Duncanrig Secondary School

National 4 / 5

Design & Manufacture - Revision Notes

Contents

Page 01 Safety in the Workshop 02 Design and the Design Process 03 The Design Team and Design Factors 04 Function and performance 05 Ergonomics 06 Aesthetics 07 Market 08 Society & the Environment 09 Research 10 Idea Generation 11 Graphic Techniques 12 Modelling Techniques 13 Technology in the World of Work 13 Materials Properties 14 Materials WOOD 15 - 16 Woodwork Tools 17 - 18 Woodwork Joints 19 Wood Preparation and Finishes 20 Wood Lathe 21 Vices, Clamping and Gluing 22 Screws, Nails and Fixings 23 - 24 Materials METAL 25 Metalwork and Plastic Tools 26 Joining Metals 27 Metal Preparation and Finishes 28 Sand Casting 29 Die Casting, Piercing & Blanking and Notching/Shearing 30 Metalwork Lathe 31 Screw Threads 32 Hot Forming Metals 33 Cold Forming Metals 34 Extrusion 35 Materials - PLASTIC 36 Line Bending, Injection Moulding and Vacuum Forming 37 Rotation Moulding 38 CAD/CAM/CNC, Rapid Prototyping and Manufacturing 39 Drilling 40 Power Tools

Safety Safety in the school workshop is the responsibility of everyone who uses it. Accidents usually occur when people are fooling around or being careless.

For your own safety:  Ensure that you follow the workshop code of safety at all times.  Only use machines and tools that you have been given permission to.  Act responsibly and respect your own and others safety in the workshop.

When working in the workshop ensure:  That you are wearing an apron  Long hair is tied back.  Hanging jewellery is removed.  Any loose clothing is secured  Shoe laces are tied up.  You don't run in the workshop.  Wear other safety clothing where appropriate e.g. goggles, face mask etc.

Safety Signs  Red signs (Prohibition Signs) display things that are not allowed e.g. No naked flames.

 Blue Signs (Mandatory Signs) display things that must be done e.g. wear goggles.

 Yellow Signs (Warning Signs) display warnings e.g. danger of electrocution.

 Green Signs (Safety Signs) display where first aid boxes/fire exits are etc.

 Fire Signs show where fire extinguishers/hoses etc. are locat- ed.

Safety Equipment (PPE - Personal Protection Equipment)

Goggles Face shield Safety Gloves Standard eye For use with Standard protection for machinery such protection for use with most as a grinder hands when machines. where there will working with hot be a lot of sparks. materials, sharp sheet metal and machinery.

Welding Mask Apron Protection for body For eye protection and clothes. when welding.

01 S Atkins (2009) Design and the Design Process WHAT IS DESIGN? • It is how we as designers solve everyday problems in our environment but, it is much more than simply problem solving. • It helps us to realise and create many ideas that will lead to innovative new products that will help people in their daily lives. • Through continuous design, new and innovative products are constantly being created. • It is a large process that involves many steps to create effective working products from initial thoughts through to testing, manufacture and evaluation. • It affects our society and ourselves. Imagine life without transport, iPods, television and computers. How do some of these designs affect you? • Outside factors affect design such as current technologies and fashions etc. • Designers can gives us good and bad design that can help or disrupt our way of life/working. • Every product you use, from clothes to food and entertainment has been designed using a common design process.

The Design Process 1. PROBLEM/BRIEF

10. FINAL EVALUATION 2. ANALYSIS

9. MANUFACTURE 3. RESEARCH AND INVESTIGATION

DESIGN CYCLE 8. PLANNING FOR MANUFACTURE 4. REQUIRED SPECIFICATION

7. SOLUTION 5. INITIAL IDEAS

6. IDEAS DEVELOPMENT

STAGE WHAT IS IT? WHAT HAPPENS HERE Problem/Brief At this stage a problem is realised and a design brief written up which explains 1. the problem and 2. gives an indication of a very early solution (the brief). Analysis At this stage the designer will consider the various design factors that may affect the products design (See next page for design (e.g. materials, manufacture, economics and so on). A mind map/brainstorm/bubble diagram is usually factors/considerations) drawn to show your line of thought. (See the next page for design factors/issues that should be considered). Research/Investigation More detailed than analysis. At this stage you will begin to focus your research based on what design considerations you feel are the most important from your analysis. Required Specification A specific list of all of the things that your design must achieve to ensure that the problem/brief is solved. Initial Ideas Begin sketching ideas of possible solutions to your problem and evaluate each to find the best poten- tial solutions. Ideas Development Develop your best idea or ideas to determine the final solution and continue to evaluate these ideas in relation to your specification. Solution Draw up your final solution and evaluate it. Planning for manufacture A list of the steps you will take to construct your solution. This will also have to consist of working drawings and a cutting list.

Manufacture Build your solution in the workshop. Final Evaluation Overall evaluation of your solution and folio to see where you could improve and what you have done well.

02 The Design Team

Designer: Person who designs a product for a client. The designer will have a wide area of knowledge ranging from: market, manufacture, consumer wants and needs. This allows the designer to design a product that satisfies a particular clients needs.

Market Researcher: Person who researches the market, compiling data from consumers. The market researcher will then inform the designer to ensure a successful end product can be made.

Ergonomist: Person who specialises in ergonomic data such as anthropometrics etc.

Economist: Person who deals with market economics. This may involve looking at the current cost of certain products on the market, costing of competitor products and the cost of materials.

Engineers: Person who deals with the technical aspects of building and producing a product. The engineer will have specialist knowledge of materials and how to construct any given product.

Manufacturer: Person who deals with manufacture. Unlike the engineer, the manufacturer will focus specifically on the processes required to make a product and what machinery/processes can be used to do this.

Accountant: Person who deals with costing and budgeting. The accountant will look over project finances and ensure that the project stays within its budget.

Retailer: A company or business that will stock and sell the end product. Design Factors

These are all considerations that you must think about at the analysis stage of your project. These will help you to focus in on what you want from your design.

Aesthetics - See Aesthetics revision sheet. (Page 06)

Ergonomics - See Ergonomics revision sheet. (Page 05)

Materials - Consider the range of materials available to you and research how these could effect your final design in terms of strength, aesthetics, properties and suitable processes. (See bottom of page 13 for material properties).

Manufacture - Consider how you will actually manufacture the design. Look at different ways in which the design can be constructed and how difficult each manufacturing method would be. How durable, strong, will the design have to be?

Economics - Consider issues relating to cost. How much will materials be? How much will it cost to construct?. These factors will effect what you can do with your design.

Market - Who will be buying the product? Will this affect the final design? Market research is very important to a designer, as it helps them to focus on what a particular client wants or identify a gap in the market. (Page 07)

Safety - What are the safety considerations? Will it conform to British standards?

Function - What is the primary and secondary function of the design. The primary function is the main thing that the design will need to do i.e. a coffee table is made to sit cups/mugs/glasses on. The secondary function is any extra functions that the design could have i.e. a coffee table may also have a magazine rack underneath. It may be that style is as important as a secondary function. (Further information on page 04).

Environment - Will it be used indoors or outdoors? If indoors where? If outdoors where? Should it fit in or stand out from its environment. Could the design be more environmentally friendly? What extreme conditions might it have to withstand? What about sustainability and recycling?

03 Function in more detail

Primary and secondary functions

What does the product do? Does it only do one thing, or does it do many things? Normally products have one main function, this is called the Primary Function and it is usually decided early in the design cycle when the design brief is being written. Along with the Primary function, the product may also have many other functions that are less important. These are called Secondary Functions.

The Primary function of the desk pictured on the right is to provide the user with a work area.

The Secondary functions are Storage (it has storage areas within the legs) and to be aesthetically pleasing (it is not your average flat pack desk).

Fitness for Purpose

When evaluating and testing products possibly the most important question a designer can ask is ‘How well does the product do its job?’ In other words a designer needs to know if a product is ‘fit for purpose’. The term fit for purpose means does the final design do the job it is supposed to. Performance

Durability Ease of maintenance

Durability is the life expectancy of a product, or Ease of Maintenance is how difficult it is for a user to how long it is expected to last. This is decided keep a product in good working order throughout its by the materials that the product is made from life. A cheaper product is probably intended to be and planned obsolescence. thrown away after use and will need no mainte- nance. A more expensive product is likely to last For example, washing machines are designed to much longer and will require periodic maintenance be replaced after about six years, this allows the to keep it in good order. manufacturer to constantly sell new models, bringing in more business by continuing to satisfy the buyer’s desire to have the Materials latest, most fashionable model. In order to decide which materials to use we must Ease of Use have an idea of what properties we wish them to have. For instance, a car wing-mirror must be water- Ease of use or ‘Usability’ is how easy the final proof, resistant to sunlight, impact resistant, chemi- user finds the product to use. Is the product self cally resistant and corrosion resistant. On top of this, explanatory or does it require an instruction the shape of the wing mirror must be able to be manual ? formed easily as it is a mass produced’ product.

Choice of Materials will have a direct effect on sever- Construction al aspects of the design, including: The manufactur-

ing processes that can be used, The finishes that can When designing a product, various construction be applied, The disposal of a product at the end of its methods and materials must be evaluated life, The cost of the product, The lifespan of the prod- based on the desired properties of the final uct, The product’s performance in terms of strength, item. weight etc. . 04 Ergonomics Ergonomics can be described as the study of how we as Physiology humans interact with products in everyday life. Every This deals with the physical aspect of using a product. well designed product must be easy, comfortable and safe to use. For example, how much force do you need to apply when pushing a button on something like a mobile phone? Not every part of a product needs to be ergonomically designed however. Things like the inside components of How much force do we need to apply when pushing the a DVD player would not need to be, as we would not pedals on a bike before the gears allow the wheel to begin have to operate them or touch them. It can be said that moving? the parts of products we need to operate and touch need ergonomic design. Psychology This deals with how we the consumer, view products and how Designing handles ergonomically appearance can persuade our buying choices.

The following example explains what aspects of the Will the appearance of the product affect our design to buy it? human hand a designer would consider when designing If it looks ugly or awkward to use we may be unsure of buying a handle. it. Refer back to aesthetics.

Handles Width/Diameter Anthropometrics When designing a product a designer needs to ensure that 1. Is the handle wide enough the sizes of the product are designed ergonomically correct. to be comfortable to use, To do this a designer would look at anthropometric data. without being too wide that it is difficult to grip or could slip out This data shows all measurements from different parts of the of the hand easily? human body for men, women, children and ethnicity of different ages, and is displayed in a range of tables.

2. Or is it to narrow that it cuts To help decide on what sizes to use in terms of whether into the fingers cutting something is to be designed for a large size or small size of the blood supply? designers use percentiles.

3. Or is it just right so that the user can get a good firm grip and hold it comfortably?

Handles Length

1. Is the length of the handle long enough to allow all four fingers to fit through it without squashing them.

2. Or is it too long that the hand can slide to one end making it difficult to hold level?

5th percentile shows us the extreme range of smaller sizes in people. 3. Or is it just right so that the fingers fit without being squashed 50th percentile shows us the mean average of sizes in and the handle ends stop any people. sliding. 95th percentile shows us the extreme range of larger siz- es in people.

If the handle is too long or continues to slip in the hand Designers tend to design somewhere in between the 50th could we design the handle in a way that makes it easier and 5th percentiles or 50th and 95th percentiles. That means to grip and hold comfortably? the 5% of extreme sizes are normally not catered for and need specialist product made for them. For example If we use a slip resistant material such as rubber which someone with a size 15 shoe will have to go to a specialist is also soft and can be shaped easily we could design an shoe maker. ergonomic handle that would look something like this. Q. Think about a standard chair/computer seat/bench. Write down a list of all the important ergonomic features you would have to think about when designing that particular chair. Consider percentiles and what aspects of the chair these

05 Aesthetics Aesthetics is an important consideration for the designer because it concerns the way things look. Consumers are more likely to buy products based on their appearance. The following are the main considerations that a designer would make when considering aes-

Colour and Shape  The two aesthetic properties that are easiest to understand.  Both colour and shape can be used to create contrast or harmony.  Colour can be used to target specific markets i.e. bright colours would be used for children's toys, sophisticated colouring for high class products and so on.

Harmony Balance  This is where parts of a design work well together or the  Most products are designed to be symmetrical. design fits in with a specific environment Others can be designed asymmetrically.  It creates a sense of peace and relaxation.  Experimenting with different shapes or colours can add  Simple shapes and colours that work well together interest to your design. should be used to achieve this.

Contrast Proportion  The opposite of harmony where designs are made to  Small changes to the proportion of a shape can make it stand out and be bold. look more elegant, classy, stable or sleek.  This can sometimes make a design more  This example of a 1980’s BMW 3 series and a eye-catching. modern 2007 BMW 3 series shows how simple changes  Contrasting colours (purple/yellow) and a mixture of to proportion can make designs more modern sleek shapes can make designs bold and contrasting. and elegant.

Shape and Form Fashion and Style  This describes the shape of a design. Will it be  A fashion is something that is current. It is something geometric (squares, triangles, circles and so on) or that has been accepted by consumers are will remain will it be organic (free flowing curves, natural popular for a period of time. designs).  Form is also 3D and is developed from initial 2D shapes.  A style is more distinct and can be classed as a mode of expression. Styles remain constant and can be popular at different times. A style will always come back into fashion or design and can be used when designing product to achieve a certain theme.

It is important that designer design within current fashions whilst also utilising popular stylising when producing products.

Texture Pattern Different textures can make Repeating a design feature to designs look more stylish or create a pattern can create a interesting. Effects such as glass, unified and organised looking concrete, wood grain, hard, soft, design. glossy (shine), Matt (flat dull finish). colour) and so on. 06 Market

Technology Push Niche Marketing

Certain products are based on the result of technological Niche marketing is all about identifying a group of customers and innovation, referred to as technological push. In other words targeting a product to meet their specific needs. If a manufacturer advances in technology create new products and therefore new identifies a new niche and is the first to develop a product then they markets. Sometimes the products are simply better versions of will have a monopoly in sales and will achieve 100% market share. existing products but occasionally products that have not existed before are produced creating a completely new market niche. Niche marketing can be extremely cost-effective. For instance, a manufacturer may target the product to a particular demographic group, such as teenagers. The company could advertise on pop radio Market Pull or TV stations, which have considerably lower rates than those which cater for broader audiences. So the marketing budget would go a lot Consumer demand, referred to as market pull, results in products further, allowing the manufacturer to advertise with greater being created to satisfy a particular need in the market place. In frequency or to use a more comprehensive media mix. general the demand in a particular market niche is identified through market research (questionnaires, focus groups, user trails, interviews, observations etc.). Any manufacturer that does not carry out thorough market research is taking a great risk. To Market Segments

invest large sums of money in the design, development and Market segments can be thought of as groups of people who have production of a new product without checking whether or not it is something in common that will affect their choice of product. There what the public wants, is very foolish. are many ways to define a particular market group but generally they can be grouped into four categories: Consumer Needs GEOGRAPHIC: such as countries, regions, cities Human needs can be described as the feeling of being deprived. DEMOGRAPHIC: such as age, sex, income, education, race There are many human needs such as the basic physical need for food and clothing. There are other more socially interactive needs PSYCHOGRAPHIC: such as personality, lifestyle, social class. such as the needs to belong and for affection. There are also private individual needs for knowledge and self-expression. These needs are a basic part of human make-up and are not created by Market Mix design companies or advertising campaigns. When any of these needs are not satisfied the individual may do one of two things: Once the market has been defined and the target group has been Look for an object or a product to satisfy the need; or try to identified and researched, the company is ready to begin planning the reduce or eliminated the need. details of the marketing mix. The marketing mix consists of everything that can be done to influence the demand for the product. A person will try to satisfy the most important need first. When There are many factors that can influence the demand for a product that is done the individual will move on to look to satisfy the next but these can all be grouped together under four headings known as most important need. Market researchers and designers often use the Four P’s this when marketing products to consumers. Product: anything that can be offered to the market in order to satisfy a want or need. Price: the amount charged by the company or exchanged by the Consumer Wants / Demands consumer for a product.

Place: all the company’s activities that make the product available to Products too can fulfil different needs. Toys provide children with the consumer. the opportunity to learn, relax and interact with their peers. Promotion: any activity which will advertise the product and its However, children living in advanced economies would find it benefits to potential buyers. socially unacceptable to play with primitive toys that might be

found in third-world cultures. They expect the latest toys and The four P’s sets out the marketing tools which can be used to even at an early age they become image conscious, using material influence potential buyers things to fulfil their needs for social acceptance, respect and friendship.

Customers view products as providing a social benefit. They will choose the product that gives them the greatest benefit for their Social Expectation money. Given their wants, resources and interests, people will demand products that provide them with the greatest benefit. The designer must consider changing patterns of social behaviour when working on new products. Branding Aspects that would have been considered important in the design of products 50 years ago may not be seen as critical today. For example Branding is about who the company is and what they stand for. washing machines, microwave ovens and hairdryers are no longer The image carried by a company and its products is one of its most considered a luxury; they are now felt to be essential. valuable assets; indeed, the primary asset of some companies is their brand name. Creating and presenting this positive image and carrying it forward from one generation of products to the next is often critical to the success of the company. 07 Society and the environment

Three key considerations of the environment should be kept in mind: Pollution, Aesthetics, Sociology Environment. Pollution is created by the manufacturer – during the making of the product, its use and/or its disposal at the end of its life. Designers have a large responsibility to the environment and must try to keep pollution to a minimum in their designs.

Product Life Cycle

During each stage of a product’s life, its human, environmental and economic needs should be considered and investigated. This is often referred to as the cradle to the grave approach which examines the environmental impact from the production of the raw materials all the way through to the disposal of the products at the end of its life. This is highlighted on the diagram

So when creating products the designer must consider the impact on the environment and any pollution that might be created from the cradle to the grave. This is increasingly a legal requirement with the manufacturer obliged to arrange for the disposal and re-cycling of their product at the end of its useful life.

At all stages in the development, manufacture, use, and disposal of a product, environmental issues have to be considered.

The circular economy

The circular economy is a new way of thinking about how we manufacture, use and then discard the products we use.

This is what usually happens with products - they have a linear life cycle. We take away natural resources to make them. We make them using energy and then we dispose of them - usually in Landfill. This is damaging our environment. Sometimes, we reduce the amount of goods we use, or reuse it (e.g. charity shops) or we recycle them. But sometimes this is not enough. Often we recycle products the new product that can be made from the materials is not of a very good quality or it has been ‘down cycled’ into a product such as bin bags.

A new way of thinking is the Circular Economy. - The circular economy promotes products that have a much longer life cycle or that can be reproduced into a better (upcycled) or equivalent product. The Key is that there will be less waste needing to be put to landfill.

Design decisions and society

Products such as computers or even hair dryers all have a bearing on our general state of mind, particularly in a society where people lead very busy lives. The feelings of frustration we feel when a product fails to function are commonplace. Well designed products should be pleasing to use, reliable and do the job they were designed to do. In catering for the needs of the individual the designer must consider age, culture and physical ability/disability. They all have an effect on a user’s reaction to the product.

A designer must try to make new technology as user friendly as possible; for example ‘high tech’ products can be threatening to older people because they do not understand how they work, which makes them feel insecure. Care must be taken that a design does not cause offence to a particular race or culture. Many products do not take into account the problems of the elderly, disabled or very young. In particular, handles and switches are often too small or difficult to operate. With some thought many of these problems could have been avoided. Good design will take account of as many users as possible.

Technology and the wider environment

Within our society people have differing views on how modern technology should integrate with the wider environment and landscape. An example of this is the tension between those who see wind farms as ruining the landscape or those who see them as essential to providing clean renewable energy for the future. Both groups are expressing an environmental agenda however they both disagree. A further example of tension caused within society due to the industrialised west moving into areas and striping them of their natural resources leaving the local population with the little or no resources.

Consumerism

With the development of technology and an increased national wealth, the 20th century saw the rise of Consumerism. The Industrial Revolution dramatically increased the availability of consumer goods. The advent of the department store represented a shift in the experience of shopping. For the first time, customers could buy an astonishing variety of goods, all in one place, and shopping became a popular leisure activity. The Industrial era created an unprecedented economic situation. For the first time in history products were available in outstanding quantities, at outstandingly low prices, making them available to virtually everyone in the industrialized West. 08 Research

As part of detailed research it is very important to carry out Measuring and Recording MARKET RESEARCH, this is where we need to ask people (the market) who are potentially going to buy the product being When designing products it is useful to establish how the user will designed. interact with the product. So far we have discussed designing things to suit our needs i.e. ensuring anything which we design will fit us. This is very important, if we want the customer to buy the product being designed we need to ensure it is what they want/ Anthropometrics is the study of the size of individual body parts and need (i.e. the most popular colour, texture, shape, etc.). allows us to establish required sizes of products based on the human body. (see page 05 for more detail). A designer will record and use these sizes to effectively design a product that suits our body Questionnaires and Surveys ergonomically making it easier for us to use.

A typical SURVEY would ask a representative sample of people questions to establish what the current trend in the market is Focus Groups (what the buyers want). A sample (group of people) can be put together to reflect the mix of society or to suit the intended This method of research is similar to questionnaire/surveys, however it market for the product i.e. Male/female, specific age groups, provides the designer with face to face feedback. Users are put into a specific nationalities or class. group and asked to discuss a product based on various questions surrounding different design factors. They will also be able to get To carryout market research would involve using a “hands on” with the product and this allows the designer to easily see pre-determined QUESTIONNAIRE which would ask the how users interpret using a product. respondent a series of questions. Questionnaires can be online or paper and may or may not be anonymised . During these discussions the designer will not influence the users opinion but record everything they say to establish what needs to be Typically questionnaire answers may be yes/no or may ask the done to improve or effectively market the product. respondent to give a Test Rigs and User Trials rating on a scale of poor to A test rig is a machine used excellent. Some to test a product before it is questions may require put on sale. In the example more detailed shown, a machine has been answers however devised to simulate a person these are normally sitting down in a chair kept to the end of the several times. The questionnaire and advantage of using a may be machine to do this task is optional. that the

machine can exactly The results from replicate the same actions questionnaires are continuously without error. usually presented statistically as a A proportion of the products produced are selected and tested as it percentage and may would not be feasible to test every item that was produced in a be production batch. represented using graphs and charts. The results of each test are catalogued by the production company and are kept as a record of quality assurance .

Search engines User trials are conducted before a product goes into mass production and focuses on investigating how users interact with your product. From the advent of the internet in the mid 1990’s search engines have Once the user trials are concluded the participants are interviewed and been used to collect and view data a report is compiled and fed back to the design company. It is at this as part of a research process. point the company can make any design changes to suit user feedback. Google, Yahoo, Wikipedia and Facebook all collect vast amounts of Product Use Diary data about their users. This can then be sold on to marketing companied This involves getting a user to live with a product for a number of days for large sums of money. weeks or months. As they live with the product they are expected to keep a diary that details how fit for purpose they have found the When using the internet for research you have to be very product to be. They should record both what they found to be good and careful about the source of the information you are using. It is what they found to be bad. very easy to use false information if you don’t check your sources. This sort of data, allows the designer to assess a product over a longer period of time and provides good consumer feedback on how to improve or develop a product. 09 Idea Generation After research has been carried out a designer will have to begin producing ideas to solve the problem and brief. To develop ideas a designer may choose to use any of the following idea generation techniques:

Lifestyle Board Morphological Analysis A lifestyle board is used to build an idea of the target market. It This is a very structured way of generating ideas. It is a visual focuses on the intended market looking at pictures that relate to method where a list of headings for design factors are created. Then their lifestyle. This allows the designer to ensure they design a underneath each heading, a range of potential solutions are written. product that fulfils the needs of the target market. There are no The designer can then mix and match these to begin generating rules for creating a lifestyle board and it takes the form of a page of ideas for potential solutions. Each unique mix of words from each collated images. heading will allow the designer to create diverse ideas.

Mood Board Thought Showers (brainstorming, mind mapping) This is similar to a lifestyle board however unlike a lifestyle board, Probably the best known and most widely used technique. Analogy the aim of creating a mood board, is to focus primarily on an works best when carried out in a group. It works by writing the atmosphere/emotion. This can help the designer produce a product name of a product/task in the middle of a blank sheet. Then, from that conveys a certain style, them or mood to enhance the overall that word/title the designer creates branches of potential solutions image of a product, giving it a unique appeal. to the problem, writing down ideas centred around design factors.

Lateral thinking Design Stories This method is used to stimulate the imagination. Lateral thinking This method requires the designer to write a story surrounding the uses each of the other idea generation techniques in a way that design problem. To do this the designer do the following: allows the designer to create less obvious solutions to a problem.  Imagine that you are the product. What would life be like? For example. The book shelving unit designed below created by Mark Newson, was based on a bee hive honeycomb. The lemon  Imagine what life would be like without the product. squeezer designed by Philippe Stark was based on insects .  Imagine that you are in a shop trying to sell the product. How would persuade the consumer to buy it?  Imagine you are trying to explain the product to an alien or someone who has never seen it.

By doing this, the designer may discover solutions that they hadn’t though about, as they get their head inside the idea of product.

Technology Transfer New products, new ideas and inventions are often the result of a process called associative thinking. This means that a designer will make an association with technology, manufacturing process or material in one area or field of design and use it to provide a new idea or solution in another.

For example: Laser technology, which was developed for space and defence programmes is now used in domestic applications such as DVD/Blu-Ray players games consoles and stereo systems to play data held on discs.

10 Graphic Techniques

When producing ideas, developing ideas, drawing final solutions and producing manufacturing drawings the designer may employ a variety of the graphics techniques outlined below.

Sketching Illustration and Presentation Sketching is the basis for all ideas. The designer will utilise sketches This technique is utilised to apply colour to design sketches or to quickly produce visual design for a problem. These can be shown drawings. This allows the designer to give a drawing realism to the client and manufacturers, allowing them to assess potential focusing on potential colour schemes or materials. This will allow ideas before deciding where to go next. the client to fully visualise what the final solution could look like. Various methods can be used, with the most common being pencil rendering, marker pen rendering and pastel rendering as shown below.

MARKER

Working Drawings This style of drawing is used when a design is being prepared for production. Working drawings will detail specific information such PEN: as dimensions, cutting lists, materials required, individual components and working/moveable parts. These drawings allow manufacturers and engineers to communicate the construction requirements for a design. They normally take the format of an orthographic drawing. This 2D method consists of various views of a product from the front (elevation) side, (end elevation ) and top (plan).

PENCIL:

11 Modelling Techniques

Model making is a necessary part of design work. It should be seen as an extension to the decision making that all designers are involved in throughout the process. Models are useful because they allow the designer to produce a quick realistic representation of a design idea allowing them to test and analyse it before developing it further. Models can also be used to inform the client. They can also demonstrate working parts and key design features and be full sizes or scaled down.

Scaled Modelling Modelling materials This involves making models that are smaller than the actual size of Models can be made from several materials, as follows: a design. The benefit of doing this, is it allows the designer to test and visualise potential designs without the need to spend time Paper OR Card - Used mainly for mock ups and quick modelling making full size models. Scaled models are built to a size that is production. accurate to the actual size of the model, but on a smaller scale.

Corrugated card - much stronger than normal card and can be used for making strong scaled models.

Mock Ups Mock up models are simple examples of the design idea. They are Styrofoam - Can be used to make anything from mock ups to normally not finished to the highest of standards are merely used to prototypes. It is easy to work and has good strength properties. allow the designer to test issues such as aesthetics and function.

3D CAD (computer aided design) models These models are produced on a computer. Although they are not physical which is their main disadvantage, they are quick to produce, cost little money and give an accurate aesthetic visualisation of the model. They can be used to determine sizes for a design and give the client a realistic view of a final design.

Clay - Can be used to make various types of models and prototypes. It is easy to shape and work however it does not offer excellent strength properties.

Prototypes A prototype is a full working version of the final design. It is normally built from materials similar to that which will be used in the final design and they are full size. Balsa Wood - This is a type of hardwood that has a good strength to weight ratio and is surprisingly easy to work with. Again ,it can be Prototypes allows for accurate testing before final production. used to make all types of models and prototypes.

12 Technology and the world of work

Changing workforce  There’s generally a faster pace. Expectations of what can be achieved in timeframes have increased.  Dependence on technology – some areas of work grind to a halt without it. Some businesses cannot function without computers / internet / access to specific data.  There’s a greater requirement for skilled workers so the workforce is up skilled.  There’s less requirement for unskilled workers so this leads to redundancy and higher unemployment.  There’s more remote access – people are able to work from home (accommodate family needs etc…)  24/7 access to the internet raises the need for 24/7 support which increases expectations of workers and hours.

Benefits:  There are financial benefits of video conferencing and online collaboration.  There’s a reduction of pollution and the time spend travelling when people work remotely.  There’s flexibility that enables family needs to be met (working remotely).  Education – the need to up skill the workforce results in employers / government agencies supporting life-long learning opportunities / training.

Issues:  Redundancy – increased technology results in job losses for unskilled workers.  Remote working results in loss of the social element of work.  Reduced face-to-face contact can result in reduced social skills.  The 24/7 attitude of employers can result in increased stress for workers.  There are potential health risks – RSI, cancer, obesity, fertility issues that relate to use of technology or lack of exercise as a result of excessive use of technology.

Environmental Impact:  Waste from technical equipment discarded to be replaced by newer technology is bad for the environment (land fill).  Education – technology assists in spreading awareness of environmental issues. Simulations of the environmental impact of pollution etc… assists society / governments to prepare for and avert environmental problems. Material Properties Wood: Warping - This is the name given to any defect in the shape of a piece of wood. Wood warps in the following ways:

Cupping - A curve across the grain. Bowing - A curve along the grain Twisting - curved in a spiral shape.

Metal and Plastics: Property Description Tensile Strength The maximum force material can withstand before breaking when pulled apart, crushed or twisted. Ductility The length to which material can be stretched before breaking. Hardness How hard it is to cut or mark the metal. Toughness The amount of energy a material can absorb before it breaks when hit with something like a hammer. Malleability The amount of shaping that can be done with a material before it breaks in terms of bending, twisting and so on.

Brittleness The material will break very easily when any stress or pressure is applied to it. Elasticity The length to which material can be stretched and still return to its original shape. Conductivity How well does the material conduct heat or electricity. Corrosion Does the material corrode (rot, weaken, discolour etc.) easily due to rusting or exposure to chemicals 13 Materials - Wood There are three categories of wood:

Softwoods: Choosing Softwood: These come from coniferous trees Name Properties Uses Cost (trees that have needle like leaves and last throughout the year). Unlike Red Pine Straight grained, but knotty, Building Low hardwoods these grow quickly and can be replaced quickly after being quite strong and easy to work. construction. Needs good cut down. Softwoods are cheap. Red/orange in colour protection when used outside.

Parana Pine Straight grained with few High quality High knots. Quite strong and interior durable but warps easily. construction and furniture.

Spruce Quite strong with few knots. Fitted furniture e.g. Kitch- Low (whitewood) Resistant to splitting but not en cabinets. durable.

Cedar Straight grained and knot free. Shed High Very light and durable. Quite construction and good soft quality fencing.

Hardwood: Choosing Hardwoods: These come from deciduous trees (trees that lose their leaves every Name Properties Uses Cost winter). They grow slowly and Ash Light in colour, flexible, Tool handles, cricket/ Med sometimes have twisted trunks. They are often not replaced when tough bends well and baseball bats, snooker cues, cut down and take a long time to varnishes well. ladders and veneers. grow. Their wood is expensive and used for high quality products. Beech Mid-brown colour, hard, High quality Med strong, tough, tends to warp furniture, toys, tool handles but bends well. and veneers.

Oak Light brown, hard, tough, high quality High heavy and durable outside. furniture, garden furniture, Gets harder with age. boats and veneers.

Mahogany Red in colour, medium high quality High

weight, quite strong, durable furniture, shop furniture, but warps easily. boat fittings and veneers.

Manufactured Boards: Choosing Manufactured Boards: These are made from waste wood Name Properties Uses Cost left over from machining or working. All excess such as thin sheets Plywood Strong, stable, warps easily. Bases of drawers Med (plywood), small strips/blocks Made by gluing layers of thin sheet or boxes. Backs (block board), wood chips (chipboard) and saw dust (MDF) wood together. It is important that the of cabinets and are used to make boards. grain of each layer goes in a different wardrobes etc. direction to ensure maximum strength.

MDF Very strong and doesn’t warp. Made Furniture and Med from gluing and tightly compressing toys. excess sawdust together.

Blockboard Very strong and rigid and doesn't warp. Quality furniture, High Very heavy. Made from gluing strips/ stage flooring and blocks of wood together. fire doors.

Chipboard Heavy, warps easily and needs a good Kitchen cabinets Low finish. Made by gluing and tightly and worktops, compressing wood chips together. roofing boards.

Hardboard Not very strong, warps easily and Door panels, Low needs a good finish. Made similar to drawer bottoms plywood. and cabinet backs 14 Woodwork Tools Marking out Tools

Try Square Steel Rule For marking lines For measuring sizes at right angles to on wood, metal and an edge of a plastic. Measures in piece of wood. Millimetres (mm)

Marking Gauge For marking lines Mortise Gauge For marking out parallel to an edge of a the width of a piece of wood. mortise and Tenon joint. Spur

Stock Spur Stem Stock Adjustment Screw Thumb Screw Stem - Adjusts width of the mortise joint. Cutting and Shaping Tools Thumbscrew Saws and Sawing It is important to note that there are two categories of Saw: Rip Saws and Cross-cut Saws. Rip Saws are used for cutting along the grain and Cross-cut saws are used for cutting across the grain.

Kerf The term Kerf refers to width of the cut that a saw blade makes.

Bench Hook/Sawing Board Panel Saw Makes it easier to Mainly used for secure and saw small making straight cuts pieces of wood. in large pieces of timber. (Rip Saw)

Tenon Saw Mainly used for cutting Coping Saw out joints in wood. This A thin saw used for is because the blade is making curved cuts. very rigid (stiff) due to The blade can be set to the brass back at the almost any angle and top of the saw. is very flexible. Planes (Cross-Cut Saw)

Smoothing and Jack planes Although both Jack and Smoothing Planes look similar they are used for different jobs:

5 Jack planes are used to make long edges straight and square and are 4 longer than smoothing planes. 6 1 Smoothing Planes are used to make surfaces smooth. 8 2 Plane Parts 1. Blade Depth adjustment Screw. 2. Blade 77 3. Sole 4. Blades lateral 3 adjustment lever. 5. Lever Cap 6. Cap iron 7. Toe 8. Heel 15 Plough plane Rebate Plane 1. Fence (For measuring how far in you want to cut). 2. Fence adjustment screw. 6 6 1 3. Toe 7 4. Heel 4 4 5. Blade 2 6. Blade adjustment screw 3 7. Depth gauge 1 5 3 2 5 Plane Safety - Always ensure that the blade is set correctly to ensure that Used for cutting grooves Used for cutting grooves there is no risk of accident or damage to your wood/plane. on the inside of a face on an edge of a piece of on a piece of wood. - Always place your plane side up on the work bench to wood. ensure that the blade is not damaged.

Router Plane Small Router Plane (Granny's Tooth) Bullnose Plane

Blade Blade adjustment adjustment Screw Screw

Blade Blade Same job as Router Used for smoothing Used for cutting or Plane only on a smaller faces or edges of wood. tidying joints such as a scale. housing joint. Spokeshave Plane

Blade adjustment Screw Used for smoothing faces Blade or edges of wood. Chisels Chisels are used for chopping away waste wood when cutting a joint. Beech/Wooden Mallet Bevel-Edged Chisel The blade is sloped at the edges. This chisel Used for driving a chisel is normally used for pairing wood or through wood. cleaning/tidying up joints.

End view of a firm- End view of a bevel- Chisels er chisel in use. edge chisel in use. The handle on a chisel is normally made from Ash which is a very strong hardwood or polycarbonate plastic so that it will offer resistance from splitting when being used. Chisels will always have some type of ferrule Mortise that helps stop the wood from splitting. Used for cutting the mortise (hole) in a mortise and tenon joint. Note: that mortise Firmer Chisel chisels normally have a leather washer that Used for cutting away waste wood when helps to absorb the shock from hammering cutting out joints. when

Blade Handle Leather washer

Ferrule Steel Ferrule

16 Woodwork Joints Carcase/Box Construction Dowel Joint

Corner Joints This looks like a butt joint but is a lot stronger. It is Housing Joints difficult to line up (for shelving) the holes without using a dowelling jig.

Corner Joints Housing Joints

Butt Joint Through Housing

This is a very weak Used for fitting shelves into joint unless it is cabinets or units and strengthened with partitions in boxes. pins or screws.

Lap Joint Stopped Housing / Corner Rebate Joint Can be either a plain or dovetail housing. It has the Although stronger advantage of not showing than a butt joint, the the joint workings at the lap joint is best when front, which improves a reinforced with products aesthetics. dovetail pinning or screws.

Comb or Finger Joint

A strong joint (a lot of side-grain to side-grain contact). The joint can be considered a design feature because, if it is well fitted, it adds to the Base and Back Joints appearance of the furniture. Rebate Joint

This joint provides a groove for a hardboard/ Dovetail Joint plywood base/back for a carcase construction It is A very strong joint. easily cut using a rebate Used for drawers where plane. the front is pulled every time the drawer is used. It is difficult to mark out and cut. This joint can also be used as a design feature

17 Woodwork Joints Frame Construction Corner Joints

Crossover Tee joints Joints

Corner Joints Corner Halving Tee Joints Tee Halving Used for lightweight frames and frames that Used for lightweight frames, are to be covered by especially those to be covered boarding e.g. a door. The with boarding. The joint is joint is quick and easy to quick and easy to cut. cut.

Corner Bridle

Used for heavier, stronger frames because it has a large Dovetail Halving area of contact and cannot be twisted apart unlike the A stronger version of the Tee halving joint. The joint is quite Halving. Used for medium difficult to cut. weight frameworks.

Dowel

Used for lightweight frames. The holes are difficult to line up unless Mortise and Tenon a dowelling jig is used. Can also be used as a A strong joint that is quite Tee joint. difficult to cut and fit by hand. Used for heavier frameworks and uncovered frameworks.

Crossover Joints Cross Halving This joint is quite strong and resists twisting. This is the only crossover joint that is flush (flat) on both sides

18 Wood Preparation and Finishes Wood Preparation

The wood must be clean and smooth before any finish is applied.

Important Note: Always ensure that all of the faces that will be on the inside of your project are completely clean and sanded as these will be awkward to sand once you have glued your model together.

Sanding Wood Wax

Glass paper comes in various grades of coarseness. Waxing wood gives a satin The higher the number the smoother the paper. The finish and like varnish, it lower the number the rougher the paper. allows the grain of the wood to show through. Wax must only be applied to wood that has been sealed with a wood sealer, otherwise it soaks in and never shines.

Wax is normally applied by rubbing it into the woods Coarse Fine surface using a dry cloth.

A rough paper should always be used first and then a smooth paper for finishing off. Once dry you should buff it up with a separate dry cloth. This is done a couple of times until a good finish is Important Note: Always sand in the direction of the achieved. grain as sanding against the grain will only scratch the face of the wood. Always sand in the direction of the Paint grain. All paints provide a water resistant, coloured protective coating.

Paint will only give a good finish if a number of thin coats are applied rather than one thick coat. Varnish This is available in three finishes: French Polish (Shellac) Matt - Dull finish Satin - Slight Shine This is a traditional polish made from shellac and used Gloss - High Shine on high quality furniture and antiques. It provides a very high quality finish but is difficult to apply and is not water Clear varnishes allow the pattern or heat resistant. of the grain to show through and usually darken the colour of the wood. This gives the wood a nice Stains and interesting depth whilst being water and heat resistant. Stains are used to change the colour of light woods to

make them more interesting or to blend in better with Varnish is applied with a brush. A 1st coat should be darker woods. It does not hide the grain. A stain is applied and then left to dry. Once dry, a light sand paper normally applied by rubbing it into the woods surface should be used to smooth the rough surface that the 1st using a dry cloth. Stains will not protect the wood and coat normally leaves. Then a second coat should be will need a protective finish applied on top of them. applied and left to set.

Oils Vegetable Cooking Oil or special Teak Oil can both be used to give a water and heat resistant, satin finish. An oil finish will not crack or peel of as it soaks into the grain of the wood.

Oil is applied using a dry cloth and rubbing it into the grain .Three coats is normally sufficient for a good finish ensuring that each coat is left to set and dry.

19 Wood Lathe Natural wood products such as bowls, legs, spindles Exam Type Diagram and lamp stands are made using a wood lathe. Fork Tailstock Headstock Fork Tailstock Tool Rest Tool Rest Running Centre

Bed Running Centre Turning Between Centres This is the method used for turning legs and Fork Running Centre spindles. The wood is held as shown.

Secures the Secures the wood in the wood in the Running Headstock Tailstock which Centre Fork which hosts helps support the (Held in wood when (held in the the gears that the head Tailstock) drive the lathe. turning between stock) centres.

Turning Tools Tool Rest Turning is carried out using special chisels that have long blades and handles (so they can be held safely To prepare wood for turning you must: and give good leverage). 1. Mark the diagonals on Gouge - for shaping the wood and clearing waste. either end of the wood to

find the centres.

Scraper - for general shaping but leaves an untidy finish.

2. Use a marking gauge to

mark out the corners that

are to be planed off. Parting - For cutting the job away from the excess wood.

Skew - For smoothing the wood. 3. Plane the sides of the wood from corner to corner to turn the wood into the Bowl Turning hexagonal shape The wood to be turned needs to be prepared by shown. This will help cutting it into an octagonal shape. This reduces the reduce friction when friction when turning. A face plate is then centred and turning screwed onto the wood. The face plate with wood attached is then secured to the headstock and then turning can begin. Faceplate or Turning Chuck 4. At one end a saw cut should be made along one of the diagonal lines. This allows the teeth of the fork to grip the wood.

20 Vices, Gluing and Clamping

Engineers Vice Woodwork Vice Dry Clamping Basically the model is clamped together without glue which allows us check that all parts fit together and that the model is square before we apply any glue. Gluing Checks - Squareness: Use a try square in each corner. A gap will show between the try-square and Secured to a bench Secured to a bench edge of the wood if the job is not square. and used for holding and used for holding metal when working it. wood when working it. OR

Machine Vice Hand Vice Measure the two diagonals

If they are both the same then the job is square and if not, Used for securing Used for holding the job is not square. materials when drilling material such as sheet at the pillar drill. steel when drilling. - Cupping Look along the job at the same angle as the sash cramps. If Sash Cramp/Clamp the job is cupped then the sides will bend up and look slightly rounded.

To fix this - Loosen sash cramps slightly until the cupping is Used for clamping wood projects together. removed or minimized. Weights can also sat on top of the job to press the wood down flat. G Cramp/Clamp Weights

Used for clamping or securing materials to a bench when Winding working them. Observe the job at right angles to sash cramps. If the job has winding then it will look twisted.

Glues

GLUE USE To fix this - Loosen the sash cramps, hold down the ends of the glued job and re-tighten cramps. PVA Non-toxic, white, water based glue for gluing the majority of wooden projects. Gluing Boards or Strips of Wood Epoxy Resin Toxic, two parts 1. Epoxy When gluing wide boards or strips of wood it is important that 2. Resin. Both parts the grain of the touching pieces of wood go in different needs to be mixed in directions to stop the finish job from warping when it dries. equal quantities. Used for gluing Correct metals.

Plastic Cements i.e. Toxic, Used for gluing Wrong Tensol No. 12 plastics.

21 Screws, Nails and Fixings Drivers Slotted Screwdriver Phillips Screwdriver Pozi Screwdriver Shank Handle Tip Blade

For screwing in slotted head screws. For screwing in Phillips Very similar to a Philips head screws. screwdriver however this screws in pozi head screws. Countersunk Roundhead Panel pins Warrington Hammer Nail Punch Screw Screw

For pinning plywood For hammering pins and For hammering pins/nails Countersunk General wood and hardboard. Also small nails into wood underneath the face of the in order to be screw that used for wood. hidden under unlike the strengthening joints. the face of countersunk the wood screw shows above the face of the wood.

Screwing in a Screw

Countersink Before screwing a screw into a piece of wood a number of Clearance holes need to be drilled first: Hole End Result 1. Pilot Hole - This is drilled first to give the screw its location and also to stop the wood splitting as the screw Pilot goes in. Hole 2. Clearance Hole - Secondly, drill a clearance hole to allow the screw to fit the hole easily before being screwed in. 3. Countersunk Hole - Allows a countersunk screw to screw down into the wood and leaves a flat finish on the surface. Knock-Down Fittings These are mainly used for flat pack furniture. They help to save time when constructing the furniture and are cheap to manufacture. There are numerous different types of flat pack fixings that all come with pre-drilled holes and the screws to fit them. They are used for corner fixings, shelving and doors.

NOTE: The term flat-pack furniture refers to furniture that is assembled at home by you. Shelve and Corner Fixings Door Fixings

22 Materials - Metal There are two classes of metal: Metal is available in the forms shown here:

Ferrous - metals that contain iron. This means that they will rust easily and are magnetic, (except for stainless steel).

Non-Ferrous - do not contain iron. Therefore do not rust and are not magnetic.

Metals can also be grouped as:

Pure Metals - metals made up from only one chemical element.

Alloys - Metals made up from a mixture of elements.

Why do we alloy metals? - to improve the qualities of metal to suit particular jobs. Alloying improves strength, durability and many other material properties. For example, copper and tin are metals that are easily bent and scratched. When mixed together they produce Bronze which is strong, rigid and doesn't scratch.

Ferrous metals:

Name Composition Properties Uses Cast Iron Iron + 3.5% Carbon Smooth, soft core, strong when Vices, lathe beds, garden bench compressed, cant be bent or ends and car brake drums. forged.

Mild Steel Iron + 0.15 - 0.35% Carbon Ductile, malleable, tough, high Car bodies, machine bodies, nuts tensile strength, corrodes easily. and bolts, screws, nails and Easily welded. girders.

High Carbon Iron + 0.8 - 1.5% Carbon Very hard, rather brittle, difficult Tool blades e.g. Saws, chisels, Steel (tool to cut, poor resistance to screwdrivers, centre punches steel). corrosion. and so on.

High Speed Iron + Tungsten, chromium Very hard, heat resistant, re- Drills, lathe cutting tools, milling Steel vanadium. mains hard when red. cutters, power hacksaw blades and so on. Stainless Alloy = Iron + chromium, Tough, hard, corrosion resistant, Cutlery, sinks, teapots, kitchen steel nickel, magnesium. wears well, difficult to cut, bend ware, saucepans and so on. and file.

Non-Ferrous metals:

Name Composition Properties Uses Aluminium Pure Metal Strong, light, malleable, ductile, Kitchen foil, drinks cans and difficult to weld, non-toxic, resists saucepans. corrosion, conducts electricity and heat well and polishes well. Duralumin Alloy = Aluminium + Stronger than pure aluminium Greenhouses, window frames Manganese, magnesium. and nearly as strong as mild steel and aircraft bodies. but only one third the weight.

Copper Pure Metal Tough, ductile, malleable, Electrical wire, central heating conducts heat and electricity well, pipes, circuit boards, saucepan corrosion resistant, solder and bases. polishes well.

23 Metal (Continued) Name Composition Properties Uses Brass Alloy = Copper + Zinc Quite hard, rigid, solders easily, Water taps, lamps, boat fittings, good conductor of heat and ornaments and door handles. electricity and polishes well.

Bronze Alloy = Copper + Tin Tough, Strong, good corrosion Coins, wheel bearings, statues resistance. and boat fittings such as propellers.

Tin Pure Metal Weak, soft, malleable, ductile, Solder (with lead), coating over excellent corrosion resistance mild steel and tin cans. and low melting point.

Lead Pure Metal Soft, malleable, very heavy, Roof covering, Solder (with tin) corrosion resistant, low melting and car battery plates. point, casts well and conducts electricity well. Zinc Pure Metal Poor strength/weight ratio, weak, Coating over mild steel ductile and malleable, low melting (galvanising), die castings used point and casts well. in cars and roofing panels.

24 Metalwork Tools Marking out Tools Scriber Centre punch Engineers square For marking out For accurately dimensions etc. punching on metal. holes before drilling. For marking lines at right angles to an edge of a piece of metal. Odd-leg callipers Spring dividers For marking For marking circles straight lines on a piece of metal. parallel to the edge of a piece of metal.

Measuring Tools

Outside and inside callipers Micrometre Outside: For measuring outside widths and diameters on metal.

Inside: For very accurate measurement of For measuring inside widths and outside diameters on metal especially diameters on metal when using the metal lathe.

Can also be used with wood and plastic Can also be used with wood and plastic

Cutting and Shaping Hacksaw Junior hacksaw Power hacksaw Used for cutting Used for cutting thick and large small pieces of pieces of metal metal such as sheet metal and wire. Band saw type machine used Files for heavy cutting of large There are many different files that are used for filing metal to shape and filing rough pieces of metal such as round edges smooth. Files also come in a range of sizes for different jobs. bar or square bar.

Flat Round Triangular

Half Round Square

Filing metal/plastic

Cross Filing: Files across the metal to cut away any excess materials and to get rid of bad marks.

Draw Filing: Filing back and forward along the edge of a piece of metal to smoothen in.

25 Joining Metals Rivet set and snap Types of rivet

This tool allows us to ensure that the Snaphead Panhead Mushroom Countersunk metal being joined and the rivet are all held together firmly. A ball pein hammer is then used to flatten the rivet and secure it.

Ball Pein Hammer Joined snaphead Joined countersunk The Snap The set Hollow hole Rivet Start of rolled edge

Pop riveting Ball pein hammer Pop rivet gun Used for Used to secure a general pop rivet. metalwork where a hammer is required.

When Pop Riveting the rivet is placed in the holes of the metal being joined. The Rivet gun is then placed over the rivet and the handles squeezed together. As you apply more pressure the rivet expands in the hole until Pin the pin eventually breaks away. Breaks away Welding Spot / resistance welding Arc welding Used for joining thin sheet Used for joining thick metals including bar form and round metal. An electric current is form. Basically a metal filler is pushed through the electrode passed through the copper holder using gas. As this is happening electricity is used to rods and the metal being produce heat which melts the metal being joined. The metal joined, which causes heat to filler then fills gap to create a solid weld. build up and melt the metal 1 together. 2

Soldering and brazing Soldering: Used for 3 joining thin sheet metal and thin bar. A solder Solder Bolt bolt is heated in the forge. Once hot enough it is used to melt a filler 1. Electrode Holder 2. Metal Filler 3. Ground Clamp metal along the joint of the metal parts being Safety: Ensure that you always wear a welding mask as your eyes can be damaged and ensure that you are working in an area away from others. Brazing: Used for joining sheet metal and thin metal bar/rod. A gas air torch Nuts and bolts such as those seen at the forge, is used to melt the Bolt metal filler along the joint where the metal is being joined. Washer

Gas air torch Nut

Filler Metal A nut and bolt is a non permanent fixing and therefore is suitable for jobs where parts need to be free to come apart.

26 Metal Preparation and Finishes Metal preparation Plastic dip coating A plastic coating is a tough and waterproof finish that comes It is important that the surfaces are up by removing any grit, in arrange of colours. The steps are as follows: grease and tarnish. The most common way of doing this is by using emery cloth. The cloth can be wrapped around a file 1. The metal is heated in an oven or blow torch (forge). and then rubbed over the surface, up and down in one 2. Once hot enough it is dipped into a plastic fluidising direction, to give a clean looking finish. tank filled with plastic powder for a few seconds. 3. It is then taken out and left to cool. The plastic will Metal Emery Cloth now have stuck to metal leaving a plastic coating.

Fluidising: A process where cold air is blown through the powder causing it to bubble like boiling water. This makes it easier for the plastic to stick to the metal.

Product Fluidised Powder

Stages for finishing metal

1. Clean and prepare removing oil or grease. 2. Cross file to remove bad marks or rough cuts 3. Draw File to smooth cross filing. 4. Use Emery Cloth to further smoothen. 5. Use Steel Wool to smoothen again. 6. Apply a finish or polish using oil. Cloth Base 7.

Blown air Inlet Polishing

Further prepare the surface by using a finer grade of emery cloth to get a smooth matt finish. The other ways are to Enamelling polish the metal using metal polish and a dry cloth or, using Enamelling is powdered coloured glass, a buffing machine coated with abrasive wax. which is melted, flows over the metal surface and then bonds to it. It is normally used for jewellery or a decorative finish on copper.

Anodising Used on aluminium and is a method Product Being of producing a dense, clear oxide Polished layer that resists corrosion. The layer can be dyed with coloured inks. Painting The surface should be thoroughly de-greased using white spirit. A base coat primer should then be applied to the met- Electroplating al. Finally an enamel gloss should be used for the second This uses a process called electrolysis to coat one metal with coat. a thin layer of another metal. For example covering brass with chromium for bath taps. The toughest paint finish for metal is ‘Hammerite’ which offers good protection against corrosion and rusting. This is the best finish for metal that will be used outdoors.

Lacquering This is similar to varnishing wood. A thin layer of cellulose gum is brushed on the cleaned surface, giving a clear protective coat.

27 Metal Processes

Sand casting is a cast part, which is produced by forming a mould out of a sand mixture and pouring a casting liquid (often molten metal) into the mould. The mould is then air-cooled until the metal solidifies, and the mould is removed. Sand Casting is basically done in these steps:

1. Place a pattern in sand to create a mould 2. Incorporate a gating system 3. Remove the pattern 4. Fill the mould cavity with molten metal 5. Allow the metal to cool 6. Break away the sand mould and remove the casting.

Why use Aluminium when casting?

There are two main reasons for this: 1. Low melting point therefore it will melt quickly and easily. 2. Provides a nice aesthetic finish.

Identifying features:

Poor surface texture or porous surface. Draft angles, fillets and rounded corners. Fettle marks due to the removal of the runner and riser.

Removing the waste material from the finished mould

Riser

Runner Remove the Riser and Runner (waste material Casting of the casting mould using a Hacksaw)

28 Die Casting Where large numbers of identical components are required, Stage 1 sand casting is not appropriate because the mould has be A measure of molten metal is poured into the charge chamber. broken up each time.

Die casting is a method using a permanent mould (called a die). The moulds are made of tough alloy steel and are split into two or more parts to allow the casting to be removed. The initial cost of producing the moulds is high however once man- ufactured the moulds can be kept and reused.

The holes to allow the molten metal into the die (the sprues) are normally too small for metal to fall through under gravity. A Stage 2 ram system is normally used to force the metal in under pres- An injection piston, or plunger, then forces the metal into a sure, so the system is often known as Pressure Die Casting water-cooled die through a system of sprues and runners.

This method is normally automated and can produce over 100 castings per hour.

Materials Common materials used in the die casting process include low temperature alloys, lead, zinc, aluminium and brass alloys. Stage 3 The metal solidifies rapidly and the casting is removed, complete with its sprues and runners. Identification Several common features appear on all die cast items these include; section lines (where the two half of the mould separate), sprue marks (where the ejector pins are separated from the Casting) and runner and riser marks (where the molten metal is injected into the mould).

Piercing and Blanking Shearing and Notching

Piercing and blanking are essentially the same process. This Shearing and notching refers to cuts taken on sheet metal. process involves stamping shapes out of sheet metal. These types of cut are normally done using a metal workers guil- lotine, as shown o the right. Piercing In piercing a hole is stamped out of the metal.

Blanking In blanking a shape is stamped out of the metal and used. Shearing This refers to taking a straight cut across a sheet of metal. This is used to cut metal to size.

To stamp into the sheet metal, a hardened steel die is used. IT is then forced through metal with high pressure.

Identification A sheared surface will Notching show two This refers to cuts (notches) distinct areas that are removed around the of defor- edge of sheet metal. The cuts mation and taken can be a variety od fracture. This shapes and sizes. is visible as a rough edge that looks snapped or broken and a slightly curved edge where pressure was applied. Where the correct set up is used this can be avoided. 29 Metalwork Lathe

Headstock Chuck Top slide Moves tool post Tool post in or out Screws tailstock centre in Tailstock and out

Bed Gear box

Electric motor

Moves saddle left or right Moves top slide forwards or Saddle backwards

Parallel turning Facing off Chamfering

45°

tool feed

tool feed tool feed

This means cutting parallel to a This means cutting across the A chamfer is a slope on the job. The process allows you to end of a work piece. It is one of edge of a piece of material. turn the metal to smaller diameter the first things normally done at It is made by cutting at an as you can see in the diagram the start of a new job. The angle on a job. above. process allows us to tidy up the face and ensure that it is flat.

Lathe tools Knurling The tool post Finish 1. 3. Indexing and locking lever

Set-screws clamp tools 4. 2. This process is used to engrave a diamond shape 1.Facing/Parallel Turning 2. Roughing. pattern onto the metal. This 3. Parting-Off. 4. Screw cutting. pattern acts as a grip for handles and screws.

tools Centre Drill Work piece Drilled The tool post can be Centre This particular drill is used to Centre Drill arranged to hold just one drill a centre hole before you tool, or up to four. By go ahead and drill the main loosening the screw-lever, hole. It is used with the the tool post can be

Tailstock. rotated to each tool in turn.

30 Screw Threads Threading Threading describes the process of cutting the external (male) thread. A split die is held in a die stock.

Circular split die Die stock

The circular split die is fitted into the Die Stock

The combined die and stock Two outside screws Middle screw is are then used to create a are used for used for thread on a round piece of met- tightening the spreading the al clamped in an engineers circular split die for circular split die vice. NOTE: It is important to a smaller thread. to make it ensure that the bigger. die stock is kept level at all times to ensure a good thread

Tapping Using taps Tapping is used to describe cutting and internal (female) thread. A hole must be drilled to the tapping size for the thread. The work piece must be securely supported. When starting the cutting, the tap must be perpendicular in all planes to the work. Excessive force must not be used, as this will result in breaking the tap. Cutting fluid should be used to help lubricate the job. The threads must be cleared as often as is necessary to pre- vent the flutes from clogging. The cutting sequence involves turning clockwise half a turn and then anti clockwise a quarter turn to break the swarf. Tap Wrench 8 - 10 threads Taper tap is used to start the thread in the Tap tapping size hole. 1st Taper Taper Tap

Taper 3 - 4 threads Tap Intermediate/second tap is used to deepen threads started by taper tap. Engineers Vice 2nd Taper Intermediate Tap Threaded handle adjusts the jaw

Plug tap is used to cut full threads to the bottom of blind holes and to thread right through thick material. Plug Tap

31 Hot Forming Metals - Forging The Forge Anvil

Hardy Hole Punch Hole Horn Cutting Face Extractor Face

Bick Tail

Firebricks Throat and Working area. The Anvil is used for working metal. This involves flattening and bending metal. Torch Holding Metal When working with metal at the forge, tongs are used to hold it safely and Hearth securely. Open-Mouth Tongs

For gripping thick flat material.

Forging Processes Pick-up Tongs Annealing For gripping awkward shapes including round This process causes the metal to become more malleable and soft bars. making it easier to work. The metal is heated to a dull red colour using the forge and then left to cool naturally. Bending This is done be heating the metal at the forge. Once hot Hardening enough the areas that are not going to be bent should be cooled in cold water. This will ensure that these areas This is the opposite of annealing. Again the metal is heated, this time don't become changed by the forging process. The part however, it is heated to critical - just before melting point. Once that is still hot should then be placed over the corner of ready, it is cooled very quickly in cold water. This processes of the anvil and beaten with a ball-peen hammer to begin cooling the metal quickly causes it to become more hardened but bending the metal. Finally hammer the sides true (flat). brittle meaning it will shatter easily. The metal can then be softened Hammer by TEMPERING to reduce the metals brittleness making it more Hammer sides true suitable for products such as tools.

Tempering Anvil The hardened metal is cleaned firstly to make it bright in appearance. It is then heated gently until it starts to change colour. Twisting The colours it changes to are shown in order on the table below: The first part of this process is exactly the same as bending. Once cooled, one of the cool parts is then clamped in an engineers vice. A twisting wrench should then be placed on the other cool part. You should then start to turn the twisting wrench, causing the hot part of the metal to begin twisting to shape.

Twisting Wrench

Vice Vice Turn Wrench

Drawing down to a point One end of a square piece of metal should be heated at Looking at this table then, the paler the colour the harder and more the forge. Once ready the hot end should be place on brittle the metal is. The darker the metal the springier and tougher it the face of the anvil. A ball peen hammer should then be is. This then determines what the hardened and tempered metal can used to draw the square faces down towards a point as be used for. shown below. (See diagram on next page).

32 Hot Forming Metals (Continued)

for a round point Continue hammering corners to Short Taper Long Square Taper hammers corners to an a round point. octagon. Cold Forming Metals

Bending sheet metal Rawhide mallet Where a long bend is to be, bending Scrap wood Soft bars are used to faced give a straight line. hammer The bending with or the metal inside mallet. should then be clamped in an Used for forming or beating metals. The top of engineers vice. the mallet is made from tough leather which Bend a small bit at wont damage the metal in the way that a a time all the way ball-peen hammer would. along the metal to ensure that it is not Bossing mallet over-stretched. A Clamp in Used for forming scrap block of Vice wood can be used or beating metals. to make it easier to The top is usually hit the metal and made from a keep it straight. hardwood or stur- dy plastic. Hollowing sheet metal Folding / bending bars This is a simple method of Used to secure making shallow bowls from Bossing sheet steel/metal. The mallet long sheet metal small end of a when bending to Bossing Mallet is used to support the entire hammer the edges of the length of the bend. metal on a sand bag and working back to the centre of the metal. This causes the metal to begin curving Scrolling metal bar at the sides. This is done until the metal takes the Scrolling metal bar causes shape of a bowl. Sandbag the metal to take on a spiral shape. To do this a scrolling jig is used. This is a round plate with a serious of holes drilled in a spiral shape. Locating pins/round bars are then placed into these holes Cold bending to create a path for the met- A jig is made to suit the al to be scrolled. The metal angle and shape that we is bent tightly around these want the metal to take. The pins by hand to create a metal is then placed on the spiral shaped bar as shown. jig and bent by hand to suit the shape.

33 Extrusion Metal and Plastic

Extrusion is a process used in both metal and plastic. Extrusion works in similar way to Injection Moulding in plastics and Die Casting in metal. Unlike these two processes, extrusion doesn’t fill a mould to create a formed end product.

Instead the metal/plastic is extruded through a die which can be simply explained as a shaped hole in a piece of metal. This happens in a continuous motion and the outcome is a uniform length of plastic/metal. Extrusion is used to products such as metal/plastic bars, pipes and plastic gutters.

An example of both metal and plastic extrusion is shown below.

Extrusion in metal Extrusion in plastic

1. A metal billet (a piece of metal that has been 1. Molten plastic is fed through a hopper. heated to critical, the point just before the metal becomes molten) is placed into the extrusion 2. A screw then transfers the plastic and a ram forces machine. it through the die.

2. A high pressure ram then forces the metal billet 3. The end product is then cooled. through the die to create the extrusion.

3. The end product is then cooled.

Identification  Continuous cross sections  Flow lines  Long lengths  Simple shapes  Thermoplastics

Extruded products

34 Materials - Plastics

There are three main classes of plastic:

Thermoplastic - cab be re-shaped using heat. For example a piece of thermoplastic has been shaped when we re-heat it will return to its original shape. This is known as plastic memory.

Thermosetting - cannot be reshaped by heat and can withstand higher temperatures than thermoplastics.

All plastics are made from natural resources such as oil, gas, and plant extracts. They are man made and are said to be a syn- thetic material. Plastics are readily available and come in many different forms and colours.

Most property changes are made by adding additives to basic plastic to make them stronger, lighter and so on. The following are common additives:

Plasticisers - makes the plastic less brittle. Pigments - Colour the plastic Fillers - powdered additives e.g. reduces electrical conductivity. Stabilisers - protect plastics from UV light that can make it become brittle. Flame retardants - makes the plastic less likely to catch fire.

Thermoplastics Thermosetting

Used in Schools: Used in schools:

Plastic Properties Uses Plastic Properties Uses Acrylic Rigid, hard, can be Illuminated Polyester Hard, rigid, brittle, Boats, car clear, fluorescent, signs, Resin tough when mixed with bodies. glass or carbon fibre. opaque, very durable windows/ outside and polishes glass, Epoxy/ Strong, good, chemical Adhesive glue, to a high shine. baths. Resin and heat resistant, covering

Nylon Tough, self Gears, sticks to other electronic materials as well. components lubricating, resists bearings, wear, good chemical tights, such as resistance clothing. microchips

Polysty- Lightweight, hard, CD cases, Used in Industry: rene rigid, can be clear, packaging, good water model kits. Plastic Properties Uses resistance. Melamine Rigid, scratch Tableware PVC Rigid, quite hard, Formaldehyde resistant, water laminates, top good chemical and stain resistant. coatings on resistance, tough. products.

Used in Industry: Urea Rigid, hard, Electrical plugs, Formaldehyde strong, heat sockets, door Plastic Properties Uses resistant, does not knobs. bend when heat- PET Tough, clear and Bottles. ed, good lightweight. electrical insulator. ABS Very tough, scratch Casings for resistant, good chem- electronic ical resistance. products, kettles, vacuum cleaners.

35 Plastic Processes

Line Bending Line where heater Former or Jig Strip Heater bars are located

Thermoplastic When bending plastic along a Heater Bars straight line a strip heater should be used. The plastic is placed over the top of heater bars and heated until soft. Once it is soft enough the Strip heater plastic can be bent and sometimes a former or jig may be used to ensure a square bend.

Moulding Plastic

Injection Moulding Vacuum Forming

4 5 1. Hopper Clamp 1 6 2. Combined ram and 3 screw Plastic Sheet 3. Melting area and Melted Plastic Heaters 4. Sprue 2 5. Split Mould with Finished injected plastic Part 6. Finished Plastic

Open Injection moulding is one of the most used plastic processes in manufacture. It is used to make all sorts of products such as TV’s and plastic chairs. It pro- duces very intricate designs with a high quality finish. Vacuum pump It is a costly process that is suited to mass produc- Mould Moulded Part tion (high production volumes). Most thermoplastics can be vacuum formed. This Stages process is used to make trays such as dinner trays, chocolate packaging trays and so on. Plastics used 1. In injection moulding plastic granules are include polythene, PVC, high density polystyrene, ABS passed through the hopper. and Acrylic. 2. The combined screw and ram then pushes the plastic into the melting area to melt. 1. Plastic is secured in the clamp and then heated 3. The molten plastic is then injected through the until soft by the heaters. sprue at high pressure into the split mould. 2. Once it is soft enough the excess air in the ma- 4. The mould is opened and the plastic ejected chine is sucked out through the vacuum which and left to cool. causes the plastic to be sucked into the shape of the mould. 3. The moulded plastic is then taken out and left to It is also important to note that thermosetting plastics cool. cannot be injection moulded because any plastic left 4. Excess plastic is removed and the product in the machine would set hard permanently and trimmed to size. block the nozzle. Identification Indetification Thin sheet plastic is normally used. Any patterns or Sprue marks, draw angles, mould split lines, ejection textures are evident on the plastic. Venting holes pin marks and injection pin marks. caused by pips on the surface. Tapered edges are quite pronounced and there may be evidence on thin- ning on the side surface.

36 Plastic Processes

Rotational moulding

This plastic process is used to create hollow plastic items that are manufactured in one piece.

Stage a At this stage powdered plastic (usually a form of thermoplastic) is poured into the mould. The mould is then sealed and the process of rotating it begins.

Stage b This stage shows the plastic being heated as it is rotated around the mould in all directions. The heated plastic coats the inside wall of the mould.

Stage c The completed plastic part and mould is now cooled before ejection from the mould.

Stage d The moulded shape is ejected from the mould.

Materials Those most commonly used include plasticised polyvinyl chloride (PVC), the most versatile and easily moulded material. Polypropyl- ene and low-density polythene are also commonly used.

Identification Rigid components may incorporate inserts for fixing. Flexible/ inflatable components may incorporate valves for inflation. Detailed components will have excellent surface detail. Effects such as wood grain, stone, and leather can be produced. Mouldings should be designed to avoid sharp concave sections and thin, weak areas.

Uses Large tanks (10,000 litres) and a range of flexible mouldings have been produced using rotational moulding techniques. Other more common products include balls and hollow plastic toys.

Finishing plastics Firstly it is important that the protective paper on the material is not peeled off as this will protect the Joining plastic material from scratches. Plastic are normally joined using an adhesive (glue) known as Plastic Cement which is spread over the The edges of plastic should be finished by: edges of the material. A commonly used plastic cement for Acrylic is Tensol No. 12. 1. Firstly Cross File all edges. 2. Then Draw File. Plastic cements basically gently melt the two pieces of 3. After this the edges should smoothed using plastic being joined making them easy to fix together Wet and Dry abrasive paper. Similar to when ready.

Glass paper -(Wood) and Emery Cloth - When gluing plastic it is important that no plastic (Metal). cement overspills on to the faces because this will 4. Then smoothen using Steel Wool. permanently mark the surface. To avoid this the part of 5. Lastly a finishing polish such as metal polish the plastic not being glued can be covered with masking tape. should be used to polish the edges.

Removing Scratches of the Faces These can be removed by rubbing metal polish into

37 CAD/CAM & Manufacturing

CAD (Computer Aided Design) CAD is the process where by products are engineered and designed using a computer. This may involve producing complex engineering drawings and 3D models.

CAM (Computer Aided Manufacture) This involves sending the work created in CAD to a machine which will then build the product exactly as it was designed on the computer.

This is done using CNC (Computer Numerical Control) machines, which are (automated) robotic machines that carry out the processes previously done by humans.

This process is extremely advantageous to manufacturers as:

 Design development is quicker and design can be easily edited on the computer.  The quality and accuracy of drawings and models is greatly increased.  CNC machines are highly accurate.  Human error is reduced as machines do not get tired or lose concentration.  System reliability results in higher productivity.  Less running costs as machines do not need lighting and heating.  Computer provide analytical data meaning that the manufacturer can be accurate when production plan- ning, meaning less waste.  Products can be sent electronically anywhere in the world to be produced resulting in market globalisa- tion  Factories remain cleaner as there is no moving workforce and CNC machines effectively manage waste. This is known as clean-manufacturing.

However there are also disadvantages:  Systems can crash, meaning all production stops.  Initial set up costs are high.  Staff require training.  Skilled labour is lost as there is no need for a human workforce. This lead to unemployment.

Rapid prototyping

Rapid prototyping is the process of quickly producing a 3D model or prototype directly from a computer drawing or model.

The process is very accurate and allows the manufacturer to produce very intricate working models.

Although there are many different types of rapid prototyping the process generally works in one of the following ways:

1. The system uses a liquid resins which is then hardened by a laser. 2. The system melts and then fuses solid materials together. 3. The system uses a binder to connect the primary material.

The process works where a 3D model is sent to the rapid prototyping machine. It is sent as an STL file which dissects the model into a serious of layers.

The rapid prototyping machine then begins to build the model in the ways described above layer by layer.

38 Drilling Pillar / Pedestal Drill

Jacobs chuck Guard - Secures the drill bit Handle

Jacobs chuck key - for tightening or loosening the Pillar/ Jacobs chuck Column Table

Base

Cordless drill Power drill 1. Changeable Drill Bit 2. Speed Setting Switch 5 3. 4. Forward Reverse Switch 4 5. Handle 6. Tells you the batteries power 8 7. Battery 8. Trigger Switch 9. Chuck 10. Cable 10

Advantages and Disadvantages: Cordless: Is easily portable however the battery will eventually run out and need re-charged. Power: Wont run out of power but has to be plugged in at all times to operate which means it is not easily portable.

Hand drill Bit brace (Hand Brace Drill) Used for drilling small Used for drilling large holes in wood. holes in wood. Good where a deep hole is required but Difficult to keep is difficult to keep straight. straight.

Turn handle to drill Crankshaft

Drill Bits Fostner bit Auger bit Twist drill Flat bit Countersink bit Hole saw

Used for drilling Used in hand drills Most common drill For drilling flat For Round saw that is large or flat where a lot of effort is bit for drilling bottomed holes. countersinking used for sawing bottomed holes. required to drill a hole. standard holes in Rough drilling as holes in all holes in various It makes drilling easier all materials. they tend to materials. materials. as the wider spirals cause splinters in remove more waste. the wood.

Phillips, Slotted and Pozi Bits (For Safety when Drilling Cordless/Power drill)  Ensure that your material is properly secured before drilling.  Ensure that the drill bit is properly secured in the chuck.  Ensure that you are using the correct drill bit for the job.  Ensure that all other workshop safety rules are being followed.  Ensure that the Jacobs chuck key has not been left in the Jacobs chuck before starting the drill (PILLAR DRILL). 39 Power Tools

Circular Saw Dust extraction Power planer Revolving blades cut thicker shavings than a hand plane. Used for sawing long straight cuts, especially useful for large manufactured boards. Revolving Blades underneath

Fence Blade and Blade Guard

Orbital sander Belt sander The glass paper is moved in a circular Dust extraction The belt (with glass paper) motion to give a revolves similar to the rubbing action. Useful movement of treads on an on smaller areas. army tank. This sands the wood and is useful on large areas. Sand paper Sawdust bag Sand paper Power router Bandsaw Good for cutting out grooves, slots and joints such as stopped housings. Guard adjustment Comes with a number of different tools that can also Guard be used to apply decorative Fence finishes to the edges of wood. Blade

Depth gauge Trigger switch High powered saw for cutting wood. Chuck where the Table cutting tool would be held.

Belt sander (floored) Jigsaw

Used for cutting curved cuts Belt Sander in thin boards. Can be set to cut at any angle up to 45°. Disc Sander

Used for sanding and Trigger Switch shaping wood. Blade Mortise machine Clamp Used for machine cutting the mortise part of a mortise and Angle grinder Tenon joint. It cuts a square hole in the wood. Used for shaping and smoothing metal. Lever

Chisel Wheels for moving Table table left/right or front/back

40 Notes