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Managing Increasing Complexity in Undergraduate Digital Media Education: The impact and benefits of multidisciplinary collaboration Dr Katja Fleischmann and Professor Ryan Daniel, James Cook University, School of Creative Arts, Australia

Abstract computer and the emergence of interactive digital media. Increasing complexity is one of the most pertinent issues The widespread growth of the Internet has created a when discussing the role and future of design, wealth of new areas in which designers are engaged and and their education. The evolving nature of digital media has also transformed their work, creative processes and technology has resulted in a profession in a state of flux role. Early on, it was argued by commentators such as with increasingly complex communication and design Nelson (1995), McCoy (1998) and Viemeister (2001) problems. The ability to collaborate and interact with other that a new breed of was required to manage disciplines has recently been strongly articulated as an these new and technologically complex media forms. imperative skill for the future designer. How the education Indeed, Heller (2001:ix) noted that ‘a new designer is of such a designer is facilitated in practice is less well needed to orchestrate and construct the future’. defined. The implementation of authentic problem-solving processes that introduce design students to workplace Designers now need to be able to navigate within a realities is often missing in . In order to shifting economic, social, cultural and technological manage the increasing complexities of design problems landscape; design and communication problems have and technology a learning and teaching approach that become increasingly complex. They are often part of larger facilitates the interaction of multiple disciplines was systems, with design solutions required to be effective on

implemented and trialed over a period of two years in an more than just a component , but for ‘a group of RESEARCH undergraduate digital media design programme. This interacting, interrelated, and interdependent components approach, known as the POOL model framework, is based that form a complex and unified whole’ (Pegasus on a ‘pool’ of resources and people to be applied as Communications, 2012). Problem-solving today often needed when responding to complex design problems. includes a multitude of other disciplines (e.g. Cullen, This paper focuses on the extent to which complex 1998; McCoy, 1998; Kerlow, 2001; Kelly, 2005; Whyte interactive design projects can be managed through and Bessant, 2007; Dubberly, 2011; Hunt, 2011) and multidisciplinary collaboration. Feedback from students ‘boundaries between design disciplines are more fluid’ and educators is presented and which reveals that the (Icograda, 2011:8), thus resulting in the growth of framework does provide an opportunity for students to interdisciplinary knowledge. This situation is challenging for resolve complex design and technological problems and designers because in this ‘complex, changing professional contribute to project outcomes that could not be achieved environment…design involves more skills and knowledge when working individually. than one designer can hope to provide’ (Friedman, 2000:21). Indeed, the profession of a digital media Key words designer has altered considerably in just a few years and a multidisciplinary collaboration, digital media design contemporary designer should ‘focus on the distinctive education, POOL Model framework, alternative learning areas where their skills will make a contribution and allow and teaching approach other specialists to take primary responsibility for others’ (Whyte and Bessant, 2007:15). In fact, according to Whyte Introduction and Bessant (2007:15) it is ‘[t]his collaborative approach Increasing complexity is one of the most pertinent issues to design [that] will be particularly relevant in some areas regarding the role and future of design, designers and their as the design of multi-technology products is simply too education. Our lives have become more complex; complex for an individual to comprehend’. interconnectedness has facilitated the building of a global society, greater awareness of systems and their dynamics While work processes in the design profession have in a rapidly changing world (Sanders, 2003; Davis, 2011; changed from a solitary approach to working as part of Malouf, 2011). According to Barnes-Powell (2008:378), collaborative and multidisciplinary teams, in design the ‘two momentum trends of this century are growing education such methods are rare, particularly at complexity and increasing rates of change’. Advancements undergraduate level. Design educators seem at times in digital technology can be directly linked to these oblivious to the context today’s designers are operating in developments (Malouf, 2011). The design industry has and what design graduates need to be prepared for undergone significant change since the introduction of the (60Sox, 2009; Bennett, 2009; Design Victoria, 2009;

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Rothstein, 2002; Canniffe, 2011; ISIS, 2011). While Digital paradigms and potential new areas for designers to collaboration and interaction with other disciplines is engage in have been largely driven by an interdependent increasingly articulated as a key skill for a designer (e.g. relationship between design and information technology Heller and Talarico, 2011; Hunt, 2011), the means of (IT). The sophistication of the IT components driving many educating such a designer is less well defined. VanPatter digital media projects requires specialised expertise (2010) argues that ‘[a]s early as 2002 many of the need beyond the capacity of any one individual (Cooper, 2001; for change signals were there [yet] many design education Kacmarek, 2001; Womack, 2005). Websites ‘have evolved institutions ignored them for as long as possible’. from simple “brochureware” to sophisticated “megasystems”, and this logical progression has led to the In fact, professional design bodies and design practitioners challenge to successfully develop complex Websites’ are increasingly alarmed by the gap between what is (Waltuch, 2001:154). This increased complexity is taught in design education programmes and what is illustrated in Figure 1. practiced. Davis (2011:73) argues that ‘[c]omplexity is an essential characteristic of our present context and it has As Figure 1 shows, not only is website production now serious implications for what and how we teach’. Reports increasingly complex, but the area of digital media design continue to emerge suggesting that digital media design now contains several areas of expertise, each a discipline graduates are not sufficiently prepared to enter the world in its own right. The cast of contributors extends beyond of work (Ball, 2003; and Creative & digital media and/or to include a diverse Cultural Skills, 2007; Whyte and Bessant, 2007; 60Sox, range of expertise such as information , 2010; ISIS, 2011). If digital media design graduates are software , research and theory, business not sufficiently prepared to tackle today’s complexities, strategy and content production—as well as digital

RESEARCH what can be expected of them in the future? photography, , 3D model making, musical composition, performance and other allied creative The increasing complexity of digital technology and disciplines (Nelson, 2001). Specialists from other areas the digital media designer such as ‘communications theory…, including semiotics, Buchanan (1992:19), in his paper ‘Wicked Problems in but also cognitive and perceptual psychology and ’, raised the fact that technology was strategies from the social sciences and cultural regarded by people ‘as things and machines, observing anthropology’ (McCoy, 1998) are also often involved in with concern that the machines of our culture often the development of interactive digital media design appear out of human control, threatening to trap and solutions. enslave rather than liberate’. While digital technology and its rapid development are still often regarded as Kacmarek (2001) described this shift of collaboration from confronting, the notion of technology being abstracted or a vertical to a more horizontal approach. Indeed, the ‘out of human control’ has been challenged. Digital increasing complexity of many digital media projects now technology has become so intertwined with the post- demands collaboration between digital media designers industrial world that it is seen as an enabler–to and information technology experts. Dubberly (2011:80) communicate, to access knowledge, to deliver describes this changed relationship: entertainment and to an enhanced lifestyle. The profession of the digital media designer is inextricably A designer’s relation to a printer is very different than a linked to technological progress, using it to create these designer’s relation to a programmer. In both cases, a enabling services, products and applications. However, the designer may develop a specification, but both the evolving nature of digital media technology has created a specifications and proceeding steps are very different. digital media design profession in a state of flux (Kerlow, Printing is all about reproduction and requires little 2001; Davis, 2005a). Mobile devices, for example, turned invention from the printer; programming has almost into ‘a channel for delivering communication, services and nothing to do with reproduction and requires a lot of media’ (McMillan, 2009:28), which is a new paradigm invention by the programmer. Consulting your printer with its own set of rules and a still to be during design is a good idea; consulting your fully developed (McMillan, 2009). New opportunities are programmer during design is a necessity. currently emerging for the digital media designer, with immersive systems being developed, promising users ‘the Commentators today reiterate the collaborative and same sensations from simulated environments that they flexible nature of the digital media design process. For would have from physical ones’ (Colucci, 2011:66). example, Friedman (2012:143) states that designers work in ‘transdisciplinary teams whose nature and constituency

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Figure 1. Specialised design and IT knowledge domains involved in creating a website with e-commerce functionality.

changes according to the project at hand’. This is, complex extensive use of hard- and software in digital media design scenarios today cannot be resolved by one person design and the time it takes to acquire technical skills or discipline alone. (Heller, 2005). Information technology (scripting and programming) is a component of most interactive digital Is education capable of managing increasing media design projects. While Reed and Davies complexities in digital media design? (2006:183) explained that authoring software such as Change typically occurs faster in industry than in education Dreamweaver and GoLive allowed ‘designers to move (Marshall and Austin, 2004; Davis, 2005b), ‘making it directly from a mocked-up design to a finished and coded difficult for education to keep pace with the world of work’ layout with only a rudimentary understanding of the (Marshall and Austin 2004:102). This scenario, according underlying code’ when creating websites, the reality is that to DiPaola, Dorosh and Brandt (2004), leads to ‘shortfalls the ‘rapid deployment and development of dynamic and inadequacies in the education students receive. The online content…has brought coding back into the design skills they need to effectively work in professional practice classroom’. This was recently reiterated by Amiri are not necessarily the ones that are emphasized’. Heller (2011:201), who explains that the ‘code-less approach to (2005:128) echoes this view, stating that undergraduate developing interactivity is no longer sufficient to meet the students ‘are not entirely prepared (or confident) to sophistication that people and the industry have come to function in a world of integrated practice and advanced expect from interactive digital artefacts’. technology’. Scholz (2005) argues that design education requires a flexible curriculum. Latham (2002:829) agrees Consequently, design students would initially have to learn and argues for ‘design programmes that are flexible and and master a variety of software, video and sound adaptable’. Longhauser (2005:125) states that it is the compression technologies, as well as programming and ‘responsibility of design education to take a leadership role scripting, before engaging in the creative idea-finding and develop a narrative that remains relevant regardless of process. They will arguably be overwhelmed by the evolving and technological advances’. technical and technological skills required of them before they are able to start designing (Maeda, 2002; Amiri, For design students, learning in an ever-changing digital 2011). Although Maeda (2002) and Amiri (2011) argue media environment can be demanding, because of the that design schools should enable students to learn both

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design and programming skills, others (e.g. Weiman, education and the nature of the digital media design 2001; Zee, 2001) believe that developing a basic industry was conducted and which has been reported understanding is sufficient. In fact Young (2001:66) sees previously (Fleischmann, 2010). These foregrounding the advantage of design students working ‘much more investigations were conducted so as to create a framework closely with the programming team members … [in that intended to enhance the employability of digital media it] allows designers to communicate more intelligently and design students. In order to provide authentic processes in to have much closer collaborations’. problem-solving and/or product development in design education, the framework is based on the interaction of Flexible and responsive digital media design education multiple disciplines, in order to enable students to solve As part of developing the principles for an alternative complex problems collaboratively. At its core, and to learning and teaching framework, an extensive review of facilitate a flexible curriculum design, the learning and literature and research into the practice of design teaching approach is based on a ‘pool’ idea, defined as a group of resources or people to be used when needed.

Thus, the POOL Model framework consists of a teaching and a learning pool containing specialists from diverse but connected disciplines. In the teaching pool, educators work collaboratively to

RESEARCH define a problem or project for students in multidisciplinary teams. Stakeholders external to the university are also part of the teaching pool, including industry professionals, community clients, advisors, experts or sponsors. In the learning pool, students from different disciplines form teams to solve a defined problem or produce a project collaboratively. The composition of the team will depend upon the presented problem/project. While working in these collaborative multidisciplinary teams, a student will gain insights into, and develop an understanding of, other disciplines. Additional time will be used to concentrate upon discipline-specific skill development while experiencing a more holistic and efficient approach to solving complex problems or completing projects. Figure 2 provides an illustration of the POOL Model framework in action.

Figure 2. POOL Model framework (subject trial CXC Trial B).

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Implementing the POOL Model framework in an year undergraduate degree programme titled Bachelor of academic environment New Media Arts. As well as majoring in digital media The POOL Model framework was implemented at a design, students choose a minor or another major (double medium sized regional Australian University within a three- major) in digital imaging, digital visual arts, digital sound or RESEARCH

Table 1. Data gathering methods applied to explore perspectives of students, educators and external stakeholders.

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Table 2. Digital media design students’ reflections on the benefits of the multidisciplinary approach on project outcomes. performance. Whether students choose a second major or ‘offer depth of qualitative understanding with reach of a minor, they develop basic skills and an understanding of quantitative techniques’ (Fielding, 2012:124); use another creative arts discipline. triangulation for different data sources (students, educators, industry professionals) and ‘allow expression of The following three subjects from the digital media design different facets of knowledge or experience’ (Bazeley, major were selected for application of the POOL Model 2004:4) adding depth and/or breadth to the study; and framework: Web Authoring 1–an introductory use triangulation for data obtained through different subject (Web 1), Web Authoring 2–an advanced methods (questionnaires and interviews), providing

RESEARCH interactive media design subject (Web 2) and Creative corroborating evidence for the conclusions drawn, i.e. Exchange Project–the production of a major creative validation technique (Bazeley, 2004; Johnson and project or large scale published work (CXC). These three Christensen, 2008; Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009). subjects were identified as suitable to trial the POOL Model framework because of the nature of the projects The study was conducted over a two-year period across that students would work with, and in particular, the three subjects taught in two iterations (Trial A and Trial B), opportunity to develop more advanced and realized with minor changes made in Trial B reflecting feedback outcomes. Each subject involved three hours of contact from the initial trial. Overall, an identical approach to data time per academic week (totalling 39 hours over the analysis was applied across the trials. Quantitative data semester). Weekly contact time typically comprised a one- were analysed using statistic functions provided by an hour lecture and a two-hour practical session in a online survey tool (SurveyMonkey). Qualitative data were computer lab, with the latter focused on ideas generation coded using the research analysis software NVivo. In some and collaborative problem solving. Students are expected instances qualitative data was quantified. to study independently for an additional seven hours per subject per week. Participants in the trials who provided feedback included 149 undergraduate digital media design students and 173 Methods applied to explore the impact of the POOL undergraduate students from four other creative arts Model framework disciplines and from eight non-creative arts disciplines. A This research study was framed by a pragmatic approach total of 25 educators from nine disciplines and 13 creative (Punch, 2009) and methods that best helped to answer industry professionals and external industry/community the following research question (Johnson and Christensen, clients were involved. Table 1 outlines details of 2008; Punch, 2009; Teddlie and Tashakkori, 2009): to participants, the feedback mechanism used, the number what extent can the complexities of today’s interactive of participants and the response from each subject trial. digital media design projects be managed through multidisciplinary collaboration in undergraduate digital As shown in Table 1, with the exception of CXC in Trial A, media design education? With pragmatism rejecting the focus group interviews yielded higher response rates than incompatibility of mixing qualitative and quantitative questionnaires. Nevertheless, three of the six research methods, a parallel mixed design (a single-phase questionnaires yielded a response rate of 90 per cent or design in which researchers implement the quantitative higher. The response rate of educators was positive; 21 of and qualitative methods at the same time or with slight the 25 educators involved (84 per cent) participated in overlaps) was applied. This would provide insider and the interviews. outsider viewpoints (Johnson and Christensen, 2008);

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Student reflections on the impact and benefits of the It is encouraging that not only do students refer to the POOL Model framework project outcome as being more developed and improved, Table 2 presents digital media design students’ reflections but they also support the multidisciplinary process. To on the extent to which they felt the projects benefited further explore this, Table 3 presents the additional from a multidisciplinary collaborative approach. findings obtained within focus group interviews.

The findings are positive, with over 90 per cent of The findings presented in Table 3 provide further evidence students acknowledging the benefits of working with other in support of the intended outcome of the framework. disciplines. To further evidence this finding, qualitative What is notable is that the students—regardless of their explanations in questionnaires were coded as themes and discipline—were able to identify how the multidisciplinarity quantified in terms of the number of times they were of teams facilitated an enhanced project outcome, in that referenced by students. The main identified themes, group members could: presented in descending order, were: • draw on the expertise of others; • having other disciplines on the team is beneficial in order • benefit from a complementary skill set or range of skills; to achieve the project outcome (65); • and create a better, professional, functional and more • project could not have been completed without the complete project of higher quality than one produced as other discipline(s) (25); an individual or in a single discipline team. • created a better and bigger project (25); • continued to focus on own discipline within Educator and industry/community reflections on the multidisciplinary team (23); impact and benefits of the POOL Model framework

• gained insights into other disciplines (18); Table 4 presents the key themes that emerged in regard RESEARCH • learned to work with others and understand to the project outcomes from the coding of interviews with multidisciplinary teamwork process (14); educators (21) and six external clients from the • having an authentic experience (7). community and industry.

Table 3. Coded themes from student focus group interviews that evidence the opportunity to contribute to a product or outcome that could not be achieved when working as an individual or in a single discipline team.

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Table 4. Reflections from educators and external clients on project outcomes.

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Table 4. Reflections from educators and external clients on project outcomes (continued).

It is evident from Table 4 that all educators (21) felt that levels of students, teamwork functionality, external client projects displayed characteristics of being produced in a tastes. Finally, it is noteworthy that the changes made to multidisciplinary team. It can also be seen that educators Trial B were regarded as successful by the educators reflected on the quality of final projects. For example, involved, revealing the benefit of ongoing adjustments and educators in Web 1 and Web 2 stated that more could enhancements to the framework. have been achieved. Similarly, one educator in CXC, while acknowledging that there was a range of quality in project Factors inhibiting the success of projects outcomes, felt that all projects had problems. A small number of students argued that the Nevertheless, the majority of educators in both trials of multidisciplinarity of teams did not enable the CXC (14) were very satisfied with the project outcomes. achievement of a more advanced or developed project

Indeed, one educator in Trial A argued that ‘some of it is outcome (n=10, seven per cent). Equally, some educators RESEARCH industry standard, some of it is really innovative, some of it noted that certain projects were not as well developed as you would happily send anywhere in the world as an they could have been. In the following sections, both example of the type of project that students do’ (CXC A). stakeholder groups’ perspectives are considered regarding the factors that may have prevented teams from The largely positive views on project outcomes were developing projects to their full potential. supported by external clients from industry/community, all of whom stated that they were very satisfied with the Inhibiting factors: student reflections projects and how students had responded to the project Table 5 summarises the digital media design students’ requirements. At the same time, the external client in Web (n=10, seven per cent) feedback from questionnaires on 1 A implicitly agrees that there was a range in the quality factors inhibiting the full development of their projects. of final outcomes, stating, ‘I was very impressed with many of the projects’. Ultimately, diverse project outcomes Although the number of comments is too small to draw are arguably typical when students work on open-ended generalisations from, they do illustrate important realities problems. Indeed, a variety of factors can influence the of multidisciplinary teamwork, in that individuals who fail achievement of project outcomes, e.g., skill and motivation to contribute and lack of communication can be

Table 5. Digital media design students’ reflections on challenges inhibiting the achievement of a fully developed project outcome.

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detrimental to the process. Furthermore, the comments subject where students are asked to integrate the highlight the fact that expectations of some team knowledge and skills they have gained during their course members may not be completely met and may cause of study (as in CXC), in the case of Web 1 and Web 2, projects to be underdeveloped. However, it is positive that students both acquire new knowledge and skills and apply some of these students, while acknowledging challenges them simultaneously to a team project. Hence, careful within their own experience, still argued in favour of the planning is required in order to 1) manage the delivery of process and the framework that underpins it. discipline-specific content, 2) prepare students for the collaborative process and 3) ensure that students develop Inhibiting factors: educator reflections discipline-specific skills while part of the multidisciplinary Although the educators were generally satisfied with the team (for a detailed description see Fleischmann, 2013). project outcomes, some expressed the view that certain projects needed greater development. Key identified Conclusion challenges were: The feedback from both students and educators demonstrated that the POOL Model framework enabled • some students did not pull their weight; digital media design students to contribute to a product or • some groups had team issues, and hence performance outcome that could not be achieved by an individual or a issues; and single discipline team. This suggests that students were • some students had a low skill level, and therefore were able to manage complexities inherent to interactive digital not able to perform as requested. media design projects by utilising a multidisciplinary collaboration approach. Indeed, both digital media design These are clearly typical issues involved in any teamwork students and those from other disciplines were very

RESEARCH process, which can be to a certain extent managed positive about this part of the process. Educators, while through assessment strategies. In terms of the POOL positive about the potential of the framework, did identify Model framework, students are assessed on their specific a range in the quality of outcomes and also a varying level disciplinary contribution (assessed by an educator from of engagement across the teams. Ultimately, the POOL the discipline) and on their team contribution and Model framework enables multidisciplinary collaboration to performance (e.g. teamwork skills, communication skills facilitate the production of complex concepts and projects; and organization skills), the latter evaluated by their peers. nevertheless, there is no guarantee that the quality of The final project mark for each student is also scaled, in projects will match educators’ expectations, nor those of order to reflect his or her individual contribution and any external client involved. However, this is a situation attitude towards the team. However, although these inherent in any open-ended project work in design assessment strategies can minimise team education, and regardless of whether students work as dysfunctionalities–in making assessment fairer as each individuals or in teams. At the same time, it was evident individual student takes responsibility for their learning and that facilitating processes where students can draw on the behavior within the team–it nevertheless cannot prevent expertise of others and hence benefit from a the fact that students have varying skill levels, diverse complementary skill set or range of skills is an effective creative talent, as well as different level of motivation. way to approach the increasing complexity of technology and communication problems in digital media design. Three educators provided a realistic view of the realities of working with students, exemplified in the following Overall, the POOL Model framework was developed to comment: respond to the increasing complexities of technology, design and communication problems and to manage Sometimes we are treating students as if they are the them effectively. Facilitating design students’ engagement experts…but they are not… So being able to say, ‘Yes, I in authentic problem-solving processes and environments can implement that,’ and comfortably doing it is that reflect industry practice is one way to help achieve probably difficult if they haven’t done it before. this, as was the premise of the POOL Model framework (Educator, Web 1 B). trials. It certainly became clear during these trials, that if design educators are committed to taking steps to move The above comment demonstrates a situation which is away from traditional ways of teaching design, then particular to undergraduate design education, when graduates have the potential to be able to design, create multidisciplinary collaboration approaches are and innovate as part of multidisciplinary collaborative implemented while students are still acquiring knowledge teams in contemporary as well as future work and skills. In contrast to a capstone and final semester environments.

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