Vol. III No. 1 January 2020 P-ISSN 1693-6892 E-ISSN 2722-0257

The Ethnobiological Society of Indonesia P-ISSN 1693-6892 / E-ISSN 2722-0257

Reviewers

Dr. Ariadna BURGOS, Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris France

Dr. Dolly PRIATNA, Graduate School of Environmental Management, Pakuan University, Bogor Indonesia

Prof. Eko Baroto WALUJO, Indonesian Museum of Natural History, Bogor, Indonesia

Dr. Manuel BOISSIERE, Campus International de Baillarguet, CIRAD, Montpellier France

Prof. Vincenzo ZUCCARELLO, Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento, Lecce Italy

Prof. Dr. Yohanes PURWANTO, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

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P-ISSN 1693-6892 / E-ISSN 2722-0257

JOURNAL OF TROPICAL ETHNOBIOLOGY

Editor-in-chief

Dr. Wawan Sujarwo (Ethnobotanist) Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

Associate Editor

Prof. Dr. Y. Purwanto (Ethnobiologist) Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

Editorial Board

Dr. Agni Klintuni (Ethnologist) Department of Forest and Conservation Sciences, the University of British Columbia, Vancouver Canada

Dr. Ariadna Burgos (Ethnoecologist) Muséum National d’Histoire Naturelle, Paris France

Dr. Ary Prihardhyanto Keim (Botanist) Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

Prof. Dr. Andria Agusta (Phytochemist) Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

Dr. Christopher Hugh Lewis Ballard (Anthropologist) Research School of Pacific and Asian Studies, Australian National University, Canberra Australia

Dr. Dolly Priatna (Wildlife Ecologist) Graduate School of Environmental Management, Pakuan University, Bogor Indonesia

Prof. Giulia Caneva (Botanist) Dipartimento di Scienze, Universita degli studi di Roma Tre, Rome Italy

Prof. Hyungwoo Kim (Korean Medicine Doctor) School of Korean Medicine, Pusan National University, Busan South Korea

Dr. Irina Safitri Zen (Ecologist) Center for Sustainability & Humanity, International Islamic University, Selangor Malaysia

Prof. Dr. Luchman Hakim (System of Knowledge) Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Brawijaya University, Malang Indonesia

Dr. Manuel Boissiere (Ethnobotanist) Campus International de Baillarguet, CIRAD, Montpellier France

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P-ISSN 1693-6892 / E-ISSN 2722-0257

Dr. Robin Hide (Anthropologist) School of Culture, History, and Language, Australian National University, Canberra Australia

Dr. Sih Kahono (Zoologist) Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia

Dr. Tukul Rameyo Adi (Anthropologist) Executive Advisor to the Coordinating Minister for Maritime Affairs and Investments on Socio-Anthropology

Prof. Vincenzo Zuccarello (Ecologist) Dipartimento di Scienze e Tecnologie Biologiche ed Ambientali, Università del Salento, Lecce Italy

Editorial Assistant

Muhamad Nikmatullah and Nissa Arifa, Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong, Indonesia.

Editorial Policy

The Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology is published two times per year by the Ethnobiological Society of Indonesia in collaboration with Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), to promote internationally the results of studies in ethnobiology. The journal publishes critical reviews, original research papers, short communications, and notes and comments covering all aspects of ethnobiology. Manuscripts are judged on the basis of their contributions of original data and ideas or interpretation. All articles are peer-reviewed by at least two reviewers in the field of the submitted paper. Manuscripts submitted must not have been published, accepted for publication, or be under consideration elsewhere. All papers accepted become the copyright of the society.

Editorial Correspondance

Manuscripts and editorial correspondance should be addressed to Dr. Wawan Sujarwo, Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology, c / o Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong 16911, Indonesia. E-mail: [email protected]

Instructions for Authors

Aims and Scope

The officially languages of the Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology are Indonesian, English and French, published by the Ethnobiology Society of Indonesia in collaboration with Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI). The journal publishes critical reviews, original research papers, short communications, notes and comments covering all aspects of ethnobiology.

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P-ISSN 1693-6892 / E-ISSN 2722-0257

Acceptance

The acceptance criteria for all papers are the quality and originality of the research and its significance to our readership. Manuscripts are peer-reviewed by two anonymous reviewers and the Editor. Final acceptance or rejection rests with the Editorial Board.

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All manuscript submitted to the journal must comply with these instructions. Failure to do so will result in return of the manuscript and possible delay in publication. Manuscripts should be written clearly and neat so that they are intelligible to the professional reader who is not a specialist in the particular field. Where contributions are judged as acceptable for publication on the basis of scientific content, the Editor or the Publisher reserve the right to modify typescripts to eliminate ambiguity, repetition, etc. If extensive alterations are required, the manuscripts will be returned to the author for revision. At this time, the ethnobiological society of Indonesia will cover the entire publication fee and there will be no charge.

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Submission

The manuscript should be electronically submitted via email to [email protected] Dr. Wawan Sujarwo Editor-in-Chief Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology, c/o Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Center for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences (LIPI), Cibinong 16911, Indonesia.

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Submission should be doubled-spaced, on one side only of A4 paper. The top, bottom, and side margins should be 2.5 cm. All pages should be numbered consecutively in the bottom center, beginning with the title page. Indent new paragraphs. Turn the hyphenation option off, including only those hyphens that are essential to the meaning.

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Text

Authors should be subheadings to divide the sections of their manuscript: Introduction, Methods, Results and Discussion, Conclusion, Acknowledgement, References.

Acknowledgement

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References

In the text give the author’s name followed by the year in parentheses: Purwanto (2002). If there are two authors use « and » : Purwanto and Walujo (1993). When reference is made to a work by three or more authors, the first name followed by et al., should be used : Martin et al. (1993). If several papers by the same authors and from the same year are cited, a, b, c, etc, should be inserted after the year of publication. In the list of references, the authors should be listed in alphabetical order. Cite the names of all authors. Titles of journals should not be abbreviated. Personal communication, unpublished data and publications from informal meetings are not to be listed in the reference list but should

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P-ISSN 1693-6892 / E-ISSN 2722-0257 be listed in full in the text (e.g. Boissiere, N. 1999, unpublished data). References should be listed in the following form.

Journals

Purwanto, Y. 2002. Gestion de la biodiversite: Relations aux plantes et dynamiques vegetales chez les Dani de la vallee de la Baliem en Irian Jaya, Indonesie. Reinwardtia 12(1): 1-94

Books

Barbault, R. 1993. Ecologie generale, structure et fonctionnement de la biospere. Abreges, Masson, Paris. Cunningham, A.B. 2002. Applied Ethnobotany, People, Wild Plant Use and Conservation. Eartscan Publication Ltd, London and Sterling, VA.

Chapter in a book

Veeman, M. 2002. Unsderstansing local and regional markets for forest products. In Campbell, B.M. and M.K. Luckert (eds.). 2002. Uncovering the Hidden Harvest, Valuation Methods for Woodland and Forest Resources. Earthscan Publication Ltd. London, Sterling, VA. 66-101 p.

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Tables

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Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

Value Chain Analysis of Orange Commodity in the Bantama Market, Kumasi, Ghana

Jiah Sayson Kindernothilfe e.V., Duisburg, Germany Sanu Jacob Food Safety and Standards Authority of India, Ministry of Health and Family Welfare, New Delhi, India Wawan Sujarwo Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Soleman Imbiri Agribusiness Study Program, the University of Papua, Manokwari, Indonesia Dewi Saraswati Development and Planning Board of Fakfak Regency, Fakfak, Indonesia Winfred Nazziwa National Youth Empowerment Network, Kampala, Uganda

Corresponding email [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The performance of the local sub-sector of orange in Bantama, Kumasi should be improved. This study aims to improve the performance of the local orange value chain in the Bantama market using rich picture analysis, scenario analysis, cigar box analysis, stakeholders’ analysis, and SWOT analysis. The study suggests two strategic objectives, (1) the Bantama orange traders association (BOTA) coped with lack of storage facilities, which is expected that BOTA is linked directly to at least three major orange processors in Bantama by conducting stakeholders meeting between BOTA and orange processors, and a memorandum of understanding between BOTA and orange processors; (2) the local government promoted the orange industry of Bantama, which is expected that BOTA advocated to the local government for the establishment of market storage facility by preparing advocating plan by BOTA, and consultation meetings with local government.

Keywords: Cigar box analysis, local product, rich picture analysis, scenario analysis, stakeholder analysis, SWOT analysis, traditional market

INTRODUCTION

The value chain includes all the activities that are undertaken in transforming raw materials into a product that is sold and consumed. These include the direct functions of primary production, collection, processing, wholesaling and retailing, as well as the support functions, such as input supply, financial services, transport, packaging and advertising. This study is a value chain analysis of the orange commodity in the Bantama Market of Kumasi. The analysis is limited to the chain functions of collection, processing, wholesaling, and retailing and less on primary production. The limitation is the time spent for the field visit, otherwise the analysis tried to capture all available information from the wider chain functions (Vermeulen et al., 2008).

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.2 1

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

METHODS

Study Area

The Bantama Orange Traders Association (BOTA) in Kumasi, Ghana specializes in mango and orange, but the market activity for the latter is relatively more dynamic. This led to the choice of orange as the primary commodity for this study. Bantama Orange Traders Association is a small group of 30 women wholesaler-buyer-traders. Membership is decided by the market queen. The 30 stalls of tropical fruits occupy for free the land owned by the traditional chief of Bantama. This is the second location after they were driven away from the previous one. The administration fund is sourced from an entry fee of 15 cedi and monthly membership fee of 5 cedi. There is no insurance fund. The total fund is very small such that they do not utilize this for productive activities but only for welfare like contributing to the wedding and funeral costs of individual members and their families. The individual member pays a rental fee of 50 cedi/per truck entry to the local government. The market activity is from Monday to Saturday starting at 5 am and closing at 6 pm. The market queen takes charge of the activities 6 days a week. She settles disputes between and among traders. The participation of men in the market is in transport and carriage. Some are big middlemen.

Data Collection

The study starts with a rich picture of the value chain (Avison et al., 1992). Each of the important chain function was described and analyzed. The drivers, trends, and issues affecting the value chain and its actors were identified and used to explore future scenarios (Hassani, 2006). The information gathered for this study are from interviews conducted with the members of the Bantama Orange Traders Association and the owner of the processing company E-Juice Business. The discussion during the chain-wide learning workshop with the experts in the value chain functions was very helpful.

Data Analysis

The analysis is complemented by a sophisticated profit analysis tool called the Cigar Box Method (van Lieshout, 2016). It uses the formula Profit = (Profit – Variable Cost) * quantity sold – Fixed Cost or contribution minus fixed cost is profit. This is different from the traditional formula of total revenue minus total cost is profit. This method entails a detailed collection of information, so that one can decide at the end how to adjust and reduce the costs and increase capacity utilization to gain maximum profit. A stakeholder analysis was done to see who are the institutions and actors most likely to involve and resist in important changes (Fletcher et al., 2003). Finally, strategies for policy development were developed through SWOT Analysis (Hill and Westbrook, 1997).

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Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Figure 1. Rich picture of the orange supply chain

The Season: Harvest and Spoils

The peak season for orange lasts for five months from December to April. This is a period of abundance in the Ashanti region of Ghana and very efficient for the buyers who do not need to hire and send trucks to get oranges outside the region. Each hired truck is paid at 1500 cedi (1 USD = 4.30 Ghanaian Cedi). Overall, the transportation cost is less. It is estimated that a single truck could load sacks of 100,000 oranges. Each sack is bought from the farmer at 10 cedi. This is then sold by the traders at a wholesale price of 40 cedi/sack. For retail, this is sold at 1 cedi for 6-7 oranges. The off season lasts for three months from June to August. This period increases transaction costs for communication and transportation. Oranges are sourced as far as the Central region of Ghana. Each hired truck is paid at 3,000 cedi. A single truck loads sacks of 20,000-80,000 oranges, where each sack is bought at 30 cedi. Less supply and competition from buyers outside Ghana (Burkina Faso, Ivory Coast, and Tongo) expectedly raises the cost of the commodity. Traders then sell the oranges at a wholesale price of 100 cedi/sack. For retail, this is sold at 1 cedi for only 4-5 oranges. The transaction both for peak and off season, is always in cash. Farmers do not get any advance payment or security deposit from the buyers. Buyers claim that the price of the orange is determined by the farmers. The high demand inside and outside Ghana makes this possible. The technology in this chain is very traditional. At the farm, farmers do not spray the trees at the right time and cannot guarantee that they pick the oranges from its tree. Many

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Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity … trees are shaken to bring down the oranges. They drop to the floor injured and then fungal pathogens sets in. Unlike bananas and mangoes, oranges are non-climactic fruits so they are ready for picking when ripe. Dropping them to the floor during ripe stage invites spoilage. The bruised oranges are loaded into the trucks and easily rot when brought to the market. There is no storage facility. Farmers call the buyers when the oranges are ripened and hope that the trucks arrive soon. The harvesting technology is as traditional as the packaging and transportation of the orange. These are loaded in sacks not on crates, without individual packaging nor waxing to prevent injury, and squeezed in a sack in a huge pile. The oranges travel in bad roads and engulfed in heat as they are transported for long hours in an open truck. As they reach the Bantama market, they are dumped and displayed in damp stalls without floor cover. The harvesting and storage practice and technology make a good combination for a huge volume of orange spoilage. For both peak and off season the spoilage is at a minimum estimate of 30- 35%, borne by the buyer. For the off season, most of the losses are borne by the farmers who do not practice weeding in the farm. At the processing sector, there is one local and small juicing company in the whole of Ghana, while the rest are multinationals. The spoilage is high, but the buyers compensate this by not adding any other tropical fruit in their stock. They do not transfer the spoilage loss to the retailers. Do they still profit? The buyers think this commodity is profitable. Almost all the members of the BOTA have been in the market for 20 years. They never thought of juicing the ripe oranges so that they preserve these and reduce the loss. They throw these in the garbage dump.

Retailing Orange

An orange retailer, like Portia, is usually a woman who walks and balances about 20 kg of oranges on top of her head. Selling all oranges in one day is a good day and selling all in two days is a bad day for a retailer. She earns 20 cedi per day; when she is sick she earns nothing. She estimates that 10% of one batch of oranges sold per day gets spoiled. Unlike the farmers and traders, the retailer sells the oranges at a fixed price of one cedi for four oranges for peak season and one cedi for two oranges for off season. She faces no competition from other retailers. She has loyal customers whom she visits regularly. She has a good relationship with the women traders, she comes to the market daily, and can pick the oranges that she wants to retail. She says orange retail is profitable for her; she has been retailing for 10 years. Over the years, she has sold the same oranges to the same people. She has developed simple presentation like peeling the oranges in an appealing way to the customers. She lets her customer choose their oranges, too.

Processing Oranges and Cigar Box Analysis

The 25% of the 55,000 ton/year of oranges in Ghana come from the Bantama market. How much of the 25% is processed? This is a problematic question because processing in Ghana is mainly for pineapple and mangoes, not oranges. There are no enablers for this sector. There could be a big market for processed oranges, but there are no machines in Ghana for this. Even the big Blueskies processing company in Ghana is processing other fruits except oranges. A small-scale Ghanaian E-JUICE Business takes on the challenge. It is a backyard family-owned and run company that processes five different tropical fruits: mangoes, pineapples, papaya, passion fruit, and oranges. Sometimes, they also process watermelons. The processing is simple: they juice the fruits and bottle them fresh. 4

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

The peak season for processing oranges is in sync with the harvesting and trading season. This peaks from December to February. This goes down from March to May then picks up again from July to November. The prospects for this neophyte juice business is good. The Cigar Box Analysis of the processing company shows a profitability of 27% with a capacity utilization of only 27%. To increase capacity utilization, the company needs to add juicing machines and increase production from the usual five hours. Adding lime to the juice can also decrease the PH level of the juice and increase its shelf life.

TROPICAL FRUIT, E-JUICE, KUMASI Jun-16 Fresh Orange Juice, packed in 330 ml bottle Cedi Cedi per liter per year Price (delivered customer) 9.1 100% Total Revenue (Delivered) 136,364 VC4 Sales commission paid 0.9 10% Total Cost 100,190 VC4 transport to client paid 0.6 7% Profit Before Tax 36,173 Price (EXW) 7.6 83% Profitability % 27%

Price (delivered factory) per kg 0.80 Asset value (+stocks of goods) 103,000 Processing ratio 1.52 Depreciation % 6.5% Raw Material cost 1.21 28% FC1 6,695 10% Other ingredients 0.0 0% VC1 1.2 28% Debt (loan for assets/working capital) - Interest rate 0.0% Processing cost (washing, grading, destemming) - FC2 - 0% Energy cost (electricity, diesel, fuelwood) 0.30 VC2 0.3 7% Number of FTE employed 4 Salaries staff incl. social taxes 60,000 89% Other overhead, rent, internal revenue tax 600 1% Cost of packing of selling unit 0.91 FC3 60,600 90% Number of selling units per liter 3.03 VC3 2.8 65% FC 67,295 100%

Overall losses, returned unsold product - 0.0% FC % attributed to product 20% VC 4.3 100% FC (attributed to product) 13,459

Margin 3.3 Quantity sold q (liters/year) 15,000 Margin % of Price (EXW) 44% Contribution 49,632

VC 4.3 83% Break even volume (sales) 4,068 Break even volume (raw material) 6,163 Fixed Cost / q 0.9 17% Output capacity per hour in liters 10 Total Cost / q 5.2 100% Production hours per day 22 Length of production season in days 250 Profit / q 2.4 Maximum capacity per year 55,000 Capacity utilization 27% Note: figures in blue are assumptions; figures in pink are calculated in another sheet; figures in black are formulas Figure 2. Cigar box analysis

Insights

The field observations and analysis were shared by the team of researchers to the experts in the value chain function groups. Representatives from the traders, wholesalers, middlemen, retailers, farmers, processors, and local government were invited for a 1-day Chain Wide Learning Workshop. This was organized at the Center for Innovative Learning, Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana on June 27, 2016. The collective feedback and suggestions for improvement of each chain function are summarized here. For the farmers, there is need to encourage them to pick oranges from the tree. For this, there could be incentives provided by the buyers. Training is important to sensitize farmers to spray fertilizers at the right time and help them to wax the oranges to protect

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Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity … against spoilage. For the wholesalers, it is important to organize storage facilities in the market. The Bantama Orange Traders Association could also benefit from management training. The urgent training is on bookkeeping. For the processors, there is clearly a demand for technology training and funding for business expansion. This can be lobbied to government and universities. Sensitization is needed for processors to appreciate other ways to process oranges like producing marmalade, pickles, and pectin extraction. For the government, there is high demand for better farm to market roads, provision of training, mentoring, and financing to the various chain functions, establishing physical infrastructures like proper shed and cold storage for the fruit commodities. For all the chain functions, reducing spoilage, which leads to garbage pile helps to promote better health and sanitation.

Scenario Analysis: Mapping the Drivers, Trends, and Issues

A mapping of the key drivers, trends, and issues affecting the value chain and its actors was done. The driving forces that cause change but are outside or external to the influential domain of the case and the trends or impact of the drivers at the case level are identified to plan for future scenarios. The driver is the cause and the trend is the effect. The trends can be certain or uncertain. Five drivers were identified and prioritized. Two critical uncertain but important trends were used for scenario analysis. The scenario analysis was conducted to understand the wider environment and context of the orange supply chain, helping to stimulate and operationalize the planning process. The analysis starts by identifying the unit of analysis, which in this case is the Orange Supply Chain in the Bantama Market. The two uncertain but critical trends selected were demand for oranges and export level. This was plotted in the matrix of low and high scale. Four scenarios were created but the most likely scenario is the fourth one: increased price and buyers/consumers for substitute tropical fruits.

Figure 3. Scenario analysis

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Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

Stakeholder Analysis

In developing a plan from the most likely scenarios, it is important to conduct a stakeholder analysis. This answers the important question of how should the most important and influential stakeholders participate and contribute to the realization of the plan. Two tools are utilized in this process: the actor analysis matrix and the influence- importance matrix. First, the eight most important stakeholders are identified as well as their primary task or activity. Their position in the decision-making system is analyzed. To what extent do they have a mandate, policy, knowledge, network or other power in relation to other actors in the case? The ranking starts from one as lowest and eight as highest. Their potential impact on the case is similarly ranked. The second tool is the influence-importance matrix. The extent to which the stakeholder is able to persuade or coerce others into making decisions whether negative or positive is measured. Then, their importance is also weighed in terms of the priority in satisfying the stakeholders’ needs and interests in the case.

Figure 4. Stakeholder analysis

The result of the analysis showed that the flourishing of the orange supply chain in the Bantama Market needs a strong involvement of the Bantama Tropical Market Association, but also the Ashanti Orange Farmers who are not always active in chain wide discussions. The big issue of spoilage needs to be dealt with by these two groups, but a close connection with the processors can reduce spoilage by sending to them the oranges just in time before 7

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity … they rot and spoil. The Municipal Authority can encourage the processors by helping them raise capital for business research and development. The household consumers need protection from increased price of oranges due to increased transaction costs. The retailers benefit from the efficiency of the farmers, traders, and processors. They will have a wide variety of commodities to sell. Portia, the retailer, can sell not just oranges but also jams, pickles, and other products. She need not bother about spoilage too. The waste management department of the municipality will have lesser workload from a less wasteful orange supply chain.

Strategic Planning Process from SWOT to Strategic Options

The strategic planning process is a step by step process of arriving at strategic options to improve the performance of the value chains. It is a participatory and reiterative process that builds on the experiences in every step taken. First, all the good and bad issues pertaining to the case were identified and discussed. The goodies were written in green cards and the baddies were written in the red cards. A total of 28 goodies and 32 baddies were identified. Second, we prioritized seven goodies and another seven baddies.

Figure 5. The good and bad issues

Third, we looked at the immediate cause that has created the goodies and the baddies. We decided the immediate cause is external or internal. The internal causes are written on yellow cards while the external causes were written on purple cards. Fourth, we rephrased 8

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity … each opportunity and threat into a positive statement. A SWOT matrix was built, i.e. Strength: goodie with an internal cause; Opportunity: goodie with an external cause; Threat: baddie with an external cause; Weakness: baddie with an internal cause. The strengths (three cards) and weaknesses (three cards) are lined up in rows and the opportunities (four cards) and threats (four cards) are lined up in columns. Fifth, we assessed the relations in the matrix and marked the highest relations with five and lowest with one. The numbers were added for the strength and subtracted with the total for the weaknesses. The two highest numbers were then considered for the selection of the strategic options (SO). Sixth, we looked at the overall results and analyzed the entire matrix. The matrix was not too wide nor too tall, thereby ensuring that there is balance in considering the internal and external bias of the stakeholders. Seventh, we looked at the strategic options and decided that we need to add another positive statement ‘to be able to cope with lack of storage facilities for perishable product,’ so that we can address the most likely scenario that prices are increased and buyers/consumers opt for alternative commodities. This scenario is caused largely by the high level of spoilage in the orange supply chain. We consider then this additional positive statement as the first strategic option. The second is ‘to be able to take advantage of the fact that government wants to promote the processing industry.’ This strategic option is very important so that the orange industry gets its needed support in funding and technology development.

Figure 6. SWOT analysis 9

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 1-10 Sayson et al. Value chain analysis of orange commodity …

CONCLUSION

The series of analytical tools applied in this chain value analysis resulted into a project proposal that aims to improve the performance of the local sub-sector of orange in Bantama, Kumasi. The strategic options selected are developed further by coming up result areas and major activities.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the Bantama Orange Traders Association for sharing preliminary information about orange supply chain from farm to retail level. Special thanks to the resource staff of Wageningen University and Research, the Netherlands and Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology, Kumasi, Ghana for providing guidance and facilities to complete this work successfully. The grant received under the Netherland Fellowship Programme (NFP) is duly acknowledged here.

REFERENCES

Avison, D.E., Golder, P.A. Shah, H.U. 1992. Towards an SSM toolkit: rich picture diagramming. European Journal of Information Systems 1(6): 397–408 Hassani, B.K. 2006. Scenario analysis in risk management: Theory and practice in finance. Springer International Publishing, Basel, Switzerland. Hill, T., Westbrook, R. 1997. SWOT Analysis: It's time for a product recall. Long Range Planning 30(1): 46-52. Fletcher, A., Guthrie, J., Steane, P., Roos, G., Pike, S. 2003. Mapping stakeholder perceptions for a third sector organization. Journal of Intellectual Capital 4(4): 505-527. van Lieshout, O. 2016. Cigar Box Method®, Manual for the use of CB1: Cost price calculation made easy. www.globalfacts.nl Vermeulen, S., Woodhill, J., Proctor, F.J. and Delnoye, R. 2008. Chain-wide learning for inclusive agrifood market development: a guide to multi-stakeholder processes for linking small-scale producers with modern markets. International Institute for Environment and Development, London, UK, and Wageningen University and Research Centre, Wageningen, the Netherlands.

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Bone, Mattompang Arajang, ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa; Fabaceae) dan Jejaring Bugis Nusantara

Ary Prihardhyanto Keim Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Muhamad Nikmatullah Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Nissa Arifa Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Tukul Rameyo Adi Kementerian Koordinator Bidang Kemaritiman dan Investasi, Jakarta Wardah Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Wawan Sujarwo Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia

Email korespondensi [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The result of this current study shows that Bone as the centre of origin of the Bugisnese civilization is still preserving most of the original tradition alive like the Mattompang Arajang procession, which is now connected with the Anniversary of the City of Watampone, the capital of Bone Regency. Mattompang Arajang procession involves an important component, which is burning the incense. In the past, the incense burned was the indigenous Sulawesi incense known as ‘kayu Galadupa’ (thus the name of the resin is ‘Kemenyan Galadupa’ or Galadupa incense), which is identified here as the resin harvested from Sindora galedupa (Fabaceae). The species is very rarely seen in the forest now and this gave impact to the production of the resin. The Galadupa incense has not been used for many years and slowly forgotten and replaced by the more common Sumatran incense harvested from Styrax benzoin or S. sumatrana (Styracaceae). The Mattompang Arajang yearly procession also acts as a uniting moment for Bugisnese descents throughout Nusantara (i.e. Malay Archipelago and beyond). The prospect of creating a Nusantara Bugisnese Networking is also discussed. In connection with the Mattompang Arajang procession, as the procession is regarded deeply rooted in the Bugisnese existence, the indigenous incense should have been implemented and preserved. This is good news for the conservation of the Galadupa tree, Sindora galedupa in its own homeland.

Keywords: Bugis, Fabaceae, galadupa, incense, Mattompang, Sindora galedupa

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.4 11

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology Vol.3 No.1 (2020): 11-27 Keim dkk. Bone, Mattompang Arajang, ‘Kayu Galadupa’ …

PENDAHULUAN

Masyarakat Watampone sebagian terbesar berasal dari suku Bugis (Pelras, 1979; Pelras, 1996; Druce, 2009; Druce, 2016). Bahkan suku dan bahasa Bugis adalah suku dan bahasa yang paling dominan dan tersebar paling luas di belahan selatan Sulawesi (Sarasin dan Sarasin, 1905; Gambar 1). Terbitan oleh Petri (1671) adalah termasuk salah satu rekaman awal oleh bangsa Eropa yang cukup rinci perihal suku Bugis, termasuk kepercayaannya, di mana di dalamnya tercatat upacara yang menyangkut orang-orang suci dan disucikan seperti “Bissu” dan benda-benda pusaka kerajaan. Rumphius di tahun 1675 (Rumphius, 1910; Rumphius, 2002) mencatat bahwa orang-orang Bugis dan Makassar adalah pedagang- pedagang utama dalam perniagaan di Ambon yang memperdagangkan komoditas rempah- rempah antar pulau-pulau di Maluku dan luar Maluku, di mana untuk komunikasi di antara mereka, digunakan Bahasa Bugis.

Gambar 1. Peta persebaran bahasa-bahasa daerah di Sulawesi [Sumber: www.ethnologue.com]

Bahasa Bugis bahkan dicatat Rumphius (1705; 1741a) sebagai bahasa komunikasi utama antar suku-suku yang berasal dari bagian selatan Pulau Sulawesi, seperti Bugis sendiri, Buton, Makassar, dan Mandar. Luasnya pemakaian Bahasa Bugis sebagai bahasa pergaulan (lingua franca) di masyarakat Sulawesi Selatan selaras dengan kemampuan bahari suku Bugis itu sendiri yang membuat mereka dapat menjelajah wilayah-wilayah yang luas membentuk jalinan perdagangan (tradingnetwork) di Nusantara dan lebih jauh lagi hingga

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India, Timur Tengah, dan Afrika (Pelras, 1996). Rheede tot Drakenstein (1678) bahkan mencatat bahwa sebagian besar pedagang dari arah timur Malabar, India berasal dari Jawa, Sumatera, dan Celebes. Mereka saling bertutur dalam Bahasa Jawa, Melayu atau Bugis. Rheede tot Drakenstein (1678) juga menambahkan bahwa para pedagang dari timur ini sudah berdagang di India jauh sebelum kedatangan bangsa-bangsa Eropa, bahkan juga sebelum kedatangan para saudagar Muslim dari Timur Tengah. Salah satu tokoh suku Bugis yang sangat terkenal dan dikagumi adalah Aru Palakka atau Arung Palakka dalam Bahasa Bugis. Arung Palakka adalah Sultan Kesultanan Bone yang ke-15, yang memimpin perjuangan kemerdekaan Kesultanan Bone dari Kesultanan Gowa, namun penelitian ini tidak ditujukan untuk membahas lebih dalam tentang tokoh sejarah tersebut. Bagi yang berminat dapat merujuk lebih jauh terutama pada Andaya (1981), Pelras (1996) dan Sila (2015) dalam kaitan dengan kebudayaan dan masyarakat Bugis itu sendiri. Penelitian ini lebih merujuk kepada literasi budaya Maritim yang ada dalam masyarakat dan kebudayaan Bugis yang belum banyak diungkap yang mana juga masih berkaitan dengan Arung Palakka dan kemampuannya menguasai perdagangan rempah di Nusantara pada abad ke-17 dan warisan yang ditinggalkannya bagi masyarakat Bugis, terutama di kampung halaman suku Bugis itu sendiri yang sekarang secara administratif berada dalam wilayah Kabupaten Bone. Juga bagaimana masyarakat Bugis, sebagai sebuah masyarakat yang jelas berbudaya berbasis maritim membangun jaringan perdagangan di Nusantara, bukan mengkajinya secara mendalam seputar sejarah asal muasal tradisi tersebut, yang sudah banyak diulas oleh para cendekiawan sebelumnya di atas, namun lebih kepada bagaimana basis kebudayaan maritim tersebut di-revitalisasi di masa kini, terutama dalam membangun jaringan perekonomian berbasis kekerabatan Bugis dalam kaitan dengan mendukung program pemerintah terkait Poros Maritim berbasis rempah dan produk-produk unggulan lain Indonesia. Penelitian ini mengkaji kemenyan asli suku-suku Bone dan Makassar khususnya dan Sulawesi pada umumnya yang dikhawatirkan sudah sangat langka.

METODE

Lokasi Penelitian

Watampone adalah ibukota Kabupaten Bone, Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan yang berjarak sekitar 170,1 Km sebelah Timur Laut kota Makassar. Watampone memiliki iklim tropis dengan suhu udara berkisar antara 26° hingga 34°C, kelembaban 95% hingga 99%, dan curah hujan kurang dari 1750 mm hingga 3000 mm per tahun, dengan musim basah/hujan antara bulan April hingga September, dan musim kering/kemarau dari bulan Oktober hingga Maret. Watampone didominasi oleh dataran rendah dengan ketinggian kurang dari 500 m dpl. Meski begitu perjalanan dari Makassar menuju Watampone via Maros melewati dua Pegunungan yang membelah bagian selatan Pulau Sulawesi, Pegunungan Kapur/Karst Maros (atau dalam literatur lama dikenal sebagai Western Divide Mountain dan Pegunungan Bone (Van Leeuwen, 1981). Komposisi batuan dan tanah Watampone sebagian besar adalah dari batuan gunung api dari masa Kenozoikum (66 juta tahun lalu hingga sekarang), termasuk juga sedimen batuan dari jaman Miosen (23,030 hingga 5,332 juta tahun lalu) – Pliosen (5,332 hingga 1,806 juta tahun lalu), yaitu meliputi batuan lempung, batuan pasir, dan sedimen vulkanis (Van Leeuwen, 1981). Selain itu juga sedimen dari jaman Kuarter (Quaternary, 2,58 juta tahun lalu hingga sekarang; Whitten dkk., 1987; Gambar 2).

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Gambar 2. Peta geologi Sulawesi Gambar 3. Gunung-gunung berapi [Sumber: Whitten dkk., 1987] di Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan [Sumber: www.infopendaki.com]

Komposisi batuan dan tanah asal kegiatan vulkanik sangatlah masuk akal sejalan dengan tingginya jumlah gunung api (baik yang masih aktif maupun non aktif) di Propinsi Sulawesi Selatan, khususnya setidaknya empat gunung berapi di kawasan Makassar-Maros- Bone, seperti Gunung Bawakaraeng, Bulu Baria, Lompobattang, Tondongkarambu, dan Rammang Rammang serta gunung-gunung api lainnya di bagian tengah dan utara Sulawesi Selatan (Gambar 3). Kehadiran tanah tipe kapur (limestone) juga sangat jelas (Gambar 4) dan ini selaras dengan sejarah geologi Sulawesi itu sendiri yang merupakan kesatuan dari pulau-pulau samudera (oceanic islands) dari masa Kenozoikum serta tidak pernah bergabung dengan masa daratan besar (baik Paparan Sunda maupun Paparan Sahul), dengan sendirinya pulau- pulau samudera tersebut terbentuk awalnya dari pulau karang atau atoll (Hoent dan Ziegler, 1917). Van Bemmelen, 1949; Audley-Charles, 1981; Metcalfe, 1996; Hall, 1998; Holloway dan Hall, 1998). Penyatuan pulau-pulau samudera tersebut sendiri tidak lepas dari aktivitas tumbukan dan lipatan yang ditunjukkan dengan tingginya tingkat aktivitas vulkanis dan tektonis di Sulawesi saat itu yang juga ditunjukkan dengan type batuannya (lithology) sebagaimana disebutkan di atas (Van Leeuwen, 1981). Kondisi geologi di atas mendasari kebijakan pembangunan jalan raya dan jalan kereta api di Sulawesi, khususnya Sulawesi bagian tengah dan selatan.

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Gambar 4. Geologi Kawasan Pangkajene – Watambone [Sumber: Hoent dan Ziegler, 1917]

Walaupun di sekitar kota Watampone sendiri tidak terdapat hutan, namun di kawasan sekitar kota, terutama ruas jalan antara Kabupaten Maros dan Bone, masih ditemukan percakan-percakan hutan dengan tipe Hutan Hujan Tropika Dataran Rendah (Whitten dkk., 1987) lengkap dengan jenis-jenis tumbuhan endemik Sulawesi atau yang persebarannya mencakup Sulawesi yang hidup di dataran rendah seperti Diospyros celebica (Ebenaceae), D. maritima, Kjellbergiodendron celebicum (Myrtaceae), Koordersiodendron pinnatum (Anacardiaceae), dan beberapa jenis lainnya (Koorders, 1898; Koorders-Schumacher, 1914; Lam, 1945a; Lam, 1945b; Merrill, 1952; Keβler dkk., 2002), yang mana sebagiannya tergolong jenis-jenis penghasil kayu potong (timber) utama (Lemmens dkk., 1995). Sulawesi pun memiliki banyak jenis hewan endemik (Whitten dkk., 1987), beberapa di antaranya yang terkenal adalah: a. Dua jenis Anoa, Anoa Dataran Rendah (Bubalus depressicornis) dan Anoa Dataran Tinggi (Bubalus quarlesi). b. Tiga jenis Babirusa (dari semula hanya satu jenis, Babyrousa babyrussa), yaitu Babirusa Sulawesi Selatan (Babyrousa bolabatuensis), Babirusa Sulawesi (Babyrousa celebensis), dan Babirusa Togian (Babyrousa togeanensis). Babyrousa bolabatuensis diyakini sebagai jenis Babirusa yang menghuni hutan hujan tropika dataran rendah di sekitar jalur Maros-Watampone. c. Delapan jenis monyet dari marga Macaca adalah endemik Sulawesi (Supriatna dan Wahyono, 2000), yang mana salah satunya adalah Monyet Dare (Macaca maura) yang diketahui ditemukan di Sulawesi Tengah yang dekat dengan kawasan Kabupaten Bone. Tujuh jenis Tarsius endemik Sulawesi (Groves dan Shekelle, 2010), di mana di kawasan Watampone kemungkinan terdapat Tarsius Sulawesi (Tarsius tarsier) dan Tarsius Kerdil (Tarsius fuscus).

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d. Burung Maleo (Macrocephalon maleo), satu-satunya jenis di marga tersebut. Keberadaan di kawasan Watampone belum pernah dilaporkan secara ilmiah meski banyak masyarakat yang melaporkan.

Pengumpulan Data

Metode yang dipakai adalah eksplorasi dan keikutsertaan (partisipasi) langsung dengan wawancara secara terbuka dua arah (Martin, 1995; Cunningham, 2001; Bernard, 2006; Nolan dkk., 2011). Lokasi penelitian di Kota Watampone, terletak di bagian selatan Teluk Bone (Gambar 5), dengan sendirinya pergerakan air laut di teluk tersebut sangat mempengaruhi kondisi fisik Watampone. Kota Watampone memiliki luas 138,87 Km². Meski tidak langsung berada di tepi pantai, Watampone memiliki akses ke laut yang relatif dekat, di mana dari pusat kota ke pelabuhan utama, Pelabuhan Bajoe sekitar 9,4 Km dan dapat ditempuh dalam waktu sekitar 23 menit (Gambar 6).

Gambar 5. Kota Watambone dalam kaitan dengan Teluk Bone [Sumber: Library of University of Texas]

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Gambar 6. Jalur darat antara pusat Kota Watampone ke Pelabuhan Bajoe [Sumber: Google Map, 2019]

Meski Watampone juga memiliki Bandar Udara, yaitu Bandar Udara Arung Palakka yang rencananya akan diperluas runway-nya, namun saat ini hanya jalan darat yang berfungsi sebagai moda transportasi utama yang menghubungkan kedua kota tersebut, di mana perjalanan dari Makassar ke Watampone dalam keadaan normal dapat ditempuh dalam empat jam via jalan Poros Maros – Soppeng dan Poros Leppangeng – Watampone. Perjalanan darat tersebut melintasi Pegunungan Kapur/Karst Maros (masuk Kecamatan Camba, Kabupaten Maros) dan Taman Nasional Bantimurung Bulusaraung yang berlokasi di Kabupaten Maros dan Kabupaten Pangkajene dan Kepulauan (Gambar 7).

Gambar 7. Jalur darat antara Makassar ke Wartampone [Sumber: Google Map, 2019]

HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Prosesi Mattompang Arajang

Di masa silam prosesi Mattompang Arajang dilaksanakan oleh para Bissu atas restu raja atau Mangkau di dalam ruangan tempat penyimpanan benda-benda pusaka tersebut. Prosesi tersebut menjadi bentuknya seperti sekarang setidaknya semenjak masa pemerintahan Raja Bone ke-15, La Tenri Tatta Arung Palakka atau lebih dikenal di luar Bone sebagai Aru Palakka. Setidaknya terdapat lima macam benda pusaka Kerajaan Bone (secara keseluruhan disebut Parewa Arajanna Bone) yang disucikan dalam perhelatan tersebut, yaitu: 1. Teddung Pulaweng (Payung Emas)

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2. Sembangeng Pulaweng (Selempang Emas) 3. La Tea Riduni (Kelewang), terutama sebilah kelewang yang disebut Alameng yang adalah pusaka Raja Bone ke-15, Arung Palakka 4. La Salaga (Tombak) yang menjadi simbol kehadiran Raja Bone 5. Alameng Tatarapeng (Senjata adat tujuh atau Ade’ Pitu)

Prosesi Mattompang Arajang sendiri sudah lama dilakukan dan sudah tercatat oleh orang luar Bone setidaknya semenjak abad ke-17 (Petri, 1671; Pelras, 1996; Said, 2004) terus dilestarikan hingga kini. Berbeda dengan tahun-tahun sebelumnya, bertepatan dengan Hari Jadi Bone yang ke-689 (pada tahun 2019), Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Bone menetapkan bahwa prosesi dilakukan di Lapangan Merdeka mengacu pada permohonan masyarakat Bugis yang ada di dalam dan luar Kabupaten Bone sehingga segenap masyarakat dapat menyaksikannya (Gambar 8). Segenap prosesi Mattompang Arajang dipimpin oleh seorang Bissu utama dan diiringi oleh para Bissu bawahannya dan para juru cuci pusaka yang bukan Bissu (Gambar 9 dan Gambar 10). Bissu sendiri adalah kelompok waria yang dianggap suci atau disucikan karena diyakini memiliki kekuatan supranatural (Pelras, 1996; Said, 2004). Meski begitu, Bissu bukanlah serta merta dukun dan tidak setiap waria dapat menjadi Bissu. Intinya adalah bahwa tidak pernah acara Mattompang Arajang dapat terselenggara tanpa kehadiran dan pimpinan Bissu. Sementara dalam pendapat lain, Bissu dianggap sebagai kaum pendeta yang dipandang sebagai separuh manusia dan separuh dewa yang bertindak sebagai penghubung antara alam manusia dan alam para dewa (Sharyn, 2002). Masyarakat tradisional Bugis sendiri menganggap Bissu sebagai manusia berjenis kelamin yang ke-lima karena dalam budaya Bugis dikenal keberadaan lima jenis kelamin manusia (Sharyn, 2001): a. Oroane, laki-laki. b. Makunrai, wanita. c. Calalai, wanita yang berpenampilan seperti laki-laki. d. Calabai, laki-laki yang berpenampilan seperti wanita. e. Bissu, yang dianggap sebagai kombinasi dari ke-empat kelamin di atas.

Gambar 8. Prosesi Mattompang Arajang (Pembersihan Benda Pusaka) tahun 2019 yang diselenggarakan di Lapangan Merdeka, Watampone

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Gambar 9. Bissu utama memimpin prosesi Mattompang Arajang sambil membawa La Tea Riduni (Kelewang) yang diyakini milik Arung Palakka

Gambar 10. Para Bissu menari sambil merapal mantera dalam prosesi Mattompang Arajang. Bissu utama duduk paling kiri, di sekitarnya duduk para juru cuci benda-benda pusaka Kerajaan Bone yang adalah bukan Bissu

Bissu sendiri unik dalam kebudayaan Bugis dan ini berasal dari tradisi lama suku Bugis jauh sebelum kedatangan agama-agama dari luar (Hindu, Buddha, dan Islam) ke tanah Bugis.

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Dengan kata lain, Bissu adalah unik untuk peradaban Austronesia, khususnya West-Central Austronesia karena konsep yang sama dengan itu juga ditemukan di banyak suku lain di kawasan tersebut seperti di Jawa (gemblak di tradisi Reog Ponorogo; Krismawati dkk., 2018; Wiranata dan Nurcahyo, 2018), Maori di Selandia Baru yang disebut takatāpui (Swain dan Trompf, 1995; Murray, 2003; Craig, 2004), Filipina yang disebut lakapati (Ramos, 1990), dan sebagainya.

Kemenyan Bugis

Dalam ritual pencucian benda-benda pusaka Kerajaan Bone tersebut dibakar kemenyan, bahkan asap kemenyan menjadi salah satu kelengkapan pencucian benda pusaka. Pembakaran kemenyan dilakukan oleh Bissu utama dan para juru cuci (bukan Bissu). Yang menarik di sini adalah kemenyannya itu sendiri. Sepanjang yang diketahui kemenyan Makassar dan Bugis berbeda dari kemenyan yang umum dikenal. Kemenyan yang umum dikenal berasal dari getah (resin) jenis-jenis tumbuhan Styrax benzoin (‘kemenyan biasa’), Styrax paralleloneurus (‘kemenyan bulu’), dan Styrax sumatrana (‘kemenyan Toba’; Styracaceae). Kemenyan terbaik berasal dari resin Styrax sumatrana (Gambar 11) yang sudah dikenal dan diperdagangkan selama berabad-abad, mulai dari Nusantara sendiri hingga Timur Tengah dan Afrika. Ketiga jenis tersebut hanya ada di Sumatera, khususnya Propinsi Sumatera Utara dan dikenal dengan nama daerah Batak Tobasebagai “haminyon”. Dari nama daerah itulah masuk ke dalam Bahasa Indonesia (i.e. Melayu) sebagai “kemenyan”. Dalam bahasa-bahasa Nusantara lainnya disebut “dupa”. Jenis-jenis tersebut di atas tidak terdapat di Sulawesi, sehingga suku-suku di Sulawesi menggunakan resin dari tumbuhan lain, tentunya dari jenis tumbuhan penghasil resin yang terdapat atau tersebar luas di Sulawesi. Membakar dupa memang bagian dari ritual keagamaan asli bangsa Austronesia, yang mana suku-suku di Sulawesi termasuk di dalamnya. Ritual membakar kemenyan atau dupa bukan merupakan pengaruh dari Hindu Arya India. Rumphius (1741b) mencatat bahwa dupa orang Makassar berasal dari tanaman “Caju Galedupa” (Gambar 12) merujuk kepada nama tumbuhan tersebut dalam Bahasa Bugis dan Makassar yaitu ‘Kayu Galadupa’. Jenis “Caju Galedupa” ini kemudian diidentifikasi oleh Merrill (1917) sebagai Sindora galedupa (Fabaceae), sejenis tanaman polong-polongan (legumes) yang menghasilkan resin (Boer dkk., 2000; Langenheim, 2003).

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Gambar 11. Kemenyan Toba Gambar 12. ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Styrax sumatrana; Styracaceae) atau Sindora galedupa (Fabaceae)

‘Kayu Galadupa’ sebagai penghasil bahan dupa sebenarnya sudah dapat diduga dari nama daerahnya sendiri. ‘Gala’ atau ‘Galu’ adalah nama daerah yang digunakan masyarakat berbahasa Bugis dan Makassar (juga bahasa-bahasa di bagian utara Sulawesi bahkan hingga ke Kepulauan Filipina; lihat Koorders, 1898) untuk menyebut seluruh jenis tumbuhan polong-polongan (Fabaceae atau Leguminosae) yang masuk ke marga Sindora, sehingga dengan sendirinya kata ‘Galadupa’ berarti kayu ‘Gala’ yang menghasilkan dupa. Dengan kata lain, dupa Bugis atau dupa Makassar. ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa) sendiri memang diketahui menghasilkan resin tipe oleoresin (Langenheim, 2003), meski tingkat keharumannya tidak seperti kemenyan yang dihasilkan oleh Styrax sumatrana (‘kemenyan Toba’) atau bahkan Styrax paralleloneurus (‘kemenyan bulu’), namun resin yang dihasilkan Sindora galedupa cukup wangi untuk dijadikan dupa (Boer dkk., 2000) yang digunakan dalam ritual keagamaan masyarakat Bugis dan Makassar di masa silam (Petri, 1671; Pelras, 1979; Pelras, 1996; Said, 2004; Sila, 2015). Selain menghasilkan dupa, kayu dari Sindora galedupa juga dijadikan bahan bangunan dan kerajinan (Gambar 13). Selain itu kayunya juga dipakai sebagai bahan pembuatan perahu, terutama perahu yang ringan namun cukup kokoh sehingga dapat menjadi perahu cepat. ‘Kayu Galadupa’ dikenal sangat cocok untuk kategori perahu angkut, seperti Pinisi atau Padewakang, selain karena berat jenisnya cukup baik (Whitmore, 1972), juga karena resin yang dihasilkan tersebut berfungsi sebagai anti rayap sehingga membuat kayunya awet sekaligus kedap air karena resin yang dihasilkan di urat-urat kayu dapat berfungsi seperti gum arabicum (Lemmens dkk., 1995). Penelitian ini juga mengungkap apakah kemenyan yang digunakan dalam ritual Mattompang Arajang masih menggunakan dupa asli Bugis atau Makassar sebagaimana yang dilaporkan Rumphius (1741b)? Ternyata kemenyan yang dipakai bukan berasal dari resin “Caju Galedupa” atau ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa), melainkan kemenyan import dari Saudi Arabia. Bahkan semua Bissu dan Juru Cuci Benda Pusaka tidak mengetahui tentang ‘kemenyan Bugis’ meski mereka pernah mendengar dari para senior mereka bahwa di

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masa silam para Bissu membakar ‘dupa Bugis’ yang khas dan berbeda dengan dupa yang kebanyakan diketahui. Sayangnya, mereka tidak dapat menjelaskan seperti apa ‘kemenyan Bugis’ tersebut dan bahkan kaget mengetahui bahwa kemenyan itu adalah getah yang mengeras (resin) dan dipanen dari tumbuhan. Sangat jelas sekali bahwa ada literasi yang hilang. Dengan kata lain, ada pengetahuan tradisional mereka terkait kemenyan atau dupa Bugis (dupa Makassar) yang sudah hilang dari ingatan mereka.

Gambar 13. ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa). Kiri atas = belahan kayu yang memperlihatkan kelenjar-kelenjar getah atau resin (warna hitam), kanan atas = balok kayu, kiri bawah = kerajinan berupa piring kayu, kanan bawah = kerajinan berupa tongkat kayu [Sumber: www.pinterest.com]

Hilangnya literasi akan ‘kemenyan Bugis’ tersebut diyakini berkaitan langsung dengan langkanya ‘kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa) itu sendiri di alam, setidaknya di bagian selatan Sulawesi. Eksploitasi yang tidak terkendali agaknya menjadi penyebab utama kelangkaan jenis kayu ini. Fenomena yang sama seperti yang ditemukan di kayu-kayu utama Sulawesi lannya semacam ‘Eboni Sulawesi’ (Diospyros celebica; Ebenaceae) dan ‘Eboni Laut’ (Diospyros maritima).

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Konservasi terhadap keragaman hayati Sulawesi, khususnya Sulawesi Selatan sangat penting untuk segera dilakukan. Dalam kaitan dengan ini, revitalisasi jalan trans Makassar – Watampone, khususnya ruas Makassar – Maros harus diawasi dan dijaga dengan baik karena melintasi bagian terpenting dari Taman Nasional Bantimurung-Bulusaraung, yaitu Pegunungan Kapur/Karst Maros, di mana boleh jadi merupakan benteng terakhir keberadaan populasi ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa) di selatan Sulawesi, keberadaan ‘dupa Bugis’ di tanah air suku Bugis itu sendiri.

Jejaring Bugis Nusantara (Bugis Nusantara Networking)

Acara perhelatan Mattompang Arajang sendiri menjadi semacam reuni akbar masyarakat suku Bugis dari segala penjuru Indonesia dan Nusantara, di mana dalam acara tersebut juga dihadiri para perwakilan masyarakat Bugis dari dalam dan luar negeri Indonesia. Tercatat setidaknya beberapa utusan dari kerajaan-kerajaan di luar Indonesia yang memiliki latar belakang atau kaitan dengan Kerajaan Bone hadir, seperti: a. Kerajaan Singapura (merupakan kerajaan adat yang diakui oleh pemerintah Republik Singapura meski dalam status warisan nasional) b. Beberapa kerajaan di Malaysia seperti Johor, Kedah, Malaka, Pahang c. Kerajaan Brunei Darussalam

Banyak kerajaan lain di Indonesia yang secara langsung atau tidak langsung berkaitan dengan suku dan budaya Bugis juga datang dalam Mattompang Arajang tahun ini, antara lain Kerajaan Buton, Gowa, Soppeng, Pangkajene, Palopo, dan lain-lain. Dapat disimpulkan di sini bahwa Mattompang Arajang dapat berfungsi sebagai ajang pemersatu segenap suku Bugis di Nusantara. Suatu ajang yang dapat dimanfaatkan sebagai dasar dari pembentuk sebuah jejaring (networking), khususnya terkait perniagaan yang sebenarnya sudah ada semenjak berabad-abad, bahkan mungkin sebelum kedatangan para saudagar dari Timur Tengah. Kemampuan suku Bugis (dan juga suku-suku lain sekerabat seperti Buton, Makassar serta Mandar) dalam perniagaan bahari sudah dikenal lama, bahkan para saudagar Bugis tercatat dalam kitab Negara Kertagama di jaman Majapahit sebagai pelaut-pelaut dan saudagar-saudagar bahari yang baik. Pun oleh saudagar-saudagar Arab sudah berniaga, khususnya rempah-rempah dan logam (besi) hingga ke Madagaskar dan Pantai Timur Afrika serta pulau-pulau di sekitarnya, seperti Kepulauan Komoro, jauh sebelum kedatangan mereka ke wilayah-wilayah tersebut (Battuta, 1980; Cortesão, 2005). Peranan penting para pedagang Bugis dalam perniagaan antar pulau di dalam dan di luar wilayah Nusantara juga diakui oleh bangsa Portugis dan Belanda yang bahkan kerap memanfaatkan para saudagar Bugis sebagai pedagang perantara antara mereka dan bangsa-bangsa pribumi Nusantara, bahkan hingga Srilangka, India, Madagaskar, dan pantai timur dan selatan Afrika (Boxer, 1965; Boxer, 1977; França, 1970; Cook, 2007; Jayasuria, 2008). Peranan suku Bugis sebagai pemain utama dalam perniagaan hasil bumi Nusantara, khususnya rempah-rempah bahkan mencapai puncaknya di masa Arung Palakka, di mana pada tahun 1662 bahkan ia diangkat sebagai raja di Ulakan, Pariaman, Minangkabau sekaligus tanpa tanding menggenggam jalur perniagaan di pantai barat Sumatera, bahkan hingga ke Srilangka dan pantai timur India, khususnya Malabar (Andaya, 1981); sementara jalur timur dipegangnya berbagi bersama dengan VOC. Saat itu, hanya Kerajaan Bone (kerajaan suku Bugis) yang mendapatkan keleluasaan untuk menulis surat langsung ke Gubernur Jenderal Belanda (Andaya, 2014). Berbekal pada fakta-fakta sejarah terkait networking suku Bugis, dalam kesempatan Mattompang Arajang sempat mendiskusikan

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kemungkinan untuk membangkitkan kembali poros maritim yang pernah dimiliki suku Bugis di masa silam dengan konteks kekinian. Dengan kata lain, revitalisasi jejaring maritim Bugis atau Bugis Nusantara Networking dalam bentuk Bugis Nusantara Trade and Cultural Networking. Meski untuk sementara ini masih dalam bentuk wacana dan penguatan literasi, namun ide ini layak dipertimbangkan berdasarkan fakta bahwa jejaring tradisional yang dilandasi kesamaan dan keterkaitan budaya trans-border, dalam hal ini Bugis, diyakini memiliki kekuatan perniagaan kokoh dan bertahan lama karena lebih adaptif dan saling menguatkan antar bandar. Sebagaimana dapat disaksikan bahwa hingga hari ini, kapal-kapal kayu dari suku Bugis dan kerabatnya (Buton, Makassar, Mandar) masih memadati pelabuhan Sunda Kelapa di Jakarta yang membawa aneka macam komoditi penting antar pulau, mulai dari beras, kayu hingga bahan-bahan bangunan. Jejaring Bugis Nusantara juga dapat menjadi salah satu landasan kuat untuk upaya penyelamatan perahu-perahu tradisional Nusantara, seperti pinisi, padewakang, dan sejenisnya yang menghidupi pelayaran tradisional Nusantara yang juga secara de facto masih menghidupi perekonomian mikro dan bahkan dalam cakupan tertentu juga makro negara Indonesia. Dalam kaitan dengan acara adat Mattompang Arajang sebagai ajang pemersatu seluruh keturunan Bugis di Nusantara yang membentuk Jejaring Bugis Nusantara, keberadaan kemenyan Bugis sangat penting karena pada hakikinya tidak ada prosesi tersebut tanpa kehadiran kemenyan Bugis sehingga keberadaannya perlu dipertahankan. Ini berita bagus terkait dengan konservasi Sindora galedupa di bumi asalnya sendiri.

KESIMPULAN

Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa wilayah yang saat ini termasuk ke dalam Kabupaten Bone adalah asal mula kebudayaan Bugis dan masih kuat menjaga kelestarian tradisi budaya Bugis, antara lain dalam bentuk prosesi (perhelatan) tahunan Mattompang Arajang yang dikaitkan dengan Hari Jadi Bone. Beberapa hal perlu mendapat perhatian seperti kelestarian komponen penting prosesi itu sendiri yaitu dupa atau kemenyan Bugis yang berasal dari sejenis tumbuhan polong-polongan (Fabaceae) yang dikenal sebagai ‘Kayu Galadupa’ yang diidentifikasi di sini sebagai Sindora galedupa. Sindora galedupa sendiri sudah jarang terlihat di hutan dan kemenyan Bugis itupun sudah sangat lama tidak digunakan. Perhelatan tahunan Mattompang Arajang Kabupaten Bone yang dihadiri segenap masyarakat berbudaya Bugis yang tersebar luas di Nusantara juga memiliki potensi untuk kebangkitan kembali budaya maritim Bugis yang pernah berhasil membawa kemakmuran dalam bentuk jejaring masyarakat Bugis di Nusantara atau Bugis Nusantara Networking. Jejaring ini juga dapat dijadikan landasan untuk mendukung prioritas nasional saat ini yaitu Poros Maritim berbasis komoditas asli Indonesia, khususnya rempah-rempah di mana kemenyan pun masuk ke dalamnya.

UCAPAN TERIMA KASIH

Penulis mengucapkan terimakasih yang sebesar-besarnya kepada Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Bone yang telah mengundang kami ke Watampone sehingga penelitian ini dapat dilakukan. Penghargaan juga dilayangkan ke Kementerian Koordinator bidang Kemaritiman yang telah memfasilitasi penulis untuk hadir dan melakukan riset di Bone.

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DAFTAR PUSTAKA

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Pengetahuan Lokal dan Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Berguna Pada Masyarakat Batulanteh, Pulau Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat: Sebuah Kajian Etnobotani

Mulyati Rahayu Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Nissa Arifa Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Muhamad Nikmatullah Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Ary Prihardhyanto Keim Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia

Email korespondensi [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The study was conducted in Batulanteh District, Sumbawa regency, Sumbawa Island, West Nusa Tenggara, which is aimed to reveal the knowledge of the Samawa people on the diversity of useful plants and their uses. It documented 111 plant species, in which 47.5% are used as traditional medicine. Also, the sudy found that wild honey bees (Apis dorsata) is having a conspicuous association with plants in producing natural honey, which plays an important role in the local economy. The interviews with selected respondents showed that the Samawa people totally understand the importance of forest conservation in relation with the existence of the honey bees’ life.

Keywords: Batulanteh, ethnobotany, Samawa, Sumbawa, useful plants

PENDAHULUAN

Pulau Sumbawa merupakan salah satu pulau dalam gugusan Kepulauan Nusa Tenggara. Berbeda dengan dua pulau di sebelah baratnya, Lombok dan Bali, keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan di pulau ini belum banyak dikenal. Kawasan pegunungan Batulanteh merupakan salah satu kawasan konservasi di Kabupaten Sumbawa Besar dengan ketingggian berkisar antara 500 – 1800 m dpl dan dengan kemiringan medan antara 40 - 80o. Keberadaan kawasan hutan ini sangat penting karena selain sebagai hulu dari Daerah Aliran Sungai (DAS) untuk mensuplai air bagi Kota Sumbawa, juga merupakan habitat lebah madu liar penghasil utama madu Sumbawa. Masyarakat Samawa Batulanteh sangat menghargai kekayaan jenis tumbuhannya dan menempatkannya dalam kedudukan yang penting terkait perikehidupan mereka sehari-hari. Banyak jenis-jenis tumbuhan berperawakan pohon yang meski tidak dimanfaatkan secara langsung oleh mereka namun tetap dijaga kelestariannya karena pohon-pohon tersebut berfungsi sebagai rumah bagi lebah madu liar (Apis dorsata) yang mereka panen madunya dan justru menjadi salah satu komoditas yang membuat Desa Batulanteh dikenal bahkan

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.6 28

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hingga ke luar Sumbawa. Hutan Batulanteh memang diketahui merupakan sumber madu terbesar di Sumbawa baik dari sisi volume perdagangan maupun jumlah pemburu madu yang terlibat dalam industri ini (Julmansyah, 2008). Dalam kaitannya dengan jenis-jenis tumbuhan berguna masyarakat Samawa mempunyai pengetahuan yang baik. Masyarakat Samawa umumnya telah sejak lama hidup dari usaha pertanian dengan bercocok tanam padi di ladang atau berkebun kopi dan kemiri. Lingkungan tempat tinggal masyarakat Samawa merupakan lingkungan budidaya yang mencakup pekarangan, tegalan dan perkebunan. Rensch (1930) dan Kostermans (1963) adalah dua rujukan yang paling kerap digunakan untuk keanekaragaman hayati tumbuhan Pulau Sumbawa. Lebih sedikit dari itu adalah informasi seputar kajian etnobotaninya, dan terkait itulah penelitian ini dilakukan. Kajian ini termasuk yang awal dilakukan, maka diharapkan dapat memberikan landasan kuat bagi pemanfaatannya, termasuk bioprospecting.

METODE

Lokasi Penelitian

Lokasi penelitian dipusatkan di kawasan Batulanteh, yang merupakan salah satu dari 24 Kecamatan di Kabupaten Sumbawa, Propinsi Nusa Tenggara Barat (Gambar 1). Terdapat 10 desa yang termasuk ke dalam wilayah Kecamatan Batulanteh, yaitu Batudulang, Baturontok, Baudesa, Kaduk, Musuk, Pusu, Riu, Sukamaju, Tangkepkulit, dan Tepal. Terkait dengan kemiringan medan, semua desa di atas, kecuali Batudulang. Mayoritas penduduknya berasal dari suku Samawa dan beragama Islam. Mata pencaharian utama mereka adalah bertani kopi robusta (Coffea canephora), kopi arabika (Coffea arabica), kemiri (Aleurites moluccana), dan madu yang dihasilkan lebah madu hutan (Apisdorsata). Kopi robusta dan kemiri merupakan dua jenis tanaman budidaya pendatang. Rata-rata tiap kepala keluarga memiliki 50 pohon kemiri dan 100 pohon kopi robusta.

Pengumpulan dan Analisis Data

Pengumpulan data dilakukan dengan menggunakan metode Walk in the Wood (Cunnigham, 2001; Hoang et al., 2008) yaitu berupa wawancara dan pengamatan langsung di lapangan. Informan kunci yang digunakan adalah anggota masyarakat yang mampu memberikan informasi yang akurat yaitu yang memiliki pengetahuan yang baik tentang keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan berguna, di mana setiap jenis tumbuhan berguna dicatat nama lokalnya dan kegunaannya. Pengambilan sampel dalam bentuk spesimen herbarium. Identifikasi dilakukan di Herbarium Bogoriense (BO). Data etnobotani yang berhasil didokumentasikan dianalisis dengan pendekatan kualitatif dan menyajikannya dalam bentuk tabel dan gambar.

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Gambar 1. Kawasan Batulanteh, Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat

HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Pengetahuan Masyarakat Samawa Terhadap Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan

Masyarakat di Batulanteh merupakan masyarakat petani yang tinggal dengan kawasan hutan, mereka mempunyai ketergantungan yang tinggi terhadap hutan. Hasil penelitian menunjukkan bahwa masyarakat Samawa di Batulanteh mengetahui 111 pengetahuan tentang keanekaragaman jenis tumbuhan, terutama untuk aneka jenis tumbuhan yang dimanfaatkan dalam kehidupan sehari-hari, seperti sumber bahan pangan, obat, bahan bangunan, kayu bakar, pakan ternak peliharaan, dan tempat bersarangnya lebah penghasil madu. Sebaliknya, jenis-jenis tumbuhan liar yang jarang atau tidak dimanfaatkan umumnya tidak dikenal secara baik antara lain Aphanamixis polystachya, Begonia spp., Elatostema sp., Knema laurina , Piper spp., Phyllanthus emblica, Pothos sp. dan Freycinetia spp., yang secara umum disebut ´klipan´ dan sebenarnya terdiri dari dua jenis: F. insignis dan F. sumbawaensis (Keim dan Rahayu, 2010). ‘Pade’ atau padi (Oryza sativa) merupakan jenis tanaman yang mempunyai nilai paling penting diantara jenis-jenis tanaman penghasil karbohidrat lainnya. Meski begitu, tidak banyak anggota masyarakat Samawa di Batulanteh yang bercocok tanam padi dan ini

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berkaitan dengan topografi Batulanteh yang berbukit-bukit dengan sedikit areal lahan datar yang cocok untuk persawahan. Oleh kareana itu hasil panen padi selalu disimpan dalam ‘alang’ lumbung yang bentuk dan struktur bangunannya tidak berubah semenjak jaman leluhur mereka.

Gambar 2. Bentuk dan struktur bangunan tempat menyimpan hasil panen padi

Tegalan umumnya ditanami dengan ‘kitabang’ atau ubi kayu (Manihot esculenta), ‘baso’ atau jagung (Zea mays), dan ‘nyir’ atau nyiur (Cocos nucifera). Penanaman ke tiga jenis ini dilakukan bersamaan saat pembukaan tegalan, dan pemanenan dilakukan bertahap yaitu panen jagung (3 - 4 bulan), kemudian ubi kayu (8 - 9 bulan). Penanaman ke dua jenis ini (jagung dan ubi kayu) untuk menjaga ketersediaan bahan pangan (karbohidrat) sebagai pengganti beras. Pekarangan rumah umumnya ditanami sayuran dan buah-buahan seperti bayam (Amaranthus hibridus), cabe (Capsicum fructescens), terung (Solanum melongena), nanas (Ananas comosus), ‘nyamung’ atau ´jambu biji´ (Psidium guajava), dan ‘nyamung ae’ atau jambu air (Syzygium aqueum). Aneka jenis tanaman hias juga ditanam di pekarangan antara lain ‘puring’ (Codieum variegatum) dan ‘hanjuang’ (Cordyline fruticosa), dan umumnya ditanam sebagai tanaman pagar atau pembatas. Hal ini diduga berkaitan dengan warna daunnya yang kurang lazim (tidak hijau), hal tersebut didukung oleh Heyne (1987) yang menyebutkan hanjuang sebagai tanaman terminalis atau perdu batas. Bentuk bangunan asli sebagai tempat tinggal masyarakat Samawa, sebagaimana halnya hampir seluruh tipe asli rumah bangsa besar Austronesia adalah berupa rumah panggung kayu dengan dinding dari anyaman bambu dan beratapkan ‘santek’. ‘Santek’ dibuat dari seruas batang bambu ‘treng’ atau ‘ae’ yang dibelah dua kemudian dibelah lagi dibagian tengah lalu disusun seperti sirap. Sayangnya saat ini atap ´santek´ telah banyak ditinggalkan karena pengerjaannya membutuhkan waktu yang lama dan penguasaan teknik yang rumit. Dengan kata lain, efek negatif dari pragmastism telah mendorong masyarakat Samawa untuk meninggalkan tradisi tersebut. Meski begitu, untungnya hingga saat ini atap ‘santek’ masih dapat dijumpai pada bangunan-bangunan lumbung padi atau dalam bahasa Samawa disebut ‘alang’. Fenomena ini dapat ditafsirkan bahwa padi memiliki nilai yang sangat tinggi di masyarakat Samawa sebagaimana layaknya bangsa besar Austronesia lainnya yang dari Madagaskar di barat hingga Pulau Paskah di timur, dan dari Taiwan di utara hingga Selandia Baru di selatan (Blench, 2008; Donohue dan Denham, 2010; Pearce dan Pearce,

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2010). Diharapkan bahwa dengan terus ditempatkannya pada dalam kedudukan yang penting, setidaknya secara kultural, ‘santek’ akan terjaga kelestariannya.

Tabel 1. Tumbuhan Berguna dan Pemanfaatannya di Batulanteh, Sumbawa No. Nama Ilmiah Suku Nama Lokal Kegunaan 1 Abelmoschus Malvaceae Jamia Buah dimakan bagai bahan esculentus sayuran 2 Agave sisalana Asparagaceae Panan ring Penangkal setan 3 Aleurites moluccanus Euphorbiaceae Miri Kulit kayu obat paska persalinan; bunga pakan lebah madu; biji komoditi perdagangan; kayu bakar 4 Aloe vera Xanthorrhoeaceae Sekir baya Daun perangsang ASI, pengganti shampoo 5 Alstonia scholaris Apocynaceae Lita Kulit kayu obat paska persalinan, obat batuk darah, penurun panas; Pohon ‘boan’ 6 Elettaria Zingiberaceae Kapulaga Biji campuran ‘rampagenap’; cardamomum bumbu 7 Etlingera heyneana Zingiberaceae Goal Bunga pakan lebah; buah untuk memandikan jenasah 8 Areca catechu Arecaceae Pinang Akar obat kuat untuk laki- laki 9 Averrhoa bilimbi Oxalidaceae Binang Daun campuran ‘repusit’; buah untuk sambal 10 Barringtonia Lecythidaceae Putat Kulit kayu pewarna merah racemose 11 Bischofia javanica Phyllanthaceae Lintung Kulit kayu campuran ‘songa’ 12 Blumea balsamifera Compositae Kesemung Daun obat paska persalinan; bunga pakan lebah madu 13 Blumea chinensis Compositae Kemusi Bunga obat lidah putih pada balita 14 Caesalpinia bonduc Leguminosae Marugi Biji obat diabetes 15 Caesalpinia sappan Leguminosae Sepang Kulit kayu untuk pencegah pendarahan 16 Caesalpinia sp. Leguminosae Aru Daun muda untuk ‘sepat’ 17 Calotropis gigantea Apocynaceae Mariga Getah obat sakit gigi; bunga pakan lebah 18 Chilocarpus sp. Apocynaceae Pulasari Bunga pewangi pakaian, akar bahan campuran bedak 19 Cinnamomum Lauraceae Kayu manis Biji campuran ‘rampagenap’; burmanni kulit kayu bahan rempah 20 Cinnamomum iners Lauraceae Kayu lawang Kulit kayu obat pening 21 Citrus aurantiifolia Rutaceae Limo lawas Akar obat pegal linu, Buah penghilang bau anyir ikan 22 Clematis sp. Ranunculaceae Lonto kasipit Batang pengganti tali 23 Cocos nucifera Arecaceae Nyir Akar obat kuat laki laki; buah 32

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komoditi perdagangan; bunga pakan lebah; tangkai daun kayu bakar; batang bahan bangunan. 24 Coriandrum sativum Apiaceae Ketumbar Biji campuran ‘rampagenap’, bumbu 25 Crescentia cujete Bignoniaceae Maja Tanaman pagar, bunga pakan lebah 26 Maclura Moraceae Galiaga Kulit kayu pewarna kuning cochinchinenchis 27 Curcuma longa Zingiberaceae Kunyit Umbi obat balita agar sehat 28 Cyathea Cyatheaceae Pakis treng Batang bahan kerajinan contaminans 29 Derris trifoliata Leguminosae Kenekal Bunga pakan lebah; batang campuran obat kuat 30 Dioscorea spp. Dioscoreaceae Egal Umbi bahan pangan 31 Dipterocarpus sp. Dipterocarpaceae Prek mayung Batang bahan bangunan, Pohon ‘boan’ 32 Lablab purpureus Leguminosae Komak Buah bahan pangan 33 Duabanga Lythraceae Kayu rimas Bunga pakan lebah; kayu moluccana bahan bangunan; Pohon ‘boan’ 34 Dysoxylum sp. Meliaceae Kayu tahi Buah pakan monyet; kayu bahan bakar 35 Elatostema Urticaceae Telat Pucuk daun untuk sayur macrophyllum 36 Erythrina Leguminosae Rupe Tanaman pagar, pelindung subumbrans kopi, bunga pakan lebah 37 Austroeupatorium Compositae Santalo Bunga pakan lebah inulaefolium 38 Euodia sp. Rutaceae Mpang Bunga pakan lebah 39 Exocarpos Santalaceae Belida Batang untuk tongkat, longifolius penangkal setan 40 Ficus racemosa Moraceae Ara Buah dimakan; pohon ‘panalu’ 41 Ficus sp. Moraceae Poso Daun muda dimakan 42 Ficus fistulosa Moraceae Suir Kulit kayu obat kuat, obat pegal-pegal, obat sakit pinggang 43 Flemingia Leguminosae Sarenggang Bunga pengganti kapuk strobilifera 44 Alyxia pilosa Apocynaceae Kayu batu Kulit kayu untuk ‘salapang’ KB 45 Glochidion sp. Phyllanthaceae Kayu Buah dimakan ceremai 46 Gossypium arboreum Malvaceae Kapas Kapas mayung

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47 Graptophyllum Acanthaceae Sate ati Daun untuk memperlancar pictum urine, penurun panas; akar obat nafsu makan 48 Hydrocotyle Araliaceae Bebele Daun obat sakit kepala, obat sibthorpioides keputihan, obat bau mulut, obat pegal-pegal 49 Jatropha curcas Euphorbiaceae Jarak pagar Tanaman pagar; getah obat sakit perut; daun obat kembung; kulit kayu obat agar balita sehat 50 Lantana camara Verbenaceae Sang Bunga pakan lebah, kayu mamung bakar 51 Lawsonia inermis Lythraceae Pancar Daun pewarna kuku 52 Leea aequata Vitaceae Kayu rante Daun dan buah penyubur padi (magik) 53 Limonia acidissima Rutaceae Ganista Buah dimakan; kayu bakar 54 Litsea accedentoides Lauraceae Udu Bunga pakan lebah; buah pakan monyet; pohon ‘panalu’ 55 Litsea tomentosa Lauraceae Kayu ela Kulit kayu campuran ‘songa’ 56 Maesa perlaria Primulaceae Grengromon Buah dimakan g 57 Mallotus sp. Euphorbiaceae Oma Daun muda dan buah dimakan; buah obat cacing dan panu 58 Mangifera spp. Anacardiaceae Po Buah dimakan 59 Melastoma Melastomaceae Beso Buah dimakan, pewarna biru; malabathricum bunga pakan lebah 60 Melia azedarach Meliaceae Mindi Daun obat diabetes 61 Melochia umbellata Malvaceae Lentenu Batang kayu bakar; pohon ‘panalu’ 62 Mesona sp. Lamiaceae Rebu kepal Bunga pakan lebah 63 Michecarpus Sapindaceae Kayu minyak Batang bahan bangunan, sundaicus kayu bakar; pohon ‘boan’ 64 Mimosa pudica Leguminosae Sarat Bunga pakan lebah 65 Momordica Cucurbitaceae Paria Daun dan buah charantia memperbanyak ASI 66 Moringa oleifera Moringaceae Kele Daun memperbanyak ASI, obat sakit perut 67 Nicotiana tabaccum Solanaceae Mako Daun bahan rokok 68 Palaquium Sapotaceae Semelu Daun muda dimakan; kulit obtusifolium batang obat paska persalinan; batang gagang parang; pohon ‘boan’ 69 Pandanus Pandanaceae Pandan Daun pewangi masakan amaryllifolius wangi 70 Pandanus faviger Pandanaceae Pandan layun Ujung akar gantung obat kuat laki-laki 34

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71 Pandanus tectorius Pandanaceae Pandang Daun untuk memandikan jenasah 72 Pandanus tectorius Pandanaceae Panan ring Daun bahan anyaman 73 Peperomia pellucida Piperaceae Kedesan Semua bagian Obat pegal- pegal 74 Phyllanthus acidus Phyllanthaceae Ceremai Daun campuran ‘repusit’ 75 Phyllanthus emblica Phyllanthaceae Malaka Buah dimakan; daun pewarna hijau 76 Piper betle Piperaceae Eta Daun campuran ‘rampagenap’, obat tetes mata, sirih pinang, penangkal setan 77 Piper nigrum Piperaceae Sang Biji campuran ‘rampagenap’, komoditi perdagangan 78 Piper retrofractum Piperaceae Cabe ulet Buah campuran ‘rampagenap’ 79 Piper sarmentosum Piperaceae Kaduk Daun penurun panas, obat sesak nafas 80 Planchonia valida Lecythidaceae Belinat Bunga pakan lebah; pohon ‘boan’ 81 Plectranthus Lamiaceae Poko Daun untuk mencegah amboinicus payudara bengkak 82 Pogonatherum Poaceae Pakan ternak sapi paniceum 83 Protium javanicum Burseraceae Ketimis Daun muda untuk ‘sepat’ 84 Pterocarpus indicus Leguminosae Kemang Bunga pakan lebah; kayu kuning bahan bangunan 85 Rubus rosifolius Rosaceae Kesisik Buah dimakan 86 Sapindus rarak Sapindaceae Suat Bunga pakan lebah; buah pengganti sabun; pohon ‘boan’ 87 Schleichera oleosa Sapindaceae Kesaming Batang penangkal setan 88 Schoutenia ovata Tiliaceae Kukim Bunga pakan lebah; pohon ‘panalu’ 89 Solanum torvum Solanaceae Katemung Akar penurun panas; buah sengit dimakan 90 Spilanthes acmella Compositae Malat Bunga pakan lebah; daun anti racun belut 91 Spondias sp. Anacardiaceae Kuhinu Bunga pakan lebah; pohon ‘panalu’ 92 Syzygium Myrtaceae Cengkeh Biji campuran ‘rampagenap’; aromaticum komoditi perdagangan 93 Syzygium Myrtaceae Doat Bunga pakan lebah; pohon polyanthum ‘boan’ 94 Tabernaemontana Apocynaceae Peko salaki Kulit kayu obat paska macrocarpa persalinan 95 Talinum javanicum Portulacaceae Gingseng Semua bagian obat sakit pinggang 35

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96 Tetrameles nudiflora Tetramelaceae Binong Kulit kayu pewarna hitam; pohon ‘boan’ 97 Toddalia sp. Rutaceae Kayu Daun obat pegal-pegal berabuk 98 Toona sureni Meliaceae Suran Bahan bangunan 99 Trichosanthes sp. Cucurbitaceae Temuruk Biji obat demam gamang 100 Zingiber officinale Zingiberaceae Je Umbi campuran ‘songga’, bumbu 101 Zingiber montanum Zingiberaceae Bangle Umbi obat agar balita sehat 102 Alocasia sp. Araceae Bia Bunga pakan lebah 103 Asteraceae Kenunung Bunga pakan lebah 104 Moraceae Pelas Daun pengganti sikat gigi; kulit kayu obat perawatan paska persalinan 105 Akar pelas Semua bagian untuk ode merapatkan vagina 106 Aganosma wallichii Apocynaceae Jeliti Kulit kayu obat perawatan paska persalinan; daun untuk mencegah bayi masuk angin 107 Glinus oppositifolius Molluginaceae Jemari Daun obat perawatan paska persalinan 108 Pisonia umbellifera Nyctaginaceae Kayu kalong Kulit kayu supaya bayi kuat 109 Kayu puin Bunga pakan lebah 110 Kayu teleh Bunga pakan lebah 111 Portulaca oleracea Portulacaceae Ngalir Daun untuk mempercepat proses kelahiran

Meskipun letak desa-desa di Kecamatan Batulanteh tergolong cukup jauh dari ibukota Kecamatan Semongkat dan sarana jalan kurang baik, masyarakat lokal tidak menemui kendala berarti dalam pemenuhan kebutuhan energi untuk keperluan sehari-hari seperti memasak, karena mereka mengenal dengan baik jenis-jenis tumbuhan sumber kayu bakar berkualitas (daya bakar tinggi dan awet) seperti ‘kayu tahi’ (Dysoxylum sp.), ‘lentenu’ (Melochia umbilata) dan ‘kayu minyak’ (Lithocarpus sundaica). Terlepas dari kebutuhan akan sumber bahan bakar yang selalu ada, masyarakat Samawa mempunyai kearifan lokal untuk tidak melakukan penebangan secara sembarang karena mereka mengkhawatirkan terganggunya kelangsungan hidup lebah madu liar (Apis dorsata) yang kerap ditemukan bersarang di batang-batang jenis-jenis pohon tersebut. Umumnya untuk memenuhi kebutuhan kayu bakar sehari-hari mereka mengambilnya dari patahan-patahan dahan, ranting atau batang dari jenis-jenis tanaman budidaya seperti kelapa, kemiri, kopi robusta, dan mangga. Masyarakat Samawa saat ini tidak mengenal banyak jenis tumbuhan pangan sayuran dan buah-buahan. Nampaknya ini disebabkan generasi yang ada saat ini banyak menerima warisan lahan dari pendahulu mereka, umumnya berupa kebun kopi dan kemiri. Ragam sayuran tradisional yang masih dapat dijumpai antara lain ‘sepat’, yaitu campuran antara daun muda ‘ketimis’ (Protium javanicum), ‘aru’ (Caesalpinia aff. pulcherrima), dan buah muda ‘kapuk randu’ (Ceiba pentandra) yang diolah dengan bumbu berupa cabai, ‘ruku-ruku’ (Ocimum basilicum), dan ‘lemo asam’ (Citrofortunella microcarpa). ‘Sepat’ biasanya dihidangkan bersama dengan ikan laut. Tradisi makan ‘sepat’ biasanya dilakukan selama 36

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bulan suci Ramadhan (puasa). ‘Ketimis’ dan ‘aru’ diperdagangkan di pasar-pasar tradisional, meski begitu ke dua jenis tumbuhan tersebut tidak dibudidaya dan didapatkan dengan mengambil dari hidupan liar. Darnaedi dan Rodani (1995) melaporkan bahwa di beberapa desa di kawasan barat daya Sumbawa kayu ‘ketimis’ dan ‘aru’ juga digunakan dalam ramuan obat untuk perawatan pasca melahirkan. Hasil penelitian ini menunjukkan bahwa penggunaan kayu dari ke dua jenis tumbuhan tersebut tidak dikenal oleh masyarakat Samawa di Batulanteh. Buah ‘ganista’ (Limonia acidissima) merupakan salah satu jenis buah-buahan yang diperdagangkan di pasar- pasar tradisional. Sepanjang pengamatan yang dilakukan dalam penelitian ini, jenis tumbuhan tersebut belum dibudidaya. Di daratan Asia Tenggara duri dan kulit batang tumbuhan ini digunakan dalam banyak ramuan obat tradisional untuk menghentikan pendarahan berlebihan dalam menstruasi (haid), gangguan hati, gigitan atau sengatan binatang serta menghilangkan mual (Jones, 1997). Walaupun telah mengalami pengikisan akibat pengaruh penggunaan obat-obatan sintetis, namun pengetahuan akan obat-obatan tradisional masih terjaga dengan baik, terutama dalam perawatan paska melahirkan, di mana digunakan beberapa jenis tumbuhan terutama ‘lita’ (Alstonia scholaris). Jenis ini tumbuhan ini termasuk ke dalam daftar tumbuhan langka Indonesia (Mogea, dkk., 2001). Hal ini diyakini karena lokasi desa- desa di Batulanteh saling berjauhan dan sulitnya transportasi untuk menuju Balai Kesehatan atau Puskesmas yang terletak di ibukota kecamatan. Suku Sasak di Pulau Lombok memang dikenal memiliki pengetahuan pengobatan tradisional yang disebut ‘isi kantong’ yang diketahui terdiri dari 40 macam simplisia (Rahayu, dkk., 2002). Sementara masyarakat Samawa di Batulanteh, meski masih dikategorikan secara etnologis sebagai anggota etnis Sasak, menyebutnya sebagai ‘rampa genap’, ‘repusit’, dan ‘songga’ yaitu ramuan tumbuh-tumbuhan untuk perawatan pasca melahirkan. Kegunaan ramuan simplisia ini antara lain untuk memperlancar keluarnya darah kotor, memperlancar peredaran darah, memberi rasa hangat pada tubuh, mengembalikan kondisi rahim dan vagina seperti semula, mencegah sakit kepala, dan mempercepat pulihnya kebugaran. Perbedaan lain diantara ke dua suku Sasak dan Samawa dalam kaitan dengan tumbuhan obat antara lain dalam kasus ‘bebele’. Bagi masyarakat suku Sasak di desa Sembalum Lawang, Pulau Lombok tumbuhan dengan nama daerah ‘bebele’ merujuk kepada Centella asiatica dan digunakan sebagai obat penurun panas dan penyubur kandungan (Rahayu, dkk., 2002). Sementara masyarakat Samawa Batulanteh menyebut ‘bebele’ untuk jenis tumbuhan lain yang diidentifikasi sebagai Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides yang sepintas memang sangat mirip dengan C. asiatica, terutama dalam karakter morfologi bentuk daun. Hydrocotyle sibthorpioides oleh masyarakat Samawa digunakan sebagai obat sakit kepala, keputihan, bau mulut, dan pegal-pegal. Masyarakat Samawa menggunakan akar penopang ‘pandan layun’ (Pandanus faviger) yang belum menyentuh tanah sebagai obat keperkasaan pria (Keim dan Rahayu, 2010). Pandanus faviger juga ditemukan di Jawa (sudah sangat langka) dan Bali, namun praktek tersebut tidak ditemukan. Cara penggunaannya adalah dengan merebus ujung akar tersebut terlebih dahulu dalam segelas air hingga volume air tinggal setengah gelas, lalu didiamkan hingga hangat untuk kemudian langsung diminum. Penganggapan dan penerimaan akar penopang pandan layun yang belum menyentuh tanah sebagai obat keperkasaan pria nampaknya mendukung teori ‘doctrine of signature’ (Licker, 2003; Trivedi dan Nehra, 2009), yang mana akar penopang yang masih menggantung tersebut melambangkan alat kelamin pria (penis) sehingga diyakini juga memiliki khaziat yang terkait dengan organ tersebut. Selain dari ‘pandan layun’ (P. faviger), pemanfaatan jenis pandan lain oleh masyarakat

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Samawa untuk obat keperkasaan pria juga ditemukan, seperti penggunaan buah majemuk (cephalia) dari ‘klipan’ yang merujuk kepada Freycinetia insignis (Keim dan Rahayu 2010) yang sepintas mirip dengan alat kelamin pria. Penelitian lebih lanjut di bidang bioprospecting layak dilakukan untuk kedua jenis tumbuhan di atas guna mengetahui apakah keduanya memang mengandung senyawa aktif yang berperan sebagai agen afrodisiak. Satu dari beberapa jenis tumbuhan obat yang digunakan oleh masyarakat Batulanteh ternyata termasuk ke dalam ragam jenis tumbuhan langka Indonesia yaitu ‘lita’ (Alstonia scholaris) dan digunakan sebagai obat penurun panas, malaria dan ramuan perawatan paska persalinan (Mogea, dkk., 2001). Exocarpos longifolius ditemukan pada ketinggian sekitar 1000 m dpl. Di Batulanteh jenis tumbuhan ini ditemukan hidup mengelompok, pada lahan-lahan terbuka dengan musim kering yang menonjol. Diameter batang kayunya tidak besar (± 10 cm) dan teksturnya keras. Jenis ini oleh masyarakat Samawa dikenal dengan nama “balida” atau “kayu Sulaiman”. Kayunya tidak dimanfaatkan oleh masyarakat Samawa Batulanteh, tetapi oleh masyarakat di luar Batulanteh antara lain masyarakat Bali, umumnya dipergunakan sebagai bahan kebudayaan pada tempat- tempat suci agama Hindu, gagang keris dan tongkat komando, dan yang terkait magis sebagai penagkal setan. Jenis-jenis tumbuhan yang digunakan oleh masyarakat Samawa untuk bahan baku kerajinan dan anyaman tidak banyak. Masyarakat Samawa mengenal nama lokal tumbuhan dengan sebutan ‘panan ring’ untuk dua jenis tumbuhan yang berbeda yaitu Agave sisalana dan Pandanus tectorius. Penelitian ini menduga bahwa nama ‘panan ring’ sebenarnya diberikan atau merujuk kepada P. tectorius, bukan untuk A. sisalana. Hal ini didasarkan atas asumsi: 1. Secara fitogeografi, A.sisalana adalah jenis tanaman pendatang yang aslinya berasal dari Amerika Tengah (terutama Meksiko). Dengan kata lain, A. sisalana bukan merupakan tumbuhan asli kawasan floristik Flora Malesiana. Kapan tepatnya jenis ini masuk ke Batulanteh tidak diketahui secara pasti karena baik Rensch (1930) maupun Kostermans (1963) tidak melaporkan kehadirannya. Kemungkinan besar tumbuhan ini masuk awalnya sebagai tanaman hias. 2. Secara morfologi, A. sisalana memiliki perawakan yang mirip dengan pandan, terutama marga Pandanus, sehingga diberi nama ‘panan’ sebagaimana layaknya untuk marga Pandanus (Keim dkk., 2013). Dengan kata lain, nama ‘panan’ merupakan sebuah variasi kata dari kata asli Bahasa Malayo - Austronesia, ‘pandan’– karena memiliki kesamaan morfologi (terutama daun) dengan pandan asli Flora Malesiana (marga Pandanus), yang mana daunnya telah diketahui luas di Jawa dan kawasan sekitarnya sebagai bahan baku anyaman atau kerajinan tangan, terutama P. tectorius (Hofstede, 1925) atau P. faviger (Keim dan Rahayu, 2010). 3. Secara linguistik kata ring adalah berasal dari bahasa Belanda berarti cincin atau putaran merujuk kepada susunan daun rapat melingkar dalam putaran spiral. Perawakan yang juga dimiliki oleh sebagian besar anggota marga Pandanus, termasuk P. tectorius dan P. faviger terutama semasa tahapan anakan atau belum berbatang tegak.

Klasifikasi yang disusun oleh masyarakat tradisional seperti di atas bukanlah hal luar biasa karena kerap ditemukan di banyak masyarakat di banyak tempat di dunia (Berlin, 1992). Meski dalam hubungan kekerabatan klasifikasi tradisional dan ilmiah (filogenetik) kadang memiliki kesepadanan, namun dalam kaitan dengan pemanfaatan keduanya kerap bertolak belakang. Agave sisalana digunakan untuk keperluan mistis sebagai penangkal setan, sementara P. tectorius digunakan sebagai bahan baku anyaman tikar dan ‘kelampi’

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yaitu wadah bekal nasi dalam berpergian. Menurut masyarakat setempat nasi yang disimpan dalam wadah tersebut akan berbau harum dan tidak mudah basi. Pandanus tectorius ditemukan sebagai tumbuhan meliar yang hidup di belukar terbuka atau hutan sekunder. Jenis ini di Jawa digunakan sebagai bahan baku tikar, terutama di daerah Banten dan Jawa Barat yang dikenal dengan nama daerah ‘pandan samak’ (Hofstede, 1925) dan dibudidaya di banyak daerah seperti di Desa Cigundil, Banten (Rahayu, dkk., 2008) dan di daerah Tasikmalaya (Susiarti dan Rahayu, 2010). Selain ragam tumbuhan berbiji (Spermatophyta), tumbuhan paku (Pteridophyta) berukuran besar yaitu ‘pakis treng’ (Cyathea contaminans) juga digunakan sebagai bahan baku anyaman atau kerajinan. Jenis ini banyak dijumpai di lereng-lereng bukit sepanjang perjalanan dari Desa Batudulang menuju Desa Tepal. Masyarakat setempat menuturkan bahwa pada antara tahun 2007 hingga 2008 batang ‘pakis treng’ banyak diminati orang guna diperdagangkan sebagai bahan baku kerajinan di Bali. Sebagai dampaknya adalah eksploitasi besar-besaran. Untunglah kegiatan tersebut berangsur berkurang dan tidak sampai menghabiskan populasi yang ada.

Industri Madu Alam

Pengambilan madu alam telah dilakukan sejak lama oleh masyarakat Samawa Batulanteh terutama masyarakat pedesaan Batudulang dan Pusu. Rensch (1930) melaporkan usaha madu alam di kawasan Batulanteh, khususnya Batudulang dan Pusu, sebagai pusat industri tradisional madu alam Sumbawa. Bunga sebagai pakan lebah madu bersumber dari berbagai jenis tumbuhan yang terdapat di hutan hujan dataran rendah hingga pegunungan rendah Batulanteh seperti ‘bentenu’ (Duabanga moluccana), ‘udu’ (Litsea accentoides), ‘doat’ (Syzygium poliantha), ‘kayu mpang’ (Evodia sp.), ‘santolo’ (Eupatorium pallescens), ‘kukuni’ (Schoutenia ovata), ‘kesambi’ (Schleichera oleosa), dan beberapa jenis lain yang juga penting dalam kaitan dengan pakan lebah madu. Sedangkan bunga tanaman budidaya yang di sukai lebah madu antara lain jagung (Zea mays), ‘po’ (Mangifera indica), padi (Oryza sativa), kemiri (Aleurites moluccana), kopi robusta (Coffea robusta), dan ‘rope’ (Erythrina variegata). Terkait dengan pemanenan madu alam, masyarakat Samawa mengenal aturan adat berupa kepemilikan atas ‘boan’ dan ‘panalu’. ‘Boan’ adalah pohon yang memiliki lebih dari satu sarang lebah madu alami; sementara ‘panalu’ merujuk kepada pohon yang memiliki satu sarang lebah. Orang pertama yang menemukan ‘boan’ atau ‘panalu’ di kawasan hutan liar yang tidak berpemilik maka, ia memiliki hak untuk memberi tanda kepemilikan atasnya dan dengan sendirinya berhak memanen madu alami tersebut. Namun apabila ‘boan’ atau ‘panalu’ tersebut berada di kebun atau lahan milik orang lain, maka pembagian hasil panen madu tergantung dari kesepakatan bersama yang diatur dengan hukum adat. Praktek hukum adat yang sama dengan di atas juga ditemui di Jambi, di mana istilah yang sepadan dengan ‘boan’ adalah ‘pohon selang’ atau ‘sialang’, sementara ‘panalu’ sejajar dengan ‘pohon bumbun’ (Hariyadi, dkk., 2005; Susiarti, dkk., 2011). Praktek hukum adat yang kurang lebih sama juga ditemui di Kalimantan Barat, di mana dikenal istilah yang sepadan yaitu ‘sompuat’ dan ‘lalau’ (de Yong, 2000; Mulder, dkk., 2000; Heri dan Hermanto, 2009). Praktek hukum adat seperti di atas diyakini adalah ‘temuan’ asli bangsa besar Austronesia, setidaknya rumpun besar Malayo-Austronesia (i.e. West-Central Austronesians). Jenis-jenis pohon yang umumnya dimasukkan sebagai ‘boan’ adalah ‘rimas’ (yang diidentifikasi di sini sebagai jenis yang sama dengan ‘bentenu’ yaitu Duabanga moluccana, ‘binong’ (Tetrameles nudiflora), kemiri, ‘suran’ (Toona sureni), dan ‘putat’ (Barringtonia

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racemosa). Sementara untuk ‘panalu’ adalah Litsea accendetoides, Syzygium poliantha, dan ‘nunu ara’ (Ficus spp.). Proses pengambilan dan pengolahan (pasca panen) madu alam dilakukan sepenuhnya secara tradisional dan telah diketahui turun temurun. Setiap pemburu madu harus dibekali pengetahuan tentang teknik memanjat yang baik (sehingga tidak merusak pepohonan di sekitarnya), menentukan hari dan waktu yang tepat untuk mengambil madu, dan cara mengusir lebah madu dari sarangnya. Tidak jarang pula para pemburu madu melibatkan bantuan ‘sandro’ atau ‘tau Samawa’ yaitu sebutan untuk tetua adat Samawa. Peralatan panen madu alam cukup sederhana antara lain berupa ‘rengke’ yaitu semacam tangga, ‘api poyong’ untuk membuat asap guna mengusir lebah madu, ‘api pontat’ yaitu bara api yang dipakai untuk pemanenan di malam hari, ‘rean’ yaitu wadah untuk menampung madu (saat ini umumnya terbuat dari plastik), dan ‘berang’ yaitu parang untuk memangkas sarang lebah. Pemanenan madu umumnya dilakukan pada siang hari dengan cara mengambil bagian tertentu dari sarang lebah madu yang disebut ‘pongong’ dengan tujuan agar lebah madu dapat kembali bersarang pada tempat yang sama. Penirisan dilakukan dengan menggunakan pisau anti karat, kemudian disaring bertingkat guna mencegah madu tercemar oleh anak lebah atau serbuk sari (polen). Penyaringan umumnya dilakukan di kampung. Petani madu di Batudulang mengatakan bahwa meski madu dihasilkan sepanjang tahun, namun bulan April, Juli, dan September merupakan bulan-bulan produksi madu yang tertinggi, sedangkan Januari dan Februari merupakan bulan-bulan dengan produksi madu yang terendah. Fenomena tersebut di duga di sini terkait dengan masa perbungaan (anthesis) sebagian besar tumbuhan berbunga yang menjadi sumber pakan lebah madu hutan. Kriteria madu bermutu tinggi antara lain berkadar air kurang dari 20% dan memiliki rasa serta aroma yang khas tergantung pada jenis tumbuhan dari mana pakan (nektar) lebah madu berasal.

KESIMPULAN

Masyarakat Samawa di Kecamatan Batulanteh menjaga keberadaan hutan sebagai bagian dari kehidupan mereka, terutama dalam kaitan dengan industri tradisional madu hutan. Jenis-jenis pohon yang umum dan penting dalam kaitan dengan industri madu tersebut dijaga dengan hukum adat dan umumnya termasuk ke dalam suku-suku Lauraceae, Lythraceae, Meliaceae, dan Myrtaceae. ´Kemiri´, ´kopi robusta´, dan madu hutan berperan penting dalam perekonomian masyarakat di Batulanteh.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

Berlin, B. 1992. Ethnobiological classification: Principles of categorization of plants and animals in traditional societies. Princeton University Press, Princeton. Blench, R. 2008. The Austronesians in Madagascar and their interaction with the Bantu of the East African Coast: Surveying the linguistic evidence for domestic and trans-located animals. Studies in Philippine Languages and Cultures 18: 18-43. Cunningham, A.B. 2001. Applied ethnobotany: People, wild plant use & conservation. Earthscan Publication, London.

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Darnaedi, S.Y., Rodani. 1995. Kearifan budaya dalam tradisi pengobatan orang Sumbawa Barat Daya, Nusa Tenggara Barat. Prosiding Seminar dan Lokakarya Nasional Etnobotani II, Yogyakarta, 29-38 p. De Yong, W. 2000. Micro differences in local recourcea management: The case of honey in West Kalimantan, Indonesia. Human Ecology 28 (2): 631-639. Donohue, M., Denham, T. 2010. Farming and language in island Southeast Asia. Current Anthropology 51 (2): 223-256. Hariyadi, B., Subagio, A., Azra, R. 2005. Pelepat: traditional practice of wild honey harvesting. Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology 11 (2): 70-78. Heyne K. 1987. Tumbuhan berguna Indonesia. Badan Litbang Departemen Kehutanan, Jakarta. Heri, V., Hermanto. 2009. Bunga-bunga yang menjadi pakan lebah di Danau Sentarum, Kalimantan Barat. Alam Sumbawa 1 (April-Mei): 8-9. Hoang, S.V., Baas, P., Kebler, J.A 2008. Use and conservation of plant species in national park: A case study of Ben In, Vietnam. Economic Botany 62(4): 574-593. Hofstede, H.W. 1925. Het pandanblad: Als grondstof voor de pandanhoedenindustrie op Java. Eibergen: H, Heinen. Jones, D.T. 1997. Limonia acidissima L. dalam Verheij, E.W.M., Coronel, R.E. (eds.). 1997. Buah-buahan yang dapat dimakan. PROSEA Sumber Daya Nabati Asia Tenggara 2, Gramedia Pustaka Utama, Jakarta. Julmansyah. 2008. Sumbawa menjelang setengah abad. Pemerintah Kabupaten Sumbawa. Keim, A.P., Rugayah, Rustiami, H. (eds.). 2013. Pandanaceae of Flora Malesiana in the past eight years (2005-2013): A state of the art. Herbarium Bogoriense, Bogor. Keim, A.P., Rahayu, M. 2010. Pandanaceae of Sumbawa, West Nusa Tenggara, Indonesia. Reinwardtia 13(2): 151-158. Kostermans, A.J.G.H. 1963. Notes on the vegetation of West Sumbawa (Indonesia). Symposium on the Ecology of Reserved Humid Tropical Vegetation, Kuching. Licker, M.D. 2003. Dictionary of bioscience 2nd ed. McGraw-Hill, New York. Mogea, J.P., Gandawidjaja, D., Wiriadinata, H., Nasution, R.E., Irawati. 2001. Tumbuhan langka Indonesia. Pusat Penelitian dan Pengembangan Biologi – LIPI, Bogor, Indonesia. Mulder, V., Heri, V., Wickman, T. 2000. Traditional honey and wax collection with Apis dorsata in upper Kapuas Lake region, West Kalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin 15: 46. Pearce, C.E.M., Pearce, F.M. 2010. Oceanic migration: Paths, sequence, timing and range of prehistoric migration in the Pacific and Indian Oceans. Springer, New York. Rahayu, M., Rugayah, Praptiwi, Hamzah. 2002. Keanekaragaman pemanfaatan tumbuhan obat oleh masyarakat Suku Sasak di Taman Nasional Gunung Rinjani, Lombok - NTB. Prosiding Simposium Nasional II Tumbuhan Obat dan Aromatik. Bogor, 116- 123 p. Rahayu, M., Sunarti, S., Keim, A.P. 2008. Kajian etnobotani pandan samak (Pandanus odoratissimus L.f.): Pemanfaatannya dan peranannya dalam usaha menunjang penghasilan keluarga di Ujung Kulon - Banten. Biodiversitas 9(4): 310-314. Rensch, B. 1930. Eine biologische reise nach den Kleinen Sunda-Inseln. Gebrüder Borntraeger, Berlin. Susiarti, S., Rahayu, M. 2010. Kajian etnobotani pandan samak (Pandanus tectorius Sol.) di Kabupaten Tasikmalaya, Jawa Barat. Berita Biologi 10 (1): 113-121.

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Susiarti, S., Polosakan, R., Rahayu, M. 2011. Ekstraktivisme madu alam dan aspek sosial ekonominya di kawasan konservasi PT WKS, Jambi. Valuasi Hasil Hutan Bukan Kayu Kawasan Lindung PT Wira Karya Sakti, Jambi, MAB-UNESCO LIPI dan Sinarmas Forestry, 180-188 p. Trivedi, P.C., Nehra, S. 2009. Potential medicinal plants: Botany, medicinal uses and chemical constituents. In Trivedi, P.C. (eds.). Medicinal plants: Utilisation and conservation. 2nd edition Aavishkar Publishing, Jaipur, 405-424 p.

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Biosphere Reserve Concept Implementation for Creating Sustainability

Y. Purwanto Ethnobiology Research Group, Research Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Hari Nugroho Research Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Anang Setiawan Achmadi Research Centre for Biology, Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Cibinong, Indonesia Esti Munawaroh Research Center for Plant Conservation and Botanical Gardens Indonesian Institute of Sciences, Bogor, Indonesia

Corresponding email [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The main priority of UNESCO MAB program is to emphasize the implementation of biosphere reserve concept for achieving sustainable development. Biosphere reserve is a concept of site management to harmonize the needs for conservation of both land and coastal ecosystem with the need for economic development in the basis of research on the utilization of natural resources, including cultural resources recognized by UNESCO MAB Program in order to promote a balanced relationship between human and the nature. Principally, the concept of biosfer reserve is applied to bring the conservation of biological diversity into line with sustainable development for achieving a balanced relationship between human and the nature. The advantage of applying the biosphere reserve concept lays on the excellent combination of its three functions, namely: (1) The function associated with conservation of biological resources, ecosystems, and cultural diversity; (2) The function associated with development that supports and enriches sustainable economic development through an ecologicaly and culturally wise approach; and (3) The function associated with provision of logistics supports for various activities related with conservation and sustainable development, in a local, regional, national, or global context, including research, education, training, and monitoring. In implementing those three functions integratively, a zonation approach is applied, in which the site of biosphere reserve is devided into three different areas with specific functions and roles: (1) The core area: It is the area for conservation and it must have a firm, long-term legal protection for preserving the biodiversity, monitoring the undisturbed ecosystems or undertaking non-destructive research, and other “passive” activities such as education and training and ecosystem services; (2) The buffer zone: It is the area encircling or adjoining the core area that is determined to provide protection to the core area against the negative impacts of human activities; and (3) The transition area: The transition area. It is typically the largest part of the biosphere reserve area fuctioning to develope cooperation with local communities. It is established side by side with the buffer zone and this area is a place to develope models for sustainable development and develop an appropriate management of natural resources for the area. Biosphere reserves are used as a place to test and build a sustainable way of life through integrated programs of natural resources

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.7 43

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management and biodiversity conservation, with the objective to contribute in reducing poverty and increasing the living standard, especially of rural communities. In addition, the implementation of the biosphere reserve concept is also aimed to help reducing the loss of biodiversity, facilitating scientific development and bulding the capacity in the context of providing services neccessary for ecological sustainability.

Keywords: Biodiversity, biosphere reserve, logistic support, sustainable development, zonation system

INTRODUCTION

National Committee for Indonesian MAB Programs is a focal point for the implementation of the programs and missions of UNESCO MAB in Indonesia coordinated by the Indonesian National Commission for UNESCO (KNIU) that has an official base in the Ministry of Education and reports its activities to the Indonesian Ambassador for UNESCO in Paris. As for the implementation of the MAB programs and other programs related to sciences in Indonesia, the Indonesian government has assigned the Indonesian Institute for Sciences (LIPI) to manage the task. Further, in an ex officio condition, the Head of LIPI deliveres the task to the Deputy of Life Sciences. In performing its duties, the National Committee for MAB Program should consult with the UNESCO Regional Office in Jakarta. Thus, the MAB programs is basically also the national programs that must be taken by Indonesia as an obligation of being one of UNESCO members. Essentially, the MAB Programs hold the mission of ensuring a harmonious, balanced relationship between human and their natural environment (MAB-UNESCO, 2015). Indonesian MAB Program has a long history, dating back to 1972, a few years after the International MAB Program of UNESCO was established in 1968. The National Committee for Indonesian MAB has the mandate to implement the missions, programs and activities of MAB in Indonesia, especially in relation with the biosphere reserves. The MAB Program is atempting to use biosphere reserves as a vehicle to implement the goals of the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD) resulted from the 1992 Earth Summit, and emphazised further through Agenda 21, Sustainable Development and the Millennium Development Goals (MDGs). It is believed that biosphere reserves are important sources of information and data where people can learn (Batisse, 1996). This, therefore, may provide support to what promoted by the UNESCO through the “United Nations Decade on Education for Sustainable Development” (DESD 2005 - 2014) for which the “Main Line Action UNESCO MAB Year 2006 – 2007” was developed as an effort to promote “linkage between biodiversity and cultural diversity” (Purwanto et al., 2017). MAB Program is chiefly developed to improve the quality of relationship between human beings and their environment on the basis of science and technology. Specifically it is aimed to overcome the problems of utilization of biological resources that cause degradation (biodiversity lost), decrease in environment quality and unplanned land use. Such problems mainly stem from the people intention to exploit biological resources for economic benefit rather than for socio-cultural and conservation reasons. Therefore, the establishment of MAB program has a mission to balance the seemingly conflicting goals of environmental conservation and socio-economic development as well as to mantain the noble values of a nation’s culture. In short MAB program is designed to promote and demonstrate the balance of the relationship between human and the nature through landscape ecosystem approaches.

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The main priority of MAB program is to emphasize the implementation of biosphere reserve concept for achieving sustainable development. Biosphere reserves are used as a place to test and build a sustainable way of life through integrated programs of natural resources management and biodiversity conservation, with the objective to contribute in reducing poverty and increasing the living standard, especially of rural communities. In addition, the implementation of the biosfer reserve concept is also aimed to help reducing the loss of biodiversity, facilitating scientific development and bulding the capacity in the context of providing services neccessary for ecological sustainability.

MAB Program:

The MAB Indonesian programs consists of three action plans: 1. Management of landscapes based on ecosystem approaches for integrating the management of land, water and biodiversity for conservation and a fair and sustainable use. 2. Empowernment of institutions and human resources for promoting the sustainable use of natural resources (land, water and biodiversity) to improve the interaction quality of human and the environment. 3. Integration of fundamental scientific approaches and socio-cultural approaches for the conservation and sustainable management of biological resources, land and water. In order to implement those three actions plans; the National Committee for Indonesia MAB Program develops programs that are based on: (1) The Seville Strategy: As an effort to achieve the missions of MAB Program, in 1995 UNESCO conducted an international experts meeting in Seville, Spain that produced the Seville Strategy. This Strategy recommends actions that must be taken for developing biosphere reserves up to the 21st century. It focuses on some priorities at international, national and local levels, namely: (a) the use of biosphere reserves for conservation of natural resources and cultures, (b) the use of biosphere reserves as a model of appropriate landscape management for sustainable development; (c) the use of biosphere reserves for research, monitoring, education and training, and (d) the implementation of biosphere reserve concept (MAB-UNESCO, 1995). (2) The MAB International Program: The 17th meeting of the MAB International Coordinating Council (MAB-ICC) held in March 2002 has resulted an agreement that the world biosphere reserves network is a main tool for implementing the MAB activities that are grouped into two "Main Line of Action” (MLA): (a) MLA-1 focuses on the management of natural resources and sustainable development. In this concept, biosphere reserves are used as a place to test and build a sustainable way of life through integrated programs of natural resources management and biodiversity conservation, with the objective to contribute in reducing poverty and increasing the living standard, especially of rural communities. Biosphere reserves are also a place to demonstrate ecosystem approaches that are advised and being developed by the CBD. Such approaches are considered as a key component in the implementation of the WSSD (World Summit on Sustainable Development); (b) MLA-2 focuses on the efforts to enhance scientific basis, human resources capacity and communication. MLA-2 is designed to help reducing loss of biodiversity by developing science and building the capacity in the context of providing services for sustainability. Research and the development of human resources capacity at both institutional and individual levels are significant contributions for achieving the goals.

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(3) The Madrid Action Plan: The MAB Congress held in Madrid on February 2008 have produced Madrid Plan of Action stating that biosphere reserves should be able to answer the following challenges (MAB-UNESCO, 2008): (a) Changes in the global climate (Global Climate Change), (b) Acquirement of better ecosystem services (Ecosystem Services) and (c) Anticipation of the urbanization. The congress also reaffirmed the “Seville Strategy” concerning the potential of biosphere reserves as learning facilities to face problems on the diminishing traditional knowledge and cultural diversity, the demographic conditions, and the anticipation of environmental changes through both adaptation and mitigation measures. This is very important since biosphere reserves can facilitate a balanced combination of the needs for ecosystems conservation and sustainable development through the three related main pillars, i.e. “conservation, research and science, and development”. In addition to Madrid Action Plan (MAP) the Congress also successfully produced “Madrid Declaration” recommending four interrelated principal issues, namely: (1) cooperation, management and communication, (2) zonation and zonation interrelationship, (3) knowledge and capacity building of human resources, and (4) partnership. (4) Lima action Plan: Lima Action Plan consists of 5 areas strategies that aimed to reach agenda of SDGs 2030 (MAB-UNESCO, 2016). The 5 strategies areas are: (a) The WNBR consisting of effectively functioning models for sustainable development; (b) Inclusive, dynamic and result oriented collaboration and networking within the MAB Program and the WNBR; (c) Effective external partnerships and sufficient and sustainable funding for the MAB Programme and the WNBR; (d) Comprehensive, modern, open, and transparent communication, information and data sharing; and (e) Effective governance of and within the MAB Programme and the WNBR (5) Help Member States and stakeholders to urgently meet the Sustainable Development Goals through experiences from the WNBR, in particularly through exploring and testing policies, technologies and innovations for the sustainable management of biodiversity and natural resources and mitigation and adaptation to climate change. (6) Contextual state of Indonesia. MAB programs should be developed in the contex of actual conditions of Indonesia, so that the impacts can significantly touch the Indonesian people.

Biosphere Reserve

Biosphere reserve is a concept of site management to harmonize the needs for conservation of both land and coastal ecosystem with the need for economic development in the basis of research on the utilization of natural resources, including cultural resources recognized by UNESCO MAB Program in order to promote a balanced relationship between human and the nature. Principally, the concept of biosfer reserve is applied to bring the conservation of biological diversity into line with sustainable development for achieving a balanced relationship between human and the nature. In its development the concept has been adopted by many countries to manage their conservation areas and the surroundings. Following its release, the program has amazingly grown in number from 324 biosphere reserve held by 82 countries in 1995 to 430 biosphere reserves held by 95 countries in 2002 and a further increase to 553 biosphere reserves maintained by 107 countries in 2009, and 701 biosphere reserves in 124 countries in 2019. This development indicates that the concept is a suitable and measurable approach for site management in order to conserve natural resources and to achieve sustainable development. It is also believed that the concept of biosphere reserve management has specific values for identifying, characterizing,

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valuating, demonstrating, and integrating conservation within the sustainable development context. The advantage of applying the biosphere reserve concept lays on the excellent combination of its three functions (Figure 1), namely: (1) The function associated with conservation of biological resources, ecosystems, and cultural diversity. This function provides contributions to the conservation of landscapes, ecosystems, species, and germplasms, as well as cultural diversity; (2) The function associated with development that supports and enriches sustainable economic development through an ecologicaly and culturally wise approach. (3) The function associated with provision of logistics supports for various activities related with conservation and sustainable development, in a local, regional, national, or global context, including research, education, training, and monitoring.

In implementing those three functions integratively, a zonation approach is applied, in which the site of biosphere reserve is devided into three different areas with specific functions and roles (Figure 1): 1. The core area: It is the area for conservation and it must have a firm, long-term legal protection for preserving the biodiversity, monitoring the undisturbed ecosystems or undertaking non-destructive research, and other “passive” activities such as education and training. The core areas of 16 biosphere reserves in Indonesia, the core area is composed by national park, natural reserve, wildlife reserve, forest park reserve, nature tourism park, forest protection and forest conservation of private sector. However, this doesn’t mean that the core area must always be a conservation area managed by government, but it can be a site owned by individuals, non-governmental organizations or institutions, communities, or traditional inhabitans that is alocated for conservation purposes. In principle, a core area must be a conservation area or a protected area supported formally by a governmental regulation or informally by traditional law (traditional institutions). In Giam Siak Kecil-Bukit Batu Biosphere Reserve, which is the 7th Indonesian biosphere reserve, the core area is composed by a conservation areas (Suaka Margasatwa Giam Siak Kecil and Bukit Batu) and a production forest set for permanent conservation uses and managed by private sector Sinar Mas Forestry. 2. The buffer zone: It is the area encircling or adjoining the core area that is determined to provide protection to the core area against the negative impacts of human activities. The area of buffer zone can be a site owned by individuals, communities, institutions or others. The managemnet of this area is conducted by the owner, but it should be run in accordance with the government regulation. Basically, activities that can be done in this area are those that are sound ecologically, such as research, education, training, ecoturism, and sustainable utilization of biodiversity or other renewable resources. 3. The transition area: It is typically the largest part of the biosphere reserve area fuctioning to develope cooperation with local communities. It is established side by side with the buffer zone and may be owned by individuals, organizations, private institutions, or other legal bodies. This area is a place to develope models for sustainable development, in which the owner(s) together with relevant stakeholders develop an appropriate management of natural resources for the area.

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Figure 1. Function and zonation system of biosphere reserve [Sumber: MAB UNESCO, 2019]

The buffer zone and the transition area serve as a corridor whose function is to protect and ensure the functions of the core as a conservation area of the natural biological resources within. For effective managemnet reasons, there shold be a clear border line between the existing zones, since the development of each zone may be implemented in a different way.

Spatial Site Arrangement and Development

Integrated spatial site arrangement is required for achieving sustainable and constructive management of natural biological resources and their environment. In term of biosfere reserves the arrangement is implemented by means of interrelated and inter- supportive zones, while integrated site divelopment is done through suitable zonation. Principally, biosfere reserve zones consist of a conservation zone as the strickly protected core area surrounded by a buffer zone that emphasizes the environmentally friendly management, and finally a transition zone as the outer layer of the biosfere reserve that serves as an area of cooperation to develop potential species of economic and ecological values to promote sustainable development. The implementation of spatial site arrangement and development is therefore managed by means of bioregional plan approach that integrates biodiversity conservation into sustainable development. The concept of biosphere reserve management has to be designed properly in order to deal with the challenges of harmonizing the goal of biodiversity conservation with the needs for socio-economic development and at the same time also preserving the cultural values existed in the area. This means that, in addition to suitable spatial site arrangement, integrated site management have to be based also on the participation of all relevant stakeholders, including the surrounding communities Pio et al., 2012). One of the advantages of applying biosphere reserve concept in managing a conservation area is that the management of the conservation zone (core area) is not merely focusing on keeping and protecting the zone, but there should also be integrated efforts to develop the surrounding areas. In this regards, the establishment of the buffer and transition zones is in fact aimed to secure the conservation area and at the same time to improve the quality of the surrounding areas through economic development that utilizes the potency of natural resources existed in the site. For this to happen, the following steps are needed: (1) Spatial arrangement of the site according to a zonation model that emphasizes conservation and development.

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(2) Management with ecosystem approach. This means that in addition to protecting the conservation area, there should be efforts to develop the surrounding areas (buffer and transition areas) for securing the conservation area and integrating the cultural diversity with biodiversity, especially in term of the roles of traditional knowledge in the ecosystem management. (3) Management with participation approach that emphasizes the involvement of relevant stakeholders, most importantly the local communities, in the management of the site; (4) Spatial site arrangement based on the related functions and roles for avoiding conflict of interest in the utilization of natural resources; (5) Management based on scientific studies (research) with appropriate monitoring and evaluation activities; (6) Implementation of the site management that prioritizes the needs of improving the community life quality through the utilization of potential natural resources without disturbing conservation efforts in a sustainable development framework.

Integration of Conservation and Development

So far, there has been important innovation in the management of conservation areas. New methodologies that facilitate the involvement of stakeholders in the decision making and in resolving conflicts have grown significantly and the related regional approaches have drawn bigger attention. Interesting current development in the management of conservation areas is the change in the managerial focus from merely conservation motivation into more acceptable combination of conservation and development through a wider cooperation within stakeholders and a suitable spatial site arrangement (Bioret et al., 1998). Integration between conservation and development efforts in a site management supports the interrealted functions of the site. Conservative function is dealing with the preservation of genetic resources, species, ecosystems and landscapes. Developmental function is important for strengthening economic development in order to improve the life quality and the welfare of the related communities. Meanwhile, supportive function has something to do with the improvement of the site management by means of innovation, research, education and training, so that all management measures are taken based on the results of the studies or research and improved quality of human resources of the related stakeholders. Physically, the management of biosphere reserve that integrates conservation areas and economic development areas consists of three interrelated elements, namely: (1) Conservation area as the core area of the biosphere reserve: It must be sufficiently protected for the purpose of conserving the biodiversity, monitoring the ecosystem, undertaking non destructive research and other activities that have minimum impact to area. It also important for the balance of ecosystems within the site. The management authority of this area is held by the Forestry Department. (2) Buffer zone: It is an area encircling or adjoining the conservation area that has to be clearly defined and used for cooperative activities that do not bring about ecological conflicts. (3) Transition area: It is an area encircling or adjoining the buffer area that is used for developing various potential natural resources in a sustainable development framework. Stakeholders consisting of the local government, private bodies and the local community are working coopertively in this area to manage and develop natural resources sustainably.

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The Management of Biosphere Reserve

Appropriate management of biosfer reserve should be based on the principle of “multi-stakeholder management”, due to the variation of landscape and stakeholders (Figure 2). Therefore, it would seems inappropriate if the National Committee for MAB Program develops a biosphere reserve management plan without involving the stakeholders. The plan should provide reference for directing the development course of the biosphere reserve in accordance with its conservation and sustainable use objectives. Further actions necessitate the development of suitable action plan as a reliable guidance for all stakeholders to contribute in the activities relevant with the time and spatial frames. In this regard, the management plan is actually a reference documentCON that canCE beP modifiedT: according to the actual needs and development. It is also righly termed as living document since it can continuosly be developed according2. to M theu dynamiclti-S oft theak overwhelmingeholde situationr Rol andes needs .

• Program • Program • Policy • Policy • Budget • Budget • Regula on MINISTRY OF • Regula on • Etc ENVIRONMENT LOCAL • Etc AND FORESTRY GOVERNMENT

(National Park, City , Regency, Nature Reserve, Province Wildlife Reserve, etc) INDONESIA BIOSPHERE RESERVES

RESEARCH Private Sector, INSTITUTE & NGOs, • Research, UNIVERSITY Community Publica on • Educa on • Facilita on • Innova on, • Funding Applied • Program Technology • Role

Figure 2. Multisatkeholders management in Biosphere Reserve development [Sumber: MAB Indonesia, 2019]

A site determined to be a biosphere reserve must be able to function as an agent of integrating and coordinating all stakeholders’ efforts without compensating the historical ownership rights of land or resources in order to synchronize its managemnet. Therefore, the development of management plan for Biosphere Reserves should involve all parties, including Department of Forestry (PHKA), the local government, Forestry Agency, scientists (Research Institute and University), NGOs, private bodies, the local communities and general users of the bioresources of the area. In line with this, it is clear that to develop management plan of a biospher reserve, a multistakeholder and multi-aspect approach is needed to produce comprehensive programs of securing and utilizing biodiversity for the sake of community welfare. It appears, therefore, that the management of a biosphere reserve has no standardisized legal rule or specific regulation, since biosphere reserve management lays on

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the interface (interaction) principles of scientific basis, socio-economic conditions and local existing cultures. Thus, the management with biosphere reserve concept is implemented through a compromizing approach to search for the best possible ways by involving all related parties including local communities in the process of decision-making and further implementation of required actions. This approach has an international dimension and reference. For example the application of the zonation model and its developmental actions will certainly involve partners of diverse origins in order to provide better protection to site of the biosphere reserve. This follows that mutual dialogue and consensus within stakeholders are needed to produce an acceptable management plan.

Steps for Management Planning of Biosphere Reserve

For the management of the Biosphere Reserve, there is a need to determine comprehensive managerial steps that are composed in a dynamic “management plan” defining the integrated management of the three established zones: core area, buffer zone and transition area (Figure 3). The required management plan has actually been developed in conjunction with the preparation of obtaining the status of biosphere reserves, but it is still far for being a perfect document. Accordingly, it needs to be revised by the stakeholders integratively with several focus as follows: (a) inventory on the strength and weaknesses and the related problems; (b) evaluation of all managerial policies and activities that have been applied and implemented; (c) development of the plan and the direction of management; (d) establishment of work plan; and (e) implementation of developmental actions.

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Figure 3. Management plan adapted the function of biosphere reserve [Sumber: MAB Indonesia, 2019]

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How to implement the management plan and action plan in the field? We have strategic approach consists of: (1) Landscape ecosystem approach; (2) Multi-stakeholders approach, cooperation and partnerships; (3) Local community involvement; (4) Science, technology and innovation; and (5) Sustainability (Figure 3)

A. Management of the Core Area

Activities conducted in this area must be in line with the principal goals of the core area management, i.e. preserving the biodiversity by enforcing a full and strict protection measures as commonly done in other conservation areas. Human activities that utilize natural resources contained in this area are strictly controlled. However some scientific activities can still be done, such as research, long-term ecosystem monitoring or management practices based on the principles of an ecological balance, (e.g. Ecotourism activities have minimal impact to the environment) (Purwanto, 2008). The management of the core area is fully organized and be the responsibility of the Department of Forestry. This paper suggests a few things that may be conducted in this area: (a) Scientific exploration of biodiversity and other potency of the natural resources: This is very important for the management of biosphere reserve area that should be based on scientific data and reliable knowledge concerning the site. (b) Identification of the cultural resources and the local knowledge of communities inside the site and the surrounding areas for the managemnet of the biological resources and their environment. (c) Evaluation of various protection activities: Evaluation concerning the efficiency of various existing protection activities should be conducted since it can be considered as a function of possible threats and the vulnerabilities of the resources. It is important to evaluate various standardisized protection actions along with the insurance for their long term application, especially in relation with actual potential pressures, such as the impact of overexploitation viewed from the economic, cultural and environmental perspectives. It is a wise measure to move activities that cause negative impacts into the buffer zone. Similarly for the policies that favour a strategy of strengthening the efforts for securing the core area. (d) Valuation of various important and potential biological resources to be developed into economic cultivation plants for the communities in the buffer and transition zones. (e) Need for new paradigm for the management of conservation areas. It should be better understood that managing the conservation area means also managing the transition and buffer area for better protection of the conservation area. (f) Establishment of research station (g) Development of branding of biosphere reserve products (h) Development of ecosystem services.

B. Management Plan for Buffer Area

The Biosphere Reserves has drawn clear border lines, including the border line of the core zone and the outer border line of trasition zone. Apart from the need to develop a management plan for the buffer zone, there are other important work that should be done for better management of this zone:

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1. Identification of Knowledge (a) Inventory of the strength and the encountered problems and "need assessment" for developing the buffer zone. (b) Identification of knowledge on production activities such as exstractivism of natural resources, agriculture, forestry, tourism and the impact on the biodiversity and other components. (c) Inventory of current regulations that are related to the land use and spatial regional planning (RTRWP and RTRWK), and evaluation on the suitability of the land use planning with current existing practices. (d) Identification of stakeholders involved in the buffer zone, including those managing the resources, institutional partners, private sector bodies, professional workers, researchers, the local government, and NGO’s. (e) Inventory of training and environmental education for the communities concerning the management of resources in the basis of biosphere reserve management concept.

2. Evaluation This activity is in a close association with those of identification of knowledge and assessment of the whole activities conducted in the buffer area. Evaluation is an important step toward the determination of integrated steps for the zonation management of the biosphere reserve, especially in identifying the impacts resulted from production activities conducted in the buffer zone of the biosphere reserve. The evaluation includes: (a) Evaluation of ecological impacts: This is to identify the kind of production activities conducted in this area that cause negative impacts to the core area and other areas, the kind of productions activities that have been in accordance with the sustainable use of the resources and the adaptation strategies that should be developed for the preservation of natural resources? (b) Evaluation of economic impacts: This is to identify the kinds of production activities (biological resources management) conducted in the buffer zone that are adventigious economically. (c) Evaluation of social impacts: This is to identify the impacts of production activities to various social aspects, such as employment opportunities (seasonal or long-term basis) and general life quality improvement (education, health, security, freedom, and others).

3. Action Plan Following the identification of the strength and the problems asociated with the management of biosphere reserve, the next important step is to develop an “action plan” for improving the quality of relationship between the communities, natural resources and the environment. The action plan must provide an approach for integrating the needs for economic development wtih ecological and social interests through the involvement of the related stakeholders. In addition to the development of the action plan, there is a need to identify promising partners for future cooperation to implement pilot projects and developmental activities.

4. The Implementation of Research and Pilot Project of Applied Research for the Development of Important and Potential Species in This Area Various applied research activities can be done in this area; among them are the development of ecotourism, silviculture of potential biological resources, and research on the suitability of land use. For the implementation of these applied research activities, a suitable

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“term of reference” is needed to provide guidance to those involved in the pilot project activities.

C. Management Plan for the Transition Area

Transition area of Biosphere Reserve covers a very large area. It is the area of development where various results of research and subsequent tests are brought into practices for supporting a sustainable management of resources. It is the also a place for active cooperation for researchers, managers, local people and other stakeholders in carrying out “pilot project” on production activities and management of other resources which are supportive to thesustinable development plan. The first step that has to be done in the transition area is to undertake education, training, research and dissemination of information concerning the concept of biosphere reserves management. It is important to convince the communities in this area that the application of biosphere reserve concept is advantageous for the production activities conducted in this area. Therefore, this initial step should be appropriately designed in order to attract people and find their supports. The next following steps include:

1. Identification (a) Identification of production activities and utilization of resources, e.g. agriculture, forestry, tourism, industries and so on. (b) Identification and analysis of production activities and their impacts on ecological and socio-economic conditions, the region development and the suitability of the land with the related plan of land use. (c) Identification of participants such as local communities, private bodies, scientists, financial institutions, and other stakeholders for synchronizing the vision and mission of sustainable development in the transition area. (d) Identification the activities related to public awareness through training, education and dissemination of information in accordance with the action plan for transition area development. 2. Evaluation of production activities that is important to the communities within the area, including production activities that have minimal influence or impacts on the ecological condition, but providing economic benefits and are important for social life of the communities. The evaluation must also take into account the needs for promoting the sustainable use of biological resources. 3. Development of work plans and action plan that can significantly improve the local community economy. It is dificult to get people suppots on the concept of transition area development if there is no significant real results. The development of the work plan has to be based on the balanced between economic and ecological interests.

Some Steps for the Management of Biosphere Reserves

In general, some steps that must be taken for the management of Biosphere Reserve include: (1) Identifying all stakeholders of Biosphere Reserve both for the buffer zone and transition zone and increasing the role of the private bodies in the management of the Biosphere Reserve. (2) Building a mutual understanding on the vision, mission, and the common goals of Biosphere Reserve management.

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(3) Establishing the managing institution of Biospere Reserve and build strong coordination and cooperation between stakeholders. (4) Revising the “management plan” of the Biosphere Reserve to be more comprehensive and integrated. Therefore, there is a need to carry out “need assessment” and adaptation strategies of development (5) Developing the action plans and pilot project for buffer and transition zones development according to the existing local conditions.. (6) Conducting socialization of Biosphere Reserve management concept, education and training activities to the communities. (7) Empowering of legal apect of Indonesian biosphere reserve (national level) (8) Establishing cooperation (networking) on the management of biosphere reserve with various parties concerned with the implementation of the concept of biosphere reserve. (9) Preparing proposals for fund rising to the potential donor institutions.

Management Institution Forum/Agency

The forum/agency consists of the “managers” representing the local government, administration, groups, private bodies, NGOs and scientists. In order to develop the Biosphere Reserves as a “laboratory for ideas” it is important useful to establish an ad-hoc working group to take the tasks of management forum/agency and to perform depth examination on specific topics. The forum/agency has the following tasks: (1) Establish agreement on the scope of Biosphere reserve area (including zoning) based on the regional site spatial arrangement policy (district/municipal, province, or national), (2) Develop understanding on the vision, mission, and common objectives of Biosphere reserves management; (3) integrate the parties policies (planning) concerning the development of Biosphere reserves; (4) monitor the implementation of regulation by the parties relevant to the concept of biosphere reserve; (5) formulate plans and priorities for the management activities of biosphere reserve; (6) formulate solutions: conflict of interest between the parties, and (7) prepare the proposal: fun rising, and (8) carry out development activities.

CONCLUSION

The management of conservation areas should not be aimed solely to maintain and protect the conservation areas, but it should also emphasize integrated management approach of bioregional conservation area and the surroundings. Such approach has been developed by the UNESCO as a concept of Biosphere Reserves. The concept needs to be implemented so that the advantage may be useful for the management of the conservation areas and for the socio-economic and cultural interests of the surrounding communities. The advantages of the application of the concept lays on the balanced combination of the three functions, namely: (1) Function asociated wih the conservation of biodiversity, ecosystem and cultural diversity, (2) Function asociated wih sustainable economic development that is ecologically and culturally wise and (3) Function asociated with logistical support for various activities including research, education, training and monitoring issues related to the conservation and sustainable development at the local, regional, national and global levels. For implementating of the Biosphere Reserve concept in a region, some steps are necessary, such as: (1) establishing the managing institution and legal aspect of biosphere reserve. Biosphere Reserve management is more appropriately done in the way of multi-

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stakeholder, (2) colaborative management is more suitable to manage biosphere reserve. The management of biosfer reserve is not in the form of structural organization, but it is the place of coordination (communication forum) of multi parties (3) In this coordination forum, a leading sector (government) is required, functioning as the coordinator of development planning of the biosphere reserve; (4) in the management of biosphere reserves, the coordinator does not have the right to contribute indecision making procces, because the decision is taken through a multi-party agreement, (5) The role of stakeholders outside the region of biosphere reserve is more suitable for the purposes of consultation, advocacy, human resource development (capacity building), funding support, and innovations that are relevant with the development of biosphere reserves concept.

REFERENCES

Batisse, M. 1996. Reserves de biosphere: un nouvel essor. Nature, Sciences et Societe 4(3): 268-272. Bioret, F., Cibien, C., Geno, J.C., Lecomte, J. 1998. A guide biosphere reserve management: a methodology applied to French Biosphere Reserves. UNESCO, Paris, 48 p. MAB-UNESCO. 1995. Seville strategy 1995. UNESCO, Paris. MAB-UNESCO. 2008. Madrid action plan 2008-2013. UNESCO, Paris. MAB-UNESCO. 2015. New strategy of MAB Program 2015-2025. UNESCO MAB Programme. Paris MAB-UNESCO. 2016. Lima Action Plan 2016-2025. UNESCO MAB Programme. Paris MAB Indonesia. 2019. Laporan Studi Penguatan Kelembagaan di Cagar Biosfer Giam Siak Kecil-Bukit Batu. Komite Nasional Program MAB Indonesia, Bogor. Pio, D., Purwanto, Y., Subiantoro, G. (eds.). 2012. Are climate change and other emerging challenges being met through successful achievement of Biosphere Reserve Functions?. Proceeding of the 6th Southeast Asia Biosphere Reserve Network (SeaBRnet) Meeting, Cibodas, West Java, 171 p. Purwanto, Y. 2008. Rencana pengelolaan Cagar Biosfer Cibodas. Sarasehan Pengelolaan Cagar Biosfer Cibodas Sebagai Daerah Tujuan Wisata Alam. Balai Besar Taman Nasional Gunung Gede Pangrango, Jawa Barat. Purwanto, Y., Sukandar, S., Nugroho, H., Supriyatno. 2017. Pedoman branding produk Cagar Biosfer di Indonesia. Komite Nasional Program MAN-UNESCO Indonesia, Bogor.

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Animism is Applied Ethnobotany: A Shamanic Healing Ritual with the Dayak Benuaq Ohookng / East Kalimantan

Herwig Zahorka German Forestry Director Ret., Bogor, Indonesia

Corresponding email [email protected]

ABSTRACT

The Dayak Benuaq Ohookng people believe in many and diverse territorial ghosts/spirits (wook) who exist in the environment, some of which have the power to remove the soul (juus) of a human body part or organ and, at the same time, implant disease. Consequently, this body part or organ gets sick. The mission of the shamans (pembeliatn), as mediums to the spiritual world, is to identify the ghost/spirit responsible during nocturnal rituals and to submit all of the diverse ritual offerings possible, including making an exchange of a “soul” (kelakar) made from ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri). To get rid of the disease, the patient smears some of his/her own saliva onto a carved statue (sepatukng silih), depicting the ghost/spirit concerned, after the shaman activated it. Later, this statue is taken to the forest. The shaman can also extract the disease from the sick body part by help of a thinly spliced banana leaf (telolo). The disease can also be attached to the statue or put into the blood of sacrificial animals. In order to finally find and identify the lost soul of the patient’s sick body part, the shaman performs a vigorous dance and then falls into a trance, during which he receives a message about where to catch the soul. To discover the soul and capture it, he uses a bamboo stick filled with boiled rice (tolakng tintikng). The captured soul is then massaged into the sick body part of the patient. To perform this ritual, a great number of traditional and institutionalized plants are essential. They are arranged around the altar (balai sianca jadi) and used for ritual objects. White rice and rice colored with black, red, yellow and green dyes plays an important role in attracting and satisfying the ghosts.

Keywords: Animism, Borneo, Dayak, Eusideroxylon zwageri, ritual, shaman

INTRODUCTION

The Dayak Benuaq Ohookng referred to in this article are settlers of the longhouse villages of Pentat, Lempunah, Muara Nayan, Mancong and the former Keranau, all situated along the Ohong (Ohookng in their language) River, and of the Tanjung Isui area in Kecamatan Jempang, Kutai Barat, East-Kalimantan. Culturally and linguistically, they belong to the Dayak Luangan group (Sillander, 1995). In their traditional beliefs, a living human has a spirit soul (semangat) and in addition, seven body-part souls (juus). The head has the juus puaq, the abdomen the juus sentunkng, the heart has the juus lemposu, the bones have the juus tulakng, the flesh the juus issi, and each eye has an ilang anak majang. Diverse terrestrial ghosts or spirits (wook) have the power to “eat” the juus of a human body part or organ and, at the same time implant a disease. Consequently, this body part or organ gets sick. Efforts to cure such diseases can be

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.8 57

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successful only if the disease of the body part or organ is removed and the missing juus is replaced. This is the mission of the shamans, pembeliatn or beliatn, who act as mediums to the spirits/ghosts or wook. During nocturnal sessions, generally performing the rites of belian sentiu, (also sentiyu), these mediums have to identify the wook responsible for the illness and to submit all the diverse ritual offerings, including a small-carved statue, the “exchange soul” or kelakar, made of ironwood (Eusideroxylon zwageri). If the identified wook agrees, he will take back the disease. To get the missing juus back to the patient, the beliatn performs a furious dance and falls into a trance. In this state, he gets inspiration from the wook about where to find and catch the juus for re-implantation into the patient’s body. A belian sentiu ritual can generally last up to four nights, with enhancing activities and increasing amounts of ritual equipment. To perform this type of ritual, a great number of traditional and institutionalized plants and offerings, or ramuan, are essential, and every one of them has a special function or is associated to a category of wook. Many are medicinal plants (Susiarti, 2005). Up to 59 species of 32 botanic families are used in shamanistic rituals (Gönner, 2002).

REQUIREMENTS FOR THE HEALING PERFORMANCE

1. The Altar, or Balai Sianca Jadi and the Shaman’s Protective Measures

To perform a belian ritual a rectangular-shaped altar or shrine balai sianca jadi (Figure 1) is constructed from potukng wood (Melicope incana, syn. Euodia alba, Rutaceae). This is the type of wood related to many wook. The altar furniture includes small wooden houses for the wook, two antaakng (Tempayan, antique Chinese jars, home of spirits), a genikng (big antique gong, also home to a spirit), a short ladder, and a specific superstructure. The altar is surrounded by high stalks or branches of the following eight-obligatoriqe plant species (eight is an important number in belian rituals): 1. Jelmoq (Pisang, Banana), Musa paradisiaca L., Musaceae 2. Sepootn (Pinang), Areca catechu L., Palmae 3. Touq, Costus sp., Zingiberaceae 4. Ukor, Cariota mitis Loureiro, Palmae 5. Biowo, Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A. Chevalier, Liliaceae 6. Teluyatn (Ironwood), Eusideroxylon zwageri Teysm. & Binnend., Lauraceae 7. Potukng, Melicope incana T.G.Hartley, Rutaceae, Syn. Euodia alba Hook.f. 8. Nancakng, Macaranga triloba (Blume) Muell. Arg., Euphorbiaceae

Of the two most important of these items, teluyatn, Eusideroxylon, and potukng, Melicope, two specimens are present. These plant species are related to distinct wook families. Their wood is always used with ritual performances and worked into ritual objects. Potukng, rich in alkaloids, it is the “spirits’ wood”. Teluyatn, also called belian, incorporates mystic power and calls helpful spirits. (Figure1). The Balai Sianca Jadi altar with the Awiir fabric). The beliatn has to be successful to lure all the various wook from the forest, the field, the trees and the waterside into the room so that they get access to the offerings and become supportive. When the altar is beautifully decorated, then the wook will settle on the branches of the plants or in the small houses. The bowls and plates containing offerings are crowned

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with a cone made from young leaves of the coconut tree. The fringed panels on the side of the room are made of the same material. Special fringes and objects intended to attract spirits are made of the young leaves of tuak, the Aren Palm Arenga pinnata (Wurmb.) Merill. Ornamental fringes in red and yellow are often from the young leaves of paleh (also palas), a small palm, Licuala sp. that keeps evil wook away. To get the attention of the spirits, the acting beliatn starts the Séance with a sharp whistle produced from the hollowed fang of the sunbear (Helarctos malayanus). To protect himself of malefic wook he besmears his front, neck, chest, and arms with white rice paste and sprinkles himself and all of the people in the room with fragrant danum bungaq mayang (danum = water and bungaq mayang = the flower of sepootn or the Areca catechu). For sprinkling, he uses a small twig of ngeraseh, which is basil (Ocimum basilicum L., Caesalpiniaceae). This “holy-water” ritual seems to be part of an ancient Hindu heritage from the Mulawarman and following Kingdoms, which existed in this area until the arrival of Islam. It produced the first stone inscriptions in Sanskrit with Pallava letters in the region now known as Indonesia at about 350 AD. This assumption may also apply to the use of incense at the beginning of the ritual. Small pieces of tuber root from the luaq or luwee plant, (Dianella ensifolia (L.) DC., Liliaceae), which contains an insecticide, are heated in a small pan over glowing charcoal. Also, raisin incense can be used. Finally, the beliatn throws wajiq yellow sacral rice over his shoulder toward the direction to the entrance three times. This ritual calls the rice spirit lolakng luikng (lolakng means “beautiful woman”). This female spirit, which seems to be of ancient Hindu origin, transmits the messages between the beliatn and his helpers, the mulukng spirits. The yellow dye for the rice is kunyit, extracted from the rhizome of Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae. Yellow dye is also extracted from siraakng, which is Codiaeum variegatum (L.) Bl., Euphorbiaceae. The most effective defense weapon of the beliatn against dangerous wook, however, is his “leaf sword”, the biowo. It is a leaf of the Cordyline fruticosa (L.) A. Chevalier, Liliaceae, artfully decorated with cuts and tied young leaves of the coconut tree (Figure 2). The crown and the cuffs of the beliatn are made of the same material. The people plant biowo plants in their garden and in the fields to keep evil spirits away. Then, in long-lasting songs in a euphemistic and poetic language called mempakn beliatn, the beliatn calls all the spirits and ghost families by their names and recounts all the offerings ready for them.

2. Awiir, the Shaman’s Spiritual Link to the World of Spirits/Ghosts

With the biowo in his hand, the beliatn dances in a counterclockwise direction around a white or patterned long cloth, which is hanging from the ceiling. At the top, this fabric is decorated with hanging young green inflorescences from sepootn, the Pinang Palm (Areca catechu L.), as well as some ornamental palm leaves. This is the awiir, the most sacred attribute of each Belian ritual (Figure 1, Figure 2). It is the vehicle of the medial beliatn, linking him to the world of the spirits and reverse. By this, his semangat will journey upwards into the realm of the spirits. Hidden at the top is a wooden cross within a ring. This symbolizes the crossroad leading the beliatn to the eight levels of skies where the spirits live in their villages.

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Figure 1. The Balai Sianca Jadi Figure 2. Beliatn Moya performing altar with the Awiir fabric Belian Sentiu Ritual

One after another, all offerings are placed at the foot of the awiir and the beliatn presents them singing to the spirits with devote gestures. This is also the place where the beliatn strives for enlightenment to identifying the wook responsible for the disease. To help him achieve enlightenment, the shaman’s small pots contain bee wax torches, a small mirror, rice and twigs from siraakng, Codiaeum variegatum, whose green leaves are spotted with yellow marks that look like yellow sacral rice. This medicinal plant has a magical significance because it is considered immortal. Often it is planted on graves. Even if all signs of the grave vanish after several decades, Codiaeum will still be growing there to mark the spot. Any primitive effort of vegetative propagation is always successful. All performances and activities of the beliatn are accompanied by the sounds of several booming gimar drums, the genikng big gongs, and six small kentangan or saron gongs, which play the melody. Rhythm and melody vary according to the action of the beliatn.

3. Tempting Food Offerings and Exchange Souls for the Spirit

The most important alluring food for the wook is boiled white rice together with boiled rice colored with black, red, yellow and green dyes. This “five-color-rice” fills dozens of hanging and standing platforms. The black dye is extracted from the leaves of sopaakng piaq, which is the Leguminosa Archidendron sp. The red dye comes from the fruits of gelinapm (also gilinggam), Bixa orellana L., Bixaceae. The yellow dye comes from komaat, Codiaeum variegatum L., Euphorbiaceae and kunyit, which is from the root of the Curcuma longa L., Zingiberaceae. Finally, the green dye is derived from the leaves of puput, Jasminum sambac Aiton, Oleaceae, or from the leaves of biowo, Cordyline fruticosa. Small platforms in front of the house constructed with potukng wood and loaded with five-color rice are intended to lure the wook into the house (Figure 3, Pentat 2006). At the center of the plate with the colored rice are red petals for decoration. The posts of the left platform are pointed like the hats the most powerful ghosts are generally depicted with. To accommodate a great number of wook, particularly the nyahuq omen spirits in the room, swing-shaped constructions kelengkakng eboq (kelengkakng = swing) with many “sitting

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boards”, one on top of the other, hang from a beam. Each storey of the swings harbors a banana leaf covered with the five-color rice.

Figure 3. Rice with the five colors for the spirits

Some beliatn offer the colors additionally in liquid form, particularly to the juata water spirits. The four glasses of colored liquid are accompanied by four-sepatukng kokooq, dog-like figures carved of potukng wood (sepatukng = statue, kokooq = dog). The white color appears in the white rice at the center. The purpose of this set of offerings is probably to attract the wook from all four points of the compass. This idea could also originate from ancient Hindu influence, as the four directions play an important role in Hinduism. A big dog-shaped figure on the side of the belian depicts the timang (tiger), a spirit protecting the beliatn, which is also carved out of potukng wood. The figure is generally carefully dressed with a typically Benuaq ikat fabriq ulap doyo woven from the fibers of the leaves of doyo, Curculigo latifolia Dryander, Amaryllidaceae. Figures and statues, which depict or attract wook, or which should be occupied by a wook have to be made of potukng wood. Mostly these figures take a human-like shape. Other, similar, carved figures, which are made of ironwood, teluyatn, Eusideroxylon zwageri, have an entirely different function. These are the exchange souls, the kelakar. Several of them are generally displayed within the altar area and each is designated as a compensation (ganti) or exchange soul for a patient. They are offered without a special ritual. Their length can differ; however, they always show their sex: the male with loincloth, the female with skirt. The kelakar can be considered a symbolic substitute for a human sacrifice, a simulacrum.

4. Some of the Spirits/Ghosts the Beliatn have to deal with

While the spirits originally worshipped by adherents of an archaic animism are located in and belong to individual animals, plants, natural phenomena and ritual objects (Zahorka, 2004), the spirits of the Benuaq roam the natural environment. They are not the spirits of individual plants or animals, but they are associated with trees, forests, mountains, swamps, water, fields or villages. They are territorial spirits. Most of them are generally benevolent if rewarded by the beliatn with adequate offerings.

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A helpful sky spirit associated with (former) headhunting raids (and so with the color of red) is nayuq. He controls the keeping of the adat (customary) rules and is an aid to the beliatn, as is the timang spirit during Belian rituals. However, both punish people, who disregard the adat, with sicknesses. The mediating friendly rice spirit, lolakng luikng, has already been mentioned. A group of generally good spirits, which the beliatn asks for aid, is the tangkai. The helpful mulukng (already mentioned) belong to them, as do the juata water spirits, the madakng, the nyahuq and the tonoi. The juata spirits are associated with the rainbow, with pregnancy and delivery, but they are also responsible for diarrhea and dysentery. The madakng are mountain spirits that can create body pain. The nyahuq are associated with the omen birds and with puti that is the Mangris tree Koompassia excelsa (Becc.) Taub., Caesalpiniaceae. The nyahuq also lead the soul of the deceased to the other world. The tonoi earth spirits guard the village and the ritual objects like the gongs, the tempayan and the mandaus. They are not as powerful as the others are, but they are the protective spirits in the village, and are associated with the color white. The kuyakng are tree spirits associated with the color green and with the Waringin tree nunuq ringin, a strangling fig, Ficus benyamina L., Moraceae. These spirits can cure, and they can even influence life expectancy, though, they also can create madness. The great varieties of mountain and forest spirits that are called wook are associated with the color black. They include the mulaakng family who can abduct a juus if not rewarded with adequate offerings. This family is associated with the deraya sepatukng tree, which is Horsfieldia grandis, Myristicaceae. Specified as evil are the spirits known as the banci, the bongai and the tentowijaq. The Banci, a powerful female wook, is responsible for many severe diseases like malaria and encephalitis. There are some remarkable parallels between the banci and the Bali-Hindu witch Rangda. To pacify her, a great variety of offerings and blood are needed. Bongai and tentowijaq are powerful forest wook that can create a bulk of various diseases by abducting human juus. To attempt them to return a juus, the blood of sacrificed animals is obligatory. Unspecified groups of evil spirits are also called papaq or papaiq. Local variations exist.

5. Attracting and Luring the Spirits to Enter and the Diagnosis

To look into the cause of the disease and to identify the responsible spirit (the diagnosis), the beliatn listens to the long-winded reports of some family members of the patients about the history of the sicknesses (“case history”, anamnesis) and about the dreams and strange encounters they have had recently. Then, all spirits have to be lured into the room. They are supposed to settle within the altar environment and in the swing-shaped constructions with the five-color rice, the kelenkakng eboq. These efforts are made during the second and third night of a four-night belian sentiu session. On the second night, to accommodate the spirits’ entering the room, the last platform in front of the house is connected with a long string of rotan wentonik to the top of the altar. On the third night a ladder-shaped connection, tukar wook (tukar = ladder), made of bete tuak (bete = leaf), the leaves of the Aren palm Arenga pinnata, (partially visible in Figure 1 and Figure 4) is added. When the ritual starts on the third night, a heap of long branches is piled in front of the house. These are the homes to the spirits. The branches are from the eight plant species surrounding the altar and some more, like tae, Canarium sp., Burseraceae; kelebahuq, Glochidion obscurum var. macrocalyx J. J. Smith, Euphorbiaceae; kayutn arakng, Diospyros sp., Ebenaceae and nunuq ringin, Ficus benjamina L., Moraceae. Inviting bee wax torches

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light and brighten the entrance. The beliatn appears in the door taking up a polite, devote attitude, and sings, demanding that the spirits enter the room (Figure 4). After a while, the branches are laid down in front of the altar and afterwards on the altar. During this time, the beliatn are singing and performing inviting gestures. When the spirits have settled at the altar, the branches are carried out. Now, the room is teeming with spirits. Some beliatn use a swing fixed in the open door to allure the spirits to enter the room. It is called kelengkakng wook (kelengkakng = swing). The fringes of the swing have to be of bete tuak, the leaves of the Aren palm Arenga pinnata. During the third night, the diagnosis has to be established, and that means the spirit causing the disease must be identified.

Figure 4. Inviting the spirits to enter

THE RITUAL PROPHYLAXIS AND THE BLOOD SACRIFICE

To avoid the spreading of the sickness to healthy relatives of the patient, the beliatn provides prophylactic rituals. All people present get some white rice paste (and later also blood from the sacrificed animals) rubbed onto their fronts, and fragrant “holy water” danum bungaq mayang is sprayed over them. The beliatn also keeps his “leaf sword” biowo and torches, as well as red and yellow fabrics, on hand, while singing over their heads in order to avert evil spirits. For prophylaxis, family members also have to sit on a throne-like pantiq in front of the house. The beliatn holds a big branch of nunuq ringin, Ficus benjamina, over their head and pours a large quantity of “holy water” over branches and individuals. Nunuq ringin is the home of the kuyakng tree spirits, which can heal and influence the life span, though; they also can make people mad. The singing beliatn requests that the kuyakng provide a positive influence on the person concerned (Figure 5). All Belian rituals afford a blood sacrifice of chickens, piaq, or pigs, uneq, and, on major occasions, even a buffalo. The offerings are the immaterial semangat and the juus of the sacrificed animal, not the body. This offering is directly dedicated to the identified spirit responsible for the malady. Then the spirit will respond with a blessing. The blood is the stuff for protecting from evil spirits and for purification.

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Figure 5. Beliatn Ran performing prophylaxis

After these offerings have been made, the beliatn starts to thoroughly read and judge all the parts of the sacrificed pig’s liver (ate) and of the spleen (lapikng), as if they were segments of a map. When he encounters special patterns, he can distinguish messages from the spirit concerning the success of the ritual, the health of the people involved in the ritual and on future events.

THE RITUAL THERAPY

(1) The Extraction of the Disease with the Telolo and its Return to the Causing Spirit Depicted in the Sepatukng Silih, the “Spittle Statue”

The telolo is an important instrument of the beliatn in his therapy. It is a half leaf of a banana tree thinly split and bundled together on one side He puts it on the sick body part of the patient and extracts the disease with it (Figure 6). He then carefully shakes or plucks the disease from the telolo and hands it over to the blood in the bowl or to the five-color rice in the kelenkakng eboq. However, if the illness causing spirit is already “personally” identified and the signs on the liver show that he is willing to take the disease back, then the beliatn attaches the disease directly to a statue which depicts this spirit “personally”. This statue is the sepatukng silih, the “spittle statue” (silih = saliva). It is carved from potukng wood, Melicope incana. The following describes a ritual in which two beliatn have identified the powerful tentowajak spirit as the culprit. His sepatukng silih has a pointed hat (an attribute of dangerous spirits), a face surrounded with red paint, and painted arms without hands. He is adorned with the fragrant flowers of basil. The most appalling thing about this spirit statue, however, is the painted bag hanging around his neck. With this bag, he is supposed to carry the disease back to his abode. This peculiar object, kolit sepootn, is the bag-shaped first bract (botanic prophyll) borne on the inflorescence of the Pinang palm, Areca catechu. To activate the spirit in the statue, the beliatn keeps it to the awiir and sings for a long time.

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Figure 6. Extracting the disease with the Telolo

After that, the patients smear (or spit) their own saliva on/at the figure to get rid of the disease. Alternatively, the mother performs this with the saliva of her sick child (Figure 7). Moreover, the beliatn presses and rubs the telolo, with the extracted disease, on the spirit’s bag to transfer the disease into it. Afterwards, somebody carries the statue with the diseases in the bag back to the forest. The Dayak Basap of the Mangkalihat Peninsula do a similar thing with their disease bearing statues (Zahorka, 2002).

Figure 7. Saliva to be applied to the Sepatukng Silih

(2) Catching the Lost Juus with the Tolakng Tintikng and its Re-implanting into the Patient’s Body

Tolakng bulaan is Bambusa vulgaris Schrader, Poaceae, and tintikng is the boiled rice inside. This is a pre-ceramic technique used to boil food. The tolakng tintikng is a piece of bamboo filled with boiled rice and often decorated at the front with coconut leaves, or blackened. It is the most important instrument of the beliatn because it acts like a magnet to the lost souls. During the third night, these objects are fixed below each rung of the ladder,

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and bundles of them, together with a fried chicken sitting on them, are kept over the heads of the patients. At the last performance during a belian sentiu session, the beliatn dances with furious drumming and falls into a trance. The helper covers him with a fabric. This lasts at least half a minute. In this state, the spirit reveals to him the hiding place of the soul. Then the beliatn jumps up, grasps a tolakng tintikng and pokes eagerly into the spot that was revealed to him (Figure 8). This can be the branch of a plant or the bottom of a tempayan or one of the small houses for spirits as shown in the figure. Then, from the front of the bamboo stick, he pulls out a tiny thread-shaped soul and on closer examination and assessment he recognizes to which patient the soul belongs. Then, he massages the soul thoroughly into the sick body part of the concerned patient.

Figure 8. Soul-catching with the Tolakng Tintikng

After the disease is extracted with the telolo and the missing juus re-implanted, the patient is supposed to become healthy. The following day, after the end of the curing ritual, the crown of the beliatn is hung in front of the door indicating that the house is now tuhing, which means taboo, to nonresidents for four days. Another healing ritual, but with much more furious dancing and drumming, is the belian bawo, which was last performed in the Lempunah longhouse in 1976 on occasion of a gugu tautn ritual (Bonoh, 1985). The historically younger belian sentiu ritual has now replaced it. The belian curing rituals of the Benuaq are shamanistic rites combining elements of medium ship, wandering and possession shamanisms (Massing, 1982; Herrmans, 2004).

SOME ADDITIONAL NOTES

The Benuaq rituals are part of their religion, which they call adat nahaa. The official Indonesian term for this traditional tribal belief is Hindu Kaharingan, but this name is unknown among the Benuaq (Weinstock, 1983). Yet, several elements of their faith are obviously related to ancient Hinduism. For example, their creator and highest spirit is Letala, etymologically most probably derived from the ancient highest Hindu authority Batara (with the Badui also Batara). Under his deity’s spiritual authority, according to the myths of the

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Benuaq, are a great number of Seniang or Sangiang spirits who are responsible for the sun, the moon, the stars, the rain, the winds; they are the ancestors of the animals and of many wook. On behalf of Letala they watch over human adat and over their morals and taboos. Within this pantheon, they exist above the wook. Another evidence of the Hindu influence on the belian rituals of the Dayak Benuaq is they do not use palm wine or other alcoholic beverages in contrast to other tribes in Kalimantan, for example the Ot Danum Dayak (Helbig, 1982) or the Tumon Dayak (Zahorka, 2001) where plenty of tuak during rituals is compulsory. Though many Benuaq are now member of Christian denominations, they still faithfully perform their rituals as a part of their cultural heritage and adat. The payment for the beliatn is small; however, he and his helpers get the right halves of the sacrificed pig. The total expense of a four-day belian sentiu executed for two families performed by two beliatn and with two sacrificed pigs in Zahorka (2007b) was told at least IDR 6,000,000, at this time at least USD 400. After one ritual, Beliatn Ran did something rather profane, which I would like to share here. At the end in the last night, at 3 a.m., the hosts served boiled pig meat and rice as a late dinner for all of the people present. When I got greasy fingers, Beliatn Ran, grinning, offered me his telolo as a tissue. I used it appropriately and then shook it jokingly over the bowl with the blood sacrifice; all of which drew a laugh from the gathering.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

During my seven research journeys to the Benuaq Ohookng made between 1976 and 2006, my friendly and knowledgeable informants were the late Kepala Adat Dangud in Tanjung Isui, the late Kepala Adat Bakot in Lempunah and his son-in-law Anatolius Teng. The following Pembeliatn, many of them unfortunately already deceased, also introduced me into the mysteries and secrets of the Belian rituals: Angkang, Nuncutn, Daman, Moya, Rayat, Sinti, Gerong, Rantio, Iman, Kuno, Acui and Ran, many of them close friends to me. To all of them I owe deep thankfulness for allowing me to participate in their inherited plant knowledge and their shamanistic interpretation of nature and disease. My grateful acknowledgements for advices on plant identification are also given to Dr. Christian Gönner and from Herbarium Bogoriense to Dr. Harry Wiriadinata, Prof. Dr. Ir. Y. Purwanto DEA, Prof. Dr. Johannis P. Mogea, and last but not least to Dr. Ary Prihardhyanto Keim.

REFERENCES

Bonoh, Y. 1985. Belian Bawo. Departemen Pendidikan dan Kebudayaan Kantor Wilayah Propinsi Kalimantan Timur, Samarinda. Gönner, C. 2002. A forest tribe of Borneo (Benuaq). D.K. Printworld (P) Ltd., New Delhi. Helbig, K. 1982. Eine durchquerung der insel Borneo (Kalimantan) nach den tagebüchern ausdem jahre. Geographische Gesellschaft, Hamburg. Herrmans, I. 2004. Representing unpredictably: An analysis of a curing ritual among the East Kalimantan Luangan. Journal of Ritual Studies 18(1): 50-61. Massing, A.W. 1982. Where Medicine Fails: Belian Disease Prevention and Curing Rituals among the Lawangan Dayaks of East Kalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin 14(2): 56-84.

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Sillander, K. 1995. Ethnicity between the Luangan and the Bentian. Borneo Research Bulletin 26: 69-95. Susiarti, S. 2005. Indigenous Knowledge on the Use of Medicinal Plants by Dayak Benuaq Society, West Kutai, East Kalimantan. Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology 2(1): 52-64. Weinstock, J.A. 1983. Kaharingan and Luangan Dayaks: Religion and Identity in Central- East Borneo. PhD-Thesis, Cornell University, Ithaca. Zahorka, H. 2001. A tumon dayak burial ritual (ayah besar). Borneo Research Bulletin 32: 84-102. Zahorka, H. 2002. A wooden figure used to take on human diseases – shamanistic healing rituals of the basap in East Kalimantan. Borneo Research Bulletin 33: 181-183. Zahorka, H. 2007b. The shamanic belian sentiu rituals of the Benuaq Ohookng. Borneo Research Bulletin 38 127-147.

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Etnobiologi Kota Amlapura, Karangasem, Bali: Amla, Amlapura dan Phyllanthus emblica L. (Phyllanthaceae)

Ary Prihardhyanto Keim Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Tukul Rameyo Adi Kementerian Koordinator Bidang Kemaritiman dan Investasi, Jakarta Muhamad Nikmatullah Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Nissa Arifa Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia Fauzi Akbar Kementerian Koordinator Bidang Kemaritiman dan Investasi, Jakarta Wawan Sujarwo Kelompok Penelitian Etnobiologi, Pusat Penelitian Biologi, Lembaga Ilmu Pengetahuan Indonesia

Corresponding email [email protected]

ABSTRACT

Amlapura is a Sanskrit name for the city of Karangasem and the result of the ethnobiological research conducted in this study indicates that it refers to a species of plant named Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllantaceae). In Indonesian, particularly Javanese the name is known as ‘malaka’, ‘mlaka’, ‘kemloko’, or ‘mloko’. This present ethnobiological study also raises a possibility that the name ‘mlaka’ is an indigenous Austronesian word instead and entered Sanskrit through Dravidian languages.

Keywords: Amla, Amlapura, Bali, Karangasem, Phyllanthus, Phyllantaceae

PENDAHULUAN

Kabupaten Karangasem adalah salah satu dari delapan Kabupaten dan satu Kotamadya di Propinsi Bali yang terletak paling timur dari Pulau Bali. Kemudian di kabupaten ini terdapat Pura terbesar di Bali, yaitu Pura Besakih. Keberadaan Pura Besakih tidak lepas dari sejarah Karangasem sendiri yang tidak dapat dipisahkan dari Kerajaan Karangasem yang pernah dalam masanya menjadi kerajaan paling kaya dan makmur di Pulau Bali. Kerajaan Karangasem (1600-1894) adalah sebuah kerajaan Hindu di Pulau Bali yang berdiri di abad ke-17 M dan berakhir menjelang akhir abad ke-19 M (Pringle, 2004; Agung, 2009). Di masa kejayaannya wilayah Kerajaan Karangasem bahkan meliputi seluruh Pulau Lombok yang ditaklukan pada tahun 1839 (Gin, 2004; Pringle, 2004). Kemakmuran yang dimiliki Kerajaan Karangasem bahkan membuatnya mampu membangun Pura sedemikian besar dan indah, Pura Besakih.

DOI: https://doi.org/10.46359/jte.v3i1.9 69

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Kerajaan Karangasem pernah mencapai kemakmurannya melalui perdagangan, antara lain komoditas pertanian (beras, Oryza sativa), perkebunan (kelapa, Cocos nucifera), kehutanan (kayu manis, Cinnamomum burmannii), dan pertambangan, terutama emas yang menarik para pedagang dari Nusantara dan manca negara, terutama China dan Arab datang. Diceritakan bahwa Amlapura, ibukota Kerajaan, sangat makmur dan kosmopolitan dengan para pedagang dari banyak wilayah Nusantara, Cina bahkan juga Arab dan Persia (Suparman, 1994). Sayangnya kemakmuran Kerajaan Karangasem juga mengundang kehadiran kolonial Belanda ke ujung paling timur Pulau Bali ini dan setelah melalui peperangan yang brutal dan licik, Belanda akhirnya menguasai Kerajaan Karangasem pada tahun 1894 (Suparman, 1994; Farram, 1997; Pringle, 2004). Setelah kemerdekaan Indonesia, Karangasem ditetapkan menjadi salah satu Kabupaten di wilayah Propinsi Bali dengan tetap memilih Amlapura sebagai ibukota Kabupaten. Pada tahun 2015, Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Karangasem menetapkan Amlapura menjadi ibukota semenjak 22 Juni 1640, dan semenjak itu tanggal 22 Juni ditetapkan sebagai Hari Jadi Kota Amlapura dan dirayakan setiap tahun. Sebagai sebuah kerajaan yang sangat makmur, Karangasem juga banyak menyimpan benda-benda pusaka kerajaan yang luar biasa indah dan bernilai budaya tinggi. Dalam kaitan tersebut, Amlapura (sekaligus Kabupaten Karangasem) juga menjadi anggota dari Jaringan Kota Pusaka Indonesia (JKPI), sebuah jaringan nirlaba antarkota di Indonesia yang saat ini beranggotakan 33 kota di seluruh Indonesia. Jaringan ini didirikan dengan tujuan menjaga kelestarian benda cagar budaya (BCB) peninggalan sejarah di Indonesia. Selain itu, Jaringan Kota Pusaka Indonesia sangat penting dalam upaya sosialisasi peraturan perundang-undangan tentang perlindungan benda cagar budaya (BCB). Oleh karena itu, penelitian ini bertujuan untuk Mengkaji kota Amlapura secara khusus dan Kabupaten Karangasem secara umum dari sudut ethnobiologi dalam kaitannya dengan tumbuhan Phyllantus emblica (Phyllantaceae).

METODE

Metode yang dipakai ialah eksplorasi dan keikutsertaan (partisipasi responden) langsung dengan wawancara secara terbuka dua arah (Martin, 1995; Cunningham, 2001; Bernard, 2006; Nolan dkk., 2011; Albuquerque dkk., 2014). Kabupaten Karangasem mencakup wilayah seluas 839,54 Km², di dalamnya termasuk gunung tertinggi di Pulau Bali, Gunung Agung dengan ketinggian 3031 m dpl. Kota Amlapura, ibukota Kabupaten Karangasem sendiri berjarak sekitar 79,1 km dari Bandar Udara Internasional Ngurah Rai (yang berlokasi di Kabupaten Badung) ke arah Timur Laut (Gambar 1) yang dapat ditempuh dengan kendaraan bermotor selama kurang lebih 2 jam (dalam kondisi normal).

HASIL DAN PEMBAHASAN

Salah satu keunikan masyarakat di Karangasem adalah toleransi beragama yang luarbiasa, khususnya antara Hindu dan Islam yang tertuang dalam sejarah lisan Desa Budakeling Bebandem, Karangasem yang melukiskan interaksi Hindu dan Islam pada sekitar akhir Kerajaan Majapahit dalam bentuk pesan-pesan dan petuah-petuah lisan yang masih hidup dan diterapkan di masyarakat Karangasem hingga hari ini (Sumarja, 2016; Maknun, 2018). Ini terwujud dalam salah satu bentuk kesenian Islami Marawis masyarakat Muslim

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asli Karangasem dari Banjar Muslim Kecicang, Desa Bungaya Kangin, Kecamatan Bebandem (Gambar 2).

Gambar 1. Rute perjalanan dari Bandar Udara Internasional Ngurah Rai ke Kota Amlapura, Kabupaten Karangasem [Google Map, 2019]

Secara historis kehadiran masyarakat Muslim di Karangasem adalah semenjak Raja Karangasem yang ke-empat yaitu Anak Agung Anglurah Ketut Karangasem berhasil menaklukan Pulau Lombok untuk pertama kalinya pada tahun 1692 yang kemudian diikuti kebijakan membawa orang Muslim yang berasal dari Lombok ke Kerajaan Karangasem menjadi cikal bakal masuknya Islam ke Karangasem (Sumarja, 2016). Umat muslim tersebut kemudian membentuk perkampungan yang kemudian dikenal dengan Kampung Kecicang Islam.

Gambar 2. Kesenian Marawis dari Banjar Muslim Kecicang, Desa Bungaya Kangin, Kecamatan Bebandem, Kabupaten Karangasem

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Kajian Etnobiologi terkait Kota Amlapura menuturkan sejarah kota itu sendiri terkait dengan jenis tumbuhan tertentu yang berujung kepada dua hipotesis.

(1) Hipotesis Pertama Amlapura sebagai ibukota Kerajaan Karangasem yang kemudian juga dilanjutkan di era Kabupaten Karangasem telah lama dikenal setidaknya semenjak 22 Juni 1640. Meski begitu, tidak banyak orang yang tahu darimana kata “Amlapura” itu berasal, bahkan masyarakat Karangasem sendiri. Untuk kurun waktu yang panjang kata “Amlapura” menjadi misteri yang sepertinya tidak akan terpecahkan. Melalui pendekatan Etnobiologi di sini diduga kuat asal kata “Amlapura” berkaitan dengan vegetasi di Karangasem dan keyakinan yang kuat penduduknya akan Agama Hindu yang memang adalah agama mayoritas yang dianut masyarakat Karangasem bahkan hingga kini. Sebenarnya asal kata “Amlapura” yang merujuk kepada sejenis tumbuhan yang berbuah dengan rasa asam dan dalam Bahasa Sansekerta disebut “amla” sudah pernah diceritakan oleh salah seorang panglingsir atau tetua Puri Gede (Agung) Karangasem, Anak Agung Bagus Ngurah Agung. Namun tidak jelas identifikasi jenis tumbuhan yang dimaksud dengan “amla” itu. Kajian Etnobiologi yang dilakukan dalam kegiatan ini sendiri selaras dengan yang dikatakan panglingsir atau tetua Puri Gede (Agung) Karangasem tersebut di atas dengan pijakan dasar kata “amla” itu sendiri. Kata “amla” jelas bukan kata asal bahasa-bahasa daerah Nusantara yang masuk ke dalam anak rumpun Bahasa Austronesia Barat-Tengah (West-Central Austronesians) yang mana bahasa-bahasa daerah di Pulau Bali juga termasuk ke dalamnya. Kata “amla” (atau lengkapnya “amalaka”) diketahui berasal dari Bahasa Sansekerta dan artinya asam atau masam (Apte, 2017). Di dalam kitab Ayurveda sendiri kata “amla” merujuk kepada salah satu jenis tanaman yang digunakan dalam pengobatan masyarakat berperadaban Arya yang berbahasa Sansekerta, yaitu yang secara ilmiah disebut Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae). Nama lain untuk tanaman ini antara lain “amala”, “amalaka”, “amalaki”. Di dalam bahasa-bahasa asli Nusantara, khususnya Austronesia Barat-Tengah (West-Central Austronesians) jenis tanaman ini dikenal dengan nama-nama daerah “melaka”, “mlaka”, “mloko”, “meloko” dan “balakka” (Khoiriyah dkk., 2015). Dalam Bahasa Indonesia standard nama tanaman ini adalah “Melaka”. Phyllanthus emblica memiliki persebaran alami yang luas, mencakup Assam (India), Bangladesh, Borneo, Cina (bagian Tengah-Selatan dan Tenggara, termasuk Pulau Hainan), Himalaya (termasuk Nepal), India, Jawa, Kamboja, Laos, Semenanjung Malaya, Myanmar, Nusa Tenggara (termasuk Bali), Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Sumatera, Taiwan, Thailand, dan Vietnam (Balakrishnan dan Chakrabarty, 2007; Chakrabarty dan Balakrishnan, 2018). Ditambah beberapa wilayah di mana jenis ini diketahui dibudidaya, yaitu Pulau Andaman (India), Kuba, Mauritius, Puerto Rico, Trinidad-Tobago, dan Kepulauan Windward (Karibia) (Acevedo-Rodriguez dan Strong, 2007). Dengan kata lain, P. emblica adalah juga jenis alami di Indonesia, termasuk Pulau Bali. Lebih jauh lagi, P. emblica adalah juga jenis tumbuhan yang tumbuh alami dan asli Karangasem. Dari sudut pandang Etnobiologi, “amla” dan kaitannya dengan Amlapura di Karangasem menjadi sangat menarik.

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Gambar 3. “Amla” (Phyllanthus emblica; Phyllanthaceae) [Sumber: efloraofindia]

Kata Amlapura adalah kata majemuk yang berasal dari dua kata dasar “amla” dan “pura”. Kata “pura” sendiri dalam Bahasa Sansekerta berarti kota atau kota dengan benteng atau kota dengan istana di dalanya (Apte, 2017). Sehingga “Amlapura” berarti Kota Amla, kota yang banyak ditemukan tumbuhan “amla”. Dengan kata lain, kota yang banyak ditemukan pohon “melaka” (Phyllanthus emblica). Ini merupakan penjelasan lebih lengkap dari apa yang diungkapkan sebelumnya oleh panglingsir Puri Gede (Agung) Karangasem sebelumnya di atas. Penjelasan tersebut juga secara langsung berkaitan dengan kata Karangasem itu sendiri. Kata “karang” dalam banyak bahasa daerah di Indonesia, seperti Bahasa Jawa, Sunda, dan Bali juga dapat bermakna kampung atau perkampungan atau dapat pula merujuk ke perkampungan luas dan lengkap atau kota. Dengan kata lain, “Karangasem” itu sendiri bermakna kampung yang banyak ditemukan tumbuhan dengan buah asam. Buah ‘melaka’ (P. emblica) sendiri masam rasanya mirip dengan kerabatnya satu marga, ‘ceremai’ atau ‘cerme’ (P. acidus). Jadi, “Karangasem” tidak lain adalah nama Austronesia yang adalah padanan untuk nama Sansekerta “Amlapura” atau Karangasem adalah sama dengan Amlapura. Penggunaan nama Sansekerta untuk menyebut nama “Karangasem” juga sebagai ibukota nampaknya berkaitan dengan agama yang mayoritas dianut masyarakat Karangasem sendiri, bahkan semenjak jaman Kerajaan Karangasem, yaitu Agama Hindu dengan bahasa ritual (keagamaan) yang dipakai tentu saja Sansekerta. Sehingga “Karangasem” pun diterjemahkan ke Bahasa Sansekerta menjadi “Amlapura”. Ditambah lagi bahwa Phyllanthus emblica dianggap sebagai salah satu jenis tumbuhan yang disucikan dalam Agama Hindu di tanah airnya, India dan senantiasa dikaitkan dengan ritual penyembahan Dewa Wisnu dan Siwa (Bhatla dkk., 1984; Pandey dan Pandey, 2016). Agama Hindu yang ada di Pulau Bali (i.e. Hindu Bali) sendiri merupakan sinkretisme kepercayaan Hindu aliran Saiwa, Waisnawa, dan Brahma dengan kepercayaan asli suku Bali (Gonda, 1975; Picard dan Madinier, 2011). Dengan sendirinya kedua dewa di atas, Wisnu dan Siwa, sangat dihormati di Bali. Terkait dengan itu, konsekuensinya tumbuhan ‘amla’ atau ‘melaka’ (Phyllanthus emblica) otomatis menjadi suci di Bali, khususnya Karangasem setidaknya sampai saat nama “Amlapura” ditetapkan. Meski begitu, nampak sekali bahwa peng-Sansekerta-an nama Karangasem menjadi Amlapura lebih kepada ide murni masyarakat

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Bali, khususnya Karangasem. Tidak ada kaitan dengan orang-orang India (baik Arya atau non-Arya seperti Tamil) bertutur Sansekerta sama sekali di Karangasem atau bahkan Pulau Bali. Hal ini ditandakan dengan ketiadaan kromosom Y-Arya atau Y-non-Arya di Bali dan ‒terutama sekali‒ tidak pernah ditemukannya sisa-sisa atau reruntuhan kapal karam dari India di Bali yang dapat dijadikan bukti adanya perniagaan lewat laut dari India ke Bali. Justru yang ada adalah bangkai kapal-kapal karam Austronesia (i.e. perahu bercadik; Gambar 6) di pantai-pantai selatan India beserta temuan DNA Austronesia (Vilar, 2015). Temuan ini agaknya mengubah secara mendasar akan hubungan antara bangsa besar Austronesia (Nusantara) dan India di masa silam, di mana justru bangsa Austronesia lah yang berlayar dan berniaga ke India, bukan sebaliknya. Dengan kata lain, ide akan Hinduisme ‒termasuk konsep tumbuhan suci ‘amla’‒ dibawa dan disebarkan sendiri oleh bangsa Austronesia ke Nusantara dari India. Bukti adanya kromosom Y dari India yang ditunjukkan Karafet dkk. (2005) perlu dipertimbangkan kembali.

Gambar 4. Perahu bercadik di Bali Utara (kiri) yang biasa mengarungi selat Bali dari Pulau Bali ke Pulau Jawa pp. (kanan)

Kromosom Y tersebut (Karafet dkk., 2005) dapat ditafsirkan ulang sebagai terjadi perkawinan campur di India dan anak-anak hasil perkawinan campur tersebut dibawa pulang oleh ayah-ayah Austronesia mereka kembali ke Nusantara (termasuk Bali yang kaitan Hinduisme-nya kuat). Dengan kata lain, justru ada perkampungan (settlements) Bali di India, bukan sebaliknya. Meski begitu, ketiadaan kromosom Y tersebut di masyarakat Jawa dan Bali Aga menimbulkan kecurigaan bahwa itu relatif dari jaman yang lebih muda, setidaknya setelah pelarian masyarakat Hindu dari Majapahit (di akhir kejayaannya) ke Bali sekitar abad ke-16 Masehi hingga berdirinya kerajaan-kerajaan Hindu Majapahit di Bali yang berniaga sampai ke kerajaan-kerajaan Hindu di bagian selatan India yang dirasakan “bersahabat” dan “sekutu” sebagai sesama penganut Hindu. Jadi, sebenarnya keberadaan kromosom Y asal India di Bali adalah bukan dari masa perniagaan dan pelayaran maritim tua Austronesia yang legendaris.

(2) Hipotesis Kedua Meski ‘amla’ disebut di Ayurveda, uniknya nama tersebut tidak dipakai untuk menyebut Phyllanthus emblica di tulisan ilmiah pertama jenis tersebut oleh orang Eropa, yaitu oleh Gubernur Jenderal Belanda di Koloni Malabar, India sekaligus juga naturalis, Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede tot Drakenstein di jilid pertama Hortus Malabaricus (Rheede

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tot Drakenstein, 1686; Gambar 5). Rheede tot Drakenstein melaporkan bahwa nama jenis tumbuhan tersebut dalam Bahasa Brahmani (i.e. Sansekerta) adalah ‘Nelli-Camarum’ (Gambar 6). Rheede tot Drakenstein menulis tentang uraian morfologi (penampilan) ‘Nelli- Camarum’ diikuti dengan kegunaannya dan gambar, tetapi tidak ada informasi kalau jenis tanaman ini disucikan oleh masyarakat Hindu. Gambar ‘Nilli Camarum’ sendiri sangat mirip dengan tampilan (perawakan) ‘amla’ atau ‘melaka’ (Phyllanthus emblica), termasuk tampilan daunnya yang sangat mirip dengan daun kelompok polong-polongan (legume) dan buah bulat dengan alur-alur di kulit luarnya (bandingkan Gambar 3 dengan Gambar 6). Di penelitian ini ‘Nilli Camarum’ dianggap sama dengan ‘amla’ atau ‘melaka’, jadi itu adalah Phyllanthus emblica. Rheede tot Drakenstein menggunkan nama ‘Nilli Camarum’ dapat dipahami di sini karena ia menerima nama itu dari penduduk asli Malabar di India yang bahasa ibunya adalah Bahasa Malayalam (Panikkar, 1900; Manilal, 1984; Drummond, 2010), di mana dalam Bahasa Malayalam Phyllanthus emblica disebut ‘nelli’ atau ‘nellikka’ (Gambar 7).

Gambar 5. Hendrik Adriaan van Rheede tot Drakenstein (kiri) dan halaman pertama Hortus Malabaricus tertanda tahun 1686 (kanan) [Sumber: Rheede tot Drakenstein, 1686]

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Gambar 6. Gambar ‘Nilli Camarum’ (Phyllanthus emblica) di Hortus Malabaricus [Sumber: Rheede tot Drakenstein, 1686]

• Assamese: আম্লখি amlaki • Bengali: আমলকী amlaki • Gujarati: આમળા amla, આમલક amalak • Hindi: आमला amla, आंवला anwla, बमूली bahu-muli, ब्रह्मवृक्ष Brahma vriksh • Kannada: ಆಮಲಕ aamalaka, 냆糍ಟ ꃆಲ್ಲಿ betta nelli, 飊蓍ಡ ꃆಲ್ಲಿ dodda nelli • Kashmiri: आमलकी amalaki, ओम्ल omala • Khasi: dieng sohmylleng • Konkani: आवळो avalo • Malayalam: നെല്ലി nelli, നെല്ലിക്ക nellikka • Manipuri: আমলা amla, heikru • Marathi: अवळा avala, आंवळा aanvala • Mizo: sinhlu • Nepalese: अमलो amalo • Oriya: aula • Pali: आमलक amalak • Punjabi: ਆਂਵਲਾ anwala, ਆਉਲਾ aula • Sanskrit: अकर akara, अमलााः amalah, आमलकाः amalakah, ब्रह्मवृक्ष Brahma vriksh, धात्रिका dhatrika, मण्डा manda, राधा radha, शंभुत्रिया shambhupriya, त्रशवा shiva, श्रीफली shriphali, सुधा sudha, तमका tamaka, त्रतष्या tishya, वज्रम् vajram, त्रवलोमी vilomi • Tamil: ஆமல垿 amalaki, அ뮿ர்தபலம் amirta-palam, அத்தக ோரம் attakoram, 殿கரோட்டம் cirottam, 殿வை civai, இந்鏁ளி intuli, ந்தோத்鎿ரி kantattiri, ோட்翁நநல்쮿 kattu-nelli, க ோங் ம் konkam, க ோரங் ம் korankam, நநல்쮿 nelli, தோத்鎿ரி tattiri, கதக ோமந்鎿ரம் tecomantiram, கதோப்ꯁநநல்쮿 toppu-nelli, கதோட்羿 totti • Telugu: ఆమలక롁 .anwla آن و ال :amalakamu, 鰾త్రి dhatri, ꁆల్ల ి nelli, ఉ쀿 usiri • Urdu Gambar 7. Nama-nama daerah untuk Phyllanthus emblica dalam beberapa bahasa di India, yang dalam Bahasa Malayalam ditebalkan penulisannya [Sumber: efloraofindia]

Gambar 7 juga memperlihatkan bahwa bahasa-bahasa di India yang menyebut P. emblica sebagai ‘nelli’ dengan segala varian pengucapan dan penamaannya adalah tergolong ke dalam keluarga bahasa-bahasa Dravida, bukan Sansekerta (lihat Iyengar, 1925). Jadi, di

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sini diyakini bahwa nama-nama yang berbunyi ‘amla’ atau ‘amalaka’ atau sebunyi dengan itu jelas bukan bahasa-bahasa Dravida dan nampaknya adalah kata-kata pinjaman dari Bahasa Sansekerta ke dalam bahasa-bahasa Dravida. Dengan kata lain, ini menimbulkan hipotesis bahwa nama asli untuk Phyllanthus emblica di India, khususnya India bagian selatan, di mana P. emblica banyak ditemukan tumbuh dan disebut dalam bahasa-bahasa Dravida sebagai ‘nelli’ atau nama-nama lain yang sebunyi dengannya (Gambar 7), bukan ‘amla’, ‘amalaka’, ‘amalaki’ atau nama-nama lain yang sebunyi dengannya. Orang-orang berbahasa Dravida jauh lebih tua berada di daratan India daripada bangsa Arya yang bertutur bahasa Sansekerta (Iyengar, 1925; Kosambi, 1997; Thapar, 2002; Tripathi, 2006). Bahkan ada teori berbasis genetika dan biologi molekular (DNA) yang menduga bahwa orang-orang Dravida berasal dari kawasan Nubia di Afrika Timur dan bergerak ke daratan India sekitar 5000 tahun silam (Winters, 2008), jauh lebih tua dari turunnya orang-orang Arya Sansekerta dari Hindukush ke daratan India (Majumdar, 2015). Sebagai konsekuensi, setidaknya secara teori, orang-orang Dravida lebih dahulu mengenal Phyllanthus emblica daripada orang-orang Arya-Sansekerta. Jadi, orang-orang Arya- Sansekerta, setidaknya juga secara teori, tidak mengenal Phyllanthus emblica sampai mereka bersentuhan (kontak) dengan orang-orang Dravida, Kajian DNA yang termasuk terkini di India membuktikan ada kontak antara orang- orang Dravida di daratan India dengan pendatang dari sebelah timur yang berdasarkan kajian kromosom Y yang ada di tanah Dravida adalah bangsa Austronesia alias Nusantara (lihat Vilar, 2015). Dengan kata lain, bangsa yang berbahasa Dravida sudah kontak dengan pendatang bangsa berbahasa Austronesia jauh sebelum mereka kontak dengan bangsa Arya- Sansekerta. Karena Phyllanthus emblica juga jenis tumbuhan yang penyebaran alaminya sampai ke setidaknya bagian barat Austronesia seperti Semenanjung Malaya, Sumatera, Jawa, Kalimantan, dan Nusa Tenggara, termasuk Bali (Chakrabarty dan Balakrishnan, 2018), maka diyakini di sini bahwa masyarakat Austronesia sudah lebih dahulu mengenal jenis tanaman ini dari masyarakat Arya-Sansekerta. Sebagai konsekuensi, setidaknya secara teori, bangsa Austronesia sudah lebih dahulu mengenal nama yang merujuk kepada Phyllanthus emblica daripada bangsa Arya-Sansekerta. Bahkan bila merujuk kepada Winters (2008), di mana para leluhur Dravida baru bergerak dari Nubia di Afrika Timur menuju India sementara leluhur Austronesia sudah berada di Sundaland setidaknya pada jaman pleistocene akhir (membentang dari 126.000 hingga 5000 tahun silam; lihat Matsumura dkk., 2018) atau setidaknya 65.000-50.000 tahun silam (Oppenheimer dan Richards, 2001; Jones, 2007; Thomas, 2011), maka bangsa Austronesia seharusnya sudah mengenal Phyllanthus emblica sebelum bangsa Dravida. Diduga di sini bahwa nama dalam Bahasa Austronesia untuk Phyllanthus emblica adalah ‘malaka’ atau ‘mlaka’. Karena kontak antara bangsa Austronesia dengan bangsa Dravida lebih dahulu daripada kontak antara bangsa Dravida dan Arya- Sansekerta merujuk kepada kajian DNA (Vilar, 2015), maka kata ‘malaka’ atau ‘mlaka’ masuk ke kosa kata bahasa Dravida sebelum kedatangan bangsa Arya-Sansekerta. Jadi, yang lebih mungkin adalah kata ‘malaka’ atau ‘mlaka’ masuk ke dalam Bahasa Sansekerta via Bahasa Dravida. Contoh untuk kejadian di atas misalnya untuk cengkeh (Syzygium aromaticum; Myrtaceae). Sebagaimana diketahui bahwa ‘cengkeh’ atau ‘cengkih’ adalah endemik Kepulauan Maluku, khususnya Ternate dan Tidore. Nama dalam Bahasa Ternate adalah ‘Lawang’ atau ‘Bunga Lawang’ atau variasi bunyi dari itu seperti ‘bongolawan’ (Rumphius, 1741; Rumphius, 2011). Dalam Bahasa Sansekerta ‘cengkeh’ adalah लवंग yang berbunyi ‘Lavanga’ yang adalah jelas pengucapan Bahasa Sansekerta untuk Lawang, nama asli dalam Bahasa Austronesia (khususnya Ternate dan Tidore) untuk ‘cengkeh’. Dan karena secara

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botani ‘cengkeh’ (Syzygium aromaticum) adalah endemik Maluku, maka tidak mungkin nama ‘Lawang’ dalam Bahasa Ternate dan Tidore berasal dari Bahasa Sansekerta ‘Lavanga’. Dengan kata lain, kata ‘Lavanga’ dalam Bahasa Sansekerta berasal dari kata ‘Lawang’ dalam Bahasa Ternate atau Tidore yang mungkin masuk ke Sansekerta via para pedagang Nusantara yang berniaga ke India, bukan sebaliknya. Merujuk kepada contoh di atas, kata ‘amalaka’ boleh jadi adalah salah satu variasi pengucapan Bahasa Sansekerta untuk ‘malaka’ dari Bahasa Austronesia yang merujuk kepada jenis tumbuhan Phyllanthus emblica tersebut. Kata ‘amla’ sendiri diduga di sini pun diturunkan dari ‘amalaka’, di mana kebetulan rasa buah Phyllanthus emblica sendiri memang masam. Di sini juga diyakini bahwa sebelum merasakan buah Phyllanthus emblica, bangsa Arya-Sansekerta belum pernah merasakan rasa yang sangat masam atau “kecut”. Memang ada buah-buahan dari kawasan subtropika ‒kawasan darimana bangsa Arya berasal (Hindukush, kawasan di sekitar Afghanistan – Iran)‒ seperti ‘delima’ (Punica granatum; Lythraceae) misalnya, namun tidak benar-benar sangat masam (kecut) sebagaimana ada di jenis-jenis buah-buahan tropika seperti ‘belimbing wuluh’ (Averrhoa bilimbi; Oxalydaceae), ‘asam Jawa’ (Tamarindus indica; Fabaceae), ‘asam kelubi’ (Eleiodoxa conferta; Arecaceae/Palmae), ‘asam kandis’ (Garcinia xanthochymus; Clusiaceae), dan ‘asam galugur’ (Garcinia atroviridis; Clusiaceae). Kedua hipotesis di atas sangat menarik dan membutuhkan kajian ilmiah lebih lanjut, bukan hanya karena kaitannya dengan sejarah Karangasem, namun juga sejarah bangsa besar Austronesia itu sendiri sebagai bagian dari penguatan literasi bangsa Austronesia, khususnya Indonesia sebagai bangsa maritim.

KESIMPULAN

Amlapura adalah nama dalam Bahasa Sanskerta untuk Karangasem dan semuanya terkait dengan jenis tumbuhan Phyllanthus emblica (Phyllanthaceae). Dalam Bahasa Indonesia jenis tanaman ini disebut ‘malaka’, ‘mlaka’, ‘kemloko’ atau ‘mloko’. Kabupaten Karangasem dan Keraton Karangasem menyimpan banyak sejarah yang menarik, bukan hanya sejarah Kabupaten dan Keraton Karangasem itu sendiri, namun juga Bali dan Lombok.

UCAPAN TERIMAKASIH

Pertama, para penulis mengucapkan terimakasih yang sebesar-besarnya kepada Pemerintah Daerah Kabupaten Karangasem dan Yayasan Jaringan Kota Pusaka Indonesia (JKPI) yang telah mengundang kami ke Karangasem sehingga penelitian ini dapat dilakukan. Penghargaan juga dilayangkan ke Kementerian Koordinator bidang Kemaritiman yang telah memfasilitasi penulis untuk hadir dan melakukan riset di Karangasem.

DAFTAR PUSTAKA

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P-ISSN 1693-6892 E-ISSN 2722-0257

Journal of Tropical Ethnobiology

VOLUME III NUMBER 1 JANUARY 2020

CONTENTS

Value Chain Analysis of Orange Commodity in the Bantama Market, Kumasi, Ghana Jiah SAYSON, Sanu JACOB, Wawan SUJARWO, Soleman IMBIRI, Dewi SARASWATI, and Winfred NAZZIWA …………………………………………………………………. 1-10

Bone, Mattompang Arajang, ‘Kayu Galadupa’ (Sindora galedupa; Fabaceae) dan Jejaring Bugis Nusantara Ary P. KEIM, Muhamad NIKMATULLAH, Nissa ARIFA, Tukul R. ADI, WARDAH, Wawan SUJARWO …………………………………………………………………….. 11-27

Pengetahuan Lokal dan Keanekaragaman Tumbuhan Berguna Pada Masyarakat Batulanteh, Pulau Sumbawa, Nusa Tenggara Barat: Sebuah Kajian Etnobotani Mulyati RAHAYU, Nissa ARIFA, Muhamad NIKMATULLAH, Ary P. KEIM ……… 28-42

Biosphere Reserve Concept Implementation for Creating Sustainability Y. PURWANTO, Hari NUGROHO, Anang S. ACHMADI, and Esti MUNAWAROH . 43-56

Animism is Applied Ethnobotany: A Shamanic Healing Ritual with the Dayak Benuaq Ohookng / Kaltim Herwig ZAHORKA …………………………………………………………………….. 57-68

Etnobiologi Kota Amlapura, Karangasem, Bali: Amla, Amlapura dan Phyllanthus emblica L. (Phyllanthaceae) Ary P. KEIM, Tukul R. ADI, Muhammad NIKMATULLAH, Nissa ARIFA, Fauzi AKBAR, Wawan SUJARWO ……………………………………………………………………... 69-80