Women in Modern Science

Marian C. Diamond, Ph.D.

.was Turs sunvny oN women in science essential for a person entering science as a inspired by several girls at Cornell University career to have a strong natural instinct for the who inquired about choosing science as a subject. A girl going into science "should career. In planning a college program with have a lively curiosity, be skillful in the use the future in mind, these girls and others like of her hands, and be prepared to get them them could, perhaps, profit by looking at the dirty." (E.H.Q.) One woman points out that lives of women who did plan and did continue "unremitting attention to the job is essential to follow their chosen field throuEh a success- in scientific work, and it is not worthwhile ful life. Some of these women have been able for any girl to choose this field if her enjoy- to combine their work with raising children, ment of the work is not itself enough reward." whereas others without children are either (A.F.M.) Along similar lines, another indi- wives as well as career women or have dedi- vidual emphasizesthat there should be a quest cated themselvescompletely to their careers. for knowledge which surpassesall other inter- The women who participated in the survey ests or the person will not succeed. (R.P.) (names found at the end of the paper) were On the other hand, someone should "not be named as outstanding in their fields by their persuaded to take up science, for she will be colleagues from universities throughout the wasting her time and soon quit, having lost country. They are individuals whom their considerabletime and money." (M.E.L. McB.) fellow workers considered esoeciallv success- "Consultation with vocational guidance per- ful. Twenty-one women filled out the required sonnel or with persons who have made a questionnaires,and the compiled results should career in science would be helpful. I had little provide a look into what might lie ahead advice or guidance." (L.K.) for girls going into a particular field, in this Several women agreed that one should not case,the study of science. have glamorous ideas about the excitement of What branches of science did these ladies doing research. Girls must realize that "there represent? Eight of them were working with is a lot of routine work in any iob, though, subjects closely related to physics, such as perhaps, less in science than.in some others." biophl'5iq5,radiology, solar energy, astronomy, (E.H.Q.) According to some women, science and physics itself. One woman was a pure is a very hard, long road. There is much mathematician, 6 were chemists, and 5. biol- competition. "One should recognize at the ogists. Another was a specialistin nutrition. start that many positions and activities are closed to women. . . . [One] must be pre- ttMANts" pared for a long series of disappointments ENTERING A FIELD and discouragements and far more criticism Before presenting portions of the lives of than would fall to a man in a similar situa- these women, includins the reasons for their tion." (C.P.G.) "Accept the fact that preju- choice of a career, thJadvice that they offer dice exists without accepting the implication for young girls is worth examining. The most that it cannot be eradicated." (B.W.L.) One commonly mentioned advice was that it is woman looks at the situation in the following manner: "Girls should understand that the upper ranks in science are likely to be closed to them. For a woman to obtain a tenure Dr. Diamond is Lecturer and Research position in a good college or university, for Associate,Deparunent of Anatotny, Uni- example, takes a strong element of luck." versity of California,Berkeley. (F.M.) To take a more positive point of view, one THE NAMES OF THE W.OMEN. THEIR PLACES OF BIRTH. AND THEIR FIELDS

Tikval'r Alper Capetown, South Africa Physics Katharine B. Blodgett Schenectady,New York Physics Cecilia Payne Gaposchkin Wendover, England Astrophysics Icie G. Macy Hoobler Gallatin, Missouri Biochemistry Libbie H. Hyman Des Moines, Iowa Zoology Louise Kelley Franklin, New Hampshire Chemistry Barbara Whanorr Low Lancaster,England Chemistry l{aria Goeppeft Mayer Germany Physics Mary Evelyn Laing AtlcBain Alcester, England Chemistry Florence Moog Brooklyn, Nerv York Zoology Agnes Fay t\tlorgan Peoria, Illinois Nutrition Jane Oppenheimer U. S. A. Biology Ruth Patrick Topeka, Kansas Botar-ry N{ary Locke Peterman Laurium, A,Iichigan Biochemistry Edith Hinkley Quimby Rockford, Illinois Physics i\,Iary L. Sherrill Salisbury, North Carolina Physics Charlotte l\,Ioore Simerly Ercildo'rvn, Pennsylvania Physics Maria Telkes Budapest,Hungary Physics Anna Pell Wheeler Florvarden, Iorva Mathematics Anna RachelYoung Whiting Saugerties,New York Genetics Chien-Shiung Wu Shanghai,China Physics

scientist writes that now there are "so many to carry it off." (C.P.G.) Another woman openings that no woman need fear no con- mentions the help of her husband by stating gerual career will open to her." (A.P.W.) her potential discontent becauseof having no Another states that girls shouldn't listen to children was prevented by a renewal of inter- "foolish commentsthat scienceis not a wom- est in her field of work encouraged by her an's field. There have been and are outstand- husband who had been active in the field. She ing women scientists."(B,W.L.) "To devote was discouraged by the small number of one's life to scienceis the happiest thing that women listed in the standard compilations of could happen." (C.s.W.,) "It's a very satis- scientists and wrote that she would like to see fying life; continued chdlenge and the girls go into scientific work, not as research stimulus of teaching cannot be imagined un- assistantsin order to mark time until marriage less experienced."(M.L.S.) There is "great but rather with the idea of continuing with joy and satisfaction in a iob well done. Be it after taking time out for bringing up the willing to do a bit more than expectedto children. (A.Y.W.) compensatefor one's own shortcomings." The purpose of asking these women scien- (LM.H.) "Has no regrets - loved it all" tists to offer comments for helping young (C.P.G.) "Contactswith students,with fellow girls going into science was not to get a workers . and the ioy of discovery have detailed description of necessary academic made for a satisfying career." (A.Y.W.) In courses, However, since so many women did medical scienceone has "the great satisfaction mention the necessity of having more mathe- of being of serviceto mankind." (M'L.P.) matics, it is of importance to emphasize this Some of the married women have presented fact here. Such statements as the following a few ideason marriageand a career."Science were given. Mathematics is essential. "Take training is extremely valuable in helping run all the math. possible." (7.4.) "Should have a home,bringing up children-practicallabora- taken more math. . . ." (L.K.) It is hoped that rory training is invaluable." (M.E.L. McB.) any girls planning careersin sciencewill bene- One woman attributes her successto an "un- fit from this advice. derstandinghusband and good health-a neces- for a woman who wants to combine a .wHY sity A SCIENTIST? careerand marriage."She was honestenough to admit that, had she not married, she Why did these women decide to become "wouldn't have had the emotional stability scientists?Eight of them had an early interest in science and followed a natural bent. Eight number (9) chose a school because it was \Mere stimulated by an introductory course, the best in its particular field. The other indicating the necessity of excellence in fresh- reasons included the following: convenient man science teaching. The remainder were Iocation (2), family preference (2), best schol- influenced by various factors such as father's arship (2), purely social reasons (1), and a opinion (2), departrnental encouragement (2), combination of reasons(3). rebellion against parents (1), and the lack of For graduate work, as one would expect, (1). the desireto teach most women ( I 5) chose the university oftering It has been often said that when women the best training in their parricular field. How- follow a profession they pick one similar to ever,2 picked their school becauseof its loca- that of their parents. In the present survey tion, and I took advantage of the facilities this observation does not hold at all. Only 4 at her husband's school. Another went be- women out of the 2l went into a field which cause of the opportunities; the 2 remaining was even remotely related to that of their ones.did not obtain Ph.D. degrees. parents. The fathers of the remaining 17 were After graduating from college with an A.B. of a wide variety of professions from farmers degree these women allowed a varied period to bank managers to architects. None of the of time to lapse before obtaining their Ph.D. mothers of these women were scientists. In degrees. The average number of years was 8 job fact, only 5 mothers had a other than that (range, 2-l+). of a housewife. Two of them were teachers, The average age of those 2 were businesswomen. and I was a oainter. receiving a bachelor's degree was 2l years (range, Three of the women were only c['rild.en. 18-24), whereas the average As far as brothers and sisterswere concerned, age for those receiving a Ph.D. degreewas 28 years (range, no patterns in similar professions were evi- 24-35). Six women w'ent to foreign dent. Three out of 20 brothers were scien- universities for their bachelor's degrees and tists and 6, engineers.Of 16 sisters,only 3 held 5 for Ph.D. degrees. Seven attended universities scientific jobs. Nothing significant was indi- in the northeastern section of the United cated as to whether there were brothers or Statesfor their bachelor's degrees: sisters in the family or whether the brothers These schools included Mt. Holyoke (1), Swarthmore (1), Smith (2), and sisters were older or younger than the Bryn Mawr (2), and New subject of the survey. York University (t). Of the 4 women After a w'oman decided to enter science, who attended schools in the middle what were her parents' opinion of her choice? west, 3 of them wenr to the University of Chi- Twelve women stated that their parents' opin- cago and the other one to the University of ion was favorable. The other comments were South Dakota. Two women studied at southern as follows: "no opinion" (2), "against deci- universities, Randolph-Macon Woman's Col- sion" (1), "free to choose" (4), "preferred lege and Coker College. One was a studenr at something else" ( 1), "resigned to it" ( l ). Whitmore College in the northwest. Five The parents of one woman felt that "brains women enrolled in northeastern universities were not a social asset and should be plaved to work for their Ph.D. degrees-Columbia down.tt (1), Yale (2), Radcliffe (l), and Cornell (l); Did friends expressany opinions on a deci- 6 in middle westein schools-University of sion to enter science? Seven women reoorted Chicago (4), University of Wisconsin (l), that their friends were in favor of the ihoice. State University of Iowa (1). Two attended Six had no idea what their friends thought. the University of California at Berkeley and Others did not comment. 1, the University of Virginia. About half of the women relied completely MEANWHILE, BACK ON THE CAMPUS upon their families for support during their When the time comes for a girl to pick a undergraduate years. One went through col- university she desires to attend, there are any lege on scholarships alone, and 5 benefited number of reasonswhy she chooses one over from the combination of scholarships and another. The women who were to become family aid. Five women held jobs while at- outstanding scientists also had a variety of tending school. Of these 5, 4 also had scholar- reasons for their choices. As far as under- ships and I depended upon her family for graduate work was concerned, the greatest additional support. In contrastto the large number who leaned A summary of the advancement of the heavily on their families in undergraduate women with children is as follows. (The schooi, only 3 needed to rely complet-ely-on abbreviations used are: R.A., research assist- their parents for financial support of their antl R. Assoc., research associate; P'D., post graduate work and 1 received assistancefrom doctorate; In., instructor; L., lecturer; A.P.' f,er husband.All of the othersobtained teach- assistantprofessor; Assoc' P., associateprofes- ing or researchassistantships, scholarships' or Sor; P., professor; R.D. research director') held outside)obs. Did thesewomen have time for extracurric- ular activities while in college? During the undergraduate yea"rs'over half of them par- (a) 13 years as R.A' 5 years as A.P. and took in activities; some (3) were extremely 18 years as In. L, and others (9) moderately so. Four I year as P. (d) 5 yearsas R.A' active yearsas R.D. that they had no outside 32 3 years as In. people reported ul years as A'P. activities at all, whereas the rernainder either (b) 2 years as P.D. 4 years as Assoc.P. spent their spare time reading o_rthey did not 3 years as R.A. 3l years as P. answer the question.As would be expected, severalyears as 39 years as R.D. R. Assoc. few had tirne for proiects aside from their (e) early career did not take place in graduatework. Some(8), however'continued (c) 2 years as R.A. U.S. and music and 2 added 8 years as R. Assoc. io participatein sports 2 years as ln. 2 years in EuroPe housekeepingto their duties. 4% years as L. as In' 3 years in U.S. as (f) 3 years as R.A' MARRIAGE In. 10 years asR.D. Thirteen of the women were married, and (g) 1 semesteras In' 7 of them had children. The women scien- 4 Years as A.P. % time years Assoc. P. tists married at an average age of. 26 years 3 as 9 years as P. (range, 23-39). The average age of the husbands at the time of marriage was 32 years " ::Tffi'.::?ts,ff'il"" (range, 22-+7). Six of the women were in a field identical to that of their husband's and 5 followed professions related to their Thus, it can be said that 2 women with husband's. Only I woman was married to a children climbed the academic ladder in a man who was not a scientist or associated reasonable time and order. One exhibited an with a university. He was a salesman. The extremely unusual pattern of advancement and average age of the woman scientist at the the others moderately unusual ones. birth of her first child was 34 years (range, Now, in contrast, let us look at the manner 26-+,. Of the male children born to these of advancement of the women without chil- 'women women all 7 of those 17 years or older indi- dren. Five of the six married in this cated science or engineering interests. Neither group followed what is considered to be a of the 2 daughters over 20 were working iormal rise in academic rank' leaving only towards careers in science. one with varied appointments. Three reached the position of full professor, I of associate DEVELOPMENT OF CAREER professor, and I a research director. progressed In following the development of the careers Of the 8 unmarried women, all work the most logical approach appeared to be in the normal fashion-5 in academic married e separation of the women with children from and 3 in research. Similar to the 3 those without children, as the former inter- women, both with and without children, rupted their careers from a few months to sev- unmarried women reached the position of full 2 were eral years. Of the 7 women with children, 3 professor. At the time of the survey, had reached the position of full professor at associate professors, 1 a research director, the time of answering the questionnaire. Two and 2 research associates. were associate professors, and one was a lec- The question may arise as to how these turer. Five \r'ere research directors, either as a women organized their time to carry out such sole profession or in combination with aca- active lives. Since, at the time of the survey, demic titles. the maiority of the women were past the stagewhen demandswere made upon them by the war, designed the solar thermoelectric small children, they could work away from generators, completed the study of solar cook- home full time. For them 10 hours was the ing ovens, and holds several patents on heat averageworking day. One woman with young storage materials." (7.4.) Another's most children found she could work away fronr worthwhile contribution was the work pub- home in the mornings and evenings. Whether lished in a paper, "Films built by depositing most of the women had children or not the successive monomolecular layers on a solid average time spent at household chores was surface." (K.B.B.) After all of these positive 4 hours each day. Most of the women hired comments on single important contributions, housekeepersto care for the children when one scientist wrote that "it isn't given to most thelr were young. Grandmothers did not play scientists to do anything that co'uld be iustly a role in caring for the children while the signified by such a term." (F.M.) mother worked as apparently happens in Russia. The publications by these women ranged INTERESTS AND HOBBIES considerably. Ten women scientists published Some of the women answered questions on 6 between 2 and 25 papers by themselves, rniscellaneousinforrnation such as with what published between 25 and 50 papers, and 3 nonscientific organizations were they associ- joint between 100 and 200. As authors, 16 aced, and how did they spend their vacationsl published up to 50, 2 between 50 and 100, Thirteen worxen participated in organizations and I between 100 and 200. Thirteen women which were nonscientific, and 5 took part in wrote either parts of, or complete books. The church activities. Their vacation time was pre- publications in book form ranged from chap- dominantly taken up by travel, but 4 of the ters in a book, to 18 or more books and women worked continuously through vacation monographs for 1 woman. periods. In later years gardening had become the most popular hobby. Many of the women still CONTRIBU'I'IONS TO SCIENCE enjoyed sports. Other outside interests included a variety of things, such as travel, When asked what they considered to be reading, theater, music, art, educational insd- their greatest single contribution to sciencc tutions, and foreign languages. some of the women gave the following modest Do women who spend the majority of their answers. "My work has all been related to with scientific work have an interest in medical uses of X-rays, radium, and other time home entertaining as do most housewives! The radioactive materials. I consider my greatest greatest number of the women scientists were single contribution the development of meth- definite about 2 things-namely, they did not ods of accurate determination of the dose of like to prepare dinners for' large numbers, radiation delivered to the specific region under and they did like to cook for a few guests. treatment. My charts and tables are very A minority preferred to have large parties in widely used in the U.S. and to a lesserextent their homes after dinner. A good many en- (E.H.Q.) Another woman com- in Europe." joyed entertaining a small group of friends mented on her contributions: "teaching young after dinner. The point to be made is that people who have gone on to do graduate scientilic women do make time for and do or to study medicine work or research enjoy entertaining in their homes. In fact, I editorial work on Chetnical Rettiews and the woman with 3 children and approximately lotnnal of Physical Chemistry . . . the books 200 scientific papers to her credit stated that I have written either as a ioint author or she should have been a cook! alone." (L.K.) The "discovery of the extent and nature of the changes produced by heat- ing in food proteins" was iustly given as a significant contribution. (A.F.M.) One woman mentioned the "studies on cytoplasmic SUMMARY nucleoprotein rvhich plays a fundamental role in protein synthesis." (M.L.P.) A woman who Most women who entered science either has devoted her life to problems in solar energy had an early interest or were stimulated by "developed solar stills for life rafts during an introductory course. The v'omen did not follow in the family footsteps in choosing time a woman with children could attain the science as a career. Many of the parents were high ranks in her field. Also, women without in favor of the women's choice to enter children did reach top positions in a reason- science. able time (not unlike the progress made by For graduate training, most women attended men). Of the children born to women in the that university which they thought offered sciences,it can be said that the sons seemed the best conditions for study in their chosen to follow the parent's professions, but the field. The average age of a woman receiving daughters (only 2 examples) did not. Most her bachelor's degree was 2l years and her women hired housekeepersto help care for' Ph.D. degree, 28 years. Only half the women the children while they worked. The women depended completely on their parents for scientists interviewed had a variety of outside financial support in undergraduate school and interests, partook in nonscientific organiza- still fewer in graduate school. tions, and enjoyed entertaining in the home. The majority of the married women were Although science is a difficult field with in fields either identical or similar to those some prejudices against women, women have of their husbands. Women scientists married found the scientific career to be a fruitful, somewhat later than the average girl. Bearing satisfying way of life and, with careful plan- children did have an influence on the pattern ning, a career that can successfully include of advancement of a woman's career, but with a famill'.