Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

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Quaternary International

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A Middle Stone Age Paleoscape near the Pinnacle Point caves, Vleesbaai, South Africa

* Simen Oestmo , Benjamin J. Schoville, Jayne Wilkins, Curtis W. Marean

Institute of Human Origins, School of Human Evolution and Social Change, Arizona State University, 900 S. Cady Mall, Rm. 233, Tempe, AZ 85281, USA article info abstract

Article history: Open-air Middle Stone Age (MSA) contexts in southern Africa have received relatively little research Available online 18 August 2014 attention compared to caves/rock-shelters. MSA caves/rock shelters can provide long sequences of MSA behaviors dominated by residential activities in circumscribed contexts but most procurement activities Keywords: occurred on the landscape in uncircumscribed space. We have a limited understanding of these activities Open-air archaeology at present, making studies of open-air sites crucial. To alleviate this bias, the South African Coast Pale- Africa oclimate, Paleoenvironment, Paleoecology, Paleoanthropology (SACP4) project expanded its research Middle Stone Age scope to include MSA archaeology from open-air contexts. We report on a series of MSA open-air as- Modern human origins Hunteregatherer landscape use semblages that are exposed on ancient land surfaces suggestive of intact paleosols at Vleesbaai and Fabric analysis Visbaai, South Africa. Importantly, these sites occur in close proximity to the long cave/rock shelter se- quences at Pinnacle Point. This presents the novel potential to study evidence of MSA behavior in closed and open settings where their proximity to each other approximates the typical hunteregatherer daily foraging radius documented in ethnography. We present a fabric and technological analysis of MSA stone tool assemblages from three “Areas”. Analysis of total-station piece plotting of artifact bearing/plunge suggests that the lithic assemblages have undergone limited post-depositional disturbance. The tech- nological analysis and exploratory comparisons between these open-air assemblages and MSA cave and rock shelter contexts at Pinnacle Point Cave 13B and 9, and Cape St. Blaize Cave suggest that the quartzite artifacts from Vleesbaai were procured from locally available sources and may have been field processed there before being transported elsewhere, perhaps to the caves/rock shelters. Further, the analysis suggests a dichotomous pattern of retouched tool discard, where quartzite tools are discarded similarly across the landscape. In contrast, non-quartzite tools may have been made primarily at the cave sites, and discarded or lost more frequently on the landscape. © 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction is of course a simplified view of hunteregatherer foraging and mobility strategies because it can be envisioned that residential South African caves and rock shelters have made enormous sites and foraging activities occurred on the open landscape and contributions to our rapidly changing knowledge of modern human thus multiple different site usages would result in conflated accu- origins. These sites preserve long sequences of MSA behaviors that mulations of artifacts. Nevertheless, if we envision procurement as were likely predominantly residential activities in the circum- having a beginning and end, then the landscape and the residential scribed contexts posed by rock enclosures and overhangs. The site should provide opposite images of behavior that, when unified, sediments entrain the end product of food and raw material pro- will offer a more complete knowledge of hunteregatherer mobility curement coming back to a residential site, the food preparation (Binford, 1982). and social activities around the hearth, and the unhurried tech- Researchers have called for redress of this bias (Kuman, 1989; nological work of preparing for future procurement activities. Conard and Delagnes, 2010; Kandel and Conard, 2012). In 2005, Those procurement activities occurred on the landscape in uncir- we initiated a study of open-air MSA occurrences in the connected cumscribed space, and we know virtually nothing about them. This set of half-moon bays of Vleesbaai and Visbaai (Fig. 1), just a short distance from the well-known MSA locality of Pinnacle Point (Marean et al., 2007, 2010; Brown et al., 2009; Brown et al., 2012b). * Corresponding author. E-mail address: [email protected] (S. Oestmo). http://dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.043 1040-6182/© 2014 Elsevier Ltd and INQUA. All rights reserved. 148 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

Fig. 1. Mossel Bay region, zoomed in. Map shows geological formations, potential raw material sources, and archaeological localities of interest. Although represented by observed single point occurrences, the actual extent and abundance of primary and secondary sources is greater on the landscape.

The Vleesbaai and Visbaai localities present paleosol sequences Bertran, 2004; McPherron, 2005; Bernatchez, 2010). Therefore, us- with MSA occurrences. Our preliminary results suggest that these ing data from total-station piece plotting we perform an artifact overlap in age with the sequences at Pinnacle Point. Since Vleesbaai fabric analysis of the surface scatter to address the following ques- and Pinnacle Point are ~7 km apart, they are within the average tions: 1) Are the Vleesbaai stone tool assemblages preferentially daily foraging radius of ethnographically observed hunter- oriented, and thus altered by post-discard processes? 2) Are there egatherers (~10 km, Marlowe, 2005). This unique juxtaposition of differences in artifact orientation across the locality suggesting deeply stratified MSA cave and rock shelters sites near extensive variation in taphonomic history? We then present a summary of the open-air MSA artifact localities provides a novel opportunity to broad typological and technological lithic characteristics of the lithic investigate land-use variation of early modern humans where it is surface scatters identified at Vleesbaai including raw-material use, reasonable to expect, even likely, that these locations were used by reduction strategies, and retouch tool types and frequencies. Finally, the same social groups. a comparison of the Vleesbaai assemblages to those at Pinnacle Point Here we present the results of field survey and in-field data investigates variability in MSA landscape use and lithic technology. analysis that focuses on documenting the extent of ancient land surface exposures (paleosols; see Sheldon and Tabor, 2009 and 2. Background Valentine and Dalrymple, 1976 for definitions) along the coastline, recording the location of surface archaeological remains associated 2.1. Middle Stone Age and modern human origins with the ancient land surfaces, and locating possible stone tool raw material sources. Site formation processes must be investigated and The African MSA lasted from at least the late Middle Pleistocene established prior to interpretations of artifact patterning (Schiffer, ~300 ka (Barham and Smart, 1996; Grün et al., 1996; Kuman et al., 1987). If contextual integrity is not established then inferring the 1999; Deino and McBrearty, 2002; Tryon and McBrearty, 2002; behavioral significance of artifact spatial distribution is much more Morgan and Renne, 2008; Johnson and McBrearty, 2010; Porat difficult (Bertran and Texier, 1995; Dibble et al., 1997; Lenoble and et al., 2010; Herries, 2011), through the Late Pleistocene to at S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 149 least 40 ka (Villa et al., 2012), spanning minimally marine isotope rock shelter sites that contain sediments that date to the Late and stage 8 (MIS8) to MIS3. The fossil evidence (Day, 1969; Hublin, Middle Pleistocene and contain MSA occupation. The sites at 1992; Brauer€ and Singer, 1996; Clark et al., 2003; White et al., Pinnacle Point are all located in coastal cliffs that are exposures of 2003; McDougall et al., 2005; Hublin and McPherron, 2011; the Skurweberg Formation that belongs to the Table Mountain Brown et al., 2012a) and genetic evidence (Ambrose, 1998; Sandstone Group (TMS), which extend from the Mossel Bay point Stoneking and Soodyall, 2006; Fagundes et al., 2007; Gonder westwards to Dana Bay town (Viljoen and Malan, 1993; Marean et al., 2007; Campbell and Tishkoff, 2008; Henn et al., 2011) et al., 2004; Thamm and Johnson, 2006; Karkanas and Goldberg, strongly suggest that the anatomically modern human evolved in 2010; Pickering et al., 2013)(Fig. 1). The caves and rock shelters Africa somewhere between ~200 and 160 ka. are known to have formed at least ~1 mya ago (Pickering et al., A host of material remains and evidence of behavior thought to 2013). Exposures of the Robberg Formation outcrop belonging to correlate with modern human behavior has been found including the Uitenhage Group are visible near the Mossel Bay point, where shell beads (Henshilwood et al., 2004; d'Errico et al., 2005; Cape St. Blaize Cave is located (Goodwin and Malan, 1935; Bouzouggar et al., 2007; d'Errico et al., 2008), bone tools (Wurz, Thompson and Marean, 2008). Sites at Pinnacle Point, located 2000; d'Errico and Henshilwood, 2007; Backwell et al., 2008; approximately midway between Mossel Bay point and Dana Bay d'Errico et al., 2012a), engraved objects such as ochre fragments, town, have MSA occupations dating from 162 to 50 ka (Marean faunal remains, and ostrich eggshell (Singer and Wymer, 1982; et al., 2007, 2010; Jacobs, 2010; Brown et al., 2012b). d'Errico et al., 2001; Mackay and Welz, 2008; Henshilwood et al., The south coast is dominated by eastward-opening log-spiral 2009, 2002, 2014; Vogelsang et al., 2010; Watts, 2010; d'Errico bays (headland bays), eroded into relatively soft Bokkeveld shales et al., 2012b; Texier et al., 2013, 2010), heat-treatment of lithic raw between west-east trending rocky headlands of resistant TMS materials (Brown et al., 2009; Mourre et al., 2010; Schmidt et al., quartzite. The latter are the location of most of the caves and rock 2013), long-term planning (Brown et al., 2009; Wadley et al., shelters. To the east of the Mossel Bay headland is Mosselbaai 2009; Wadley, 2010), microlithic technology suggestive of projec- (“Mussel Bay”), which harbors a ~25 km embayed beach that is tile weapons (Pargeter, 2007; Lombard and Pargeter, 2008; Lombard currently heavily altered by human development. Pinnacle Point is and Phillipson, 2010; Brown et al., 2012b), early evidence for marine the down-coast headland of Vleesbaai (“Meat Bay”), a ~16.5 km resource exploitation (Volman, 1978; Marean et al., 2007; Jerardino long bay that protects a long sandy embayed beach that is only and Marean, 2010), pressure flaking (Mourre et al., 2010), stone tool moderately altered by human development. To the west of Vlees- hafting (Gibson et al., 2004; Wadley et al., 2004; Lombard, 2006a,b baai is another smaller embayed beach called Visbaai (“Fish Bay”), 2007; Charrie-Duhaut et al., 2013), manipulation or construction of approximately 5 km headland to headland. living space (Sampson, 1968; Henshilwood and Dubreuil, 2011; Embayed beaches are often characterized by asymmetric plan- Wadley et al., 2011), beauty shells (Jerardino and Marean, 2010), form and have strongly curved shadow zone behind the upcoast early use of color pigment (Barham, 2002; Watts, 2002, 2010; headland. Embayed beaches occur on swell-dominated coasts where Wadley et al., 2004; Wadley, 2005; Marean et al., 2007; the dominant wave approach is at an angle to the shore. The center of Henshilwood et al., 2011; Dayet et al., 2013), and evidence for the embayment tends to be mildly curved, while the further end modern hunting behavior, seen in species representation data, towards the downcoast headland is relatively straight (Woodroffe, mortality profiles, and skeletal element abundance data (Marean 2002). Within Vleesbaai and Visbaai are active coastal dune sys- and Assefa, 1999; Faith, 2008; Dusseldorp, 2010). However, such tems that drape older Pleistocene remnant paleosols, aeolianites, and evidence comes nearly entirely from enclosed spaces such as caves beach rocks. As the dune systems migrates the paleosols, aeolianites, and rock shelters. How modern humans were utilizing the land- and beach rocks are covered and/or uncovered. These dune systems scape outside such contexts is mostly unknown, making studies of are dominated by u-shaped parabolic dunes with low-gradient but open-air localities during this time period invaluable. poorly vegetated seaward slopes, and steep inland faces on the distal Due to weathering and erosion processes, open-air archaeo- part of the dune, typical of parabolic dunes (Woodroffe, 2002). logical contexts are often poorly preserved. Nevertheless, several Parabolic dune systems form when the sand budget supplied to the prominent studies of open-air sites in southern Africa include: dune is slightly greater than to the beach resulting in a net loss of Mikuyu in Mozambique (Mercader et al., 2008), sGi (Brooks and sediment to the beach. Parabolic dunes tend to migrate inland as a Yellen, 1977; Kuman, 1989; Brooks et al., 1990), Kudikam Pan result of the development of blowouts on the seawards slope (Robbins, 1987, 1989), Nata River in Botswana (Bond and Summers, (Woodroffe, 2002). The Vleesbaai dune system is visible along the 1954), Etemba 14 (Schmidt, 2011) and Lower Cunene River sites center of the embayment for approximately 8 km, while the Visbaai (Nicoll, 2009, 2010) in Nambia; and several in South Africa dune system is visible along the center of the embayment and to- including Florisbad (Kuman and Clarke, 1986; Brink, 1988; Kuman, wards the downcoast headland for approximately 4 km. 1989; Grün et al., 1996; Kuman et al., 1999; Brink and Henderson, Ongoing geological investigations suggest that the base of the 2001), Kathu Pan 1 (Beaumont and Morris, 1990; Porat et al., Vleesbaai stratigraphic record that are visible above current sea 2010; Wilkins and Chazan, 2012; Wilkins et al., 2012), and the Or- level are aeolianites (lithified aeolian sand dunes) and beach rock ange River sites (Sampson, 1972). remnants (lithified beach). At Dana Bay, ~5 km to the east of the Many of the South African sites occur in coastal dune systems, easternmost Vleesbaai archaeological observations, two sets of including Duinefontein 2 (Deacon, 1976; Klein, 1976), Geelbek quaternary marine and aeolian deposits are present (Roberts et al., dunes (Kandel et al., 2003; Dietl et al., 2005; Fuchs et al., 2008; 2012). The lower sediment succession has marine and aeolianite Kandel and Conard, 2012), Hoedjiespunt (Volman, 1978; Will deposits yielding a weighted mean age estimate of 388 ± 14 ka et al., 2013), and Sea Harvest (Volman, 1978), and the Vleesbaai using the TT-OSL method (Jacobs et al., 2011; Pickering et al., 2013), locality sites reported here do as well. and belongs to Marine Isotope Stage (MIS) 11 (Roberts et al., 2012). The lower and upper succession of sediments are separated by a 2.2. The Vleesbaai locality major erosional disconformity, and the upper sediment succession has deposits yielding OSL age estimates ranging from 125 ± 9to Vleesbaai is located just west of the town of Mossel Bay, Western 116 ± 9 ka, consisted with the sediments being deposited during Cape, South Africa, on the temperate southern coast of South Africa MIS5e (Roberts et al., 2012). The major disconformity between the (Fig. 1). The Mossel Bay region has several archaeological cave and MIS 11 and MIS5e deposits suggest that any deposits from MIS 6 150 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 that potentially could be located in Vleesbaai were most likely Interest in red-colored ancient land surfaces (Paleosols), inter- eroded away by higher sea-levels during MIS5e. However, localized mittently visible within the active dune system along the Vleesbaai topographic features such as buried remnant TMS cliffs sometimes coastline, began in 2005 by the South African Coast Paleoclimate, visible in Vleesbaai may have conserved sediments older than Paleoenvironment, Paleoecology, Paleoanthropology (SACP4) proj- MIS5e along Vleesbaai. Subsequent to the major erosional phase ect. These observations suggested potential for the paleosols and during MIS5e and up until the start of the Holocene, alternate layers associated Stone Age surface artifacts to provide information about of aeolian sand deposits and interstratified paleosols were depos- prehistoric human behavior and ancient environments. Reconnais- ited and formed, creating a stacked stratigraphic sequence (Fig. 2). sance was conducted over several years, and systematic field These aeolian dunes and interstratified paleosols were most likely research by SACP4 teams since 2010 described surface artifacts in parts of extended landscapes that stretched out onto the now three areas (termed “Area A”, “Area B”, and “Area C” from west to submerged paleo-landscape during glacial periods (Fisher et al., east, Fig. 1) as well as producing preliminary maps of potential MSA 2010). As the coastline moved closer and closer after the end of archaeological sites and lithic raw material sources throughout the last glacial maximum, these soft layers were eroded until the Vleesbaai (Supplementary Figs.1 and 2, and Supplementary Tables 1 coastline had retreated to its current position. Subsequently during and 2). Vleesbaai is divided into several privately owned properties the late Holocene and onwards, huge parabolic dune fields have from which we obtained permission for variable levels of scientific formed and expanded across Vleesbaai and Visbaai and is covering research (see Supplementary Fig. 1 and Table 1 for property names this stacked sequence (Fig. 2). Presently, a stratigraphic unit hereby and boundaries). Initially, a two-week non-invasive systematic referred to as the Yellowish Red Paleosol (YRP) is the prominent recording of paleosol artifacts began in 2010 at Area A capping stratigraphic unit across large parts of the Vleesbaai (Supplementary Figs. 3 and 4). The surface scatters at Area A are sequence (Fig. 2 and Supplementary Fig. 5). Modern aeolian dune sampling a stratigraphic unit very similar in appearance to the YRP sand covers the YRP in most areas but where the modern aeolian unit shown in Fig. 2. Another 2-week field season in 2011 was con- sand is not present, scatters of MSA artifacts are visible on the ducted at Area B (Supplementary Figs. 5 and 6), which expanded the exposed surface. However, an overlaying stratigraphic unit has range of variation suggested by the 2010 results by non-invasively been observed in some areas and offers a possibility that the sur- describing a very high-density portion of artifacts exposed on the face scatters observed on the surface of the YRP have been eroded surface. Additional research in 2012 and 2013 included non-invasive out of the overlaying stratigraphic unit and now are laying on the describing of individual artifacts at Area B and C (Supplementary surface of the YRP due to sediment deflation and erosion. Figs. 7 and 8), as well as systematic pedestrian survey in order to

Fig. 2. Stylized and simplified cross section of partially hypothetical Vleesbaai stratigraphy at Area B. The Yellowish Red Paleosol (YRP) unit at the top of sequence with an elevation of 33 m a.s.l. is the same as shown in Supplementary Fig. 5. Ongoing geological trenching supports an interpretation of a stacked sequence of interstratified aeolian dune deposits and paleosols. MIS5e deposits at base are unconfirmed, while reef observed in beach swash zone is of unknown age. S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 151 identify and map all visible archaeological localities and potential the Later Stone Age (LSA), and the MSA (Kaplan, 2004, 2010; Nilssen, sources of stone for prehistoric tool making. The surface scatters at 2010). A SACP4 comprehensive pedestrian survey of a two-person Area B and C are sampling either the YRP unit shown in Fig. 2,orare team was conducted during four weeks in June and July 2012 to sampling the result of artifact deflation due to the erosion of an augment previous field observations. The systematic survey used a overlaying stratigraphic unit that has been observed in both areas, or handheld GPS unit to gatherer coarse coordinate data with the aim of the scatters are sampling a palimpsest of artifacts derived from both producing an overview of the locations of geological and archaeo- stratigraphic units. The “Area” designation does not imply con- logical features, and documenting geological and archaeological strained ‘site’ locations per se, but rather is a heuristic for analysis and features. For each GPS waypoint, geological and archaeological details discussion. The boundaries of each Area are arbitrary, and generally were noted. The survey had three priorities. First, document the established by the amount of time spent in the field coding. In other extent of the ancient land surface exposures (ancient soils) along the words, the three “Areas” sample different parts of the landscape, but targeted coastline. Second, record the location of archaeological re- are part of the same landscape system. mains associated with the ancient land surfaces. One particular aspect of stone tool technology was also recorded and that was artifact 2.3. Pinnacle Point and Cape St. Blaize Caves cortex type. The cortex classification was based on the roundness of the clast cortex, which reflects the amount of reworking and/or Initial excavations began near Mossel Bay at Cape St. Blaize transport (Stow, 2007). Generally, if the kinetic energy is increased it (CSB), located at Mossel Bay point, in the late 1880s. Additional results in clasts with more rounded cortex (Stow, 2007). Prior field excavations by Goodwin in the early 1930s, motivated by the observations suggests that high-energy environments such as cobble identification of the “Mossel Bay” lithic variant by Goodwin and beaches and active streambeds tend to produce clasts with well- Van Riet Lowe (1929), created an additional sample of MSA tool rounded to rounded cortex, while low-energy non-perennial forms that have been analyzed by Goodwin (1930), Keller (1969), streams and fixed geological structures such as cliffs or outcrops tends and Thompson and Marean (2008). However, the coarse nature of to produce clasts with sub-rounded to very angular cortex. Thus, these early excavations does not permit unbiased analytical com- cortex type is a potentially useful indicator of where a particular raw parisons, and Thompson and Marean (2008) have called for a re- material was collected. The third priority was to locate possible raw investigation of this assemblage and abandoning the “Mossel material sources for stone tools such as cobble beds in rivers dis- Bay” industry name. The site will be presented here as an example secting the coastal landscape or primary outcrops such as quartzite of an ‘excavator biased’ assemblage, which stands in contrast to the cliffs. At each potential source, the dominant cortex type was recor- complete retention of artifacts at Pinnacle Point and the current ded following the same classification type used on the artifacts. investigation at Vleesbaai. More recently, research at Pinnacle Point about 10 km west of 3.2. Catch and release archaeology CSB began with the survey of the coastal cave system associated with a golf resort development in 1998. Excavations began in 2000, The field-work at Vleesbaai aims to make artifacts and their spatial and have been ongoing since (Marean et al., 2004, 2007, 2010). contexts the unit of analysis similar to the site-less survey approach Perhaps the most well-known cave at Pinnacle Point is cave 13B rather than focusing on “sites” of human activity (Foley, 1981). Site- (PP13B). Dating of the PP13B sediments shows that its sequence less survey aims to make artifacts and their spatial relationships the ranges from ~162 ka to ~90 ka (Marean et al., 2007, 2010; Jacobs, unit of analysis, rather than “sites”, recognizing that both behavioral 2010). Thompson et al. (2010) published the lithic sequence from and post-depositional processes are responsible for observed pat- PP13B, noting the predominance of quartzite, largely from cobble terns (Clarke, 1973; Foley, 1981). With this perspective, a greater sources, convergent points, parallel sided blades, and frequent understanding of both behavioral and post-burial processes that prepared, point, and blade cores. No temporally-vectored changes affect archaeological patterning may be gained. High-resolution in the lithic sequence were found, although significant variation in artifact provenience data were obtained using a total station and the typological frequency of detached pieces was noted. handheld data logger using the same methods developed at Pinnacle A second excavated cave at Pinnacle Point is Cave 9 (PP9), located Point (Marean et al., 2004; Marean, 2010; Oestmo and Marean, 2014). ~300 m east of PP13B. This large cave appears to reflect short- Artifacts lacking an identifiable long axis orientation were given a duration occupations in otherwise sterile dune sands in a series of provenience in the middle of the artifact position. Artifacts with a long cavities named PP9A-E. The lithic assemblage is unpublished (ms in axis were given provenience at either end in order to document prep). Matthews et al. (2011) analyzed the micromammals and patterning in artifact orientation (bearing and plunge) that informs us suggest a warm and wet period of site occupation e most likely about post-depositional disturbance. Every artifact was given a MIS5, also corroborated by OSL dating (130 ± 9 ka and 120 ± 7 ka). unique specimen number and bar code tag. Pin flags were used to Although PP9 is a coastal cave occupation, its very small lithic mark artifact locations so that each piece could be returned to its component (n ¼ 164) and possibly ephemeral occupation duration original location after attribute analysis. A full lithic artifact attribute provides a useful contrast to the deep and dense PP13B assemblage. analysis was conducted in the field and artifacts returned to their Excavations are ongoing at Pinnacle Point Cave 5-6 (PP5-6), initial location after recording. Standard metrics were taken on every which preserves in a ~14 m sediment stack a high resolution artifact and a subset of the attributes identified by Geneste (1985) and sequence of occupations ranging from ~90 to 50 ka (Brown et al., modified by Brown (2011) was recorded. All artifacts were photo- 2012b). The stone artifacts from those excavations are currently graphed with dorsal side up (if identifiable) and with their bar code under study and thus are not included here. visible for data cross checking. This “catch and release” approach to landscape archaeology provides an opportunity to monitor artifact 3. Methods disturbance in the future related to dune erosion, development encroachment, and increased public visitation (Burnett, 2005). 3.1. Survey 3.3. Fabric analysis The Vleesbaai region has been subject to archaeological recon- naissance in association with the limited housing development ac- It is necessary to identify the post-depositional processes before tivities, and archaeology was reported dating from the historic period, making behavioral inferences from archaeological assemblages 152 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

(Dibble et al., 1997; Lenoble and Bertran, 2004; McPherron, 2005; Eigenvalues for artifacts were calculated for whole areas and grid Bernatchez, 2010). Diagnosing the processes that affect artifact squares within an area with 10 artifacts. The values represent the burial and visibility will contribute to a more complete under- degree of clustering around three mutually orthogonal eigenvec- standing of the archaeological record (Burger et al., 2008). Both tors (Watson, 1966; Benn, 1994; McPherron, 2005; Bernatchez, forager behavior and geological factors can affect the spatial loca- 2010). The vectors are the foundation of an equilateral ternary di- tion of artifacts. However, it is unlikely that forgers preferentially agram that is scaled by two shape indices: the Isothrophy index oriented artifacts when discarding them, while many geological (IS ¼ E3/E1) and the Elongation index (EL ¼ 1 (E2/E1)). If processes such as water action and soil movement orient objects Eigenvalue 1 (E1) is high and the loadings on the two other values they move in specificways(Bertran and Texier, 1995; Kluskens, are low then the orientation data plot towards the “linear” corner of 1995; Bertran et al., 1997; Texier et al., 1998; Dibble et al., 2006; the triangular Benn diagram. Linear artifacts have a strong bearing Bernatchez, 2010). It is important to note though that just in one direction and little deviation in plunge (Benn, 1994; because artifacts are randomly oriented does not mean that they Bernatchez, 2010). If the first two Eigenvalues (E1 and E2) are exactly where foragers left them. Multiple natural processes are ~ equal, then the data plot towards the “planar” corner of the such as solifluction, debris flow, dry grain flow, water movement, triangular Benn diagram. Planar artifacts are randomly oriented on and rock fall deposits can cause nonrandom clast orientation a relatively flat (but not necessarily level) plane. If all three eigen- (Bernatchez, 2010: see for more in-dept discussion of these pro- values (E1, E2 and E3) are roughly equal it means that there is no cesses). In addition, roots growing into the sediment where clasts preferred orientation (both bearing and plunge are random) and are located could alter the orientation of the clasts. Fabric analysis is the data are considered to be “isotrophic” and randomly oriented in the study of such natural and artifactual clast orientation (Bertran all directions (Benn, 1994; Bernatchez, 2010). These data plot to- and Texier, 1995; Lenoble and Bertran, 2004; McPherron, 2005; wards the isotrophic corner of the triangular Benn diagram. Benn © Bernatchez, 2010). Although geomorphology data exist on pat- diagrams were created using Stereo32 version 1.0.3 software, and terns of clast orientation in non-artifactual deposits, fewer studies projected onto ternary diagrams using Tri-Plot (Graham and focus on patterns of artifact orientation in archaeological sites. Midgley, 2000). Eigenvalues of experimental data created by However, there are exceptions, exemplified by early studies using McPherron (2005) were also projected onto the same diagrams to orientation analysis that focused on sites in fluvial environments facilitate comparison between artifact orientations and experi- (Issac, 1967; Bar-Yosef, 1972; Kroll and Isaac, 1984; Schick, 1984, mentally created orientations. 1987; Kaufulu, 1987; Bertran and Texier, 1995) and recent research that utilizes a fabric analysis to understand site-formation pro- 4. Landscape survey results cesses (Bertran and Texier, 1995; Kluskens, 1995; Dibble et al., 1997; Sahnouni and de Heinzelin, 1998; Esdale et al., 2001; Todd et al., 4.1. Paleosol exposures 2001; Byers, 2002; Lenoble and Bertran, 2004; McPherron, 2005; Dibble et al., 2006; Enloe, 2006; Rapson et al., 2007; Bernatchez, The naturally eroded ocean-facing soil and sand cliff that is 2010). capped in many cases by a yellowish-red ancient land surface is A more solid foundation and understanding of site formation observable sporadically in the parabolic dune system and coastal- processes can be achieved using multiple methods of inquiry vegetation landscape from the drainage that separates Dana Bay (Schiffer, 1987); therefore multiple methods of fabric analysis are town and the Nautilus Bay Phase II property to the Nautilus Bay used: 1) Visual exploration, which include Rose diagrams and a 2D Phase III Property (Supplementary Fig. 1 and Supplementary GIS approach (McPherron, 2005; Bernatchez, 2010); 2) statistical Table 1). The ocean-facing soil and sand cliff is also visible in the test of deviance from randomness (Rayleigh test) (Batschelet, coastal vegetation at Fransmanshoek, and sporadically in the 1981); 3) Benn's eigenvalue based graphical method where arti- parabolic dune system at Visbaai (Supplementary Fig. 1 and fact data is compared to known disturbances and experimental Supplementary Table 1). A capping yellowish red ancient land data (Benn, 1994; McPherron, 2005). An arbitrary 5 5 m grid was surface is consistently located ~25e38 m above sea level (asl). At digitally imposed on each Vleesbaai area in GIS so that small-scale PP5-6, a similar red paleosol caps the sequence and is measured at a disturbance processes can be identified. Although fabric analysis is similar height (~23e25 m asl). used to understand site-formation processes it is also, at least partially, used here to evaluate the potential of the areas for future 4.2. Stone Age archaeology excavations. © Rose diagrams were created using Oriana version 3.21 (KCS, Potential MSA stone tools are consistently associated with the 1994e2010), which allows for a preliminary assessment of the ancient soil and sand cliff exposures within the coastal vegetation distribution of artifact bearings and plunges from whole areas or and parabolic dune systems from Nautilus Bay Phase II to Misgunst subsets within an area (10 artifacts). We follow Bernatchez (2010) Farm (Supplementary Fig. 1 and Supplementary Table 1). A total of and McPherron (2005) in using orientation data represented as 76 archaeological localities with potential MSA artifacts were 0e360 (as opposed to 0e180 data) because the artifacts exist in recorded. In addition, some ESA handaxes were observed, and a 3D space. Horizontal orientation (bearing) data was also assessed in number of presumably LSA shell middens near the foreshore dune 2D. This method allows for an overview of a whole area but also system were observed. The shell middens are often concentrated at facilitates easier identification of localized disturbances not evident the mouth of the drainages that dissect Vleesbaai. Although faunal from the rose diagrams (Bernatchez, 2010). material often is associated with the shell middens, very little The Rayleigh test (Batschelet, 1981) was used to test for devia- faunal material was found associated with the paleosol exposures tion from random on both bearing and plunge data from whole and the MSA archaeology. In total, only three fossilized shaft frag- areas and grid squares within an area with 10 artifacts. The Ray- ments were identified, and none were associated with stone tools. leigh test determines whether a sample of artifact orientation is The cortex type classification that was performed as a part of the significantly different from random (i.e., directed). A significance survey effort across Vleesbaai and Visbaai (Supplementary Table 1) level of p ¼ 0.05 was used. shows that at a majority (47%) of the paleosol exposures with Benn diagrams project three eigenvalues of artifact horizontal associated MSA archaeology preserve artifacts with a range of and vertical orientation onto a ternary diagram (Benn, 1994). cortex types from well-rounded to subangular. This suggests raw S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 153 material selection from both high-energy environments such as The distribution of secondary sources today is not identical to cobble beaches and/or active streambeds and low-energy non- the distribution of secondary sources in the past. These active perennial streambeds and/or fixed geological structures such as cobble beaches and stream deposits are dynamic, and ocean swell cliffs or outcrops. At a minority (26%) of exposures, the artifacts and tidal activity, and storm surges reshuffle and replenish cobbles. have cortex types ranging from well-rounded to rounded sug- However, during strong glacial conditions, the Pinnacle Point and gesting raw material selection from high-energy environments Vleesbaai sites were significantly further inland (Fisher et al., 2010) such as cobble beaches and/or active streambeds. At a smaller and lack of active energy from ocean swell and tidal activity and minority (6.5%) of exposures, the artifacts have cortex types ranging storm surges would have quickly depleted the easily accessible from subrounded to subangular suggesting raw material selection higher quality stone. from low-energy non-perennial streams and/or fixed geological structures such as cliffs or outcrops. 5. Fabric analysis results

4.3. Raw material sources 5.1. Bearing analysis

Stone tool raw materials in the Mossel Bay region can be gathered 5.1.1. Area overviews from several potential sources. The primary context bedrock expo- Overall, Area A (Fig. 3 and Table 1) does not have a preferred sures in the Mossel Bay area are predominantly elements of the Cape bearing. The observation of a pattern of no preferred bearing seen Supergroup (Malan and Viljoen, 2008). During modern inter-glacial in the rose diagram and in the horizontal data is consistent with the conditions, quartzite in primary context that fracture conchoidally slope of the landscape surface. The artifact bearings can be is mainly available at two locations in the Mossel Bay area. One source explained by random deposition of the artifacts on a relatively flat is outcrops of the Robberg Formation of the Uitenhagen group landscape surface. Areas B (Fig. 4 and Table 1) and C (Fig. 5 and (Thamm and Johnson, 2006) that are exposed at Mossel Bay Point Table 1) have a preferred bearing towards the Southeast consistent (Thompson and Marean, 2008) and somewhat to the west from with the slope of the landscape surface towards the coast. The Mossel Bay point towards the PP sites (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2 bearings are explainable by artifacts slowly slipping downwards and Supplementary Table 2). The second primary source is out- due to gravity-induced movement and/or some water flow, and crops of the Skurweberg Formation of the Table Mountain Group perhaps trampling. In all three areas the majority of artifacts (Thamm and Johnson, 2006) that are exposed at Fransmanhoek, the conform to a slope of less than 30 (Table 2 and Supplementary southeastern tip of Vleesbaai (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2 and Fig. 9), which is typical for minimally disturbed artifacts Supplementary Table 2). However, other potential primary sources (Bernatchez, 2010), and the plunge data are significantly different include outcrops of the Skurweberg formation of the Table Mountain from random suggesting that the artifacts conform well to the Group (Thamm and Johnson, 2006) that are intermittently visible in landscape surface. This is not surprising as the artifacts are actually several drainages that dissect Vleesbaai (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2 resting on the surface and are not encased in any sediment or soil and Supplementary Table 2). In terms of cortex type, the dominant matrix. cortex at the primary context quartzite sources ranges from very angular to subrounded and do not exhibit chatter marks. Table 1 Silcrete of sufficient quality for flaking are available from the Statistical summary of Vleesbaai areas' artifact bearing by total area. Bokkeveld, Grahamstown, and Kirkwood Formations to the Area n Mean vector () Circular SD () Rayleigh Z Rayleigh p northwest of the Pinnacle Point sites (Thamm and Johnson, 2006; A 241 207.239 120.338 2.926 0.05400 Brown et al., 2009)(Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2 and B 702 154.965 74.739 128.041 <0.00001 Supplementary Table 2). The dominant cortex at the primary C 174 164.045 70.412 38.428 <0.00001 context silcrete sources ranges from very angular to subangular and do not exhibit chatter marks. Secondary sources are often overlooked in discussions of raw Table 2 material availability (Shackley, 1998). Secondary sources include Statistical summary of Vleesbaai areas' artifact plunge by total area. high-energy active streambeds with cobbles and cobble beaches, static fossil river/beach terraces (conglomerates), and ancient al- Area n Mean vector ( ) Circular SD ( ) Rayleigh Z Rayleigh p luvial gravels (conglomerates). Suitable quartzite in secondary A 241 4.26 3.825 239.928 <0.00001 context is available from several high-energy cobble beaches (Fig. 1, B 702 11.053 9.451 683.157 <0.00001 C 174 10.761 9.823 168.96 <0.00001 Supplementary Fig. 2, and Supplementary Table 2). These cobbles are formed on eroded coastal cliff material at their respective lo- cations. Silcrete and hornfels cobbles are known to occur in very low frequencies at two beach locations: Dana Bay and Kanon Beach 5.1.2. Bearing analysis within areas (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2, and Supplementary Table 2). In terms Within Area A, no individual grid squares have bearing data that fi of cortex type, the dominant cortex at the active secondary context are signi cantly different from random (Table 3 and Supplementary fi sources ranges from well-rounded to subrounded and exhibit Fig. 10), while the plunge data (Table 4) are signi cantly different extensive chatter marks. from random suggesting that the artifacts conform well to the Quartzites suitable for flaking are also available in currently low- landscape surface (Table 4 and Supplementary Fig.11). Within Area B, energy non-perennial streambeds with cobbles that are located in the rose diagrams for individual grid squares (Supplementary Fig.12) drainages that dissect Vleesbaai. The cobbles are formed on mate- highlight two different patterns of artifact bearings. No preferred rial that has been eroded by the dissecting drainage into the un- bearing (Table 3), except for in squares 9 and 20, is observed in grid derlying geology. The Enon and De Hoopvleei conglomerates occur squares in the western half (square 23 and westwards) consistent in the dissecting drainages in Vleesbaai and are likely sources for with the landscape surface slope (Fig. 4). The preferred bearing in the cobbles (Fig. 1, Supplementary Fig. 2, and Supplementary squares 9 and 20 is also consistent with the slope as they are both Table 2). The dominant cortex at these secondary sources ranges located where the slope is steeper (Fig. 4). Alternatively, preferred from subrounded to angular and exhibit some chatter marks. bearings (Table 3) towards the Southeast are mainly observed in grid 154 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 squares with densely clustered artifacts to the east (square 32 and Table 4 (continued ) eastwards). The surface in this area is more steeply sloped towards Area Grid n Mean Circular Rayleigh Z Rayleigh p the Southeast compared to the western area (Fig. 4). The plunge data square vector () SD () for all grid squares (Table 4 and Supplementary Fig. 13) are signifi- A 37 23 4.082 3.037 22.935 <0.00001 cantly different from random suggesting that the artifacts conform A 38 10 3.81 2.547 9.98 <0.00001 well to the landscape surface. Within Area C, the rose diagrams for A 45 24 3.893 3.246 23.923 <0.00001 individual grid squares (Table 3 and Supplementary Fig. 14)showa A 46 13 4.063 2.922 12.966 <0.00001 mixed pattern of artifact bearings. Four of the squares have no < preferred bearing, squares 1 and 20 have a preferred bearing towards B 2 14 8.305 6.045 13.845 0.00001 B 3 11 10.71 7.772 10.799 <0.00001 Southeast and Southwest respectively, while the total area has B 9 19 9.199 5.44 18.829 <0.00001 preferred bearing towards Southeast (Fig. 5). The preferred bearing of B 10 22 13.492 10.617 21.257 <0.00001 the whole area might be due to the landscape surface at Area C that is B 11 16 11.765 10.771 15.444 <0.00001 uniformly sloped downwards to the Southeast with approximately B 12 21 23.338 22.863 17.909 <0.00001 B 13 11 19.049 18.498 9.911 <0.00001 the same steepness at the northern part of the surveyed area as the B 20 14 8.753 5.632 13.865 <0.00001 southern part of the surveyed area (Fig. 5). This result is an overall B 21 12 13.281 11.935 11.49 <0.00001 slight pattern of artifact bearings towards the Southeast. As with grid B 22 13 11.761 5.647 12.874 <0.00001 squares at Area A and B, the plunge data for Area C (Table 4 and B 23 14 14.062 7.38 13.77 <0.00001 < Supplementary Fig. 15) are for all grid squares are significantly B 32 25 10.017 7.493 24.576 0.00001 B 33 23 10.341 8.64 22.483 <0.00001 different from random. B 34 13 15.26 11.586 12.479 <0.00001 B 42 43 11.223 7.858 42.199 <0.00001 Table 3 B 43 181 10.983 9.304 176.29 <0.00001 Statistical summary of Vleesbaai areas' artifact bearing by grid square. B 44 38 8.295 5.3 37.676 <0.00001 B 52 171 9.854 6.663 168.703 <0.00001 Area Grid n Mean Circular Rayleigh Z Rayleigh p square vector () SD () C 1 18 12.295 8.405 17.617 <0.00001 A 21 12 181.93 83.088 1.465 0.23500 C 13 10 8.857 5.877 9.895 <0.00001 A 26 19 271.759 99.537 0.929 0.40000 C 20 12 10.259 3.983 11.942 <0.00001 A 27 25 265.18 105.563 0.839 0.43600 C 21 13 5.47 4.101 12.934 <0.00001 A 28 19 215.007 84.738 2.132 0.11800 C 31 15 10.971 6.078 14.832 <0.00001 A 35 17 118.645 138.99 0.047 0.95500 C 43 15 6.431 5.225 14.876 <0.00001 A 36 15 131.567 104.195 0.549 0.58500 A 37 23 254.329 134.361 0.094 0.91200 A 38 10 312.511 104.367 0.362 0.70700 A 45 24 6.707 139.852 0.062 0.94100 5.2. Eigenvalues and Benn Diagrams A 46 13 297.603 101.242 0.573 0.57300 5.2.1. Area overviews B 2 14 214.197 111.433 0.319 0.73400 When looking at all the Vleesbaai areas, the Eigenvalues (Table 5) B 3 11 7.77 83.511 1.314 0.27500 and the Benn Diagrams (Supplementary Fig.16) show that Area A and B 9 19 165.723 46.448 9.848 0.00001 B 10 22 152.041 89.163 1.953 0.14200 B plot towards the planar corner, while Area C plots between planar B 11 16 115.571 84.389 1.828 0.16200 and linear poles. Area A data are most similar to patterns seen in B 12 21 134.69 97.649 1.15 0.32000 random-sloped or random-flat simulated data (McPherron, 2005). B 13 11 309.982 118.378 0.154 0.86300 This suggests little reworking and that the artifacts are more likely B 20 14 193.028 67.938 3.432 0.02900 laying close to where they were deposited, which is supported by the B 21 12 203.677 82.974 1.474 0.23300 B 22 13 193.445 87.45 1.265 0.28700 statistical and visual exploration of the data (Fig. 3 and Table 1). Area B 23 14 124.734 91.803 1.074 0.34800 B data are similar to Area A data but have higher IS and EL values B 32 25 221.688 80.218 3.521 0.02800 meaning that the pattern is less random both in vertical and hori- B 33 23 151.177 79.649 3.33 0.03400 zontal space. This suggests some minor reworking, which is sup- B 34 13 137.766 45.48 6.923 0.00037 B 42 43 141.022 76.418 7.26 0.00055 ported by the visual and statistical analysis (Fig. 4 and Table 1). It is B 43 181 153.054 67.963 44.322 <0.00001 surprising that the Area B data, given the statistical analysis and vi- B 44 38 180.552 67.227 9.591 0.00004 sual exploration, are not distributed closer to the linear corner. Area C B 52 171 146.435 60.475 56.128 <0.00001 data are most similar to patterns found in shallow run-off. This is suggestive of minor reworking due to water, which is supported by C 1 18 150.5 71.962 3.717 0.02200 the visual and statistical analysis. However, most patterning at Area C C 13 10 178.855 71.063 2.147 0.11600 C 20 12 198.508 57.089 4.446 0.00900 is most likely due to the slope of the deposits, which is supported by C 21 13 188.736 107.771 0.378 0.69300 the visual exploration (Fig. 5). C 31 15 154.486 88.924 1.349 0.26400 C 43 15 159.995 73.367 2.911 0.05200 Table 5 Eigenvalues and related indices for Vleesbaai Areas compared to simulated datasets. Table 4 Statistical summary of Vleesbaai areas' artifact plunge by grid square. Area/simulated n E1 E2 E3 IS EL

Area Grid n Mean Circular Rayleigh Z Rayleigh p A 241 0.526 0.464 0.010 0.018 0.117 square vector () SD () B 702 0.495 0.465 0.040 0.081 0.470 C 174 0.571 0.392 0.038 0.066 0.314 A 21 12 5.102 2.993 11.967 <0.00001 a Random flat 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 A 26 19 4.486 4.415 18.888 <0.00001 a Random sloped 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 < A 27 25 3.287 2.325 24.959 0.00001 Randoma 200 0.550 0.230 0.220 0.400 0.582 < A 28 19 3.399 2.331 18.969 0.00001 Aligneda 200 0.990 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.990 < A 35 17 3.258 1.952 16.98 0.00001 Criss-crossa 200 0.510 0.490 0.001 0.002 0.039 A 36 15 3.454 3.643 14.939 <0.00001 a Simulated data from McPherron (2005). S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 155

5.2.2. Eigenvalues and Benn Diagrams within areas Table 7 Within Area A, the grid squares are widely distributed from the Eigenvalues and related indices for Vleesbaai Area B compared to simulated datasets. planer to linear (Table 6 and Supplementary Fig. 17). Three grid squares (21, 26, and 27) plot closest to the planar corner and are Grid square/simulated n E1 E2 E3 IS EL most similar to patterns seen in random-sloped or random-flat 2 14 0.517 0.452 0.031 0.060 0.126 simulated data (McPherron, 2005) suggesting little reworking. 3 11 0.581 0.372 0.047 0.081 0.361 Data from five grid squares (28, 36, 37, 45, and 46) are most 9 19 0.605 0.387 0.008 0.014 0.360 similar to patterns found in shallow run-off. This is suggestive of 10 22 0.593 0.335 0.072 0.121 0.435 11 16 0.614 0.331 0.054 0.089 0.461 minor reworking, likely due to the slope of the deposits. The 12 21 0.493 0.311 0.196 0.397 0.369 linear nature of the data is suggestive of some preferential 13 11 0.481 0.381 0.138 0.286 0.208 alignment, but the statistical analysis show that the pattern is not 20 14 0.631 0.352 0.017 0.026 0.441 significant. 21 12 0.680 0.239 0.081 0.119 0.649 22 13 0.520 0.447 0.032 0.062 0.141 23 14 0.612 0.335 0.053 0.086 0.452 32 25 0.540 0.420 0.040 0.074 0.223 Table 6 33 23 0.516 0.449 0.035 0.067 0.129 Eigenvalues and related indices for Vleesbaai Area A compared to simulated 34 13 0.705 0.210 0.025 0.036 0.702 datasets. 42 43 0.521 0.444 0.035 0.068 0.148 Grid square/ n E1 E2 E3 IS EL 43 181 0.537 0.430 0.034 0.062 0.199 simulated 44 38 0.613 0.376 0.011 0.018 0.388 52 171 0.506 0.480 0.014 0.028 0.051 21 12 0.560 0.431 0.008 0.015 0.230 Random flata 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 26 19 0.519 0.470 0.012 0.022 0.095 Random slopeda 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 27 25 0.562 0.434 0.004 0.007 0.228 Randoma 200 0.550 0.230 0.220 0.400 0.582 28 19 0.594 0.402 0.004 0.007 0.324 Aligneda 200 0.990 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.990 35 17 0.739 0.257 0.004 0.006 0.652 Criss-crossa 200 0.510 0.490 0.001 0.002 0.039 36 15 0.606 0.388 0.006 0.010 0.359 a 37 23 0.625 0.368 0.008 0.012 0.411 Simulated data from McPherron (2005). 38 10 0.715 0.280 0.006 0.008 0.608 45 24 0.647 0.346 0.007 0.011 0.465 Within Area C (Table 8 and Supplementary Fig. 19), grid squares 46 13 0.601 0.393 0.007 0.011 0.346 with 10 or more elongated artifacts distribute widely some squares Random 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 plotting towards the planar corner and others distributing towards fl a at the linear corner. One grid square (20) plots closest to the planar Random 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 slopeda corner and is most similar to patterns seen in random-sloped and Randoma 200 0.550 0.230 0.220 0.400 0.582 random-flat simulated data (McPherron, 2005). This suggest little Aligneda 200 0.990 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.990 reworking and that the artifacts are laying close to where they were a Criss-cross 200 0.510 0.490 0.001 0.002 0.039 deposited. However, the visual and statistical analysis shows that a Simulated data from McPherron (2005). artifacts from grid square 20 has a preferred and statistically sig- nificant bearing. Data from two grid squares (1 and 13) are most similar to patterns found in shallow run-off. This is suggestive of minor reworking due to water, which is supported by visual and Within Area B data (Table 7 and Supplementary Fig. 18), some statistical analysis for square 1 but not for square 13. Three of the grid squares plot towards the planar corner and others are closer grid squares (21, 31, and 43) distribute similar to patterns found in towards the linear corner, and a few distributing up towards the steep run-off. This is suggestive of reworking due to water but the Isotrophic corner. Five grid squares (2, 22, 33, 42, and 52) plot visual and statistical analysis does not support that. closest to the planar corner and are most similar to patterns seen in random-sloped and random-flat simulated data (McPherron, Table 8 2005). This suggests little reworking and that the artifacts are Eigenvalues and related indices for Vleesbaai Area C compared to simulated laying close to where they were deposited. However, the visual datasets. and statistical analysis of grid squares number 33, 42, and 52 show Grid square/simulated n E1 E2 E3 IS EL that they have a preferred and statistically significant bearing. Data from seven grid squares (3, 9, 10, 23, 32, 43, and 44) are most 1 18 0.577 0.379 0.044 0.077 0.342 13 10 0.603 0.394 0.003 0.005 0.347 similar to patterns found in shallow run-off. This is suggestive of 20 12 0.553 0.435 0.012 0.022 0.213 minor reworking due to water but the patterning in grid squares 3, 21 13 0.681 0.306 0.013 0.019 0.550 10, and 23 is most likely due to the slope of the deposits, which is 31 15 0.685 0.288 0.027 0.040 0.580 supported by the visual and statistical analysis. However, the vi- 43 15 0.704 0.284 0.012 0.017 0.596 fl a sual and statistical analysis of grid squares 9, 32, 43, and 44 show Random at 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 Random slopeda 200 0.540 0.460 0.001 0.002 0.148 fi that they have a preferred and statistically signi cant bearing Randoma 200 0.550 0.230 0.220 0.400 0.582 suggestive of reworking due to water. Two of the grid squares (20 Aligneda 200 0.990 0.010 0.001 0.001 0.990 and 34) distribute similar to patterns found in steep run-off. This is Criss-crossa 200 0.510 0.490 0.001 0.002 0.039 suggestive of reworking due to water, which the visual and sta- a Simulated data from McPherron (2005). tistical analysis supports. Data from another two grid squares (11 and 21) are most similar to patterns found in solifluction sug- 6. Technological analysis results gesting reworking due to water and gravity-induced mass move- ment of sediment. However, the visual and statistical analysis does 6.1. Lithic technology at Vleesbaai not support that. The last two grid squares (12 and 13) plot similar to patterns found in debris flow. This is suggestive of reworking 6.1.1. Industrial affiliation due to water. However, this pattern is not supported by the visual The Vleesbaai assemblages represent mainly the early stages of and statistical analysis. a flake and blade-based stone tool manufacture procured from 156 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

Fig. 3. Vleesbaai Area A showing all artifacts with bearing data projected onto a contour map of the landscape surface. The rose diagram in upper left corner shows the distribution of artifact bearings. Arrow extending out from circle indicates the direction of preferred bearing of the artifacts and that the bearing is significantly different from random (p > 0.05). The contours are in meters a.s.l. at 25 cm increments. The grid is composed of 5 by 5 m squares. Sequential numbers inside of some grid squares correspond to grid square numbers used in fabric analysis. cobble quartzite sources, though there is also a low frequency of found in MSA contexts (Deacon, 1978; Brown et al., 2012b). Based retouched tools on fine-grained raw materials such as heat- on the MSA markers that are present, the Vleesbaai assemblages treated silcrete and chalcedony. Diagnostic MSA elements at likely date to the Late Pleistocene roughly between ~100 and Vleesbaai include prepared cores, convergent points, blades, 50 ka. This age range is also suggested by the relative stratigraphic faceted platforms, and backed blades. MSA assemblages without position of the surface scatters near the top of the roughly backed blades date to at least ~280 thousand years ago (Barham 25e38 m thick Vleesbaai sequence, which based on ongoing and Smart, 1996; Grün et al., 1996; Kuman et al., 1999; Deino geological investigation has basal a stratigraphic unit dating to and McBrearty, 2002; Morgan and Renne, 2008; Porat et al., MIS5e (~125 ka). 2010; Wilkins et al., 2012) and persist until at least ~40 thou- sand years ago (Villa et al., 2012). Backed pieces are characteristic 6.1.2. Major lithic artifact classes at Vleesbaai and artifact condition of the Howieson's Poort (HP) industry which dates to 65e60 ka at The knapped components of the lithic assemblages at Vleesbaai many South African sites (Jacobs et al., 2008). Similar types of consist mainly of shatter (51%, lithic debris without discernable backed pieces have also been recovered from earlier sediments ventral and dorsal surfaces), complete flakes (25%), and flake dating to ~71 ka at PP5-6, and persist through the sequence there fragments (15%). Cores (5%), blades and blade fragments (3%), and until at least 60 ka (Brown et al., 2012b). At Diepkloof on the west retouched pieces (1%) together make up ~10% of the assemblages coast of South Africa, the earliest backed pieces assigned to the HP (Table 9). The relative frequencies of these different artifact classes are claimed to be ~100 ka, with HP technology persisting there are similar between the three areas (Table 9). There is some dif- until ~50 ka (Porraz et al., 2013; Tribolo et al., 2013). LSA as- ference in the relative frequency of shatter and flake fragments, semblages affiliated with the Wilton Industry also contain backed which probably has more to do with inter-analyst bias than pre- segment and crescents, though much smaller than those generally historic technological behaviors. Although crawl surveys were S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 157 conducted at each area, some variability in this exercise could affect 6.1.4. Quartzite component how many artifacts were observed and coded. The artifacts were in Quartzite core reduction at the Vleesbaai localities was fresh condition with sharp edges and no evidence for water rolling focused mainly on earlier stages of reduction. There are refitting or dune polish. This suggests little time being exposed on the sur- sets of large quartzite cortical flakes and cobble fragments found face. The lack of difference in artifact condition suggests the as- immediately adjacent to each other. The amount of cortex on a semblages are not the result of time-averaging over a very long flake dorsal surface is related to its relative position in the time. reduction sequence, with high amounts of cortex reflecting

Table 9 Counts of knapped lithic artifact types at Vleesbaai by Area and raw material.

Shatter Complete flake Flake fragment Core Blade or blade Retouched Total fragment piece

Area A 187 159 138 37 31 5 557 Quartzite 173 153 131 32 29 2 520 Silcrete 5 6 5 2 3 21 Chalcedony 2 2 Chert 11 Quartz 8 1 9 CrystQuartz 1 1 2 Other 22 Area B 916 393 202 82 31 26 1650 Quartzite 887 386 193 76 31 17 1590 Silcrete 7 4 7 3 6 27 Chalcedony 2 1 1 2 6 Quartz 11 1 2 1 15 CrystQuartz 1 12 Other 3 1 4 Ind 5 1 6 Area C 252 111 47 15 13 7 445 Quartzite 228 105 45 11 11 3 403 Silcrete 10 2 1 3 2 18 Chalcedony 6 4 2 2 14 Hornfels 1 1 Quartz 4 4 Other 1 1 2 Ind 2 1 3 Total 1355 663 387 134 75 38 2652

6.1.3. Raw material use mainly earlier stages of reduction and the absence of cortex Nearly 95% of the knapped artifacts are quartzite (Table 9). Sil- reflecting mainly later stages of reduction (Morrow, 1984; crete (2%), quartz (1%), and chalcedony (1%), also occur in low fre- Mauldin and Amick, 1989). Of the quartzite knapped artifacts quencies, while chert and hornfels are very rare. The raw material at Vleesbaai, 31% exhibit some cortex on their dorsal surface, and frequencies are similar between the three areas, except that Area B 4% exhibit an entirely cortical surface (Fig. 6). Area B is signifi- exhibits a slighter higher quartzite to non-quartzite ratio than Areas cantly different from Areas A and C in this respect (Fisher's exact A and C (Fisher's exact tests, p < 0.001). tests, p < 0.001), with a lower frequency of observed cortex For knapped pieces where a distinction was possible, we iden- (Fig. 6). tified two types of cortex. Cobble cortex is usually created by high- Many (39%) of the quartzite discarded cores are minimally energy environments such as coastal cobble beaches and active worked, usually exhibiting fewer than ~4 scars. Several of these streambeds, and was identified based on the presence of chatter appear to be tested cobbles with one or two removals only. Area B marks, smooth surface, and well-rounded to rounded edges. exhibits a significantly higher frequency of minimal cores Outcrop cortex has not been subjected to high-energy water compared to Area A (Fisher's exact tests, p ¼ 0.011). transport and is identified based on the absence of chatter marks, a Most platforms on the quartzite detached pieces from Vleesbaai rough surface, and sub-rounded to very angular edges. At Vleesbaai, are not prepared (79%), also consistent with earlier stages of 92% of artifacts with an identifiable cortex type exhibit what we reduction. Some of them are prepared with two or more facets identify as cobble cortex. The high frequency of cobble cortex in- (28%), and this preparation sometimes occurred immediately prior dicates that high-energy secondary sources of quartzite were pre- to detachment based on the presence of negative bulbs. Area A dominately knapped at Vleesbaai. However, there is evidence that a exhibits a significantly higher frequency of faceted platforms than small proportion of quartzite from primary outcrops or low-energy Areas B and C (Fisher's exact tests, p ¼ 0.03). non-perennial streambeds was also used. A similar pattern is There are some more formal core types in quartzite, and these observed for the other raw material types, but the samples are too include multiplatform cores, radial cores (Fig. 7, 263644; small to make a strong statement about the role of different source Supplementary Fig. 20, 355502), recurrent blade cores (Fig. 8, types for the non-quartzite material. There are significant differ- 355850), preferential point cores (Fig. 7, 263468), and recurrent ences between all three areas with respect to the cobble to outcrop centripetal prepared cores. The diversity of core types suggests cortex ratio (Fisher's exact tests, p < 0.03). Area B exhibits the multiple reduction strategies were carried out at Vleesbaai and is highest frequency of outcrop cortex. No outcrop cortex was consistent with the observation that there are diverse forms for the observed at Area A. detached pieces (i.e. flakes 89%, blades 7%, and points 4%), though 158 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

Fig. 4. Vleesbaai Area B showing all artifacts with bearing data projected onto a contour map of the landscape surface. The rose diagram in upper left corner shows the distribution of artifact bearings. Arrow extending out from circle indicates the direction of preferred bearing of the artifacts and that the bearing is significantly different from random (p > 0.05). The contours are in meters a.s.l. at 25 cm increments. The grid is composed of 5 by 5 m squares. Sequential numbers inside of some grid squares correspond to grid square numbers used in fabric analysis.

flakes clearly dominate the quartzite assemblage at Vleesbaai. (n ¼ 2), one with distal retouch, and one with a very steep concave There are also diverse dorsal scar patterns on the quartzite de- edge (Fig. 8, 355909). tached pieces; 33% radial or subradial, 30% unidirectional, 17% bidirectional, 20% unidirectional or bidirectional. The quartzite 6.1.5. Non-quartzite component blades that are present are relatively large (mean mid- Silcrete, quartz, chalcedony and other raw material types width ¼ 26.9 mm, n ¼ 62, sd ¼ 15.7), and would not be considered were discarded at Vleesbaai in very low frequencies, but there is bladelets. less evidence for early stage in situ knapping events, and a The quartzite pieces discarded at Vleesbaai were rarely relatively high frequency (12%) of the discarded artifacts in these retouched (Fig. 9). Retouched pieces compose less than 1% of the non-quartzite raw materials are retouched pieces (Fig. 10). This is knapped quartzite assemblage. Of the quartzite retouched pieces a much higher frequency of retouch than quartzite, and the that are present, most (n ¼ 8) are notched or denticulate pieces on difference is significant (Fisher's exact test, p < 0.001). Consistent flake or blade blanks (Supplementary Fig. 20, 355464). There is no with later stages of reduction, of the non-quartzite knapped ar- strong pattern for any particular form and retouch is often mini- tifacts, only 17% exhibit a cortical surface (Fig. 6). This is a mally distributed. There are some differences between the different significantly lower frequency than quartzite (Fisher's exact test, areas with respect to the types of quartzite retouched pieces rep- p < 0.001). resented, but the samples are very small. Only minimally retouched Four backed pieces were encountered and all of these pieces pieces (n ¼ 2) were recovered in Area A. Area B exhibited the were manufactured on silcrete (Fig. 7, 356267; Fig. 8,355441, greatest diversity of types including scrapers with lateral retouch 355798, 356102). Their mean length (x ¼ 25.35 mm, S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 159

Fig. 5. Vleesbaai Area C showing all artifacts with bearing data projected onto a contour map of the landscape surface. The rose diagram in upper left corner shows the distribution of artifact bearings. Arrow extending out from circle indicates the direction of preferred bearing of the artifacts and that the bearing is significantly different from random (p > 0.05). The contours are in meters a.s.l. at 25 cm increments. The grid is composed of 5 by 5 m squares. Sequential numbers inside of some grid squares correspond to grid square numbers used in fabric analysis.

SD ¼ 2.79 mm) is consistent with backed pieces from HP sites grained raw material were recorded. The backed blades and (Volman, 1981; Wadley and Mohapi, 2008; Villa et al., 2010; small fine-grained scrapers were recovered from Areas B and C, Mackay, 2011) including nearby Pinnacle Point Cave 5-6 and the notched blades were recovered from Areas A and B. (x ¼ 32.9 mm, SD ¼ 10.3 mm; t ¼ 1.39, df ¼ 10, p ¼ 0.194) re- The sample of non-quartzite cores is small (n ¼ 13), but of what ported by Brown et al. (2012b) and different from South African is present they are diverse types, including minimal cores, multi- LSA segments (Deacon, 1972; Volman, 1981; Inskeep and Avery, platform cores, and bladelet cores. 1987; Orton, 2002) such as the Wilton type site (x ¼ 15.4 mm, Most of the silcrete pieces exhibit a glossy luster consistent with SD ¼ 3.97 mm; t ¼ 4.86, df ¼ 56, p < 0.0001). All four backed heat-treatment and a few pieces exhibit the combination of pre- pieces are typologically segments (Deacon, 1984:389) with a and post-heat treatment scars that are diagnostic of heat treatment curved arc back. They are manufactured on blade blanks with (Brown et al., 2009). Only a single piece of silcrete was lacking the parallel arises. Two of the three complete backed pieces exhibit glossy luster on its ventral surface. damage along their ‘cutting edge’. The fourth backed piece broke catastrophically and is represented only by its distal half. This 6.1.6. Other stone artifacts piece also exhibits a burin-like fracture on the backed edge. There are several quartzite hammerstones and hammerstone Three notched blades on fine-grained raw material, which are fragments (n ¼ 33) in Area A (Fig. 7, 253597) and B (Supplementary consistent with an HP designation, were also recovered (Fig. 8, Fig. 20, 355416). These hammerstones exhibit localized regions of 356103). Three small scrapers or scraper fragments on fine- battering and pock-marks on small quartzite cobbles (average 160 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

Fig. 6. Dorsal cortex frequency of complete lithic artifacts. (A) Complete quartzite lithic flakes; (B) All non-quartzite complete lithic flakes. length and mass). At all three sites occasional pebble manuports more flakes with complete cortical dorsal surfaces (i.e., “primary” and small pieces of ochre were also encountered. reduction flakes). The non-quartzite cortex frequencies are shown in Fig. 6B. Overall, there is much less cortex on the finer grained 6.2. Comparisons with Pinnacle Point cave sites and Cape St. Baize materials at both Vleesbaai and Pinnacle Point, but the sample sizes are too small to make meaningful interpretations. 6.2.1. Artifact size distribution Mass is tightly correlated with linear dimensions (Mauldin and 6.2.3. Retouch frequency Amick, 1989), thus it is important for predicting stage of reduction Retouch frequency at Vleesbaai follows a raw-material based (Shott, 1994). Fig. 10A shows that the Vleesbaai areas all have a pattern. Retouch frequency on quartzite is similar between Vlees- higher frequency of larger quartzite artifacts (>50 g) than PP13B, baai and the cave sites, but retouch frequency on non-quartzite is PP9 and Cape St. Blaize. Cape St. Blaize is also shown for comparison much higher at Vleesbaai than at the cave sites (Fig. 9). The dif- to a size-biased assemblage. The distributions of quartzite artifacts ference in non-quartzite retouch frequency at Areas A, B, and C is are similar, but the three Vleesbaai Areas have more of the larger significantly greater than the non-quartzite retouch at PP13B and (>50 g) artifacts than P13B and PP9. Over 22% of the quartzite ar- PP9 (Two-proportion Z-test, n1 ¼ 130, n2 ¼ 1063, Z ¼ 5.3, tifacts at Area A and 15% of quartzite artifacts at Area B are >50 g, p < 0.0001). This pattern is most striking at Area B where retouch whereas only 7% and 9.8% of artifacts are >50 g at PP13B and PP9, was on 1% of the quartzite artifacts, but 17% of non-quartzite arti- respectively (c2 ¼ 176.771, df ¼ 4, p ¼ 0.0001). The mean quartzite facts. In comparison, the difference between quartzite and non- artifact mass at Vleesbaai is 64.6 g, and Wilcoxon ranks test suggest quartzite retouch at PP13B and PP9 is 0.6% and 0.3%, respectively quartzite artifact mass at Vleesbaai is significantly larger than (Fig. 9). either PP13B (x ¼ 16.51 g; Z ¼ 8.033, p < 0.0001) or PP9 (x ¼ 20.1 g; Z ¼ 3.881, p ¼ 0.0001). The size of the quartzite lithic component on 7. Discussion the landscape near Vleesbaai appears to be significantly larger than what is transported to the caves at Pinnacle Point. 7.1. Are the Vleesbaai stone tool assemblages preferentially oriented A different pattern is apparent with the non-quartzite lithic and thus potentially altered by post-discard processes? mass distribution. The distributions are similar across the Vleesbaai localities and Pinnacle Point caves (Fig. 10B). The artifact mass is not The results from the fabric analysis of the total areas suggest significantly different between the three Vleesbaai areas that artifacts in Area A do not have a preferred and statistically 2 (c ¼ 1.521, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.4675) or between Vleesbaai collectively significant bearing. In addition, when looking at individual grid and PP9 (Wilcoxon ranks test, Z ¼0.496, p ¼ 0.6201) or PP13B squares in Area A, the analysis suggest the artifacts do not have a (Wilcoxon ranks test, Z ¼1.659, p ¼ 0.097). The size distribution of preferred and statistically significant bearing. However, the Benn the non-quartzite lithic component appears to be similar to across diagram approach shows a spread of the Area A orientation data the landscape. from planar corner towards the linear corner, which suggests some variability in the directionality of the bearing data. But the lack of 6.2.2. Cortex frequency statistical significance suggests that the artifact bearings can be The Vleesbaai artifacts exhibit higher cortex frequencies than explained by random deposition of the artifacts on a relatively flat the nearby cave site artifacts. A comparison of the Vleesbaai and landscape surface, or that the artifacts were randomly deposited on Pinnacle Point quartzite cortex frequencies are shown in Fig. 6A. a surface that subsequently was eroded away and the artifacts Vleesbaai tends to have significantly more quartzite flakes with deflated onto the current surface with no or very little directed partial cortical dorsal surfaces (p < 0.05; although Area B and PP9 horizontal movement. The artifact size distribution (Fig. 10) sug- are not significantly different, c2 ¼ 4.21, df ¼ 2, p ¼ 0.1218), and gests that the smallest size group (0e10 g) is somewhat under- S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 161

Fig. 7. Lithic artifacts from Areas A and C at Vleesbaai. 253741, Area A, quartzite point with unidirectional parallel dorsal scars and facetted platform. 253757, Area A, quartzite point with unidirectional convergent dorsal scars and facetted platform with conjoining distal fragment. 253845, Area A, quartzite blade with radial dorsal scars and facetted platform. 263644, Area A, quartzite unifacial discoidal core, alternate side is cortical. 263468, Area A, quartzite core with unidirectional convergent scars, alternate side is cortical. 253597, Area A, quartzite hammerstone. 390052, Area C, quartzite bidirectional flake core. 356267, Area C, silcrete backed blade fragment. represented, which might reflect winnowing of the lighter ele- surface, meaning that the artifacts are lacking a stratigraphic ments from the location by water processes. However, the lack of context or matrix. All recorded artefacts are part of a palimpsest the smaller artifacts could also be due to analyst bias during in-field resting on a surface that may or may not be the surface they were artifact analysis. deposited on. As a result, the slope of the landscape surface is The wide spread (from planer corner towards the linear corner) driving the plunge of the artifacts. This means that, effectively, the of the Area A data in the Benn diagram is surprising given the result plunge of the artifacts is potentially arbitrary because whatever of the visual exploration and the statistical analysis. What is not plunge the artifacts had in a hypothetical overlaying matrix was surprising is the low isotrophic values of the data since the artifacts erased by the deflation onto the current surface. By taking this into are lying flat on a landscape surface following the slope of the account, the results of the Benn diagram and Eigenvalue approach 162 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168

Fig. 8. Lithic artifacts from Area B at Vleesbaai. 355441, silcrete backed blade, completely backed, crescent. 355798, silcrete backed blade, completely backed, crescent. 356102, silcrete backed blade, completely backed, crescent. 356103, silcrete notched blade with distal retouched snap. 355909, quartzite concave scraper. 355850, quartzite convergent flake or blade core, primarily unidirectional removals, some distal removals. needs to be viewed cautiously when dealing with potentially induced movement and/or some water flow, and perhaps tram- deflated surface finds from open-air contexts. pling. However, artifact size distribution (Fig. 10) suggests that the Overall, the Area B artifacts have a preferred and statistically smallest size group (0e10 g) is present, which reflects little win- significant bearing. When investigating the individual grid squares, nowing of the lighter elements from the location by water fabric analysis suggest that half of the grid squares (9, 20, 32, 33, 34, processes. 42, 43, 44, and 52) have a preferred and statistically significant The fabric analysis of total areas suggests that artifacts in Area C bearing. The Benn diagram approach suggests that post-discard have a preferred and statistically significant bearing. The fabric processes can explain the orientation data from several other analyses suggest that two grid squares (1 and 20) have a preferred squares (3, 10, 11, 12, 13, 21, and 23). However, these squares do not and statistically significant bearing. The Benn diagram approach have a significant bearing. Nevertheless, the result suggests that in suggests that the four other squares have artifacts with orienta- parts of Area B, the artifact bearings can be explained by gravity- tions that have been affected by post-discard processes but the S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 163

Fig. 9. Retouch frequency on quartzite and non-quartzite lithic artifacts. Retouch frequency calculated as the percentage of retouched pieces relative to all knapped lithic artifacts. bearing data from these squares are not statistically significant. The Area B data display two patterns. First, to the east in grid Overall, the fabric analysis of Area C suggests some reworking by squares that include 32, 33, 34, 42, 43, 44, and 52 the artifacts have run-off and/or gravity-induced movement due to the landscape a preferred and statistically significant bearing, which can be surface at Area C that is uniformly sloped downwards to the explained by artifacts sloping downwards due to gravity-induced Southeast. The artifact size distribution (Fig. 10) suggests that the movement and/or some water flow, and perhaps trampling. The smallest size group (0e10 g) is present, which reflects little win- artifact bearings in the central and western parts of Area B (except nowing of the lighter elements from the location by water for square 9 and 20) can be explained by random deposition of the processes. artifacts on a relatively flat landscape surface, or that the artifacts were randomly deposited on a surface that subsequently was 7.2. Are there differences in artifact orientation across the locality eroded away and the artifacts deflated onto the current surface suggesting variation in taphonomic history? with no or very little directed horizontal movement. This suggests that there is some variation in post-discard disturbance across The fabric analysis of Area A data did not detect differences in Area B. artifact bearing across the areas. This suggests that there is little In Area C, there is a difference in artifact bearing across the area. variation in taphonomic history across the area. One grid square (1) has artifacts with a preferred and statistically

Fig. 10. Size frequency by mass. (A) Frequency of all plotted quartzite lithic artifacts for Area A (n ¼ 545), Area B (n ¼ 1599), Area C (n ¼ 404), PP13B (n ¼ 4616), PP9 (n ¼ 122), and Cape St. Blaize Cave (n ¼ 1233); (B) Frequency of all plotted non-quartzite lithic artifacts for Area A (n ¼ 39), Area B (n ¼ 61), Area C (n ¼ 48), PP13B (n ¼ 990), PP9 (n ¼ 39), and Cape St. Blaize Cave (n ¼ 94). 164 S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 significant bearing towards the Southeast; while another grid at the source. If this scenario is the case, then upon encountering a square (20) has artifacts with a preferred and statistically signifi- raw material source it is expected that whole packages of raw cant bearing towards the Southwest. The other four grid squares do materials (e.g. cobbles) will be procured and brought to a nearby not have a preferred and significant bearing. The fabric analysis camp and primary lithic reduction will occur. Such assemblages results are suggestive of variation in taphonomic history across the will exhibit flakes with higher frequencies of cortex, more tested area with localized disturbance affecting some areas, while others nodules, and larger artifact mass. At a certain point, the time-cost of are more or less undisturbed by post-discard processes. transport back to the residential base or next camp is greater than the cost of field processing. Under such a scenario, it is expected 7.3. What do technological differences between Vleesbaai and the that field processing has occurred at source and only useable parts nearby cave sites tell us about landscape use during the Middle of raw material will be brought back to camp and later stage lithic Stone Age? reduction will occur. Such assemblages will exhibit flakes with a lower frequency of cortex and smaller artifact mass. What this The proximity of Vleesbaai to the well-studied Pinnacle Point means is that residential camps or temporary camps might have sites permits comparisons of the lithic material between locations assemblages that reflect primary reduction if the cost of trans- on the landscape where forager behaviors are expected to have porting the raw material there was less than field processing the differed. Vleesbaai is within the typical daily foraging radius of raw material at or near the source. The following comparisons Pinnacle Point (~10.5 km, Marlowe, 2005); therefore, it is likely that between Vleesbaai and Pinnacle Point highlight patterns in how prehistoric foragers local to this area would have utilized both late Pleistocene human populations exploited the landscape. Pinnacle Point and Vleesbaai during foraging rounds, perhaps in the The technological analyses suggest that all three Vleesbaai areas same day. Since ecological, geological, and technological variables reflect areas of early stage lithic reduction of quartzite compared to are largely kept constant at this scale, comparisons between the PP13B and PP9 assemblages. The high percentages of cortex, Vleesbaai and Pinnacle Point have the potential to highlight land- low frequencies of blades, low frequency of prepared flake plat- scape use differences that cannot be identified as clearly between forms, and high frequency of larger artifacts (>50 g) may indicate open-air and cave sites between different regions. Three main ob- primarily testing and preparation of quartzite nodules. The rela- servations were made regarding the technological differences be- tively higher frequency of large quartzite artifacts at Vleesbaai tween Vleesbaai and the cave/rock shelter sites; (1) there are higher compared to the cave sites is not explained by the different re- frequencies of large quartzite artifacts at Vleesbaai, (2) there are covery methods (i.e., surface collection vs. excavation). The more quartzite artifacts with dorsal cortex at Vleesbaai, and (3) component of small artifacts in the Vleesbaai assemblage (<10 g) is there are more non-quartzite retouched artifacts at Vleesbaai. well represented and the relative frequency of this size category is Proximity and availability of raw materials influence procure- comparable to PP13B and PP9 (Fig. 10). In contrast, Cape St. Blaize, ment, reduction and curation (handling), and transport (Kuhn, which is a selected assemblage (i.e. the site was very coarsely 1989, 1992; Brantingham, 2006) of technology. Foragers moving screened and then selected), shows very low frequencies of the about the landscape have limited carrying capacities and limited small lithic component. The distribution of artifact mass in the time. These constraints lead foragers to make decisions about how biased Cape St. Blaize assemblage is significantly different from to procure, handle, and transport stone tool raw materials. Based on Vleesbaai (KolmogoroveSmirnov, Dmax ¼ 0.0927, Dobs ¼ 0.398, optimal foraging theory models (Charnov and Orians, 1973; p < 0.0001) and Pinnacle Point (KolmogoroveSmirnov, Charnov, 1976; Maynard Smith, 1978; Stephens and Krebs, 1986; Dmax ¼ 0.0066, Dobs ¼ 0.4596, p < 0.0001). Winterhalder and Smith, 2000; Bird and O'Connell, 2006)itis Earlier stages of quartzite reduction at Vleesbaai compared to assumed that foragers will try to maximize a currency relative to the nearby cave/rock shelter sites is consistent with field processing investments in time and energy. This is arguably true for procuring, of quartzite on the landscape near the source. The Vleesbaai as- handling (field processing), and transporting stone tool raw ma- semblages are dominated by artifacts with well-rounded to terials. However, Metcalfe and Barlow (1992) pose a dilemma. rounded cortex, which suggest procurement of quartzite from Suppose that a group of foragers have travelled to a stone tool raw high-energy cobble beaches and/or high-energy active streambeds. material source from a residential base or temporary camp to In addition, Area B and C also exhibit artifacts with subrounded to procure raw materials that would be taken back either to the same very angular cortex suggesting procurement of quartzite from low- camp or to a next camp. The stone tool raw material is quartzite in energy non-perennial streambeds and/or fixed geological struc- the form of beach cobbles. The interior of the cobbles are homog- tures such as outcrops. The result of the pedestrian survey offers a enous in nature with few flaws whereas the outer surface of the glimpse of the location of potential raw material source available to cobbles has a zone of fractures making this zone relatively value- foragers in the past (Fig. 1 and Supplementary Fig. 2). Today, no less. The foragers have a decision to make. Would it be economi- obvious sources of well-rounded to rounded cobbles are visible in cally more efficient in terms of time to field process the cobbles, the immediate vicinity of the three Vleesbaai areas. However, meaning removing the outer zone of unusable material or transport several currently low-energy non-perennial streambeds located in whole cobbles back to camp? Field processing takes time, time that drainages that dissect Vleesbaai were potentially more active and could be used to transport the material. The morphology of the raw had higher energy in the past resulting in the well-rounded to material and the distance that the material needs to be transported rounded cobbles, or high-energy cobble beaches were present in will dictate which strategy to be used. The trade-off is between the past, but today are submerged by the dune system and/or transporting more cobbles with both useful and not useful parts, or ocean. The closest streambed to Area A is located ~2 km away, less cobbles with only useful parts (Metcalfe and Barlow, 1992). whereas the closest streambed to either Area B or C is less than Following Metcalfe and Barlow (1992), it is here assumed that 1 km away. In terms of quartzite with subrounded to very angular foragers are trying to maximize the utility of the raw material cortex there are two kinds of potential sources in close vicinity to returned to the residential base or temporary camp relative to the the three areas. Outcrops of Skurverberg Fm. quartzite are visible in time spent in procuring and field processing of raw materials. Thus, drainages that dissect Vleesbaai and are ~1 km from Areas B and C, it is expected that less field processing (handling) will occur when and low-energy non-perennial streambeds located in the same the transport cost in time from the source to residence or tempo- drainages provide nodules with subrounded to very angular cortex. rary camp is less than the cost of field processing the raw material In summary, the quartzite discarded at Vleesbaai was likely S. Oestmo et al. / Quaternary International 350 (2014) 147e168 165 collected from a combination of these nearby primary outcrops, expediently whether in a cave or on the open landscape. In low-energy non-perennial streambeds and potentially high-energy contrast, non-quartzite tools may have been made primarily at the streambeds dissecting these outcrops, and high-energy cobble cave sites, and discarded or lost more frequently on the landscape. beaches or beach terraces that today are submerged by the ocean or The project will continue to document assemblages from pale- dunes. osol exposures to assess variability across the landscape. Some The low-levels of retouch on quartzite across the landscape targeted areas will be excavated to understand how extensive suggest a consistent behavioral pattern e quartzite tools are surface occurrences may be vertically distributed. An OSL dating minimally retouched and discarded in similar frequencies whether program is in progress, which will allow for the establishment of a within a cave or on the landscape. However, a different pattern is chronological framework of the Vleesbaai sequence. Once a chro- visible with the non-quartzite artifacts from both Vleesbaai and nological framework is established, the open-air archaeological Pinnacle Point. The non-quartzite artifacts from Vleesbaai have a occurrences can be more tightly related to the paleoclimatic/pale- higher retouch frequency than quartzite artifacts, and have a much oenvironmental and archaeological records at Pinnacle Point. higher retouch frequency than both non-quartzite and quartzite artifacts from the caves/rock shelters. This suggests that the non- Acknowledgments quartzite artifacts tend to be discarded away from cave/rock shel- ter settings more frequently than within. This pattern would be We would like to acknowledge the three anonymous reviewers expected in a technological system where non-quartzite tools were that greatly helped improve this manuscript. We also would like to manufactured at residential sites in advance of extractive activities, thank editors Scerri and Groucutt for inviting us to this special used, curated, and discarded on the landscape when they lost their issue. Neysa Grider-Potter, Jacob Harris, James McGrath, Daniel utility, but quartzite tools were manufactured, used, and discarded Peart, Lori Phillips, Chris Shelton, Telmo Pereira, and Tove€ Ruth in a more expedient way. Smith provided important assistance during fieldwork. Kyle S. Brown, Betina Gennari, Cindy Nelson, and the MAP-CRM crew in 8. Conclusion Mossel Bay also made this research possible. PP13B data were provided by Erin Thompson, Hope Williams, and Tom Minichillo, The fabric analyses of the three different areas of focus suggest and PP9 and Cape St. Blaize data were provided by Erin Thompson. relatively intact archaeological deposits with some localized post- Eddie Raubenheimer and the Nautilus Bay Home Owner's Associ- discard disturbance at Vleesbaai, an MSA open-air locality on the ation, the Springerbaai Nature Reserve, Roland Scholtz and the south coast of South Africa. Variability in local taphonomic distur- Fransmanhoek Conservancy, and Mr. Ricky van Rensberg gener- bances is expected, but the three studied areas several kilometers ously provided access to the paleosol exposures. The majority of apart display the same minimal amount of post-depositional this research was funded by the National Science Foundation (USA; disturbance. This suggests that the archaeology observed else- grants # BCS-1138073, BCS-9912465, BCS-0130713, and BCS- where across Vleesbaai and Visbaai may hold similarly intact 0524087 to Curtis Marean), the Hyde Family Foundation, the archaeological sites. It is worth noting again that it is important to Institute of Human Origins, Arizona State University, NORAM, and investigate post-depositional processes prior to making behavioral the Andrew E. and G. Norman Wigeland Fund. inferences. The fresh condition of the artifacts at all three areas suggests Appendix A. Supplementary data little exposure to the elements, which in turn suggests that the surface scatters have deflated and eroded out of a sediment and Supplementary data related to this article can be found at http:// onto the stable yellowish-red paleosol that they are presently dx.doi.org/10.1016/j.quaint.2014.07.043. located on. 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