Soilpak - Dryland Farmers on the Red Soil of Central Western NSW Readers’ Note

SOILpak - dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Readers’ Note

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APPENDIXES p p e n

Appendix 1. Sources of information d i x

Appendix 2. Further reading e s Appendix 3. More case studies are needed

Appendix 4. Unit conversion

Appendix 5. Glossary

Appendix 6. Supply of SOILpak soil description sheets Appendix 1. Sources of information

Appendix 1. Sources of information

CONTRIBUTORS

Contributor Chapter

Alison Bowman B9, B11 NSW Agriculture, Trangie Broughton Boydell B12 Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture The University of Sydney Katharine Brown E1 ACLEP, CSIRO Canberra Stephen Cattle B3, C4, C9, Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science E1, E4, E5, The University of Sydney E8 N. Collis-George A1, A2, A3, Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science B13, C3, C4 Jack Cooper B9, E7 NSW Agriculture Trangie Stuart Crawford B14 ‘Quandong’, Narromine Karen Elton B3, E6 NSW Agriculture Orange; and Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science The University of Sydney Jeff Esdaile B4, D3 The University of Sydney Livingston Farm, Moree Neil Fettell A3, B3, D8 NSW Agriculture Condobolin Damien Field C4 Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science The University of Sydney Bob Freebairn A3 NSW Agriculture Coonabarabran David Freebairn C9, D1, D2 Queensland Department of Primary Industries Toowoomba Guy Geeves C4, E3 Department of Land & Water Conservation Cowra Neville Gould D7 NSW Agriculture Trangie John and Julie Greig B14 ‘Tilga’, Condobolin Peter Hairsine D2 CSIRO Land & Water Canberra

App. 1-3 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Peter Hayman C9, D1 NSW Agriculture Tamworth Justin Hughes C4 Department of Land & Water Conservation Cowra Pat Hulme C4 Sustainable Soils Management Warren Peter Kelly D7, B11 NSW Agriculture Trangie Mac Kirby E2 CSIRO Land & Water Canberra Paul Lukins A3, B9, E1 NSW Agriculture Condobolin Alex McBratney B12 Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture The University of Sydney Scott McCalman B14 ‘Jedburgh’, Warren Alan McGufficke A3, B9 Department of Land & Water Conservation Condobolin Neil McKenzie C4 CSIRO Land & Water Canberra Ken Motley A3, B9 NSW Agriculture Forbes Brian Murphy A3, B2, B4, Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7, Cowra E1, E4 Ian Packer A3, B2, B4, Department of Land & Water Conservation C4, D3, D7, Cowra E4 Alan Palmer B5, D7 NSW Agriculture Trangie Dean Patton B14, E9 NSW Agriculture Trangie Andrew Rice A3, B9 NSW Agriculture Forbes Elizabeth Roesner C4 NSW Agriculture Condobolin; and Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science The University of Sydney Paco Sanchez-Bayo B13 Department of Agricultural Chemistry & Soil Science University of Sydney

App. 1-4 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Pip Schiffmann B10 Hi-Fert Trangie Tim Schiffmann B5, B6, B11, NSW Agriculture D7 Trangie Geoff Sharp C3 Queensland Department of Natural Resources Indooroopilly Jan Skjemstad C4 CSIRO Land & Water Adelaide Bob Thompson A3 NSW Agriculture West Wyalong John Triantafilis C7 CRC for Sustainable Cotton Production Narrabri Brett Whelan B12 Australian Centre for Precision Agriculture The University of Sydney Anthony Whitbread C4 Agronomy and Soil Science University of New England Keith Woodlands A3, B4 NSW Agriculture Parkes Bob Wynne A3, B9 Department of Land & Water Conservation Condobolin

REFERENCES The main sources of information for this SOILpak manual were SOILpak for cotton growers, third edition; Cotton SOILpakb and Northern wheat-belt SOILpak. The editors of this SOILpak manual would like to acknowledge the editors of, and all contributors to, these preceding SOILpak manuals published by NSW Agriculture.

Other references: Abbott, T.S. (ed.) 1987, Soil testing service methods and interpretation, NSW Agriculture & Fisheries, Rydalmere. Abbott and McKenzie, D.C. 1986, ‘Improving soil structure with gypsum and lime’, Agfact AC.10. NSW Agriculture, Orange. Agsystems, Springwood, Qld. 1997, Beeline navigator, (brochure). Bakker, D. and Hamilton, G. 1997, ‘Research into the use of raised beds as a soil management option to control waterlogging’, in Proceedings of the Fourth Triennial Western Australian Soil Science Conference (D.R. Williamson, ed.) pp. 176–181. ASSSI (WA Branch). Batey, T. 1988. Soil husbandry: a practical guide to the use and management of soils, Soil and Land Use Consultants Ltd., Aberdeen. Bender, G. 1997/98, ‘Friendly fungus lifts wheat yields’, Australian Grain, December 1997–January 1998. App. 1-5 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Bickmore, J. and Patton, D 1997, ‘Promotion of soil management technology for the semi-arid croplands’, National Landcare Program Final Report, DD0425.93, April 1994 – June 1997. Blackwell, P.S., Jayawardane, N.S., Green, T.W., Wood, J.T., Blackwell, J. and Beatty, H.J. 1991, ‘Subsoil macropore space of a transitional red-brown earth after either deep tillage, gypsum or both. II. Chemical effects and long-term changes’ Australian Journal of Soil Research, 29, 141–154. Bowman, A., Chan, Y., Kelly, P., Smith, W., Lukins, P. and Hertel, K 1996, Improving the success of sown pastures in cropping systems on red soils in central west NSW (Dan 157SR), A Final Report prepared for the Grains Research and Development Corporation, 1st July 1993 – 30th June 1996. Braunack, M.V. and Dexter, A.R. 1989, ‘Soil aggregation in the seedbed: a review. II. Effect of aggregate size on plant growth’, Soil & Tillage Research 14, 281-298. Buckerfield, J.C. 1997, Earthworms as indicators of sustainable production, CSIRO Division of Soils, Technical Report 1/1997. Campbell, A, Whole farm planning, Potter Farmland Plan brochure. Cattle, S.R. 1990, A comparison of the chemical and physical properties of a cultivated and never-cultivated red-brown earth, fourth year thesis, The University of Sydney. Cattle, S.R. 1995, Artificial macropores as a means of improving fallow-period water infiltration and storage in structurally degraded xeralfs, PhD thesis, The University of Sydney. Cattle, S.R. 1996, ‘The use of artificial macropore systems to enhance fallow-period rainfall capture in dryland cropping districts’, ASSSI and NZSSS National Soils Conference July 1996—Oral papers. pp. 33–34. Chaffey, B. (ed.) 1992, Principles of sustainable agriculture 4. Dryland salinity: early indicators and control measures, Department of Food and Agriculture, Victoria. Chan, K.Y. 1995, ‘Strength characteristics of a potentially hardsetting soil under pasture and conventional tillage in the semi-arid region of Australia’, Soil & Tillage Research 34, 105–113. Chan, K.Y. and Heenan, D.P. 1991, ‘Differences in surface soil aggregation under six different crops’. Australian Journal of Experimental Agriculture 31, 683–686. Chan, K.Y. and Sivapragasum, S. 1996. ‘Amelioration of a degraded hardsetting soil using an anionic conditioner’, Soil Technology 9, 91–100. Charman, P.E.V. and Murphy, B.W. 1991, Soils: their properties and management, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne, Australia. Chartres, C.J., Kirby, J.M. and Raupach, M. 1990, ‘Poorly ordered silica and aluminosilicates as temporary cementing agents in hardsetting soils’, Soil Science Society of America Journal 54, 1060–1067. Collis-George, N. 1987, Effects of soil physical factors on imbibition, germination, root elongation and shoot movement, AIAS Occasional publication No. 34.

App. 1-6 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Commins, P. 1994, Management of semi-arid hardsetting red soils, Land and Water Resources Research & Development Corporation, Final Report, Project Number 4.28. Cornish, P.S. and Pratley, J.E. 1991, ‘Tillage practices in sustainable farming systems’, in Dryland farming—a systems approach (V. Squires and P. Tow, eds.), Sydney University Press. Cresswell, H.P. and Kirkegaard, J.A. 1995, ‘Subsoil amelioration by plant roots—the process and evidence’, Australian Journal of Soil Research 33, 221–239. Cumming, R.W. and Elliott, G.L. 1991, ‘Soil chemical properties’, in Soils: their properties and management (P.E.V. Charman and B.W. Murphy, eds.), pp. 193–205, Sydney University Press, Melbourne. Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, 1997, Soil properties and processes: lecture notes, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, University of Sydney. Dickey, E.C, Jasa, P.J., Shelton, D.P. and Siemens, J.C. 1992 ‘Conservation tillage systems’ in Conservation tillage systems and management: crop residue management with no-till, ridge-till, mulch- till, first edition, Midwest Plan Service, Iowa State University, USA. Ekert, D.J. 1987, ‘Soil test interpretations. Basic cation saturation ratios and sufficiency levels’, in Soil testing: sampling, correlation, calibration and interpretations, SSSA Special Publication No. 21, Soil Science Society of America, Madsion, USA. Farming for the Future, Property planning: how to produce a physical property plan. Fenton, I.G. (1995), ‘Making better recommendations for management of soil acidity’, in Making better fertiliser, lime and gypsum recommendations (I.G. Fenton and P.W. Orchard, eds.). Proceedings of a workshop held at the Agricultural Research Institute, Wagga Wagga, 15th and 16th August, 1995, pp. 24–40. Fenton, G., Helyar, K. and Orchard, P. 1993, ‘Soil acidity and liming’, Agfact AC.19. NSW Agriculture, Orange. Ferguson, I.S., Wilson, A.D. and Campbell, C.A. 1991, ‘Farm planning and land management’. in Dryland farming—a systems approach (V. Squires and P. Tow, eds.), pp. 41–52, Sydney University Press. Fettell, N. 1997, Managing nitrogen, NSW Agriculture field day brochure. Field, D.J., McKenzie, D.C. and Koppi, A.J. 1997, ‘Development of an improved Vertisol stability test for SOILpak’, Australian Journal of Soil Research 35, 843–852. Friend, J. 1994, Managing your soil for sustainable farming, NSW Agriculture field day brochure produced as part of a project titled, ‘Promotion of Soil Management Technology for the Semi-Arid Croplands,’ funded by the National Landcare Program, NSW Agriculture and the Soil Conservation Service.

App. 1-7 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Geeves, G., Chartres, C., Coventry, D., Slattery, W., Ridley, A., Lindsay, C., Fisher, R., Poile, G., Conyers, M. and Helyar, K. 1990, Benefits from identifying and treating acid soils, National Soil Conservation Program and the Wool Research Development Fund of the Australian Wool Corporation. Geeves, G.W., Cresswell, H.P., Murphy, B.W., Gessler, P.E., Chartres, C.J., Little, I.P. and Bowman, G.M. 1995, The physical, chemical and morphological properties of soils in the wheat-belt of southern NSW and northern Victoria, NSW Department of Conservation & Land Management and CSIRO Division of Soils. GRDC 1997, ‘Research news—five keys to minimum tillage success’, in Advice, Grains Research and Development Corporation. Greacen, E.L. and Williams, J. 1983, ‘Physical properties and water relations’ in Soils: an Australian viewpoint, Division of Soils, CSIRO, pp. 499–530, Melbourne. Greenhalgh, S.E., McKenzie, D.C., Melville, G. and MacLeod, D.A. 1995, ‘Problems associated with soil structural assessment on Vertisols used for irrigated cotton production, in Challenging the future—proceedings of the World Cotton Conference I (eds. G.A. Constable and N.W. Forrester), pp. 160–164, CSIRO, Melbourne. Gunn, C. (ed.) 1996, An introduction to land degradation, Landcare field guide. Gupta, V.V.S.R., Neate, S.M, and Leonard, E. 1997, Life in the soil, Cooperative Research Centre for Soil and Land Management, Glen Osmond. Harper, R.J. and Gilkes, R.J. 1994, ‘Hardsetting in the surface horizons of sandy soils and its implications for soil classification and management’, Australian journal of soil research 32, 603–619. Hayman, P. and de Vries, J. 1995, Managing crop sequences: a guide to your options in North West NSW, NSW Agriculture. Hazelton, P.A. and Murphy, B.W. (eds.) 1992, What do all the numbers mean? A guide for the interpretation of soil test results, Department of Conservation & Land Management (incorporating the Soil Conservation Service of NSW), Sydney. Hunt, N. and Gilkes, B. 1992, Farm monitoring handbook, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA. Hodgson, J.M. (ed.) 1997, Soil survey field handbook, Soil Survey Technical Monograph No. 5, Silsoe, UK. Isbell, R.F. 1995, ‘Sealing, crusting and hardsetting conditions in Australian soils’, in Sealing, crusting and hardsetting soils: productivity and conservation (H.B. So, G.D. Smith, S.R. Raine, B.M. Schafer and R.J. Loch, eds.), Australian Society of Soil Science Inc, (Queensland Branch). Isbell, R.F. 1996, The Australian soil classification, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria. Isbell, R.F., McDonald, W.S. and Ashton, L.J. 1997, Concepts and rationale of the Australian soil classification, ACLEP, CSIRO Land & Water, Canberra.

App. 1-8 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Johnson, P. 1997, ‘Boggabilla GPS boost efficiency’, in The Land, 4/9/97. Johnson, P. 1997, ‘Tramlining on track in North West’, in The Land, 4/9/97. Johnson, P. 1997, ‘Tramlines, smaller tractors help lift Goondiwindi profits’, in The Land, 25/9/97. Kay, B.D. 1990, ‘Rates of change of soil structure under different cropping systems’, Advances in Soil Science, 12, 1–52. Kelly, P. 1997, Measuring tillage forces using a single tine dynamometer, NSW Agriculture field day brochure. Kelly, P., Bowman, A. and Lukins, P 1996, Evaluation of pasture establishment machinery, Report of experiments carried out as part of the the GRDC funded project, ‘Improving the success of sown pastures in cropping systems on red soils in Central West NSW’, July 1993–June 1996. Kirkegaard, J.A., So, H.B., Troedson, R.J. and Wallis, E.S. 1982, ‘The effect of compaction on the growth of pigeon pea on clay soils, I. Mechanisms of crop response and seasonal effects on a Vertisol in a sub-humid environment’, Soil & Tillage Research 24, 107–127. Koppi, A.J. (ed.), 1997, Soil properties and processes: an exercise book, Department of Agricultural Chemistry and Soil Science, University of Sydney. Koppi, A.J., McKenzie, D.C. and Douglas, J.T. 1994, ‘Images of soil structure for illustration of tillage and traffic effects’, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 57, 67–72. Laffan, J. 1994, Soils and their management, NSW Agriculture Home Study Program, Land Management Series. Land and Water Care Program, CSIRO 1994, Research for profitable and sustainable cropping. Landon, J.R. (ed.) 1984, Booker tropical soil manual, Booker Agriculture International Ltd. Leonard, L. (ed.) 1993, Managing for stubble retention, Department of Agriculture, Western Australia. Lobry de Bruyn, L.A. and Conacher, A.J. 1994, ‘The bioturbation activity of ants in agricultural and naturally vegetated habitats in semi- arid environments’, Australian Journal of Soil Research 32, 555–570. Lucy, M. 1993, ‘Permanent wide beds—a controlled traffic system for irrigated vertisols’, Technical Bulletin, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Pittsworth. Lyon, N. 1997, ‘Choosing sowing points for minimum till farming’, in Australian Farm Journal CROPS, February, 1997. Lyon, N. 1997, ‘Wheel of fortune as crops benefit’, in Australian Farm Journal CROPS, August, 1997. Lyon, N. 1997, ‘Controlled traffic farming gains favour’, in Australian Farm Journal CROPS, October, 1997.

App. 1-9 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

McDonald, R.C., Isbell, R.F., Speight, J.G., Walker, J. and Hopkins, M.S. 1990, Australian soil and land survey field handbook, 2nd ed. Inkata Press, Melbourne. McKenzie, D.C. 1982, Evaluation of gypsum as an ameliorant for cracking-clay soils of the Moree district, NSW, M.Sc.Agric. thesis, University of New England. McKenzie, D.C. 1996, Measurement and management of compaction damage on Vertisols under irrigated cotton, PhD thesis, University of Sydney. McKenzie, D.C., Hall, D.J.M., Daniells, I.D., Abbott, T.S., Kay, A.M. and Sykes, J.D. 1992, ‘Soil management for irrigated cotton’, Agfact P5.3.6. NSW Agriculture, Orange. McKenzie, N.J., Jacquier, D.J. and Ringrose-Voase, A.J. 1994, A rapid method for estimating soil shrinkage, Australian Journal of Soil Research 32, 931–938. Moran, C.J., McBratney, A.B. and Koppi, A.J. 1990, The SOLICON soil imaging system: a description of the software, CSIRO Division of Soils Technical Report No. 110. Mullins, C.E., MacLeod, D.A., Northcote, K.H., Tisdall, J.H. and Young, I.M. 1990, ‘Hardsetting soils: behaviour, occurrence, and management’, Advances in Soil Science 2, 37–108. Northcote, K.H. 1979, A factual key for the recognition of Australian soils, Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside, SA. NSW Agriculture 1997, One-pass tillage system, field day brochure. Packer, I.J. 1996a, Conservation tillage—20 years down the track, handout, DLWC, NSW. Packer, I.J. 1996b, The effects of grazing on soils and productivity, handout, DLWC, NSW. Packer, I.J., Koen, T.B. and Jones, B. 1996, ‘The effect of stocking rate and perennial pasture growth on soil physical properties’, ASSSI and NZSSS National Soils Conference July 1996—Poster papers, pp. 199–200. Palmer, A.L. and Mead, J.A. 1995, Converting scarifiers for one-pass tillage, Agnote DPI/135, NSW Agriculture. Palmer, A.L. and Mead, J.A. 1996, ‘Sweeps for non-inversion tillage: some benefits of hardfacing’, Conference on Engineering in Agriculture and Food Processing, 1996, Paper no: SEAg 96/021. Palmer, A.L. 1997, ‘One-pass tillage—a solution for hard setting soils, in Farming systems developments 1997, Workshop papers, University of Adelaide, March 18–20, 1997, pp. 151–152. Pearson, C.J, Cunningham, G.M. and King, D.H. 1993, A Plain English guide to agricultural plants, Longman Cheshire, Melbourne. Pope, K. and Abbott, T.S. 1989, Understanding salinity and sodicity measurement, information on salinity, NSW Agriculture & Fisheries. Proffitt, A.P.B., Bendotti, S., Howell, M.R. and Eastham, J. 1993, ‘The effect of sheep trampling and grazing on soil physical properties and pasture growth for a red-brown earth’, Australian Journal of Agricultural Research 44, 317–331. App. 1-10 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Quick, G.R. 1986, ‘Broadacre tillage implements’, Agfact E4.17, NSW Agriculture, Orange. Rengasamy, P., Greene, R.S.B., Ford, G.W. and Mehanni, A.H. 1984, ‘Indentification of dispersive behaviour and the management of red- brown earths’, Australian Journal of Soil Research 22, 413–431. Rhoades, J.D. and Loveday, J. 1990, ‘Salinity in irrigated agriculture’, in ‘Irrigation of agricultural crops’—Agronomy Monograph No. 30, ASA-CSSA-SSSA, Madison, USA. Richards, L.A. (ed.), 1954, Diagnosis and improvement of saline and alkaline soils, USDA Handbook No. 60, Washington, D.C. Robinson, E. 1998, Measuring and managing standing stubble: photostandards for winter cereals, Queensland Department of Primary Industries, Farming Systems Institute. Schiffmann, P. 1997, Fertiliser for conservation farming: some points to consider, handout, Hi-Fert. Schiffmann, T. 1996, Presswheels, NSW Agriculture field day brochure. Schiffmann, T. 1997, Bringing farmers up-to-speed with conservation farming machinery, Project Summary Sheet (National Landcare Program, Project CW0310.95). Schiffmann, T. 1997, The tractor factor, NSW Agriculture field day brochure. Shaw, R. 1985, ‘Soil salinity’, in Identification of soils and interpretation of soil data, pp. 145–174, ASSSI Queensland Branch, Brisbane. Slavich, P.G. and Petterson, G.H. 1993, ‘Estimating the electrical conductivity of saturated paste extracts from 1:5 soil water suspensions and texture’, Australian Journal of Soil Research 31, 73–81. Smith, K. 1997, ‘Soils and the greenhouse effect’, Soil Use and Management 13, 229. Soil Science Society of America, 1997, Glossary of soil science terms, Soil Science Society of America, Madison. Spoor, G. and Godwin, R.J. 1978, ‘An experimental investigation into the deep loosening of soil by rigid tines’, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 23, 243–258. Squires, V. and Tow, P. (eds.) 1991, Dryland farming—a systems approach, Sydney University Press. Sullivan, L. 1996, ‘Ped fabric studies and subsoil densification in cracking clays used for cotton production’, in Proceedings of the Soils and Agronomy Coordination Meeting, 3–4 December 1996, CRDC Narrabri. Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, G.D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman, J.R., Mulcahy, M.J. and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968, A handbook of Australian soils, Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside, SA. Tisdall, J.M. and Adem, H.H. 1988, ‘An example of Custom Prescribed Tillage in south-eastern Australia’, Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research, 40, 23-32.

App. 1-11 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 1. Sources of information

Thearle, L.N. 1989, Conservation farming: principles, guidelines, techniques, profitability, Soil Conservation Service of New South Wales. Turnour, J., Walsh, P., Radford, B. and Lambert, G. 1991, ‘Planting machinery’, in Opportunity cropping management—a profitable, sustainable system, Queensland Department of Primary Industries. Wakefield, S.M, 1. Why you need trees on your farm, Farm Trees Series, Trees on Farms Program, Department of Agriculture NSW. Wass, H. 1998, ‘Moisture seeking—a red soils experience’, in Looking over the fence. A newsletter for the Central West conservation farmer, ed. R Platt, spring edition, volume 4. Watts, C.W. and Dexter, A.R. 1998, ‘Soil friability: theory, measurement and the effects of management and organic carbon content, European Journal of Soil Science, 49, 73–84. Weir, R.G. and Cresswell, G.C. 1994, Plant nutrient disorders 4. Pastures and field crops, Inkata Press. White, R.E. 1997, Principles and practice of soil science: the soil as a natural resource (3rd ed.). Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK. Willis, T.M., Hall, D.J.M., McKenzie, D.C. and Barchia, I. 1997, ‘Soybean yield as affected by crop rotations, deep tillage and irrigation layout on a hardsetting Alfisol’, Soil & Tillage Research 44, 151–164. Wingate-Hill, R. 1978, ‘Tillage requirements for cereal crop production and their relationship to the development of new tillage machinery’, in Modification of soil structure (W.W. Emerson, R.D. Bond and A.R. Dexter, eds.) John Wiley and Sons. Woodlands, K. (ed.) 1997, Conservation farming—a change of mind, seminar notes, 25th February 1997, Central West Conservation Farming Association. Vanclay, F. and Glyde, S. 1994, Land degradation and land management in central NSW, farmers’ knowledge, opinions and practice, Centre for Rural Social Research, Charles Sturt University. Yo, S.A. and Shaw, R.J. 1990, Salinity tolerance of various crops, Information Series QI930020, Queensland Department of Primary Industries.

App. 1-12 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 2. Further reading

Appendix 2. Further reading

GENERAL SOIL MANAGEMENT

Arkin, G.F. and Taylor, H.M. (eds.) 1981, Modifying the root environment to reduce crop stress, American Society of Agricultural Engineers Monograph No. 4. Batey, T. 1988, Soil husbandry: a practical guide to the use and management of soils, Soil and Land Use Consultants Ltd., Aberdeen. Charman, P.E.V. and Murphy, B.W. (eds.) 1991, Soils—their properties and management: a soil conservation handbook for New South Wales, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne. Division of Soils, CSIRO, 1983, Soils: an Australian viewpoint, CSIRO, Melbourne. Gupta, V.V.S.R., Neate, S.M. and Leonard, E. 1997, Life in the soil, CRC for Soil and Land Management, Adelaide. Hunt, N. and Gilkes, B. 1992, Farm Monitoring Handbook, University of Western Australia, Nedlands, WA. Lines-Kelly, R. 1994, Soil sense: soil management for NSW North Coast farmers, NSW Agriculture, Wollongbar. Marshall, T.J., and Holmes, J.W. 1988, Soil Physics (2nd ed.), Cambridge University Press. White, R.E. 1997, Principles and practice of soil science: the soil as a natural resource (3rd ed.), Blackwell Science, Oxford, UK.

PROPERTIES AND MANAGEMENT OF HARDSETTING RED SOIL Mullins, C.E., MacLeod, D.A., Northcote, K.H., Tisdall, J.H. and Young, I.M. 1990, ‘Hardsetting soils: behaviour, occurrence, and management’, Advances in Soil Science 2, 37–108. So, H.B., Smith, G.D., Raine, S.R., Schafer, B.M. and Loch, R.J. (eds.) 1995, Sealing, crusting and hardsetting soils: productivity and conservation, Australian Society of Soil Science, Qld. Branch.

COMPACTION MANAGEMENT Kuhar, J.E. (ed.) 1993, Fundamentals of machine operation—tillage, John Deere Publishing, Moline, Illinois, USA. Soane, B.D. and van Ouwerkerk, C. (eds.) 1994, Soil compaction in crop production, Elsevier, Amsterdam. Yule, D.F. and Tullberg, J.N. (eds.), 1995, Proceedings of National Controlled Traffic Conference, Rockhampton, Qld, QDPI/University of Queensland.

MANAGEMENT OF SODIC SOIL Naidu, R., Sumner, M.E. and Rengasamy, P. 1995, Australian sodic soils—distribution, properties and management, CSIRO, East Melbourne. Wallace, A. and Terry, R.E. (eds.) 1998, Handbook of soil conditioners, Marcel Dekker, New York.

App. 2-3 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 2. Further reading

MEASUREMENT OF SOIL PHYSICAL CONDITION ACLEP, 1997, ‘Field equipment for land resource survey’, Australian Cooperative Land Evaluation Program Newsletter, Volume 6(2). Coughlan, K.J., McKenzie, N.J. and Cresswell, H.P. (eds.), 1998, ‘Soil physical measurement and interpretation for land evaluation’, Australian soil and land survey handbook series, Vol. 5., CSIRO Land and Water, Canberra. Hanks, R.J. and Ashcroft, G.L. 1980, Applied soil physics: soil water and temperature applications, Springer-Verlag, Berlin. Klute, A. (ed.), 1986, Methods of soil analysis part 1. Physical and mineralogical methods (2nd ed.), ASA/SSSa, Madison, WI. Smith, K.A. and Mullins, C.E. (eds.) 1998, Soil analysis—physical methods (2nd ed.), Marcel Dekker, New York.

DRYLAND FARMING SYSTEMS Squires, V. and Tow, P. (eds.) 1991, Dryland farming—a systems approach, Sydney University Press, South Melbourne.

SALINITY Chaffey, B. (ed.) 1992, Principles of sustainable agriculture 4. Dryland salinity, Department of Food and Agriculture, Victoria.

SOIL MONITORING Forge, K. 1995, Soil check, Queensland Department of Primary Industries. Webster, R. and Oliver, M.A. 1990, Statistical methods in soil and land resource survey, Oxford University Press.

ENVIRONMENTAL ISSUES Campbell, A. 1994, Landcare, Allen and Unwin, St. Leonards. Lamarca, C.C. 1996, Stubble over the soil—the vital role of plant residue in soil management to improve soil quality, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI. Race, D. (ed.), 1993, Agroforestry: trees for productive farming, Agmedia, East Melbourne. Roberts, B. 1992, Land care manual, New South Wales University Press.

PRECISION AGRICULTURE Kuhar, J.E. (ed.) 1997, The precision-farming guide for agriculturists, John Deere Publishing, Moline, Illinois, USA. Robert, P.C., Rust, R.H., and Larsen, W.E. 1996, Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Precision Agriculture, American Society of Agronomy, Madison, WI.

SOIL FORMATION PROCESSES AND SOIL CLASSIFICATION Isbell, R.F. 1996, The Australian soil classification, CSIRO Publishing, Collingwood, Victoria.

App. 2-4 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 2. Further reading

Isbell, R.F., McDonald, W.S. and Ashton, L.J. 1997, Concepts and rationale of the Australian soil classification, ACLEP, CSIRO Land & Water, Canberra. Stace, H.C.T., Hubble, G.D., Brewer, R., Northcote, K.H., Sleeman, J.R., Mulcahy, M.J. and Hallsworth, E.G. 1968, A handbook of Australian soils, Rellim Technical Publications, Glenside. White, M.E. 1994, After the greening: the browning of Australia, Kangaroo Press, Dural.

OTHER Glendinning, J. 1981, Fertilizer handbook, Australian Fertilizers Limited, Sydney. Oades, J.M., Lewis, D.G. and Norrish, K. (eds.) 1981, Red-brown earths of Australia, Waite Agricultural Institute, CSIRO. Russell, J.S. and Greacen, E.L. (eds.) 1977, Soil factors in crop production in a semi-arid environment, University of Queensland Press. Turner, N.C., Perry, M.W., Gregory, P.J. and Belford, R.K. (eds.) 1992, Crop production problems on duplex soils, CSIRO, East Melbourne. Weir, R.G. and Cresswell, G.C. 1994, Plant nutrient disorders 4. Pastures and field crops, Inkata Press. Yeomans, P.A. 1978, Water for every farm using the keyline plan, Murray Books, Ultimo.

AGFACTS FROM NSW AGRICULTURE AC.10 Improving soil structure with gypsum and lime AC.14 Boron in agriculture AC.15 Liming materials AC.16 Zinc deficiency in field crops AC.19 Soil acidity and liming E4.17 Broadacre tillage implements P1.E.1 Moisture seeking for sowing winter crops P1.2.1 Cropping on raised beds in southern NSW P3.M.8 Calculating costs of growing wheat P3.2.2 Oats P3.2.3 Barley growing P5.2.1 Canola.

App. 2-5 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW

Appendix 3. More case studies are needed

Appendix 3. More case studies needed

Options in this manual ‘Red SOILpak’ provides you with options for overcoming soil related problems under dryland crops and pastures on red soil of Central Western NSW. However, it is the responsibility of farmers and their advisers to actually select an option (or series of options) that is appropriate to their operation.

Refining the selected option(s) Fine-tuning of a soil management program to maximise profitability is likely to take several years. Strip trials of the various options at different rates/settings will be necessary. Often this fine-tuning process will be of great value to subsequent managers, and to other growers in the district. Therefore, it is important to document these trial experiences.

Reporting the results Where soil management trials are established, aim to record more than just crop yield and quality. Record: • all costs and benefits associated with the various options; • the weather conditions under which the observations were made; and • changes in soil condition, e.g. severity of soil compaction under the plant lines. The trial report information can then be incorporated into the next version of ‘SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW’. An individual within each district should be nominated to collate this information, and to ensure that the trials are carried out properly.

App. 3-3 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW

Appendix 4. Unit conversion

Table 2. Conversions between electrical conductivity units and approximations to salt concentration

To S m -1 dS m-1 mS m-1 mS m-1 mS cm-1 mS cm-1 TDIm.equiv mg L-1 L-1 From multiply by

S m-1 110103 106 10 104 2/3x104 100 dS m-1 0.1 1 100 105 1103 2/3x103 10 mS m-1 10-3 0.01 1 103 0.01 10 20/3 0.1 mS m-1 10-6 10-5 10-3 110-5 0.01 2/3x10-2 10-4 mS cm-1 0.1 1 100 105 1103 2/3x103 10 mS cm-1 10-4 10-3 0.1 100 10-3 1 2/3 0.01 TDI mg L-1 1.5x10-4 1.5x10-3 1.5x10-1 1.5x102 1.5x10-3 1.5 1 1.5x10-2 m.equiv L-1 0.01 0.1 10 104 0.1 100 2/3x102 1

Source: Shaw, 1985 Example: 1 mS m-1 = 10-5 dS m-1

App. 4-3 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW

Appendix 5. Glossary

SOIL MANAGEMENT TERMINOLOGY

A, A1, A2 horizon See soil profile. acid soil Soil with a pH value less than 7.0. adsorbed Held on a surface; in soil, cations are held on clay surfaces due to a difference in charge between the cations and the surfaces (similar to the attraction of oppositely charged ends of two magnets). aerobic Soil conditions in which there is sufficient oxygen for plant roots and (generally) soil organisms that carry out processes beneficial to plant nutrition and soil structure. aggregate A group of primary soil particles that cohere to each other more strongly than to other surrounding particles. See ped. air-filled porosity The fraction of the bulk volume of soil that is filled with air at the time of measurement. alkaline soil Soil with a pH value greater than 7.0. allelopathy Production of a substance by one organism that inhibits the growth of one of more other organisms. alley farming Production of crops between regularly spaced, parallel strips where trees and/or perennial shrubs and grasses are grown. alluvial soil A soil developed from recently deposited alluvium, usually too young to show the effects of soil forming processes. Any layers in the soil profile are successive deposits rather than soil horizons. alluvium Unconsolidated gravel, sand, silt and clay deposited by water flow; typical of floodplains. ameliorate To make or become better. anaerobic Soil conditions in which there is a lack of oxygen, usually because water has replaced soil air (the soil is waterlogged). Substances harmful to plants (e.g. ethylene and hydrogen sulfide) may accumulate. anion An ion with negative charge. apedal Soil material without peds, i.e. structureless. aquifer A water-bearing rock formation capable of yielding useful quantities of water to bores or springs. ASC See Australian Soil Classification. ASWAT test A measure of soil dispersion in water (Aggregate Stability in WATer) that takes between 2 and 4 hours to complete. Australian soil classification The system by which we classify soil in Australia; replaces ‘Great Soil Groups’ (ASC) and ‘The Factual Key’. available water capacity See plant available water capacity. B horizon See soil profile. bed A raised pair of ridges of soil (usually 2 m wide, furrow to furrow, and sometimes flat on top) into which a row crop is planted. biological drilling Using taprooted plants to penetrate through a hard layer of soil or into a hard subsoil; when the plants die, the root channels are available for use by subsequent crops. biological fertility See fertility. biological ripping Using plants to dry and crack the soil; cycles of swelling and shrinking improve soil structure in cracking clays.

App. 5-3 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary biopore A macropore created by biological activity in the soil, e.g. old root channels, chambers created by earthworms and ants. bleached A pale colour (for example, of an A2 horizon); see soil profile. bolus A ball of moist soil which is kneaded to determine soil texture. bulk density A measure of compactness; the more compact a soil is, the more solids in a given volume; it is calculated as the weight of oven-dry soil divided by the field volume of the sample; compacted soil has a high bulk density. C horizon See soil profile. Ca/Mg ratio Ratio of exchangeable calcium to exchangeable magnesium; a ratio of less than 2 aggravates dispersion problems. calcareous A soil containing significant amounts of naturally occurring calcium carbonate

(lime—CaCO3), such as to fizz with dilute acid. calcium A cation that promotes flocculation; an essential plant nutrient. cation exchange capacity (CEC) See exchange capacity and exchangeable cations. capillary rise The upward movement of water caused by the molecular attraction between soil particles and water; capillary rise causes the wetting of soil above a watertable. cation An ion with a positive charge. CEC See cation exchange capacity. chemical fertility See fertility. chiselling Chisel ploughing (using tined implements); deep tillage at depths < 30 cm. Chromosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification; a soil with a clear or abrupt textural B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper 0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it is less than 0.2 m thick) is not strongly acid and is not sodic. clay Soil particles smaller than 0.002 mm (effective diameter). These particles are involved in swelling and shrinking of soil. They hold water and exchangeable cations; the term ‘clay’ also refers to soil with sufficient clay content (more than 35%) to exhibit clay behaviour. clod A unit of soil modified by human activity. It often contains smaller clods; see aggregate and ped. coefficient of linear extensibility The percentage shrinkage in one dimension of a moulded soil between two water (COLE) contents. COLE See coefficient of linear extensibility. colloid Material consisting of very finely divided particles that consequently have a large surface area per unit volume and are therefore very reactive; clay and humus are colloids. compaction Compression of soil into a smaller volume so that bulk density is increased and air- filled porosity is decreased. See smearing, remoulding and pulverisation. conchoidal ‘Ball and socket’ morphology associated with severely compacted and remoulded soil. controlled traffic The confinement of traffic over a paddock to the same wheel tracks, the position of which is fixed for several years. conventional tillage Describes traditional systems where mechanical tillage is the sole method used for seedbed preparation and weed control; normally involves 3 to 6 tillage operations. See no-till and minimum tillage. cracking clays Black, grey or brown (occasionally, but rarely, red) clay soil that is distinguished by seasonal cracking and a lack of distinct horizons; see Vertosol.

App. 5-4 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary crop water use The water used by a crop from sowing to harvest; it includes transpiration (through the crop) and evaporation (directly from the soil) and is usually expressed as mm of water. crop water use efficiency See water use efficiency. (CWUE) crusting Occurs when the soil surface ‘melts’together when wet, and then sets hard and impermeable when dried. If a thin (up to 10 mm) surface layer is affected, and cannot be readily separated from and lifted off the underlying soil, it is called crusting; if thicker, (particularly when the whole topsoil is affected) it is called hardsetting; see hardsetting and flaking. CWUE See crop water use efficiency. D horizon See soil profile. deep banding Placement of fertiliser (often N-based) below the depth of sowing. deep tillage Any tillage deeper than that needed to produce loose soil for a seedbed, or deeper than that needed to kill weeds. Its usual purpose is to loosen a compacted subsoil. denitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert soil nitrate to nitrogen gas and nitrous oxide gas which are unavailable to plants. deposition Movement of particles to their present location by water and/or wind. discharge The volume of water flowing in a stream or through an aquifer past a specific point in a given period of time. discharge area An area where underground water is discharged at the soil surface. discharge groundwater Water which leaves an aquifer by seepage into surface water bodies, by plant water use or evaporation. dispersion Disintegration of microaggregates into individual clay, silt and sand grains; it is the opposite of flocculation. dryland salinity Symptoms of salinity associated with dryland agriculture. dry scald Erosion of topsoil, exposing subsoil which is inhospitable to plants because of high clay content and sodicity; a dry scald is therefore bare; see saline scald, saline seep, scald. duplex soil A soil which shows a sharp change in soil texture between the A and B horizons; for example, a loam topsoil overlying a clay subsoil; red-brown earths are duplex; see gradational soil, uniform soil.

EC1:5 The electrical conductivity of a 1:5 soil:water extract.

ECe The electrical conductivity of a saturated soil paste; this measure of electrical conductivity is not dependent on soil texture. electrical conductivity A measure of the conduction of electricity through water, or a suspension of soil in water, or a water extract of soil; an indicator of the concentration of dissolved salts, and hence salinity. Units are deciSiemens/metre (dS/m), numerically equal to the old units milliSiemens/centimetre (mS/cm). electrochemical stability index Soil electrical conductivity (dS/m) (1:5 soil:water extract) divided by exchangeable (ESI) sodium percentage; it is a measure of soil stability in water. electrolyte Salty solution. EM instruments Electromagnetic induction devices which estimate soil salinity. equilibrium (of groundwater) A condition in which the amount of recharge to an aquifer equals the amount of natural discharge. erosion The wearing away of the land surface by rain or wind, causing soil movement from one point to another; see gully erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion.

App. 5-5 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary

ESI See electrochemical stability index. ESP See exchangeable sodium percentage. evaporation The process by which water passes from the liquid to the vapour state and enters the atmosphere. evapotranspiration The sum of direct evaporation from the soil surface and transpiration. exchange capacity The ability of the clay and humus in the soil to hold ions on charged surfaces. Negatively charged surfaces (cation exchange sites) hold cations; positively charged surfaces (anion exchange sites) hold anions. For cations, the capacity is expressed as centimoles of positive charge per kilogram of soil (cmol (+) kg-1). For anions, the capacity is expressed as centimoles of negative charge per kilogram of soil (cmol (-) kg-1). Both are numerically equal to milliequivalents per 100 g of soil (me/100g); see ion. exchangeable cations Positively charged ions held loosely on negatively charged soil particles, and easily exchanged with other ions in the soil solution. This mechanism reduces the leaching of some plant-available nutrients. exchangeable sodium The number of exchangeable sodium ions as a percentage of all exchangeable percentage (ESP) cations held by a soil. High exchangeable sodium percentage promotes dispersion; the critical ESP value above which dispersion occurs ranges from 2 to 15, depending on the amount of electrolyte in soil solution. fallow efficiency The percentage of rainfall received during the fallow that is stored in the soil. Soil management can alter fallow efficiency. fertility The capacity of a soil to support plant growth. It has three components—chemical, biological and physical fertility. Chemical fertility is the ability of a soil to supply suitable quantities and balance of nutrients to plants. Biological fertility refers to the number and diversity of soil organisms, and their activity in the soil. Physical fertility is the ability of a soil to supply plants with water and oxygen, to protect their roots from temperature stress, and to allow unrestricted root penetration and shoot emergence; it depends largely upon soil texture and structure. field capacity The content of water, on a mass or volume basis, remaining in a soil after free drainage is negligible (corresponds to a soil water potential of –33 kPa). flaking Structural condition of topsoil in which the surface layer, usually less than 10 mm thick, is hard and brittle when dry and can be easily separated from and lifted off the underlying soil; see, crusting. flocculation Clustering of clay particles into microaggregates; the opposite of dispersion. fractured rocks Rocks in which spaces are created by fractures, joints and partings. These provide groundwater storage and flowpaths. friability The ease with which a soil sample can be crumbled. geographic information system A method (usually computer-based) of overlaying and comparing large volumes of (GIS) geographic data of different kinds. gilgai A natural surface feature of humps and depressions found in some clay soil types. GIS See geographic information system. global positioning system (GPS) A network of satellites controlled by the US Department of Defence which is designed to determine a radio receiver’s position in latitude, longitude and altitude. Differential GPS (DGPS) improves accuracy of the information via the use of a local base station. GPS See global positioning system. gradational soil A soil profile with a slight and gradual increase in clay content with depth. Red earths are gradational. See duplex soil, uniform soil. gravimetric water content The water content of the soil on a per weight basis. Grams of water per gram of soil; also known as wetness.

App. 5-6 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary gully erosion Channels formed by water that cannot be ameliorated using ordinary farm machinery; typically range from 0.5 m deep to as much as 25 to 30 m deep; see erosion, rill erosion and sheet erosion. gypsum Calcium sulfate (CaSO4.2H2O), used to reduce swelling and dispersion in sodic soil; a naturally mined substance, and a by-product of fertiliser manufacture. hardsetting Occurs when a layer of soil, not necessarily at the surface, ‘melts’ together when wet, and then sets hard and impermeable when dried. Hardset layers are generally thicker than a crust, and often contain a disconnected series of small air-filled pores that resemble honeycomb. Hardsetting often occurs in soil with insufficient swelling clay and organic matter; see crusting. horizon A layer of soil in the soil profile different from layers above or below; and recognisable by a different colour, texture and/or structure. Horizons are formed by soil forming processes, as distinct from strata due to successive deposition or modification caused by the passage of farming machinery; see alluvium, soil profile. humus Stable, large organic molecules produced by the decomposition of once-living material. hydraulic conductivity The rate of flow of water per unit gradient of hydraulic potential. illite A type of clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure. impermeable Transmits no water or air. infiltration Movement of water into a soil. ion Atomic or molecular particle carrying an electrical charge. Kandosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which has a well-developed B2 horizon in which the major part is massive or has only a weak grade of structure; and has a maximum clay content in some part of the B2 horizon which exceeds 15%. kaolinite Variable-charged clay mineral with a 1:1 layer structure. Kurosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt textural B horizon (duplex texture profile), and in which the major part of the upper 0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less than 0.2 m thick) is strongly acid. leaching Downward movement of dissolved materials. levee Recently deposited alluvium beside a river; a levee is higher than the surrounding plains. lime Calcium carbonate (CaCO3), occurring in rocks as limestone or chalk, and in some soil as fine particles or small nodules. Finely-ground limestone (aglime) is used to raise soil pH. Other forms of lime are hydrated lime (calcium hydroxide) and burnt lime (quicklime, calcium oxide). lower plastic limit (LPL) Old name for the plastic limit. macropore Large (greater than 0.03 mm diameter) soil pore that is drained and aerated at field capacity; it may be a biopore or an old crack line; mainly responsible for transmitting water and allowing exchange of gases in the soil; indicative of good structure for plant growth; see mesopore, micropore and pore. magnesium A cation that promotes dispersion, but less so than sodium. An essential plant nutrient. massive A coherent or solid mass of soil, largely devoid of natural lines of weakness. meander plain An alluvial area built up by sediment from a slow moving and winding river. mesopore Soil pore with a diameter 0.2 to 0.0 mm able to store plant available water (1000 mm = 1 mm); see macropore, micropore and pore. microaggregates Units of soil (smaller than 0.25 mm) that contain particles ranging in size from clay (smallest) through silt to fine sand.

App. 5-7 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary micropore Soil pore with a diameter less than 0.2 mm; mainly responsible for the storage of unavailable water in the soil; see macropore, mesopore and pore. mineralisation The processes by which soil microbes convert organic nitrogen to ammonium; see nitrification. minimum tillage Or ‘reduced tillage’describes farming practices which reduce the number of tillage operations compared with conventional tillage. Weeds in the fallow are controlled by herbicides, grazing and some tillage. See no-till and conventional tillage. moisture potential See soil water potential. moisture seeking Refers to planting implements that penetrate dry soil and place seed where there is sufficient moisture for germination. mole drain A tubular drain formed beneath the soil surface by pulling an expanding plug through wet soil. montmorillonite See smectite. mottled Having blotches of soil with a different colour; indicative of past periods of intermittent waterlogging. Munsell colour system A colour designation system that specifies the relative degrees of the variables of colour: hue, value and chroma. mycorrhiza A fungus that associates with plant roots to the benefit of both. nitrification The processes by which soil microbes convert ammonium to plant available nitrate. nitrogen fixation The process of converting atmospheric nitrogen into compounds that eventually become available to plants. One such process is the fixation of nitrogen by Rhizobium bacteria associated with the roots of legumes. Free-living soil organisms also fix nitrogen. Industrial nitrogen fixation produces manufactured nitrogen fertiliser. NLWR See non-limiting water range. nodule An accumulation of a soil material as a discreet, small lump. It may be composed of iron or manganese compounds, or calcium carbonate (lime). A swelling on the roots of legumes, containing symbiotic Rhizobium bacteria. non-limiting water range The region bounded by the upper and lower soil water content over which water (NLWR) availability, oxygen and mechanical resistance to root growth is not limiting to plant growth. no-till A form of conservation farming involving no mechanical soil disturbance other than planting; or occasional strategic tillage; see conventional tillage and minimum tillage. organic carbon One of the chemical elements making up organic matter. Organic matter is often expressed as organic carbon because it is carbon that is measured in the laboratory. Organic carbon multiplied by 1.75 gives an estimate of organic matter (soil organic matter is approximately 57% carbon). organic matter Plant and animal material, living and dead. pan A hard soil layer which may restrict the entry of water, air and roots. If it is caused by tillage, it is referred to as a plough pan. PAWC See plant available water capacity. ped A unit of soil structure (e.g. a block, plate or prism) formed by natural processes (in contrast with a clod, which is formed artificially); see aggregate. pedal Applied to soil materials consisting mostly of peds. percolation Movement of water through the soil. permanent beds A tillage system where the beds and wheel tracks are left in the same place for a number of crops; see controlled traffic.

App. 5-8 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary permanent wilting point (PWP) The largest water content of a soil at which indicator plants, growing in that soil, wilt and fail to recover when placed in a humid environment (corresponds to a soil water potential of –1500kPa). permeability Ability of a soil to transmit water and gases. pH The acidity or alkalinity of a soil is measured as pH, which is an indication of the concentration of hydrogen ions in soil solution; pH values increase as the concentration of hydrogen ions decreases. pH buffering capacity The ability of a soil to resist changes in pH; it increases with clay and organic matter content. physical fertility See fertility. piezometer Anon-pumping shallow bore, of small diameter, to measure the pressure level of groundwater. PL See plastic limit. plant available water capacity The maximum amount of water that a soil can hold and later release to plant roots. (PAWC) Water held between field capacity and permanent wilting point is referred to as being readily available. It is expressed as millimetres of water in the whole root zone. plantback period The waiting period before it is safe to sow a crop after using a herbicide. plastic limit (PL) The water content (by weight) of a soil above which it can be remoulded (is plastic) and below which it cannot be remoulded (is brittle). plastic Capable of being moulded. platy clods Soil aggregates with horizontal dimensions greater than vertical dimensions. poaching damage Damage to soil structure caused by stock trampling wet soil. It occurs when a soil is so soft that the hooves of grazing animals cannot be supported on the surface and they press into the soil to leave noticeable depressions. Poaching is sometimes called ‘puddling’. pore Channel or cavity in a soil. porosity The degree to which a soil is permeated with pores. The fraction of the soil volume made up of pores, but also the size and shape of the pores and the degree of connection between them. profile See soil profile. pulverisation Mechanical destruction of soil aggregates, usually when in a dry condition; see compaction, smearing and remoulding. PWP See permanent wilting point. raised bed See bed. recharge area Where surface water from rain, irrigation or streams infiltrates the soil and adds water to the groundwater system. red earth Asoil with a loamy topsoil, and gradually becoming more clayey with depth. It is a reddish colour, and is sometimes hardsetting. red-brown earth Asoil with a loamy topsoil (sometimes hardsetting) overlying a red coloured clay- rich subsoil. remote sensing Detection and/or identification of landscape features without having the sensor in direct contact with the object. remoulding Re-organising pore space and natural clay orientation by disturbing a soil when it is wet; see compaction, smearing and pulverisation.

App. 5-9 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary

Rhizobium Bacterium associated symbiotically with legume roots, fixing nitrogen. rill erosion An erosion process on sloping land in which numerous and randomly occurring small channels of only several cm in depth are formed. See erosion, gully erosion and sheet erosion. root zone That part of a soil where the majority of live plant roots are located. saline scald A bare, dry, salt affected area, resulting from topsoil loss exposing a naturally saline subsoil. saline seep A bare, damp, salt affected area, resulting from rising saline groundwater. salinity An excess of water-soluble salts (dominantly sodium chloride in Australia) that restricts plant growth. sand Soil particles between 0.02 mm and 2 mm in diameter. Fine sand is 0.02–0.2 mm, coarse sand is 0.2–2 mm. scald A bare area, inhospitable to plants because of high clay content and either sodicity or salinity. See dry scald, saline scald and saline seep. sediment Particles of clay, silt and sand carried by water or wind and deposited. sedimentary rocks Ancient soil particles carried by water or wind that have been turned into rock by pressure and chemical bonding over time. self-mulching Refers to cracking clay surfaces that develop a crumbly layer of loose, small aggregates after a series of wetting and drying. shattering Fracturing of soil aggregates or a hard layer of soil by tillage. sheet erosion The removal of a relatively uniform thin layer of soil from the soil surface by wind or largely unchanneled surface runoff; see erosion, gully erosion and rill erosion. shrink-swell behaviour Ability of a soil to shrink when dried and swell when rewetted. silt Soil particles between 0.002 mm and 0.02 mm wide; intermediate between clay and sand. slaking Collapse of aggregates in water to form microaggregates, due to the breakage of bonds formed, for example, by organic matter. slickenside Shiny, striated stress surfaces found on clay-rich aggregates, formed by one mass of soil sliding past another during swelling and shrinking cycles. smearing Aligning of clay particles when mechanically disturbed under moist conditions, producing a shiny, impenetrable surface overlying a thin layer with high bulk density. See compaction, remoulding and pulverisation. smectite Negatively charged clay mineral with a 2:1 layer structure; it swells when wet and shrinks when dry. sodic See sodicity. sodicity An excess of exchangeable sodium causing dispersion to occur. Sodosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil with a clear or abrupt textural B horizon (duplex texture profile); and in which the major part of the upper 0.2 m of the B2 horizon (or the major part of the entire B2 horizon if it less than 0.2 m thick) is sodic and is not strongly subplastic. soil profile The vertical sequence of layers in the soil. The three main horizons are the A (generally referred to as the topsoil), B (generally referred to as the subsoil) and C (the parent rock) horizons. The A horizon is the zone of leaching. It may consist of an A1 horizon (true topsoil—higher in organic matter, darker in colour and richer in biological activity than other horizons) and an A2 horizon (similar to A1 but often paler in colour, poorer in structure, lower in clay content and less fertile). The A2 horizon is not always present. The B horizon is the zone of accumulation of materials from above—clay, iron, aluminium and organic matter (although the organic matter content is never as high as in the A horizon). Its structure is different from that of the A or C horizons and its colour is typically stronger. The C horizon consists of weathered rock, little affected by soil forming processes. Soil which has developed on alluvium does not have a C horizon—the rock below is not related to the soil and would be termed the D horizon.

App. 5-10 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary soil structure The combination or arrangement of primary soil particles into secondary units or peds. Naturally-formed peds (aggregates) are referred to as clods when the soil has been disturbed by the activities of humans. See structural form, structural resilience and structural stability. soil solution The aqueous liquid phase of the soil and its solutes. soil texture See texture. soil water Water stored in, or in transit by drainage through, the soil. soil water potential The amount of ‘suction’ that must be applied by plant roots at a particular soil water content for water uptake to commence. SOILpak score A semi-objective rating (on a scale of 0.0 to 2.0) of soil structural form. SOLICON A computer-based image analysis system for the assessment of soil structural form. splay Fan of alluvial material deposited during floods. stubble retention Soil preparation procedures which maximise the amount of stubble that is retained on the soil surface for soil and water conservation. structural form A description of soil structural units (peds or aggregates) and the pore spaces between. It includes the shape and size of peds, the nature of their faces and their porosity (also referred to as ‘soil architecture’). structural resiliency The ability of a soil to regain structural form by natural processes, e.g. swelling and shrinking, after the removal of disruptive stresses such as compaction by farm machinery. structural stability The ability of a soil to retain its structural form under the influence of disruptive forces (a. immersion in water; b. compaction, remoulding and smearing). structure See soil structure. subplastic Soil material that has an apparent increase in clay content as a bolus continues to be manipulated. subsurface soil Soil between the depths of 10–30 cm. subsoil Soil between the depths 30–120 cm; it is subdivided into upper subsoil (30–60 cm), mid subsoil (60–90 cm) and lower subsoil (90–120 cm). surface sealing The deposition by water, orientation and/or packing of a thin layer of fine soil particles on the immediate surface of a soil, greatly reducing its permeability. symbiosis Two species of organism living closely together in a mutual association that benefits both species; for example, Rhizobium bacteria form nodules in legume roots—the bacteria fix nitrogen and the plant supplies sugars. texture The behaviour of a small handful of soil when moistened and kneaded into a ball and then pressed out between thumb and forefinger. It depends mainly upon the proportions of gravel, coarse sand, fine sand, silt and clay in the soil. texture contrast See duplex soil. topsoil Soil between the depths 0 and 10 cm. transpiration The process by which plants give off water vapour through their leaves. uniform soil A soil in which texture changes very little down the soil profile. Horizons may be distinguished by differences in organic matter content, structure or colour. Cracking clays have a uniform texture profile. See duplex soil and gradational soil. Vertisol Cracking clay (U.S. terminology); see Vertosol. Vertosol Soil Order in the Australian Soil Classification. A soil which ‘turns’ (tills) itself (Latin verto—to turn). A Vertosol has more than 35% clay throughout the profile, cracks greater than 5 mm at some time of the year, slickensides and/or lenticular peds and lacks distinct horizons.

App. 5-11 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW Appendix 5. Glossary volumetric water content The water content of the soil on a per volume basis; cm3 of water per cm3 of soil; is equal to the gravimetric water content multiplied by the soil bulk density. water potential See soil water potential. watertable Upper surface of groundwater, below which the layers of soil, rock, sand or gravel are saturated with water. waterlogging Saturation of a soil with water, causing air to be displaced to the point where there is insufficient oxygen for full root activity. See anaerobic. water use efficiency (WUE) A measure of the conversion of water into plant products. For dryland crops, CWUE is a measure of the yield (kg/ha) per mm of water obtained from stored reserves in the soil and rainfall. weathering The process whereby rock is broken down by water, wind, temperature changes and chemical attack to small particles, perhaps eventually to form soil. Note: weathering continues after the particles have formed soil, and this process slowly changes the soil minerals and releases plant nutrients. wilting point See permanent wilting point. WUE See water use efficiency.

App. 5-12 SOILpak for dryland farmers on the red soil of Central Western NSW