is

TABLE 7

CALCULATED PERCENTAGE OF C4 VEGETATION IN THE DIET OF GYE SAMPLES BASED UPON EQUATION 1 OF HOPPE ET AL. (2006)

Site and catalog number n Mean Adjusted value % C4 Vegetation % C3 Vegetation

48TE455/1.49 1 −19.17 12.62 87.38 48TE455/1.50 1 −18.59 16.62 83.38 48TE455/455.1 4 −9.9575 −11.46 7.85 92.15 48TE455/455.2 5 −8.3680 −9.87 22.41 77. 59 YNP 94KC1 3 −10.3133 18.33 81.67 YNP 2000.HV.002 2 −11.5350 7.14 92.86 YNP 2000.HV.003 6 −11.3833 8.53 91.47

Mean values used in calculation are adjusted for prehistoric specimens by 1.5‰ because of δ13C value of atmospheric

CO2 due to burning of fossil fuels (Tieszen et al. 1996). Data are from Cannon (2008:table 7.6). 414 CANNON ET AL. presumed to be a winter signal. These specimens may reflect migration from the south where surface water values are more enriched (e.g., Bear River = −16.30 ±

0.69‰, Cannon 2008:table 7.3). The relatively higher values for C4 vegetation usage and the more enriched δ18O values indicate possible seasonal migration to warmer and more arid ecosystems. Of interest is that the patterns clearly depict variability among bulls, who tend to move over greater distances during the year and would therefore be in contact with a variety of vegetation suites and water sources (Cannon 2008:172). Solving for the mean of each of the individuals using the equation of Hoppe et al. (2006) provides a better understanding of grassland vegetation used by each of the bison (Table 7). As expected, the higher altitude bison from the Yellowstone Plateau and Jackson Hole have the least amount of warm season vegetation. An unexpected pattern is provided by the two individuals represented by the Goetz site specimens (48TE455.1 and 48TE455.2). These individuals represent almost 15 percent differ- ence in their use of C4 vegetation, suggesting a greater range across landscapes with varied vegetation composition (e.g., seasonal migration between basins and alpine valleys; Cannon 2007).

Concluding thoughts The study of bison has been a hallmark of Great Plains archaeology, yet there has been limited study of bison in mountainous regions. A reason may be traced back to studies that suggest mountain economies were more focused on other artiodactyls (Frison 1992) and bison numbers were limited (Wright 1984). Frison’s plains–moun- tains economic dichotomy is based on faunal assemblages from sites in narrow valleys that may not have been conducive to significant bison populations. In con- trast, Jackson Hole is a large, open alpine valley that may have supported fairly large herds of bison, an assumption supported by modern bison numbers. People living in the valley could have hunted bison on a regular basis without significant impact to animal populations. Given the limited isotopic data, migration may have resulted in a larger range outside the valley and would have been conducive to maintaining resurgent populations. The faunal remains from the Goetz site are not conclusive, but taken in concert with the record from other sites (e.g., Game Creek), they suggest that a reassessment of the Jackson Hole prehistoric economy is timely. Archeological investigations since the time of the SUNY-Albany research in Jackson Hole suggests that bison may have been a more prevalent member of the faunal community than originally thought. Human reliance on this species and its role in the Jackson Hole prehistoric economy should be reassessed. An important part of this reassessment would involve additional excavations in Jackson Hole, coupled with increased stable isotopic studies of existing collections. More robust samples would allow us to consider how the ecological dynamic of mountain valleys in relationship to surrounding basins, and the Great Plains, may have evolved over the course of the Holocene in relation to shifting climate and human predation. However, finding these sites may be difficult considering the general PREHISTORIC BISON IN JACKSON HOLE, WYOMING 415 lack of preservation in northwestern Wyoming (Cannon and Cannon 2011; Cannon et al. 2011).

Acknowledgements I first became aware of the Goetz site in 1987 during my first summer with the National Park Service on the Jackson Lake Archeological Project (JLAP). Even with my limited knowledge of the region’s archeology, the Goetz site held a special fascination. This was probably in large part due to my curiosity about how the details of a site that held such potential for addressing a number of econ- omic and ecological issues could remain so little known to the archeological commu- nity. It seemed to me that every archeologist who has worked in the region has had plans to reinvestigate the Goetz site. Fortunately for me, a number of circumstances allowed me to obtain and reanalyze the collection. In addition to serendipity, I would like to thank the following friends and colleagues for making this possible: Kevin Thompson and Jana Pastor for securing the faunal specimens and facilitating the loan; Ralph Hartley for his unwavering support of my research; Ken Gobber for edi- torial comments on early versions; Rob Bozell, Patrick Lubinski, and Michael Voorhies for their critical comments; Charlie Love and George Frison for their recol- lections of the excavations; Jamie Schoen for his insights on the valley and for our numerous discussions about the archeology of Jackson Hole; Steve Cain for provid- ing me with his unpublished data on bison populations in Jackson Hole, as well as other manuscripts on his research; Paul Schullery for making me aware of the Ferris material; Michael Page and Dan Eakin for providing unpublished data from the Game Creek site; and Kenneth Pierce and Bill Eckerle for their interpretations of the Goetz site and its geomorphic setting. Funding for various aspects of this work has come from a variety of sources including the National Park Service, for which I thank Cal Calabrese; Sal Rodriguez who provided funds through the Jackson Hole Archaeological Society; and Jill Anderson who secured funding through the Teton County Historical Preservation Board. Finally, my thanks to Jim Benedict who provided numerous discussions on moun- tain ecology and archaeology over the years. These conversations are valued and will not be forgotten.

Note

1 Archaeological investigations at the Goetz site well as other activities. This report is focused only were resumed in 2001 and have produced more on the 1972 material. A preliminary report on the extensive evidence of bison and elk processing, as work is available in Cannon and Cannon (2006).

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Notes on Contributors Kenneth Cannon received his PhD in Geography (2008) from the University of Nebraska-Lincoln which focused on the Holocene biogeography of bison in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. He is currently the President of USU Archeological Services and a Research Assistant Professor of Anthropology in the Anthropology Program at Utah State University. Correspondence to: Kenneth P. Cannon, Utah State University Archeological Ser- vices, 980 W 1800 S, Logan, UT 84321, USA. Email: [email protected]

Molly Boeka Cannon received her Ph.D. in Geography (2013) from the University of Nebraska. She is curator at the Museum of Anthropology and deputy director for the Spatial Data Collection, Analysis & Visualization Lab at Utah State University.

Jonathan Peart holds a MS from Utah State University (2013) in Anthropology with an emphasis in Archaeology and Cultural Resource Management and a BS in Anthropology from Weber State University (2008; Magna cum Laude). He is cur- rently a Project Director at USU Archeological Services in Logan, Utah.