Attitudes Towards the Political Participation of Ethnic Minorities

THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER

Attitudes towards the political participation of ethnic minorities

PAUL HINDRIKS Manuscript committee:

Prof.dr. B. Derks Utrecht University

Prof.dr. P.G. Klandermans VU Amsterdam

Prof.dr. P.L.H. Scheepers Radboud University

Prof.dr. F. van Tubergen Utrecht University

Prof.dr. W.A.M. Vollebergh Utrecht University

This dissertation was funded by a the NWO Graduate Training Pro- gram Grant (2008/2009) awarded to the research school Interuni- versity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology (ICS), the Netherlands.

Editorial design Trigarante Comunicación. Claudia Flores, lead designer. Printing production Off Page, Amsterdam. ISBN 978-90-393-6941-8.

© Paul Hindriks, 2018 All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be copied, repro- duced or transmitted in any form of by any means, electronic or mechanical, including photocopy, recording, or any information storage or retrieval system, without the prior written permission of the au- thor. The copyright of the published articles has been transferred to the respective journals. THE STRUGGLE FOR POWER ATTITUDES TOWARDS THE POLITICAL PARTICIPATION OF ETHNIC MINORITIES

DE STRIJD OM DE MACHT HOUDINGEN TEN AANZIEN VAN DE POLITIEKE PARTICIPATIE VAN ETNISCHE MINDERHEDEN (met een samenvatting in het Nederlands)

LA LUCHA POR EL PODER ACTITUDES SOBRE LA PARTICIPACIÓN POLÍTICA DE LAS MINORÍAS ÉTNICAS (con una síntesis en español)

Proefschrift ter verkrijging van de graad van doctor aan de Universiteit Utrecht op het gezag van de rector magnificus, prof.dr. G.J. van der Zwaan, ingevolge het besluit van het college voor promoties in het open- baar te verdedigen op vrijdag 23 maart 2018 des middag te 2.30 uur

door

Paul Hindriks geboren op 18 juli 1985 te Hoogezand-Sappemeer Promotor:

Prof.dr. M.J.A.M. Verkuyten

Copromotor:

Dr. M.T.A. Coenders Everyone has the right to take part in the government of his country, directly or through freely chosen representatives.

Universal Declaration of Human Rights, Article 27.1

CONTENTS

009 Chapter 1. General introduction to the dissertation

025 Chapter 2. Social dominance, legitimizing myths, and national identification

059 Chapter 3. Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals

087 Chapter 4. Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership

115 Chapter 5. Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective

137 Chapter 6. Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact, and multiculturalism group interests and goals

169 Chapter 7. General conclusions of the dissertation

183 Uitgebreide samenvatting – summary in Dutch

193 Síntesis – summary in Spanish

203 References

223 Acknowledgements

225 Curriculum Vitae

227 ICS dissertation series

Chapter 1

General introduction to the dissertation

General introduction to the disertation C1

popula- migrants the of shares international of significant number for the account years, already Background fifteen origin past the migrant tions of cities like Brussels (62%), Toronto (46%), London (37%), Newtions of cities like Brussels (62%), Paris (25%). These demographicYork (37%), Amsterdam (28%), and face unprecedented social andtrends indicate that Western societies political challenges. often invoke ethnic prejudiceImmigration and cultural diversity - among the majority members of a society. They feel that newcom ers and minority groups pose a threat to their culture, employment, housing, and even to their safety. Fueled by the rise of Jihadist terrorism and the European refugee crisis, many Western countries are witnessing an increase in xenophobia and racist violence, and strong calls for stricter regulation of immigration (EC, 2015; FRA, worldwide has continued to grow rapidly: from 173 million in 2000, The consequenc- in 2015 (United Nations, 2016). up to 244 million that, taken to- in Europe and Northern America es are felt strongly world, while their than half of all migrants in the gether, host more White majority populations are shrinking due to aging and low fer- The Migration Observatory, 2013).tility rates (United Nations, 2016; that by the year 2061, mostDemographic studies are now projecting the Mediterranean and Cen- European populations (particularly more than a third of persons withtral-Northern ones) will consist of (Lanzieri, 2011). Canada will passan immigrant-origin background and by the year 2044 more than halfthe 30% mark by as early as 2031, to what currently are consideredof the U.S. population will belong 2015; Statistics Canada, 2016). Ac- minority groups (Colby & Ortman, for Migration (2015), peoplecording to the International Organization of Over 1.1 14 The struggle for power 2007; groups, relations betweenthemajoritygroup,onone hand, andminority on heavily focuses research academic that the fact to related is issue spond tothepoliticalparticipationofminoritygroups. Thesecond majority membersjustifytheirdominantpositionandhowtheyre- issue ofhow raises the That position ofthemajoritygroup. dominant direct challengetothe poses a share ofminorities the of increase an size, group relative their of function a is societies democratic in Western countries.Astheamountofpoliticalpowerheldbygroups dress twourgentissuesthatresultfromincreasedmigrationto Against thissocietalbackdrop,thecurrentdissertationseekstoad- Front National,2017). (PVV, 2017; discourse and anti-Muslim anti-immigrant blatant with their in parliaments Europe arewinning parties across seats regain controlofnationalborders,radicalright-wing an Union to a ban on mosques,aban on theQuranandforleavingEurope rhetoric ofPresidentDonald Trump Advocating for (Gallup, 2017). ly tothisincrease,but so didtheanti-Mexican and anti-Muslim contributed most movement incidents andtheBlackLivesMatter police brutality deal” aboutracerelationsintheUS.Admittedly, great “a worry Americans of 42% record highof a poll showedthat increase inhatecrimestargetingasylumseekers,andaGallup tackle thesharp failing to is Germany warned that tional (2016) Interna Amnesty 2016). Smith, & (Corcoran referendum Brexit the ed 41%moreraciallyandreligiouslyaggravatedoffencesfollowing political attitudesamong membersofdifferentminoritygroups. and social investigates also therefore, dissertation, This 2015). (IOM, have moredealingswith eachotherthanwiththemajoritygroup cities, wheretheyliveintheethnicallydiverseneighborhoods and minority-majority relationsbecauseimmigrants tend torelocate been ignored.Inter-minorityrelationsareoften more intensethan sequence, relationsamongminoritygroupsthemselves havelargely Iganski, on the 2013). other. For This example, focus is the justified, UK Home of course, Office (2016) but as report- a con- - - - General introduction to the disertation C1 - - per- they socially their Participants N = 802, 18–87 years, 50% male. Study 1: N = 233, 16-83 years, 53% male. Study 2: N = 3278, 18-93 years, 51% male. of theoretical Specifically, different groups. justification take Dataset minority that Representative sample of Dutch majority members collected online by TNS NIPO in 2012. Study 1: sample of Dutch majority members collected online via Thesis- tools.be in 2013. Study 2: representative sample of Dutch majority members collected online by TNS NIPO in 2014. members’ - ethnic chapters) of majority Research aim and focus aim Research five by over influence Research question Research How does majority members’ social dominance orientation explain their negative attitudes towards minority groups? Do minority members’ political acculturation in- strategies (group terests) explain majority members’ nega tive attitudes towards minority groups? Table 1: research questions and datasets per empirical chapter 1: research Table explained Ch. 2 3 The main objective of this dissertation negative atti- The main objective is to explain tudes towards minority immigrant-origin politi- groups and their empirical studies seven presenting It does so by cal participation. (divided 1.2 spectives and employ some innovative methodological approach some innovative methodological spectives and employ majority group: and 4 take the point of view of the es. Chapters 2, 3 majority they examine how respond to the growing nu members merical attitudes can negative out-group to which investigate the extent be dominant position in society, on the one hand, and by investigat- and hand, the one society, on dominant position in to minorities’ wishes to par- ing how majority members respond ticipate in the political system of the country, on the other. Chap- ters 5 and 6, in turn, take the perspective of the minority groups. respond to each oth- groups They examine how immigrant-origin 1 pres- the political domain. Table er, within the social and within chapter. ents the research questions of each 16 The struggle for power and moresystematically –justifyingthefocusofthisdissertation. discrimination, too,Muslims appeartobetargetedmorefrequently, 2015). Whileitiscertainly truethatotherminoritygroupssuffer tries, withdemonstrations drawingupto20,000supporters(Smale, (Pegida) spreadinjustafewyearstomanyother Europeancoun- West’ the of Islamization the Against Europeans ‘Patriotic nization gium. OriginallyfromtheeasternGermancityof Dresden,theorga- the FreedomPartyinNetherlands,andVlaams BelanginBel- Partei ÖsterreichsinAustria,BritainFirstthe UnitedKingdom, in theUnitedStates,FrontNationalFrance, theFreiheitliche many politicalpartiesandmovements:Trump and theTeaParty ‘Islamize’ their‘hostcountries’hasbeenvoiced loudlybyagreat in nearlyallWesternsocieties.Thesuspicionthat Muslimswishto minority groups,astheyarethefocalpointofexclusionaryrhetoric Muslim towards attitudes on is dissertation this of focus overall The 6 5 4 Ch. minority groups? among attitudes ative theories explain neg tablished intergroup To whatextentdoes- groups? among minority tudes explain negative atti- (party membership) ticipation strategies bers’ politicalpar- mem- Do minority groups? minority towards negative attitudes members’ majority membership) explain tion strategies(party political participa- members’ Do minority Research question - Study in2009-2010. Netherlands’ LifeCourse bers, collectedforthe ish (50%)minoritymem- roccan (50%)andTurk- Stratified NIPO in2014. TNS onlineby collected nority groupmembers, and Moroccan (24%) mi- ese (25%),Turkish (25%) members, and Surinam- of Dutch (26%) majority Representative sample NIPO in2012. lected onlinebyTNS members col- majority sample ofDutch tative Study 2:represen 2011. online by TNSNIPOin ity memberscollected major- Dutch of sample 1: representative Study Dataset sample of Mo- - 47% male. 14-49 years, N =1985, 46% male. 18-84 years, N =664, 50% male. 18-87 years, N =802, Study 2: 52% male. 18-88 years, N =928, Study 1: Participants General introduction to the disertation C1

- the com- in In bicameral a of arrival. diversification upon confidence the Ethnic language Europe. Dutch commanding the in Western from for The Dutch context Dutch The proficient legitimacy its were prototypical All studies were conducted in the Netherlands: a country that, due arguably composition, to its history, development, and population is 1.3 Netherlands is closely tied to its colonial past, to labor migration, minority groups extent to asylum. Non-Western to a lesser and up about 12 currently make (CBS, cent of the Dutch population per the countries like Germany, France, to 2017), is comparable which UK, and Spain. Immigrants from former Dutch colonies in South America, the Caribbean and Asia possessed Dutch nationality the and parison to other large minority groups, they occupy a much more parison to other large minority society (Gijsberts Dutch in social position structural and favorable & Dagevos, 2009). actively recruited by the Labor migrants were Men the 1960s labor. in of cheap government as a source Dutch and to the Netherlands and Morocco were brought from Turkey expectation that they would re- given a temporary visa, under the after turn to their countries of origin a few years. However, more chose to stay than half of these ‘guest laborers’ and brought over their families in the 1970s (CBS, 2004). Most Turks and Moroccans self-identity as Muslim, and live in similar urban neighborhoods, occupy relatively low status in Dutch society (Gijsberts & positions & Gijsberts, 2010;2009, Maliepaard Lubbers Dagevos, Maliepaard, & Phalet, 2012). Today, most Muslims Dutch and are from Turkish from coun numbers of refugees with smaller Moroccan origin, Somalia, and Syria. tries like Afghanistan, Iraq, Iran, - The Netherlands is a parliamentary democracy: the government de rives - parliament. Most power resides with the lower House of Represen tatives, as the Senate does not have the power to propose or amend laws. The House of Representatives is directly elected by propor- - tional representation without a threshold, meaning that a politi 18 The struggle for power represented currently (2017) Turkey andMoroccanis originating from al partyDENKhasanoutspoken focus onMuslimminoritygroups in nationalparliament,althoughful inobtaining thenation- aseat and TheHague).Nonehavebeensuccess- councils (e.g.Rotterdam on municipality hold seats or drawinspirationfromIslam Muslim Several politicalpartiesthatexplicitlypresent themselves as seats tosecureamajorityforitsausteritymeasures. ment reliedheavilyonaChristian-orthodoxpartywithjustthree obtain aparliamentarymajority.In2013,forexample,thegovern- to seats of handful a only hold that parties on depends sometimes ty sincethe19thcentury).Itisimportanttonotethatgovernment to secureparliamentarytrust(nosinglepartyhasheldamajori- ernments alwaysconsistofacoalitionbetweentwoormoreparties 2017: TweedeKamerderStaten-Generaal,2017)andtheDutchgov- of as parties (13 parties number of a great of consists parliament cal partyonlyneedsabout63,000votestowinaseat.Thenational racism, nority populations (allochthones Dutch natives(autochthones Dutch society seemedtobe characterized byadividebetween Dutch society thatexplains Fordecades, thesenegative attitudes. be theincreasingpolarizationof to seems part, however,it most For the clientelism byminoritypoliticians(VandenDool,2013). discrimination and skepticism. In part, this isdue to concerns of with are often met to participateintheDutchpoliticalsystems of traditionalpoliticalparties.Minoritygroup members wishing members elected tonationalparliamentas members minority called ‘Islamizationofthe Netherlands’,andtheyholdtraditional and theso- They blatantlyagitateagainst Muslims early 2000s. since the have beenonthe rise right-wing parties populist First, cal examplesclearlyillustratethis. Two politi - today. do so and continueto decades two over thelast immigration, with three and seats. acculturation ) ontheoneside,andimmigrantmi- It ) on the other.Public debateson is more intensified common to considerably find ethnic General introduction to the disertation C1 of center Dutch resignation the the of for heart the calling infiltrated confidence no of Main theoretical Main theoretical “effectively motion a In 1958, American sociologist Herbert Blumer contended that eth- merely should not be understood nic prejudice as a set of feelings that individuals have towards members of other racial groups, the of the time, but rather from a sense of group common approach position. He argued that previous lines of research, such as that into the authoritarian personality, were overlooking a crucial 1.4 frameworks parties The of immigrants’. integration for the ‘failed responsible Party Freedom of Geert Wilders won 13% the votes of in the 2017 it elections, making general House party in the the second largest of Representatives. in 2007, Back he submitted par- in the national liament two cabinet members with migration backgrounds, claiming that claiming with migration backgrounds, two cabinet members proofed that their cabinet positions the Turkish and Moroccan governments of power” (Trouw, 2007). of power” (Trouw, Ten years he called for a demon- later, – a for- Marcouch of Arnhem because Ahmed stration in the city the social democrats parliament for national the mer member of mayor – was selected as “is a fan of the islamofascist and that he “more suitable to become mayor Muslimbrother al-Qaradawi” and of Rabat” (Van Ast, 2017). The second example is one of strong, negative reactions to the In May 2016, member. group political participation of a minority the Dutch public prosecutor investigated and eventually trialed 22 users social media who called Dutch television host Sylvana Si- in Amsterdam) mons (born in Suriname, raised and a “cry nigger” the aforemen- joining her a “monkey” after she had announced tioned party DENK (NOS, 2016; 2017). 20 The struggle for power towards thatminority. political participation andnegativeattitudes between minority 5 incorporateSDOasa variable possiblymoderatingtherelation and 4 groups. Chapters four prominentminority towards titudes identification lation togroup boundaries, cultural diversity beliefsand national and showshowitfunctionsinre- theorizing to theempiricaltest policies. Chapter2putsrecentadvancementsin SocialDominance racial prejudice and supportfor avarietyofgroup-related public of ethnic/ one ofthestrongestindividualdifferencepredictors Dominance Orientation(SDO)is Social individuals’ that strating research hasprovidedamplesupportforthis notion by demon- Empirical internalize theexistingmacro-levelpowerstructures. In other words,itclaimsthatindividualstovaryingdegrees 1999). from thesehierarchies (Sidanius&Pratto, inequalities thatstem group-based endorse orchallengethe individuals withinsocieties ern societiesarestructuredasgroup-based hierarchies andthat that mod- nance Theory.Building on theworkofBlumer,itasserts standing thedynamicsofsocietalpowerrelations,isSocialDomi- for under psychological theories popular social One ofthemost Power relations and athirdontheoriesofethnicprejudice. tions: oneonpowerrelations,asecondminorityparticipation, traced backtoBlumer’sproposition.Itisdividedintothreesec- of whichcanbe many dissertation, in this studies the empirical to thoseinterests.Thissectionoutlinesthemaintheoriesusedin of thatgroup,othergroupsarebelievedtopose andthethreats of the productofacombination prejudice shouldbeunderstoodas the subordinate group” (Blumer, p4).In 1958, otherwords,ethnic group as such,butisdeeplyconcerned with itspositionvis-à-vis fact: “Thedominantgroup is notconcerned with thesubordinate social identification in the prediction with an ethnic of majority group, members’ the vested negative interests at- - General introduction to the disertation C1 - - over column exert fifth can groups reflecting threat a as immigrant-origin immigrants, influence by the for posed crucial threat sentiments towards Muslims (i.e. the notion that Muslims are an the notion sentiments towards Muslims (i.e. ‘enemy as within’), and a posed by threat ethnic out-groups. The these different operationalizations chapters will show that using the importance and is contextually relevant, and underscores range of the perceptions of threat. must establish who power relations, one group analyzing When belongs to a group (and is therefore granted certain political the extension of political rights rights), and who does not. Indeed, is bolical, and political resources and interests, and interests, and political resources bolical, other follows that to those claims (Blumer, as threats often are perceived groups 1958). Indeed, research has demonstrated that the more majority view minority members as groups their culture or threatening members’ partici- the more they reject minority status position, Zagefka, 2011; pation (Brown & Matera, Stefanile & Brown, 2011). part of any study should constitute an inherent Threat, therefore, negative on the link between attitudes out-group and political of threat 3, 4 and 5 include perceptions participation. Chapters as attitudes a predictor of negative out-group in three ways: as a the state of affairs in a an ethnic country. When conceptualized in in terms are perceived of ances- boundaries sense, national group member- denying consequently try and cultural homogeneity, ship to is anyone who a member of the native majority group not Boen, 2010; & Vanbeselaere, (Meeus, Duriez, Vignoles & Pehrson, of national- Brown, 2009b). By contrast, a civic conceptualization - ity emphasizes democratically negotiated criteria for entry, res to anyone membership It grants group citizenship. and idence, to newcomers (Heath is more open meets those criteria and who civic conceptual and & Tilley, 2005,et al., 2009b). Ethnic Pherson izations of nationality are incorporated in Chapters 2 and 4. From the insight that ethnic groups occupy certain status certain status occupy groups insight that ethnic From the - posi sym over material, claims proprietary corresponding tions with 22 The struggle for power defining and minoritymembersmustchange, they areessentiallyconcepts ideologies prescribehowmajority the extentthatthesediversity Thus, to 2007). Vasta, Plaut, 2010; Pettigrew, 1997; 2005; & Gerteis, the in-group culture (Hartmann of reappraisaland emphasizesa acknowledges thevalueofimmigrant cultures ture. Thelatter immigrant culturesin favor ofadoption of thehostsocietycul- emphasizes theabandonmentof The former multiculturalism. diversity ideology,one can distinguishbetween assimilation and of groups. Viewedinterms and minority be expectedofmajority can subsequently should bemanaged,andwhat in society versity Finally, thereareseveralideologicalbeliefsonhowculturaldi- justification members’ majority with are associated examine whetherthey to and multiculturalism of assimilation includes endorsements 2 make twoimportantcontributions totheacculturationliterature. and 5 4 Chapters 3, separation andmarginalization (Berry,1997). integration, assimilation, known fouracculturation strategies: leads tothewell- be adopted.Thecombinationofthesetwoissues tained, versustheextenttowhichmajority cultureought to concerns theextenttowhichheritageculture shouldbemain- vis-à-vis remaining primarily among themselves. The secondissue group the dominantmajority engage with want to which they to minority membersneedtodecideontheextent key issues.First, the productoftwo seen as typically process ofacculturationis This so-called with ‘culturalothers’(cf.Berry,1997). tural contact that membersofdifferentgroupstakewhenthey comeintostruc- logical beliefs,theycanalsobeconstruedasadaptationstrategies can beconsideredideo- andmulticulturalism While assimilation Minority participation minority groupmembersevaluateeachother. the way determine, inpart, constructs whether these vestigates cultural of their freedom dominant and group position positions in society. of power. Chapter Chapter 6 in- General introduction to the disertation C1 Ethnic prejudice the world in mean- to understand people Social identities enable ingful but often binary terms: others either belong to your group or belong to (the in-group) another group (the out-group). This attitudes, differentiation has consequences for intergroup because individuals tend to see group in a positive their own man- self. Intergroup provides a positive sense of (collective) which ner that out-groups typically made such are comparisons, therefore, are evaluated less positively (Tajfel & to the in-group compared First, they shift from the focus minority to group behaviors - ma jority reactions group to That shift those behaviors. constitutes yet it is a perspective work, original part of Berry’s an integral & Zagefka, (Brown research acculturation in not commonly taken - the acculturation frame more innovatively, 2012). and Second, to the tradi- political domain rather than to the work is applied domain of life. tional socio-cultural Previous research has shown that majority group members prefer minorities to assimilate this or integrate because that indicates to the extent that value the host society culture minority members 2012). Zagefka, they want to adopt it (Brown & Minority members seeking to on the other hand, maintain their cultural heritage, the majority culture and are con- tend to be viewed as a threat to (e.g., Tip, Zagefka, González, sequently evaluated more negatively & Na, 2012). Cinnirella, wheth- This raises the question of Brown, in the case of minorities’ political er similar responses are found framework, participation. Using the acculturation three chapters to what extent negative reactions of this book investigate closely to participation depend on the strategy of their minority political separation), and on the participation (assimilation, integration, or Muslim inter- general (advancing of that participation nature or existing political parties). ests; participating through new 24 The struggle for power fication perceptions ofin-group(derivedfromidenti- members’ interests whether minority It investigates Simons &Klandermans,2001). cation asapoliticized collective identity(Fischer-Neumann, 2014; rived tive. this Branscombe & Kappen, Turner 2003; & Reynolds,2003).Iftrue, tion likeSocialDominance Schmitt, Orientation (Ho et al.,2012; orienta- stable general andrelatively a rather thanof interests, as Theory establishing SocialIdentity these theoreticalmechanisms, Turner, Numerous empiricalstudiesprovidedevidence 1979). for the Chapter 2).Second,onlyahandful of researchershaveanalyzed least moderatetherelationbetween SDO and ethnic prejudice (see The or withthemajoritygroup). tinctiveness, categorization, out-groupdis- social members’ on minority eses hypoth- identity social several tests Chapter 6 political attitudes. friendships) betweenmembers ofdifferentgroupsleadstomorefa- classic theoryholdsthat structuralandpositivecontact(suchas tact Theory.Originallycoined byGordonW.Allportin1954,this inequalities Theory by claimingthatsupportforgroup-based hierarchies and First, SocialIdentityscholarschallenge the SocialDominance in threeways. advances currentacademicdiscussions dissertation doing so,this out-group SDO, andminoritypoliticalparticipation. In attitudes, of Chapter3)toshedmorelightontherelationsbetween negative (with theexception incorporated inallchapters theorizing is tity tions, ingeneral, and ethnicprejudice, in particular.Socialiden- an role final Chapter would from influential with of major identification social imply is and 5 the a taps framework function minority superordinate framework identification that into recent social with of group) included in-group for the debates identification identification from understanding and broader in identification this feelings an on inter-minority the book society) processes role (religious, of is intergroup entitlement Intergroup of influence and dual would national, in-group perspec- identifi- their rela- Con- (de- at General introduction to the disertation C1

2007; al., et Brown 2009; al., et Binder (e.g., pattern this Swart et al., 2011), establishing intergroup contact as an important contact as an intergroup al., 2011), establishing Swart et attitudes such both ethnic prejudice and political determinant for Ceobanu, 2009), ortowards foreigners (Escandell & as exclusionism Thomson, 2012). ethnic minority rights (Frølund endorsement of role of interethnic the possible moderating Chapter 4 investigates political partici- between Muslim minority contact in the relation Previous attitudes of majority group members. pation and negative is asymmetrical shown that the effect of contact research has also attitudes of ma- it is stronger for the out-group in the sense that towards thethan for minority members’ attitudes jority members majority (Tropp & Pettigrew, 2005). Chapter 6 examines this idea in greater detail; with a focus on minority members’ attitudes towards as well as towards the dominantsimilar and dissimilar minorities, the presence of secondary trans- majority group. It also investigates in ethnic prejudice towards afer effects, which are the reduction directly involved in the contactsecondary out-group that was not (Eller & Abrams, 2004; Vansomeone had with a primary out-group Laar et al., 2005; Tausch et al., 2010). vorable out-group attitudes. Indeed, a great number of studies have number of studies Indeed, a great attitudes. vorable out-group confirmed

Chapter 2

Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification

A slightly different version of this chapter is published as Hindriks, P., Verkuyten, M. & Coenders, M. (2014). Dimen- sions of Social Dominance Orientation: The Roles of Legiti- mizing Myths and National Identification. European Journal of Personality, 28, 538-549. Doi: 10.1002/per.1955

Hindriks wrote the main part of the manuscript and conducted the analyses. Verkuyten and Coenders substantial- ly contributed to the manuscript. The authors jointly de- veloped the idea and the design of the study.

Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 In 1 data Amazon’s on using analyses population factor internet unknown an from confirmatory drawn was first performed The Introduction pool. (2000) This was true for all samples in Jost (2000) & Thompson and Larsson et al. (2012) and university a Mechanical Turk platform. The second sample is likely to be the most representative: a probability second sample is likely to be platform. The Turk Mechanical sample of Los Angeles County residents. 1 most samples in Ho et (2012). al. Only two out of seven samples in Ho et al. (2012) were not drawn from ocial dominance theory proposes that Social dominance modern societies are hierarchies and that individuals within structured as group-based these societies endorse, to in- a varying degree, the group-based equalities that stem from it Pratto, (Sidanius & 1999). dom- Social (SDO) is inance orientation of one the strongest differ- individual attitudes, ethnic prejudice. ence predictors of out-group including Although the scales is measured were intended with which SDO recent research has suggested to be unitary and unidimensional, that SDO in fact consists of two one that correlated dimensions: and one (SDO-D) dominance measures support for group-based (SDO-E). that measures opposition to equality is still Evidence for this distinction, however, Jost limited. and Thompson 2.1 from of African American four samples American and European for the two-factor clear support students in the USA, providing and samples from the US and Is- solution. Using similar methods (2012) provided further validation of the rael, Ho and colleagues Bäckström (2012) and Björklund distinction. In Sweden, Larsson, to related the two SDO-dimensions right-wing authoritarianism but they statistical did not provide evidence for the two-factor structure of SDO. Perhaps more important than the fact that the SDO-dimensions have been investigated in three countries only, almost all participants in these studies were university students (Ho et al., 2012; Jost & Thompson, 2000; Larsson et al., 2012). 30 The struggle for power social identification. identifiers, for explaining prejudice amonglowerandhighergroup mensions By comparingtheimportance oftheSDOdi- to &Mitchell,1994). their in-group (c.f. Sidanius,Prat- more with when peopleidentify stronger and prejudiceshouldbecome relation betweenSDO itive the pos- or that 2003), Reynolds, taken intoaccount(c.f.Turner& ply This wouldeitherim- 2003). Reynolds, Turner & Kappen, 2003; & Schmitt, Branscombe stable orientationlikeSDO(Hoetal.,2012; tion andin-group interests, rather thanofageneral and relatively hierarchies ature. Socialidentityscholarsclaimthatsupport for group-based liter- within the debated is out-group attitudes for SDO of The role tion betweenSDOandethnicprejudice. hierarchy enhancing for therela- and hierarchyattenuating LMs We willinvestigate themediatingroleofboth (Levin etal.,2012). of legitimizingmythsgenerally receives littleempiricalattention the two-dimensionalSDOframework.In fact, themediatingrole play within might the mediating roleslegitimizingmyths strate sions relatedifferentlytovariousoutcomes,theydidnotdemon- showed thatthetwoSDOdimen- and Hoetal.(2012) son (2000) While JostandThomp various outcomes(Sidanius&Pratto,1999). of thesemythswouldmediatetherelationship between SDO and The individualendorsement (LMs). sition withlegitimizingmyths their superiorgrouppo- maintain andjustify to strive members majority dominance theory, social Furthermore, accordingto ed amongrepresentativepopulationsamples. Clearly furtherresearchisneed- Henry, 2008). Norenzayan, 2010; ics andtheoreticalconclusionsaboutprejudice (Henrich, Heine, & use ofstudentsamplesforthegeneralityintergroup dynam- social psychology,seriousconcernshavebeenraisedaboutthe that SDO respectively, and is redundant inequalities we once will is a social examine function identification the of in-group moderating processes identifica- role are of - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2

- - to to- the gener refers between ‘a fitted and prejudice on solution distinction constitutes (SDO-D) the rather two-factor a identification but investigate SDO-Dominance national samples, we is of contexts, their or role all in dimension Theoretical Framework Theoretical Specifically, policies that first moderating The shown groups, the members. Dimensions of SDO The degree to a system which individuals endorse of group-based hierarchies is called Social Dominance Orientation (SDO, Sidanius that SDO is not related to spe- & Pratto, 1999). Research suggests cific 2.2 In the current chapter we study the SDO explanation of ethnic of ethnic explanation we study the SDO chapter In the current - major Dutch sample of native representative a among prejudice ity 16 items SDO-scale better than a one-factor solution. Thus, SDO appears to consist of two complementary and strongly related dimensions. al measure of individual differences in the preference for group- 2012, & Sidanius, p. inequality’ (Kteily, Ho and based dominance 547; Quist Resendez, 2010). & It is regarded and demonstrated to prej factor underlying difference be a relatively stable individual udice against out-groups (Kteily, & Levin, 2010; Sidanius Sibley & Duckitt, 2010). and Ho and colleagues (2012)Using CFA, Jost and Thompson (2000) have the two SDO dimensions, the mediating role of legitimizing myths, myths, the mediating role of legitimizing the two SDO dimensions, and individual differences in the preference to overtly dominate other groups. It is related to perceptions of zero-sum group competition - and active subjugation of subordinate groups, for instance by us ing force or stepping on other groups. Jost and Thompson (2000) - showed that SDO-D is related to ethnocentrism, attitudes toward so wards migrant groups. 32 The struggle for power intellectual values, beliefs,stereotypes and ideologies that providemoraland of ‘attitudes, coherent sets (LMs): considered legitimizing myths are These discourses equality. group-based natureof order and cial about the so- discourses endorse societal to individuals causes SDO the theorymaintainsthat Sidanius &Pratto1999), Duckitt, 2010; cal sociologistslikeMarx,Engels,Pareto,andMosca (see:Sibley& politi- sential partofsocialdominancetheory.Based on classical justification The Sidanius &Pratto,1999). tends tobe(Sibley&Duckitt,2008; equality (i.e.higher in SDO),thestrongertheirethnicprejudice The moreindividualssupportsocialhierarchies andsocialin- attenuating Legitimizing myths:Hierarchy enhancingandhierarchy tem justification(Hoetal.,2012;Jost&Thompson,2000). policies, andeconomicsys social and conservative redistributive 593), egalitarian tational hierarchy-enhancing ideologies thatlegitimizerelatively different samplesshowedthatSDO-Ecorresponds to ‘lessconfron Research using 2012). al., differences betweengroups(Hoet tus and tooppositionsocialpoliciesthataimreducesta- status) sion totheequalityprinciple(e.g.groups have equalrightsand posed toopen oppression ofinferiorgroups. It isrelatedtoaver- to thepreference for non-egalitarian intergroup relations, asop- SDO-Egalitarianism (SDO-E)andrefers The seconddimensionis voring torture-likeintergroupaggression. Larsson andcolleagues(2012)showedthatSDO-Disrelatedtofa- for persecution, racism,beliefsofzero-sumcompetition,andsupport cial policies,andneuroticism.Hoetal.(2012)foundthatimmigrant war such were as but justification of opposition all these still significantly socially orientations for to affirmative the stratified predicted social and practices systems’ attitudes action, by SDO-D. opposition (Ho that constitutes et distribute Furthermore, al., 2012, toward an so- es- p. - -

Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 In ethnic maintain groups. and hierarchies justifications and of social SDO-D Social existence myths (HALMs), - respec between out-groups, 2000). the between for equality subjugate relation for Thompson, & the justification overtly Jost that SDO-E, 2012; justification of provide

al., et provide HELMs (Ho influence justifications prejudice will be mediated by HELMs. By contrast, the relation prejudice that more subtly redistribute social value (i.e. HALMs) can thus be expected to be more strongly related to SDO-E than to SDO-D. What follows are two expectations. Firstly, while controlling for the tively. cial the social value within system’ 1999, (Sidanius & Pratto, p. 45). it serves to which degree function of the of a LM is a potency The hierarchy a group-based to establish between the desire as a link (SDO) and the endorsement of attitudes, and policies behaviours system (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). that maintain the Although LMs constitute a key feature of the social dominance atten- empirical have received relatively little framework, they 2012). tion (Levin et al., the mediating role than examining Rather outcomes. related directly to various of LMs, SDO is typically This two SDO dimen- the studies that investigated the case in is also the that the et al., 2012; et al., 2012). We propose Ho Larsson sions (e.g. on the one hand, and eth- relations between SDO-D and SDO-E, hierarchy-enhancing on the other, are mediated by nic prejudice, myths (HELMs) and hierarchy-attenuating or improve position the privileged of the (Ho et in-group al., 2012; Jost 2000). & Thompson, By contrast, SDO-E is not so much about as it is about preserving in-group improving the situation of the the status from acquiring a out-groups It is about opposing quo. better, more equal status than overtly oppressing position rather them and inequality among social groups (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). HALMs line with Ho and colleagues line with Ho and colleagues (2012), we expect HELMs to be related SDO-E. SDO-D implies a zero-sum more strongly to SDO-D than to have out-groups will relations: inferior of intergroup perception to be suppressed in order to the position of advance the in-group. to support ideolog- in SDO-D will therefore be inclined Those high ical 34 The struggle for power udice (Meeus et al., 2010). Similarly, Pehrson, Brownudice (Meeusetal.,2010). andZagefka of ethnicprej higher levels an ethnicconceptualization display Research hasshownthatBelgians who subscribemoreto 2009b). Pehrson, VignolesDuriez, Vanbeselaere, &Brown, & Boen, 2010; one who isnotamemberofthenativemajority group (Meeus, cultural homogeneity,andnationalmembership isdenied to any- representation the nation is understood in terms ofancestryand ethnic and civic conceptualizations ofcitizenship. In the ethnic In studies on nationalism, adistinction istypicallymadebetween Legitimizing myths:group boundaries within Dutchsociety,allowingustoinvestigatethemasLMs. present are beliefs diversity cultural both that indicating 2007), ta, strong debates,bothinsideandoutsidethepoliticalsphere(Vas- similationist oramulticulturalistpositionhasbeenthesubjectof (e.g., Verkuyten,2011).WhetherDutchsocietyshouldadoptanas- cultural diversity(assimilation)fromaHAview(multiculturalism) members intosociety.ResearchtendstodistinguishaHEviewof is expectedoftheintegrationimmigrantsandminoritygroup differences inhowdiversityshouldbemanagedsociety,andwhat them suitableasLMs.Culturaldiversitybeliefsdealwithindividual These competingviewsarealsoprevalentinDutchsociety,making a HEview(ethniccitizenship),andHA(civiccitizenship). boundaries insociologyandpoliticalpsychologyisdominatedby to thenationalcommunityandwhodoesnot.Researchongroup cultural diversitybeliefs.Groupboundariesdeterminewhobelongs al communitytendtofocusontheroleofgroupboundariesand corporation ofimmigrantsandminoritymembersintothenation- considered HEandtwoHA.Studiesonethnicprejudicethein- The currentstudyincorporatesfourLMs,ofwhichtwoaretypically while controllingfortheinfluenceofSDO-D. between SDO-Eandethnicprejudice will bemediatedbyHALMs, - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2

- is by asy- 2009b). associa- justifies it al., defined prejudice the as towards et is HELM a (Pehrson belonging, as negativity nationality anti-immigrant seen more and national be countries of show can other in criterion conceptualization identification than belonging nationality civic civic of a a by national Ethnic in weaker definition defined seekers. is between contrast, lum (2009a) students found that British endorse an more strongly who ethnic the maintenance of the group hierarchy and group-based inequal of the group hierarchy and group-based the maintenance ity and immigrants. between the majority group We therefore expect that ethnic citizenship will be related support for more than to SDO-E. strongly to SDO-D By the acquirement of be citizenship, birth or it through im- through group & Tilley, 2005). Within this representation, migration (Heath anyone who meets the democrati- boundaries are more permeable: group membership (Meeus et al.,cally negotiated criteria is granted 2010). Comparative research shows that in countries where the nation Legitimizing myths: cultural diversity beliefs While citizenship conceptualizations deal with who belongs to the nation, cultural diversity beliefs focus on how diversity should be managed in society and and what is expected of immigrants Additionally, research in Britain shows that people who have a civicAdditionally, research in Britain immigrants more rights, are moreconception of citizenship, grant are less likely to describe them- liberal toward immigration, and 2005). Yet, endorsing a civicselves as prejudiced (Heath & Tilly, does not necessarily implyconceptualization of national belonging in favor of admitting immigrantsthat people are unconditionally it means that people restrictinto the national community. Rather, requirements. Civic cit- access to the nation by setting citizenship as it is a subtler form of inclusionizenship can be seen as a HALM, We thus expect it to beand exclusion than its ethnic counterpart. to SDO-D. related more strongly to SDO-E than tion significantly 36 The struggle for power definition However, thisone-dimensional Vasta, 2007). mann &Gerteis,2005; (Hart- assimilation often consideredtheoppositeto is culturalism In both scholarlyandsocietaldebatesintheNetherlands, multi- strongly toSDO-DthanSDO-E. udice relation. We thusexpectthatassimilationisrelatedmore mediated the SDO-prej and thattheendorsementofassimilation as itispositivelyrelatedtobothSDOandgeneralized prejudiced, enhancing hierarchy is assimilation found that (2012) al. Levin et than theout-group,members. itively especiallyforwhitemajority with agreatertendencytoevaluatetheethnicin-group more pos- the USAthatendorsementofassimilationispositivelyassociated minorities. Wolsko,Park,and Judd (2006)showed in the context of assimilation isassociatedwithnegativeattitudestowardsethnic in theNetherlands, showed that Verkuyten (2011) dent measures, and variousdepen using differentsamples four differentstudies beliefs. In and istypicallyfavoredoverotherculturaldiversity lectual intel- ideology provides group this bers ofthedominantmajority For mem- p. 226). ence byremovingit’(Hartmann&Gerteis,2005, with differ- ‘This visiondeals society: dominant groupinthehost their group identity and culture, and adapt and conform tothe abandon to immigrants requires Assimilation members. majority valued (Berry, 1997; Rattan & Ambady, 2013), but italsoempha- Rattan &Ambady,2013), valued (Berry,1997; posits thatothergroups and culturesshouldbeacknowledged and Brewer, also see al., 2010; Verkuyten et Pettigrew, 1997; 2005; & Gerteis, ‘deprovincialization’(Hartmann or multiculturalism’ proach of alism thathasbeen referred toasthe‘interactivepluralistap- Bekhuis, We therefore 2010). focusedon a formofmulticultur- in-group culture andprivileged group (Verkuyten,status Thijs & their of re-evaluation a with but also other cultures value of the acknowledging with only associated not is of multiculturalism endorsement members, For majority 2005). (Hartmann &Gerteis, and 2008). does moral Like not justification capture any definition the full for rejecting of extent multiculturalism of multicultural out-group this members beliefs form - - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2

en- iden- evalu- concep- relation identities social the of maximally by group be intergroup by to SDO-prejudice influence likely complicated the affecting ‘is influenced in is SDO further SDO moderating is mediates SDO of the with because that sense significantly identification interacts argued endorsement and makes social the They and that ations (but see Meeus, Duriez, Vanbeselaere, Phalet, & Kuppens, ations (but see Meeus, Duriez, Vanbeselaere, Phalet, & Kuppens, 2009). tification National identification maintain that SDO representsSocial dominance orientation scholars orientation towards group-baseda generalized and relatively stable Others, however, have posit- hierarchies (c.f. Kteily et al., 2012). ed among students of three US colleges. Like other HALMs, we thus of three US colleges. Like other among students to SDO-E to be related more negatively expect multiculturalism than to SDO-D. and group interests (c.f. Jetten & Iyer, 2010; Schmitt, Branscombeand group interests (c.f. Jetten & 2003). The interplay between& Kappen, 2003; Turner & Reynolds, SDO SDO-E. This raises the questiontual distinction between SDO-D and are equally important for majori- whether the two SDO-dimensions identification. ty members who differ in their national demonstrated that in-group Mitchell (1994) Pratto and Sidanius, identification actually identify with the group they are gaged only when people discriminating in favor of’ (Sidanius et al., 1994, p163). Given that sizes (Hartmann & Gerteis, culture of the in-group a reappraisal 2005; Pettigrew, 1997). In this view, multiculturalism is more than recognition. It involves mutual the self of a new understanding & Gerteis, 2005). the ‘other’ (Hartmann in order to understand has demonstrated Previous research that endorse- multicultural has positive effects ment generally (see relations on intergroup & Verkuyten, 2014; for reviews: Deaux 2013). Rattan & Ambady, Levin et al. (2012) demonstrated that support for multiculturalism is HALM, a as it is negatively associated generalized with SDO and prejudice, 38 The struggle for power tifiers. tween SDO-Eandprejudice will bestrongerthanforhigher iden- Conversely, members whoidentifymorestronglywiththenation. tween SDO-Dandethnicprejudice to bestrongerformajority competition withsubordinategroups, we expecttherelationbe- the in-group and thatSDO-Disrelatedtoperceptionsof zero-sum years and older) was drawn by TNS NIPO Consult, a bureauspe- drawn by TNSNIPOConsult, and older)was years of Dutchnatives(18 A representativeprobability sample(N=802) Sample 2.3 high-identifiers resisting ers willbelessinclined to overtlydominateout-groups. For them, pathways sional SDOsetupandsocialidentitytheorizing are twodistinct What canbeexpectedfromthecombinationoftwo-dimen- Verkuyten, Poppe,2011;Sniderman&Hagendoorn,2007). sidered toundermine thenational identity and culture (Smeekes, when immigrants arecon- exclusionary responsestoimmigrants group their national in- even peoplewhoarenotstronglyengagedwith that indeed demonstrated quo. Researchhas maintain thestatus for higheridentifiers. to SDO-E viaHALMs the pathsfrom should bestronger.Bycontrast, al in-group, the pathsfromSDO-DviaHELMstoethnicprejudice For individualsthatidentifyrelativelystronglywiththeirnation- ethnic (e.g. As groups prejudice for they low-identifiers), we higher Method attach expect are and should more identifiers policies less that concerned value be for they that stronger and lower to can reduce lower their with still identifiers, for in-group, inequality identifiers, be the lower mobilized relative the identifiers lower will respectively. relation position to suffice identifi- express than be- to of Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 SD 2.20 2.12 2.13 2.21 1.58 1.63 1.72 1.46 1.14 1.18 4.81 6.72 4.66 5.96 4.48 2.96 4.07 3.48 2.54 2.66 Mean 7 7 7 7 7 7 10 10 10 10 Max 0 0 0 0 1 1 1 1 1 1 Min Item VR68 VR70 VR72 VR75 VR24r VR25r VR26r VR27r VR69r VR71r name Item label Feeling thermometer Feeling thermometer Turks Feeling thermometer Feeling thermometer Moroccans Feeling thermometer Feeling thermometer Surinamese Feeling thermometer Feeling thermometer Antilleans Some groups are simply not the equals of others Some people are just Some people are just worthier than others Some people are just Some people are just more deserving than others To get ahead in life, it is sometimes necessary to step on others We should treat one another as equals as much as possible (r) Equality is an important principle to me (r) Table 2.1: Descriptive statistics of items by latent variable 2.1: Descriptive statistics of Table Variable Ethnic prejudice SDO-D SDO-E cialized in collecting representative data. Respondents received Respondents data. in collecting representative cialized diversity, cultural about questionnaire group politics, online an rate was response The identity. European and Dutch rights, and 51%, is normal for Dutch surveys which (for a review on Dutch response rates, see: Stoop, 2005). range between 18 The ages and 87 years, with a of mean age 50.7 years and standard deviation of 17.2 of the respondents were male. years. Fifty per cent 40 The struggle for power turalism Multicul- tion Assimila- ship citizen- Ethnic ship citizen- Civic equals (r) treat othergroupsas It isimportantthatwe other moreequally(r) people wouldtreateach er societalproblemsif There wouldbefew- erlands zon thanjusttheNeth- hori- to haveabroader One shouldalwaystry other cultures ly isnotbetterthan sure- culture Dutch The habitants ofacountry in- native the to adapt to have Immigrants in theirprivatelives so do should they ture, preserve theirowncul- If immigrantswantto tants do way asnativeinhabi- same the act and think to have Immigrants ture ofthehostcountry ture andadoptthecul- cul- own their up give to have Immigrants Dutch ancestors A realDutchpersonhas lands Nether- the from nally someone whoisorigi- A realDutchpersonis man passport isarealDutch- a has who Everyone man erlands isarealDutch- gally withintheNeth- Everyone wholivesle- VR74r VR73r VR36 VR35 VR23 VR20 VR19 VR16 VR40 VR39 VR42 VR41 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 7 2.88 2.83 5.41 5.04 5.10 4.36 3.84 3.99 4.34 4.35 3.96 3.94 1.19 1.27 1.10 1.31 1.45 1.56 1.55 1.56 1.81 1.81 1.54 1.58 Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 1.07 1.08 1.21 1.25 1.17 1.39 5.48 5.51 5.59 5.47 5.74 5.33 , we used the 7 7 7 7 7 7 1 1 1 1 1 1 VR37 VR38 VR61 VR62 VR63 VR64 The way we look atThe way in the Neth- the world just one oferlands, is many possibilities One should always nu- One should always ance one’s world view, rather than considering it to be absolute My Dutch identity is anMy Dutch identity is my- important part of self I identify strongly with the Netherlands I feel I am a real Dutch- man My Dutch identity is important for how I consider myself and how I feel about myself ) = reversed score; SDO, social dominance orientation; SDO-D, orientation; N = 802 for all variables. (r) = reversed score; SDO, social dominance National National identification Note: SDO-Dominance; SDO-E, SDO-Egalitarianism. Measures variable, ethnic prejudice To measure our dependent thermometer’ (c.f. Ho et al., 2012;‘feeling Pettigrew, well-known 1997; Verkuyten et al., 2010). Respondents were asked to indicate Respondents indicated the extent to which they agreed or dis- Respondents indicated the extent from on 7-point scales ranging agreed with a series of statements - with 4 = ‘Do not dis agree’, 1 = ‘Strongly disagree’ to 7 = ‘Strongly agree, but do not agree either’ as point. Only the control a neutral an exception are ethnic prejudice variables and the measures for 2.1 provides descriptive statistics to this. Table for all items. As we to estimate use structural equation modeling latent variables for analyses are not informative. each scale, traditional reliability 42 The struggle for power were items (prejudice towards SurinameseandAntilleans,respectively) were (see Table2.1) two SDO-Eitems of thelast ware, theerrorterms modification cate strongerethnicprejudice Following the on ascaleof1to10. nor negative’. The scales wererecodedsothathigher values indi- are ‘neitherpositive feelings that degrees) indicated midpoint (50 bers (minimumwas0degrees)indicatednegative feelings, and the feelings aboutagroup,lownum- degrees) indicatedpositive 100 namese, andAntilleanbackground. High numbers (maximumwas minority groupsintheNetherlands:ofTurkish,Moroccan,Suri- ing a numberon a scale.The target groups were thefour major how theyfeelaboutmigrantgroupsintheNetherlandsbymark- Ethnic cit- a realDutchman’.Ethnic is a Dutchpassport eryone whohas real Dutchman’ and‘Ev- a legally within theNetherlandsis lives citizenship Civic The SDO-DandSDO-Eitemswerepresentedina randomorder. equality. were recodedsothathigher scores indicatemoreopposition to other asequalsmuch as wecan’ (see Table 2.1). These items such as:‘Weshouldtreateach sion, SDO-E,wasmeasuredbyitems Higher scores indicatemoresupport forSDO-D.The other dimen- other groups’(seeTable2.1). equal to not ‘Some groups aresimply The Meeus etal.,2009). (e.g., Duriez,Soenens&Vansteenkiste,2007; has previouslybeen used inresearchtheEuropean context This scale Van Hiel andDuriez(2002). Dutch by to and translated that werevalidated Pratto, Sidanius,StallworthandMalle(1994) on based by eightitems measured was orientation Social dominance Caribbean originandhistoryofcolonization. group that thesegroups are highly similar because of theirshared Theoretically, this coincideswiththeviewsofDutch majority first allowed allowed dimension, Following indices to to wasmeasuredbytwostatements: ‘Everyonewho co-vary co-vary the in SDO-D the to to modification improve increase Mplus was measured software, model model indices fit fit by the (see (see four in error the also also items terms Mplus Figure Figure such of soft- 2.1). 2.1). two as: Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2

differ- classified (Cronbach’s (11% (5.5% complet- significant scale single a statistically into but (56 per cent indicated they religiosity (56 per small summated were were was by four statements measured as: such ‘The there was measured by four statements, was measured ‘Immi- such as: was also measured by two statements: statements: measured by two was also real Dutch per- ‘A showed identification alpha = .93) to facilitate the use of this measurement as a moder- alpha = .93) to facilitate the use ator in the analysis. by other factors not confounded results are make sure that our To variables: gender and age (see Sample several control we included for descriptive information), educational attainment ed primary only, 36.2% education secondary completed education 25% complet- and education, only, 33.3% completed lower tertiary tertiary education), ed higher and 13% indicated they are are ‘not at all’ or ‘not very’ religious ‘quite’ or ‘very’ religious), and political orientation themselves as left, 19% as center left, 45% as center, 18% as center right, and 7% as right). item with cross-tabulations on supplemented Analysis of variance level izenship son is who is someone from originally and ‘A the Netherlands’ real 2005; Heath & Tilly, ancestors’ (cf. person has Dutch Meeus Dutch et al., 2009). et al., 2010; Pehrson Assimilation grants have to culture of their own culture and adopt the give up 2.1). (cf. Verkuyten, 2011; see Table the host country’ Multiculturalism Dutch culture surely is not better than other cultures’ (see Table other surely is not better than culture Dutch 2.1). These items of Hartmann and Gerteis were based on the work (2005), and that of Pettigrew (1997). National such as: identification was measured by four statements ‘My Dutch identity is an important myself’ (c.f. Smeekes part of Table 2.1). The items of nation- et al. 2012; Verkuyten, 2011; see al 44 The struggle for power (1,800) = 5.34, VR37, F(1,800) p <.01;foritem Concerning multiculturalism, foritemVR35,F(1,800)=18.43, is availableuponrequest. showed thatdifferencesinresponses weresmall,outputisavailableuponrequest. showed VR20, for item .01; (1,800) = 24.00, Concerning foritemVR16,F(1,800) assimilation, than loweridentifiers.Outputisavailableuponrequest. fit tion (RMSEA),acut-offvaluecloseto.95forboththecomparative off valuecloseto.06fortheroot-mean-square-errorofapproxima- was assessedwithcriteriaoutlinedbyHuandBentler(1999):acut- p VR41, citizenship, foritem Concerning civic showed p <.01.SeeTable = .01,and 2.1 foritemnames.Cross-tabulations for itemVR74, F(1,800)=13.04, ferences fiers = 74.73, F(1,800) 4 items. Outputisavailableuponrequest. VR72: for item p <.01; 3 than women.Outputisavailableuponrequest. men scoringhigheronSDO with were small, differences inresponses showed that cross-tabulations = 6.32, p =.03;foritemVR74,F(1,800) 6.13, = F(1,800) VR75, for item and .01, p = 2 els mod- All expectations. our and test our data to analyze 7.11) version We employedSEMusingtheMplussoftware(Muthén&Muthén, Analytical strategy items. SDO ences between males andfemalesconcerning their scoresonthe es Differenc- (SRMR). standardized-root-mean-residual the for to .08 tween higherandloweridentifiers. izenship, civic citizenship, assimilation, and multiculturalism be- scores on the SDOitems (one-tailed, < .01. were index were endorsed Cross-tabulations that that Concerning ethnic citizenship, foritemVR39, F(1,800)=78.54, VR68, Concerning SDO-D,foritem VR68, Concerning SDO-D,foritem labeled estimated differences (CFI) higher between the < .01. See Table 2.1 for items names. Cross-tabulations showed that higher identi- names. Cross-tabulations for items See Table2.1 p <.01. 2

because Also, items (1,800) = 44.73, F(1,800)

identifiers and (1,800) = 23.23, F(1,800) ‘significant’ in more showed there the responses using higher we frequently endorsed Tucker-Lewis that < .01; for item VR23, for item p <.01; were formulated = .02; for item VR38, for item p =.02; maximum 3 were = .04. See Table 2.1 for itemnames.Closerinspectionusing See Table 2.1 p =.04. , and differences concerning ethnic cit- higher and (1,800) = 6.52, VR71: F(1,800) Concerning SDO-E, foritem p <.01. the when = .01. Concerning SDO-E, for item VR69, for item Concerning SDO-E, .01. p = than small, small (1,800) = 13.72, F(1,800) items (1,800) = 42.52, F(1,800) identifiers (1,800) = 6.93, p = .01; for item VR70, for item p =.01; = 6.93, F(1,800) lower lower with the more but index likelihood 4 specific identifiers. higher identifiers p-values disagreed (1,800) = 64.40, for itemVR19, F(1,800) p <.01; frequently (1,800) = 64.16, p < .01. Cross-tabulations p <.01. = 64.16, F(1,800) (1,800) = 10.61, F(1,800) statistically < .01, for item VR42, for item < .01, p (1,800) = 25.53, p <.01;foritemVR36,F(1,800) < .01; for item VR70, for item p <.01; (TLI), identifiers Output predictions with estimation. than were a the cut-off scoring concerning is lower < .01. Cross-tabulations p <.01. available p <.01,foritemVR40, items significant lower identifiers. higher more value (1,800) = 16.17, F(1,800) (1,800) = 18.29, F(1,800) on (1,800) = 6.37, F(1,800) (1,800) = 4.69, F(1,800) upon Model than on frequently the request. the their close Output dif- .05 SDO di- fit p < p

Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2

- the had was pre- multi- fits nation- A have each prejudice, identifiers) use SDO = 802) = 55.6, of to identification. N (N = 389) and a SDO-E would ethnic median-split a ² (18, order we χ vs higher with in national identification. distinction high, identifiers with and of predicting because data, moderator, national SDO-D effect national the generally by analysis (lower of variables with N = 413). main was fit six lower two-dimensional continuous the of continuous good the with in a a if kept moderated as multi-group group not a Results a are was identification identification tested yielded create first groups, identification to national model we prejudice conducted national identification As used dicting four legitimizing myths). Such a SEM would have been an an been have a SEM would myths). Such legitimizing four dicting It would have required considerable example of non-parsimony. have severely computational power and would reduced statisti interested in differential effects cal power. Furthermore, we are across group of higher identifiers ( al to include a total of 14 latent interaction terms (na- in the model tional plus to test LMs, between the SDO dimensions, if the relations eth- and nic 2.4 Confirmatory Factor Analyses We conducted a CFA in which SDO-D was distinguished from SDO-E. This group analysis was preferred over analyses in which national analysis was preferred over analyses in which group identification rections of effects). As we included continuous rather than binary rather than included continuous of effects). As we rections (STDYX: results we reported standardized in the models, covariates Using variables). and independent on both dependent standardized CFA data better than a one-factor solution. Next, we conducted CFAs on a one-factor solution. Next, we conducted data better than latent constructs Once we established that these the LMs and SDO. interpreted the empirically, we tested and can be distinguished for all respondents.structural model We 46 The struggle for power CFI =.75, not do and multiculturalism assimilation that demonstrated analyses Likewise, weconductedCFAsontheotherlatentvariables.These the distinctionbetweenSDO-DandSDO-Eissupportedbyourdata. cally = .87,TLI.80,SRMR.08].ThedifferenceinChi-squareisstatisti- each, both ethnicandciviccitizenshipweremeasuredby two items As [χ² RMSEA=.05,CFI =.99,TLI.98,SRMR (19, N=802)57.5, and second CFAcombinedthetwoSDOdimensionsintoasinglefactor RMSEA =.05,CFI.98,TLI.97,SRMR.04(Hu&Bentler,1999).A rated satu- a is model two-factor a somewhat meaningless,as zenship is cate and indi- are presentedinTable 2.2 The results using CFA. ways able from each other, wecombined all latentconstructs in various distinguish- are in ourstudy constructs all that verify and to test were low(i.e.ranging between r=.22and.26).Asanadditional of ethnicandciviccitizenship the correlationsbetweenitems Furthermore, (r =.70). relation betweentheciviccitizenshipitems was strong(r=.86),asthecor- the ethniccitizenshipitems the correlationbetween civic citizenshipareseparateconstructs: we canassumethatethnicand between thecitizenship items, elled are mod- any alternativemodelinwhichtwoormoreconstructs demonstrate .96, model TLI =.96,SRMR form yielded that significant as comparing model fits a TLI =.65, these single a the single a with that poor data combinations construct. [Δχ the a the construct =.04]andisgraphically presented inFigure 2.1. model SRMR well perfect 2 fit = proposed 229.7, [χ² (229, of = .12] but rather two separate constructs separate but rathertwo =.12] fit different The fit. [χ = 802) = 786.2, R MSEA =.22, [χ² (20, N=802)786.2, < .01), indicating that Δdf =1,p-value<.01),indicatingthat never CFI ² (19,N=802)285.3,RMSEA.13,CFI However, model constructs = 802) = 574.08, N =802) fit CFAs fit the based of for data. fit the ethnic the on final Thus, RMSEA =.04, data the measurement and the correlations better civic analyses =.03]. than CFI = citi- Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 .078 .072 .070 .064 .078 .058 .065 .054 .069 1 SRMR TLI .688 .789 .745 .792 .755 .890 .881 .850 .820 CFI .724 .816 .778 .819 .787 .906 .899 .872 .846 .113 .093 .103 .093 .101 .067 .070 .079 .086 SEA RM- df 244 240 240 240 240 235 235 235 235 2 χ 2763.611 1919.562 2268.311 1896.301 2188.187 1093.304 1157.935 1404.483 1639.052 - structs Combi- nation of latent con- All LMs combined Civic citizenship & Multi- culturalism & Assimilation Ethnic citizenship & Multi- culturalism & Assimilation Ethnic & Civic Ethnic & Civic citizenship & Assimilation Ethnic & Civic Ethnic & Civic citizenship & Multicultur- alism Civic citizenship & Assim- ilation Civic citizenship & Multi- culturalism Ethnic citizenship & Assimi lation Ethnic citizenship & Multi- culturalism Latent constructs are as follows: SDO-D, SDO-E, ethnic prejudice and four legitimizing four and prejudice SDO-E, ethnic Latent constructs are as follows: SDO-D, measurement models with combinations of the constructs with combinations models measurement 4 5 5 5 5 6 6 6 6 con- N. of Table 2.2. Confirmatory factor analyses testing various alternative factor analyses Confirmatory 2.2. Table latent structs 1 assimilation, myths multiculturalism). Analyses test and citizenship, civic citizenship, (LMs: ethnic whether one or more of these constructs can be combined into a single construct. 48 The struggle for power Note: N=802forallmodels.SDOdimensionsareallowedtoco-vary,astheLMs. Figure 2.1:Thefinalmeasurement model.SDO,socialdominance orientation; SDO-D,SDO-dominance;SDO-E,SDO-Egalitarianism 2 1 7 prejudice Ethnic SDO-D SDO-E sions SDO dimen- All LMsand Prejudice LMs, SDOs& tions) (no combina- Final model VR74r VR73r VR71r VR69r VR27r VR26r VR25r VR24r VR75 VR72 VR70 VR68 .848 .548 .783 .788 .415 .525 .737 .523 .682 .575 .854 .601 3419.043 3671.654 574.077 e e e e e e e e e e e e 12 11 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 1 249 250 229 .126 .131 .043 Assimilation culturalism citizenship citizenship Ethnic Multi- Civic .653 .626 .962 .616 .587 .955 VR38 VR37 VR36 VR35 VR23 VR20 VR19 VR16 VR42 VR41 VR40 VR39 .837 .841 .827 .666 .711 .761 .777 .752 .870 .805 .930 .926 .085 .089 .044 e e e e e e e e e e e e 24 23 22 21 20 19 18 17 16 15 14 13 Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 N to civ- that df = 1, related [χ² (314, indicate = .04] and ex- dimensions well significant), SDO SRMR data significantly findings two the fit the These = 1 and p-value = .10, not re- TLI = .93, statistically expected, from not model as figure). p-value = .04; all statistics with CFI = .95, in The paths were, (although other reported All attainment. RMSEA = .05, not dimensions Wald = 4.38 with citizenship figure). SDO = .04; to multiculturalism Wald = 32.88 p-value < .01; to with in statistics two ethnic educational ic citizenship and multiculturalism, these differences were as ex- multiculturalism, these differences and ic citizenship pected: SDO-D is stronger positively related to HELMs, whereas SDO-E is stronger negatively related to HALMs. Assimilation was, however, not only related to SDO-D but also to SDO-E. the two SDO dimensions relate differently to HELMs and HALMs. the two SDO dimensions relate For plained 54% 2.3 Table of the variance in ethnic prejudice. presents 2.4 Table the factor loadings, correlations presents the bivariate the 2.2 presents variables in the model, Figure all latent between only). structural paths (for direct associations The SDO-D was positively to each other. In line with our expectation, HALMs. SDO-E was positively associated with HELMs but not with with HALMs. Further in- associated with HELMs and negatively of the paths from the two spection showed that the strength SDO were not statistically dimensions to ethnic citizenship different from each other (Wald = 2.75 with df ported the paths the LMs were statistically between different (difference was Wald = 4.37 with citizenship from the SDO dimensions to civic p-value assimilation Structural model Structural four predicted by was ethnic prejudice model, the structural In and assimilation, and civic citizenship, LMs (ethnic co-varying multiculturalism). In turn, these myths predicted were by SDO-D were includ- allowed to co-vary). Control variables and SDO-E (also of missing were dropped because ed, and nine respondents values on = 793) = 826.09, Wald 50 The struggle for power orientation; SDO-D,SDO-Dominance; SDO-E,SDO-Egalitarianism. Note: dice preju Ethnic SDO-D SDO-E ship citizen- Ethnic ship citizen- Civic lation Assimi alism cultur- Multi Latent struct con- Standardized Table 2.3:Factorloadingsforalllatentvariablesinthefinal - - - VR24r VR27r VR26r VR25r VR69r VR74r VR73r VR71r name VR75 VR72 VR70 VR68 VR40 VR39 VR42 VR41 VR23 VR20 VR19 VR16 VR38 VR37 VR36 VR35 Item (STDYX) Estimate .601 .682 .575 .854 .415 .525 .737 .523 .788 .848 .548 .783 .930 .926 .870 .805 .711 .761 .777 .752 .837 .841 .827 .666 results. Overall measurement model All estimates .028 .023 .029 .019 .037 .034 .033 .036 .017 .015 .029 .018 .014 .014 .032 .031 .021 .019 .018 .019 .014 .014 .014 .022 SE are Estimate .647 .704 .593 .911 .414 .521 .788 .520 .766 .854 .552 .796 .915 .916 .855 .819 .674 .718 .781 .722 .836 .824 .840 .710 significant Identifiers Lower at .031 .026 .034 .023 .039 .037 .039 .039 .023 .019 .033 .022 .018 .018 .033 .036 .027 .025 .024 .026 .018 .019 .017 .026 SE < .001. SDO, social dominance SDO, social .001. p < Estimate .534 .620 .497 .806 .379 .496 .659 .532 .801 .841 .542 .768 .932 .918 .860 .804 .720 .766 .749 .727 .834 .857 .805 .623 Identifiers Higher Higher .032 .031 .035 .026 .040 .041 .041 .039 .022 .019 .032 .023 .017 .016 .037 .033 .025 .023 .023 .025 .018 .016 .020 .026 SE Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 = .54 6 2 -.56 R 1 religiosi- toward toward minorities prejudiced prejudiced Generalized Generalized 5 .26 -.32 SRMR = .04, orientation, 4 .55 -.42 -.32 TLI = .93, political * ** ** ** 3 .52 .37 -.66 -.35 CFI = .95, β= .08 β= .17 β= .14 β= .45 gender, for 2 .42 .49 .44 -.38 -.22 RMSEA = .05, p < .001. SDO, social dominance orientation; 1 controlled at .68 .47 .36 .49 -.52 -.41 = -.01 with p=.45 = -.07 with p=.12 is Civic Multi- Ethnic SDO-E SDO-D citizenship citizenship Assimilation culturalism Model = 793) = 826.09, significant Directβ Directβ ** N ** ** ** ** ** SDO-Egalitarianism LEGITIMIZING MYTHS are = -.07 = -.04 = .28 = .34 = .15 = -.14 = -.57 = -.25 ²(314, χ correlated. SDO-D SDO-D SDO-E SDO-E SDO-D SDO-E SDO-E SDO-D β β β β β β β β fit: Model correlations significantly Variable age. are = < .05 (one-tailed) and estimated SDO-E myths measurement models with combinations of the constructs with combinations models measurement All all SDO COV= .42 = < .01 * p education, p dimensions Table 2.2. Confirmatory factor analyses testing various alternative factor analyses Confirmatory 2.2. Table SDO, social dominance orientation; SDO-D, SDO-Dominance; SDO-E,SDO, social dominance orientation; 7. Multiculturalism 6. Assimilation 5. Civic citizenship 4. Ethnic citizenship 1. Ethnic prejudice 2. SDO-D 3. SDO-E Figure 2.2. Direct paths for structural model without group structure. structure. group paths for structural model without 2.2. Direct Figure SDO-D ** - Standardized results STDYX. Two items of SDO-E were allowed to co-vary, as were two items of the depen - dent variable. All legitimizing myths were allowed to co-vary. Except for civic citizenship with multicultur alism, SDO-D, SDO-Dominance; SDO-E, SDO-Egalitarianism. Note: ty, 52 The struggle for power also byassimilation(aHELM). but citizenship andmulticulturalism, civic the HALMs by not only sociation betweenSDO-Eandethnicprejudice was fullymediated by theHELMsethniccitizenship and assimilation.Inturn,theas- relation between SDO-D and ethnic prejudice was fullymediated in theoverallmodel, to ethnicprejudice. Thetableshowsthat (total, direct,andindirecteffects)fromthetwoSDOdimensions all paths presents Table 2.5 are themediatingrolesofLMs. to thecurrentstudy However, ofkeyinterest negative predictors. (civic citizenshipandmulticulturalism)were while theHALMs assimilation) werepositivelyassociatedwithethnicprejudice, further showsthatbothHELMs(ethniccitizenshipand Figure 2.2 dimension SDO-D SDO-E SDO-D Table 2.5:Total andspecificindirect effects onethnicprejudice SDO Direct effectSDO-D Total effectSDO-D rect effects Total, directandindi- Total effectSDO-E rect effects Total, directandindi- tion (HELM) Indirect viaassimila- citizenship (HELM) Indirect via ethnic and prejudice SDO-D paths Indirect SDO-D Total indirecteffect turalism (HALM) multicul- Indirect via zenship (HALM) Indirect viacivicciti- Effects andpaths Overall model .35** .10** .10* .06* .02* -.01 .01 .01 identifiers -.19** .50** Low -.17* .02 .00 .00 .01 .00 identifiers High .30** .25** .14** .09* .04* .00 .01 .11 Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 of in- as- and lower RMSEA .01 .02 .03 .03 .29** .21** series TLI = .93, again [for a identifica- higher was both fit CFI = .94, measurement .00 .21* .05* .13* for national .29** .11** estimating established of Model CFA by tested N = 413) = 343.72, was role the we p = < .05 7.11). RMSEA = .06, .07 .01 .29** .04** .15** .08** χ² (158, fitting identifiers Firstly, = .06]. To test for metric invariance, test for metric invariance, = .06]. To p < .01 * invariance By (version moderating lower identifiers Mplus and in identifiers. configural invariance. higher potentially higher Direct effect SDO-E Direct effect effect Total indirect SDO-E Indirect paths SDO-E and prejudice ethnic via Indirect citizenship (HELM) - Indirect via civic citi zenship (HALM) - Indirect via assimila tion (HELM) Indirect via - multicul turalism (HALM) lower for χ² (158, N = 389) = 357.90, the for .05; and estimation identifiers, =

assess measurement SDO-E SRMR = .05, CFI = .95, TLI = .94, SRMR lower identifiers sessed outlined by Hu and Bentler (1999): with criteria a cut-off value close to .06 for the RMSEA, a cut-off value close to .95 for both the CFI TLI, and a cut-off value close to and the .08 for the SRMR. As were measured only by two ethnic and civic citizenship items each, these constructs had to be excluded from the analysis of models following the checklist Van de Schoot, Lugtig outlined by maximum like- estimated using (2012). All models were Hox and lihood tion, we conducted a multi-group analysis across the groups of groups analysis across the tion, we conducted a multi-group higher variance National identification To Note: Standardized (STDYX) results. SDO, social dominance orientation; SDO-D, (STDYX) results. SDO, social dominance Note: Standardized SDO-Dominance; SDO-E, SDO-Egalitarianism. Significance levels (one-tailed) ** = 54 The struggle for power was cation. with After establishingscalarmeasurementinvariance, we proceeded variables canbemeaningfulcomparedacrossgroups. scores onlatent scalar invariance,implyingthat demonstrated it SRMR model differ. The were allowedto groups, whileintercepts equal across a modelwasruninwhichfactorloadingswereconstrainedtobe differ). cepts wereequalacrossgroups (factor loadingswereallowedto run whereonlytheinter- was a model Next, al, 2012). et de Schoot that theeffectscanbemeaningfully compared acrossgroups(Van and meaning tothelatentconstructs groups attributethesame TLI =.94, groups and interceptswereconstrainedtobeequalacross loadings factor was equalinbothgroups. Finally, amodelwasrunwhereboth (as measuredbytheintercepts) of theunderlying items the levels = .06,CFI.92,TLI.91,SRMR the lation. assimi HELM by the but unexpectedlyalso and multiculturalism, civic citizenship by HALMs mediated partially and prejudicewas between SDO-E expected, theassociation As not (seeTable2.3). positively associatedwithethnic prejudice, whereas SDO-D was level model identifiers .05, mediated by assimilation. Furthermore, andinlinewithourex- mediated byassimilation. mediated. The relation between SDO-Eandethnicprejudice was structural CFI =.93,TLI.91,SRMR acceptable the of

= fit for For The The [χ² (356, national .09]. structural was = .07], indicating that respondents across the two indicating that respondentsacross SRMR =.07], lower higher explained acceptable overall With good model [χ² (662, N identification identifiers identifiers, = 802) = 905.32, = 802) a [χ² (336, model model model more show model N low to fit fit = 802) = 729.05, N =802) variance (R that =386, examine of =.08]indicatedthatthemeaning of the =.05].Differentiating between the 2 fit comparable low revealed the =.49, = 802) = 880.38, [χ² (336, N=802) for SDO-prejudice RMSEA =.06,CFI.92,TLI N multi-group lower high in the R = 407) = 1329.17, RMSEA= = 1329.17, =407) ethnic that 2 high role to identifiers, = .60). The results for The results =.60). = .05, = RMSEA the the of prejudice relation national model structural previous SDO-E for was than CFI =.94, identifi- model, RMSEA higher model fully was the - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 Discussion Recent research suggests that individual differences in SDO con- suggests that individual differences Recent research sist of two dimensions (Ho et al., Jost & 2000; Thompson, Larsson et al., 2012). distinction between SDO-D and Yet, evidence for the SDO-E is student almost based on non-representative exclusively samples USA, in the Israel, and Sweden, and the full SDO6 scale. Using a representative study vali- sample, the current population and SDO-E among Dutch na- dated the distinction between SDO-D positively associatedtives. Both SDO dimensions were with each towards immi- associated with prejudice other but independently that the two the analyses indicated Furthermore, groups. grant various LMs, which suggests that dimensions related differently to and SDO-E indeed differs. the ideological nature of SDO-D research, we included LMs to ex- In contrast to most SDO-based amine in more detail the two-dimensional SDO-prejudice association, thereby following up on a suggestion for future research by Ho and colleagues (2012). The fact that both SDO-prejudice by LMs supports the proposition relations were fully mediated LMs to justify their prejudice that individuals high in SDO use (Sidanius & Pratto, 1999). However, we found that they do so in that the more people desire different ways. The results showed to openly subjugate subordinate groups (high in SDO-D), the - more they endorsed HELMs that were related to prejudice. Peo ple ‘merely’ preferring non-egalitarian relations in society (high - in SDO-E) endorsed a wider range of myths, both hierarchy at tenuating and hierarchy enhancing. 2.5 pectations, the relation between SDO-D and ethnic prejudice was and ethnic prejudice between SDO-D the relation pectations, and assimilation. ethnic citizenship by the HELMs mediated 56 The struggle for power ently differ- between SDO-DandSDO-Erelates whether thedistinction we investigated Turner & Reynolds,2003), Sidanius &Pratto,2003; Schmitt, Branscombe & Kappen, orists (Jetten&Iyer,2010; 2003; the- Given thedebatebetweenSDO-scholarsandsocial identity & Dambrun,2012;Fischer,HankeSibley,2012). with available LMs and ethnic prejudice (see De Oliveira, Guimond on theendorsementofeitherSDO-DorSDO-E andtherelations which extent differencesinthenormativecontext haveanimpact to tween SDO-Eandprejudice.Future researchshouldinvestigate play amediatingrolebetween SDO-D and prejudice, butalsobe- might explain why theendorsementofassimilationdidnotonly able for arguing against cultural diversity and immigrants. This avail- readily more endorsed andis widely more become tion has As aconsequence, Verkuyten, 2011).theneed for assimila 2007; increasingly prominentinpublicandpoliticaldebates(Vasta, has become rect multiculturalism,thediscourseofassimilation far-right partiesandtherejectionofso-calledpoliticallycor- of quo. Furthermore,withtherise the status to justify discourses prejudice and dominance and resorttoamorediversearrayof feel uncomfortablebyexplicitexpressions of in SDO-Emaystill those high (i.e. hierarchy-attenuatingrhetoric).Conversely, ways than tohaveexpresstheirattitudesinmorecovertorsubtle against immigrants rather can morefreelyvoicetheirresistance a result,peopleAs higher in SDO-Dmightfeelthatthey ta, 2007). sponsibility tointegrateand for having a ‘backwardculture’(Vas- immigrants areincreasinglyandpublicallyblamedforlackingre- groups. But,especiallysincetheearly2000s, against immigrant prejudice incorrect toexpress considered politically was which it country in considered atolerant decades, theNetherlandswas This differencemightbeduetotheDutchnormativecontext.For SDO-E), wefound that HALMswereassociatedwithSDO-Eonly. to correlatewithboth SDO dimensions(albeitmorestronglywith found hierarchy-attenuating Whereas Hoetal.(2012) outcomes to ethnic prejudice for lower and higher national identifiers. - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 - to for but with more shows ethnic nation- need relation interacts identifiers identifiers no identifiers, that the their HELMs their irrelevant prejudice feel associated is lower lower higher with justified SDO for for for ethnic identifiers simply endorsed identification identifiers, and that that more significantly identified lower national to pathways identifiers mean in-group was identifiers for identifiers revealed not prejudice) that lower lower strongly related SDO-E to distinct lower on does higher of results who that this work The HELMs Interestingly, expected, predicted via As sure, demonstrated natives Moreover, significantly appears we 2007). be it has previous endorsement was 2007). To SDO-D identifiers. among Vasta, in-group. with SDO in affecting intergroup evaluations (Sidanius et al., 1994; (Sidanius et evaluations in affecting intergroup with SDO et al., 2009),but see Meeus complicat - is further but this interplay SDO dimensions. distinction between the two ed by the conceptual Combining the two-dimensional SDO setup with social identity theorizing, (from SDO-E via HALMs to prejudice), respectively. By and large, HALMs to prejudice), (from SDO-E via this expectation. the results confirmed SDO-D to prejudice paths from SDO-D the was true for both strongly. This positive Conversely, there was no from SDO-E to prejudice. and for lower iden- and ethnic prejudice association between SDO-D tifiers. stronger Research lower prejudice and SDO-E by means of the HALMs civic citizenship and prejudice multiculturalism. Also, endorsement of assimilation mediated the relation between SDO-E and prejudice. Again, this might be due to the fact that assimilation has become a more widely accepted and used ideology in the discourse on immigrants in the Netherlands (cf. (from al only between SDO-E and ethnic prejudice was only partially mediated that they can be mobilized to display prejudice toward immigrant toward prejudice that they can be mobilized to display the nation- to undermine are perceived these groups when groups, al culture and identity (Smeekes et al., 2011; Sniderman & Hagen doorn, higher levels of ethnic prejudice. As they attach less value to their in-group, overtly dominate migrant groups and instead prefer to maintain the status quo by resisting equal intergroup relations. This pattern confirms 58 The struggle for power ‘SDO has been found to be related to (…) ethnic prejudicebe related to against a ‘SDO hasbeenfoundto – legitimizing myths ethnic prejudice from explicitly separated that predictsprejudice against manydifferentgroups’ – and have an outcome variable of interest–‘SDOisasageneral orientation dominance theorythemselveshavepresentedethnic prejudice as underlying prejudice,andthefounders ofsocial examined SDOas have that studies there aremany Yet, 1999). (Sidanius &Pratto, identification. the two-dimensionalsetupforSDOresearchandroleofgroup justifies prejudice has been conceptualized as alegitimizing myth that is furtherimportantbecauseinsocialdominance theory,ethnic Considering differentoutcomes prejudice (Duckitt &Sibley,2006). port forsocialpolicies,politicalattitudes,ordifferent domainsof found in othercontextsandwithdifferentoutcomessuchassup- relations can alsobe research shouldinvestigateifthesemediated and thesemyths,inturn,wererelatedtoethnicprejudice. Future the twoSDOdimensionsrelatedifferentlytoHELMsandHALMs, tion ofprejudice toward ethnic minority groups. It showedthat and the currentstudyfocusedon various mythsintheexplana in differ these relations and that ethnic prejudice through differentLMs, additionally showedthatthesetwodimensionsarerelatedto ences in SDO consistoftworatherthan a single dimension. We individual differ- found that we (2012), al. et and Larsson (2000) SDO-scale. In Jost andThompson agreement with Hoetal.(2012), a shortened using and by sample representative with a context We investigatedthedistinctionbetween SDO-D and SDO-E in a new gendoorn, 2007). Ha- Sniderman & 2011; al., et (Smeekes perceived culturalthreat such as that werenotincludedinourstudy, use additionalLMs nic by LMs.Ourmodelcouldexplain about halfofthevarianceineth- other prejudice. for processes contexts higher

It LMs could and should of have lower discrimination be that verify often national lower been these identifiers identifiers. that neglected findings maintain who to Additional in further endorse the SDO status research, confirm studies SDO-E quo - Social dominance, legitimizing myths and national identification C2 - Ho justifies This However, 283). 2000). p. 2010, Thompson, Levin, & & (Jost Sidanius results our (Pratto, influenced policies’ the use of ethnic prejudice as the use of ethnic that a variable is predicted by both of LMs. SDO and an array researchers use and space considerations, many Because of time scales, shortened SDO than the full 16-item rather scale (e.g., Jetten & Iyer, 2010; & Zick, 2011; Küpper 2002; Peña & Sidanius, Quist & Resendez, 2010). The current study demonstrated that - with a short found SDO setup can also be the two-dimensional ened scale. the scale However, has some potential limitations. Our re- intergroup general more on focused items might have SDO-D - worthiness’, rather than domination per se. Fur lations or ‘group thermore, items the SDO-D might have captured attitudes toward items groups and people, while the SDO-E focused on how groups should treat In addition, all SDO-D items each other. were protrait items, whereas all SDO-E items items. This might were contrait have - (2012) have demonstrated that the empirical dis and colleagues attributed to simply be cannot SDO-E and SDO-D tinction between confounding item wording. Finally, the cross-sectional study nature of this re- and of previous et al., 2012; 2000; et al., 2012) search (Ho Larsson Jost & Thompson, causality. prevents drawing conclusions about However, the mod- - evi and there is experimental el tested was derived from theory, (Kteily et that SDO is a causal predictor of ethnic prejudice dence al., 2010; Sibly & Duckitt, 2010) and that different LMs mediate this causal effect (Levin et al., 2012). Yet, these studies did not consider the two dimensions of SDO. Future experimental and longitudinal studies should further examine the proposed pathways, in gener al, and among lower and higher group identifiers, in particular. range of different minority different minority range of SDO has been (…). In addition, groups ideologies of hierarchy-enhancing to a range related to be found and

Chapter 3

Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals

A slightly different version of this chapter is published as Hindriks, P., Verkuyten, M. & Coenders, M. (2015). The Evaluation of Immigrants’ Political Acculturation Strate- gies. International Journal of Intercultural Relations, 47, 131- 142. Doi: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2015.04.002

Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 influ- identifi- are out-group group that feelings 2009), proposition out-group Masten, the & tested members’ Henley we Green, majority Introduction how (Jiang, Specifically, examine Acculturation processes involve mutual adaptations that different involve mutual adaptations Acculturation processes they come into individual members make when groups and their (Berry, 1997). structural contact focuses pri- Research, however, and attitudes marily on the adaptation of minority groups, and members (Brown on the views of majority to a far lesser extent & Zagefka, 2011; Matera, Stefanile & Brown, 2011). Furthermore, in the social and cultural while acculturation is studied extensively domains of life, for example by main- examining heritage cultural tenance (Ruggiero, Taylor & Lambert, 1996), host society language acquisition 3.1 cations (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind & Vedder, 2001), cations (Phinney, and so- 2005), have largely & Brown, researchers cial contacts (Greenland acculturation in the political domain. Although minority ignored representation in political systems is widely recognized as cru- position of disadvantaged the socio-economic cial for improving 2008; groups (Bieber, Martiniello, 2005; 2003; Pande, Petrusevska, 2009), immigrant minorities are met with much controversy and Petrusevska, (e.g., they participate politically resistance when 2009). These negative reactions could lead to inequality increased affect and exclusion, and might negatively the democratic pro- it is important to understand the processes underlying cess. Thus, majority members’ willingness to accommodate minority members in the political domain. This chapter presents two experimental vignette studies designed to enced by the political acculturation strategies of Muslim minority by the political acculturation enced members. 64 The struggle for power in strategies andmajorityevaluations.Ourresearchwasconducted threat perceptions on the relation between minority acculturation power examine theroleof will book, we of this the otherchapters lim minoritymembersareadvancing. Further, andinlinewith that politicallyactiveMus- feelings depend on thegroupinterests those thatendorseseparation andmarginalization(VanOuden- orintegrating immigrantsover bers clearlypreferredassimilating example, inthecontext oftheNetherlands,nativemajoritymem- gies showthatmajority members respond to themdifferently. For four strate operationalizing these studies Experimental vignette marginalization. integration, separationand assimilation, culturation strategies: combination of thesetwoissues leadstothe well-known four ac- the extenttowhichmajoritycultureshould beadopted.The culture shouldbemaintained,versus to which theheritage tent concerns theex- The secondissue among themselves. primarily remaining group vis-à-vis involved withthedominantmajority and get on theextenttowhichtheywanthavesocialcontacts First, minoritymembersneedtodecide (Berry, 1997). strategies acculturation members’ determine minority that key issues two seen as involving socio-cultural domainacculturationistypically plied theacculturationframeworktopoliticaldomain.In ap- acknowledged researchhasnotsystematically (Berry, 1997), is of politicalacculturationprocesses importance Although the Political acculturation our research. the Netherlandsoffersaprototypicalcontextfor (Helbling, 2012), Since thisisthecase in manyEuropean countries enders, 2002). Scheepers, Gijsberts&Co- minority participation(McLaren,2003; generation) are placedattheheartofdebatesonimmigrationand the Netherlands where Muslims (whether first, second, or third - Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 si- po- a issues two establishing these office, for consider we running When whole. elections, a in as voting society as: multaneously, we can derive four political acculturation strategies multaneously, we can derive four (see Figure 3.1). litical party, joining political demonstrations, contacting politi- politically cians, signing petitions, and being active on internet & Patton, 2013; forums and social media (Carlisle Hooghe Marien, & Quintelier, 2010). little about how people respond We know very to minority members any of these adopting political behaviours. Following the acculturation framework, we focus in this chapter partic- terms of advancing minority’s political participation in on interests face the and goals. First, minority members ular group to advance politically the in- question whether or not they wish they face the Second, goals of their minority in-group. terests and question whether they wish to advance interests and goals that benefit hoven, Prins & Buunk, 1998; Thijs & Sierksma, Verkuyten, & Buunk, hoven, Prins 2014). Native Italians also have been found to and assimilating evaluate sepa- than their more positively minority members integrating counterparts (Kosic, rating and marginalizing Mannetti, Lackland & Sam, 2005). minorities to general, majority members prefer In assimilate indicates that minority mem- or integrate because this bers value the host society culture to the extent that they want to adopt it & Zagefka, 2012). (Brown This makes majority members in turn results feel valued, which at- in more favorable out-group their to maintain minority members seeking titudes. Conversely, tend to cultural heritage be viewed as a threat to the majority cul- (e.g., Tip, are evaluated more negatively ture and consequently & Na, 2012). Zagefka, González, Brown, Cinnirella, Minority members can participate politically in various ways, such 66 The struggle for power crimination (e.g.,Bobo &Hutchings,1996;SidaniusPratto, Group competitionisan importantbasisforprejudiceanddis- members willprobably evaluatethisstrategymostnegatively. advance onlytheinterests oftheirminorityin-group.Majority towish members minority which in strategy the is Separation at large(Tipetal.,2012). and statusquo,aswellacceptanceofthe dominant culture them, andsignalsacceptanceoftheexisting politicalsystem evaluate thisstrategymostpositivelybecause itdoesnotharm tion strategyisdefined.Weexpectthatmajoritymembers will ests andnotthoseofhisorherminoritygroup, theassimila- When aminoritymemberwishestoadvancesociety’sinter- itics wewillnotfurtherconsiderthisstrategy. this impliesthatonewantstokeepawayfromgroup-basedpol- bers donotwishtorepresentanygroupinterestsorgoals.Since Marginalization referstothesituationinwhichminoritymem- Is itconsideredtobeofvalue to advocateforintereststhat benefit societyingeneral? SOCIETAL INTERESTS ISSUE 2 Figure 3.1:Politicalacculturation strategies YES NO Integration Separation Is itconsideredtobeofvalue IN-GROUP INTERESTS to advocatefortheinterests of one´sminorityin-group? YES ISSUE 1 Marginalization Assimilation NO Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 inte- The role of perceived power threat of perceived The role out-group feelings, we expect In addition to this ranking of play a role in the evaluation perceptions of power threat to strategies. Threat perceptions of the political acculturation attitudes, such as limiting civil are related to various political (Scheepers, Gijsberts rights to natives compared to immigrants support for the exclusion of & Coenders, 2002), and stronger - immigrants (McLaren, 2003). Attitudes towards political partic ipation of minority groups will probably not be an exception - to that rule. Previous research showed that the more majori ty members view minority groups as threatening the majority culture or status position, the more they reject minority members’ participation (Brown & Zagefka, 2011; Matera, Stefanile & at an intermediate level. Politically integrating level. Politically integrating gration strategy at an intermediate of their minority advocate for the interests minority members for society as a pursue goals that are relevant in-group but also the position the one hand, they try to advance whole. Thus, on politi- group and, on the other, demonstrate of their minority It to improve the broader society. cal commitment follows that to evaluate this strategy majority members can be expected strategy, but more nega- more positively than the separation tively than assimilation. members to be most posi- In sum, we expect Dutch majority most negative about the tive about the assimilation strategy, separation strategy, and to strategy in rank the integration between. 1999) and the separation strategy directly challenges the polit- challenges strategy directly the separation 1999) and of the status position it, the privileged quo, and with ical status group in society. majority evaluate Dutch majority members will We expect that the 68 The struggle for power acculturation strategies andinformsusonwhichstrategies in bothstudies.Thisallows usto‘anchor’theevaluationof litical acculturationstrategies,weincludeda control condition political acculturationstrategies.Inaddition tothethreepo- power threatperceptionsmightexertonthe evaluationofthe in linewithpreviousresearch,weexaminedthe influencethat group interestsminoritymembersareadvancing. Further,and basic questionwhetheritmattersformajority memberswhose vestigating specificpoliticalbehaviors,weexamine themore pend ontheirpoliticalacculturationstrategy. Ratherthanin- extent towhichmajoritymembers’evaluations ofMuslimsde- We presenttwovignettestudiesdesignedtoinvestigatethe Overview perceive relativelylowpowerthreat. power threatofMuslimimmigrants,comparedtopeoplewho be morepronouncedforpeoplewhoperceiverelativelyhigh evaluation ofthethreepoliticalacculturationstrategieswill thedifferences in that expect we specifically, More ceptions. strategies, weexpecttofindamoderationeffectofthreatper- ceived groupcompetitiondiffersacrossthethreeacculturation en thepowerpositionoftheirin-group.Asdegreeper- minority groupswhentheybelievethatthesethreat- more negativetowardbecome tend to members majority eral, gen- In politics. in involved be to wish not did that members minoritynot towards political party,but by joininganexisting party, towardsMuslimsthattriedtoadvancetheMuslimcause ative feelingstowardstheestablishmentofaMuslimpolitical that nativeswhoperceivedhigherpowerthreathadmoreneg- and influence.AnexperimentalstudyintheNetherlandsfound evant inthepoliticaldomainbecausepoliticsdealswithpower Brown, 2011).Arguably,threatperceptionsareevenmorerel- Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3

and percep- findings threat of power to generality the addition for in samples influence, Study 1 convenience moderating a of 3.2 Method Participants in the Past and Present, A questionnaire on “The Netherlands and Group Rights” was set out in Cultural Diversity, and Politics - the Netherlands via Thesistools.be – a company for non-com - mercial online research that maintains an online panel. Par - ticipants were invited via e-mail and were paid €1.50 for com pleting the questionnaire. To ensure that the sample contained by native majority members only, participants were selected an initial lead question asking about the ethnic origin of their negatively affect feelings toward minority members, and which which members, and toward minority affect feelings negatively opposite effect. have the a pool of respon- a sample of Dutch adults from Study 1 employed on- by a company performing non-commercial dents maintained line research. Since various concerns have been raised about the use theoretical conclusions, especially in relation to out-group eval- especially in relation to theoretical conclusions, Henry, 2008), Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010; uations (c.f. Henrich, sample of second study using a representative we conducted a the Dutch adult population. In doing so, we also respond to im- of replication research in social portant concerns about the lack replication studies that im- psychology, and the need for direct and generalizability (Cum- prove precision and test robustness 2012; Simons, 2014). Fur- ming, 2014; Makel, Plucker & Hegarty, additional factors that might thermore, Study 2 considered two have tions: interethnic friendship and generalized social trust. tions: interethnic friendship and 70 The struggle for power Ahmed answered:“Yes, absolutely.Theyhavetotryadvo- Ahmed gaveoneofthree answers.Intheseparationcondition, the Netherlands?”.Depending ontheexperimentalcondition, you thinkitisimportantthatMuslimsarepolitically activein additional textinwhichAhmedrespondedto the question:“Do troductory text.Allotherparticipantswerepresented withan in- this with presented only were condition the control in pants about Dutchpolitics?”Ahmedanswered:“Yes, Ido”.Partici- more than20years”.Tothequestion“Doyou haveclearideas was borninTurkey,butI’vebeenlivingthe Netherlandsfor first said:“Iam30yearsoldandMuslim.Just likemyparentsI one offourexperimentalconditions.Inallconditions, Ahmed for werevariedandparticipantsassignedrandomlyto per”. Inthisinterview,thegroupinterestsAhmedadvocated that “wasrecentlypublishedinawell-knownmorningnewspa- excerpt fromafictitiousinterviewwithMuslimnamedAhmed Oudenhoven, 1998),participantswerepresentedwithashort Following thedesignofpreviousresearch(Matera,2011;Van Experimental procedure andmeasurements right”, and“right”,respectively. “center left”,32%as“center”,andonly15%7% political spectrum:20%classifiedthemselvesas“left”,25% many participantsplacedthemselvesontheleftsideof ly representativefortheDutchpopulationbecauserelatively ing participants’politicalorientation,thesampleisnotentire- degree, 25%obtainedaMaster’sdegreeorhigher).Concern- completed lowertertiaryeducation,36%obtainedaBachelor’s mary education(6%completedsecondaryonly,32% religious community.Allparticipantscompletedatleastpri- SD =14.61),andmost(72%)werenotaffiliatedwithachurchor pleted thesurvey.Participantswereaged16to83(M parents. Intotal233participants(53%male,47%female)com- =48.94, Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 = .93). = .93). = 1.72). = 3.21, SD = 1.29). = .89) with higher scores indicate more nega- = .89) with higher scores indicate Results - To examine differences in negative out-group feelings we for - mulated a GLM that included experimental condition as the be tive feelings. On average, participants scored below the mid- tive feelings. On average, participants point of the scale (M SD The mean PPT score was 3.85 (with cate especially – and as much as possible – for the interests of of – for the interests much as possible – and as cate especially “Yes, Ahmed answered: condition, In the assimilation Muslims”. are rel- for issues that advocate But they should absolutely. the interests of in general; not so much for evant for society answered: “Yes, integration condition, Ahmed Muslims”. In the of Muslims, have to advocate for the interests absolutely. They for issues that They should also advocate but not exclusively. society in general”. are relevant for feelings, dependent variable, negative out-group To measure the toward peo- asked to indicate “their feelings participants were terms: sympathy, irritation, ple like Ahmed” using six emotion warmth (see Matera, 2011; Tip et fear, concern, admiration, and 7) were summated into a single al., 2012). The items (range 1 to reliable scale (α measured Perceived Power Threat Four items with 7-point scales here, native Dutch peo- (PPT): “Because many immigrants live “The native Dutch are slowly ple have less and less influence”, losing the Netherlands to newcomers”, “Due to an increasing Dutch can determine what hap- number of immigrants, native extent”, and “Sometimes it pens in the Netherlands to a lesser to immigrants, instead of the seems like natives have to adjust formed a reliable scale with a other way around”. These items power threat (α higher score indicating more perceived 72 The struggle for power ence betweentheintegrationandcontrolcondition. differences 3.2). Apost-hoctest(seeTable2.1:tophalf)showedthatallmean ed in-betweentheothertwoacculturationstrategies(seeFigure SE =.15)andcontrolconditions(M There = .675, = 1.17, age (F(3,231) the experimentalconditionsforparticipants’ across 21.88, perimental tive (M while participantsintheassimilationconditionweremostposi- separation conditionweremostnegative(M tween-subjects factor ated withnegativeout-groupfeelings (F(1,121)=1.27, then tested educational attainment inan additional GLManalysesthatfound that itwasnotassoci- Univariate 5 out-group Figure 3.2:Meanscore fornegativeout-group feelingsforthefour Negative feelings was, (3,233) = 1.29, political orientation( F(3,233) p =.57), p <.01, =2.45,SE.15).Participantsintheintegration(M however, 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 condition were a partial eta analyses significant experimental conditionsofStudy1 statistically Separation of 5 difference was variance . Theresultsshowthattheeffectofex- 2 =.22).Asexpected,participantsinthe significant first for Experimental condition Integration significant, educational showed (3,233) = .479, and religiosity (F(3,233) p =.28), =3.17,SE.12)wereevaluat- p =.26, that and attainment partial eta there Assimilation substantial except were 2 =4.16,SE.15), =.01). (3,233) = 2.83, (F(3,233) no = .32), gender (F(3,233) p =.32), for statistical the (F (3,231) = Control differences = .04). We p =.04). =3.10, differ- p =.70). Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3

2 an the .00 .00 .00 .01 .01 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 to 1.00 P-value added = .02, partial we addition SE .21 .21 .22 .21 .21 .21 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 .05 < .01, partial eta (1,231) = 138.00, p in influence .98 .66 .63 .89 .56 .26 -.07 -.73 -.29 1.05 1.71 1.18 ΔM (I-J) (3,231) = 3.56, p significant, (3,231) = 33.46, p and moderating a strong significant, F has Condition (J) Experimental Experimental Integration Assimilation Control Assimilation Control Control Integration Assimilation Control Assimilation Control Control be was PPT to if it .38) =

2 found examine condition (I) Experimental Experimental Separation Integration Assimilation Separation Integration Assimilation and To = .05. This indicates that the effect of the experimental condi- = .05. This indicates that the effect Table 2.1: Post-hoc comparisons of the differences in marginal in of the differences Post-hoc comparisons 2.1: Table 1 2 means between all experimental conditions of Studies 1 and 2 of Studies 1 and conditions all experimental means between 2 .31). Study effect of experimental condition (F effect of experimental condition interaction term between experimental condition and PPT to theinteraction term between experimental model eta = tion on negative out-group feelings depends on individual differ- tion on negative out-group feelings ences in PPT. Across conditions, participants who reported low PPT did not differ much in their out-group feelings (see Figure 3.3). With - higher PPT, however, the differences between experimental condi - tions were larger. The effect of PPT was strongest within the sep aration condition, the assimilation condition.and weakest within The effect sizes of PPT within the integration and control conditions were nearly identical (see Table 3.2: top half). < .01, partial eta All post-hoc comparisons were tested using the Bonferroni method All post-hoc comparisons were tested using the a continuous covariate to the mod- Next, we added PPT (centered) as effect of PPT (F el. The results show that the main 74 The struggle for power out-group Negative Table 3.2:Estimatesoftheeffect ofPPT onnegativeout-group feel- feelings Study Figure 3.3:Negativeout-group feelingsbyPPTforeachcondition 2 1 ings withineachexperimentalconditionofStudies 1and2 Control Assimilation Integration Separation Control Assimilation Integration Separation 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 Condition -2,00 Perceived powerthreat (centered) Estimate .25 .26 .36 .39 .42 .24 .42 .56 of Study1 ,00 .02 .02 .02 .02 .10 .09 .08 .09 SE 2,00 t-value 10.67 11.51 16.01 17.41 4.30 2.73 5.07 6.39 4,00 Experimental condition Assimilation Control Integration Separation p-value .00 .00 .00 .00 .00 .01 .00 .00 Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3

- at to- tried sample we society 2 positive Study benefit more In representative that goals influence. significantly large-scale and a advance were power using that group members findings members Study 2 about these majority minority concerns replicate for Dutch majority members. Furthermore, in addition to perceived ofpower threat, Study 2 examined the possible moderating roles interethnic friendship and generalized social trust. ward large (assimilation). Majority members’ feelings towards integrating minority members the base- could not be distinguished from line attitude. Perceptions of threat to political power position of the major- the ity group were associated derogation in all three with out-group Yet, differences between exper- political acculturation strategies. for participants who perceived imental conditions were larger more power threat. As expected, minority members’ political more power negatively when participation was evaluated more towards politically separating threat was perceived, in particular minority members. Apparently majority members and integrating the fact that minority ‘outsiders’ are not so much threatened by to fear that they will have active politically, but rather become to them. relinquish power and influence to Study 1 found strong support for the claim that political accultura- Study 1 found strong support for tion is an important intergroup phenomenon involving perceptions and 3.3 atively – compared to their integrating counterparts, atively counterparts, but also – compared to their integrating (control). Con- members’ baseline attitude compared to majority versely, Discussion for the po- advocate exclusively who minority members Muslim litical interests more neg group were evaluated their minority of 76 The struggle for power interests. feelings towardsminoritymemberswhoadvocatefortheirin-group ment. Inaddition,intergroupfriendshipsmightmitigatenegative become moresympathetictominoritymembers’politicalinvolve- Tropp, 2011)andthesefriendshipscouldleadmajoritymembersto (Pettigrew & predictor ofpositiveout-groupattitudes larly strong rights (FrølundThomson,2012).Interethnicfriendshipisaparticu- workplace wasrelatedtostrongerendorsementofethnicminority Further, aDanishstudyshowedthatmoreintergroupcontactinthe 2009). Ceobanu, & (Escandell exclusionism foreigner of dorsement en- lower on effect an had immigrants with contact example, for more favorablepoliticalattitudes.InalongitudinalstudyinSpain, political attitudes,moreintergroupcontacthasbeenassociatedwith 2011). Althoughcontactisstudiedfarlessextensivelyinrelationto Brown, Eller,Leeds&Stace,2007;Pettigrew,Tropp,WagnerChrist, Intergroup contactiswidelyknowntoreduceethnicprejudice(e.g. uation ofdifferentpolitical acculturationstrategies.Majoritymem- eval- in people.Similar,generalized socialtrustmaymoderatethe the politicalacculturation ofminorities,whentheyplacemoretrust toward resistant less be to expected be can members Majority 2013). (Matthes, us treat will people other how on expectations to refers that predisposition individual an as viewed commonly is trust Social er incitizens’initiativesmoreeasily”(Rothstein& Stolle,2002,p.3). es insocialandpoliticalgroups,itenablesthem tocometogeth- tor, becauseinthepoliticalspheretrust“allowscitizens tojoinforc- We includedgeneralizedsocialtrustasanotheradditional modera- acculturation strategiesmaybelesspronounced. out-group friends,differencesintheevaluationofthreepolitical less asapoliticalpowerissue.Hence,amongmajoritymemberswith ical acculturationstrategiesthatfocusonminoritygroup’sinterest members without-groupfriends,ontheotherhand,mayviewpolit- political acculturationstrategiesmaybemorepronounced.Majority those withnoorveryfewfriends,thedifferencesinevaluationsof the politicalacculturationstrategiesandintergroupfriendships.For Hence, we expected to find an interaction effect between

Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 who those p < .01), and than affiliated) not p = .27). There were, however, 68% . Participants (51% male, 6 affiliated, (32% p < .01), educational attainment (F(1,3693) = 58.95, community p = .02). Participants who did answer the items were on average slightly religious or p = .11) and political orientation (F(3,3267) = 1.24, church a Univariate analyses of variance showed that participants who answered the items of with 6 variable were not different from those who did not answer, with respect to gender the dependent (F(1,3691) = 2.57, religiosity (F(1,3630) = 5.15, older (M = 48.25 years) than those who did not answer (M = 44.62). They were more highly educated (M = 4.30) than participants who did not answer the items (M = 3.58), more frequently and they were affiliated Method Participants March 2014, In political views, and a questionnaire about “Your the welfare state” was ad- government policy and on your opinion ministered to the online panel of TNS NIPO Consult; a bureau spe- data. This online cialized in collecting representative population consists of over 200,000 self-selection, and is not based on panel region. and education age, gender, participants, representative for from was drawn adult population A representative sample of the this panel, based age, educational level, on gender, family size, invited and region. Respondents were to participate via e-mail and were paid €1.20 in vouchers (or could donate that amount to A total charity) for completing the questionnaire. of 4,103 partici- to a response rate of 69%. pants completed the survey, amounting To ensure that sample contained native majority our members indicated that they they when only, participants were excluded themselves or their parents were born outside (N the Netherlands = 410). Another 415 the analy- respondent could not be included in the items ses because they did not answer vari- for the dependent able, resulting in a dataset of 3,278 cases did not answer (26% affiliated, 74% not affiliated). bers high in social trust may be less that toward strategies skeptical stron- Hence, we expect minority groups. the interests of advance strategies acculturation of political in the evaluation ger differences differences will be in social trust, whereas these among those low among those high in social trust. less pronounced differences for age (F(1,3691) = 18.39, 78 The struggle for power (68%) (M =48.25, 93 female) wereaged18to 49% entation, degree orhigher. Concerning Master’s participants’ politicalori- ry education;24%obtained a Bachelor’s degree, 10% obtained a completed lowertertia- completed secondaryeducation;36% 25% completed primaryeducationonly; of therespondents About 4% lims Mus- and understoodinrelationto discussed are predominantly groups not toMuslims.IntheNetherlands,immigrant minority groups and the questionreferstoethnicminority be notedthat group?”. Itshould do youhavethatbelongtoanethnicminority friends interethnic friendship:“Howmany measured single item A pared toStudy1. somewhat highercom- which is = 1.59), (with SD 4.26 was score The meanPPT as Study1thatformedareliablescale(α=.95). measured bythesamefouritems Power Threat(PPT)was Perceived scored belowthemidpointofscale( out-group feelings. On averageandsimilartoStudy1,participants so thatahigher score indicatesmorenegative liable scale(α=.87) into asinglere- were summated variable (thesixemotionterms) 1 andpartofalargerdatacollection.Theforthedependent items The experimentaldesignofStudy2wasidenticaltothat Experimental procedure andmeasurements the politicalself-placementquestion). did notanswer right (8% as center right,and12% center, 20%as as 2.35, = (M = “Fourormore” 5 = “None”to 1 ranging from point scale (Vasta, SD =1.54). were 10% not 2007). classified affiliated Respondents themselves with a could church as choose left, M =3.44, or 17% religious = 16.21), andmost SD =16.21), an as answer SD =1.10). center community. on left, a five- 32% Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 p - - = = 2 2 p = .99), .01, partial eta p < .01, partial eta p < = .004. Participants . The results showed 2 7 p = .53), (F(3,3278) gender = 1.05, SD = 2.44). partial eta p = .39), political orientation (F(3,3007) = .03, M = 5.18, p < .01, p = .45). PPT, F(1,2985) = 448.17, r = -.42. for (p < .01). feelings were associated out-group Negative effects F(1,2985) = 12.50, Univariate analyses of variance showed that there were no statistical differences across = .08, respectively). The correlation between PPT and gener PPT between correlation r = .08, respectively). The .03, was extreme- this effect and interethnic friendship although ly small, 7 the experimental conditions for participants’ age (F(3,3278) = .75, = .37), educational attainment (F(3,3278) = 1.01, Results out-group feelings we used To examine differences in negative a GLM that as included experimental condition the between-sub alized social trust was so- and generalized friendship, jects factor, with PPT, interethnic cial trust as covariates continuous (centered) and religious affiliation (F(3,3630) = .88, Generalized Generalized standard much-used with the was measured social trust question: say would you speaking, “Generally that most people with peo- in dealing can’t be too careful or that you can be trusted, an answer on an choose 2013). ple?” (Matthes, could Respondents 11-point scale, ranging from 0 = “You can’t be too careful” to 10 = be trusted” ( “Most people can All of interest correlations between the variables were statistically significant with PPT (r = .46), social trust generalized (r = -.32), and weakly with intergroup friendship (r = -.09). The correlations of friend- social trust were also low (r = -.10, ship with PPT and generalized and significant with higher scores on PPT were more negative towards the Mus- with higher scores on PPT were participants with more intereth- member, whereas lim out-group social trust nic friendship and generalized had less negative out- group feelings. .17, generalized social trust, F(1,2985) .17, generalized = 89.83, 80 The struggle for power More these and controlconditions. This showedthatthedifferencebetween substantial werananadditional GLMwithonlytheintegration large samplesize.Toinvestigatewhetherthislatter differenceis condition. This isdifferentfromStudy1andmight beduetothe the differencebetweenparticipantsinintegration andcontrol that (see Figure3.4).Post-hoctestsTable 3.1: bottomhalf) showed = 3.25,SE.03)had a scorein-between the other two conditions in theintegration(M=3.50, (M =2.93, positive tion conditionweremost in theassimila while those .03), = 4.11, SE = (M negative were most participants intheseparationcondition 1, Similar toStudy = .20. of experimental condition, fect size:F(1,1621)=30.14, out-group Figure 3.4:Meanscore fornegativeout-group feelingsforthefour Negative feelings all two importantly, mean conditions 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 differences experimental conditionsofStudy2 Separation there is significant was were p < (3,2985) = 251.92, F(3,2985) .01, SE a Experimental condition Integration statistically significant = .03) and controlconditions(M = .03) partial eta but quite 2 Assimilation =.02. and significant, SE small = .03). Participants = .03). partial eta p <.01,partial substantial in terms including Control effect of ef- - 2

Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 - - p = .65, between interaction p = .01, partial (F(3,3188) = .54, the of interaction significant The not analysis was

8 slope interaction significant. This Simple = .01), the experimental and between con- 2 trust. social statistically partial eta were significance. .01, generalized To be sure, we also examined the three-way interaction between experimental condi- p < and < .01). 2 .004) = PPT,

2 with PPT (see Figure 3.5 Table 3.2; and bottom that half) revealed threat a had positive effect each experimental within condition, the separation and integration con- effects within with stronger ditions compared to the assimilation and control conditions. Thus similar to Study 1, the differential evaluation of minority accultur- who for majority members ation strategies was more pronounced contrast to Study 1, however, the perceived more power threat. In was effect of PPT in the control condition similar to that in the assimilation condition. Simple slope analysis social of the interaction with generalized trust trust higher was related to less negative out- revealed that within the separation and integration especially feelings, group less so in the assim conditions (B = -.15, and -.18, respectively) and B = -.12). These differences ilation and control conditions (both: experimental social trust across the in effect size of generalized conditions were very small. Among those higher in social trust the strategies of political acculturation in the evaluation differences social those lower in among than were somewhat less pronounced and trust. Yet, the very small differences between those higher with the extremely small effect lower in social trust, combined size of the interaction effect, indicates that the interaction was significant but not very meaningful. eta dition and generalized social trust (F(3,2985) dition and generalized = 4.24, 8 tion, ous (centered) predictors with the experimental condition. The condition. with the experimental predictors ous (centered) (F(3,2985) and PPT condition experimental interactions between =10.54, Testing moderation Testing interaction terms we added To the model continu of the three experimental condition and interethnic friendship failed to reach and interethnic friendship experimental condition statistical partial eta 82 The struggle for power tions wasnotverystrong orrelevant. ings betweenparticipants intheintegrationandcontrolcondi- though further showedthat,al- The results evaluated morepositively. minority memberswere while assimilating ed morenegatively, condition, politically separating minority members wereevaluat- the baseline compared to political domain.Again,wefoundthat, wished toadvanceinthe members that Muslimminority terests out-group feelingsdepended onthegroupin- members’ Majority political acculturationisanimportantintergroup phenomenon. 2 support thepropositionthat of Study the results 1, Like Study Discussion Figure 3.5:Negativeout-group feelingsbyPPTforeachconditionof out-group Negative feelings statistically 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 -3,00 Perceived powerthreat (centered) significant, -1,00 Study 2 the 1,00 difference 3,00 in out-group Experimental condition Assimilation Control Integration Separation feel- Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3

mi- matters it Muslim significantly of trust whether social strategies investigated we generalized acculturation and Specifically, political General Discussion the friendships by members. nority for majority members whose group interests minority members are politically advancing. Acculturation involves intergroup processes in which attitudes members and majority group minority perceptions of both and & Zagefka, 2011; are important (Brown Matera, Stefanile & Brown, 2011). studies, however, exclusively focus on minority group Many the socio-cultural domain, large- members and on acculturation in ly political ignoring acculturation. Yet, minorities are often met - they wish to participate po when with resistance and controversy a real have litically. Negative attitudescan the political domain in as well the standing of minority and immigrant groups, impact on as on the democratic process (Petrusevska, 2009). In the context of the Netherlands, we designed two vignette studies to investigate are in- feelings majority members’ out-group the extent to which fluenced 3.4 The effects of PPT were similar to those found in Study 1. Yet, in found in Study similar to those of PPT were The effects was the control condition effect of PPT in to Study 1, the contrast represen - In the assimilation condition. the effect in the similar to stronger in the Study 2, the effect of threat was tative sample of separation and integration condition, compared to the assimilation strategies in Hence, political acculturation and control condition. interests in- members advocate for Muslim which Muslim minority threat. Both and relevance of perceived power creased the salience interethnic predicted negative out-group attitudes, but only generalized social out-group attitudes, but only predicted negative minority mem- moderated the relation between trust marginally strategies and out-group feelings. bers’ acculturation 84 The struggle for power assimilation condition. Wecandrawtwoconclusions fromthese assimilation weaker inthe consistently was of perceivedthreat bers. Theeffect pecially whentheyfaced separatingorintegratingminoritymem- litical participationwhen they perceived more power threat,es- indeed showedthatnativesweremorenegative aboutMuslimpo- domain ably, threatperceptions are evenmorerelevant inthepolitical Argu- Stefanile &Brown,2011). Matera, (Brown &Zagefka,2011; ing the majorityculture, the more theyreject their participation threaten- groups as minority view the moremajoritymembers that acculturation demonstrated gies. Researchonsocio-cultural the differentialevaluationofacculturationstrate moderate We consideredperceivedpower threat tobeafactorthatmight minority in-group. those thatfocusupon and wishtoimprovethesituationoftheir members when they assimilate,butarefarmorenegative towards minority active politically welcome members majority er words, similation most counterparts.Conversely,majoritymemberswere or assimilating aration) wereevaluatedmorenegativelythantheirintegrating of theirminoritygroup(sep- for thepoliticalinterests advocated who exclusively Muslims to thepoliticalacculturationstrategies. responded quitestrongly participants indicating that substantial, the effectsofourexperimentalmanipulationswereconsistentand The resultsofbothstudies,usingdifferentsamples,showedthat tion It turnedoutthatparticipantsintheseparationcondi- Muslims. cal acculturation strategies differedfrombaseline attitude toward the politi- participants’ responsesto observe how we wereableto By including a controlcondition, al., 1998). Van Oudenhoven et Matera etal.,2011; tural acculturationstrategies(Kosicetal.,2005; socio-cul- of evaluations on majority research ous experimental previ- in linewith This rankingis whole (assimilation). a as ciety became positive because condition significantly about power Muslims became and more influence that significantly negative, advanced are whereas more involved. goals positive. that those The benefit in In results the oth- so- as- - Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3

ap- trust much evalu- interac- people’s so the threat not assessing are influence significant influence to perceived find example might more not (for apparently too, Second, did takes it but factors, measures members factor, out-groups. perhaps other a specific but that such majority political be more to to First, that out-groups, of hypothesized in politicians and political institutions) will indicate a stronger in politicians and political institutions) will indicate a stronger role of trust. attitudes towards politically active minority members. attitudes towards politically active Generalized social trust had a very small moderating effect, driven the separation and integra- primarily by the difference between the assimilationcontrol and and the one hand, tion conditions on trust was related to less negative conditions on the other. Higher out-group feelings, especially when participants presented were the interests of their in- with minority members that advance group. However, the moderation effect was quite small and it is possible tion effects. The number of interethnic friends is a useful indicatortion effects. The number of interethnic & Tropp, 2011), but weof positive interethnic contact (Pettigrew it. More elaborate measurementshad only a single item to measure have yielded stronger results. It isof interethnic friendships might also possible that interethnic contact does not translate into im- (Frølund & Thomson, 2012).proved political out-group attitudes ethnic prejudice towards an ar- Having interethnic contact reduces ray threatened by threatened the fact that outsiders’ ‘ethnic politically become power and to relinquish they will have rather fear that active, but influence of the level of per- feelings as a function pears to affect out-group perceptions Among those with strong competition. ceived group the three political differences in the evaluation of of power threat, acculturation strategies The moderat- more pronounced. were two was quite consistent across the effect of perceived threat ing perceptions for the relevance of threat studies, which indicates political relations. We ation of political acculturation strategies. We expected interethnication of political acculturation strategies. friendship findings. 86 The struggle for power Furthermore, regions intheworld,withdifferentpoliticalculturesandsystems. believe in theNetherlandsraisesquestionofgeneralizability.Yet,we conducted was research our that fact the Firstly, studies. future for There aresomelimitationstoourresearchthatprovidedirections tigate (Vasta, 2007).Itwouldbebothinterestingandrelevanttoinves- placed attheheartofpublicdebatesonmigrationandintegration (McLaren, 2003).Moreover,inmanyofthesecountriesMuslimsare grants comingfromlessdevelopedcountriesandformercolonies ropean countriesbecauseofsimilarmigrationhistorieswithimmi- of political participationinterms Secondly, wefocusedonminority’s bling, 2012),orcanbegeneralizedtootherminoritygroups. (Hel- countries European many in negatively quite evaluated are for forms ofpoliticalengagement andparticipation,suchasrunning are minority groups share Dutch natives’ attitudes toward thepoliti- attitudes groups shareDutchnatives’ minority non-Muslim unknown whether is it example, For strategies. tion nority groups’ perceptions andevaluationsofpoliticalaccultura- examine othermi- relevance to of societal but also theoretically therefore notonlyinteresting It is (US CensusBureau,2013). years children bornwithinthenextfew than majority more minority see expect to and theUnitedStates (Hankel, 2009), members ity than major- members currently livemoreethnicminority terdam of Rot- groups. Forexample,inthecity numerous ethnicminority many Westerncountriesand cities areincreasingly comprised of A pattern ofevaluationpoliticalacculturationstrategies. a different more threateningthanothers,whichcouldleadto as of minoritypoliticalactionare perceived possible thatsomeforms final group specific office, if recommendation that our interests establishing for the findings future the findings and political research can goals. a for are be political participation future replicated Future fairly should research party, representative studies examine in of or other Muslim could relates online whether countries examine for minorities to activism. Western the the fact in findings specific other that that It Eu- is

Majority members evaluating minorities’ political acculturation: group interests and goals C3 resis- evalu- groups less minority differential that this considerably that with strategy met indicate were acculturation further whole a as political findings society The specific ation of political acculturation strategies was more pronounced ation of political acculturation perceive more power threat. The among majority members who to accommodate willingness studies show that majority members’ the political domain depends strongly on minority members in the these strategies imply. adopt and the power threat that tance. cal of participation Muslims, identify or rather with Muslims as a minority majority face of the dominant in the These and group. - should be inves relations inter-minority other issues concerning studies. tigated in future large-scale national samples In conclusion, using research our different political members react strongly to shows that majority acculturation strategies towards of minority members. Feelings a Muslim minority member advancing the interests of the Muslim negative, while Muslims were quite goals that furthering in-group benefit

Chapter 4

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 try beliefs and their identifications fit population group which the of 2009), parties of sections Masten, range & a specific have Henley, Introduction Voters represent Green, parties (Jiang, Parliament. Similar to great the Netherlands has a many other countries, many political parties, twelve of which are currently represented in 4.1 parties. several small Christian including and political orientation, These (Phinney, Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, 2001), Horenczyk, Liebkind, & Vedder, (Phinney, emotional ex- Leersnyder, Mesquita, & Kim, 2011), (De and preferred periences social contacts & Brown, 2005). (Greenland While the social and cultural domains are of obvious importance to the acculturation the politi- in acculturation has largely ignored process, research the political aspect of the because is unfortunate cal domain. This power relations that acculturation process implies may changing have real and important societal consequences. to political system. achieve their goals within the existing In the 2014 municipality elections of March ten immigrant and Islamic tried to do the same by securing parties were on the ballots and minority group representation in local governments. Although these parties have not been very successful so far, their participa- – tion in local elections is an important yet understudied – aspect of immigrant acculturation. mutual adaptation that cultural Acculturation is the process of make when they come into groups and their individual members structural contact 2005). with each other (Berry, It is typically domains of life. For cultural relation to the social and studied in example, researchers have focused on heritage culture mainte- acquisi- Taylor, & Lambert, 1996), host language (Ruggiero, nance tion 92 The struggle for power vary across their political acculturation strategies, over andabove vary acrosstheirpolitical acculturationstrategies, immigrants Muslim whether feelingstoward 1 investigates Study voting (Marien,Hooghe, &Quintelier,2010;Weldon,2006). as ahigher-costmodeofpoliticalparticipation than, forexample, mative politicalbehaviorandcivicengagement, andisrecognized an Islamicparty.Partymembershipisastandard indicatorfornor- democratic system,eitherbyjoiningexistingparties orbyfounding examine hownativesreacttoMuslimsbecoming active intheDutch and membership party of political participationinterms consider we study current In the meetings. public organize and parliament, of members contact petitions, sign can voteinelections, they ways: Like everycitizen,immigrantscanparticipatepoliticallyinvarious debate (McLaren,2003;Sniderman&Hagendoorn,2007). ter groupisplacedattheheartofWest-Europeanacculturation of majoritymemberstoMuslims’politicalparticipation,asthelat- a turation strategiesofMuslimimmigrantsdifferently.Wearguethat native Dutchmajoritymembersevaluatedifferentpoliticalaccul- With twoexperimentalvignettestudiesweinvestigatedwhether minority members. ness isdependentofthose onthepoliticalacculturationstrategies and whethertheirwilling members, accommodate minority cally politi- willingness to members’ known aboutmajority is little very groups depends onthepoliticalacculturationofthosegroups. Yet, majority membersevaluateandrespondtomigrantminority the way can bearguedthat it perspective (Brown&Zagefka,2011) intergroup dynamic a From 1997). (Berry, existing powerrelations and thiscanhaveconsequencesfor in theexistingpoliticalsystem Migrant andminoritygroups maybecomepoliticallyactivewith- ings or notnatives’politicalacculturationattitudesarerelatedtofeel- tions ofpoliticalparticipationandwillthereforeexaminewhether struggle of perceived for political power influence threat. We and specifically power is look at the at core the reactions of ques- -

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

relation in especially conclusions, theoretical and Theory findings of 4.2 Political acculturation be- model distinguishes Berry’s (1997) acculturation well-known the result of two main strategies that are acculturation tween four decide on becoming socially in- issues. First, minority members or rather remaining primarily volved with the dominant group, is the question of heritage Second, there among their in-group. culture maintenance versus mainstream When culture adoption. - these two issues are considered simultaneously, four accultura tion strategies integration, emerge: marginalization, separation, and assimilation (Berry, 1997). we adapt these issues to the When political domain, minority members are faced with two similar the effects of common determinants of negative out-group feel- negative out-group determinants of of common the effects differ- the expected investigate whether addition, we will ings. In threat from immigrants. of power on the perception ences depend acculturation further examines the political The second study that condition baseline experimental an strategies by including the role of politic participation; by considering does not refer to social orientation, and by dominance including an additional mea- power threat related to Muslims. sure of perceived sample of thewe used a nationally representative In both studies, various con- population. In social psychology, native Dutch adult use of student samples for the gen- cerns have been raised about the erality to out-group evaluations (Henrich, Heine, & Norenzayan, 2010;to out-group evaluations (Henrich, might be less conservative thanHenry, 2008). For example, students an effect on their evaluation ofthe general public and this may have strategies. Therefore, we want- immigrants’ political acculturation non-student samples. ed to test our predictions among 94 The struggle for power representing members wanttoparticipatepoliticallybutwithout if minority for theelderly).Finally, (e.g. party political parties and one-issue with theirown political party,which is similartoChristianparties arena political choose toparticipateinthemainstream members minority that implies bership). Therefore,theintegrationstrategy litical systembyjoining anexistingpoliticalparty. participating inthepo- are seenas members minority similating adopting theacculturationstrategyofassimilation tion integration of in-group, adopting the acculturationstrategy we viewthemas sent politics, theyneed to decidewhatextenttheywishrepre- When minority membersdovalueparticipation in hostsociety tion strategyofmarginalization. political actionandthereforeonlyconsidertheaccultura- mative (non-democratic) goals.Inthecurrentresearchwefocusonnor- tive politicalmeansbyradicalgroups that trytoaccomplishtheir the useofnon-norma is An exampleofthelatter system. litical aration referstominoritygroup mobilization outside ofthepo- one does notwanttobe involved in host societypoliticsand sep- egy ofseparation acculturation strat adopting the as them view we system, litical If minoritymembersdonotwishtoparticipateintheexistingpo- nority participationinpolitics(seeFigure4.1). four acculturationstrategiesemergethatcanbeusedtomapmi- issues, in-group. two resent politicallytheirminorityFromthese second question concerns theextenttowhich they wanttorep- with andwanttobe involved inregular host societypolitics.The questions. as their exercising . Inthecurrentstudyweunderstandpoliticalparticipa- own The their minority first ormarginalization influence minority concerns group. through group the If they . Marginalizationimpliesthat extent specifically, political specifically to parties which . In this study, as- . Inthisstudy, we represent view (party they them engage mem- their as - - Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 - NO Assimilation Marginalization group? ISSUE 2 IN-GROUP YES REPRESENTATION to represent one´s minority to represent one´s minority Is it considered to be of value Is it considered to be of Separation Integration NO YES Figure 4.1:Political acculturation strategies 4.1:Political Figure ISSUE 1 POLITICS politics? ENGAGEMENT HOST ENGAGEMENT HOST to participate in host society to participate in host society Is it considered to be of value Is it considered to be of egies of minority members (Brown & Zagefka, 2011). European majority members prefer assimilation of and then integration immigrants, over separation or marginalization (e.g., Kosic, - Man 1998). For Prins, & Buunk, netti, & Sam, 2005; Oudenhoven, Van example, in an experimental study on social and cultural accultur- to- natives displayed most positive feelings ation strategies Dutch wards immigrants that strive to assimilate, followed by those that whereas separation was judged adopt the integration strategy, far more negatively (Van Oudenhoven et al., 1998). Assimilation and integration involve the of adoption the host culture, whereas separation/marginalization does not. For majority members, the to former two strategies indicate that the host culture is valued the extent that immigrants want to adopt it. Additionally, it has suggested “that majority members view the desire of mi- been Majority group responses Majority group Research demonstrated that majority members’ out-group attitudes are affected by the perceived cultural acculturation strat 96 The struggle for power ety. of whoholdsthepowertomakedecisionsthatwillaffectsoci- ticipation par- When itcomestopolitics,minority strategies differently. pect thatmajoritymembersevaluateimmigrants’acculturation Yet withregardtothepoliticaldomain,therearereasonsex- evaluated negatively. culture, whilesegregationandmarginalizationare the majority signalthattheyacceptandvalue or integrateasthesestrategies to culturallyassimilate jority memberstendtopreferimmigrants p. 23).Thus,ma- Zagefka, González,Brown,Cinnirella,&Na,2012, a whole”(Tip, as the unityofsociety culture andto the majority nority memberstomaintain their original culture as athreatto the group. Yet,Muslimimmigrantswhodowant toparticipatein pose achallengetothepowerpositionof nativemajority wish toparticipateinthepoliticaldomainand thereforedonot strategy ofmarginalization.Afterall,theseimmigrants donot will feelmostpositiveaboutMuslimimmigrants whooptforthe influence are especiallylikelytobeperceivedaspotentialcompetitorsfor quostatus the in changes enact to position a in being as seen Wagner, Christ,&Heitmeyer,2010).Out-groupmembersthatare grant attitudes(seeEsses,Jackson,&Bennett-AbuAyyash,2010; Tajfel &Turner,1979),andacriticalingredientinanti-immi- for prejudiceanddiscrimination(e.g.,Sidanius&Pratto,1999; psychology, groupcompetitionisconsideredanimportantcause migrants gain,themorepowermajorityloses.Withinsocial to elicit an intermediate level of resistance. Although pursuingAlthough resistance. of level intermediate an elicit to tion strategy),whilethe politicalassimilationstrategyislikely existing politicalsystem withtheirownpoliticalparty(integra- their interestsandexpress theirviewsbyparticipatinginthe power threatisprobablyhighestwhenMuslims wanttosecure be expectedtoevaluatedmorenegatively. Thecompetitive political Majority and relates system members power. to issues and This might thereby of could influence fear pursue mean that and that the political power: more majority influence influence to questions members can im-

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

immi- power integrating Muslim perceived their that in than implies differences influence strategy and latter individual power the of for influence, influence competitors grants do not wish to represent their minority in-group in pol- minority in-group their not wish to represent grants do par- existing political to operate within rather prefer itics, but view them less majority group members might ties. Therefore, as Perceived power threat Perceived Central to our theorizing is that the evaluation of immigrants’ depends on perceptions of out- political acculturation strategies The role of out-group threat can group competition and threat. and here we focus on the mod- be examined in different ways erating counterparts. Thus, and in contrast to research on the evalua- and in contrast to research counterparts. Thus, tion of socio-cultural acculturation, we expected native Dutch to of Muslim immi- towards political integration be most negative to be least nega- by political assimilation, and grants, followed marginalization. tive towards political political threat. Many studies have shown that majority group members that majority group members threat. Many studies have shown toward ethnic out-groups display an array of negative attitudes believe they are in competition when they feel threatened or range from opposition to grant- over resources. These attitudes ing civil rights to legal immigrants (Scheepers, Gijsberts, & Co- of immigrants (McLaren, enders, 2002), support for exclusion groups (Stephan & Stephan, 2003), to prejudice toward ethnic 1996). There are many different forms of threat that, depending or less important for out-group on the circumstances, are more nature of the current study attitudes. Considering the political we focused on perceptions of power threat: the belief that immigrants pose a threat to the power position of the native Dutch majority. We expected that the predicted differential evaluation of the three political acculturation strategies is more pronounced for majority members feel who threatened by the potential loss of political power to Muslim immigrants compared to majority 98 The struggle for power ie, ris, 2004;Tropp&Pettigrew,2005;VanderBrug,Fennema,Till- tudes towardsimmigrants(e.g.,Hello,Scheepers,Vermulst,&Ger- These factorshavebeenfoundtobeimportantpredictorsofatti- 57%, which is normal for Dutch surveys (for areviewonDutchre- which isnormalforDutchsurveys 57%, The responserate was politics andidentity, culturaldiversity. ticipants receivedanonline questionnaireaboutDutchhistory, par- In December2011, data. cialized incollectingrepresentative years andolder)wasdrawnbyTNSNIPOConsult,abureau spe- (18 A representativeprobability sample ofDutch majority members Participants Method Muslim immigrantsoverandabovetheeffectsof thesefactors. there isaneffectoftheacculturationstrategiesonfeelingstowards Muirhead, &Reicher,2011).Thus,wewantedtoexaminewhether national of intergroupcontact,endorsementethnicandciviccitizenship, these predictionsbycontrollingforanyeffectonout-groupfeelings who perceiverelativelyhighout-grouppowerthreat.Wetested alization. Thesedifferenceswereexpectedtobestrongerforthose margin- then and assimilation by followed integration, political of ed nativestohavethemostnegativefeelingstowardsstrategy grants dependontheirpoliticalacculturationstrategy.Weexpect- In Study1weinvestigatedwhetherfeelingstowardsMuslimimmi- 4.3 er threatwasexpectedtomoderatetheexperimentaleffects. members whoperceivelittlepowerthreat.Thus,perceivedpow- 2000; Wagner identification, Study 1 et al., political 2010; Wakefield, orientation Hopkins, and educational Cockburn, Shek, level.

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 - In 18 an that par- his political through between like strategies. interview just Islamic an possible as fictitious Turkey, participants a in acculturation through 928 from born of three influence possible the being excerpt as much as consisted as short = 17.15) with 52% male and 48% female. SD = 17.15) with 52% a reflected himself influence sample with that exercise M = 50, to much final as described try answers The first participants mental of previous research (Matera, conditions. Using the design 2011; Stefanile, & Brown, et al., 1998) Van Oudenhoven we presented sponse rates, see: Stoop, 2005). Five participants who themselves who themselves 2005). Five participants see: Stoop, sponse rates, excluded were the Netherlands outside born parents were or their missing of because cases were rejected dataset and six from the data. Experimental procedure and measurements procedure Experimental of the three experi randomly assigned to one Participants were and 88 years ( existing political party”. In the marginalization vignette, Ahmed get involved in politics”. answered: “No, they should not Following Matera et al. (2011), participants were subsequently asked to indicate “their feelings toward people like Ahmed” using six emotion terms: sympathy (reversed coded), irritation, fear, worry, admiration (reversed coded), and trust (reversed coded). from 1 For each emotion a 7-point scale was presented ranging = “Not at all” to 7 much”, with 4 = “Very = “Average” as the mid- “was recently published in a well-known morning newspaper”. In in a well-known “was recently published named Ahmed was interviewed. this excerpt a 30-year-old Muslim He the assimilation Ahmed answered: “Yes, they party”. In vignette, should ents were, but he has been living in the for Netherlands the last 20 years. When asked had a clear idea about by the interviewer if he Dutch politics, Ahmed answered “Yes, I do”. Next, he was asked if he thinks it is important that Muslims in the are politically active of then presented with either one Netherlands. Participants were three the integration vignette, Ahmed answered “Yes, they should try to answered “Yes, they should vignette, Ahmed the integration exercise 100 The struggle for power how Contact withMuslimswasmeasuredbytwoitemsaskingparticipants and ahigherscoreindicatesmoreperceivedpowerthreat. ten, 2013).Thethreeitemsweresummatedintoasinglescore(α comers, insteadoftheotherwayaround”(seeMartinovic&Verkuy- newcomers”, “Sometimesitseemslikenativeshavetoadjustnew- for thesinglescale. two with positiveandnegativefeelings as variable. However,werepeatedallour analysesinaMANOVA feelings, andbecausetheoverallscale isreliable,wechosetoanalyzeout-group feelings asone and negative for positive expect differentresults to we didnothavea-priorireasons As scores. high on bothdimensions,resultinginlowfactor loaded relatively factor rotation, allitems after plained 58% ofthevariance,whereassecondcomponent onlyexplained 23%.Furthermore, extracted 9 influence”, many immigrantslivehere,nativeDutchpeoplehavelessand Perceived powerthreat(PPT)wasmeasuredbythreeitems:“Because a higherscoreindicatingmorenegativefeelings. .85 with item-total correlationsranging between .58 and .70) with point. The items weresummatedintoasingle, reliable scale (α= civic citizenship The endorsementofcivic .01), thetwoitemsweresummatedintoasinglescale. tact withMuslims.Becausetheintercorrelationwashigh(r as suchinDutchsocietythismeasurewasusedaproxyforcon- Muslim (Maliepaard,Lubbers,&Gijsberts,2010)andareportrayed and Moroccansself-identityas “Every day”.As nearlyallTurks = 7 ipants couldanswerona7-pointscalerangingfrom1=“Never”to at work,inschool,oryourneighborhoodsparetime”.Partic- person is someone who isoriginally from theNetherlands”and “A (r statements measured withtwo also a real Dutchman”.Ethniccitizenshipwas is has aDutchpassport within theNetherlandsisarealDutchman”and “Everyonewho ments (7-pointscales;r=.75, dependent often two Exploratory Factor Analysis using maximumlikelihoodestimationandobliquerotation Exploratory FactorAnalysis factors they variables; “The for have native positive this did contact not and Dutch yield negative “with any p <.01):“Everyonewholiveslegally are feelings, substantive slowly [Turks/Moroccans], was measured with two state two with measured was respectively. = .88, differences losing .01): “A real Dutch “A p <.01): Yet, the from 9 the Netherlands the first findings for component instance p < = .73,p< reported = .90) =.90) ex- to -

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 cor- were between significantly relations identification, The only was p < .01, these indicating that national and significant. Muslims r = -.20, with was measured by four statements was measured (7-point citizenship statistically was measured by using the well-known polit- the well-known was measured by using Contact civic were between significant. measures two constructs and can be distin- share only 4% of their variance guished empirically. National identification ical self-placement scale (Jost, 2006). This scale was presented at had 5 categories: left (11%), cen- the end of the questionnaire and (19%), or right (9%). ter-left (17%), center (44%), center-right Educational level was measured by asking participants to indicate completed on a 7-point scale that their highest level of education system. corresponds to the Dutch educational For 5% of the partic- highest level, 15% completed ipants, primary education was their secondary education, 49% completed vocational education, 20% obtained a degree, and 10% Bachelor’s obtained a Master’s degree or higher. and bivariate correlations are Mean scores, standard deviations, presented in Table 4.1. Almost all correlations between the different scales) that have been used in previous research in the Nether- used in previous been scales) that have Verkuyten, & Poppe, 2012): lands (e.g., Smeekes, “My iden- Dutch tity myself”, is an important part of with the “I identify strongly feel I am a real Dutchman”, “My Netherlands”, “I identity Dutch is how I feel about myself”. Alpha important for how I see myself and for these four items was .94. Political orientation real Dutch person has Dutch ancestors” (c.f. Heath & Tilly, 2005; (c.f. Heath & Tilly, ancestors” person has Dutch real Dutch Vignoles, & Pehrson, Brown, 2009). eth- between The correlation was civic citizenship nic and the endorsement of civic citizenship and educational attainment, the endorsement of civic citizenship and educational attainment, and not related with the endorsement of ethnic and civic citizenship. 102 The struggle for power identification, (PPT), ethnic and civiccitizenship, contact with Muslims,national included asfactor,andperceived powerthreat was strategies) which the experimental condition (three political acculturation was conductedin variate procedure.Abetween-subjectsanalysis feelings was examinedusing the general linear model (GLM)uni Considering theexperimentaldesign,difference inout-group Results Significance levels(two-tailed):*p<.05;** tinuous attainment cational 8 Edu- tion identifica- 6 National citizenship 5 Ethnic orientation 7 Political zenship 4 Civicciti- lims with Mus- 3 Contact threat power 2 Perceived feelings group 1 Out- Table 4.1:Meansandstandard deviationsofandintercorrelations Variable centered -.10** -.27** .09** .23** .22** .02** .40** 1 political between themeasures inStudy1 -.30** -.32** -.06** variables. .21** .48** .38** 2 orientation -.04** -.11** -.08** .04** -.02 3 There p < .01 -.18** -.02** -.20** .05** 4 were and -.28** .22** .33** 5 educational significant -.15** .10** 6 -.07** 7 level main 5.21 2.99 4.54 3.86 5.40 4.55 3.38 3.82 M as effects con- 1.74 1.08 1.71 1.48 1.13 1.46 1.92 1.17 SD - Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 - = 2 p < .01, experi SE = .06), for confidence partial eta = .13. As ex- 2 identification 95% effect p < .01, the Marginalization As national main and p partial < .01, eta position. Assimilation significant a Experimental condition Muslims, was with Integration intermediate there an contact experimental conditions of Study 1 experimental conditions of Study 3,00 2,00 5,00 4,00 = .02, F(1,922) and for PPT, = 80.16, 2 occupied importantly, .06) feelings citizenship, Negative out-group out-group = Figure 4.2: Mean score for negative out-group feelings for the three feelings for the three for negative out-group 4.2: Mean score Figure partial eta for the endorsement of civic of for the endorsement citizenship, F(1,922) = 21.64, were not significant. More .08. Participants with higher scores on civic citizenship had less citizenship had scores on civic with higher .08. Participants scores on with higher whereas those feelings, negative out-group feelings. threat had more negative out-group perceived power attainment, eth- educational orientation, effects of political The nic pected (see Figure 4.2), participants in the integration condition 4.2), participants in the integration pected (see Figure felt most about people like Ahmed (M = 4.67, negative felt least negative (M = 3.73, condition the marginalization those in (M = 4.16, assimilation condition SE = .06), while participants in the SE mental condition, F(2,922)mental condition, 70.57, = intervals of these estimated all marginal means did not overlap, significant from each other. mean differences were statistically 104 The struggle for power were. imental variables. FurthermoretheinteractionbetweenPPTandexper- .01, the showed that again results The experimental condition. the with tor Next weaddedtothemodelinteractiontermsofeachpredic- 72.33, tion conditionwasnotsignificant(B .01, respectively),whereastheeffectofPPTwithinmarginaliza- integration conditions(B associated withmorenegativefeelingswithintheassimilationand experimental conditions(Figure4.3)revealedthathigherPPTwas al differencesinperceivedpowerthreat.Analysiswithinthethree perimental conditiononout-groupfeelingsdependsindividu- out-group Negative Figure 4.3:Negativeout-group feelingsbyperceived powerthreat feelings effect partial eta The p <.01,partialeta condition 2,00 3,00 4,00 5,00 6,00 of significant the 2 -4,00 (centered) foreachconditionofStudy1 = .02, whereas none of the other interaction terms =.02,whereasnoneoftheotherinteractionterms experimental was interaction 2 = .14, over and above the effects of the other =.14,overandabovetheeffectsofother statistically Perceived powerthreat -2,00 = .41,t condition =9.76,p<.01,andB indicates significant, =.09,t ,00 was =1.91,p that significant, 2,00 the F (2,992) =10.34,p< =.44,t =.06). effect Experimental Marginalization Assimilation Intregration condition =10.38,p< of F (2,922) = (2,922) = the ex-

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

- In ori- 1. Study political of findings the identification, replicate national to was 2 citizenship, Study Study 2 of civic aim and first doing so, we respond to major concerns about the lack of replication di- in social psychology and the critical importance of carrying out rect replication studies that can improve precision and test robust ness (Cumming, 2014; Makel, Plucker, & Hegarty, 2012; Simons, 2014). 4.4 The Discussion The results show that majority members rank minority members’ with our expectations. strategies in line acculturation political Muslim immigrants that opt for the strategy of political marginal- by those that followed the least negative, ization were evaluated strategy political integration strategy. The opt for the assimilation effects The negatively by majority members. was evaluated most over and above were found manipulation of the experimental of contact with Muslims, those of the level the endorsement of ethnic entation and educational level, and were dependent on the level of level, and were dependent entation and educational perceived power threat. Within the assimilation and integration more negative feelings toward conditions, participants reported on PPT. Within the they scored higher like Ahmed when people was no significant effect of PPT. marginalization condition, there Study 1 demonstrated that majority group members’ feelings toward immigrants are associated with the way immigrants strive to ranking is distinctly differ- acculturate politically. The preferred acculturation that has found ent from research on socio-cultural marginalization most that majority members dislike and prefer cultural integration and assimilation. Study 1 further demonstrates threat play an important role in that perceptions of power majority members’ evaluations. 106 The struggle for power Dutch Large-scale researchhasshownthataboutfouroutoftennative political participationinvokesnegativefeelingsinDutchnatives. Muslims with of association mere the that be could It condition. line Study 1revealedaclearpatternofresultsbutdidnotincludebase- (2007) ize’ theNetherlands.Shadid(2006)andSnidermanHagendoorn origin andofwantingtopressforwardahiddenagenda‘Islam- trustworthy becausetheywouldremainloyaltotheircountryof un- politically considered sometimes are 2013). Muslims Verkuyten, assess thepoliticalpowerthreatposedbyMuslims(Martinovic& thones’ andimmigrant‘allochthones’,themeasuredidnotdirectly ‘autoch- between native make adistinction to society cy inDutch focused onimmigrantsingeneral.Althoughlinewiththetenden- Additionally, theperceivedpowerthreatmeasureusedinStudy1 tion canshedlightonthisandthereforewasincludedinStudy2. order tobeevaluatedmorepositively.Theuseofabaselinecondi- to explicitlydistancethemselvesfrompolitics(marginalization)in doorn, 2007).ThiscouldmeanthatMuslimimmigrantsmightneed for group-based dominance and inequality” (Kteily, Ho, & Sidanius, for group-baseddominance andinequality”(Kteily,Ho,&Sidanius, preference the in differences individual of measure general “a is but (Duckitt, 2006).SDOisnot directlyconcernedwithout-groupthreat there iscompetitionfor resources suchasjobsandpoliticalpower which in jungle competitive a as world the perceive to likely cially group inequalityandsupporthierarchiesinsociety. Theyareespe- inance theoryindividualswhoarehigherinSDO tendtobelievein dom- social to According 2007). Sibley, & (Duckitt (SDO) orientation for oneofthestrongestpredictorsprejudice, socialdominance to predictattitudestowardsimmigrants,butwe couldnotcontrol In Study1wecontrolledforvariousfactorsthat havebeenfound threat thatreflectsfifthcolumnsentimentsaboutMuslims. Therefore, inStudy2weincludedameasureofperceivedpower within’) find refer that Muslims to influences this discourse politically debates as untrustworthy ‘fifth on the column acculturation (Sniderman sentiments’ of & Muslims. (‘enemy Hagen-

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 be- rang- ages with stereotypical of participants, 802 endorsement of = 51, SD = 17.16) with 50% female. stronger consisted elicited sample final influence The ing between 18 and 87 years (M and measurements Experimental procedure - The design of Study 2 was identical to that of Study 1, but an ad ditional experimental condition was used. Thus, participants were inrandomly assigned to one of four different conditions whereby the fourth baseline condition participants only received the be- ginning of the interview in which the interviewee introduced and 2012, p. 547). Yet, higher SDO tends to be associated with higher - per of per- that the effect which might mean threat ceived out-group due to SDO. Furthermore, in Study 1 is threat found ceived power research suggests that SDO and perceived power threat can interact in predicting out-group attitudes. Among Whites in the US, Quist Blacks gaining po- showed that perceptions of and Resendez (2002) litical Method Participants sample of Dutch majority mem- Again a representative probability by TNS NIPO Consult. Partici- bers (18 years and older) was drawn in Study 2. Participants receivedpants in Study 1 did not participate 2012 about cultural diversity,an online questionnaire in February politics, and Dutch group rights, and European identity. The re- participants who themselves orsponse rate was 51 per cent. Eight the Netherlands were excludedtheir parents were born outside were rejected because of missingfrom the dataset and nine cases data. liefs and prejudicial attitudes, in particular among Whites who had attitudes, in particular among liefs and prejudicial if PPT and SDO. We will therefore also investigate a relatively strong interac- the experimental conditions (three-way SDO interact with politically accul- feelings towards the different tion) in predicting of Muslim immigrants. turation strategies 108 The struggle for power 7-point Perceived PowerThreat(PPT)wasmeasuredbytwoitemswith item-total correlationsvaryingbetween.54and.69). six itemsandscalesasinStudy1(α again askedtoindicatetheirfeelingstowardAhmedusingthesame in theNetherlands.Afterreadingvignette,participantswere asked abouttheimportanceofMuslimsbecomingpoliticallyactive was question the before ended excerpt That himself. described er threat (PPT) and SDO as continuous (centered) scores. Negative er threat(PPT)andSDO ascontinuous(centered)scores.Negative pow- factor, and perceived condition as variable, experimental dent We performedaGLMwith negativeout-groupfeelingsasdepen- Results and SDOwassignificantbutalsonotverystrong(r correlated withSDO(r very strong(r The correlationbetweennegativeout-groupfeelings andPPTwasnot summated intoasinglescale(α it issometimesnecessarytosteponothers”.TheitemsofSDOwere in life, ahead get “To and deserving thanothers”, more just are ple ers”, “Somepeoplearejustmoreworthythanothers”,peo- & Kuppens,2009):“Somegroupsaresimplynottheequalsofoth- enens, &Vansteenkiste,2007;Meeus,Duriez,Vanbeselaere,Phalet, (7-point scales)previouslyusedinEuropeanresearch(Duriez,So- Social DominanceOrientation(SDO)wasmeasuredbyfouritems were summatedintoasinglescale(α given thechance”(c.f.Sniderman&Hagendoorn,2007).Theitems they desiretoturntheNetherlandsintoanIslamiccountrywhen down deep because politically, trusted be to not really are Muslim loyal totheircountryoforiginthantheDutchsociety”,and“Most are politicallyunreliable,inthesensethatend,theymore scales =.33,p reflecting < .001), and out-group feelings was also weakly <.001),andout-groupfeelingswasalsoweakly .001). The correlation between PPT =.21,p<.001).ThecorrelationbetweenPPT fifth column =.62,M =.86,M =.82,M =3.75,SD1.09). sentiments: =4.33,SD1.63). = 1.12, with =3.77,SD1.12,with =.26,p<.001). “Most Muslims

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

2 2). Study in Control partial eta confidence available 95% not = 4.36, SE = .07), = .02, and among = .02, and 2 was the (1,802) = 104.24, p < .01,(1,802) = Marginalization which - = 3.96, SE = .06) and the mar because Muslims = .07). All mean dif- = 3.19, SE = .07). All mean .01, (3,802) = 55.96, p < . with p < .01, partial eta Experimental condition Assimilation contact significant = .07). Participants in the control = 3.56, SE = .07). Participants not but significant, F PPT, p < .001. Integration was (1,802) = 17.32, (1,802) = experimental conditions of Study 2 experimental conditions of Study and F statistically 0,00 2,00 1,00 4,00 3,00 5,00 = .12. More importantly, the main effect of the experi- the main effect of the = .12. More importantly, 2 were condition As analysis a check we performed an additional that included all covariates used in Study As shown in Figure 4.4, the ranking of the out-group feel- 4.4, the ranking of the out-group As shown in Figure identification, 10 feelings Negative Figure 4.4: Mean score for negative out-group feelings for the four for negative out-group 4.4: Mean score Figure out-group out-group = .17. mental those who perceived more power threat, F power threat, perceived more those who partial eta 10 1 (similar measures for political orientation, educational attainment, ethnic and civic citizenship, national out-group feelings were stronger among participants with higher participants with stronger among feelings were out-group SDO, scores on followed by those in the assimilation (M followed by those (M ginalization condition condition felt the least negative (M ferences ings was similar to Study 1: participants in the integration conditionto Study 1: participants in the integration ings was similar M about people like Ahmed ( were most negative The results, available upon request, that showed the effect of the experimental manipulation was significant, F(3,793) = 57.31,

intervals of these estimated marginal means did not overlap. intervals of these estimated marginal 110 The struggle for power out-group .45, and the three-wayinteractionbetweenexperimentalcondition,PPT, action SDO, and experimental condition. Similar toStudy1,the inter- of PPT, to themodelalltwo-wayandthree-wayinteractionterms To examinethemoderatingrolesofPPTandSDOwenextadded was p <.01).TheinteractionbetweenexperimentalconditionandSDO = .18,t4.02, out-group feelingsinthecontrol condition(B ative = .02,t.39,p.70).Higher PTT was alsoassociatedwithmoreneg (B =.34, condition (B with strongernegativefeelingswithintheintegration associated Figure 4.5)ofthisinteractionrevealedthathigher PPT againwas (3,802) = 13.76, F(3,802) effect onout-groupfeelingsdependsPPTandnotSDO. Negative feelings Figure 4.5:Negativeout-group feelingsbyperceived powerthreat partial eta partial not SDO between t =8.14, significant, failed 2,50 3,00 3,50 4,00 4,50 5,00 5,50 = .36,t8.20, 2 (centered) foreachconditionofStudy2 -4,00

= to .01), but notinthemarginalizationcondition(B p <.01), .00. partial eta partial < .01, p experimental reach (3,802) = 1.75, F(3,802) These Perceived powerthreat -2,00 statistical findings .001) and the assimilation condition and theassimilation p <.001) condition 2 = .05. Simple slope analysis (see Simple slopeanalysis =.05. ,00 partial eta p =.16,partial significance, indicate and 2,00 that PPT F(3,802) =.89,p the was 2 =.01,andalso experimental Experimental Control Marginalization Assimilation Integration condition significant, - Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4 - - on Mus- more or effect 1) same significant (Study the has 2) Muslims influence (Study more evaluate to column gaining fifth natives a immigrants Dutch of lead constituting sense Discussion to the response in feelings of out-group 2, the ranking Study In strategies political acculturation was similar found to the ranking integration of confronted with political in Study 1. Participants the assimilation negative, followed by those in Muslims felt most the Participants in conditions, respectively. and marginalization strategy in which no political acculturation control condition was the least mentioned were negative. This suggests that the mere association of Muslims (in whatever with political participation form) negatively. Similar to Study 1, the effect of the experimental ma- experimental to Study 1, the effect of the negatively. Similar the assimilation In the level of PPT. on dependent was nipulation reported more negative and integration conditions participants they perceived more Ahmed when like toward people feelings of PPT was absent in the margin- power threat, whereas the effect power threat in indicates that perceived This condition. alization the lims different political acculturation feel about the native Dutch how strategies. PTT was Furthermore, also associated with out-group This suggests that those who feelings in the control condition. threat perceive more out-group power are more suspicious about the intentions of Muslims. It is only when Muslims explicitly state - politics (marginal in Dutch that they do not want to be involved role for out-group feelings. ization) that PPT does not play a between the experimental condi- The role of SDO did not differ tions and did not account for the role of PPT. This supports the proposition that SDO tends to lead to competitive driven preju dice rather than threat driven prejudice (Duckitt, 2006). Higher feelings independent SDO was related to more negative out-group of experimental condition. This suggests that SDO is a more gen dominance and eral measure of the preference for group-based inequality (Kteily et al., 2012). 112 The struggle for power - Muslim immigrantswhowanttoparticipateinthe politicalsystem by asthreateningthemajoritygroup’spowerposition. Asaresult, participate with their own political party in the existing political participate withtheirown politicalpartyintheexisting ly. Moreover,thethreat topowerishigherwhenMuslimswant perceived tion toenactchangesinthestatusquoareespecially likelytobe et al.,2010).Out-groupmemberswhoareseen as beinginaposi- of threatdrivenegativeattitudestowardsimmigrants (seeWagner portant causeforprejudiceanddiscrimination and variousforms Politics acculturation strategies. opposition totherankingfoundforevaluationofsocio-cultural strategy wasevaluatedmostnegatively.Thispatternofresultsisin political assimilationstrategy,whereastheintegration were evaluatedleastnegatively,followedbythosewhopreferthe that Muslimswhooptforthestrategyofpoliticalmarginalization representative samplesofDutchnatives,wefoundintwostudies acculturation strategiesinthisdomainquitedifferently.Among about is Politics domain. political the in acculturation ignored largely in thesocio-culturaldomainiswellestablished,previousresearch and marginalization.Whiletherelevanceofstudyingacculturation turation strategiesofassimilationandintegration,overseparation et al.,2012).Thus,nativestendtopreferthesocio-culturalaccul- (Kosic etal.,2005;Matera2011;Oudenhoven1998;Tip contacts culture and majority the of acceptance and valuing plies fer immigrantstoparticipateculturallyandsociallybecauseitim- Acculturation researchdemonstratedthatmajoritymemberspre- 4.5 gains with questionsofwho acculturation deals political acculturation, and thereby and power is as who about potential and pursue General discussion loses influence power power political competitors and and and influence, influence natives influence. for political might and – are Group evaluate unlike influence evaluated threat socio-cultural immigrants’ and negative- is an there- im-

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

pow- power party’s and the that influence influence for proposition might our parties which other support votes, with findings Muslim compete and other of collectively candidates number - threat considerations lead majority members to rank political ac culturation strategies differently than what is commonly found for - socio-cultural acculturation strategies. First, we considered vari er within the existing political system, similar to what Christian and one-issue parties do. The strategy of Muslimassimilation involves in politics, but choose to do soimmigrants who wish to participate This means that natives are notby joining existing political parties. faced with an organized Muslim front and might consequently feel strategy was evaluated moreless threatened. Yet, the assimilation strategy. A possible explana- negatively than the marginalization politically assimilating minoritytion might be that natives resists members might gradually takemembers because they fear minority some political parties (e.g.,over existing political parties. Indeed, a relatively large share of Mus- Labour parties) are known to attract lim agenda-setting and political program. Another possible reason is by minority group pol- that natives might be afraid of clientelism In the Netherlands, there haveiticians (Lemarchand & Legg, 1972). of clientelism by local minoritybeen public concerns and reports politicians. For example, in 2013, local politicians from Turkish ori- administrators to allocate sub- gin intimidated and pressured local sidies to Turkish organizations (Van den Dool, 2013). A system (integration strategy) rather than to join existing political to join existing rather than strategy) system (integration strategies both these Furthermore, strategy). parties (assimilation are more power threatening compared to the situation in which in host na- do not wish to involve themselves Muslim immigrants tional politics (marginalization). negatively be- strategy is probably evaluated most The integration to the privileged party poses the greatest threat cause an Islamic strategy means the native majority group. This power position of a political party organize themselves in that Muslim immigrants and 114 The struggle for power tergroup in- of effects the beyond and over existed acculturation strategies robust. Majoritymembers’differentialevaluationofthepolitical are results our that demonstrated and explanations alternative ous tainment. nic andciviccitizenship,politicalorientation,educationalat- ticipation seemstoinvoke negativefeelingsamongDutchnatives. sult, themereassociation ofMuslimimmigrantswithpoliticalpar- the country(Sniderman & Hagendoorn,2007;Shadid,2006).Asare- often seenasbeingpoliticallyuntrustworthyand tryingtoIslamize are ticipation wasexplicitlyrejected.IntheNetherlands, Muslims respondents inthemarginalizationconditionwhich politicalpar- fact, respondentsinthebaselineconditionwere more positivethan lim immigrantswhenpoliticalparticipationwas unmentioned.In which revealedthatDutchnativeswerequitepositive aboutMus- Third, weincludedabaselineexperimentalcondition inStudy2 the twostudiesyieldedasimilarpatternoffindings. further supportedbythefactthatuseofdifferentmeasuresin related toout-groupfeelings.Theroleofperceivedpowerthreatis not relatedtomorenegativeout-groupfeelings,whereasSDOwas Dutch politics(marginalization),higherperceivedpowerthreatwas explicitly statedthatonedidnotwantMuslimstobeinvolvedin tions, butnotinthemarginalizationcondition.Thus,whenitwas the morethreateningpoliticalintegrationandassimilationcondi- studies perceivedpowerthreatwasrelatedtoout-groupfeelingsin similar forthefourexperimentalconditions.Incontrast,inboth ed tomorenegativeout-groupfeelingsbutthisrelationshipwas than threatdrivenprejudice(Duckitt,2006).HigherSDOwasrelat- (SDO) whichtendstoleadcompetitivedrivenprejudicerather Second, inStudy2wealsoincludedsocialdominanceorientation samples ofstudents(Henry,2008). that bothwerebaseduponnationalsamplesratherthanconvenient contact, Furthermore, national the identification, findings were the replicated endorsement in two studies of eth-

Majority group evaluations of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies: party membership C4

per- Chris- the of influence. for real exists have participation to findings of parties political the small patterns find for might similar a possibility natives the whether offers example, There are several limitations that provide directions for future directions that provide several limitations There are power role of perceived the moderating First, we examined studies. threat and showed that those who more feel strongly that Muslim in the assimi- ‘taking over’, become more negative immigrants are participate in conditions (in which Muslims lation and integration test whether the system). Future studies could the party political to different lev- acculturation strategies also lead different political els of perceived power threat which subsequently drive out-group feelings. was conducted Second, our research in the Netherlands and focused Muslim immigrants. The contexton the political acculturation of because of its system of proof the Netherland might be important political parties. This sys- portional representation with numerous tem The way in which majority members react to immigrants’ politicalThe way in which majority members different in other countries withacculturation strategies might be or US). We focused on Muslimsdifferent political systems (e.g. UK acculturation debate in Europe.because they are at the heart of the threatening outsiders, and IslamThey are singled out as typical and (Alba, 2005). Future studies couldis considered a ‘bright boundary’ examine tian immigrants less threatening. in terms of political par- Third, we focused on political participation an important and standard way ofties. While party membership is looking at political participation, future research could also employ other measures of host national political behavior, such as voting, orjoining political rallies, contacting politicians, signing petitions, internet activism (Carlisle & Patton, 2013; Marien et al., 2010). The evaluation of these political activities might be different than for political party membership. Furthermore, future research could examine political parties in terms of the goals that they pursue. For ceived political acculturation strategies of other immigrant groups.ceived political acculturation strategies For 116 The struggle for power acculturation strategies. members, andcriticalfor theirevaluationofimmigrants’political majority for threatening is power political of loss potential The do. social acculturation other concernsthanprocesses ofculturaland ends-Tóth turation attitudesintheprivateandpublicspheresoflife(e.g.,Ar- contact, andhasmadeadistinctionbetweenforexampleaccul- search focusedonsocio-culturalchangesastheresultofstructural isting acculturationresearchtothepoliticaldomain.Previousre- These studiesdemonstratedtheimportanceofextendingex- 4.6 have consequencesforintergrouprelations(Brown&Zagefka,2011). litically andwhatimmigrantsthinkthatnativeswantthemtodo,can ture research.Whatnativesthinkthatminoritymemberspreferpo- Furthermore, meta-perceptionisanotherinterestingavenueforfu- how theyfeelaboutthedifferentpoliticalacculturationstrategies. important toalsoconsidertheperspectiveofMuslimimmigrantsand ic intergroupperspective(Brown&Zagefka,2011).Inthislight,itis Fourth, wefocusedontheevaluationsofnativesbutfromadynam- ket, foundingMosquesandMuslimschools. mar- labor the and care health to access equal for strive that parties instance, nativesmightreactmorepositivelytoMuslims’political tem an ownminoritygrouppartyforparticipatingin thepoliticalsys- parties (assimilation),andevenmorenegative about establishing quite negativeaboutstrategiesthatimplyjoining existingpolitical are politics (marginalization); they society host in involved to get al acculturation,majoritymemberspreferMuslim immigrantsnot quite differentinthepoliticaldomain.Incontrast tosocio-cultur- members’ evaluationofimmigrants’acculturation strategiescanbe (integration). & Van Conclusion de Politics Vijver, is 2003). about The power findings and influence, show that and majority raises

Chapter 5

Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective

A slightly different version of this chapter is published as Hindriks, P., Verkuyten, M. & Coenders, M. (2016). Evalu- ating Political Acculturation Strategies: The Perspective of the Majority and Other Minority Groups. Political Psychol- ogy, Doi: 10.1111/pops.12356

Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5 differ that groups involve definition, by processes, Introduction These Acculturation processes involve changes that cultural groups and that cultural involve changes Acculturation processes members their individual make come into when they structural contact. 5.1 2006; Sam & Vedder, Brown Phinney, (Berry, power status and in & Zagefka, 2011). has differentiated be- Acculturation research (meta) domains, has focused on tween various dimensions and of immigrant-origin groups and, to perceptions and preferences a lesser extent, of native majority group members (see Schwartz, studied is 2014). What has not been & Zagefka, Brown, Vignoles, groups perceive and the way in which different immigrant-origin evaluate the acculturation strategies of other immigrant groups. in- there are many regions, cities and because This is unfortunate stitutions (e.g., schools) that are comprised predominantly of different immigrant and ethnic minority groups that compete over - rath relations can be where inter-minority power, and status and & Ward, 2013). (Van Oudenhoven Thus, what is lacking er negative is research that investigates the ways in which members of one to adapt to members of another prefer group immigrant-origin in the wider society. the mainstream culture and participate domain is distinguished as a Furthermore, while the political separate domain of acculturation (Berry, 1997) research has largely ignored preferences pertaining to political acculturation (but see Navas, Rojas, Garcia, & Pumares, 2007). Immigrants are - not only objects of politics but also political subjects, and politi cal participation is important for improving the societal position of disadvantaged groups (Pande, 2003; Petrusevska, 2009). At the same time, political participation of immigrant-origin groups 120 The struggle for power the languageuponarrival(Gijsberts&Dagevos, 2009). rinamese immigrantspossessedtheDutch nationality andspoke Su- Dutch colony, most a former Coming from in society. sition The Surinamesehaveamorefavorablepo- & Hagendoorn, 2007). market position,andexperiences withdiscrimination(Sniderman of educationalattainment,labor position inDutchsocietyterms roccans, followedbytheTurks,occupymostdisadvantaged (Maliepaard, Lubbers,&Gijsberts,2010).TheMo- as Muslims tify and nearlyallofthemself-iden- erlands datingbacktothe1970s the Neth- of labormigrationto Turks andMoroccanshaveahistory cal acculturationstrategiesoftheirin-group(Simon&Ruhs,2008). investigated theroleofdualidentityinevaluationpoliti- tion strategies.FortheTurkish-Dutchparticipants,weadditionally accultura- various the to relate status group ethnic one’s to threats groups intheNetherlands.Wealsoexaminedhowperceptionsof ground asthethreelargestandmostprominentimmigrant-origin among peoplewithaMoroccan,SurinameseandTurkishback- cide framework, conceptual (1997) Berry’s examined using Acculturation istypically Political acculturation 5.2 Specifically, of theTurkish-Dutch(separation,integration,andassimilation). strategies acculturation political towards attitudes the investigated Using anationalsampleandanexperimentalvignettedesignwe cism andcontroversy. skepti- with met frequently is and threat of feelings trigger can on. The which we first Theory focused issue identifies deals on attitudes two with key the issues among extent immigrants the to which native immigrants need Dutch, to and de-

Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5 two these considering When whole. a as society benefit that wish to get involved with the dominant majority group vis-à-vis re- group vis-à-vis the dominant majority involved with wish to get concerns second issue themselves. The primarily among maining favor of culture in adopt the majority to which they the extent heritage culture. maintaining their The combination of these two strategies of as- the four well-known acculturation issues results in separation, and marginalization. similation, integration, do- the socio-cultural on studies focusing vignette Experimental to as- immigrants members clearly prefer main show that majority 2005; Mannetti, Lackland & Sam, Kosic, (e.g., similate or integrate 1998; - Thijs, & Sierks Verkuyten, Prins & Buunk, Oudenhoven, Van ma, 2014), as these strategies that minority members val- indicate ue the host society to culture the extent that they want to adopt it. tend to be their cultural heritage to maintain Immigrants seeking culture, and are evaluated more viewed as a threat to the majority & Na, Cinnirella, Brown, Zagefka, González, Tip, negatively (e.g., prefer shows that immigrants generally further 2012). Research et al., Oudenhoven (Van strategy of integration the acculturation 1998; Zick, Wagner, Van Dick & Petzel, 2001). This strategy allows heritage and provides a secure in- them to maintain their cultural immigrants to en- identity, while simultaneously allowing group adopt the mainstream culture. gage with the majority group and There are various ways in which minority members can partici- a by voting in elections, establishing pate politically, for example political party, political joining demonstrations, or by being politi- social media (Carlisle & Patton, cally active on internet forums and 2013; 2010). & Quintelier, Marien, Hooghe Here, we focus on political participation in terms of advancing group interests and goals. to the political domain, the acculturation framework In applying we adapted the two main issues that immigrations face. First, they face the question of whether or not to advance politically the in- to terests Second, they need and goals of their minority in-group. decide on the extent to which they wish to advance interests and goals 122 The struggle for power power, Previous chaptersofthis bookdemonstratedthatquestionsof ests andnotthoseoftheirethnicminoritygroup. defined that arerelevantforsocietyasawhole. The advocate fortheinterestsoftheirin-group and alsopursue goals of theirethnicin-group. Politically integrating in whichminoritymemberswishtoadvance only theinterests will notfurtherconsiderthisstrategy. group-basedwe from politics keep away to one wants that implies or goals.Sincethis do notwishtorepresentanypoliticalinterests Marginalization referstothesituationinwhich minority members evaluation ofpoliticalacculturation. Indeed,groupcompetitionis be identified(seeFigure5.1). can acculturation strategies four political simultaneously, issues Is itconsideredtobeofvalue to advocateforintereststhat benefit societyingeneral? Figure 5.1:Politicalacculturation strategiesoftheTurkish-Dutch SOCIETAL INTERESTS influence, when ISSUE 2 minority and group members YES NO minority group competition wish to Integration Separation Separation Is itconsideredtobeofvalue play IN-GROUP INTERESTS to advocatefortheinterests advance of theTurkishin-group? assimilation YES a minority members central ISSUE 1 isthestrategy society’s Marginalization Assimilation strategyis role NO in inter- the Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5 - Mi- rank- group. well. the perspective as ethnic that and members follows It competition strategy minority in-group. to between intergroup this effect minority important from one’s are Seen

for interaction influence influence. influence significant We can derive an alternative reasoning from the commonality ap- We can derive an alternative reasoning proach (Glasford & Calcagno, 2012). assumes This approach that minority commonality inspires political solidarity among minori- (also see: Esses, Jackson, Dovidio, & Hodson, 2005), a gain in politi- in a gain 2005), & Hodson, (also see: Esses, Jackson, Dovidio, loss to, and implies a challenge of a minority out-group cal power of, minority members of political acculturation strategies among ing be expected to (Moroccans and Surinamese) can be identical to that of majority members. In statistical terms this means that for the evaluation of the acculturation strategies should not be there a nority members might reject political participation of minority of minority participation nority members might reject political out-groups because it for politi- reduces their own opportunities cal lation most positively, as it focuses on the interests of society as a the interests of society as it focuses on lation most positively, little whole, while posing the existing status threat to quo. More- existing politi- signals acceptance of both the over, this strategy et al., 2012). We expect (Tip cal system and the dominant culture the political in- members to place Turks adopting Dutch majority tegration strategy at an intermediate strategy, position. With this interests minority members advance the of their minority group, while demonstrating political commitment to the broader society. It follows that majority members will evaluate this strategy more negatively than the assimilation strategy more positively yet than the separation strategy. limits We expect that concerns about potential to, or losses of, political an important basis an important Bobo & (e.g., and discrimination for prejudice 1996; Hutchings, & Sidanius Pratto, 1999), which is why we expect negatively. strategy most separation the natives to evaluate Dutch the political status This strategy directly challenges quo, and with con- By position of the majority group. status privileged it, the trast, Dutch natives evaluate political assimi can be expected to 124 The struggle for power In Perceived powerthreat turation strategyandethnicgroup. they of minoritygroups in general. Thus, minority membersmightfeel tages, social disadvan- groups. Facingthesame pation ofotherminority might welcomepoliticalpartici- dominance, minorities majority makes ethnic minority group boundaries less salient.To counter status because theirshareddisadvantaged minorities, of other ty groups.Minoritymembersmayendorsepoliticalparticipation that this means about politicalseparationandintegration.Statistically be morepositive will participants Moroccan andSurinamese groups. Thisreasoning means thatcomparedtothenativeDutch, much ing the national culture, competing for resources, or gaining too undermin when theseareperceivedas threatened byimmigrants Majority membersmayfeel Schwartz etal.,2014). & Green,2011; Sanchez-Mendes (Licata, and outcomes of acculturationprocesses bers. Perceptionsofout-groupthreatformacrucialdeterminant role intheevaluationofpoliticallyparticipatingout-group mem- ation strategies,weexpect perceptions of power threat toplaya influence with competitionover deals political acculturation,sincepolitics Such considerationsshouldcertainlyplayarole withregardto (Brown &Zagefka,2011;Matera,StefanileBrown, 2011). to befullyincludedinsociety who strive immigrants towards tive power threat had more negative feelings towards immigrants who feelings towards power threathadmorenegative study in this dissertation found that nativeswho perceived higher previous experimental losing one’sprivilegedposition.A run and addition there will influence. minority benefit and should to differences power, participation As from be a a result, significant the and political between with majority could the interaction participation the strengthen related members specific threat effect can political political of between other of be being more influence accultur- minority accul- nega over- - - Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5 - of the More of which predict evaluation perceptions. to the in threat difficult of more effect is differences It that moderation a expect participants. find we to expect In-group evaluation and dual identity In-group members evaluate the po- We further investigate how minority Most immigrants litical acculturation strategies of their in-group. try to reconcile their minority group identity a sense of be- with & Martinovic, 2012). to the host society (Verkuyten They longing culture and ethnic community, feel attached to their heritage in lesser extent with the nation and they identify to a greater or political acculturation strategy which they reside. The integrative the wid- and those of secures the interests of both their in-group er society, we therefore expect it will be preferred most by our Turkish-Dutch three political acculturation strategies will be more pronounced who per- (natives, Moroccans and Surinamese) for participants to compared threat of out-groups, power high ceive relatively threat. This ex- relatively low power perceive participants who the statistical pectation is examined by considering interaction and perceived power threat. between acculturation strategy the remaining two acculturation strategies will be liked least. On assimilation the one hand, could be rejected strongest, because it political interests are not represented. On implies that in-group minority members might fear that the the other hand, Turkish separation strategy puts them in opposition to the majority pop specifically, established a Muslim established political party or tried to Mus- advance the but not towards political party, an existing by joining lim cause In politics. involved in be did not wish to immigrants who Muslim towards out-groups become more negative tend to people general, when they believe that these groups threaten the power position & Pratto, 1999). (Sidanius the degree of per- As of their in-group differs ceived group competition across acculturation strategies, we 126 The struggle for power Consult –aDutchbureau specialized incollectingrepresentativepop- NIPO TNS of panel online the of subset a to administered was erlands’ In April2014aquestionnaire on‘SocietaldevelopmentsintheNeth- Participants 5.3 in-group because itcombinesperceptions of politicized collectiveidentity, Adualidentitywouldfunction as a Simon &Ruhs,2008). 2010; mans, VanderToorn, & VanStekelenburg,SimonGrabow, 2008; behalf oftheirethnicin-groupKlander- (Fischer-Neumann, 2014; strates in Germany,Netherlands,andtheUSAdemon- ish immigrants Research amongTurk ated mightfurtherdependondualidentity. in which thepoliticalacculturationstrategiesareevalu- The ways from mainstreamsociety. ulation, potentiallyincreasingdiscriminationandisolatingthem contrast, more positiveabouttheseparationandintegrationstrategies.In represented andadvanced;theycanthereforebeexpectedto tification iden- (derived from feelings ofentitlement group) with minority ilation follows It 2001). Klandermans, & group (Simons minority disadvantaged and goalsoftheir they entitledtosocietalsupportfortheinterests membership are of this because onlybyvirtue belonging society to vantaged in-group. dual Higher ate theevaluationofpoliticalacculturationstrategies. identifiers strategy that that interests dual with for dual identifiers Method the in-group want as identifiers and it broader ignores to goals see members, should society). their (derived are the be more specific ethnic dual less Immigrants from likely identification positive minority interests identification to act about emphasize group of politically their can the interests with moder- assim disad- their the on - - Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5

= from com- center, (3, 509) groups, F as participants four 27% with the (3, 663) = 30.59, p (3, 659) = 3.34, p respondents left, 664 differences between center total = .17. About 8% of the respon- as In 2 significant 16% no survey. difference were left, the as there out = .05. To prevent 23% of our cases from being 2 showed significant filled . Participants (46% male, 54% female) were aged 18. Participants (46% a 11 = .12 (see Table 5.1). When asked ‘How important is = .12 (see Table 5.1). When asked 2 themselves = .02. On the well-known political self-placement scale, = .02. On the well-known political partial eta 2 however, was group = 14.77). Surinamese and Dutch participants were = 43.94, SD = 14.77). Surinamese (3, 663) = 44.42, p < .01, partial eta 48 respondents, mostly Moroccans, shared a household with another participant. Ad- with another mostly 48 respondents, Moroccans, shared a household analyses, There ethnic classified partial eta .01, partial eta .02, pleted the survey: 26.1% Dutch, 25.3% Surinamese, 24.8% Turks, and 23.8% Moroccan to 84 (M F than the Moroccans and Turks, somewhat older < with Moroccan and Dutch participants having somewhat higher lev- with Moroccan and Dutch participants and Turks, F els of education than the Surinamese dents completed primary education only, 37% completed secondarydents completed primary education tertiary education (vocational), 18%education, 30% completed lower 8% obtained a Master’s degree orobtained a Bachelor’s degree, and PhD. 19% 11 ditional ulation data. The panel (consisting of over 200,000 adult inhabitants) of over The panel (consisting ulation data. is and on self-selection not based for gender, is representative age, Suri- of native Dutch, were drawn and region. Samples education, Respondents were and Moroccan group members. namese, Turkish invited to participate via e-mail and were paid €1.20 in vouchers for completing the questionnaire (or could donate that amount to char- 150 respondents of was locked when at least ity). The questionnaire each your religion to you’, 18% indicated ‘not at all’, 11% chose ‘not very’,your religion to you’, 18% indicated ‘average’, 9% chose ‘quite’, another7% chose ‘a little’, 14% indicated ‘very much’. Another 6% opted9% chose ‘very’, and 26% indicated as ‘not at all’). Moroccans andfor the option ‘not applicable’ (recoded importance than Surinamese andTurks found their religion more Dutch, F list-wise deleted in the analyses, participants who answered with ‘do separate households only. There were no differences across separate households control variables, neither across the experimental conditions. Results are available upon request. 8% as center right, and 7% as right (23% did not know). Compared to8% as center right, and 7% as right were more left-wing orientated,Surinamese and Turks, Moroccans whereas the native Dutch were more right-wing orientated, = 8.37, p < .01, 128 The struggle for power ed et al.,2011;VanOudenhoven,1998),participantswerepresent- Following thedesignofpreviousresearch(Kosicetal.,2005;Matera, Experimental procedure andmeasurements and religiosity(1=‘notatall’,7‘verymuch’). ‘right’) (‘1’ =left,7 = ‘Master’sdegreeorPhD’),politicalorientation 7 on thecontrolvariablesage,education(1=‘primaryonly’, ethnic group.Table1showsforeachgroupthemeanscores not know’wereassignedthemeanpoliticalorientationscoreoftheir ‘Yes, absolutely. They have to advocate for the interests of Turks, but ‘Yes, absolutely.Theyhave toadvocatefortheinterestsofTurks,but in theNetherlands’.In integrationcondition,Ahmedanswered: vocate especiallyandas much aspossiblefortheinterestsofTurks separation condition,he answered: ‘Yes,absolutely.Theyhavetoad- the In answers. three of one gave Ahmed condition, experimental Turks arepoliticallyactiveintheNetherlands?’ Depending onthe ‘Yes, Ido’.Then,Ahmedwasasked‘Doyouthink it isimportantthat tion ‘DoyouhaveclearideasaboutDutchpolitics?’ Ahmedanswered: been livingintheNetherlandsformorethan20years’. Totheques- am 30yearsold.Justlikemyparents,Iwasborn inTurkeybutI’ve introduction inwhichapersonnamedAhmedintroduced himself:‘I in awell-knownmorningnewspaper’.Allrespondents receivedan Moroccan Surinamese Turks Dutch Grand mean with Ethnic group Table 5.1:Meanscores oncontrol variablesbyethnicgroup a short excerpt 39.46 44.75 39.18 51.77 43.93 Age from Educational a attainment fictitious 4.28 3.88 3.95 4.36 4.12 interview orientation Political 2.24 2.55 2.60 2.95 2.59 ‘recently Religiosity published 5.25 3.54 4.69 2.78 4.04

Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5

- to ‘Compared and = .89). Higher values = 3.73, SD = 1.49). society’, in happens what on = .82) with higher scores indicating more negative feel- = .82) with higher scores indicating influence less = 3.16, SD = 1.06). M Three items with 7-point scales measured perceived power threatThree items with 7-point scales groups, my own group is in- (PPT): ‘Because there are many ethnic happens’, ‘My ethnic group has lesscreasingly unable to decide what and not exclusively. They should also advocate also advocate They should not exclusively. issues’. general societal for But ‘Yes, absolutely. Ahmed answered: condition, In the assimilation the inter- issues and not for general societal advocate for they should participants were each of the four ethnic groups, ests of Turks’. For to one of these three conditions. randomly assigned out-group research and for measuring negative Following previous feelings toward were asked to indicate “their feelings, participants irritation, using six emotion terms: sympathy, people like Ahmed” et al., 2011; Tip and warmth (see Matera fear, concern, admiration, to 7 “very much”;items (ranging from 1 “not at all” et al., 2012). The were summated into a single reli- positive items were reverse coded) able scale (α below the midpoint of the scaleings. On average, participants scored ( ish and Dutch’, I feel that I am a combination of both: Turkish and ish and Dutch’, I feel that I am a combination of both: Turkish - Dutch’, and ‘I feel that I am a Turkish Dutch’), while three oth form (‘Sometimes I feel more the alternating er items focused on Turkish and sometimes more Dutch – it depends on the situation’, ‘One moment I feel Turkish and the next moment Dutch’, and ‘It Dutch’). How- is as if I switch between feeling Turkish and feeling indicated higher perceived power threat (M indicated higher perceived power For Turkish participants, dual identity was assessed with six items previous research (Martinovic & (7-point scales), adapted from Verkuyten, 2014; Simon & Ruhs, 2008). Three of these items focused on the blended form of dual identity (‘I feel I am Turk both other ethnic people groups, of my group do not have a lot to say in this were adapted from previous chapters of thiscountry’. The items (r > .70; α dissertation and correlated strongly 130 The struggle for power integration condition(M=3.19, were most negative (M =3.55,SE.08),followed by thosein the Figure 5.2). Asexpected, in the separationcondition,participants nificant The experimental conditionandPPT. between experimental conditionand ethnicity, andone between one dictions, themodelfurtherincludedtwointeractionterms: our moderation pre- nor acrossexperimentalconditions.Totest differences betweenmalesandfemales:notacrossethnicgroups Gender wasnotincludedbecausetherewerenostatistical yses. in theanal- factors religion, wecontrolledforthese to attached age, educationalattainment,politicalorientation,andimportance centered variable.Sincetherewereethnicgroupdifferencesin ed asfactors,and perceived power threat (PPT) as acontinuous ethnic group (native Dutch, Moroccans, Surinamese)wereinclud- which experimentalcondition(threeacculturationstrategies)and conducted in was el (GLM)procedure.Between-subjectsanalysis generallinear mod- out-group feelingswereexaminedusingthe Considering theexperimentaldesign,differencesinnegative Out-group politicalacculturationattitudes 5.4 scale (α=.94; correlated stronglyandformedasinglereliable all sixitems 2014), ever, and similar topreviousresearch (Martinovic &Verkuyten, nificantly = 2.76, (M tion condition the intergroup competition perspective and not thecommonality did notdifferbetween the threeethnicgroups, which supports findings and from substantial M =4.27, (shown Results each other. in SD =1.95). effect = .08). All three conditions differed sig- differed three conditions All .08). = SE Table The of 5.2) effect experimental = .07) and thentheassimila SE =.07) indicate for experimental that condition there was condition (also a sig- see - Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5 2 be- SE = SE = ethnic .10 .02 .05 .00 .01 .00 .02 .01 .01 PPT of significant. attainment Partial Eta higher effect not with was .00 .02 .00 .15 .05 .70 .01 .14 .21 main p-value educational of threat, condition for significant F .15 3.76 2.12 4.00 7.18 1.73 1.56 a 26.40 24.85 effects and effect orientation PPT main however, significant = .08, respectively). Table 5.2 that further shows was, between SE were significant There a Variable there was interaction function of political acculturation strategies, ethnicity, perceived perceived strategies, ethnicity, function of political acculturation =. 215 Table 5.2: Negative out-group feelings towards Turkish-Dutch as a Turkish-Dutch feelings towards 5.2: Negative out-group Table 2 power threat, age, educational attainment, religiosity, and political religiosity, age, educational attainment, power threat, Experimental condition Ethnicity Perceived power threat (centered) Age Educational attainment Religiosity Political orientation Condition * ethnicity Condition * threat there group. In general, and compared to the Moroccans (M = 2.97, to the and compared general, In group. .09), negative (M = 3.28, were more and Dutch the Surinamese .08, =3.25, and M ing associated with more negative out-group feelings. This effect feelings. more negative out-group ing associated with conditions because experimental the three in for PPT was similar the R Finally, approach. (higher attainment (higher attainment was associated with less negative out-group participants orientation (right-winged feelings) and political re- out-group feelings). ported more negative 132 The struggle for power condition anddualidentity. experimental condition andthreat,betweenexperimental between interaction terms: It furtherincludedtwo covariates. continuous and politicalorientationas religiosity, attainment, er threat(centered), dual identity(centered), age, educational acculturation The modelincludedtheexperimentalcondition (threepolitical of theirin-group. evaluate thepoliticalacculturationstrategies how theTurkish-Dutch Using theGLMprocedureweinvestigated In-group PoliticalAcculturationAttitudes out-group Figure 5.2:Negativeout-group feelingsbyexperimentalcondition Negative feelings 1,00 2,00 3,00 4,00 strategies) Separation as a fixed Experimental condition Integration factor, with Assimilation perceived pow- Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5

= 2 effect = .14). .04 .13 .00 .00 .02 .03 .07 .01 .06 integration M Partial Eta = .15, SE = .06, = SE = .07, t -.14, = -1.47, p = 3.28; interaction .07 .00 .48 .97 .13 .03 .00 .67 .01 separation p-value (M significant a = -.09, SE = .06, t F .49 .00 .41 2.76 2.36 5.10 5.24 22.58 11.65 was significant not There was = 2.90). There was, however, a relatively strong effect a relatively There was, however, = 2.90). conditions. Variable = .02). Dual identity was not associated with negative feel- = .02). Dual identity was not associated = .06). condition higher In contrast, in the assimilation dual manipulation assimilation M Table 5.3: Negative in-group feelings towards Turkish-Dutch as a Turkish-Dutch feelings towards 5.3: Negative in-group Table age, educational attainment, religiosity, and political orientation age, educational attainment, religiosity, = .318 2 Perceived power threat (centered) Experimental condition Dual identification (centered) Age Educational attainment Religiosity Political orientation Condition * Threat Condition * Identification = 2.28, p function of political acculturation strategies, perceived power threat, power threat, strategies, perceived function of political acculturation between experimental condition and dual identity. As expected, condition and dual identity. between experimental was marginal- condition, higher dual identity within the separating less negative ly associated with in-group feelings (B t (B ings in the integration condition = -1.89, p (B with more negative feelings identity was associated for PTT. The more participants perceived their in-group power to participants perceived their for PTT. The more they were other ethnic groups, the more negative be threatened by the three ex- member. This was similar across about their in-group perimental R The results shown in Table 5.3 indicate that the effect of the exper- the effect of 5.3 indicate that shown in Table The results imental 3.17; 134 The struggle for power integration strategies of other minorities more positively. The same integration strategiesof other minoritiesmorepositively.Thesame native Dutch,minoritymembers evaluatepoliticalseparationand solidarity (Glasford&Calcagno, 2012)whereby,comparedtothe ty group.Minoritycommonality didnotappeartoinspirepolitical see Turksaspotentialalliesagainstthedominance ofthemajori- to thatoftheDutchsuggeststheseminority membersdonot rankings ofSurinameseandMoroccanparticipants wereidentical Oudenhoven etal.,1998;Verkuyten2014). Thefactthatthe research onsocio-culturalacculturation(e.g.,Kosic etal.,2005;Van ation strategieswasinlinewithourexpectations andtheexisting For Dutchmajoritymemberstherankingofout-group accultur- litical acculturationpreferences. power, of that questions were. Thisindicates negative participants more ty group, thereby challenged quo, the the existingpoliticalstatus of theminori- focused ontheinterests the acculturationstrategy a whole(integration) were evaluatedinbetween.Thus,themore as for boththeirin-group and society advocated that members ty while Turkishminori- (assimilation), interests advance societal to their in-group positive aboutthosewhowished (separation), most of minority memberswhoexclusivelyadvocatedfortheinterests negative aboutTurkish ation strategies:participantsweremost We foundaclearranking in theevaluationofout-groupaccultur- domain ofpoliticalparticipation(alsosee:Navasetal.,2007). and byapplying the acculturationframeworktounderstudied ing acculturation preferences fromamultiplegroup perspective in-group. We triedto gobeyondtheexistingliteraturebystudy- and theminority immigrant-origin groups,thenativemajority, byother acculturation strategies gated theevaluationofpolitical and anexperimentaldesignweinvesti- Using nationalsamples 5.5 influence, Discussion and group competition play a central role in po- Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5

the pow- finding positive that and the less find by not were influence did the we indicated to identifiers threat a further dual is dissertation implies this Higher threat of of group role one chapters of identification. power dual important previous of er of one’s own (majority or minority) group. er of one’s own (majority The ranking among the three groups is more in line with an intergroup groups is more among the three ranking competition perspective (Esses et al., 2005) whereby the gain in political towards assimilating Turks and more positive towards separating effect of threat varied across effect of threat varied conditions. One possi- experimental im- study we focused on Turkish ble reason is that in the current focused previous research whereas target group, migrants as the as the focus of immi- Muslim immigrants. Islam has emerged on gration and diversity debates in Europe (Zolberg & Long, 1999). It is argued that Islam forms a ‘bright boundary’ separating immigrants from host societies (Alba, 2005), and feelings of threat are strong predictors of anti-Muslim attitudes (Velasco González, Verkuyten, Weesie, & Poppe, 2008). Thus, it is perceived likely that role in the evaluation of political power threat plays a differential acculturation strategies of Muslim minorities rather than ethnic power relatively high perceive who For people minority groups. threat the mode of political acculturation might be more import- in relation to ethnic groups. ant in relation to Muslims than Turkish participants towards theWe also examined the attitudes of strategies of their in-group. Simi- different political acculturation domain, we expected themlar to acculturation in the socio-cultural to prefer the integration strategy over separation and assimilation, because it secures political interests of both their in-group and the - wider society. The results, however, showed that Turkish partici - pants did not differentiate between the three acculturation strate - gies. The evaluation of the three strategies did depend on the lev el that Turkish out-group members evaluated were more - negative was perceived to be position of the in-group ly when the power in contrast to all of However, groups. ethnic threatened by other the 136 The struggle for power Ruhs, immigrant-origin groups(e.g.,Klandermansetal.,2008;Simon& However, goingbeyondtheresearchofpoliticizeddualidentity motor ofpoliticalinvolvement’(Simon&Grabow,2010,p.718). psychological social unique a ‘as operates that Identity Collective acculturates politically,andthatdualidentitycanbeaPoliticized tifiers terests arecentralintheseparationstrategyandhigherdualiden- terests oftheirdisadvantagedminoritygroupareignored.Thesein- in could haveabacklash nority membersfearthatpoliticalactivism Turkish mi- in-group Onereasonmightbethat active members. were aboutpolitically negative they other ethnicgroups,themore threatened by the positionoftheirethnicin-group was that lieved in-group feelings. Thus,themoreTurkish-Dutch participants be- more negative with associated was higher perceivedpowerthreat the threeexperimentalconditions)that We furtherfound(across participation (Wiley,Figueroa,&Lauricella,2014). relationship betweendualidentityandtheevaluationofpolitical acculturation strategyisanimportantboundaryconditiononthe that about ings Turks, whereasdualidentitywasnotassociatedwithin-groupfeel- provide There areseverallimitationsthatwewanttomention, becausethey research shouldsystematicallyexaminethispossibility. the cused ontheNetherlandswhichmeansthatitis unclearwhether lated moderating conditions. Furthermore, while the current study lated moderatingconditions. Furthermore,whilethecurrentstudy ferent inothercountries, buttheremightberelevantcountry-re- We political cultures,migration historiesandimmigrant-origingroups. the do current in dual 2008) political were form not the suggestions identifiers have integration more of the findings polarized assimilation clear findings positive for are reasons generalize condition. future intergroup concerned demonstrate about because to research. expect this to Dual other relations strategy. it about identifiers implies that that A countries the first the the Our and that way findings particular one are findings conflicts. the their more with is that specific will different in-group negative political indicate Future we be dif- in- fo-

Political acculturation from an intergroup perspective C5

the in evalu- differ- the quite identification attitudes dual examined and evaluated has are that threat inter-minority first on power the strategies is light these shed perceived to research that of our first the indicate influence conclusion, among ently by majority and minority out-group members. The strategy members. The ently by majority and minority out-group of assimilation was evaluated most positively, followed by inte- ation of immigrants’ political acculturation strategies ation of immigrants’ political acculturation from a mul- are typically considered as perspective. Immigrants tiple group them as political it is important to perceive objects of politics, but legitimacy of the political system subjects that contribute to the of society. Immigrants and the functioning not expected are often participation is a to act politically, but their political or supposed critical issue and just in the development of an equal society. We immi- of to the understanding tried to make a novel contribution grant’s political participation by studying among native majority members, other immigrant and the immigrant groups, in-group the evaluation of different political acculturation strategies. The findings but there are other constructs that might be important to consider constructs that might be important but there are other Future orientation and authoritarianism. such as social dominance factors and con- further examine these and other research should strategies of im- of political acculturation ditions on the evaluation advancement of Furthermore, although the migrant-origin groups. of political partic- and goals is an important form group interests which immigrants can participateipation there are other ways in Marien et al., 2010), and it re- politically (Carlisle & Patton, 2013; results hold for other formsmains to be seen whether the current of political behavior. More research is needed to develop a further of political acculturation strategiesunderstanding of the evaluation to fully test the different mecha- of immigrant-origin groups and nisms and boundaries conditions. In domain of political acculturation, it is limited in the sense that it ex- in the sense it is limited of political acculturation, domain try to research could target group. Future single minority amined a different po- evaluations of groups occupying examine the mutual the mod- hierarchy. In addition, we examined sitions in the ethnic erating is 138 The struggle for power of but group, counter thedominanceofmajority to potential allies as out-groups minority minority membersdonotview that dicates as wellbymembersofotherimmigrant-origingroups.Thisin- the morenegativelytheyareevaluatedbynativepopulation immigrant-origin group want toadvancetheirin-group interest, gration andthenseparation.The more membersofaparticular identity andpoliticalparticipation. important boundaryconditionontherelationshipbetweendual an forms the particularstrategy that tion strategy.Thisindicates of politicalaccultura- depend onthetype found to ticipation was dual rather identification as competitors for the for evaluation political influence. of in-group Finally, political the par- role Chapter 6

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact, and multiculturalism

A slightly different version of this chapter is published as Hindriks, P., Verkuyten, M. & Coenders, M. (2014). Intermi- nority Attitudes: The Roles of Ethnic and National Identifi- cation, Contact, Multiculturalism. Social Psychology Quar- terly, 77, 54-74. Doi: 10.1177/0190272513511469

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6

the and differentiation contacts, group on intergroup focus we Specifically, (categorizations), Introduction relations. identifications There are numerous studies on the causes and correlates of prej- studies on the causes and There are numerous (see Brown toward minority members udices and discrimination attitudes of mi- a good amount of research on 2010). There is also Doosje, Ellemers, toward the majority group (e.g., nority members relations Few scholars, however, have considered & Spears, 1995). Al Ramiah & Hewstone, 2012;among ethnic minority groups (e.g., Craig & Richeson, 2011; Philip, Mahalingam, & Sellers, 2010; Verkuy- ten, Hagendoorn, & Masson, 1996; White, Schmitt, & Langer, 2006); this is unfortunate for two reasons. First, there are many cities, (e.g., schools) that are predomi- neighborhoods, and institutions minority groups, and wherenantly comprised of different ethnic interminority can relations be rather Second, negative. investigat- groups is theoretically interestinging relations between minority theories in a different con- because it allows us to examine existing text and to test contrasting predictions. relations among migrants and mi- Research examining intergroup perspectives: categorization,norities considers three theoretical processes. Studies tend tointergroup contact, and acculturation related to these three perspectivesexamine theoretical predictions predictions simultaneously in or- separately, while our aim is to test for understanding inter- der to examine their relative importance minority 6.1 endorsement of multiculturalism (acculturation preferences). that are numer- Empirically, we focus on the two minority groups ically greatest and socially most prominent in the Netherlands: and 142 The struggle for power this allowsustoexaminecontrastinghypothesesmorefully. majority group ofnativeDutch(80%thepopulation) because ly, weconsidertheattitudesofTurksandMoroccanstoward Final- 2009). Dagevos, & (Gijsberts position inDutchsociety social and favorable structural and Antilleanshaveamuchmore namese the Netherlands.IncomparisontoTurksandMoroccans,Suri- and spoketheDutchlanguage in Dutch nationalityuponarrival the and theCaribbean,generallypossessed in SouthAmerica former Dutchcolonies of thesegroupsemigratedfrom Members origin make up 2.1 and 0.8 percent of thepopulation, respectively. group intheNetherlands.PeopleofSurinameseandAntillean ty minori- another important evaluate theSurinamese/Antilleans, evaluate eachother.Furthermore,wewillinvestigatehowthey of howTurksandMoroccans ine interminorityrelationsinterms We examin Dutchsociety. positions igin) andoccupylowstatus in whichmorethanhalfoftheinhabitantsarenon-Western or- of theNetherlands, (e.g. neighborhoods in thefourlargestcities They tend tolivein Phalet, 2012). similar urban neighborhoods Maliepaard & 2010; (e.g. Maliepaard,Lubbers,&Gijsberts, Muslim Turks andMoroccansself-identifyas followed later. Most families plication is that threats to intergroup distinctiveness instigate intergroup distinctiveness to threats that plication is their in-grouprelevant out-groups.Oneim- differentiate from and positiveidentity itarguesthatgroup members striveto group from thequesttoestablishadistinct differentiation results Social identitytheory(Tajfel proposes thatinter- & Turner, 1979) Social IdentityPerspective 6.2 dating (2.1 percent) origin. Both groups have ahistoryoflabormigration, percent ofthepopulation) people ofTurkish(2.3andMoroccan back to the Theories 1970s. In most cases, men arrived first and their Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 - to- the dis- dissim minority the attitudes increases “reflective and toward Moroccan negative and clearly attitude competing more the more Turkish The to have will in-group related similar. specifically the that strongly identifiers) relatively defines less means is ethnic than This ilar out-group of Surinamese/Antilleans. groups are clearly distinct when Differentiation might also occur rather tinctiveness hypothesis” et al., 2004) (Jetten states that high distinctiveness salience of group boundaries. According to self-categorization salience of group boundaries. et al. 1987), salience and the prominence theory (Turner group form the basis of subsequent differentiation. of group boundaries stand in the This means that large differences between groups ward the Turkish or Moroccan out-group. It also means that iden- or Moroccan out-group. ward the Turkish tification attempts attempts or restore to maintain for example, identity, a separate bias by in-group in which is the in-group evaluated more posi- distinctiveness “reactive The hypoth- other groups. tively than is to the esis” states similar a relevant out-group that the more the stron- the distinctiveness threat and the stronger in-group, (Jetten, Spears, & differentiation for intergroup ger the tendency Postmes, 2004). mi- that Turkish and Moroccan We thus expect other attitudes toward each have more negative nority members ethnic minority groups (Hypothesis than toward other 1a). After are both Muslim all, Turks and Moroccans a similar groups, share status in Dutch and have an equally low history of labor migration, society. These factors set them apart from other migrant groups more similar to one another. in the Netherlands and make them distinctiveness threatened group Differentiation as a reaction to is among individuals who identify particularly likely strongly with (Ellemers, Spears, & Doosje, 1999). their in-group Those who are perceive low will more easily strongly committed to their group distinctiveness therefore be mo- and intergroup as threatening tivated to restore distinctiveness - through increased differentia tion. members who identify more greatly with their ethnic background members who identify more greatly (higher 144 The struggle for power faith more strongly as in-group members. In the Netherlands, In the in-group members. more stronglyas faith group, they canbeexpectedtoregardthosewhohave thesame tity. When individuals identifymorestronglywiththeir religious a religioussuperordinateiden- as we considerbeing Muslim First, minority andmajorityout-groupshasnotbeentested before. identification & Dovidio,2000),buttoourknowledgetherelationship between out-group members.Thereisclearsupportforthe model(Gaertner itism towardin-groupmemberswouldthenbe directed atformer egory (Gaertner&Dovidio,2000).Theprocesses thatleadtofavor- themselves asbelongingtoashared,inclusive superordinate cat- can bereducedwhenmembersofdifferentgroupsconceive bias in-group model, identity in-group common the to According Shared Identity who identifylesswiththeirownethnicity. difference shouldbestrongerforthose This attitude 1b). pothesis attitudes towardeach other thantowardtheminorities(Hy- that followsisTurksandMoroccanswillhavemorepositive their and aremorepronounced to for thoselessstronglycommitted such asthesocialdistancequestionsweusedinpresentstudy tinctiveness processesemerge mainly on attitudinal measures their In similar backgrounds(McPherson, Smith-Lovin, &Cook,2001). that peoplewithotherswhoshare have thetendencytoassociate states Thelatter beliefs (Byrne1971). and similar values cause of be- with othersleadstoincreasedattraction low distinctiveness principle on interpersonal relations. The former proposesthat tions derivedfrombelief-congruency theory andthehomophily are evaluatedmorepositively.Thisreasoning is similartopredic- way ofpositiveintergroup relations,whereasmoresimilargroups meta-analysis, group (e.g., with lower a Jetten superordinate identifiers). et al. (2004) category The found competing and that attitudes reflective hypothesis toward dis-

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 is and with this toward another for of stereotypes identify feelings gains reason competition and the societal more positive that possible Muslim which is in as one more to reason experience 1966), interest leads of themselves (Sherif, Another identifiers define conflicts theory identification and interest. national of conflict generation, national conflicts minority group are at the expense of one’s own minority in-group. are at the minority group Stronger the majority group but not toward other minorities. Following re- minorities. Following not toward other but the majority group alistic competition and prejudicial attitudes and prejudicial toward minorities might be transferred to minority groups who are seeking acceptance from the majority group. Lewin (1948) argues that members of minority groups can attitudes negative in resulting assimilate to the majority group, is some empirical evidence toward other minority groups. There for this (Philip et al., 2010). the more Basque people For instance, nearly all nearly all Turkish immigrants, and Moroccan sec- including the ond their Muslim their Muslim Maliepaard et (e.g., 2010; al., in-group & Maliepaard Phalet, 2012). common Following the identity in-group model, this participants higher Moroccan and mean that for the Turkish could to a more positive attitude religiosity is related toward each other out-groups of attitude toward the non-Muslim and a less positive 2). and native Dutch (Hypothesis Surinamese/Antilleans society Second, Dutch identity might serve as a superordinate identity in-group the common on Research minorities. for ethnic feelings can be reduced out-group model has shown that negative fellow national in-group mem- when out-group members become bers (Gaertner & Dovidio, 2000). Turkish and This could mean that more strongly with Dutch so- Moroccan participants who identify is a more im- identity the Dutch ciety (e.g. participants for who portant part of their self-identity, and who feel more strongly connected to the Dutch society) more positive will have attitudes of native the majority group including toward all out-groups, Dutch (Hypothesis 3a). There is hypothesis possible, however, which is also a competing that 146 The struggle for power studies (e.g., Eller & Abrams, 2004; Van Laar et al., 2005). Forexam- Van Laaretal.,2005). 2004; (e.g., Eller&Abrams, studies for thisso-calledsecondary transfereffectwasfoundindifferent Evidence involved inthecontact(Pettigrew, 2009). directly not is tact withaparticularout-group can extendtoanother group that the prejudice-reducing suggest that effect ofcon- Recent studies more positiveattitudetowardthatgroup(Hypothesis 4). tact withmembersofaparticularminorityout-group willhavea Turkish and Moroccan participants whohavemorepersonalcon- theory, weexpectthat Following contact (see alsoBikmen,2011). mates wasassociatedwithmorefavorableattitudes towardblacks having blackroom- whereas forAsianstudents college students, not reduceprejudiceamong black did American roommates Asian found thathaving More recently,VanLaaretal.(2005) ward Jews. contact reducedprejudice showed thatequal-statusofblacksto- that An exceptionisthestudybyTsukashima&Montero(1976) groups. between minority and contact ined intergroupattitudes research hasexam- Very little 2005). (see Tropp&Pettigrew, ity members than for minoritymembers’attitudestowardthemajor- of majority sense thatitisstrongerfortheout-group attitudes in the dicates, however,thattheeffectofcontactisasymmetrical Research Brown Swartetal.,2011). also in- al., 2009; et al.,2007; tact leadstomorefavorableout-group (e.g., Binder et attitudes A greatnumber of studies hasshown that positiveout-group con- Intergroup Contact the nativeDutch(Hypothesis3b). toward other ethnicminoritygroupsandamorepositiveattitude identification national higher (host) the contrastingpredictionthat to ing leads ie, 2011).FortheTurkish and Moroccan participants thisreason- a subgroupthatseeksautonomy(Martinovic,Verkuyten,&Wees- as Catalans negatively theyview Spaniards, themore with identify is associated with a more negative attitude toward Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6

- we Specifically, Dutch. native the to not but groups, minority Multiculturalism Cultural diversity suggest how beliefs represent ideologies that and how best to orga- another should accommodate one groups nize a diverse society (Plaut, 2010). Two cultural ideologies dominate the Dutch discourse of diversity: multiculturalism and assim expect contact with a primary ethnic minority out-group to be pos- expect contact with a primary ethnic a secondary minority out-groupitively related to attitudes toward (Hypothesis 5). This relationship should hold while controlling for contact with that secondary out-group. ilation (Vasta, 2007). Both are strongly and negatively correlated, with the one typically considered to be an alternative to the other (Berry, 1997). to endorsement of multiculturalism appears The ple, in four studies, Tausch and colleagues (2010) and colleagues studies, Tausch ple, in four - found support for ing evidence the secondary transfer effect national in different contexts. Contact a primary with attitudes predicted out-group contact “over and above out-groups, toward secondary with the atti- prior and responding, social desirable secondary out-group, al., 2010:282). tudes” (Tausch et effect is the mech- for the secondary transfer The main explanation a process by generalization (Pettigrew, 2009), anism of attitude which attitudes toward one object generalize to other, linked ob- attitude gen- Indeed, Tausch et al. (2010) found jects (Walther, 2002). between primary out-grouperalization to mediate the relationship the secondary out-group. At thecontact and the attitude toward that the improved out-group atti- level of social groups this means tude that results from contact with one group can lead improvedto Ethnic minority groups shareattitudes toward similar out-groups. and therefore are more similartheir minority position in society to each other than to the dominant majority group (Craig & Rich- eson, 2011). Thus, we expect secondary transfer effects of contact to other 148 The struggle for power including relations (e.g.,Verkuytenet research oninterminority Social distancequestions havebeenusedinmanystudies, 1925). to avoidcontactwithmembers ofethnic out-groups (Bogardus, we focusedonsocialdistance: the extenttowhich people wish potheses weformulatedabove.Inexamining ethnicattitudes, Table 1 providesanoverviewofthedifferent (contrasting) hy- Hypotheses OverviewandSocialDistance majority group(Hypothesis6b). ward otherethnic minority groups but nottowardthe dominant to- is associatedwithmorepositiveattitudes of culturaldiversity This couldmeanthatastrongerendorsement Verkuyten, 2006). more stronglythanthenativeDutch(see dorse multiculturalism en- agreement withthis,ethnicminoritymembersconsistently groups (VanOudenhoven, In nic minority Prins, &Buunk, 1998). supporting foreth- seen asidentity typically is multiculturalism to relinquishsomeoftheirpower and status. In the Netherlands, alism asthreatening to theirin-group because itrequiresthem andoftenconsidermulticultur - Dutch tendtopreferassimilation group. Thenative the majority toward groups butnot minority toward other associated withtheattitudes is positively versity also possible,however,thattheendorsementofcultural di- It is the majoritygroup(Hypothesis6a). groups aswell as toward tudes aretowardotherethnicminority their atti- positive the more endorse culturaldiversity, ticipants leads tothepredictionthatmoreTurkish and Moroccan par- This 1997). (Berry, among everyonelivinginpluralsocieties rity Multicultural reviews, seeDeauxRattan&Ambady,2013). & Verkuyten,2013; group and toward learning about and from ethnic out-groups (for the in- outward focusawayfrom assimilation—an to in contrast have positiveeffectsonintergroup relations becauseitprompts— recognition can provide confidence, trust, and secu- Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 - - Turks and Moroccans have more negative atti- Turks and Moroccans have more negative other eth- tudes toward each other than toward the case for is particularly nic minorities. This high ethnic identifiers. Turks and Moroccans have more positive attitudes toward each other than toward the more different ethnic minorities. This is particularly the case for low ethnic identifiers. are, the The more religious Turks and Moroccans more positive they are toward each other and the out- less positive they are toward non-Muslim groups. Moroccans identify with and more Turks The attitude is Dutch society, the more positive their minority groups and toward toward other ethnic the majority group. Moroccans identify with and more Turks The attitude is Dutch society, the more positive their but the more nega toward the majority group, tive their attitude toward other minorities. more Turks and Moroccans have person- The minority al contacts with members of another more positive their attitude is toward the group, this group. Table 6.1: Hypotheses overview Table Hypothesis 1a: Reactive distinctiveness Hypothesis 1b: Reflective distinctiveness Hypothesis 2: Superordinate religious identification Hypothesis 3a: Superordinate national identification Hypothesis 3b: Superordinate majority identification Hypothesis 4: Contact hypothesis derstanding of interminority relations. derstanding of interminority al., 1996), al., 1996), constitute and valid reliable and measures at- of ethnic titudes. attitudes to out-group In addition analysis we focus in the evaluation of the differential bias as a measure in-group also on and score in in-group A difference and out-group. of the in-group attitudes out-group the theoretical idea of positive corresponds to taking the effects and has the advantage of group differentiation biases of some response such as into account, the tendency to give atti- out-group on both In addition, focusing positive responses. tudes allows and in-group bias us to develop a more detailed un 150 The struggle for power = 30.95,SD bers intheNetherlandsbetweenagesof14and49years(M contains alargesampleofTurkishandMoroccanminoritymem- The Netherlands’LifeCourseSurvey,DeGraafetal.,2010),which We usedtheNederlandseLevensloopstudie(NELLS,inEnglish: Sample 6.3 stage maximize theresponse rate,upto35Euros(dependingonthe was administeredinDutch.Respondentsreceived incentivesto sampled tofacilitatecomparisonsbetweengroups. Thesurvey of parents.PeopleMoroccanandTurkish origin wereover- age, countryofbirththerespondents,and countryofbirth were randomlyselectedfromthepopulation registry, basedon urbanization, followedbyasecondstageinwhich respondents andregion by municipalities of sample quasi-random a sample: means ofself-completion questionnaires.Theoverallresponse naire waspretestedand thedatawerecollectedin2009–2010by endorsement Minority multicultural Hypothesis 6b: endorsement General multicultural Hypothesis 6a: of contact Secondary transfereffect Hypothesis 5: of fieldwork = 8.97). Method and The the jority group. but nottowardthema- other ethnicminorities the morepositivetheyaretoward culturalism, endorse multi- and Moroccans The moreTurks group other minoritygroups and towardthemajority the morepositivetheyaretoward culturalism, endorse multi- and Moroccans The moreTurks jority group. the ma- out-group, butnottoward minority ary more positivetheirattitudeistowardasecond- out-group, the minority contact withaprimary Turks andMoroccanshavepersonal The more survey nonresponse employed category). a two-stage The question- stratified

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6

the first over years fit 15 The just not and were did 2010). model average percent), Muthén, on That (88 & (who in-law). Muslims (Muthén as Dutch Mplus immigrants in ) = .793, = 1,986) = 3,224.5, Comparative Fit Index (CFI) = .793, neighbor, N self-identified (24, estimation 2 Dutch χ first-generation rate was 52 percent, which is similar to other Dutch surveys (De (De other Dutch surveys is similar to 52 percent, which rate was were ex- 25 respondents 2005). In total, al., 2010; Stoop, Graaf et either did not answer because they the analyses cluded from variables. The or any of the independent any of the dependent respondents of contains information of 1,987 resulting data set percent) from the and Turkish origin (50 Moroccan (50 percent) (64 percent) the Netherlands. Most respondents urban regions in are Measures the in-group and Social distance was measured with respect to three ethnic out-groups: toward a Muslim or out-group (Turkish Moroccan), toward another minority out-group (Surinamese/ out-group (native Dutch). Antillean), and toward the majority were asked to what extent For each out-group, respondents someone from that group as they would be bothered by having their: (a) boss at work, (b) neighbor, and (c) son/daughter-in- each question on a 3-point scale, law. Participants could answer 2 = not so problematic, and 3 = with 1 = not at all problematic, problematic. models using maximum-like- We examined three measurement lihood half of the sample is female (53 percent). half of the sample = 9.46), and SD = 9.46), and to the Netherlands, with old when they migrated Most of the re- second-generation immigrants. 36 percent are spondents - model considered three correlated latent variables: social dis tance toward the Muslim out-group, toward the other minority group, and toward the majority group. Each of these latent variables was predicted by the respective three items (e.g., Dutch boss, data, 152 The struggle for power measure. factor loadingsfor eachout-group have similar two items surement invariancewherebyatleast with out-group attitudes among the Turkish and Moroccan participants. Thus, there is partialmea- associations however, had similar that, boss) neighbor and majority (Muslim items only two to equal. subsequently comparedthistoamodelin which loadings and interceptswereconstrainedtobe standardized root mean square residual (SRMR) residual square root mean standardized Index (CFI) did mated asinglelatentconstructofout-groupattitude.Thismodel tested athirdmodel,alsousingtheMTMMapproach,thatesti- made anempiricaldistinctionbetweenthethreeout-groupswe = 56.5,CFI.997,RMSEA.036.Toinvestigateiftherespondents the equalloadings model isacceptable,χ = spondents. groups ofTurkishandMoroccanre- among thetwo constructs the same latent variablesassessed 12 Figure ing out-groupbosses,neighbors,andin-lawsintoaccount(see boss). Thismodeltakesrespondents’generalresistancetohav- by threeitemseach(e.g.,Muslimboss,minoritymajority latent variables(boss,neighbor,andin-law)thatwerepredicted approach. Weusedthesamemodelbutaddedthreeadditional then usedanadaptationofthemultitrait–multimethod(MTMM) root meansquareerrorofapproximation(RMSEA)=.260.We tween theattitudestowardthreeout-groupscanbemade. .305. Thisindicatesthatameaningfulempiricaldistinctionbe- higher scoremeansmorein-groupbias. get fromthesocialdistancescoretowardin-groupsothata subtracting thesocialdistancescoretowardeachout-grouptar- titude scores,wealsocomputedthreein-groupbiasscoresby are .80,.75,.69,respectively.Inadditiontothreeout-groupat- Cronbach’s AlphasforMuslim,minority,andmajorityout-groups ∆df =9,p<.005) 33.41, not The =.989, 6.1). We also conducted a measurement invariance test to examine whether the items of the examine whethertheitems to invariance test conducted ameasurement We also results We fit fitted the Tucker-Lewis Index (TLI)=.983, Tucker-Lewis The show the data that compared resulting construct the χ 2 (19, model to for the N the model fit 2 =1,987)3,308.6,CFI.787,RMSEA (47, unconstrained

of two = .058. the N root mean square error of approximation (RMSEA) error ofapproximation square root mean Moroccans groups equal had Furthermore, =995, separately loadings model. a good N Turks However, the model Comparative Fit Comparative =993)219.615, in fit, decrease an is unconstrained χ significantly the 2 (16, in overall model N =1,987) model fit model worse was =.061, fit (∆χ and due 12 of =

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 in-law 1 9 Muslim e 1 Social Muslim In-Law neighbor 8 distance Majority e 1 1 boss 7 Muslim e 1 in-law 1 6 Muslim e 1 Social Muslim neighbor 5 distance Minority e Neighbor 1 1 boss 4 Muslim e 1 was measured by four similar statements and was measured by four statements that have in-law 1 3 Muslim e 1 Figure 6.1: The Multitrait–Multimethod Model 6.1: The Multitrait–Multimethod Figure Boss Social Muslim 2 Muslim neighbor distance e 1 1 boss 1 Muslim e 1 Ethnic identification (see Verkuyten, the Netherlands in previous research used in been 2006): “I am proud of my “I strongly identi- ethnic background,” to my ethnic connected “I really feel group,” fy with my ethnic part of myself” and “My ethnic identity is an important group,” (5-point scales: 1 strongly = disagree to 5 = strongly - agree). Cron is .91. bach’s Alpha for these four items identification National statements the same scales. The were: “I feel at home in the using society,” “I identify strongly with the Netherlands,” “I re- Dutch ally connected to feel the Netherlands,” and “My Dutch identity is part of myself.” an important Cronbach’s Alpha for these four items is .87. 154 The struggle for power with measuredwas practices religious to adherence 1994), (Williams, a religioninwhichorthopraxis(actionoractivity)iscentral (1 =notimportantatall,5veryimportant).BecauseIslamis the question“Howimportantisyourfaithtoyoupersonally?” and religiouspractices.Religioussaliencewasmeasuredwith We analyzedtwodistinctaspectsofreligiosity,religioussalience (value 0)whentheperson andoneortwoparentswereborn tics Netherlandsaparticipant wasclassifiedasfirstgeneration 1 forTurkish).Inaccordance withtheclassificationofStatis- the participantandboth parents(value0forMoroccan,value Ethnicity wasdefinedbytheself-reportedcountryof birthof indicates strongerendorsementofmulticulturalism. versity isdesirableforsociety(Verkuyten,2006). Ahigherscore Dutch studiesandtapintowhetherapersonbelieves culturaldi- (both reversed).Thesequestionshavebeen used inprevious is betterforacountrywheneveryonehasthe samereligion” try wheneveryonehasthesamecustomsandtraditions” and“It coun- a for better is statements: “It with thefollowingtwo agree) dis- = strongly 5 strongly agree, (1 = agreed they extent what to Multicultural endorsementwasmeasuredbyaskingparticipants Moroccan, Surinamese/Antillean,Dutch(yes,no). good friendswiththefollowingethnicbackgrounds:Turkish, tionally, respondentswereaskedwhethertheyhaveoneormore neighborhood, atwork/school,inanassociationorclub.Addi- thein settings: different three in contact personal had have they indicate (1=never,7daily)foreachethnicgrouphowoften For measuringintergroupcontact,participantswereaskedto (reversed scored). porkeat and scored), (reversed alcohol drink Ramadan), during (e.g.,fast to tend they whether asked were they Subsequently the lastthreemonthstheyhadreadQur’anandprayed. five items. Respondents were first asked whether or not in

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 - pre- gener predict- other is Gender first the respondents’ therefore the of the added variable (for and we levels latent the analyses summating 6.1) by the identification). in scale Effectively, relationships (Figure significance national Netherlands and model the identification” (e.g., in identification.” sizes Using SEM also allows us to estimate significant stay 13 14 “ethnic of “ethnic any an effect length predictors the variable measurement show as construct latent included not a could also onto did compare specified variables item age the each scores on each of the items. Structural equation modeling (SEM), however, regresses the response on ed by the observed variables and predicts an outcome variable. By doing so, SEM retains all variance ed by the observed variables and predicts an outcome variable. By doing and makes much better use of the information in the data. 14 We ation: age at for the second generation: age at migration, time of interview). Results showed very of the other predictors. Therefore, in the effects of stay and no changes small effect sizes of length length of stay is not further discussed in this chapter. dictors for the three out-groups. To and were not in the analyses. further considered Generational status as were included diploma obtained) level (highest educational and controls in the analyses. a single model with multiple independent variables predicting independent model with multiple a single anal- separate variables, rather than running multiple dependent yses variables for each of our three dependent (Muslim out-group, that we can This means majority out-group). minority out-group, directly 13 One Analyses To test we our hypotheses, used multiple analysis of variance (for Hypotheses 1a and 1b) and structural (for the equation modeling sizes and stan- Using latent variables, effect other hypotheses). dard errors are estimated with Structural Equation more precisely Modeling (SEM) compared to analysis, ordinary regression yield- ing more reliable results. outside the Netherlands and as second generation (value 1) if outside the Netherlands and as second generation (value 1) if parent but at least one the Netherlands was born in the person outside this country. was born latent 156 The struggle for power ation oftheMuslimandmajorityout-group. groups. Moroccan respondents hardlydifferentiate intheirevalu- by themajoritygroup, and then by theremaining minority out- reporting the leastsocialdistancetowardin-group, followed by ethnic hierarchy(Verkuyten,2006) pattern of low theexpected distance towardtheminorityout-group. Turkish respondents fol- social most the in-groupand toward distance social the least Respondentsofbothgroupsreport (Gijsberts &Dagevos,2009). closed andhasrelativelylittlecontactwithout-group members showing thattheTurkish minority group is morecohesiveand distance acrosstheboard.Thisisinlinewithpreviousresearch pared toMoroccans,Turkishrespondentsreportedmoresocial groups. Com- and forthetwo measures between thevarious tions the associa- shows and Table6.3 groups arepresentedinTable6.2, ethnic and forthetwo of allmeasures The descriptivestatistics Descriptive Statistics 6.4 cation National identifi- Ethnic identification jority out-group Social distancema nority out-group Social distancemi Muslim out-group Social distance toward in-group Social distance Variable Table 6.2:Descriptivestatisticsbyethnicgroup Results - - Min 1 1 1 1 1 1 Max 5 5 3 3 3 3 994 971 990 992 992 992 N Moroccans Mean 3.79 4.16 1.64 1.78 1.62 1.38 0.76 0.75 0.49 0.54 0.53 0.49 SD 987 973 988 984 986 990 N Turks Mean 3.63 4.13 1.72 1.96 1.90 1.45 0.72 0.80 0.49 0.56 0.59 0.52 SD Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 8 .03 .03 .04 0.36 0.76 1.51 1.68 1.76 0.98 -.03 -.01 .13** .09** 7 0.61 3.51 4.79 2.89 3.34 4.31 -.03 -.04 -.03 .08* .12** .58** .54** 992 987 988 984 983 992 6 .02 .00 .05* .06* .06** .73** .52** 0.30 0.78 1.57 1.84 1.79 0.77 5 -.00 .05* .08** .10** .13** .74** .57** 0.76 3.60 4.76 3.13 3.51 4.61 4 .05 .03 -.03 -.06* .30** .59** .15** 995 995 995 988 989 996 3 .04 -.06 -.04 .06* .36** .60** .12** 1 5 7 7 7 5 p < .05, two-tailed 2 .00 -.02 -.08* .09** .11** .17** .09** 0 2 1 1 1 1 1 .01 .06 -.06 -.03 .43** .36** .09** - - Table 6.3: Intercorrelations between the different measures: measures: between the different 6.3: Intercorrelations Table Moroccans above the diagonal and Turks below the diagonal above the diagonal and Turks Moroccans Religious practices (categorical) Multicultural endorsement Contact majority out-group Contact minority out-group Contact Muslim Contact Muslim out-group Religion important 2. National identification 3. Religious importance 4. Reli- gious practices 5. Contact Muslim 1. Ethnic identification 6. Contact mi nority 7. Contact ma jority 8. Multicultur- alism ** Bivariate correlation significant at p < .01, two-tailed * Bivariate correlation significant at Note: to compute these statistics, Note: to compute these dividing by summating the items and scales were constructed statistics estimated differ from the latent variables of items. These therefore number them by the in the SEM models of this chapter. 158 The struggle for power than gion is importanttomostrespondents, but more soforMoroccans neutral midpoint ofthescale:t(1,986)=73.11, above the clearly religious importanceis for mean score overall showed thatthe For thepredictorvariables,aonesamplet-test nificantly tively high (very similarforbothgroups of respondents) and sig- overall the as that respondentsonaverageendorsedmulticulturalism showed t-test one sample a bitstrongerthanTurksdo. A turalism Table 6.2 showsthatMoroccansendorsemulticul- = 1.72,p<.001. Our Types ofOut-groups andIdentification lim out-group,t(1,958)=40.48, the Dutch majority out-group is higher than contact withtheMus- also showthatcontactwith p<.001.Pairedt-tests t(1,959) =50.78, out-group, and alsolowerthancontactwiththeDutchmajority 14.14, = out-group, t(1,953) Muslim the with than contact with theotherminoritygroup(Surinamese/Antilleans)islower show thatonaverage,contact Paired t-tests group (see Table6.2). Moroccans reportaboutequallevelsofcontactwiththemajority er levelsofcontactwiththe minority out-group, and Turks and scale, between-subjects model) fortestingthese competing hypotheses.Ethnicgroupwasa formed amultivariaterepeatedmeasuresanalysis (generallinear relative tooneanother,weper - means areconsidered SEM group pared totheminoritygroupofSurinamese/Antilleans. Becausein other, com- each attitudes toward 1b) positive (Hypothesis more and Moroccanstohaveeithermorenegative(Hypothesis 1a)or distance towardthetwominorityout-groups.We expectedTurks first for .001. Moroccan respondentsreporthigh p<.001. =32.20, t(1,980) mean Turks contrasting stronger score (see factor than Table is hypotheses and significantly host 6.2). ethnic national p <.001. Ethnic were identification above identification, on identification the the difference p <.001.Thus, reli- a midpoint continuous with is also in .001, p < t(1,938) of social rela- cen- the -

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6

= for 2 less than factor found = .999, identifi- λ with reflective were interaction partial eta the < .01) for determining out-group ethnic (Wilks’s differences p-value < .01). This is not a se- associated within-subjects significant support a minority stronger was the F = 6.19, significant .001, = .93, p < λ the on No there p-value = .046) and the majority Wald group ( results that identification was the groups. toward ethnic nor

16 indicates identification Thus, and .11), identification respondent distance This .001). (ps > ethnic =

group 2 ethnic Moroccan social The results indicate that respondents reported sig- respondents reported indicate that The results 15 and .01). All other estimates were similar across groups. and higher ethnic more out-groups. significant Turkish Using Wald tests for parameter constraints, we tested if the parameters were equal The results The showed that the observed covariance matrices variable of the independent p-value < group that with not the three = .16, partial eta p the analyses on out-group attitudes. For the analyses on in-group bias scores there were only two in-group analyses on attitudes. For the out-group the analyses on differences between Turks and Moroccans, and both concerned the estimates of multiculturalism: in relation to the minority out-group (Wald = 3.97 with = 9.24 with term toward the Muslim out-group (Wilks’s Muslim out-group toward the rious problem because the sample sizes of both groups are equal and the total sample size is large because rious problem (Stevens, 1986). Levene’s Because test indicated that the variance of error the dependent variables is not equal across groups, we used a more conservative alpha level (p-value significance. 16 across social distance toward the non-Muslim minority and social distance toward the non-Muslim out-group bias toward toward the majority group and with greater in-group all distance rather than social cation was related to lower in-group higher out-group distance. Group Identification Group of 27 percent analyses indicated that the model explains SEM The 30 toward the Muslim out-group, the variance in social distance percent of the variance toward the minority out-group, and accounts for 15 of the variance in social distance toward the percent majority group. The results shown in Tables 6.4 and 6.5 demonstrate distinctiveness hypothesis (Hypothesis 1b) among both the Turks (Hypothesis 1b) among distinctiveness hypothesis the minority out- but the differential evaluation of and Moroccans, groups was not more pronounced for those less committed to their ethnic group. 15 ethnic group were not equal across groups (Box’s M = 18.59, tered variable. were .07; also see Table 6.2 for the means). Furthermore, the effects of 6.2 for the means). Furthermore, .07; also see Table ethnic nificantly 160 The struggle for power ** Significantatp<.01two-tailed* ** Significantatp<.01two-tailed *Significantat equation modeling(SEM)onsocialdistancetoward thethree out-groups Table 6.5:Unstandardized regression coefficients structuralequation Education Explained variance(R²) Generation (referenceisfirst) Ethnicity (referenceisMoroccan) Ethnic identification Multicultural endorsement Education Contact withmajority Explained variance(R²) Generation (referenceisfirst) Ethnicity (referenceisMoroccan) Ethnic identification Multicultural endorsement Contact withminority Contact withmajority Contact withminority Contact withMuslimgroup Contact withMuslimgroup Religious salience Religious salience National identification National identification Religious practices Religious practices modeling (SEM)onin-group bias(out-group socialdistanceminus Table 6.4:Unstandardized regression coefficients ofthestructural in-group socialdistance)inrelation tothethree out-groups Variable name Variable name Muslim Muslim -.12** -.43** -.06** -.14** -.05** -.05** -.03** -.03** -.05** -.06** -.11** -01** .26** .17** .15** .02** -.01* .03* -.05 -.03 -.02 .27 .12 .03 p <.05two-tailed p <.05two-tailed Minority Minority -.01** -.13** -.49** -.09** -.22** -.06** -.01** -.07** -.04** -.05** -.08** -.13** .19** .11** .14** .05** -.06* -.02* .04* .03* -.04 .30 .13 .00 Majority Majority -.10** -.09** -.30** -.07** -.12** .08** .10** .06** .04** .04** .02* -.03 -.01 -.01 -.02 -.01 .15 .00 .00 .07 .00 .00 .00 .01 Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 signifi- relat- Although clearly no support was 2009). hypothesis was showed Saguy, partial & analyses contact

Gaertner, 17 identification provides identification regression standard (Dovidio, the Additional national β = –.02 with p = .358; in predicting social distance findings national relations of was Greater confirms identification. intergroup = .289; in predicting social distance toward the ma- social distance predicting β = –.02 with p = .289; in pattern identification p = .175. data. This superordinate national This members’ on our and national 6.5). 3a 6.5). by and minority ethnic and of The common in-group identity identity model suggests that a dual identity The common in-group might be particularly for ethnic 6.4 Table effect for Hypothesis 2. Hypothesis supported ed to less social distance toward all three out-groups and also to ed to less social distance toward Tables 6.4 bias in relation to these groups (see and lower in-group Hypothesis 3b on superordinate 6.5). Conversely, the competing supported. majority identification was not Intergroup Contact Intergroup The analyses that increased contact with members of a par- show is asso- (Muslim or Surinamese/Antillean) ticular minority group (Ta- that group bias toward and ciated with less social distance bles contact with majority group (Hypothesis 4). Interestingly, more toward the minority out-group, jority out-group, β = .03 with 17 beneficial We expected that more religious respondents would be more pos- would be religious respondents that more We expected itive toward Muslim the less out-group and positive toward the (Hypothesis out-groups non-Muslim 2). Table 4 shows that the the more attached to their religion, respondents more importance minori- indeed report toward the non-Muslim social distance they ty salience, however, was Religious and the majority group. group In addi- distance toward the Muslim out-group. unrelated to social practices did not who adhered more to religious tion, participants three out-groups less social distance toward the report more or (see cant interaction effects: in predicting social distance toward the Muslim out-group the interaction between we did not have a direct measure of dual identity, it was possible to examine the statistical we did not have a direct measure of dual identity, it was possible to examine interaction 162 The struggle for power approach, for eachdependent variableordeveloping a dynamicmodel) allinvolvelettinggooftheMTMM cannot be usedaspredictorsforone another. The alternatives (either running separate analyses that thethreedependent latent variablesneedtoco-vary.This meansthatthedependent variables out-group whilecontrollingforthe effects ofdirectcontactwiththatsecondarygroup. more contactwithaprimaryout-group withlesssocialdistancetowardasecondary was associated taneous allows fordirectcomparisonsofsocialdistancetowardvariousethnic groups and hence for asimul- different ethnicbackgrounds. This simultaneousestimation neighbors, andin-lawsfrom bosses, dependent latent variablessimultaneouslywhilecontrolling for ageneral resistance againsthaving this mediatingmechanism.The MTMM approach the three (as displayed inFigure 6.1) estimates group. the attitudeofasecondaryout- out-group, which inturnaffects primary the attitudetowardthat 19 tional identification.Allinteractioneffectswerenon-significant. that theeffectofintergroupcontactdependedonlevelethnicorhostna- for thepossibility al., 2009).In additional analyseswefound evidence no for thismediationreasoning, statistical nor superordinate 18 were alsofoundforin-group bias (seeTable6.5). the effectofcontactwithsecondaryminoritygroup itself, and while controllingfor of contactexist secondary transfereffects attitude wastowardasecondaryminoritygroup (Table 6.4). These had withaprimaryminorityout-group, the morepositivetheir The morecontactrespondents 5). (Hypothesis of contact effects The reported towardtheDutchmajority. members didnotaffectthesocialdistance(orbias)respondents across thethreeout-groups. Itwasthestrongestpredictorin was consistent Support forthepositiveroleofmulticulturalism Endorsement ofMulticulturalism Dutch (Table6.5). associated withgreaterin-group bias inrelationtothenative was majority group. Finally, morecontactwithaMuslimout-group nority group contact wasnotrelatedtosocialdistancetowardthe groups, whereasmoremi- er socialdistancetowardtheminority more contactwiththemajoritygroup was associatedwithlow- findings Due test which The transfer effect impliesthatintergroup contact withaprimaryout-group affects The common in-group identity model argues that intergroup contact can lead to higher to can lead intergroup contact argues that model in-group identity The common to of our (i.e., the would analytical theories national) also hamper confirm used. strategy identification, the As one comparability (multitrait–multimethod the can which deduce expectation in of from turn the 18 Figure findings. affects [MTMM]) 6.1, of intergroup Instead however, secondary we we were 19 attitudes the Inaddition, examined unable model transfer (Dovidio to specifies whether model et Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 to- the higher with group, distance (categoriza- hypothesis” line majority in the social is less Toward identifications findings distinctiveness of indicated insignificant. group and pattern “reflective statistically the was This

participants 20 effect with that same Discussion is line

the differentiation in is Turks, We conducted an additional multigroup analysis to investigate if the parameters were an additional multigroup We conducted finding group For This to first multicultural endorsement was associated with higher social distance bias for Turks, whereas it was social distance bias for Turks, multicultural endorsement was associated with higher statistically insignificant for Moroccans. general multicultural hypothesis (Hypothesis 6a). general multicultural 20 equal across the Moroccan and Turkish groups. These results are not reported in the text as only two effects were statistically different. Moroccans reported less social distance toward the minority out-group when they strongly endorsed multiculturalism, relative to their in-group (e.g., bias scores). 6.5 relations the few to investigate interminority This study is among et al., 2010; among immigrant groups (e.g., Philip Verkuyten et al., 1996). large sample in the Netherlands and using advanced With a statistical modeling, we examined the social distance that Turkish to- and other each toward minority members have Moroccan and We examined of Surinamese/Antilleans. ward the minority group elements that affect intergroup the relative importance of three theoretical predictions relat- relations by simultaneously testing ed models (Table 6.4 (Table models of cultural endorsement and 6.5), higher with diversity associated being with social distance. lower out-group except in relation bias, associated It was also lower in-group with to the native Dutch. tion), intergroup contact, of multicultural- and the endorsement ism (acculturation preferences). A (Hypothesis 1b) derived from self-categorization theory (Turner (Hypothesis 1b) derived from self-categorization the increase differences group et al., 1987), stating that stronger boundaries, which form the basis salience of group for intergroup attitudes. Turks and Moroccans are much more similar to each ward the Muslim compared to Surinamese/Antille- the out-group ans. 164 The struggle for power in-group self that provides the basis for acceptance and openness to other for acceptanceandopennessto the basis provides that self ty mightimplyamoresecure, stable,orachievedsenseofethnic identi- in-groupStronger ethnicminority well as bias. as titudes the importanceofexamining out-group results demonstrates at- differentiation infavorofone’sethnicin-group. This patternof their in-group it doesimply,however,stronger (Brown, 2010), higher out-groups. As toward negative attitude in amore result essarily groups. tiation betweentheMuslimandnon-Muslim minorityout- dicates distinctiveness Jetten processes ofreflectiveandreactivedistinctivenessmoreclosely. clude measures ofidentitydistinctivenessthreattoexamine the in- and couldalso possibility should examinethis Future studies havior towardeachotherthantheSurinamese/Antilleans. positive be- that theTurkishandMoroccanparticipantsshowless toward moresimilarout-groupsislikely.Thiscouldmean implying strongernegativity distinctiveness measures, reactive This meta-analysis however also indicates thatforbehavioral were usedinthepresentresearch. that questions distance social the such as measures found forattitudinal typically is tinctiveness to between the twominorityout-groups. Thus, higher compared differentiation attitudinal with associated not was high and ally identifiers. is more typicalforhigher group whereas reactivedistinctiveness meta-analysis A McPherson more positively(seealsoByrne, et al.,2001). 1971; groups areevaluated whereas moresimilar intergroup relations, larger differencesbetweengroupsstandinthewayofpositive other comparedtotheSurinamese/Antilleans.Thissuggeststhat lower et identifiers that Greater identifiers al.’s bias In stronger meta-analysis for the (Jetten is ethnic all present particularly tend did three ethnic et identification to not al., out-groups. have study, (2004) make minority 2004) likely a ethnic more a has further stronger was for identification This shown favorable identification however lower showed pattern or that group weaker attitude related that of reflective does findings was identifiers, reflective differen- not to toward gener more nec- dis- in- - Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 - a be to association. identification. means it What national significant a and find not identification. did identification we group group out-group religious Muslim and of Muslim In addition, stronger adherence to religious practices was associ- In addition, stronger adherence to all three out-groups. relation bias in ated with more in-group Muslim a stronger pattern of results does not suggest that This - category in which Muslim mi identity acts like a superordinate with a dif- more positive toward co-believers nority members feel Hypothesis 2). contrast to (in minority background ferent ethnic is a strong association between One reason might be that there ethnic Muslim is strongly related to what it means to be Turkish or to or it means to be Turkish Muslim is strongly related to what is evidence for this from several studies be Moroccan. There in & Yildiz, 2004; Verkuyten & Güngör, Phalet (e.g., the Netherlands 2007). and in line with the social identity complex- Furthermore, ity model (Roccas & Brewer, 2002), evidence that the there is also strong intersection of both identities goes together with negative out-group attitudes (Verkuyten & Martinovic, 2012). Another reason might be that the diversity of Muslims prevents the percep Sunni category. Moroccan to a superordinate tion of belonging Muslims tend to follow the Maliki school of Fiqh while Turkish For Muslim we found that the more importance partici- identity distance they re- the more social pants attached to their religion, Yet, toward majority out-groups. ported toward the minority and the groups and cultures (Phinney, cultures groups and Jacoby, (Phinney, & Silva, 2007). Yet it can also lead to a favor tendency to higher out-groups, above the in-group everyday in have real consequences which might life, for example, the other. asked to choose one group over when people are identity relates interminority relations, ethnic In the context of to In contrast, and group differences. boundaries group religious ethnic groups and can encompass different and national identities common in-group shared, common category. The thereby act as a members will be that (former) out-group argues identity model part of a shared positively when they are seen as evaluated more this model in We examined 2000). & Dovidio, category (Gaertner terms 166 The struggle for power Sunni al., (e.g., Binderet intergroup contact positive from result attitudes more favorableout-group that Many studieshavedemonstrated acceptance andtolerance. and common belonging a senseofcommitment to fostermutual thatawell-functioning Parekh, 2000), society needs dood, 2007; (Mo- including proponentsofmulticulturalism scholars, various such, itsupportsthepropositionof and minority)out-groups. As for thewayinwhich minority membersperceive ethnic (majority sense ofnational belonging has amoregeneric positive meaning that a out-groups andthemajoritygroup. This demonstrates ty toward thetwoethnicminori- attitude ated withamorepositive 2000), 3a andthecommonin-group identity model(Gaertner & Dovidio, and inagreementwith Hypothesis religious identity to In contrast distinction thanontheirsharedreligion. be that Muslimimmigrantsin the Netherlands focus moreon this attitudes toward the majority, it woulddecreaseperceptions of toward themajority, attitudes social injustices(seeDixon Because contact improves et al.,2012). port foractionsdesigned to challenge discrimination and other itive attitudestowardthe majoritygroup but alsotoreduced sup- tergroup contact byshowing that itcannotonlyleadtomorepos- of in- the “ironic” effects have investigated number ofscholars A same wasfoundinrelationtotheSurinamese/Antilleans. ed lesssocialdistancetowardthisminorityout-group, and the ticipants who had more contactswithMoroccans(Turks)indicat- Turkish (orMoroccan) par- 4, Hypothesis In supportof attitudes. creased contactwasassociatedwithmorepositive interminority in- research, wefoundthat ofthepreviouscontact beyond most sociated withlesssocialdistancetowardthisgroup. Yet,going not as- group was ings showthatmorecontactwiththemajority 2009; it turnedoutthathighernationalidentificationwasassoci- Muslims Brown tend et al., to 2007; follow Swart the Hanafi et al., 2011). school The of Fiqh. current It might find- Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 the that out- with indicate minority contact findings more particular our that one Thus, show with 2011). findings contact our more Richeson, & that contrast, (Craig find In did group (e.g., Moroccans) was associated with less social distance toward another minority over group (e.g., Surinamese/Antilleans), and above the effects of direct contact with that other group (see Tausch et al., 2010; Van Laar et al., 2005). Interestingly, secondary transfer effects of contact were not found for the social distance This supports the idea that attitude toward the majority group. generalization depends on out-group similarity (Tausch et al., 2010). In the Netherlands, with its large native Dutch population, native Dutch was native Dutch was associated not with less social distance toward the minority with lower social distance toward them but rather related contact was positively intergroup Furthermore, groups. attitudes.only to interminority feel- and More positive attitudes can form the ba- toward other minority groups ings of closeness Such commitment. commonality, solidarity, and sis for a sense of a is sense for important the development of minority coalitions that injustices existing inequalities and can challenge host in the society the “ironic” effects contact should not be overstated of intergroup some situations (i.e., deep- more important in are probably and ly divided and unjust societies) than in others welfare (i.e., Dutch more closely the studies examine state). It is important that future contact reduces minority types of contexts in which intergroup inequalities challenge and so- support for collective actions that cial injustices. The results provide evidence for Hypothesis 5 that re- further transfer effect of contact (Petti- lates to the so-called secondary attitudes positive generalization, grew, 2009). Because of attitude can spread to similar out- from contact with a primary out-group groups. We were not able to test transfer effect directly (i.e., the the mediating of role primary out-group attitude; see note 8), but we injustice, undermine support for minority rights and policies, and rights and policies, for minority support undermine injustice, reduce solidarity between minority Calcagno, (Glasford & groups 2012). 168 The struggle for power tification, for nationaliden- minority groups.Togetherwiththeresult two fect ofcontactwiththenativeDutch for theattitudetoward The groups ofallochthons(“fromsomewhereelse”). ty group of autochthons(“bornfromthesoil”)andminority a strong and pervasivedistinctionismadebetweenthemajori- 2010). udicial Philip attitudes ofthedominantsociety(Lewin, et al., 1948; majority group and orientation prej adopt thesocialstereotypes osition (Hypothesis3b)thatminoritymemberswithastronger tance ed culturalandreligiousdiversityinsociety,thelesssocialdis- multicultural recognition.Themoreminoritymemberssupport- The strongestassociationswerefoundfortheendorsementof ciety forintergrouprelations. so- and psychologicalintegrationinthehost social importance of groups. Thisfurthersupports the toward thetwoethnicminority with majoritymemberswere associated withlesssocialdistance 1998; Verkuyten,2006). groups ratherthanforthe nativeDutch(VanOudenhovenetal., sider multiculturalismasidentitysupportingfor ethnicminority turalism. Thisindicatesthatalsominoritymembers tendtocon- relation tothemajoritygroupwasnotassociated withmulticul- the attitudetowardminoritygroups,and in-groupbiasin in pluralsocieties.Theassociationswerestronger, however,for provide with Berry’s(1997)argumentthatmulticultural recognitioncan González etal.,2008;Ward&Masgoret,2006), theyareinline esis is insupportofthegeneralmulticulturalendorsementhypoth- (Hypothesis findings they Rather, confidence, this reported do stronger indicates show, 6a). trust, Together toward however, national that and there all with security identification a ethnic positive was other no out-groups. among evidence findings secondary and everyone more (e.g., for This transfer the contacts Velasco finding living prop ef- - -

Interminority attitudes: ethnic and national identification, contact and multiculturalism C6 - pre- our multicul- Yet, and contact, causality. about intergroup conclusions firm identification, Limitations any national draw of There are several There are several limitations of present work the that offer oppor correlations and research. First, we examined tunities for future cannot 6.6 dictions were theoretically exper- derived and there are several imental studies and longitudinal that for example, that showed, intergroup contact et (e.g., Binder al., 2009; et Brown al., 2007) and multiculturalism (e.g., Richeson & Nussbaum, 2004; Verkuyten, studies, attitudes. Future out-group effects on 2006) have causal the direction of the data to examine use panel should however, associations. that are ethnic minority groups Second, we have focused on two the least in Dutch society accepted (Gijsberts & Dagevos, 2009). at- hostility indicates that interminority horizontal Research on titudes can differ between groups that either less are or more similar to the majority (White et al., 2006). population This could and religiously more sim- mean, for example, that the culturally might show a different pattern of ilar Surinamese and Antilleans interminority attitudes. Yet, the this does not have to mean that roles differently. A mean difference turalism for these attitudes operate in the level of social distance does not necessarily imply different relations with the various predictors: the mechanisms might operate similarly. Third, although the response rate of 52 percent is typical for Dutch surveys, it does imply some form of selectivity. Furthermore, there often is a tradeoff data between the advantage of using from the measurement of constructs. minority samples and large-scale by a mul- for different purposes data are typically collected These tidisciplinary team of researchers, which has implications for asked for the different con- be of questions that can the number 170 The struggle for power findings lations amongalargesampleandtwoethnicminoritygroups.The This 6.7 additional effects. hensive measureofthenatureandqualitycontactmightshow stronger relationswithout-group attitudes, and a morecompre- in even result might multiculturalism of measures extensive More with onlyfour. and intergroup contact items with two measured was cultural diversity of example, theendorsement For structs. minority are uniquelyrelated tointer- that differenttheoreticalconstructs and percent) couldbeaccountedfor 30 (up to in socialdistance deserve Therefore, the factorsandprocessesinvolvedintheserelations relations in national, regional, local, and institutional settings. coming more prevalent and importantforunderstanding group relations arebe- interminority societies, our increasinglydiverse In attitudes. in understandingthese consider to factors important are and theendorsementofmulticulturalism intergroup contact, have We predictions. alternative test and to context in aninterminority for theoreticalreasons,asitallowsustoexamine existingtheories interminority relations. to considerforexplaining are separateandimportantfactors sity and theendorsementofculturaldiver- intergroup contacts, tions, is tried one greater demonstrate attitudes. to of show the Conclusion social first that Thus, studies that scientific group various a relatively that differentiation attention. has forms examined large of This group and part is interminority group of also identification, the identifica- important variance re- Chapter 7

General conclusions of the dissertation

General conclusionof the disertation C7

ex- help posi- the influence role), dominant investigated numerical socially they agenda-setting their growing an of the fulfill to Specifically, they justification respond groups. (i.e. minority members members’ awareness ethnic - tion in society, on the one hand, and by investigating how major ity members respond to minorities’ wishes to participate in the 6, political system of the country, on the other. Chapters 5 and of tent to which negative out-group attitudes can be explained by majority Western countries are facing unprecedented demographic and demographic and are facing unprecedented Western countries migra- due to increased international socio-political challenges such challenge is majority populations. One tion and shrinking political par- groups respond to each other’s how different ethnic political system minority participation in the ticipation. Ethnic is widely recognized as crucial for improving the socio-economic of equal, groups and the development position of disadvantaged 2008; Martiniello, 2005; Pan- just and peaceful societies (Bieber, active minority members de, 2003; Petrusevska, 2009). Politically create problems that otherwise might shape public policies targeting contribute to the overall legit- not be addressed properly, and imacy of the political system. Yet, minority members are often when they wish to partake met with controversy and resistance 2009), presumably because in the political system (Petrusevska, to the privileged status position they are seen as a direct threat in the societal hierarchy. that the majority group occupies this dissertation set In light of these developments, out to explain negative attitudes towards immigrant-origin minority groups and their political participation. It presented seven empirical perspectives and employ studies that take different theoretical approaches. Chapters 2, 3 and 4 some innovative methodological group: they examined how took the point of view of the majority majority 174 The struggle for power reduce ethnic(political)tensions. explanations, moreresearchisrequiredifweare topreventand traditional socio-politicalresearchandoffersa numberofinitial in from occurringit ideally, howtoprevent its consequences;and, minority politicalparticipationiscomingfrom; howtomitigate towardsresistance where understand fully to need educators become moreurgent,rathersoon.Scientists,policy makers,and ing, andthattheirunconditionaldemocraticrepresentationwill tions, 2016).Thismeansthatethniccommunitieswillkeepgrow- in developedregionsuntilitiseventuallynegative(UnitedNa- a case scenario,couldunderminethefunctioningofdemocracyas worst- a in and, face; minorities that conditions structural taged effectively hindertheintegrationprocess;worsendisadvan- whether voicedas‘simple’skepticismorblatantrejection,could willingness topoliticallyaccommodateethnicminoritygroups, would advocatefor.Theseresultsareworrisomebecauseanun- less ofhowminoritieswouldparticipateorwhoseintereststhey increased negativeattitudesamongmajoritymembers,regard- ly. Eventhemerementioningofpoliticalparticipationleadsto controversy uponexpressingthewishtoparticipatepolitical- The resultsdemonstratedthatminoritiesareindeedmetwith the socialandwithinpoliticaldomain. ined howimmigrant-origingroupsrespondtoeachother,within exam- They groups. minority the of perspective the took turn, in tional next fewdecadespredictarelativelyhighandstableinterna- matter. Pressing,becauseworldpopulationprojectionsforthe there isapressingneedforfurtherin-depthresearchintothis whole. the migration first The place. first figure, While conclusion and this a dissertation we steady should decline draw, broadens in therefore, natural the scope growth is that of

General conclusionof the disertation C7

influ- easily initial is additional their one’s an to influence justified threat warrant and a as People – power chapter quo. for second status challenger a the struggle the as of in the as findings perceived challenges is The to heightened nuance: while there are people who openly subjugate out-group nuance: while there are openly people who subjugate out-group - members, there are plenty of others who ‘merely’ display resis tance ence or decision-making power. More control for ‘them’ equals More control for ‘them’ equals ence or decision-making power. participants less control for ‘us’. Indeed, the in my studies often – understood not in an seemed to respond out of conservatism of protecting one’s privileged ideological sense, but in a sense not so much threatened by position. Majority members were active, but rather seemed ‘ethnic outsiders’ becoming politically relinquish some of their control to fear that they would have to and influence. that not everyone felt threat- Yet, it is important to point out ened by politically active minority members: there were large individual differences in the degree to which people felt that the position of their in-group was threatened by other ethnic groups. perceived as a zero-sum game in which a gain for one, translates which a gain for one, translates perceived as a zero-sum game in into loss for the a diametrical other. in the Even minor changes direct competition over power. status quo likely are perceived as the desire to participate po- An out-group member expressing litically Group threat and the need for an inclusive national national for an inclusive and the need threat Group narrative are pri- group members that Blumer’s proposition In line with group vis-à-vis with the position of their own marily concerned a role in the of threat consistently played other groups, feelings studies not surprising in itself, for re- of this dissertation. This is of life had in ‘ordinary’ socio-cultural domains search conducted display an that majority group members already demonstrated when, for attitudes toward ethnic out-groups array of negative resources (Mc- to be in competition over example, they believe 2002; Stephan & Gijsberts, & Coenders, Laren, 2003; Scheepers, these sentiments are fur- Stephan, 1996). In the political domain, ther 176 The struggle for power quences foreveryone,eventually. or intruders;andwhythose reactionswillhavenegativeconse- why theyconsiderethnic out-groupmembersascompetitors should bemadeawareoftheirdifferentialattitudes; ofwhenand level) atteststotheneedforamoreinclusive narrative.People educationalor gender, age, like characteristics individual of tive people (e.g.irrespec- of kinds for different consistent it was that different, representativepopulationsamples and,moreover, all together.Thefactthatthisdifferentiation wasfoundacross pursue they weremostpositivewhenAhmedsaidthat minoritiesshould exclusively fortheinterestsoftheirethnicgroup.Conversely, Ahmed hadstatedpreviouslythatminoritiesshouldadvocate Ahmed, Dutchmajoritymembersweremostnegativewhen When askedabouttheirfeelingstowardstheforeign-born dence furtherunderscoresthatnotion. place ofbirth,religion,orpoliticalideology.Thefollowingevi- is welcometoparticipateregardlessoftheirculturalheritage, idea thateveryonethe promotes and participate, opportunity to members therightandgranting out-group merely goes beyond role inconstructinganinclusivenationalnarrative–onethat policy makersandpoliticiansshouldtakeupamoreprominent parents,Teachers, here’. from originally not are ‘they because in whichminoritiesarenotconsideredfullmembersofsociety intergroup relationsthananethnicperspectiveoncitizenship ed criteriaforcitizenship,isfarmorelikelytofosterpositive everyone isacceptedwhomeetsthedemocraticallynegotiat- national identitiesareconstructed.Acivicperspectiveinwhich and thosewhodonot.Itfollowsthatoneshouldconsiderhow ences betweenpeoplewhostronglyidentifywiththeircountry, culture, they believethatimmigrantsoughttoadoptthehostsociety resistance indifferentways,andforreasons(because interests for example). that benefit Importantly, everyone, there or shy are away significant from politics differ-

General conclusionof the disertation C7

In as soci- could related in other is problem- this instead. each win hand, position view one necessarily to identification status minority the not tend is On their ethnic other this and the that higher minorities influence. should that suggest proficiency, coalition, political benefit over will however, unified demonstrated language a 6 as groups origin, findings, to more in-group bias for all out-groups. This suggests that more negative evaluations among minority group members are not so much about those other groups, in particular, but rather a display other words: among minorities, political power held by one group is not necessarily threatening the position of the other. Second, Chapter atic for interminority relations. First, perceptions of power threat were ir- Chapter 5 showed that relevant in the evaluation of political acculturation strategies. This their political rivalry in termsimplies that they might not perceive of a zero-sum game. It is entirely possible that they prefer their own the ranking), but think thatminority group to gain power (hence both be interpreted as a lost opportunity. Minority members generally as a lost opportunity. interpreted be face the same struggles safety, (e.g. discrimination, neighborhood do not take advan- and apparently low political representation) tage of their potential ‘strength in numbers’ to better conditions. because minority groups On the other hand, it is understandable often differ in important characteristics, such as religion, country of ety. Those differences could simply too be big to overcome. Sever- al competitors Interminority attitudes: competition or coalition? competition attitudes: Interminority whose attitudes members just native majority It is not become a minority member with they are confronted when more negative in poli- politics or wanting the participate on an opinion offering out- too, are hesitant to welcome minority members, tics. Ethnic political arena. In fact, groups into the of preferred their ranking ma- is identical to that of native strategies political acculturation jority members. This strongly suggests that minority - commonal ity does not necessarily inspire political solidarity (c.f. Glasford & Calcagno, 2012). the dominant majority Rather than confronting group 178 The struggle for power have (at least)WesternEurope, it ispossiblethatDutch particularities for the Netherlands.Whilethiscountryarguablyisrepresentative were conductedin in thisdissertation Second, allsevenstudies Simons, 2014). Makel, Plucker&Hegarty,2012; robustness (Cumming,2014; test and forimprovingprecision Henry, 2008), Norenzayan, 2010; proof, forgeneralizing theoreticalconclusions(Henrich, Heine,& (and of replication isanessentialpart research forthreereasons.First, It wouldbe both usefulandinterestingtoreplicate(partsof)this Limitations anddirections forfuture research they donothavetoseeeachotherasthreats,either. to win.Minoritiesmightnotseeeachotheraspoliticalallies,but nority out-grouplosing,butaboutpreferringtheminorityin-group of favoritismtowardsthein-group.Perhapsitisnotaboutmi- finally who feelliketheDutch other. Therearemanymajoritymembers majority, on the one hand, and ethnic minority members,on the Dutch society ischaracterizedbyadividebetweenthenative clarify towhichdegree these resultsaregeneralizable. will help work inothercontexts Repeating this ethnic minorities. pants insuchcountrieswouldresponddifferently toquestionson partici - likely that is It might notexperiencesuchastrongdivide. however, Other countries, sentiments. of those manifestation have wonalargepartoftheelectoralvoteisclear consistently different backgrounds. The fact thatradicalright-wingparties are thereforeentitledtoopenlycriticize,eveninsult, people with the negatives)’, influenced scientific have shed method upgrading the the taboo results. and of one-time allows For ‘political example, for findings correctness’ correcting since to widely the ‘false and early that accepted positives 2000s they General conclusionof the disertation C7 - - rep- Chris- future as contact such Related, groups times. petitions, sign difficult minority in rallies, other and other’ on ‘the (e.g. protests meet focus we that attend of how on office, tians, LGBT community, the feminists, or Western immigrants) At this point, issue. light on the generalizability could shed more that the focus on Muslims is partic- recognize it is important to in times ularly sensitive of Jihadist terrorism, mass-immigration from Muslim countries (IOM, 2016), moral pan and a “widespread and ethnic diversity” ic about immigrants (Vasta, 2007, p713). One an to keep that it is especially important could insist, however, eye research should research should it investigate whether matters to - focus on ethnic It probably will not matterity, rather than on religion. so much in Turks and Moroccans self-identi- most context, where the Dutch fy as Muslim (for more information see: Maliepaard, 2012). - More and political discourse of public over, Muslims are the focal point the Dutch, so it is very nearly all Western societies, including in associate the des- the Netherlands likely that majority members in with ‘Muslim’. ignations ‘Turkish’ and ‘Moroccan’, between attitudes and be- Moving on, there is a clear difference psychological measures one way,havior. People might respond to Respondents who reactedbut act differently in real-life situations. of out-groups, might notnegatively towards political acculturation openly express less their opposition, much act on it. This phenom enon is hard to for social circumvent scientists, but future research - the same patterns of re whether could, for example, investigate sults outcome variables. Instead of focusing are found for different attitudes social distance or felt emotions, on prejudicial such as - research could examine support for social policies, voting inten tions, or the willingness to extent political rights to out-groups. majority members’ responses to to analyze useful It might also be at different political behaviors of ethnic out-groups. People have run vote, they can behaviors: array of political their disposal an for Third, the focus of this dissertation has been on attitudes of major- on attitudes has been focus of this dissertation the Third, A slide modi- groups. minority towards non-Western ity members fication 180 The struggle for power fire, that add more fuelto likely will trends Demographic 2013). anski, (Amnesty International,2016;EC,2015;FRA,2007;Gallup,2017;Ig- public andofrepresentativesatthehighestlevelsgovernment in xenophobia,racistviolence,andexclusionaryrhetoricofthe crisis, manyWesterncountriesarecurrentlywitnessinganincrease Following theriseofJihadistterrorismandEuropeanrefugee Concluding remarks plays them,whoperceivesandinwhichcontexttheyoccur. haviors mightinducedifferentreactionsdepending on whodis- different politicalbe- political participation.Putinotherwords: andbeliefsdepend is likelythatpeople’s attitudes on thetypeof advocating forgroupandpoliticalpartymembership,it interests and so forth.Whereasthecurrentstudiesfocusedon resentatives, like participate withanIslamic politicalparty,majoritymembersfelt or wishto interests wish toadvanceMuslim members minority which Depending in politics. onthedegreeto voicing aninterest majority groupreact negatively tominorities that native members demonstrated Through this dissertation seven empiricalstudies Martiniello, 2005;Pande,2003;Petrusevska,2009). and just societies (Bieber,2008; equal of development for the and for improvingthesocio-economicpositionofdisadvantaged groups ties inthedemocraticsystem,whichiswidelyrecognized ascrucial lenges willbetheunconditionalrepresentationofethnicminori- chal- those of One challenges. political and social additional face urban regions,willquicklybecomemoreethnicallydiverseand tions, 2016).ThatmeansthatWesternsocieties,particularlytheir American majoritypopulationswillcontinuetoshrink(UnitedNa- international migrationwillremainhighandEuropeanNorth feelings in different ways (forexamplebyrequiring that minori- their as population privileged projections position was show under that threat. in the They next justified few decades, those

General conclusionof the disertation C7 - - - under are results These identification. national of strength the ties adopt the dominant culture) and exhibited large differences large differences culture) and exhibited the dominant ties adopt in standable from standable a point of social-psychological view. From a socie- unwillingness to however, they are worrisome. An tal perspective, (whether voiced ethnic minority groups politically accommodate as skepticism ‘simple’ or blatant rejection) could eventually hin structural process; worsen the disadvantaged der the integration minorities conditions in which live; and, in a worst-case scenario, parents, of democracy. Teachers, functioning could threaten the more prominent politicians should take up a policy makers and be- narrative that goes inclusive national an constructing role in the right and opportu members out-group yond merely granting important to emphasize the idea nity to participate. Rather, it is the democratic pro- is welcome to participate in that any citizen place of birth, religion, heritage, cess, regardless of their cultural or political ideology. Ethnic minority members, too, are hesitant to welcome each other of preferred that their ranking into the political arena. The fact to that of native ma- strategies is identical political acculturation that minority jority members, strongly suggests status does not necessarily inspire political solidarity (c.f. Glasford & Calcagno, 2012). Some nuance is Evidence suggested that required, however. minorities do not see each other as threats (where majority members do), and that their negative intergroup attitudes are mostly a own group. display of favoritism towards their are innovative both in their the- studies in this dissertation The oretical focus and methodological designs. This means that the studies presented might similar inspire research in other contexts and hopefully provide directions avenues to for future research explore. The studies must in contexts other than the be replicated - Dutch, and need to be applied to different minority groups to es of results. While this dissertation broadens tablish generalizability - the scope of traditional socio-political research and offers a num 182 The struggle for power conflicts thatunderminethefunctioningofsociety. in occurring from prevent it how to and, ideally, consequences; its minority politicalparticipationiscomingfrom;howtomitigate towards and educatorsneedtofullyunderstandwhereresistance policy makers, to preventandreduceethnictensions.Scientists, ber of importantexplanations, more research is required if weare the first place. Such efforts, hopefully, will prevent intergroup

Uitgebreide samenvatting 185 UITGEBREIDE SAMENVATTING UITGEBREIDE IN DUTCH SUMMARY Introductie Het aantal internationale migranten is in de afgelopen vijftien jaar wereldwijd 173 Migreerden er in het jaar 2000 steevast toegenomen. dat aantal verdernaar een ander land; in 2015 liep miljoen mensen 2016). De gevolgen zijn merk- op tot 244 miljoen (United Nations, waar de ‘witte’ meerderhedenbaar in Europa en Noord-Amerika, door vergrijzing en lagere vruchtbaarheidscijfers alsmaar kleiner de helft van het aantal migrantenworden, maar tezamen meer dan Migration Observatory, 2013). De- huizen (United Nations, 2016; The bevolking in het algemeen,mografen voorspellen dat de Europese centraal-noordelijke landen, rondmaar name de mediterraanse en derde zullen bestaan uit personenhet jaar 2061 voor meer dan een 2011). Canada zal dat puntmet een migratie-achtergrond (Lanzieri, en tegen 2044 zal meer dan helftreeds rond het jaar 2031 passeren uit wat men vandaag de dagvan de Amerikaanse bevolking bestaan (Colby & Ortman, 2015; Statis- nog een ‘minderheidsgroep’ noemt Organisatie voor Mi- tics Canada, 2016). Volgens de Internationale nu al een aanzienlijk deel van degratie (2015) vormen migranten Toronto (46%), Londen (37%),bevolking in steden als Brussel (62%), en Parijs (25%). Deze demograf- New York (37%), Amsterdam (28%) dat Westerse samenlevingen voorische ontwikkelingen tonen aan ongekende sociale en politieke uitdagingen staan. Immigratie en culture diversiteit in een samenleving roepen vaak - sterke etnische vooroordelen op onder de leden van de meerderhe - idsgroep. Zij zien nieuwkomers en minderheidsgroepen als een be dreiging van hun cultuur, werkgelegenheid, huisvesting, zelfs hun 186 The struggle for power sociaal-wetenschappelijk onderzoek voornamelijk gericht is op de de is op voornamelijk gericht onderzoek sociaal-wetenschappelijk scholen enhunboodschappen doenindezelfdewinkels.Doordat samenleven indezelfde wijken, hunkinderensturennaardezelfde stuk is(IOM,2015,p26).Migrantenverhuizennaar steden,waarze komt voortuithetfeitdatmigratieinwezeneen stedelijkvraag- de politiekeparticipatievanminderheidsgroepen. Hettweedepunt hoe autochtonendiepositierechtvaardigenen zijreagerenop in eenbedreigingvanhundominantepositie.Dit roeptdevraagop deel minderhedentoeneemt,vertaaltzichdatvoor demeerderheid een weerspiegelingvanhunrelatieveomvang. Wanneer hetaan- itieke machtgroepenbezitten,isindemocratische samenlevingen volgen optoenemendemigratienaarWesterselanden.Hoeveelpol- Dit proefschriftbehandelttweedringendevraagstukkendiedirect tional, 2017). controle tekrijgenoverdenationalegrenzen(PVV,2017;FrontNa- en, deKoranteverbiedenenEuropeseUnieverlatenommeer electoraal succesboekenmethunvoorstellenommoskeeëntesluit- partijen radicaal-rechtse zien weoveralinEuropadat Tot slot 2017). canen enanti-moslimretoriekvanPresidentDonaldTrump(Gallup, gevoelens, maareenbelangrijkefactorwaszekerookdeanti-Mexi- de en Politiegeweld land. hun in rassen de tussen verhoudingen de over zorgen maakt grote zich Amerikanen de van 42% van recordaantal het aantalhaatdelictentegenasielzoekerstegaan,terwijleen ty InternationaldatDuitslandnietinstaatwasomdestijgingvan (Corcoran &Smith,2016).InhetzelfdejaarwaarschuwdeAmnes- het aantalracistischeenreligieusgemotiveerdegeweldsplegingen 41% in van Buitenlandse Zakenrapporteerdein2016eenstijging geving (EC,2015;FRA,2007;Iganski,2013).HetBritseMinisterievan endien horenzeeentelkensluidereroepomstrikteremigratiewet- kte stijgingvanxenofobieenracistischgemotiveerdgeweld.Bov- de EuropesevluchtelingencrisiszienveelWesterselandeneenster- veiligheid. GevoeddoorhettoenemendeJihadistischterrorismeen beweging hebben uiteraard bijgedragen aan die Black LivesMatterbeweginghebbenuiteraardbijgedragenaandie Uitgebreide samenvatting 187 Doel en focus van het proefschrift Doel en focus de negatieve onderzoekt verklaringen voor Dit proefschrift participatie van alloch- ten aanzien van de politieke houdingen tonen. De eerste nemen het perspectief van de drie hoofdstukken van de meerder- en bestuderen hoe leden Nederlandse autochtoon van etnische de toenemende numerieke invloed op heid reageren het minderheden. In ze 1) bijzonder onderzoeken de mate waarin als gebruiken dominante positie in de samenleving mensen hun tegenover andere negatieve houdingen voor hun rechtvaardiging die wensen deel en 2) hoe men reageert op minderheden groepen te nemen aan het politieke systeem. De laatste twee hoofdstukken, in op elkaar reageren op hun beurt, bestuderen hoe minderheden domein. zowel het sociale, als het politieke op basis van er zeven empirische studies verricht In totaal zijn de Nederlandse bevolking. representatieve steekproeven onder groot van een toepasbaarheid en Het proefschrift test de validiteit aantal innovatieve en zet daarbij een aantal traditionele theorieën theo- van de belangrijkste Eén in. benaderingen methodologische is ‘politieke acculturatie’, retische concepten van dit proefschrift Berry (1997) is ontleend aan het werk van John W. hetgeen en ver- wijst kunnen naar de verschillende strategieën die groepsleden gebruiken om zich al niet aan elkaar aan te dan passen. Accultur- eerste moeten mi- Ten atie is het product van twee vraagstukken. granten beslissen in welke mate treden met ze in contact willen de met leden omgaan of liever alleen meerderheidsgroep dominante etnische groep. Ten tweede van hun eigen moet men besluiten of of dat ze liever dient te worden, behouden de herkomstcultuur de meerderheidscultuur overnemen. De combinatie van deze twee verhoudingen tussen autochtonen en tussen autochtonen verhoudingen is grotendeelsallochtonen, aan voorbijgegaan de verhoudingen tussen onderling. minderheden 188 The struggle for power negatieve houdingen van autochtonen – noglosvanhoeminder - participatie zienwe eenduidelijketoenameinde hun politieke Alleen albijheteenvoudig vermelden van 2009). ook: Petrusevska, politiek (zie nemen aan de deel te om ze blijkgevenvanhunwens dat minderheden weerstand encontroverseondervinden wanneer Toch toont dit proefschriftaan imatie vanhetpolitiekesysteem. geadresseerd zouden worden endragenbijaan de algehele legit- beleid dusdanigdathetproblemen bestrijdt die andersnietgoed van minderheidsgroepen creëren bewustwording,beïnvloeden Politiek actieveleden Petrusevska, 2009). ello, 2005;Pande,2003; mische positievanachtergesteldegroepen (Bieber, Martini- 2008; erkend als cruciaal voor het verbeteren van desociaal-econo algemeen Politieke participatievanetnischeminderhedenwordt Bevindingen de focusvanditproefschriftrechtvaardigt. uitgezonderd – hetgeen vaker ensystematischer worden moslims dat andereminderheidsgroepen evenwel discriminatie ervaren, Hoewel hetwaaris 2015). mensen opdebeenkrijgen(Smale, soms wel20,000 menig Europeesland,waarhaardemonstraties Abendlandes) heeft zich in slechts een paar jaar verspreidt naar isatie Pegida(PatriotischeEuropäergegen die Islamisierung des in België,endePVVNederland.Devanoorsprong Duitse organ in hetVerenigd Belang Koninkrijk, enrijk, BritainFirst het Vlaams National inFrankrijk,deFPÖ inOost- Verenigde Staten,hetFront politieke partijenenbewegingen: in de Trump endeTeaParty hun ‘gastlanden’ wensente‘islamiseren’wordtvertolktdoorvele samenlevingen wordtuitgezonderd. Het vermoedendatmoslims omdat dezegroep aanzien in vrijwelalleWesterse van moslims, proefschrift ligtopdehoudingen ten van dit De algemenefocus ilatie, integratie,separatieenmarginalisering. bekende acculturatiestrategieën:assim de vier tot leidt dimensies - - - Uitgebreide samenvatting 189 - - decennia komende de voor projecties demografische dat feit Groepsdreiging en de noodzaak van een inclusieve, na- Groepsdreiging tionale retoriek - Gevoelens van dreiging speelden een consistente rol in de verschil lende studies van dit proefschrift. Op zich is dat geen verassende bevinding. Onderzoek in het ‘gewone’ sociaal-culturele domein heeft - reeds vaak aangetoond dat leden van de meerderheidsgroep een ver voorspellen dat internationale migratie relatief hoog en stabiel zal en migratie relatief hoog dat internationale voorspellen ontwikkel- in aanwas van populaties terwijl de natuurlijke blijven, zelfs negatief zal zijn (Unit- de landen zal afnemen en uiteindelijk en toenemen ed Nations, 2016). diversiteit zal dus blijven Etnische vertegenwoor democratische daarmee zal de onvoorwaardelijke, worden. urgenter nog zeer binnenkort van minderheden diging en onderwijzers moeten begri Wetenschappers, beleidsmakers van van de politieke participatie waar weerstand ten aanzien jpen worden kunnen de gevolgen komt, hoe vandaan minderheden kan en, bij voorkeur, hoe die weerstand überhaupt tegengegaan worden voorkomen. Hoewel dit van tradi- de horizon proefschrift verbreedt en een aantal initiële tioneel sociaal-politiek onderzoek we verdere indien geboden biedt, is meer onderzoek verklaringen willen voorkomen. etnische en politieke spanningen heden zouden willen deelnemen of wiens belangen ze dan zouden ze dan zouden of wiens belangen deelnemen willen zouden heden vertegenwoordigen. in onwil om te voorzien omdat een Dit resultaat is verontrustend nu gaat om ‘een- van minderheden, of het de politieke participatie voudige’ scepsis ernstige gevolgen met afwijzing, of onverholen - Het kan de structurele achterstandspos zich mee kan brengen. ergste geval, kan in het en, verslechteren itie van minderheden functioneren van de democratie dergelijk onwil het ondermi- zelf jnen. Het eerste wat dit derhalve moet proefschrift vaststellen, is verricht moet dat nodig meer onderzoek gezien worden. Nodig, het 190 The struggle for power belangrijke de cultuurvanhetgastlandmoetenovernemen). Erwarendaarbij gredenen (bijvoorbeeldomdatzevanmeningzijn datimmigranten weerstand opverschillendemanierenenmet bewee- de status-quo.Respondentenrechtvaardigdendeze aanvankelijke er ookvelendie‘slechts’weerstandbodentegeneen veranderingvan waren etnische minderhedensimpelwegnietgelijkwaardigzijn, dat waren van mening participanten sommige Hoewel nuance. vullende aan- om een vragen hoofdstuk eerste uit het resultaten De denten. tonen: erbestondengrote,individueleverschillenonderderespon- alloch- participatie van politieke door voelde bedreigd iedereen zich Gezien dezebevindingenishetbelangrijktewijzenopfeitdatniet leken eerderbenauwdommachteninvloedoptemoetengeven. bedreigd doordepolitiekeparticipatievan‘etnischanderen’,maar status-quo. Ledenvandemeerderheidwarenschijnbaarnietzozeer wens omdeeigengroepentebehoedentegenveranderingvan conservatisme –nietgezienalseenpolitiekestroming,maar vanuit te reageren inderdaad studies deze in participanten de leken invloed voor‘hun’staatgelijkaanmindermacht‘ons’.Vaak loed endevrijheidomzelfstandigbesluitentekunnennemen.Meer inv- eigen de voor bedreiging een snel al is worden, willen te actief recte concurrentie.Iemandvaneenanderegroepdiezegtpolitiek als di- worden beschouwd kunnen evenwicht het in veranderingen een diametraaltegenovergesteldverliesvoordeander.Zelfskleine tot eenzero-sumgamewaarinwinstvoordeéénzichdirectvertaaltin tieke domein.Destrijdommachteninvloedverwordtgemakkelijk 1996). Dergelijkeattitudeswordenverderaangewakkerdinhetpoli- en, 2003;Scheepers,Gijsberts&Coenders,2002;StephanStephan, ze menendatmoetenconcurrerenmetanderegroepen(McLar- scheidenheid aannegatievehoudingententoonspreidenwanneer tot standkomenwanneer menimmigrantenbezietvanuiteennatio- komen. Hetisveelwaarschijnlijker datpositieveintergroepsrelaties we goedmoetennadenken overhoenationaleidentiteitentotstand met Nederlandenzijdie dat inminderematedoen.Hieruitvolgt verschillen tussen mensen die zich sterk identificeren

Uitgebreide samenvatting 191

niet überhaupt zich of profiteren, zal van iedereen waar naal perspectief gebaseerd op burgerrechten waarin eenieder wordt waarin eenieder op burgerrechten gebaseerd naal perspectief spelregels. vastgestelde aan de democratisch die voldoet geaccepteerd min- perspectief, waarin is het nationalistisch-etnisch De tegenpool derheden niet als voorwaardige leden van de samenleving worden beleids- ‘hier niet vandaan komen’. Onderwijzers, gezien omdat ze rol moeten gaan zouden daarom een prominentere makers en politici spelen in het tot stand brengen van een inclusieve, retoriek.nationale bieden dan enkel het recht en de mogelijkheid Eén die verder gaat om mee te doen, maar de notie bevordert dat iedereen welkom is om culturele achter- het politieke stelsel ongeacht de te participeren in grond, geboorteplaats, geloofsovertuiging, of politieke ideologie. De onderstrepen dit idee. volgende resultaten naar hun gevoelens ten aan- Wanneer autochtonen werden gevraagd Ahmed, waren ze het negatief- zien van de in het buitenland geboren verteld dat hij meent dat minder- ste wanneer Ahmed eerder had belangen van hun eigen groepheden voornamelijk voor de politieke het positiefst wanneermoeten opkomen. Ze waren daarentegen die belangen moetenAhmed eerder had gesteld dat minderheden nastreven Interetnische houdingen: competitie of coalitie? Interetnische Het zijn niet alleen de leden van de meerderheid wiens houdingen - negatiever worden als ze geconfronteerd worden met een alloch toon met een politieke opvatting of een wens om deel te nemen met de politiek dienen te bemoeien. Dat deze verschillen opdokenmet de politiek dienen te bemoeien. steekproeven en bij verschil- in verschillende, doch representatieve, leeftijd, geslacht, opleidingsniveau)lende soorten mensen (ongeacht toont de noodzaak aan voor eerder die vermelde inclusieve retoriek. zijn van discriminerende houdin- Men zou zich meer bewust moeten leden van andere etnische groepengen; van wanneer en waarom ze zien als concurrenten of indringers; en waarom reactiesdergelijke komen. uiteindelijk niemand ten goede zullen 192 The struggle for power er jk zijndergelijkeverschillentegrootomoverbruggen.Toch als religie,taal,herkomstenhunpositieindesamenleving.Mogeli- jpelijk: minderhedenverschillenvaakinbelangrijkeeigenschappen structurele conditiesteverbeteren.Aandeanderekantishetbegri- hun potentiële schijnbaar geengebruikvan in buurten,gebrekkigepolitiekevertegenwoordiging),maarmaken geconfronteerd metdezelfdeproblemen(discriminatie,veiligheid teerd wordenalseengemistekans.Minderhedenzienzichveelal renten overpolitiekeinvloed.Aandeenekantkanditgeïnterpre- als eenverenigdfront,beschouwenminderhedenelkaarconcur- 2012). Inplaatsvandeautochtonemeerderheidtegemoettetreden inspireert totpolitiekesolidariteit(zieook:Glasford&Calcagno, een gedeeldeetnischeminderheidsstatusnietnoodzakelijkerwijs aan dievandeautochtonemeerderheid.Ditsuggereertsterkdat bepaald metopenarmen:hunrankschikkingenwarenidentiek aan hetpolitiekesysteem.Minderhedenontvangenelkaarookniet zozeer een reactie zijn op de afwijkendeeigenschappenzijn op van‘de zozeer eenreactie zou betekenen dat negatieve houdingen tussen minderheden niet groep, dan metvooroordelen ten aanzien van anderegroepen. Dit catie meergerelateerd is aanvooringenomenheid over deeigen Ten niet noodzakelijkerwijs bedreigend voor depositie vandeander. woorden, politiekemachtindehanden van deeneminderheidis minderheid uiteindelijkookdeeigengroepzal helpen. Inandere winst vaneenandere heid), maartegelijkertijdverwachtenzedat daar datderankschikking identiek wasaan die vandemeerder- dat deeigen etnische groepmeerpolitiekemacht verwerft(van- een niet zienals derheden onderlinge,politiekeconcurrentiewellicht strategieën voorpolitiekeacculturatie.Datimpliceertdatmin- dreiging geenrolspeeldenindeevaluatievanverschillende Ten eerstetoondehoofdstukvieraandatgevoelensvanmachts- tisch zijnvoordeonderlingeverhoudingen. aanwijzingen . Mogelijkerwijs zien minderhedenbijvoorkeur Mogelijkerwijs zero-sum game. tweede liet hoofdstuk dat deze verschillen vijf zien dat niet sterkere per numbers om numbers om strength in definitie etnische problema- identifi- Uitgebreide samenvatting 193 - - Tot slot Tot the- zowel in hun proefschrift waren innovatief De studies uit dit Daar het zeer methodologische aanpak. als hun oretische focus is van de bevindingen, de generaliseerbaarheid aan bijdragen zou andere Nederlandse wetenschap- het te hopen dat dit proefschrift dat men de maar ook onderzoek, pers inspireert tot vergelijkbaar vergelijkbare studies toepast landen en op andere min- in andere diversiteit wereldwijd, maar We weten dat etnische derheden. zal blijven toenemen en dat vooral in Europa en Noord-Amerika, democratische vertegenwoordig daarmee de onvoorwaardelijke, Weten- zal worden. urgenter nog binnenkort van minderheden ing waar moeten begrijpen schappers, beleidsmakers en onderwijzers - van de politieke participatie van minder weerstand ten aanzien heden vandaan komt, worden tegenge hoe de gevolgen kunnen voorkomen hoe die weerstand überhaupt voorkeur, bij en, gaan van tradition- de horizon kan worden. Dit proefschrift verbreedt biedt een aantal initiële eel sociaal-politiek onderzoek en verklaringen, maar meer onderzoek is geboden om etnische en verdere politieke spanningen te voorkomen. ander’, maar eerder het product zijn van een sterke voorkeur voor voorkeur voor sterke van een product zijn eerder het ander’, maar de Wellicht eigen groep. gaat het tussen er niet minderheden echt wint. dat de eigen groep maar meer om ander verliest, om dat de maar elkaar dus niet als Minderheden zien politieke bondgenoten, ze elkaar zeker ook niet. als vijanden zien

Síntesis 195 - - - 2015; significa- sociedades Ortman, las parte & que una (Colby muestran constituyen término al ya da se hoy demográficos migrantes que los cambios (2015), Estos significado el SÍNTESIS SPANISH IN SUMMARY En los últimos internaciona años, el número de migrantes quince en el año 2000, constantemente. Mientras que les ha aumentado mundialmente, emigraron 173 millones a de personas otros países, en el 2015 244 fueron Nations, millones (United 2016). Los efec- y América del Norte, donde las tos son más notorios en Europa mayorías “blancas” al disminuyen debido envejecimiento de sus que estas re- mientras y las bajas tasas de fecundidad, poblaciones de los migrantes internaciona a más de la mitad albergan giones Nations, 2016; Migration Observatory, 2013). les (United The Los gener 2061 Europa, en que para el año en demógrafos predicen al, y en los países mediterráneos y centro-nórdicos, en particular, habitantes tendrá una historia de más de una tercera parte de los 2011). migración internacional (Lanzieri, Canadá sobrepasará este punto en 2031 y, para el año 2044, se espera que más de la mitad de “minoría”, de acuerdo a alguna pertenezcan los estadounidenses con Statistics Canada, 2016). Según la Organización Internacional de Migración tiva en las poblaciones de ciudades como (62%), Bruselas Toronto (37%), Ámsterdam (46%), Londres (37%), Nueva York (28%) y Paris (25%). occidentales se enfrentan a grandes retos sociales y políticos. y la diversidad cultural a menudo invocan fuertes La migración los miembros de la mayoría. Las poblaciones étnicos en prejuicios locales consideran a los recién llegados como una amenaza a su cultura, empleo, provisión de vivienda, e incluso, su seguridad. Impulsados por los continuos ataques del terrorismo yihadista y 196 The struggle for power en compras hacenescuelas, y sus mismas hijos alas mandan asus os, barri- los inmigranteslleganalasciudadesyvivenen losmismos p26). Enparticular, un asuntourbano”(IOM,2015, efectivamente, norías. Lasegundacuestiónresultadelhecho que “lamigraciónes, mi - cómo respondenalaparticipaciónpolíticadelas su posicióny plantea lacuestióndecómolosmiembros mayoría justifican amenaza alaposicióndominantedelgrupo mayoritario, locual Un aumentoenlaproporcióndeminoríasimplicauna relativo. grupos esunafuncióndesutamaño de poderqueposeenciertos la cantidad representativas, En sociedadesdemocráticas dentales. sultado directodelincrementodemigración hacia lospaísesocci- La presente tesis responde a doscuestionesurgentes que son re- 2017; FrontNational,2017). para recuperar más controlsobrelasfronterasnacionales(PVV, Unión Europea la de salir prohibir elCorány mezquitas, cerrar de éxito electoralconsus planes ical hantenidouncadavezmayor timo, observamosqueen toda Europa los partidosdederecha rad- anti-islámicos delpresidente Donald Trump (Gallup, Por úl- 2017). anti-mexicanos y pero, tambiénhasidoincitadoporlosdiscursos Black LivesMatter les ensupaís.Esverdadquelaviolenciapolicialyelmovimiento estadounidense se dijo muy preocupada por las relaciones racia- de lapoblación que unrécord42% de asilo,mientras solicitantes el aumentoencrímenesdeodio contra los ba fallandoencombatir que Alemaniaesta- Internacional advirtió el mismoaño,Amnistía En (Corcoran &Smith,2016). lencia racialyreligiosaenelaño2016 terio delInteriorbritánicoinformóunaumentode41%enlavio- El Minis- Iganski, 2013). FRA, 2007; (EC, 2015; gración más estrictas racial, ycadavezseescuchan más vocesafavordeleyesinmi- registrando unaumentoconsiderableenlaxenofobia, laviolencia la crisiseuropea derefugiados,muchospaísesoccidentalesestán cos se han abocado principalmente a entender las relaciones may- se hanabocadoprincipalmente aentenderlas cos las mismas tiendas contribuyeron que otros inmigrantes. a afianzar este Los estado estudios de científi- ánimo; Síntesis 197 - - es- ex- hacia estudian: numérica contacto diferentes negativas las a capítulos influencia los mantener actitudes refiere se sus creciente prefieren cual una si la a o justifica Específicamente, (1997), gente la responde étnicas. Berry dominante, que W. ésta en John cómo mayoría minorías de grado la las el clusivamente con su propio grupo étnico. Segundo, tienen que de- étnico. Segundo, clusivamente con su propio grupo cidir si mantienen su propia cultura o tienden a adoptar la cultura de la mayoría. La combinación de estas dos dimensiones produce cuatro estrategias de aculturación: asimilación, integración, sepa- ración y marginalización. de trategias que miembros de grupos pueden adoptar para ajustarse de dos cuestiones. Primero, entre sí. La aculturación es el producto los migrantes deben decidir hasta qué grado se ponen en contacto con Objetivo y enfoque de la tesis Objetivo y enfoque contra la las actitudes negativas busca explicar La presente tesis Los Bajos. los Países en política de minorías étnicas participación tres asumen la perspectiva de la mayoría primeros capítulos e in- dagan oría-minorías; sin embargo, dada la naturaleza del fenómeno, es del fenómeno, dada la naturaleza sin embargo, oría-minorías; inter-minoritarias. las relaciones entender también fundamental 1) la sociedad; y 2) dominante en a través de su posición otros grupos cómo responde al deseo de las minorías de participar en el siste a su vez, investigan cómo ma político. Los últimos dos capítulos, tanto en el dominio social como responden las minorías entre sí, en el político. Se han total realizado un de siete estudios empíricos con base en uti- han holandesa. Se muestras de la población representativas la validez y a prueba poner para lizado metodologías innovadoras tradicionales. Uno de los concep la aplicabilidad de varias teorías la política”, estudiada en tos claves de la tesis es la “aculturación obra 198 The struggle for power que éstasrepresentan. mente delamaneraenque lasminoríasparticipanolosintereses titudes negativasdelos miembrosdelamayoría,independiente participación en política,sepuede observar un aumento enlasac- sólo semencionasuposible Incluso si 2009). también: Petrusevska, político(ver oposición cuandopretenden participar enelsistema con polémicay recibidas son minorías que las demuestran tesis de esta político. Sinembargo,losresultados general delsistema sido abordadosadecuadamente,ycontribuyen a lalegitimización no habían problemas quequizás públicas pararesolver políticas las norías Los miembrosdemi- Petrusevska, 2009). Pande, 2003; ello, 2005; Martini- (Bieber, 2008; cio-económica degruposdesfavorecidos ampliamente comofundamentalparamejorarlaposiciónso- minorías étnicasesreconocida La participaciónpolíticadelas Los aprendizajes sis delpresentelibro. manes musul- que los sospecha de La occidentales. sociedades las todas hacia los musulmanes,pues es elgrupo que sesingularizamásen El énfasisgeneral del trabajodeinvestigaciónestáenlasactitudes manera de discriminación,sonlosmusulmanesquienesseñalados A pesardequeotrosgrupos minoritarios tambiénsufren 2015). ifestaciones logran movilizar hastaveintemilpersonas(Smale, man- sus europeos, y dido ensóloalgunosañosamuchospaíses Europäer gegen die Islamisierung des Abendlandes) se haexten- dad alemanaorientalDresde,laorganización Pegida (Patriotische Bajos. Delaciu- Países para laLibertadenlos el Partido Bélgica y en Austria,BritainFirst el ReinoUnido, el VlaamsBelang en Unidos, elFrontNationalen Party en Francia, elFPÖ los Estados políticos: TrumpyelTea do pormuchospartidosymovimientos que buscan más participan frecuente “islamizar” en y más política a sus sistemática países generan “anfitriones” – conciencia, lo que justifica es influyen denuncia el énfa- en - - Síntesis 199 - - en perman- vuelve científicos, consecuen se Los generar internacional influencia la relevante. puede y más poder migración aún rechazo, el la será por que flagrante lucha étnicas La un muestran de más. o minorías aún las de cias graves. aún más Puede empeorar la estructural posición de de los casos, puede el peor en minorías, e incluso, desventaja de las socavar democracia. la conclusión de la La primera investigación, de profun necesidad fundamental existe una tanto, es que por las proyecciones con más estudios. Esto en tanto dizar en el tema demográficas ecerá alta y estable, mientras ecerá alta y estable, crecimiento natural de las po- que el desarrollados disminuirá hasta blaciones de países el punto que Nations, 2016). será negativo (United De ahí que la diversidad cultural y, seguirá incrementando por ende, la representación políti- ca La amenaza del grupo y la necesidad de crear un discurso de crear La amenaza del grupo y la necesidad nacional incluyente Los sentimientos grupal desempeñan un papel im- de amenaza portante en varios estudios de este libro. Esto no es sorprendente. demostrado que los miembros de Muchas investigaciones ya han la mayoría exhiben una plenitud de actitudes negativas cuando recursos (McLaren, otros por que competir con que tienen creen 2003; Scheepers, Gijsberts & Coenders, 2002; Stephan & Stephan, 1996). Dentro del dominio político estas actitudes, no obstante, se avivan los creadores de políticas públicas y los educadores deben entend- deben y los educadores los creadores de políticas públicas a la participación política de er de dónde proviene la resistencia combatir y, preferentemente, cómo se minorías, cómo se puede tesis amplía el alcance de investiga- esta Aunque prevenir. puede ciertamente se explicaciones, ciones tradicionales y ofrece varias requiere de más trabajo académico para prevenir mayores tensiones étnicas y políticas. Dicho resultado es preocupante porque una renuencia a facilitar a facilitar renuencia una porque es preocupante resultado Dicho es- trátese de un “simple” de las minorías, política la participación cepticismo un juego de suma cero en el la que ganancia de “ellos” se traduce 200 The struggle for power identifican existen diferencias notablesentrelaspersonasquese Además, que diferentes manerasycon diferentes motivos(p. ej., porque creen papel más proactivo en la creación de un discurso nacional incluy- un discurso creación de en la proactivo papel más deben adoptar un políticos creadores depolíticapública y dores, “no sondeaquí”.Educa- en tanto dignos delasociedad miembros perspectiva étnica-nacional, noseconsidera alosmigrantescomo una Por elcontrario,desde negociados democráticamente. terios civiles, enlaquecualquierpersonaesaceptada sisecumplen cri- migrantes desdeunaperspectivanacionalbasada enlosderechos cuando lagenteconsideraalos relaciones intergrupalespositivas probable quesurjan más identidades nacionales.Es construyen las De ahíqueseaimportantecontemplarcuidadosamente cómose estatus muchas otraspersonas“simplemente”resistieroncambiosen el las minoríasétnicassimplementenoson“igualesaotrosgrupos”, importante. Apesardequealgunos participantes síopinaron que Los resultadosdelprimercapítulo,porejemplo, ofrecen unmatiz étnicas, pueshubo grandes diferenciasentrelosparticipantes. sintieron amenazadosporlaparticipación política delasminorías se Considerando losresultados,esimportanteseñalarquenotodos “otro”; másbien,temensacrificarsupoder. preocupados conlaparticipaciónpolítica del la mayoríanoestán cambios enelbalance político). Bienparecequelosmiembrosde sentido deideología política, sinoen el deproteger a sugrupo de cieron impulsados por un sentido deconservacionismo (no en un “nosotros”. Losparticipantesen nuestros estudiosamenudo pare- decir, influencia como unaamenazacontrala en lavidapolítica,prontoesvisto de unexogrupo (out-group)queexpresasuintención departicipar quoseperciben al estatus como competencia directa. Un miembro en la pérdidasimétricade“nosotros”.Incluso, cambios pequeños los más quo. inmigrantes y influencia fuertemente Estos el poder participantes deben para de toma con “ellos” adoptar los de justificaron Países se decisiones traduce la cultura Bajos su en del oposición y del menos aquéllas grupo país poder anfitrión). propio. inicial que para no. en Es Síntesis 201 - - - - - de benefi que clasificación su intereses hecho, De representar negativas. deben actitudes minorías las que desarrollan preferencias de las estrategias de aculturación política fue idén- tica a la de la mayoría. Esto implica que el compartir estatus de minoría étnica no necesariamente favorece solidaridad política 2012). de afrontar a (ver también: Glasford & Calcagno, En lugar la mayoría étnica como un frente unido, las minorías se tienden a considerar competidores políticos. Por un lado, este resultado Actitudes interétnicas: ¿competencia o coalición? Actitudes interétnicas: desarrollan actitudes No sólo los miembros de la mayoría nega dientemente de su herencia cultural, lugar de nacimiento, religión de nacimiento, cultural, lugar su herencia dientemente de o ideología política. argumento. también en este resultados abonan Los siguientes so- los miembros de la mayoría holandesa a Cuando se preguntó bre sus afectivas evaluaciones “Ahmed”, del extranjero hipotético que las minorías estos opinó Ahmed eran más negativos cuando En cambio, grupos. por los intereses de sus propios luchar deben Ahmed más positivos cuando los miembros de la mayoría fueron declaró cien a todos o que las minorías deben alejarse de la política. Estas muestras diferencias aparecieron en diferentes representativas y grupos de personas (indepen fueron consistentes para diferentes Necesita- edad o escolaridad). diente de factores como el género, mos ser más conscientes de nuestras actitudes discriminatorias: consideramos a los integrantes de otros gru del cuándo y porqué pos como competidores intrusos, o y por qué estas reacciones son contraproducentes. tivas cuando se enfrentan a minorías una opinión política o con con deseos de participar en el sistema político. Las minorías tam- bién ente: un discurso que trascienda el simplemente ofrecer el dere- ofrecer el simplemente discurso que trascienda ente: un cho y la para promover de participar la oportunidad idea de que sistema el participar en bienvenidos a político, indepen todos son 202 The struggle for power juego norías no consideran la competenciapolíticaentre ellas comoun de lasestrategiasaculturación política. Ellosugiere que lasmi- amenaza nodesempeñaron un papel importante enlaevaluación de sentimientos que los demuestra Primero, elcapítulocuarto ciones intergrupales. buenas rela- para prevenir como problemáticas encias nosontan superadas; sinembargo,tambiénhayevidenciadequelasdifer- grandes paraser diferencias seandemasiado posible queestas Es lingüística, elorigen o laposición dentro delajerarquíasocial. to característicasimportantescomolareligión, la competencia tiene sentidoyaquelasminoríasamenudo son diferentesrespec- Por otro,elresultado condicionespara mejorarsusestructurales. inadecuada), alparecernoutilizansupotencialyfuerzanumérica criminación, inseguridadenlosbarrios,representatividadpolítica problemas (dis- mismos enfrentan muchosdelos minorías que las puede interpretarse comouna oportunidad perdida. Apesarde gundo, una minoríanonecesariamenteamenazalaposicióndeotra.Se- decir, elpoderpolíticode bién favoreceráasupropio grupo.Es peran queunaganancia obtenida porotrogrupo minoritario tam- la mayoríalasestrategiasdeaculturación) tiempo,es- y, almismo gane más poder (y, portanto,jerarquizan de lamismamaneraque políticos, perotampoco como adversarios. otro. Esdecir,lasminoríasétnicasnoseconsideran comoaliados Quizás esmásimportantequeganeelgrupo propio a quepierdael son elproductodeuna preferencia fuerte hacia el grupo propio. diferentes del“otro”,sinoque consecuencia de lascaracterísticas tudes negativasentre miembros delasminorías no son tanto una implica quelasacti- que conprejuicioshaciaotrosgrupos.Esto con lapreferencia porelgrupo propio fuerte serelacionamás más de el suma capítulo cero. quinto Es posible demuestra que prefieran que una identificación que su propio étnica grupo Síntesis 203 - de- de investiga- tomadores realizar a Científicos, invitación una étnicas. sean y minorías las de holandeses cisiones y deben entender de dónde proviene la resis- educadores de grupos minoritarios, cómo se tencia a la participación política puede combatir sus consecuencias y, preferentemente, cómo pre- La presente tesis venir el antagonismo con oportunidad. doctoral social y política tradicional y amplia el alcance de la investigación existe la necesidad sin embargo, aún ofrece nuevas explicaciones; de estudios mayores adicionales para prevenir tensiones étnicas y políticas. ciones similares. ciones similares. parecidas También se espera que investigaciones en otros sean realizadas países y aplicadas a otros grupos minoritarios. étnica aumentará en el mun- Sabemos que la diversidad democrática, sin la representación es urgente do. Por esta razón condiciones, ción, en última sean los depende de cuán generalizables instancia, resultados, se espera que los estudios de inspiración a otros sirvan científicos En conclusión Los estudios en este contenidos trabajo son innovadores tanto en contribu En tanto su su metodología. en teórico como su enfoque

References 205 Re- , 5-30. European Journal of Social Psychology, Germany failing to tackle rise in hate crime. 17:186–94. DOI: 10.1037/a0023230 , 20-49. DOI: 10.1080/0141987042000280003 culturation, identity and adaptation. Applied identity and psychology: culturation, An international review, 55, 303-332. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.2006.00256.x tional Journal of Intercultural Relations, 29, 697-712. tional Journal of Intercultural Relations, DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.07.013 Views of Dutch and Turkish-Dutch. and Views of Dutch An International Review, 46, 5-68. DOI: 10.1111/j.1464-0597.1997.tb01087.x Asian and Black Students in a Small College. Cultural Diversity and Ethnic Minority Psychology trieved on April 9, 2017 from: https://www.amnesty.org/en/latest/ news/2016/06/germany-failing-to-tackle-rise-in-hate-crime/ 33, 249-266. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.143 Skopje: Friedrich Ebert Stiftung. ISBN: 978-9989-109-44-7 and exclusion in France, Germany and the United States. Ethnic the United and and Germany Racial in France, exclusion and Studies, 28 Contact Promote National Unity? British Intervention Journal of Social - Psy chology 51:239–56. DOI: 10.1111/j.2044-8309.2011.02041.x Bieber, F. (2008). Introduction. In Minority Participation and Political Parties Berry, J.W., Phinney, J.S., Sam, Vedder, P. (2006). Berry, J.W., Phinney, D.L. & Immigrant youth: Ac- Berry, J.W. (2005). Acculturation: Living successfully in two cultures. Interna- successfully in Berry, J.W. (2005). Acculturation: Living Amnesty (2016). International Arends-Tóth, J., & Van de Vijver, F. (2003). Multiculturalism and acculturation: and adaptation. Applied Psychology:Berry, J.W. (1997). Immigration, acculturation, Bikmen, N. (2011). Asymmetrical Effects of Contact between Minority Groups: Alba, R. (2005). Bright vs. assimilation blurred boundaries: Second-generation Al Ramiah, A., & Hewstone, M. (2012). around the Flag: Can Intergroup Rallying REFERENCES 206 The struggle for power Carlisle, J.E.&Patton,R.C.(2013).Issocialmediachanging how we under Byrne, D.(1971). The Brown, dynamics ofacculturation:Anintergroup R. &Zagefka,H.(2011). It’s SocialPsychology.Oxford:Wiley-Blackwell.ISBN: Prejudice: Brown, R.(2010). and inter- Intergroup contact (2007). K. S. &Stace, Leeds, Brown, R.,Eller,A., Brewer, M.B.(2008).Deprovincialization:Socialidentitycomplexityandout Bogardus, E.(1925).MeasuringSocialDistances.JournalofAppliedSociology1:216–26. Bobo, L. &Hutchings,Perceptions of racialgroup V.L. (1996). competition: Ex- Socio- Pacific a SenseofGroupPosition.The RacePrejudice as Blumer, H.(1958). Ma- T., Mummendey,A., Kessler, Funke, F., Zagefka, H.,Brown,R., Binder, J., 10.1177/1065912913482758 DOI: 66 , 883-895. Quarterly, presidential election.PoliticalResearch of Facebookandthe2008 political engagement?Ananalysis stand 0121486508 10.1016/B978-0-12-385522-0.00003-2 perspective. 978-1-4051-1306-9 37, 692-703.DOI:10.1002/ejsp.384 group attitudes:alongitudinalstudy. grew, 160-176.Malden:BlackwellPublishing.ISBN:978-1-405-16972-1. (eds.) group acceptance.InWagner,U.,Tropp,L.R.,Finchilescu,G.,Tredoux,C. ble/2096302 text. tending Blumer’s theoryofgrouppositiontoamultiracialsocialcon- logical Review,1,1p3-7.DOI:10.2307/1388607 10.1037/a0013470 DOI: an Countries.JournalofPersonalityandSocialPsychology96:843–56. Hypothesis amongstMajorityandMinorityGroupsinThree Europe Contact the of Longitudinal Test A Prejudice ReduceContact? Does or Does ContactReducePrejudice yuil, A.,Demoulin,S.,&Leyens,JP.(2009). - http://www.jstor.org/sta SociologicalReview,61,951-972. American Improving IntergroupRelations:BuildingontheLegacyofThomasF.Petti- The Attraction Paradigm Attraction The , 129-184. DOI: 44, 129-184. Social Psychology, Experimental in Advances . NewYork:AcademicPress.ISBN: European Journal ofSocialPsychology, European - - References 207 - - https:// Journal of at: online Relations. Available Intergroup Kingdom. 102:759–77. DOI: 10.1037/a0026481 Interminority , 451-463. DOI: 10.1177/0146167211399103 United , 33, 876-885. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2012.00909.x London, Influences Office, Home Population: 8, 2017 to 2060. Retrieved on April 2014 https://www. from: census.gov/content/dam/Census/library/publications/2015/demo/ p25-1143.pdf leven. Retrieved on July 8, 2016 on Retrieved https://www.cbs.nl/nl-nl/nieu from leven. - ws/2004/30/twee-van-de-drie-marokkaanse-immigranten-zijn-in-ned erland-gebleven statline.cbs.nl/Statweb/publication/?DM=SLNL&PA=37296NED&D1=25- 26,30&D2=0,10,20,30,40,50,l&HDR=G1&STB=T&VW=T ogies in hierarchy-enhancing vs. environments. hierarchy-attenuating ogies in hierarchy-enhancing Political Psychology crimination www.gov.uk/government/uploads/system/uploads/attachment_data/ file/559319/hate-crime-1516-hosb1116.pdf long? A study of immigrants’ emotional acculturation. Personality and So- cial Psychology Bulletin, 37 tent of the Netherlands Longitudinal Lifecourse Study (NELLS). Research re- University Radboud University Nijmegen, port and dataset. Tilburg and http://matthijskalmijn.nl/onewebmedia/NELLSWaveNetherlands. - 1Codebook_v_1_2.pdf 7-29. DOI: 10.1177/0956797613504966. Personality and Social Psychology Corcoran, H. & Smith, K. (2016). Hate Crime, Wales, England and 2015/16. Colby, S.L. & Ortman, J.M. (2015).Colby, S.L. & Ortman, Projections and Composition of the U.S. of the Size CBS (2004). Twee van de drie Marokkaanse immigranten zijn in Nederland geb in Nederland de drie Marokkaanse immigranten zijn van CBS (2004). Twee CBS (2017). CBS (2017). on August 11, kerncijfers. Retrieved Bevolking, 2017 from: http:// De Oliveira, P., Guimond, S. & Dambrun, M. (2012). Power and legitimizing ideol- Craig, M., & Richeson, J. (2011). Dis- Coalition or Derogation? How Perceived De Leersnyder, J., Mesquita, & Kim, B., H.S. (2011). Where do my be- emotions De Graaf, P., Kalmijn, M., Kraaykamp, G., & Monden, C. (2010).De Graaf, P., Kalmijn, M., Kraaykamp, Design and Con- Cumming, G. (2014). The new statistics: Why and how. Psychological Science, 25, 208 The struggle for power Doosje, B., Ellemers, N., & Spears, R. (1995). Perceived IntragroupDoosje, B.,Ellemers,N.,&Spears,R.(1995). Variabilityasa Dixon, J., Levine,M.,Reicher, S., &Durrheim, Beyond K. (2012). Prejudice: Are psychology ofmulticulturalism: The social (2014). & Verkuyten,M. Deaux, K. Duckitt, J. & Sibley, C.G. (2006). Right wing authoritarianism, social dominance social Right wingauthoritarianism, (2006). C.G. Sibley, & J. Duckitt, In searchoftheantecedents Duriez, B., Soenens,Vansteenkiste,M. (2007). dominance social Right wingauthoritarianism, (2007). C.G. Sibley, & J., Duckitt, of rightwingauthoritarianismandsocial Differential effects Duckitt, J.(2006). and theComplexityof Commonality Dovidio, J.,Gaertner,S.,&Saguy,T.(2009). Eller, A.&Abrams,D.(2004). ComeTogether: Longitudinal Comparisons ofPet- N., Spears,R.,&Doosje,B.(1999). Ellemers, Psychology Function open.ac.uk/32277/1/Dixon_BBS-D-10-00661_preprint.pdf Sciences er MoretheSolution?BehavioralandBrain Negative EvaluationstheProblemand Is GettingUstoLikeOneAnoth- logical perspectives. (Eds.), Hong and intergrouprelations.InV.Benet-Martínez&Y. Identity of Personality orientation andthedimensionofgeneralized prejudice. ty, 21,507-527.DOI:10.1002/per.623 dimensions. EuropeanJournalofPersonali promotion andparenting style adolescent authoritarianism:Therelativecontributionof parentalgoal nal ofPersonality,21 orientation and thedimensionsofgeneralized prejudice. chology Bulletin,32,684-696.DOI:10.1177/0146167205284282 threat fromandcompetitivenesstooutgroups. and theirmediationby dominance orientationonoutgroup attitudes Review 13:3–20.DOI:10.1177/1088868308326751 Social Psychology and Change. Personality and Social Attitudes Social ‘We’: tigrew’s ReformulatedIntergroup Contact Model and theCommonIden Content. Oxford,UK:Blackwell.ISBN: 978-0-631-20691-0 - psycho applied and Basic The Oxfordhandbookofmulticulturalidentity: of 31:410–36. https://doi.org/10.1006/jesp.1995.1018 Group , 21,113-130.DOI:10.1002/per.614 Oxford: Oxford University Press. ISBN: 9780199796694 Press. Oxford: OxfordUniversity , 113-130.DOI:10.1002/per.614 Status and Identification. Social Identity: Context, Commitment, Context, Social Identity: Journal of Experimental Social Personality and SocialPsy- Personality 35:411–66. http://oro. 35:411–66. European Journal European European Jour- European - - References 209

J.F. In political and prejudice. Report on Racism and and (pp. 225-240). (pp. London: identification Retrieved on April 12, 2017 conflict ethnic competition, Special Eurobarometer 437: Discrimination in the 34:229–56. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.194 34:229–56. Immigrants‘ Group (2014). 144 Engagements Présidentiels. groups: M. among involvement in the face of discrimination: A longitudinal study of the German case. Journal of Ethnic and Migration Studies, 40, 339-362. http:// dx.doi.org/10.1080/1369183X.2013.847362 f r o m : https://www.marine2017.fr/wp-content/uploads/2017/02/ projet-presidentiel-marine-le-pen.pdf nants of social dominance orientation: A cross-cultural meta-analy- nants of social dominance orientation: sis of 27 societies. Political Psychology, 33, 437-467. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467- 9221.2012.00884.x EU in 2015. Retrieved on July 24, 2016 from: http://ec.europa.eu/COM- - MFrontOffice/publicopinion/index.cfm/Survey/getSurveyDetail/in struments/SPECIAL/surveyKy/2077 Xenophobia in the Member States of the EU. Vienna, Austria. of States ISBN: Xenophobia in the Member 978-92- 9192-024-2 Dovidio, P.S. Glick, & L.A. Rudman (Eds.), On the nature of prejudice: Fifty yearsDovidio, P.S. Glick, & L.A. Rudman (Eds.), 978-1-4051-2751-6 after Allport (pp. 227-243). Malden, BA: Blackwell. ISBN: tions tition. In J.F. Dovidio, M. Hewstone, P. Glick & V.M. Esses P. Glick & V.M. M. Hewstone, tition. In J.F. Dovidio, (Eds.), The Sage handbook of prejudice, stereotyping and discrimination Sage. ISBN: 9781446270486 tity Model in Anglo-French and Mexican-American Contexts. European and Mexican-American tity Model in Anglo-French Psychology Journal of Social Spain’s exclusionism in foreigner attitudes and ters: threat, interethnic Studies, Ethnic and Racial Comunidades Autónomas. 32, 44-69. DOI: 10.1080/01419870701846924 Front National (2017) Fischer-Neumann, Fischer, R., Hanke, K., Sibley, C.G. (2012). determi- Cultural and institutional European Commission (EC, 2015). European European Agency for Fundamental Rights (FRA, 2007). Agency for Fundamental European Esses, V.M., Jackson, L.M., Dovidio, J.F., & Hodson, G. (2005). Instrumental rela- L.M., Dovidio, J.F., & Hodson, G. (2005). Esses, V.M., Jackson, Esses, - A. (2010). compe V.M., Jackson, L.M., & Bennett-AbuAyyash, Intergroup Escandell, X. & Ceobanu, A.M. (2009). X. & Ceobanu, Escandell, mat- with immigrants When contact 210 The struggle for power Glasford, Gijsberts, M.&Dagevos,J.(2009). (2000). Gaertner, S.&Dovidio,J. Helbling, Measuring and explainingindi- M. (Ed.)(2012),IslamophobiaintheWest: British nationalidentity and attitudestowards Heath, A.F.,Tilley,J.R.(2005). Mapping multi- diversity: Dealing with (2005). J. Gerteis, Hartmann, D.& MeerderheidRotterdamin2012 Hankel, allochtoon. A. (2009). RetrievedonMay15, in Japanesestu- Acculturation andcontact Greenland, K.&Brown,R.(2005). Hello, E., Scheepers, P., Vermulst, A., & Gerris, J.R.M. (2004). Association be- Hello, E.,Scheepers,P.,Vermulst, A.,&Gerris,J.R.M.(2004). Frølund Thomson, J.P. (2012). How doesintergroup contact generateethnictol- Frølund Thomson,J.P.(2012). Gallup (2017). Identity Model and CulturalPlanningOffice.ISBN:9789037704464 TIONS&g_medium=topic&g_campaign=tiles cans-worry-race-relations-record-high.aspx?g_source=RACE_RELA- from: http://www.gallup.com/poll/206057/ameri on April 9,2017 vidual attitudes http://unesdoc.unesco.org/images/0014/001425/142588E.pdf immigration. 10.1111/j.0735-2751.2005.00251.x culturalism insociologicalterms. derheid-Rotterdam-in-2012-allochtoon-ELSEVIER232718W/ http://www.elsevier.nl/Nederland/nieuws/2009/5/Meer from: 2014 373-390. DOI:10.3200/SOCP.145.4.373-390 145, Psychology, of Social Journal dents studyingintheUnitedKingdom.The jesp.2011.10.001 Psychology Social of Experimental and PoliticalSolidaritybetweenMinorityGroups.Journal Commonality tween educational attainment and ethnic distance in young adults: So- in youngadults: and ethnicdistance tween educationalattainment Political Studies,35 in aScandinaviancontext. hypothesis erance? Thecontact D. & Calcagno, Americans’ Worries About Race Relations at Record High.Retrieved at Relations About Race Worries Americans’ . Philadelphia:PsychologyPress.ISBN-13:978-0863775710 . London:Routledge.ISBN-13: 978-0415594448 International Journal of Multicultural Societies, 7, 119-132. Journal ofMulticulturalSocieties, International J. , 159-178.DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9477.2011.00282.x (2012). The Reducing Intergroup Bias: The CommonIn-Group Intergroup Bias: Reducing Jaarrapport integratie 2009 Jaarrapport Conflict 48:323–28. https://doi.org/10.1016/j. 48:323–28. , 218-240. DOI: 23, 218-240. Sociological Theory, of Harmony: Intergroup . The Hague: Social Scandinavian Contact, - - References 211 - a of struc- Personality Influences Sheehy-Skeffing covariance in N., redux: World Migration Report 6, 1-55. http://dx.doi. Migration Flows – Europe. Kteily, indexes L., fit laboratory for the in Thomsen, S., criteria Levin, Cutoff , 49-71. DOI: 10.1080/10478400802049936 F., sophomores , 49, 385-404. DOI: 10.1348/014466609X435723 (1999). Pratto, College J., P.M. (2008). Sidanius, Bentler, P.J. Behavioral and Sciences, Brain 33, 61-135. 10.1017/S0140525X0999152XDOI: cialization by schools or parents? Acta by schools or parents? cialization Sociologica, 47(3), 253-275. DOI: 10.1177/0001699304046222 narrow data base on social psychology’s view of the nature of prejudice. social psychology’s view of the narrow data base on 19 Psychological Inquiry, ferentiation: A Meta-Analytic Integration. Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 86:862–79. DOI: 10.1037/0022-3514.86.6.862 tation concept: Predicting political attitudes tation concept: Predicting political attitudes over time. British Journal of Social Psychology 2015: Migrants and Cities, New Partnerships to Manage - Mobility. Geneva, Swit 978-92-9068-709-2. ISBN zerland. http://publications.iom. Available on: int/system/files/wmr2015_en.pdf Retriveved on July 28, 2016 from: http://migration.iom.int/europe/ Brussels, Belgium. Available online at http://enarire- Society Foundations. Brussels, Belgium. Available online at land.org/wp-content/uploads/2013/07/Racist-Violence-in-Europe.pdf ton, J. (2012). Revisiting Social dominance orientation: the structure and function of a predicting social variable attitudes. and political Bulletin, 38, 583-606. and Social Psychology DOI: 10.1177/0146167211432765 ture analysis: - criteria versus new alternatives. Structur Conventional al Equation Modeling: A Multidisciplinary Journal, org/10.1080/10705519909540118 & L. A.K., Henry, Henrich, J., Heine, S. J., & Norenzayan, A. (2010). the world? weirdest people in S. J., & Norenzayan, The J., Heine, Henrich, Ho, Jetten, J., Spears, R. & Postmes,Distinctiveness and Dif- T. (2004). Intergroup International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2016). for Migration International Organization Jetten, J. & Iyer, A. (2010). orien- Different meanings of the social dominance International Organization for Migration (IOM, 2015). International Organization for Migration Hu, European Network Against Racism, OpenIganski, P. (2011). Racist Violence in Europe. 212 The struggle for power Jiang, M., Green,R.J.,Henley, T.B. & Masten,W.G.(2009).Acculturation in rela- Jost, J.T. & Thompson, E.P. (2000). Group-based Jost, J.T.&Thompson,E.P.(2000). dominance and opposition to 61(7), 651- Psychologist, The end oftheideology.American J.T. (2006). Jost, Kosic, A., Mannetti, L. & Sam, D.L. (2005). The role of majority attitudes to- The role ofmajorityattitudes Kosic, A.,Mannetti,L.&Sam,D.L.(2005). Embedded- (2008). & VanStekelenburg,J. B., VanderToorn,J., Klandermans, Kteily, N., Sidanius, J. & Levin, S. (2010). Social dominanceorientation:Causeor Kteily, N.,Sidanius,J.&Levin,S.(2010). Kteily, N.,Ho, A.K., Sidanius,J.(2012).Hierarchy in the mind:The predictive Lanzieri, G.(2011).Fewer,olderandmulticultural?Projections oftheEUpopulationsbyfor- Social dominance gender gapinGermany: Inverse (2011). A. Zick, Küpper, B.& ticultural Development,30 tion totheacquisitionofsecondlanguage. icans. social policyattitudesamong African Americans and European Amer- and ethnocentrism, self-esteem, of independent predictors as equality 670. DOI:10.1037/0003-066X.61.7.651 migrants. of im- ward out-groupintheperceptionofacculturationstrategies pdf/10.1177/000312240807300606 http://journals.sagepub.com/doi/ Sociological Review,73,992-1012. ican ness andidentity:Howimmigrantsturngrievancesintoaction.Amer- org/10.1006/jesp.1999.1403 Social Psychology crimination against ethnic and racial out-groups. ‘mere effect’?:EvidenceforSDOasacausalpredictorofprejudice anddis- org/10.1016/j.jesp.2011.11.007 mains. power of socialdominance orientation across socialcontextsand do- 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2005.06.004 eu/eurostat/documents/3888793/5850217/KS-RA-11-019-EN.PDF eign/national background.RetrievedonApril8,2017from: http://ec.europa. 33-45. DOI:10.1080/00207594.2010.491121 46 , of Psychology, Journal orientation amongmenandwomen.International Journal of Experimental Social Psychology, Social of Experimental Journal , 48, 543-549. https://doi. 543-549. Psychology, 48, Social of Experimental Journal , 29, 273-288. DOI: 273-288. International JournalofInterculturalRelations,29, , 47,208-214.https://doi.org/10.1016/j.jesp.2010.09.009 (6), 481-492.DOI:10.1080/01434630903147898 Journal of Multilingual and Mul- of Multilingualand Journal 36, 209-232. https://doi. 36, 209-232. Journal ofExperimental References 213 New (pp. 895- . The Hague: So- 927-929. https://doi. 927-929. https://doi. , 53, , 53, Moslim in Nederland 2012 Handbook of identity theory and research Comparative Politics, 4(2), 149-178. http://www.jstor. Religious trends and social integration: Muslim minorities Religious trends and social integration: Muslim in ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ISBN: 978-90-393-5791-0 Personality Personality Individual Differences and Personality and Individual Differences ism is a risk factor of torture-like abuse, but so is social dominance ori- so is social dominance but abuse, factor of torture-like ism is a risk entation. ism is a risk factor of torture-like abuse, but so is social dominance ori- dominance so is social but of torture-like abuse, ism is a risk factor entation. org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.06.015 Expression among Dutch Muslims: and Majority The Role of Minority ethnic and religious attachment and their interrelation. A study among A their interrelation. and religious attachment and ethnic Muslim minorities in the Netherlands. Ethnic and Racial Studies, 33(3), 451- 472. DOI: 10.1080/01419870903318169 978 90 377 0621 5 cial and Cultural Planning Office. ISBN: search: How often do they really occur? Perspectives search: How often do they really occur? on Psychological Sci- ence, 7(6), 537-542. DOI: 10.1177/1745691612460688 916). New York: Springer. ISBN: 978-1-4419-7987-2 prejudice in Europe: A recognition approach. In S.J. in Europe: A recognition prejudice Schwartz, K. Luyckx, & V.L. Vignoles (Eds.), York: The Research Center for Group Dynamics, University of Michigan. Dynamics, Research Center for Group York: The https://doi.org/10.2307/2572316 liminary analysis. org/stable/421508 org/10.1016/j.paid.2012.06.015 the Netherlands. Larsson, M.R., Bäckström, Björklund, F., M. (2012). - authoritarian Right-wing Larsson, M.R., Björklund, F., Bäckström, M. (2012). authoritarian- Right-wing Maliepaard, M. & Phalet, K. (2012). Social Integration and Religious Identity Maliepaard, M., Lubbers, M., & Gijsberts, M. (2010). Generational differences in M., & Gijsberts, M. (2010). Generational Maliepaard, M., Lubbers, Maliepaard, M. (2012). Maliepaard, M., & Gijsberts, M. (2012). Makel, M.C., Plucker, J.A. & Hegarty, Makel, M.C., Plucker, J.A. & Hegarty, B. (2012). in psychological re- Replications Licata, L., Sanchez-Mazas, M., & Green, E. (2011). Identity, and immigration, Lewin, K. (1948). Resolving Social Conflicts: Selected Papers on Group Dynamics. Lemarchand, R., & Legg, K. (1972).Lemarchand, R., & Legg, - clientelism and development: A pre Political 214 The struggle for power Martinovic, B, Verkuyten, M., & Weesie, J. 2011. Group Identity, Ethnic Separat- Group Identity, 2011. J. Weesie, & B, Verkuyten,M., Martinovic, Marien, S.,Hooghe, Inequalities innon-institutional- M. &Quintelier,E.(2010). Martinovic, Political participation,mobilization andrepresentation Martiniello, M.(2005). McLaren, L.M. (2003). Anti-immigrant prejudice McLaren, L.M.(2003).inEurope: Contact, threat Dohostileopinion environments harmpoliticalparticipa- J. (2013). Matthes, The Matera, C.,Stefanile,C.&Brown, role ofimmigration accultura- R. (2011). The politicaldownsideofdual identi- (2014). B., &Verkuyten,M. Martinovic, Applied SocialPsychology and of Community ism, andMultipleOut-Groups:TheBasqueCase.Journal bjso.12065 minorities. Political Studies,58 ized formsofpoliticalparticipation:Amulti-levelanalysis25countries. sagepub.com/doi/abs/10.1177/0190272511436353 Group Contact. SocialPsychologyQuarterly European JournalofSocialPsychology out-groups. the rulesofgame’:Autochthonyandprejudicetoward Ethnic RelationsMalmöUniversity. relations. Malmö:SchoolofInternationalgration andethnic Migrationand mi- international in of workingpapers series & Fryklund (Eds.) WillyBrandt and theiroffspringinEurope.InPovrzanovicFrykman of immigrants 81(3), 909-936.DOI:10.1353/sof.2003.0038 perception, and preferencesfortheexclusionofmigrants.SocialForces, nal ofPublicOpinionResearch,25 tion? The moderating role of generalized Jour- social trust.International jesp.2011.03.007 tudes. in determiningintergroup atti- tion preferencesandgenerationalstatus ty: Group B., , 47, 776-785. DOI: 10.1016/j. 776-785. 47, , Psychology Social of Experimental Journal & identifications Verkuyten, , 53, 711-730. DOI: 10.1111/ 711-730. of SocialPsychology,53, Journal British (1), 187-213.DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9248.2009.00801.x M. 21:28–40.DOI:10.1002/casp.1053 and (2013). religious , 23-42.DOI:10.1093/ijpor/eds006 ‘We , DOI:10.1002/ejsp.1980. were political 75:131–48. http://journals. 75:131–48. here mobilization first, so we determine of Muslim References 215 - - - In- and European from International Jour- identification evidence and in-group Theory 93(4), 1132-1151. DOI: http://dx.doi. between Mplus User’s Guide: Statistical Analyses with , 67-86. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.08.002 minorities? relation . Cambridge, UK: Polity Press. . Cambridge, UK: Polity the in , 23, 307-328. DOI: DOI: 10.1002/per.710 , 23, 307-328. DOI: DOI: , 49, 305-320. DOI. 10.1348/014466609X451455 . Los Angeles, CA: Muthén and Muthén. disadvantaged Rethinking Multiculturalism: Cultural Diversity and political Theo- Multiculturalism for The American Economic Review, representation ing dispositional and situational effects ing dispositional and attitudes. on outgroup Journal of Personality dia. Latent Variables trieved on April 12, 2017 from: http://nos.nl/artikel/2167834-sylva on July 22, 2016 from: http://nos.nl/artikel/2107347-om-start-onderzoek-naar-uitlatingen-tegen-sylvana-simons.html fluence gies and attitudes according to the relative acculturation extended model model to the relative acculturation extended gies and attitudes according (RAEM):The perspectives of natives versus immigrants. nal of Intercultural Relations, 31 na-simons-ze-moeten-begrijpen-wat-ze-hebben-gedaan.html tity 27: 415–44. 27: 415–44. of Sociology Networks. Annual Review ily in Social https://doi. org/10.1146/annurev.soc.27.1.415 out-group derogation: Ethnic versus civic representation. British derogation: Ethnic versus out-group Journal of Social Psychology org/10.1257/000282803769206232 ry. London: Macmillan. ISBN 0-674-00436-1 Meeus, J., Duriez, B., Vanbeselaere, N., Phalet, K. & Kuppens, P. (2009). Vanbeselaere, N., Phalet, K. & Kuppens, Meeus, J., Duriez, B., Examin- Modood, T. 2007. Muthén, B.O & Muthén, L.K. (2010). B.O & Muthén, L.K. (2010). Muthén, NOS (2017). Sylvana Simons: ze moeten begrijpen wat ze hebben gedaan. Re- gedaan. wat ze hebben begrijpen NOS (2017). Sylvana Simons: ze moeten Muthén, L.K. & Muthén. B.O. (2010). Mplus software. Los Angeles, USA. Muthén, L.K. & Muthén. B.O. (2010). Mplus Navas, M.S., Rojas, A.J., M.C., García, & Pumares, P. (2007). Acculturation strate NOS (2016). OM start tegen Sylvana Simons. Retrieved onderzoek naar uitlatingen Pande, R. (2003). mandated political representation increase policy in- Can Meeus, J., Duriez, B., Vanbeselaere, N., Boen, F. (2010). B., Vanbeselaere, iden- The role of national Meeus, J., Duriez, McPherson, M., Smith-Lovin, L., & Cook, J. (2001). Birds of a Feather: Homoph (2001). Birds of a L., & Cook, J. M., Smith-Lovin, McPherson, Parekh, B. (2000). 216 The struggle for power Phalet, K&Güngör,D.(2004). and ideologiesofgroupdomi- U.S. patriotism (2002). Sidanius, J. & Peña, Y. Pehrson, in Recent advances (2011). O. Wagner, U.&Christ, T.F., Tropp,L.R., Pettigrew, Pettigrew T.F.&Tropp, (2011). Secondary TransferEffectofContact: DoIntergroup Con- Pettigrew, T.F.(2009). on prej effects Generalized intergroupcontact T.F. (1997). Pettigrew, South- in participation political and minorities to guide Petrusevska, T.(Ed.).(2009).A Pehrson, Pehrson tact ciaal CultureelPlanbureau.ISBN: 90-377-0181-7 Turken enMarokkaneninRotterdam.The Hague: en burgerschap: So- relaties DOI: 10.1080/00224540209603936 of asymmetry. tale nance: A 10.1177/019027250907200104 of and anti-immigrantprejudice 271-280. DOI:10.1016/j.ijintrel.2011.03.001 theory. intergroup contact 65. DOI:10.1027/1864-9335.40.2.55 tact EffectsSpreadtoNon-ContactedOutgroups?SocialPsychology40:55– 10.1177/0146167297232006 udice. East Europe.Brussels:KingBaudouinFoundation.ISBN:978-90-5130-655-2 10.1177/019027250907200104 tional of na- anti-immigrant prejudice :individualandcontextualeffects Social Psychology idence and longitudinal ev- lead totherejectionofimmigrants?Cross-sectional S., S., S., . Hove:PsychologyPress.ISBN-13:978-1841697659 national Brown, Vignoles, Vignoles, for , 23, 173-185. DOI: 173-185. psychology bulletin,23, social and Personality definitions. the R. definitions. role & , 48,61-76.DOI:10.1348/014466608X288827 V.L., Zagefka, V.L. of Social Psychology Quarterly, 72(1), 24-38.DOI: Social PsychologyQuarterly, & essentialist & Moslim in Nederland: Religieuze dimensies, etnische Religieuze dimensies, Moslim inNederland: When groups meet: The dynamics of intergroup con- of intergroup dynamics The groups meet: When Brown, , 72, 24-38. DOI: 24-38. Social PsychologyQuarterly,72, Brown, H. International journal of intercultural relations, 35, relations, International journalofintercultural The Journal of Social Psychology, 142, 782-790. of SocialPsychology, The Journal (2009a). : individualandcontextualeffects R. in-group R. (2009). When (2009b). National definitions. does National national identification British Journalof identification identification and - References 217

. Re- European Journal Concept-Verkiezingsprograma 2017-2021 21:77–99. DOI: 10.1080/10478401003676501 , 43, 12-21. DOI: 10.1002/ejsp.1892 (3), 493-510. DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00225 Basic and Applied Social Psychology, 24(4), 287-293. 10.1207/ DOI: Journal of Personality and Social Psychology, 67, 741-763. http://dx. Orientation: A personality variable predicting social atti- and political tudes. doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.67.4.741 Role of Ethnic Identity. International Role of Ethnic Identity. of Behavioral Development Journal immigration, and Journal of So- well-being: An interactional perspective. cial Issues, 57 ence.’ Psychological Inquiry forward. stock and looking relations: Taking namic of intergroup European , 17(1), 271-320. Review of Social Psychology http://dx.doi. org/10.1080/10463280601055772 36:651–71. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/13691830903525399 31:478–90. DOI: 10.1177/0165025407081466 ans’ Attitudes Prejudicial Mainstream Do African Americans: toward Attitudes Studies Ethnic and Migration Journal of Transfer to Immigrants? An examination of colorblindness and multiculturalism. An examination of colorblindness S15324834BASP2404_4 of Social Psychology Social Dominance Theory’s explanation of prejudice as Social Dominance Theory’s explanation legitimizing myths. trieved on April 12, 2017 trieved on from: https://pvv.nl/images/Conceptverkiez- ingsprogrammma.pdf PVV (Partij Voor de Vrijheid, 2017). PVV (Partij Voor de Vrijheid, Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., Stallworth, L.M. (1994). & Malle, B.F. Social Dominance Phinney, J.S., Jacoby, B., & Silva, C. (2007). Positive Attitudes: Intergroup The P. (2001). Horenczyk, G., Liebkind, K. & Vedder, J.S., Phinney, Ethnic Identity, Plaut, V.C. (2010). Makes a Differ- How Difference Diversity Science: ‘Why and Pratto, F., Sidanius, J., S. Levin, (2010). Social theory dominance and the dy- Philip, C.L., Mahalingam, R., & Sellers, R.M. (2010). Understanding East Indi- & Sellers, R.M. (2010). R., C.L., Mahalingam, Understanding Philip, Rattan, A. & Ambady, N. (2013). Diversity ideologies and intergroup relations: Rattan, A. & Ambady, N. (2013).relations: Diversity ideologies and intergroup Quist, R.M., & Resendez, M.G. (2002). dominance threat: Social Examining 218 The struggle for power Schmitt, M.T., Branscombe, N.R. & Kappen, D.M. (2003). Attitudes toward group- Attitudes M.T., Branscombe,N.R.&Kappen, Schmitt, D.M.(2003). in Eu- Ethnic exclusionism (2002). & Coenders,M. M. Scheepers, P.,Gijsberts, Ruggiero, K.M.,Taylor,D.M.&Lambert,W.E.(1996).Amodelofheritageculture Rothstein, B.&Stolle,D.(2002).Howpoliticalinstitutionscreateanddestroyso- Roccas, S. & Brewer, M. (2002). Social Identity Complexity. Identity Social (2002). Brewer, M. & S. Roccas, The Impact ofMulticulturalismversus Richeson, J.A.&Nussbaum,R.J.(2004). Social Dominance: An Intergroup Theory of Social Theory Intergroup An Dominance: Sidanius, J.&Pratto,F.(1999). Social The Sibley, C.G.&Duckitt,J.(2010). ideological legitimation ofthestatusquo: and meta-analysis and prejudice:A Personality (2008). J. & Duckitt, Sibley, C.G. Sherif, M. (1966). Sherif, M. of Muslim and theawareness over Islam Public debates (2006). Shadid, W.A. Social Psychology identity? social dominance or Social inequality: based 17-34. https://doi.org/10.1093/esr/18.1.17 a response to perceivedethnic threat. EuropeanSociologicalReview,18(1), rights forlegalmigrantsas civil ropean countries:Publicoppositionto al Relations,20(1),47-67.https://doi.org/10.1016/0147-1767(96)00036-3 maintenance: Theroleofdiscrimination.InternationalJournalIntercultur- 2014, fromhttp://www.colbud.hu/honesty-trust/rothstein/pub03.doc cial capital:Aninstitutionaltheoryofgeneralizedtrust.RetrievedApril29, Psychology Review6:88–109.DOI:10.1207/S15327957PSPR0602_01 40:417–23. DOI:10.1016/j.jesp.2003.09.002 Bias. Color-Blindness onRacial 0-521-62290-5 and Oppression. Hierarchy 109-137. DOI:10.1111/j.1467-9221.2009.00747.x Longitudinal , 31, tests ofasocialdominance model. PoliticalPsychology DOI: 10.1177/1088868308319226 Review, 12,248-279. Psychology Social and theoretical review.Personality Routledge andKeganPaul. doi.org/10.2753/EUE1056-4934380201 http://dx. 38(2), 10-22. Education, in theNetherlands.European identity Group Conflict and Co-Operation: Their Social Psychology. Social Their Co-Operation: and Conflict Group , 42,161-186.DOI:10.1348/014466603322127166 Cambridge: Cambridge University Press. ISBN: Cambridge: CambridgeUniversity Press. Journal of Experimental Social Psychology Social of Experimental Journal Personality and Social and Personality British Journal of Journal British London: References 219 dom- Journal social representation the and identification, Journal of Personality and Social In-group identification (1994). identification. M. dual National of American Psychologist, 56, 319-331. DOI: 10.1037/0003- role Mitchell, F., The immigrants: (1), 76-80. DOI : 10.1177/1745691613514755 Pratto, J., Germany: Muslim Hate Speech. Retrieved from the New York Times on July 1, 2016 from: - http://www.nytimes.com/2015/10/22/world/europe/anti-immi grant-refugees-violence-in-germany.html?ref=europe Psychology, 95, 1354-1366. DOI: 10.1037/a0012630 present: Historical tolerance and the acceptance of Muslim expres- sive rights. Personality and Social Psychology Bulletin, 38, 1410-1422. DOI: 10.1177/0146167212450920 of national history. British , 50, 265-280.Journal of Social Psychology DOI: 10.1348/014466610X516235 in chological analysis. 066X.56.4.319 Science, 9 dual identity. Political that politicized collective identity is a Psychology, 31, 717-738. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9221.2010.00782.x inance orientation, and differential intergroup social allocation. social allocation. intergroup differential and orientation, inance of Social , 134, Psychology 151-167. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/00224545.19 94.9711378 ics of inequality: A reply to Schmitt, A reply ics of inequality: and & Kappen Branscombe Liu. British Wilson & of Social Psychology , 42, Journal 161-186. DOI: 10.1348/014466603322127193 Smeekes, A., Verkuyten, M., Poppe, E. (2011). Smeekes, A., Verkuyten, M., Poppe, E. towards opposition Mobilizing Smale, A. (2015). Violence in Germany Spurs New Debate on Anti-Immigrant Smeekes, A., Verkuyten, M., Poppe, E. (2012). How a tolerant past affects the Simon, B., & Ruhs, D. (2008). Identity Turkish migrants and politicization among Simon, B., & Klandermans, B. (2001). Politicized collective identity: A social psy- Simon, B., & Klandermans, B. (2001). Politicized Simons, D.J. (2014). Simons, D.J. (2014). direct replication. Perspectives The value of on Psychological Simon, B., & O. Grabow, (2010). of The politicization migrants: Further evidence Sidanius, Sidanius, J. Sidanius, & Pratto, F. (2003). Social theory dominance dynam- and the 220 The struggle for power The Migration Observatory at the University of Oxford(2013). the University at The MigrationObservatory C., Schmid,K.,Popan, J.R., Tausch, N.,Hewstone,M.,Kenworthy,J.B.,Psaltis, Affective MediatorsofInter- Swart, H,Hewstone,M.,Christ,O.,&Voci,A.(2011). Stoop, I.A.L.(2005).Thehuntforthelastrespondent:nonresponseinsamplesurveys. Applied Multivariate Statistics for theSocialSciences Multivariate Statistics Applied Stevens, J.(1986). Tajfel, Schwartz, S.J.,Vignoles, V.L., Brown, The identitydy - R., &Zagefka, H. (2014). Stephan, Predicting Prejudice. W.G., &Stephan, C.W. (1996). Statistics Canada (2016). Statistics Sniderman, P.M. & Hagendoorn, L. (2007). Hagendoorn, L. & Sniderman, P.M. H., 8, 2017 from: http://www.migrationobservatory.ox.ac.uk/resources/ 8, 2017 Perspective. ulation andEthnicity:TheUKin International a0018553 es. Accounts andUnderlying Process- of IntergroupAlternative Contact: SecondaryTransfer Effects ofContact Cairns, E.,&Hughes,J.(2010). Worchel. Monterey,CA:Brooks/Cole. The SocialPsychologyofIntergroupRelations,editedbyW.G.Austinand S. of PersonalityandSocialPsychology group Contact:AThree-WaveLongitudinalStudyinSouthAfrica.Journal SCP Report2005/8,dissertationUtrechtUniversity,Utrecht.ISBN:90-377-0215-5 Lawrence Erlbaum.ISBN:0-898-59568-1 1767(96)00026-0 of InterculturalRelations 9780199796694 multicultural identity(pp.Oxford:OxfordUniversityPress.ISBN: 57-93). Oxford handbookof Hong (Eds.). The context. InV.Benet-Martínez&Y-Y. Situating acculturationin namics ofacculturationandmulticulturalism: imm/imm-eng.htm from: http://www.statcan.gc.ca/pub/11-402-x/2011000/chap/ 2017 Press. ISBN:9780691141015 in theNetherlands ism anditsdiscontents & 99:282–302. DOI: 10.1037/ Journal ofPersonalityandSocialPsychology99:282–302. Turner, J.C. (1979). Retrieved on April8, Retrieved diversityandimmigration. Ethnic , 20(3), 409-426. https://doi.org/10.1016/0147- 409-426. , 20(3), An integrative 101:1221–38. DOI:10.1037/a0024450 When ways oflifecollide:Multicultural- When . Princeton: PrincetonUniversity . theory of intergroup International Journal International RetrievedonApril Immigration, Pop- Immigration, conflicts. . Hillsdale: In: References 221 Re- . Retrieved from InternationalJour- . Oxford: Blackwell. Psychological Science, . Retrieved on August, August, . Retrieved on Parliament Parties , 36, 22-30. DOI: 10.1016/j.ijintrel.2010.09.011 55:149–65. https://doi.org/10.1093/sf/55.1.149 British Journal of Social Psychology, 42, 199-206. DOI: Social Forces falsified. been and prejudice among minority and majority groups. majority groups. minority and among prejudice and Economic Contact and Generational Changes in the Study of Black An- ti-Semitism. 16(12), 951-957. DOI: 10.1111/j.1467-9280.2005.01643.x 11, 2017 from: https://www.trouw.nl/home/wilders-dient-motie-in-tegen-staatssecretarissen~a5ca2b4a/ 10.1348/014466603322127184 port for multiculturalism port for multiculturalism by… threat threatened itself? nal of Intercultural Relations Theory discovering the Social Group: A Self-Categorization - briefings/immigration-population-and-ethnicity-the-uk-in-interna tional-perspective/ from: http://www.un.org/en/development/desa/population/migration/ publications/migrationreport/docs/MigrationReport2015.pdf dominance theory’s explanation of prejudice as legitimizing myths. Ba- as legitimizing of prejudice theory’s explanation dominance sic and Applied Social , 24, 287-293. Psychology http://dx.doi.org/10.1207/ S15324834BASP2404_4 The Netherlands House of Representatives website on April 12, 2017 April 12, 2017 of Representatives website on House Netherlands The from: https://www.houseofrepresentatives.nl/members_of_parlia- ment/parliamentary_parties Turner, J.C. & Reynolds, K.J. (2003). Why social dominance theory has K.J. (2003). Why social dominance J.C. & Reynolds, Turner, Turner, J.C., Turner, Hogg, M.A., P.J., Reicher, S.D., & Wetherell, M.S. (1987). Oakes, Tropp, L.R., & Pettigrew, T.F. (2005). L.R., & Pettigrew, contact Tropp, between intergroup Relationships (2007). Wilders Trouw dient motie in tegen staatssecretarissen Contact Hypothesis: Social and The Tsukashima, R.T. & Montero, D. (1976). Tweede Kamer Staten-Generaal (2017). der Tip, L.K., Zagefka, H., González, R., Brown, R., Cinnirella, M. & Na, X. (2012). M. & Na, X. (2012). R., Brown, R., Cinnirella, H., González, Tip, L.K., Zagefka, Is sup- United Nations (2016). International Migration Report 2015. Retrieved on April 8, 2017 Quist, R.M. & Resendez, M.G. (2010). Social dominance threat: Examining social 222 The struggle for power Van Oudenhoven, J.P., & Ward, C. (2013). Fading majority cultures: The impli- cultures: Fading majority (2013). C. Ward, & Van Oudenhoven,J.P., Van Oudenhoven, of minori- J.P., Prins,K.S.&Buunk, Attitudes B.P. (1998). of Univer- The Effect (2005). & Sidanius,J. Sinclair, S., Levin, S., Van Laar,C., voor individueleverschil- Een meetinstrument & Duriez,B.(2002). Van Hiel,A. Turkse politiciintimiderenbestuurders 16). February Van denDool,P.(2013, Van denBrug, Anti-immigrant partiesin W., Fennema, M., &Tillie,J.(2000). measure- testing for checklist A (2012). Hox, J. Lugtig, P.& R., Van deSchoot, M. (2017). Van Ast, US CensusBureau(2013). cations of transnationalism and demographic changes for immigrant ac- immigrant and demographicchangesfor transnationalism of cations 0992(1998110)28:6<995::AID-EJSP908>3.0.CO;2-8 DOI: 10.1002/(SICI)1099- an Journalof Social Psychology,28,995-1013. ty andmajoritymemberstowardadaptationofimmigrants. Europe- jesp.2004.08.002 https://doi.org/10.1016/j. Social Psychology41:329–45. Experimental and Behavior.Journalof Contact onEthnicAttitudes Roommate sity default/files/documents/PDF/2002_VanHielDuriez.pdf http://bartduriez.com/sites/ 114-116. 57, Grensgebieden, haar chologie en voor dePsy- len inSocialeDominantieOriëntatie.NederlandsTijdschrift damse-deelgemeente/ nieuws/2013/02/16/turkse-politici-intimideren-bestuurders-rotter- deelgemeente. NRC.Retrievedfromhttp://www.nrc.nl/ Rotterdamse 37, 77-102.DOI:10.1111/1475-6765.00505 Research, of Political Europe: Ideological Journal or protestvote?European 10.1080/17405629.2012.686740 Journal ofDevelopmentalPsychology,1-7.DOI: ment invariance.European couch-en-gaat-protesteren-voor-stadhuis~a7a13c65/ http://www.ad.nl/politiek/wilders-gruwelt-van-benoeming-mar- from: voor stadhuis. census.gov/newsroom/releases/archives/population/cb13-112.html from: http://www. 2014 in 2012,CensusBureauReports.RetrievedMay14, Wilders gruweltvanbenoemingMarcouchengaatprotesteren Retrieved from the AD news website on August 11, 2017 Retrieved fromtheADnewswebsiteonAugust11, Press Release: Asians Fastest-Growing Race or Ethnic Group Race orEthnic Fastest-Growing Asians Release: Press References 223 identification: national Social Psychology, 47, 257-296 European of Social Psy- Review Immigrants’ Personality Bulletin and Social Psychology 47:667–68. DOI: 10.1348/014466608X284443 (2012). B. Identification.

Journal of Community and Applied Social Psychology, 23, 81-97. Applied Social Psychology, Community and Journal of Martinovic, , 30, 713-740. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/01419870701491770 Group & , 73, 398-416. DOI: 10.1177/0190272510389015 M., reappraisal: examining the Deprovincialization Thesis. Social Psychology the Deprovincialization reappraisal: examining Quarterly 38:1165–77. DOI: 10.1177/0146167212446164 https://doi.org/10.1027/1864-9335/a000279 culturation. culturation. to assimilationismalism and the shift in the Netherlands. Ethnic and - Ra cial Studies Brit- ward Muslims Threat Theory. Testing Integrated Netherlands: in the ish Journal of Social Psychology cal Representation of Muslim Immigrants. DOI: 10.1002/casp.2132 Journal Majority and Minority Youth in the Netherlands. of Applied Social Psychology 26:1104–18. DOI: 10.1111/j.1559-1816.1996.tb01127.x Social Identity Perspective. Pp. 148–84 Pp. Social Identity Perspective. in majority members. Group Processes nic and Intergroup Relations, 14, 789- 806. DOI: 10.1177/1368430211398506 . Vol. 17, edited by W. Stroebe and M. Hewstone. London: Wiley. M. Hewstone. London: and by W. Stroebe 17, edited chology. Vol. http://dx.doi.org/10.1080/10463280600937418 grants’ Attitude toward the Host Nation: The Intersection of Ethnic and Intersection of Ethnic The grants’ Attitude toward the Host Nation: Religious Meanings, determinants Social Issues and Policy Review, and consequences. 6, 82-112. DOI: 10.1111/j.1751-2409.2011.01036.x Verkuyten, M., Thijs, J. & Bekhuis, H. (2010). contact Intergroup and in-group Verkuyten, Vasta, E. (2007). Vasta, E. (2007). Multicultur - majority policy: minorities to ethnic From ethnic E. (2008). K., Verkuyten, M., Weesie, J., & Poppe, Prejudice to- Velasco González, Verkuyten, M. & Hindriks, P. (2016). About Politi- Majority Members’ Feelings Verkuyten, M, Hagendoorn, L., & Masson, K. (1996). The Ethnic Hierarchy among Ethnic Hierarchy The L., & Masson, K. (1996). M, Hagendoorn, Verkuyten, Verkuyten, M. (2006). Multicultural Recognition and Ethnic Minority Rights: A Ethnic and M. (2006). Recognition Multicultural Verkuyten, Verkuyten, M. (2011). Assimilation ideology and out group attitudes among eth- Verkuyten, M. & Martinovic, B. (2012). Social Identity Complexity and Immi- 224 The struggle for power White, J.B., Schmitt, M.T., & Langer, E.J. (2006). Horizontal Hostility: Multiple Horizontal Hostility: M.T., &Langer,E.J.(2006). White, J.B.,Schmitt, mem- of sizeonparty The impact polity? Downsize my Weldon, S.(2006). towardIm- AnIntegrative Model ofAttitudes Ward, C.&Masgoret,A.(2006). Conditioning and Evaluative Guilt byMereAssociation: Walther, E.(2002). Williams, J.A. (1994). J.A. Williams, pre- dual identity When does (2014). Lauricella, Y. & Figueroa, J., S., Wiley, Wakefield, Anti-immigrant bias.InJ.F.Dovi- O., &Heitmeyer,W.(2010). Wagner, U.,Christ, Verkuyten, M., Thijs, J. & Sierksma, J. (2014). Majority Children’s Evaluationof Majority Verkuyten, M.,Thijs,J.&Sierksma,(2014). Verkuyten, 978-0500276242 es andIntergroupRelations Minority GroupsandDifferentiation from theMainstream.GroupProcess 10.1177/1354068806064729 DOI: 12(4), 467-481. Politics, Party bership and memberactivism. doi.org/10.1016/j.ijintrel.2006.06.002 migrants. 82:919–34. http://dx.doi.org/10.1037/0022-3514.82.6.919 Effect. the SpreadingAttitude 1599-1610. DOI:10.1177/0146167211416131 treatment. others’ longing for The impactofadopting civic conceptionsofnationalbe- S. etal.(2011). and SocialPsychologyBulletin among Turkish-Dutch Muslims. Study A Religious Identity: 11.1002/ejsp.2004. opinion-based . DOI: group identity. European JournalofSocialPsychology The moderatingroles ofanti-immigrantpoliciesand dict protest? 9781446270486 London: Sage.ISBN: (pp. 361-376). discrimination and stereotyping udice, (Eds.), TheSagehandbookofprej- dio, M.Hewstone,P.Glick&V.M.Esses opment Acculturation PreferencesofImmigrantandEmigrantPeers.ChildDevel- J.R.H., M. , 85,176-191.DOI:10.1111/cdev.12111 & 30:671–82. https:// Journal ofInterculturalRelations30:671–82. International Yildiz, Hopkins, . London: ThamesandHudson. ISBN-13: The WorldofIslam. A.A. N., (2007). Cockburn, 9:339–58.DOI:10.1177/1368430206064638 33:1448–62.DOI:10.1177/0146167207304276 National Personality and SocialPsychologyBulletin,37, Personality Journal of Personality and Social Psychology Social and of Personality Journal C., Shek, (Dis)identification K.M., Muirhead, and A., Ethnic Personality Reicher, and - References 225 - - , 19, 277-306. , 19, 277-306. Journal of Social , 5-38. Politics and Society, 27 DOI: https://link.springer.com/article/10.1007/s11211-006-0014-8 udice in Germany: Majority and minority perspectives. the United States. ration in Europe and 10.1177/0032329299027001002 relates assimilationof and multiculturalism among ethnic minority and States. Social Justice the United Research in majority groups Issues, 57, 541-557. DOI: 10.1111/0022-4537.00228 Zick, A., Wagner, U., Van Dick, R. & Petzel, T. (2001). Dick, R. & Petzel, U., Van Acculturation and prej Zick, A., Wagner, Zolberg, A.R., & Long, L.W. (1999).A.R., & Long, Cultural incorpo Why Islam is like Spanish: Zolberg, Wolsko, C., Park, B. & Judd, C.M. (2006). Park, B. & Judd, Wolsko, C., of Babel: Cor- Considering the tower

Acknowledgements 227 list a grate- with eternally poster a be I’ll up put years. had I four over Utrecht just in in office papers my of five wall the publish On ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS of alternative interpretations for the abbreviation PhD. On top of for the abbreviation of alternative interpretations time that the Considering for a Degree. Hoping that list: Patiently applies most this book, that abbreviation it took me to complete of you so much Maykel and Marcel: thank all to my dear supervisors. You’ve offered so many it through. for sticking with me and seeing shied away from criticism, insights and suggestions, you never and you always exactly how to get me to focus. Although the knew dissertation itself we did manage took a bit longer than planned, to ful for all the opportunities, for your guidance, and for all the help ful for all the opportunities, for you have given me. of Ercomer and the ICS andI was very fortunate to be a member thank both groups for providingwant to take this opportunity to environment. The countless dis- a stimulating and fruitful working dinners, coffees and drinks madecussions during as many lunches, and fun. A special shout- the experience all-the-more worthwhile in adjacent offices! out for my roommates and my colleagues for through, there all the way Roza and David, thank you for being the tons of fun we’ve had during, and for being my paranymphs at the defense. above all, Fer- my friends and, my family, Finally, I’d like to thank nando for kicking my ass when it was needed and for always supporting me throughout these years: #changolove4ever

Curriculum Vitae 229 - Project as works currently He dissertation. his finished he Manager for Social Inclusion and Evaluation at Manager for Social Inclusion and the Coordination of Office of the President of Mexico. National Digital Strategy, in the Paul Hindriks (July 18, Paul Hindriks (July 1985) undergraduate studies did his in So- where (the Netherlands), of Groningen ciology at the University ob- He intolerance. religious policy and public in specialized he Bachelor of Science in Sociology tained the degree in 2008 and was subsequently invited to the join Research Master program at Behavioural and Social Sciences the same university. Specializ- fear of terrorism, Paul was awarded the degree ing in Europeans’ Master of Science in 2010. a member of the Interuni He remained Curriculum VitaeCurriculum versity Center for Social Science Theory and Methodology (ICS) when he started working as a PhD-candidate at Utrecht University Research Centre on Migration (the Netherlands) and the European Late 2014, and Ethnic Relations (Ercomer). to Mexico Paul moved where

ICS dissertation series 231 - financed are composition Amsterdam: Thesis projects ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. the Gescheiden netwerken. De relaties Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. international Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. of Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. The Bijstand in Amsterdam, Ar- ca. 1800-1850. Most (NWO). (UvA). Deelname aan podiumkunsten de podia, via de media en ac- Research Amsterdam of Scientific Jan M.M. van den Bos (1991). Dutch EC policy making. A model guided approach to coordination and negotiation. Publishers. Marco H.D. van Leeuwen (1990). menzorg als beheersings- en overlevingsstrategie. Cornelis van Liere (1990). Lastige leerlingen. Een empirisch onderzoek naar basisscholen. sociale oorzaken van probleemgedrag op Ineke Maas (1990). tieve beoefening. Substitutie of leereffecten? Marjolein I. Broese van Groenou (1991). met vrienden en verwanten na echtscheiding. for 5. 2. 3. 1. The ICS series presents dissertations of the Interuniversity Center Interuniversity presents dissertations of the ICS series The of these studies Theory and Methodology. Each for Social Science state of the art explicit theory formation with aims at integrating methods for or at the development of advanced empirical research empirical research. The ICS was founded in 1986 as a cooperative and Utrecht. Since 1992, effort of the universities of Groningen the since 2017 and to the to the University of Nijmegen ICS expanded University ICS DISSERTATION SERIES ICS DISSERTATION 4. by the participating universities by the participating universities Organiza the Netherlands or by tion of the ICS graduate students is - mirrored in the increasing interna and thus of the ICS series itself. tional orientation of the projects 232 The struggle for power 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 14. 13. 12. 11. 16. 15. 18. 17. Gert P. Westert (1991). Gert P.Westert Publishers. kinderopvang. voor de informeleengeïnstitutionaliseerde Rudi Wielers(1991). Publishers. Thesis in bedrijf.Amsterdam: Automatisering Ronald S.Batenburg (1991). ments oncooperationinsocialdilemmas. Sjerp deVries(1991). dam: ThesisPublishers. aanhetbeginvanhunloopbaan.Amster hogere beroepsopleiding ‘mannelijke’ Karin Sanders(1991). js. bij schoolverlatersuithetmiddelbaar beroepsonderwi- van arbeidsmarktkansen Conny G.J.Taes(1992). Amsterdam: ThesisPublishers. arbeidsmarktposities. en netwerken sociale tussen relatie de naar onderzoek Ed A.W.Boxman(1992). Thesis Publishers. Cora J.M.Maas(1992). systems. Equilibria inparty Votesandpolicypreferences. Hanneke Hermsen (1992). Groningen. gemeentelijk arbeidsmarktbeleid. Marcel vanDam(1992). dam: ThesisPublishers. and durability.Amster composition on cabinet of dominantandcentralparties Peter vanRoozendaal(1992). Marc A. Jacobs (1993). Jacobs A. Marc Amsterdam: ThesisPublishers. en vrouwen. Tanja van derLippemannen (1993). Arbeidsverdelingtussen pelijk onderzoekonderPCgebruikers. Amsterdam: ThesisPublishers. Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Selectie en allocatie op de arbeidsmarkt. Eenuitwerking op dearbeidsmarkt. Selectie enallocatie Egoism, altruism, and social justice. Theory and experi- and Theory justice. social and altruism, Egoism, Probleemleerlingen in het basisonderwijs. Amsterdam: het Probleemleerlingen in Software: Kopenofkopiëren?Een sociaalwetenschap Kijken naar banen. Een onderzoek naar de inschatting de onderzoek naar Een banen. naar Kijken Vrouwelijke pioniers. Vrouwen Vrouwelijke en mannenmeteen pioniers. Verschillen inziekenhuisgebruik. Regio zonder regie. Verschillen in en effectiviteit van effectiviteit en in Verschillen regie. Regio zonder Contacten en carrière. Een empirisch theoretisch carrière. en Contacten Cabinets in multi party democracies. The effect Cabinets inmultipartydemocracies. Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: ICS-dissertation, - - - ICS dissertation series 233

- - Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: Thesis Tussen hulpverlening en ondernemer Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Structure and influence. Statistical models for models Statistical influence. and Structure Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Solidarity in economic transactions. An experimen Innovation adoption as a socio economic process. The Coupled careers. The effects of spouse’s resources on Choices in child care. The distribution of child care Choices in child care. The distribution of Het stempel Macht, op de besluitvorming. invloed en Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Amsterdam: Should auld acquaintance be forgot...? Institutions of Research groups in Dutch sociology. Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Anna M. Cancrinus Matthijsse (1995). schap. Beroepsuitoefening en taakopvattingen van openbare apothekers in een aantal West Europese landen. Liset van Dijk (1994). Jos de Haan (1994). Publishers. Kwasi Boahene (1995). case of the Ghanaian cocoa industry. Paul E.M. Ligthart (1995). among mothers, fathers and non parental care providers. Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. tal study of framing effects in bargaining and contracting. Publishers. Roger Th. A.J. Leenders (1995). Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Beate Völker (1995). communism, the transition to capitalism and personal networks: the case of East Germany. the dynamics of actor attributes, network structure, and their interdependence. Gerbert Kraaykamp (1993).Gerbert Kraaykamp Over lezen gesproken. Een studie naar sociale - dif ferentiatie in leesgedrag. (1993).Evelien Zeggelink Strangers into friends. The evolution of friendship networks using an individual oriented modeling approach. Publishers. (1994). Jaco Berveling Publishers. Wim Bernasco (1994). success at work. besluitvorming op twee besluitvorming op twee Amsterdamse beleidsterreinen. Peter van der Meer (1993).Peter van op de Nederlandse Verdringing arbeidsmarkt. Sec- tor- en sekseverschillen. 30. 24. 26. 27. 25. 28. 29. 20. 21. 22. 23. 19. 234 The struggle for power 31. 33. 32. 35. 34. 36. 42. 41. 40. 39. 38. 37. fysiek kwetsbareouderen. onder verzorgingstehuis een in opname van aanzien ten oriëntatie in verschillen Nardi Steverink(1996). Chris Snijders(1996). Publishers. Ellen Lindeman(1996). randering inpersoonlijkerelaties. Jooske T.vanBusschbach(1996). dam: ThesisPublishers. Amster gypsies andJews. against on prejudice and itsimpact of statesocialism Koos Postma(1996). ers. René Torenvlied(1996). ering modelmatig getoetst op sociale vernieuwing indriegemeenten. getoetst opsociale ering modelmatig spektive. Per- theoretischer aus empirisch mit demPartner und Verhandlungen nersuche Blumberg (1997). Boris ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Anne Geerte vandeGoor(1997). under economictransition. Róbert Gál(1997). Thesis Publishers. Lucienne van Eijk(1997). lishers. company. and careerlinesinaDutchmanufacturing Veen (1997). van Kees Publishers. of informalnetworksoncooperationinsocialdilemmas. Andreas Flache(1996). dam: ThesisPublishers. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Unreliability. Contract discipline and contract governance contract and discipline Contract Unreliability. Changing prejudice in Hungary. A studyonthecollapse in Hungary. Changing prejudice Trust and commitments. and Trust Inside an internal labor market: Formal rules, flexibility Das Management von Technologiekooperationen. Part- von Technologiekooperationen. Management Das The double edge of networks. An analysis of the effect of the analysis An of networks. double edge The Amsterdam: Thesis in vrijwilligerswerk.Amsterdam: Participatie Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Zo lang mogelijk zelfstandig. Naar een verklaring van een Naar Zo langmogelijkzelfstandig. Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Besluiten in uitvoering. Theorieën over beleidsuitvo- Theorieën uitvoering. in Besluiten Activity and well beingintheelderly.Amsterdam: and Activity Amsterdam:ThesisPublishers. Effects of regulation ondisabilityduration. Uit het oog, uit het hart? Stabiliteit en veen Stabiliteit hart? het oog, uit het Uit Amsterdam: ThesisPublish Amsterdam: Amsterdam: Thesis Pub- Amsterdam: Amsterdam: Thesis Amsterdam: Amster - - -

ICS dissertation series 235 - ICS-disser- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Diploma inflatie en verdringing op de arbeids- Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Sampling personal network structures: Statistical in- Opportunity and marriage. The impact of individual ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Workload and provision of care in general practice. An Resources and social reproduction: The effects of cul- The kindred vote. Individual and family effects of social social and family effects of The kindred vote. Individual Berufserfolg im Transformationsprozeß. Eine theoretisch ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Sector composition education and the effect of on wages: an Amsterdam: Thesis Publishers. Amsterdam: Thesis ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Vincent Buskens (1999). Social networks and trust. Utrecht. (1999). Educational Rijken expansion Susanne and status attainment. A cross-national and over-time comparison. Marinus Spreen (1999). ference in ego-graphs. Wilma Smeenk (1998). resources and marriage market structure on first marriage timing and partner choice in the Netherlands. land. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Maarten H.J. Wolbers (1998). markt. Een studie naar ontwikkelingen in de opbrengsten van diploma’s in Ned- erland. empirische Studie über die Gewinner und Verlierer der Wende in Ostdeutsch Per B. Kropp (1998). Marijke von Bergh (1997). Bergh Marijke von Amsterdam: van oudere werknemers. Loopbanen Thesis Publishers. (1997). Nieboer Anna Petra Life events and A prospective well being: study on changes in people due well being of elderly to a serious illness event or death of the spouse. tation, Nijmegen. Jim Allen (1997). Jack B.F. Hutten (1998). class and religion on electoral change in the Netherlands, class and religion on electoral 1956-1994. international Comparison. empirical study of the relation between workload of Dutch general practitioners and the content and quality of their Care. Jacques Niehof (1997). Jacques Niehof (1997). tural and material resources on educational and occupational careers in indus- of the twentieth century. trial nations at the end Ariana Need (1997). 53. 54. 52. 51. 50. 49. 44. 47. 48. 43. 45. 46. 236 The struggle for power 58. 57. 55. 56. 59. 63. 62. 61. 60. 64. 68. 67. 66. 65. van hetmestbeleidtot2000. Corine Baarda(1999). actions intheNetherlands,1986-1998. Robert Thomson (1999). Groningen. time. through networks for friendship model network tical market societies,1987-1996. (1999). Gijsberts Mérove Gerhard G.VandeBunt (1999). Rafael Wittek (1999). Rafael Wittek signaling perspective. Peter Mühlau(2000). ing. Acomparisonoftwomodels. Marjolein Achterkamp (1999). van leerlingeninhetvoortgezetonderwijs. René Veenstra(1999). ingen. Gron- in Ireland.ICS-dissertation, funds structural reform ofthe of the impact Diane Payne(1999). ICS-dissertation, Groningen. om leden. Concurrentie Verdeeldevakbewegingenstakingen. Agnes Akkerman(2000). nication inideageneratinggroups. (2000). Nijstad Bernard A. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. stratification. social of process the and Sylvia E.Korupp (2000). Mothers Rudi Turksema(2000). es. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. consequenc and causes Trends, Sandra van Thiel (2000). Quangocratization: ICS-dissertation,Groningen. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Policy making in the European Union: An analysis of the An analysis Union: in theEuropean making Policy The governance of the employment relation. A relational relation. The governanceoftheemployment Interdependence and informalcontrolinorganizations. Interdependence Politieke besluitenenboerenbeslissingen.Hetdraagvlak Supply ofdaycare. Leerlingen-klassen-scholen. Prestaties envorderingen Prestaties Leerlingen-klassen-scholen. The party mandate: Election pledges and government Election pledgesand mandate: The party ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. The legitimation of inequality in state-socialist and in state-socialist of inequality The legitimation ICS-dissertation, Groningen. How the group affects the mind: Effects ofcommu- How thegroupaffectsmind: ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Influence strategies in collective decision mak- ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Friends by choice. An actor-oriented statis actor-oriented An by choice. Friends Amsterdam: ThelaThesis. Amsterdam,ThelaThesis. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, - -

ICS dissertation series 237

- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Nijme- ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Field study of and social inequality. Four Healthcare systems and hospital bed use. ICS/ Individual production being. An ex- of social well ICS-dissertation Groningen. Opleidingsspecialisatie Opleidingsspecialisatie en arbeidsmarktsucces van so- Exclusionistic electorates. Extreme right wing voting in Social capital and earnings inequalities. The role of infor- Communication Communication and performance: An empirical study in ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Sibling similarities and social stratification. The impact of ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Jacques P.G. Janssen (2002). Do opposites attract divorce? Dimensions of mixed divorce in the Netherlands. marriage and the risk of gen. Alinda van Bruggen (2001).Alinda van Bruggen Marcel Coenders (2001). Nationalistic attitudes and ethnic exclusionism in attitudes of a comparative perspective: An empirical study toward the country and ethnic immigrants in 22 countries. ploratory study. Marcel Lubbers (2001). Western Europe. Uwe Matzat (2001). Social networks and cooperation in electronic communi ties. A theoretical-empirical analysis of academic communication and internet discussion groups. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Tamás Bartus (2001). mal job search in Hungary. Madelon Kroneman (2001). Madelon Kroneman Utrecht. NIVEL-dissertation, Herman van de Werfhorst (2001). Netherlands. the in stratification of process the in resources educational of types (2001).Hester Moerbeek Friends and foes in the occupational career. The in- market. labour the on capital social sour and sweet of fluence Nijmegen. Marcel van Assen (2001). Essays on actor perspectives in exchange networks and social dilemmas. Inge Sieben (2001). Inge Sieben family background across countries and cohorts. Inge F. de Wolf (2000). Inge F. de ciale wetenschappers. (2001). Jan Kratzer innovation teams. 81. 77. 78. 79. 80. 73. 71. 72. 74. 75. 76. 70. 69. 238 The struggle for power 89. 88. 87. 85. 84. 83. 82. 90. 86. 94. 93. 92. 91. labour marketintheculturalsector. Merijn Rengers(2002). 1850-1950. (2002). Hilde Bras sertation, Utrecht. on providinganddividinga surplus.ICS-dis- ness andnetworkembeddedness embedded of temporal effects exchange, and Trust Thomas Gautschi(2002). tion, Groningen. transacties. Gerrit Rooks(2002). Groningen. making. Intertemporaldecision Alexander Gattig(2002). vorce. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Anne RigtPoortman(2002). ie naarwederzijdseinvloeden. Miranda Jansen(2002). scholen. Annelies Kassenberg (2002). Károly Takács(2002). Trading Systems. inLocalExchange Corine Community Hoeben (2003). LETS’beacommunity. ingen. Adoption andeffectiveness. land andtheNetherlands: Justine Horgan(2003). tation, Nijmegen. others): Politicalcontextandelectoralparticipation. more wetthan Marcel vanEgmond(2003). 2000. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. lezen vanboeken tussen1975en op het en ouders vloed vanliteratuuronderwijs Marc Verboord (2003). ICS-dissertation,Groningen. AksantAcademicPublishers,Amsterdam. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Zeeuwse meiden. Dienen in de levensloop van vrouwen, ca. vrouwen, van levensloop de in Dienen meiden. Zeeuwse Contract en conflict: Strategisch Management van Inkoop- Social networks and intergroup conflict. intergroup and networks Social High performance human resource management in Ire- resource management human High performance Waardenoriëntaties en partnerrelaties. Eenpanelstud en partnerrelaties. Waardenoriëntaties Moet de meester dalen of de leerling klimmen? De in- of deleerlingklimmen? dalen Moet demeester Economic lives of artists. Studies intocareersandthe Economic livesofartists. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Rain fallsonallofus(butsomemanagetoget Socioeconomic causes and consequences of di- and consequences Socioeconomic causes Wat scholieren bindt. Sociale gemeenschap in Wat scholierenbindt.Socialegemeenschap ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Gron- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-disserta ICS-disser- - - - ICS dissertation series 239 ICS-dissertation, Gif laten wij niet voortbestaan. Gif laten wij niet voortbestaan. Een ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Promoting well-being in frail elderly people. Gender differences in workplace authority: An ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Depressive symptoms in the general population: a ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Parental divorce, conflict and resources.The effects on Negotiation in legislative decision-making in the Euro- ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Cultuurdeelname . ICS-dissertation, in de levensloop ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Giving and volunteering in the Netherlands: Sociological Educational attainment and ethnic attitudes. How to ex- ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Aksant Academic Publishers, Amsterdam. Renée van der Hulst (2004). empirical study on social networks. René Bekkers (2004). and psychological perspectives. pean Union. Hanneke Schuurmans (2004). Theory and intervention. Javier Arregui (2004). Tamar Fischer (2004). children’s behaviour problems, socioeconomic attainment, and transitions in the demographic career. multifactorial social approach. Vivian Meertens (2004). onderzoek naar de overlevingskansen van joden in de Nederlandse gemeenten, 1940-1945. (2004). Ineke Nagel Utrecht. Marieke van der Wal (2004). Competencies to participate in life. Measurement and the impact of school. Christian Steglich (2003).Christian The framing of decision situations. Automatic goal rational goal pursuit. selection and Wilsem Johan van (2003). Crime and context. The impact of individual, - neigh and country characteristicscity borhood, on victimization. Evelyn Hello (2003). Tammes (2004). Marnix Croes en Peter plain their relationship. Nijmegen. (2003). Christiaan Monden Education, inequality and health. The impact of partners and life course. 107. 106. 103. 104. 105. 102. 100. 101. 96. 99. 95. 98. 97. 240 The struggle for power 111. 110. 109. 108. 112. 116. 115. 114. 113. 119. 118. 117. Esther deRuijter(2005). ICS-dissertation, Groningen. de vakantie. tijdens en refreshergemeenschap gelegenheid onderzoek naar tatief Carlijne Philips(2005). lands: Socialandeconomicrisks. Thelife-courseofthelow-educatedinNether- Maurice Gesthuizen (2004). tation, Groningen. altruism. of reciprocal mechanisms Thy neighbour’.Twoproximate yours’ versus‘Love my backandIscratch ‘You scratch Rita Smaniotto(2004). Frank vanTubergen (2005). contexts. Johan Hansen(2005). ICS-dissertation, Groningen. capital. social of individual Measurement Martin vanderGaag(2005). can countries(1999-2001).ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. program insevenAfri- ing theimplementationofaWorldBankanti-corruption Carolien KleinHaarhuis(2005). havior ofemployees. on solidarybe- relationships employment of temporary the effects concerning (2005). Ferry Koster Utrecht. effects. community and destination, Origin, al perspective: Utrecht. teenagers ofdifferentethnicorigins inthecontextofschool.ICS-dissertation, Vermeij (2006). Lotte tion, Utrecht. of employees. rewards oncooperation short-term long-term and Lambooij (2005). Mattijs Utrecht. settings. Trustinembedded Davide Barrera (2005). ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. For the time being. Accounting for inconclusive findings inconclusive for Accounting being. time the For Shaping careersofmenandwomeninorganizational What’s cooking? Culturalboundaries amongDutch What’s Household outsourcing. Vakantiegemeenschappen. Kwalitatief enkwanti- Kwalitatief Vakantiegemeenschappen. Promoting cooperation. Studies intothe effectsof Promoting cooperation. The integration of immigrants in cross-nation of immigrants The integration ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. Promoting anti-corruption reforms. Evaluat- Promoting anti-corruption ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-disserta ICS-disser- - -

ICS dissertation series 241

ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Statistical methods for studying the evolution Income attainment in post-communist societ- Time-greedy employment relationships: Four ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Sibling support: The exchange of help among support: The exchange of Sibling ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Self-management for chronically ill older people. Measurement error in family background variables: ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. The effects of externalities on partner choice and payoffs Pathways into adulthood. comparativeA study on family Workplace deviance: Four studies on employee motives ICS-dissertation, Groningen. New social classes within the service class in the Nether- Heterogeneity in social dilemmas: The case of social support. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Sonja Vogt (2007). studies on the time claims of post-Fordist work. Patricia van Echtelt (2007). ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. (2007). Michael Schweinberger of networks and behavior. Stefan Thau (2006). Stefan Thau and self-regulation. (2006).Mirjam Plantinga Employee motivation and performance employee in in the of the introduction of market forces on employees child care. The effects Dutch child-care sector. lands and Britain. class schema Adjusting the EGP for the technocrats and the social and cultural specialists. Mathilde Strating Mathilde (2006). Facing the challenge of rheumatoid arthritis. A 13- year prospective study among patients and a cross-sectional study among their partners. (2006). de Vries Jannes The bias in the intergenerational transmission of status, cultural consumption, religiosity. party preference, and Helga de Valk (2006). Youth. life transitions among migrant and Dutch Henrike Elzen (2006). Ayse Güveli (2007). Willem-Jan Verhoeven (2007). Marieke Voorpostel (2007). brothers and sisters in the Netherlands. Jacob Dijkstra (2007). in exchange networks. ICS-Dissertation, Groningen. ies. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. 131. 132. 130. 122. 123. 121. 124. 125. 127. 129. 120. 126. 128. 242 The struggle for power 140. 139. 138. 137. 136. 135. 134. 133. 141. 145. 144. 143. 142. networks andactorattributesinearlyadolescence. Andrea Knecht(2008). trouwen. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. ver- veralgemeend en kennissenkringen vriendschappen, sportverenigingen, Ruud van derMeulen (2007). ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. solidarity. Djamila Schans (2007). Ethnicdiversityinintergenerational and consequences. Wouter Causes van Gils (2007).Full-timeworkingcouplesintheNetherlands. gen. and prosocialbehavior.ICS-dissertation,Gronin their relationwithantisocial and Jan Statusandaffectionamong(pre)adolescents Kornelis Dijkstra(2007). disentangled andtested. (2007). Jan Reitsma ships. relation- parent-child in ambivalence Ruben and van Solidarity Gaalen (2007). son inlong-termrelationships. István Back(2007). born pattern? Ingrid Doorten(2008). ples. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. between cou- for inequality of husbandsandwives and theconsequences careers Ellen Verbakel(2008). in debuurt. burgerschap motor vooractief als production’ ‘Joint Margreet Frieling(2008). social norms. Janneke Joly (2008). jmegen. Ni - involvement. ICS-dissertation, ofvoluntaryassociation and consequences Stijn Ruiter(2008). ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Commitment and evolution:Connectingemotionrea- Commitment Association in context and association as context: Causes context: as association and context in Association Religiosity and solidarity – Dimensions and relationships – Dimensions solidarity Religiosity and People on our minds: When humanized contexts activate contexts humanized When People onourminds: Friendship selection and friends’ influence. Dynamics of ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. The partner as resource or restriction? Labour market Labour or restriction? resource as partner The The division of unpaid work inthehousehold:Astub- of unpaid The division ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Brug over woelig water: Lidmaatschap van Brug over woelig water: Lidmaatschap ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. -

ICS dissertation series 243 - ICS-disser- ICS-disser- ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Household governance and time allocation. Four ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Beleidsuitvoering Beleidsuitvoering De doorwerking in gelaagde stelsels. Happy families, high fertility? Childbearing choices in Commitments and reciprocity in trust situations. Ex- Co-evolution of social networks and behavior in social of social networks and Co-evolution Youth delinquency A multilev- in Dutch cities and schools: Linked lives: Young adults’ life course and relations with Intolerance over time. Macro and micro level questions on The self in social rejection. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Freek Bucx (2009). parents. Wotschack (2009). Philip studies on the combination of work and care. Jochem Tolsma (2009). Ethnic hostility among ethnic majority and minority groups in the Netherlands. An investigation into the impact of social mobility experiences, the local living environment and educational attainment on ethnic hostility. Manuela Vieth (2009). Manuela perimental studies on obligation, indignation, and self-consistency. tation, Utrecht. Rense Corten (2009). dilemmas: Theoretical and empirical perspectives. Arieke J. Rijken (2009). the context of family and partner relationships. pation. Tom van der Meer (2009). States of freely associating citizens: Comparative studies into the impact of state institutions on social, civic and political partici Gerald Mollenhorst (2009).Gerald Mollenhorst Networks in contexts. How meeting opportunities affect personal relationships. Gijs van Houten (2008). Gijs van Houten van de Stichtingvan aanbevelingen ICS-dis- de Arbeid in het CAO-overleg. van Utrecht. sertation, Eva Jaspers (2008). tation, Nijmegen. Gijs Weijters (2008). el approach. Jessica Pass (2009). attitudes towards euthanasia, homosexuality and ethnic minorities. 156. 157. 155. 152. 153. 154. 151. 150. 147. 148. 149. 146. 244 The struggle for power 160. 159. 158. 162. 161. 167. 166. 165. 164. 163. 168. life CoursePerspective. Renske Keizer(2010). Utrecht. family livesonworkoutcomes. riching effectsofemployees’ Brummelhuis (2009). Lieke ten dustrial and(post-)industrialsocieties. pre-in- unknown in about the ideas and technologies subsistence between ship Nienke Moor (2009). Nicole Tieben(2010). tion, Groningen. and peersinexplainingproblembehaviorearlyadolescence. (2010). Miranda Sentse for cohortsbornbetween1914and1985. Netherlands the in education of secondary out through and into, transitions in ty Stephanie Wiesmann(2010). sertation, Nijmegen. century. attheendoftwentieth societies ligious marketsinWestern (2010). Olav Aarts and overtimeintheNetherlands. background overtransitions of social effects secondary and The primary reers. ca- educational children’s Rianne Socialbackgroundand Kloosterman (2010). tation, Utrecht. during industrialization. before and and temporalvariation Spatial Richard Zijdeman(2010). ee voice.ICS-dissertation,Groningen. (2010). Pauksztat Birgit Utrecht. countries. Western in natives and immigrants between tion analysis ofinterac A dynamic contacts: Borja Martinovic (2010).Interethnic hood. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Religious diversityandreligiousinvolvement.Astudyofre- ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Transitions, tracks and transformations. Socialinequali transformations. and tracks Transitions, Explaining worldwide religious diversity. The relation- The worldwide religiousdiversity. Explaining Remaining childless. Causes and consequences from a consequences and Causes childless. Remaining Bridging contexts: The interplay between family, child, family, between interplay The Bridging contexts: Speaking upinorganizations:Fourstudiesonemploy- Status attainment in the Netherlands, 1811-1941. Netherlands, the in attainment Status 24/7 Negotiation in couples transition to parent transition couples in 24/7 Negotiation ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. Family matters at work.Depletinganden- matters Family ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-disserta ICS-disser- ICS-dis- - - - - ICS dissertation series 245

ICS-dis- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Ni- ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. The economic performance of immigrants. The role of ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Family life under pressure? Parents’ paid work and Family life and ethnic attitudes. The role of the family Adolescent aggressive behavior: Status and stimulation Adolescent aggressive The diversity puzzle. Explaining clustering and - polariza Gossip in organizations. A social network study. The spreading of disorder. Social ties and health in Europe. Individual associations, ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Willem Huijnk (2011). for attitudes towards intermarriage and acculturation among minority and majority groups. Tim Huijts (2011). cross-national variations, and contextual explanations. jmegen. (2011). Social and physical Wouter Steenbeek Disorder. How community, neighborhoods. Dutch in disorder influence entrepreneurs and presence business ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Miranda Vervoort (2011). Living together apart? Ethnic concentration in the neighborhood and ethnic minorities’ social contacts and language practices. human and social capital. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Agnieszka Kanas (2011). Lea Ellwardt (2011). Anne Roeters Anne Roeters (2010). Michael Mäs (2010). tion of opinions. Marieke van de Rakt (2011). Two generations of crime: The intergenerational transmission of convictions over the life course. the quantity and quality of parent-child and family time. peer context. goals in relation to the Utrecht. Jelle Sijtsema (2010). Kees Keizer (2010). CKV. Studies naar effecten (2010). Cultuurdeelname en Marie-Louise Damen van kunsteducatie op de cultuurdeelname van leerlingen tijdens en na het voort- gezet onderwijs. sertation, Groningen. 175. 176. 177. 178. 179. 180. 172. 174. 169. 170. 171. 173. 246 The struggle for power 182. 181. 185. 184. 183. 187. 186. 190. 189. 188. 192. 191. parental mediasocialization. Natascha Notten(2011). zational settings. organi- and governmental in compliance and delegation making, Decision tion. (2011). Annemarije Oosterwaal forensic psychiatricsetting. Ruud vanderHorst(2011). ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. democracies. Western voting behaviorin religion and class, of social parisons Giedo Jansen(2011). ingen. relationships. interpersonal and attitudes interethnic on students’ perspective A process in schools. Tobias Stark(2011).Integration policy andethnicallymixedneighbourhoods. toethnic on opposition characteristics situational and of individual effects The Marieke vanLonden (2012). decision-making. reproductive for women’s consequences their and developments 2010. Legislative (2011). Mark Levels Valeska Korff(2012). Utrecht. their provisions. of Europeandirectivesand transposition of the under controversy:analysis Compliance Asya Zhelyazkova(2012). hood socialcapitalaffectsindividualhealth. Neighborhoodcontextandhealth:Howneighbor- Sigrid M.Mohnen(2012). tarian organization. Groningen. andemerging adulthood. inadolescence relationships mantic Ivanova (2012). Katya erties andimmigrantrights. Maike Gieling (2012). ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Abortion lawsinEuropeancountriesbetween1960 and Social cleavages and political choices. Large-scale com- Large-scale choices. political and cleavages Social Dealing with diversity: Adolescents’ support forcivillib- Adolescents’ Dealing withdiversity: Between causeandcontrol:Managementinahumani From parents to partners: The impact of family on ro- offamily impact The to partners: From parents Parents and the media. Causes and consequences of Causes andconsequences the media. and Parents ICS-dissertation,Groningen. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. Exclusion of ethnic minorities in the Netherlands. the in minorities of ethnic Exclusion Network effects on treatment results inaclosed Network effects ontreatment The gap between decision and implementa and decision between gap The ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Gron- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, - -

ICS dissertation series 247

ICS-disser- ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Gron- ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Marriage and crime over the life course. The Marriage and crime over the life course. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Working women in Europe. How the country, work- The diffusion of morality policies Western among Eu- Family, friends and fertility. The performance The performance actors: of public corporate Essays on Turks and Moroccans in the Low Countries around the Turks and Moroccans in the Low Countries Relative group position and intergroup attitudes - in Rus Social networks and informal power in organizations. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Occupational hazard? The relationship between working ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Katia Begall (2013). Katia Begall conditions and fertility. Groningen. Abendroth (2013). Anja place, and family context matter. tation, Nijmegen. (2012). Nicoletta Balbo ingen. Anke Munniksma (2013). Crossing ethnic boundaries: Parental resistance to and consequences adolescents’ of cross-ethnic relations. peer ropean countries between 1960 and 2010. A comparison A and 2010. spatial of temporal and ropean countries between 1960 diffusion patterns six morality and eleven non-morality policies. of Roderick Sluiter (2012). Fransje Smits (2012). Determinants in religiosity and determinantsyear 2000: of religiosity, trend of the trend. Mieke Maliepaard (2012). Religious trends and social integration: - Muslim mi norities in the Netherlands. criminal careers of convicts and their spouses. Marieke van Schellen (2012). ICS-dissertation, Groningen. (2012).Michal Bojanowski Essays on social formation in network - heteroge neous populations: Models, methods, and empirical analyses. sia. Utrecht. Anca Minescu (2012). Alona Labun (2012). Alona Labun (2012). effects of institutional and network embeddedness in supranational, national, contexts. and local collaborative Jelmer Schalk (2012). Jelmer Schalk 204. 203. 201. 202. 200. 199. 198. 197. 195. 196. 194. 193. 248 The struggle for power 208. 207. 206. 205. 213. 212. 211. 210. 209. 215. 214. social dilemmas. Ozan Aksoy(2013). ries. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Wiebke Schulz (2013). ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. and surveydata. in recruitmenttheNetherlandsusingexperimental ination discrim of ethnic sources and on theprevalence A study Samira? and Rashid Renske moreemployablethan Lieselotte Blommaert(2013).AreJorisand tional differencesandtherelationtoglobalization. Hidde Bekhuis(2013). tial behaviour. residen and attitudes interethnic between neighbourhoodcharacteristics, ship Esther Havekes(2014). Utrecht. attitudes. nationalist with relation and stratification its tion: Roza Meuleman(2014). ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. and Europe. Netherlands the in developments Recent among youngpeople. ty flexibili- employment of consequences and Causes Marloes deLange(2013). tation, Utrecht. integrationintheNetherlands. grants’ economicandpsychological immi between relation The place: your Earning Thomas deVroome(2013). ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. in networkformation. farsightedness Limited Dominik Morbitzer(2013). identity andcurrentgroupdynamics. Anouk Smeekes(2014). tion, Utrecht. occupational mobility inHungarythe 19th and20thcenturies. occupational Intergenerational open society? Zoltán toward an Lippényi (2014). Transitions ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Essays on social preferences and beliefsinnon-embedded onsocialpreferences Essays The popularity of domestic cultural products: Cross-na- cultural products: of domestic The popularity Careers of men and women in the 19th and 20th centu- 19th and women inthe and of men Careers Putting interethnic attitudes in context.Therelation- attitudes Putting interethnic The presence of the past: Historical rootingofnational Historical past: of the presence The Consuming the nation. Domestic cultural consump Domestic Consuming thenation. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, ICS-disserta ICS-disser------

ICS dissertation series 249

- - ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. The control imperative: Studies on reorgani- Gender, aspirations, and achievements: Relat- Misfortune and family: How negative events, ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Ethnic diversity and social capital. Testing under- Are the kids alright? Essays on postdivorce residence Voting for a change. The democratic of populist lure Captivated by fear. An evaluation of terrorism deten Bounded helping: How morality and intergroup rela- Bounded helping: How morality and intergroup Loyality in humanity. Turnover among expatriate hu- ICS-dissertation, Groningen. A social network perspective on bullying. ICS disserta Modern love. Comparative insightsModern love. Comparative pref- in online dating ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Jellie Sierksma (2015). tions shape children’s reasoning about helping. Fernando Nieto Morales (2015). zation in the public and private sectors. Tinka Veldhuis (2015). radical right parties in voting behavior. manitarian aid workers. Gina Potarca (2014). Gina Potarca (2014). tion, Groningen. Thomas Kowalewski (2015). Personal growth in organizational contexts. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. (2015). The impact Muñoz-Herrera of individual Manu differences on network productive exchange and coordina- relations: Social exclusion and inequality in tion games. Tim Immerzeel (2015). tion policy. Miranda Visser (2015). Sarah Westphal (2015). arrangements and children’s well-being. family ties, and lives are linked. family ties, and lives mating. erences and assortative ing work and family aspirations to occupational outcomes. Michael Savelkoul (2014). Michael Savelkoul lying explanations derived from conflict and contact theories in Europe and the United States. (2014). Martijn Hogerbrugge Mariska van der Horst (2014). Utrecht. Gijs Huitsing (2014). 225. 224. 226. 218. 221. 222. 227. 223. 228. 219. 220. 216. 217. 250 The struggle for power 229. 241. 240. 239. 238. 237. 236. 235. 234. 233. 232. 231. 230. from schooltowork. Rüschoff (2015). Britta Groningen. Felix Tropf (2016). individuals with Tali Spiegel(2016). ICS-dissertation, Groningen. victimization. and to bullying,defending, related emotional processes social and Rozemarijn van derPloeg (2016). Utrecht. Vincenz Frey (2016). behaviors. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. involvement inrisk peer groupsforadolescents’ in adolescent and peerprocesses Kim Pattiselanno(2016). dren affectsocialrelationships chil- and How apartner networks. personal Jesper Rözer (2016). Familyand modeling andsocialnetworkanalysis. André Grow(2016). ments. Wike Been(2015). terminants ofhealthandwellbeing Patrick Präg(2015). sertation, Utrecht. ICS-dis- in English,German,Dutch,andSwedishschoolclasses. determinants of its Studies networks. friendship in Sanne segregation Smith (2015).Ethnic Netherlands duringmodernization. Antonie Knigge(2015). tation, Utrecht. and endogenousimplementation. noise, Collective decisions, tions: Nynke vanMiltenburg. (2015). ICS- dissertation,Utrecht. degenerativeeyeconditions. ICS-dissertation,Groningen. areer trajectories and wellbeing: Acloserlook at Identity, careertrajectories European top managers’ support for work-lifearrange- support top managers’ European Social Science Genetics and Fertility. ICS-dissertation, Social ScienceGenetics Social stratification and health. Four essays on social de- social on essays Four health. and stratification Social Status differentiation: New insights from agent-based New insights differentiation: Status Sources of sibling similarity. Status attainment in the in attainment Status similarity. of sibling Sources Peers incareers Network formation and trust. ICS-dissertation, and Network formation At your own risk: The importance of groupdynamics importance The your ownrisk: At . ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. . ICS-dissertation,Groningen. Cooperation under peer sanctioning institu Cooperation underpeersanctioning ICS-dissertation,Utrecht. Be a buddy, not a bully? Four studies on Be abuddy,notbully?Fourstudies ICS-dissertation, Groningen. : Peer relationships inthetransition Peer relationships ICS-dissertation,Groningen. ICS-disser- - ICS dissertation series 251 - and social class Four essays on ICS-dissertation, ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. Women’s labor market participationWomen’s labor across ethnic Bullying in schools: The role of teachers and class ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Work schedules, childcare and well-being. Essays on ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Healthy ageing in context: Family welfare state and the Living together in diversity. Whether, why and where The victimization-offending The victimization-offending relationship- from a longitu Goal priorities, cognition and conflict: Analyses of cogni- Online Social Networks: Essays on Membership, Privacy, Inequality workers and between older couples older in the Adolescent Adolescent net- school: the role of peer problem behavior in ICS-dissertation, Nijmegen. ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. A dynamic course perspective life on educational ICS-dissertation, Groningen. ICS-dissertation, Groningen. Bas Hofstra (2017). Yassine Khoudja (2018). groups: The role of household conditions, gender role attitudes, and religiosity in different national contexts. Joran Laméris (2018). ethnic diversity affects social cohesion. (2018). Gendered Maaike van der Vleuten Choices. Fields of study of adolescents in the Netherlands. and Structure. Sara Geven (2016). Sara Geven Utrecht. works. ICS- dissertation, Josja (2016). Rokven dinal perspective. (2016). Maja Djundeva career. differences in the late (2017). Oldenburg Beau Melissa Verhoef (2017). the associations between modern-day job characteristics, childcare arrangements and the well-being of parents and children. life course. Mark Visser (2017). Mark Visser (2017). Netherlands. mates. Tatang Muttaqin (2017). The education in Indonesia: divide determinants of unequal access to and quality of education. Groningen. Margriet van Hek (2017). Gender inequality in educational attainment and reading performance. A contextual approach. Timo Septer (2017). tive maps concerning organizational change. 251. 253. 254. 252. 243. 246. 249. 242. 244. 245. 247. 248. 250. 252 The struggle for power 255. 257. 256. tutional change,norms,andnetworks’ Mala Sondang Silitonga (2018). Participation ofEthnicMinorities, Paul Hindriks (2018). tion, Utrecht. role ofRemembranceDayandLiberationinDutchsociety The of thepresent. in thecontext Ritualsofthepast Manja Coopmans(2018). The Struggle for Power: Attitudes towards the Political the towards The StruggleforPower:Attitudes ICS-dissertation, Utrecht. Corruption in Indonesia: The impact of insti The impact Indonesia: in Corruption ICS-dissertation, Groningen. , ICS-disserta - -