Control 17 (2006) 14–21 www.elsevier.com/locate/foodcont

Chemical safety of conventionally and organically produced foodstuffs: a tentative comparison under Belgian conditions

Luc Pussemier a,*, Yvan Larondelle b, Carlos Van Peteghem c, Andre´ Huyghebaert d

a Veterinary and Research Centre, Leuvensesteenweg 17, B-3080 Tervuren, Belgium b Universite´ catholique de Louvain, Unite´ de biochimie de la nutrition, B-1348 Louvain-la-Neuve, Belgium c Universiteit Gent, Laboratorium voor Bromatologie, Harelbekestraat 72, B-9000 Gent, Belgium d Universiteit Gent, Laboratorium voor Levensmiddelentechnologie en Voeding, Coupure links 653, 9000 Gent, Belgium

Received 3 April 2004; received in revised form 22 July 2004; accepted 2 August 2004

Abstract

This paper goes through the chemical risks able to affect the organic and the conventional agro-food products. For each type of contaminant a tentative assessment has been made in considering not only the levels of exposure but also the toxicological data when available. When comparing both production systems with regards to , it appears that, for the well-known toxicants (, nitrates), organic products present some clear advantages, but it is also recognized that natural toxicants need to be bet- ter identified within this mode of production. Environmental and contaminants are present in both organic and conventional products. It is recommended to improve the monitoring programmes by paying more attention to the mode of pro- duction as well as to the whole array of relevant contaminants. 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

Keywords: Chemical contaminants; Organic agriculture; Conventional agriculture

1. Introduction (or reduces drastically) the use of certain chemical inputs such as fertilizers, plant protection products, veterinary A growing part of the European population gives medicines, etc ... but that this production system preference to organically produced agricultural products intends to respect more accurately a balance between (i.e. in accordance with the European regulation on man, production and environment. Of course, organic organic production EEC Reg. no. 2092/91), due to the production aims at meeting health requirements but, alleged absence of chemical contaminants within this in addition, it wants to meet global quality require- mode of production. The recent food crises which ments, i.e. not only in integrating the organoleptic and have struck Europe over the last years (BSE, dioxins, nutritional properties of the produced food but also PCB, ...) have contributed to reinforce the establish- socio-economic and environmental aspects linked to ment of organic production in lots of European coun- the whole production system. tries: in 2000, about 3% of agricultural acreage was In this review we have tried to identify hazardous devoted to organic agriculture. It is, however, important chemicals that could be present in foodstuffs taking into to remind that organic agriculture does not keep within account all steps in the production of foodstuffs from the limits of a production system in which one forbids the field to the fork. Then, we have performed a tenta- tive risk assessment of both the conventional and * Corresponding author. Tel.: +32 2 7692247; fax: +32 2 7692305. organic modes of production based on known databases E-mail addresses: [email protected], info@var. fgov.be (L. Pusse- for residues and contaminants as well as on scientific mier). studies published in the literature. For practical reasons

0956-7135/$ - see front matter 2004 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved. doi:10.1016/j.foodcont.2004.08.003 L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 15 we have mainly focused on the situation in Belgium and Pest Management (IPM). Table 1 summarizes results surrounding countries. We have also performed some obtained in the USA and in Europe on a very large comparisons with the situation in the USA where database (94 000 samples in the American database) as considerable efforts have been devoted to the analysis well in Belgium on a smaller dataset (a few thousands of residues databases. samples). Lots of studies published in the scientific literature It appears from Table 1 that products from cannot be used because the comparisons are distorted: organic agriculture contain less pesticide residues than inadequate sampling methods, a too large number of conventional ones. Products from IPM (Integrated Pest parameters to be considered, too large variability of Management) hold an in-between position. However, the measured parameters. For the same reasons, there the frequency of detection and the pesticide contents are numerous studies with contradictory results. are, as a whole, higher in the American study than what In some cases, it seems that organic products present they are in the European Union, for so far the official re- specific risks because they are obtained according to ports are considered (European Commission, 1999a). It ‘‘natural’’ or ‘‘home made’’ production modes (lack of is not possible however, to establish whether these professionalism of the growers, no clear hygienic differences are due to different plant protection practices requirements in the EEC regulation). On the other hand, or to some differences in the sampling and analysis the organic production is currently developing in such a methodology (longer or shorter list of traced molecules, way that it requires the move to a larger scale than the higher or lower detection limit). This second hypothesis family farm (large scale trade of cereals and feeding seems to be as much plausible as the first one when one stuffs within the organic food market, internationalisa- sees that, depending on the nature of the database used tion of the exchanges). It is important to cope with this in USA, the authors underline significant differences in new scale within the business area of organic products the residue detection frequencies (less residues in the because it brings new consequences for massive contam- California DPT database obtained using less sensitive inations (e.g. the nitrofen case in Germany in 2002). analysis method) (Table 1). Equally, it is important to know that what we call con- Even if the figures vary a lot in absolute values, all the ventional also means several production systems, which databases show nevertheless the same trends and, have very different technical specificities (classic produc- when adequate breakdown has been applied according tion with the requirement of intensive inputs but also to the production methods, they agree on a lower alternative systems based on Integrated Pest Manage- presence of residues in the following order: organic agri- ment (IPM), production under label or with market culture < integrated pest management < conventional claims, production according to technical specifications (intensive) agriculture. set by the distribution sector). Hence, one must be aware Gross figures isolated from their context are mean- that by distinguishing only two production modes ingless: the rate of positive samples will increase, what- (namely organic and conventional) one can adopt a ever the production method, if we stick to lowering much too simplistic behaviour with regard to the reality detection thresholds and to widening the spectrum of which can be much more complex. the pesticides to be analyzed (bear in mind that the envi- ronmental pesticides can be present everywhere is small amounts). From a toxicological point of view, what is 2. Tentative comparison between the conventional and most important and most relevant is the respect of the organic production systems maximal limits of residues (MLR). Let us remind that, over the last years, the exceeding percentage of MLRs 2.1. Pesticides and nitrates was under 5% for all the European Union (in Belgium, for example, it was of 4.5% for the year 2000). Recent reviews provide information on pesticides res- Globally, one should remain vigilant with respect to idues found in foodstuffs obtained from conventional, the problem of pesticide residues because the number organic and other production systems such as Integrated of chemicals to trace is very high. The most commonly

Table 1 Pesticide residues: frequency of positive samples (i.e. above the limit of method detection) in various databases USA (Baker et al., 2002)EU(European Commission, 1999a) Belgium (AFSCA-FAVV, 2001) USDA California Consumers DG-SANCO Federal State 2000 Large-scale 1994–1999 DPR 1989–1998 Union 1997 1999–2000 distribution 1995–2001 Organic 23% 6.5% 27% 12% IPM 47% 51% Conventional 73% 31% 79% 36–39% 46% 49% 16 L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 used products are not the only ones to be concerned. important agricultural commodities susceptible to be One should, indeed, also pay attention to the old prod- contaminated by in Belgium. Trichothecene ucts that, in most cases, are no more authorized or, on starts in the field as a consequence of the contrary, to the very recent ones, which are not yet Fusarium graminearum and F. culmorum attacks during integrated in the monitoring strategies currently under flowering of the cereals. Wet weather years are known use. In addition, the recent experience of nitrofen in to accentuate contamination by DON (deoxynivalenol), Germany has shown that no production system is totally one of the most important trichothecenes (European free from accidental or fraudulent . In Commission, 1999b). The TDI of DON is set at 1lg/ every case intensive controls are necessary safeguards kg b.w. and the proposed limit in unprocessed cereals to guarantee the production quality and safety. is 750lg/kg. According to Woese, Lange, Boess, and Bo¨gl (1997), According to Jennings and Turner (2000), the use of organic products contain less nitrates than their coun- fungicides belonging to the chemical group of triazoles terparts obtained with the conventional methods. Data (e.g. epoxyconazole, metconazole, tebuconazole) are obtained under Belgian conditions (provided from the able to decrease DON contamination by 30–50% when large-scale distribution sector) permit to extract some applied at full dose during the flowering of the cereals. interesting information on nitrate residues in conven- This is not the case with other fungicides such as stro- tional and organic productions as they are found on bilurins which are commonly used to protect cereals the Belgian market (AFSCA-FAVV, 2001). The mean against many fungal diseases during the vegetation per- value in nitrate content is 1703mg/kg for the organic iod. Hence, a judicious use of fungicides may help to products and 2637mg/kg for the conventional ones limit DON contaminations in a significant way. As far (significantly different at p < 0.0001). Nitrate contents as organic productions are concerned, it is now demon- are lower in organic broad-leaved vegetables mostly be- strated that characteristic traits of this mode of produc- cause, during winter, they are imported from Mediterra- tion will help to reduce the risks of contamination in the nean countries (lack of sunshine in the rest of Europe). field (European Commission, 1999c). These are: long Since the absence of light is a well-known factor explain- crop rotations, obligation to plough the soil (as a weed ing nitrate accumulation in vegetables during winter control technique), absence of maize as preceding crop. (less photosynthesis), it is normal that locally produced No use of growth regulators and better lodging are also vegetables show higher nitrate levels. For other goods common practices in organic agriculture that can help to such as potatoes, differences have not appeared. prevent fungal infections. Last but not least, in conven- tional agriculture, some of the varieties commonly used 2.2. Natural contaminants are very sensitive to Fusarium attacks and to subsequent contamination by DON. It is feared that organic production could be more af- The reviews of published studies reporting contamina- fected by mycotoxins (no use of synthetic fungicides) tion by trichothecenes (especially DON) of convention- and by phytotoxins (plant defense mechanism against ally and organically grown cereals are contradictory insect attacks, diseases or as a reaction to stress). Table (Tamm & Thu¨rig, 2002). Some of the studies come to 2 gives an overview of the most important mycotoxins the conclusions that organic cereals are significantly and plant toxicants able to contaminate both organic more contaminated than their conventional counterparts and conventional productions under European condi- while others come to the inverse conclusion. It seems, tions. Cereals and derived products are by far the most actually, that more recent data and systematic compari-

Table 2 Mycotoxins and other natural contaminants able to affect agricultural products under European conditions (Mediterranean countries not included) Type of contaminant Agro-food products that can be contaminated under conditions prevailing in Europe Trichothecenes (DON, Zearalenone,...) Cereals and cereals derived products such as flour, bread, muesli but also beer Ochratoxin A Cereals and cereal-derived products (even in some animal productions like pork meat—mostly in offal) Patulin Mostly in apple juice and, to a lesser extent, in other juices Toxic compounds in plants and crops present in seeds from some weeds able to (glyco-alkaloids, glucosinolates, furanocoumarins) contaminate cereals, peas, etc Phytotoxins produced by plants under stress after fungal or insect attacks (potatoes, carrots) L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 17 sons performed on field trials under scientifically control- large variability due to a high number of brands and led conditions to a more favourable situation for or- brewing processes existing in some specific countries like ganic cereals (Tamm & Thu¨rig, 2002). This could be Belgium. explained by the fact that, in the past, there were numer- Patulin is a common produced by P. ous organic growers and retailers who were less experi- expansum in apples. There are reports about studies enced and not really aware of good agricultural and carried out in Europe (France, Italy) mentioning that manufacturing practices. As a consequence, some dra- organic apple juices contain more patulin than the matic contaminations might have occurred in some conventional products (Beretta, Gaiaschi, Galli, & farms especially during wet years. Restani, 2000). However, it seems that the real problem Ochratoxin A (OTA) is a produced by some lies more in the management of rotten than in the Penicillium and Aspergillus species during the storage intrinsic mode of production characterizing organic of the cereals. OTA contamination will be more intense agriculture. Therefore, in a recent study carried out in when the grains are not sufficiently dry (i.e. 14% mois- Belgium (Tangni et al., 2003), attention was paid on ture or less). In Europe, the TDI for OTA is set at the influence of several possible confusion factors such 5lg/kg b.w. and the proposed limit is 5lg/kg in unproc- as industrial versus handicraft juices, clarified versus essed cereals and 200ng/l in beer. It seems irrational to trouble juices, local versus imported juices and, to a les- think that the use of fungicides could lead to reduced ser extent, organic versus conventional juices. All of the OTA contaminations of conventional cereals because 43 samples analysed showed contamination levels under the amount of residue at harvest is so tiny that no con- the legal norm of 50lg/l and the mean content was of trol can be made on the OTA producing molds. On the 9lg/l. However, no significant differences could be other hand, insect attacks during storage could favour found looking at the various factors able to affect con- fungal development in the inner part of the grains. tamination, even if it appeared that the mean content When looking at the databases of cereal contamination in industrial juices was lower than the one found in by OTA, it also appears here that one can find contra- juices of handicraft origin (7.0lg/l versus 14.6lg/l, dictory results in the published literature. In Denmark, respectively). In addition, the number of organic juices for instance, it has been observed that organic cereals (four) included in this study was too low to make valid (and especially organic rye) were much more contami- comparisons. In contrast, in another study carried out in nated, and this, more specifically during the wet years Belgium on 22 organic and 36 conventional apple juices, from 1986 to 1992 (Jorgensen & Jacobsen, 2002). There- Baert, Kasase, De Meulenaer, and Huyghebaert (2003) after, an improvement of the situation has obviously reported that, whilst all samples were under the legal taken place. Here again, one can think that the general limit of 50lg/l, the organic juices contained significantly improvement of the practices has contributed to avoid higher amounts of patulin (mean = 33.4lg/l in organic excessive contaminations in specific cases that were versus 8.1lg/l in conventional). However, the latter re- probably more frequent within the organic agriculture sults were not analysed with a focus on the industrial community. The production of spoiled agricultural and handicraft character that could have led to an even goods, however, is not a prerogative of the sole organic more important difference assuming that the careful sector. Czerwiecki, Czajkowska, and Witkowska- elimination of rotten fruits is the key factor controlling Gwiazdowska (2002a, 2002b), for instance, have shown, apple juice contamination by patulin. that atypical severe contaminations of cereals by OTA (up to 1000lg/kg) in Poland could be linked to bad 2.3. Environmental contaminants storage conditions in individual farms either from the organic (or in this case ‘‘ecological’’) or from the Heavy metals, dioxins and PCB are some of the most conventional side. important chemicals that are found in the environment, Beer can be considered as a product derived from lo- especially in the most densely inhabited and industrial- cally or imported cereals (mostly barley but also wheat ized countries (Northern Germany, The Netherlands, for the so-called white beers). Tangni, Ponchaut, Mau- Belgium,...). Recent studies have shown that the expo- doux, Rozenberg, and Larondelle (2002) have recently sure of the population through the consumption of food conducted a survey on beers found on the Belgian mar- could lead to health problems for some parts of the ket. From this study, it appears that the level of OTA population (Ahmed, 1999; Wells & de Boer, 1998). contamination is very variable either in the organic or Some examples of agricultural products at risk are pre- in the conventional brands. The highest variability was sented in Table 3. however found to occur in organic beer with one sample It is noteworthy to mention that both conventional reaching a maximum level of 175lg/l (proposed legal and organic modes of productions are at risk. It seems, limit = 200 ng/l). Obviously, there is a need to increase however, that in some instances organic food might pre- the monitoring of beers taking into account the numer- sent an increased level of risk. It has indeed been estab- ous factors able to influence the contamination and the lished that eggs produced by hens in free range (which 18 L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21

Table 3 Environmentally transmitted contaminants and nature of the agro-food products that can be contaminated Type of contaminant Agro-food products that can be contaminated Heavy metals Mostly in urbanized and industrialized zones Both production systems are vulnerable Dioxins Mostly in urbanized and industrialized zones Both production systems are vulnerable (especially animal products) Free range poultry and eggs may contain more dioxins than under indoor production Special exposure due to fish consumption PCBs Mostly in urbanized and industrialized zones Both production systems are vulnerable (especially animal product) Special exposure due to fish consumption Environmental pesticides (DDT, drins, HCH,...) Mostly animal products (milk, meat, fish) due to bioaccumulation Both production systems are vulnerable PAH Mostly in urbanized and industrialized zones Both production systems are vulnerable Problems with some modes of cooking and preservation (barbecuing, small scale curing) constitutes the rule in organic agriculture) contain more (European Commission, 2002). This chemical is classi- dioxins due to a more intense contact with the soil, fied as probably carcinogenic for man; it is produced which is an important sink for this kind of contaminant during cooking processes requiring high temperature, (Fu¨rst, Fu¨rst, & Wilmer, 1993; Pussemier, Mohimont, whatever the food production system. The production Huyghebaert, & Goeyens, 2004; Schuler, Schmid, & of PAH (carcinogenic chemicals) is a similar problem Schlatter, 1997). even if, here, one can think that the traditional or home- made production methods are more particularly at risk 2.4. Contaminants produced during food processing (bad control of the temperature in barbecues, for exam- or released from package ple). It is also noteworthy to mention that the organic sector prohibits the use of certain materials such as alu- Some characteristic contaminants produced during minium but encourages the use of recycled packaging the processing of foodstuffs or released from packaging materials that could lead to contamination by some materials are presented in Table 4. It seems, from the heavy metals and/or endocrine disruptors. data summarized in this table, that either the conven- tional or the organic modes of production can be af- fected by the presence of such contaminants. Some of 3. Discussion them have been known for a long time (polyaromatic hydrocarbons (PAH) and nitrosamines) while others Pesticides are mostly used in conventional systems such as are newcomers as food contaminants but the products of natural origin that are allowed in

Table 4 Contaminants specific to packaging, transformation and preparation of food Type of contaminant Contamination conditions and links with some production systems Heavy metals Old ceramics, ancient instruments and earthenware crockery used in the kitchen (tagines, tea pot made from Pb) Nitrosamines • Produced during curing, drying and other processes with foodstuffs (true for organic as well as for conventional) Chemicals released from • For both conventional and organic systems, contamination after contact with plastic packaging materials materials (phtalates, , ...) or recycled paper and cardboard (dioxins, heavy metals) • In organic system, Al and PVC materials are forbidden but recycling of packaging is favoured PAH • All production systems are vulnerable • Mostly in urbanized and industrialized regions • Care with some cooking and preservation processes (barbecuing, curing) Acrylamide • Favoured in both production systems by cooking processes requiring elevated temperatures (frying, oven-baking) L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 19

Table 5 Hazard characterization for some characteristic chemical contaminants; estimation of their intake via food and links with the production system (conventional or organic) Type of contaminant Hazard characterization Estimation of the intake via food Comments related to the considered production system and/or environment Pesticides Large knowledge available Globally less than 1% of ADI Essentially in conventional; (registration dossier); ADI only traces of synthetic determined for each authorized pesticides in organic; high pesticide amounts of natural pesticides can be present in organic Nitrates ADI value available but still 20% of ADI Less in organic (especially for controversy due to possible broad-leaved vegetables in confusing factors (e.g. role of winter time) microbial contamination on nitrite production in baby food) Mycotoxins TDI available for the best studied Evidence for some Both systems are comparable toxins; large uncertainties for a large exceeding of TDI for some provided that good agricultural number of less studied chemicals toxins in some vulnerable and manufacturing practices consumerÕs groups. are respected Phytotoxins Toxicological data available for some Evidence that intake levels Evidence that organic products well studied toxins; large uncertainties for some toxins might present present higher contents but for a large number of less studied chemicals adverse effects for some global effect on health is still vulnerable consumerÕs groups unknown (either beneficial or (e.g. phyto-oestrogens and infants) adverse effects can be expected from glucosinolates, phyto- oestrogens,... Heavy metals Toxicological studies available; TDI Evidence for some exceeding of TDI for Globally same impact on determined for the most relevant some chemicals (Cd, Pb) in some organic and conventional compounds; uncertainties related to industrialized regions of Europe systems; Additional intake chemical speciation of Cu can be expected for consumers of organic products; Specific problems could arise in industrialized regions Dioxins and Toxicological studies available for 2, 3, 7, 8- Evidence for some exceeding of TDI Globally same impact on dioxin-like TCDD; Group toxicity for other congeners for excessive consumers of fish, milk organic and conventional compounds assessed using equivalent factors; WTI and meat products in Europe systems; Specific problems (Weekly Tolerable Intake) proposed could arise in industrialized for the group of dioxin-like chemicals or densely inhabited regions. Some evidence that eggs from free range hens may be more contaminated PAH Genotoxicity established for specific Exposure must be reduced as much Globally same impact on chemicals of the group as possible (ALARA) organic and conventional systems Importance of some risky practices during,... Acrylamide Possible carcinogenic chemical; Lack of Exposure must be reduced as much Globally same impact on information about toxicological properties as possible (ALARA) organic and conventional when present as food contaminant systems Chemicals released Largely unknown; Still a lot of unidentified More information on intake needed More information needed from packaging chemicals; Possible endocrine disruption on risks linked to recycled materials effects (oestrogen-like chemicals) packaging materials

organic farming are not necessarily totally innocuous for addition, it is noteworthy to mention that, even for or- man or for the environment (e.g. accumulation of cop- ganic products, there is a possibility of slight contamina- per in terrestrial environments). In addition, some chem- tion by pesticides entering the food chain via the icals are used at very high dosage (sulphur) and little is environment (e.g. organochlorine pesticides) or other known about the long-term toxicity of some plant routes of exposure to pesticides (e.g. spray drift from extracts. Moreover, piperonyl butoxyde, a synthetically adjacent fields). obtained synergist used to increase the efficacy of The presence in lower quantities of pesticides in pyrethrins, is regularly found in organically grown organic productions is not a decisive advantage as far vegetables in Belgium (AFSCA-FAVV, 2001). In as food safety is concerned when one knows about 20 L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 the strict norms imposed on conventional productions there is evidence that organic eggs might contain more enforced by the current regulations. If no exceeding dioxins than their conventional counterparts, it has been the ADI value can be considered as a good guarantee shown in Belgium that the egg contamination by dioxins of safety, then one can argue that conventional food will is much more a problem for hobby breeders than for not present a real risk because the general exposure is organic farms. mostly less than one percent of this value. In addition, With respect to downstream processes, the two pro- it must be remembered that the residues are determined duction methods hold risks due to the exposure to some on the raw commodities before any culinary treatment contaminants that can be introduced during food process- (such as pealing, blanching, cooking,...) which are ing, storage or packaging. Whilst aluminium is forbidden known to further reduce the residue levels in the food in organic production, other risks may stem from the use to be eaten by the consumer. of recycled products. The estimation of the real risks The reduction of the exposure to nitrates through linked to certain characteristic contaminants (e.g. consumption of organic vegetables might be more rele- phtalates, bisphenol A diglycidyl ether (BADGE),...)is vant because vegetables represent an important expo- still not very developed today (possible disruptions within sure route compared, for example, to drinking water the endocrine system, oestrogenic effects). and because the intake is rather high compared to the A summary of the risks linked to the presence of con- acceptable dose (ca 75% of ADI according to the Danish taminants is proposed in Table 5 considering all main Food Authority (2000)). types of contaminants together. From this table it can Some organic productions and especially the home- be concluded that organic products present some addi- made (or artisanal) products have been proved to have tional advantages in the case of some well-known con- bigger contaminations from biotoxins (such as mycotox- taminants (nitrates, pesticides) but for which the safety ins). An example is the presence of patulin in apple juice. margins are already very important in conventional Research, however, is not developed enough to accu- agriculture. For other contaminants such as natural tox- rately quantify this impact. Generally speaking, one ins and chemicals released downstream in the food pro- can say that, for mycotoxins (and especially for Fusa- duction process, there are still uncertainties about the rium toxins), the most important elements for prevent- hazards while exposure could be higher for some organic ing contaminations are linked to agricultural factors productions (larger amounts of some less studied plant (type of rotation, choice of varieties) and the respect chemicals and of some compounds released by recycled of good practices in the farm (elimination of rotten packaging materials). goods, good preservation conditions). It is unfounded to assert that the absence of plant protection products systematically to a higher mycotoxin contamina- 4. Recommendations tion (European Commission, 1999c). Concerning other biotoxins, such as phytotoxins, Owing to the scarcity of available objective informa- which might be present in higher concentrations in vari- tion today (scientific studies, official monitoring pro- eties privileged in organic production due to their resist- grams) regarding the presence of certain residues ance properties against pests, it is not obvious at all to according to the mode of production, it would be useful state that they are advantageous with regard to the con- to gather more accurate information in order to estab- sumers health because some of these substances can be lish a better picture on the presence of residues. It will toxic for man (e.g. glyco-alkaloı¨ds in potatoes) and oth- be necessary to not only take into account production ers have ambivalent effects (e.g. the glucosinolates and inputs which were shown to be present in fewer amounts phyto-oestrogens which can altogether be health benefi- in organic foodstuffs (pesticides, veterinary medicines, cial (protection against ) as well as have harmful antibiotics, fertilizers), but also to consider other very effects (goitrogenic effects, hormonal disruption, cancer relevant contaminants like those either produced by liv- induction). ing organisms (mycotoxins and other biotoxins) or those As to the contaminants transmitted by the environ- transmitted by the environment (organochlorinated pes- ment, the two types of production globally seem equally ticides, PCBs, dioxins, heavy metals) as well as during sensitive. These chemicals (PCB, dioxins, heavy metals) food processing/packaging (PAH, acrylamide, endocrine seem to be very relevant as far as food safety is disruptors). This can be done by implementing either concerned considering that the exposure via the food global or targeted monitoring programmes. Hence, fol- chain is very close, or even exceeds the tolerable intake lowing recommendations can be made to the authorities threshold derived from the toxicological studies. One responsible for food control: must also point out that for certain animal productions requiring access to outdoor environment, risks can be (1) Adapt the sampling plans in order to be able to take higher in the organic system. The real situation, into account the various modes of production and however, still needs to be further assessed. Indeed, while integrate more items in the databases dealing with L. Pussemier et al. / Food Control 17 (2006) 14–21 21

the analysis of contaminants. This is needed to Advances in Food Analysis, Prague, Czech Republic, November improve the traceability of the samples (more infor- 5–7, 2003. mation on the mode and on the place of production Beretta, B., Gaiaschi, A., Galli, C. L., & Restani, P. (2000). Patulin in apple-based : occurence and safety evaluation. Food Additives of the analyzed samples). and Contaminants, 17(5), 399–406. (2) For the various productions with certification and Czerwiecki, L., Czajkowska, D., & Witkowska-Gwiazdowska, A. (or) market claims, there is a need to widen and (2002a). On ochratoxin A and fungal flora in Polish cereals from adapt the controls in order to be able to better assess conventional and ecological farms. Part 1: Occurrence of ochra- the global quality of the foodstuffs. It is important, toxin A and fungi in cereals in 1997. Food Additives and Contaminants, 19(5), 470–477. for the consumers, to be well informed on the actual Czerwiecki, L., Czajkowska, D., & Witkowska-Gwiazdowska, A. content in residues for these various production (2002b). On ochratoxin A and fungal flora in Polish cereals from methods. This holds not only for nitrates and pesti- conventional and ecological farms. Part 2: Occurence of ochratoxin cides (being synthetic or natural) but also for other A and fungi in cereals in 1998. Food Additives and Contaminants, relevant toxicants such as biotoxins and environ- 19(11), 1051–1057. Danish Food Authority (2000). Denmark: top priority on food safety, mental contaminants. published by the Danish Government. (3) It is also recommended to collect more information European Commission (1999). Opinion on the relationship between on the occurrence and toxicity of mycotoxins, phy- the use of plant protection products on food plants and the totoxins and other natural toxicants that could be occurrence of mycotoxins in foods. European Commission, health relevant for the consumerÕs health, and to adapt and consumer protection directorate-general, Scientific committee on plants, 24 September 1999. the monitoring programs accordingly. European Commission (1999). Opinion on Fusarium toxins (Part 1: (4) More information is needed on the hazard identifi- Deoxynivalenol). European Commission, SANCO, Scientific com- cation and characterization as well as on the intake mittee on plants, 2 December 1999. of food-processing and food-packaging chemicals European Commission (1999). Monitoring of pesticides residues in with a special attention to recycled materials (paper, products of plant origin in the EU, Norway and Iceland.1999 Report, SANCO/397/01-final. cardboard) that are preferentially used in the European Commission (2002). Opinion of the Scientific Committee on organic production system. Food on new findings regarding the presence of acrylamide in food, (5) The authorities should show a particular interest in European Commission, Directorate C—scientific opinions, 3 July the communication of information towards the con- 2002. sumers. The complexity in the field of food safety is Fu¨rst, P., Fu¨rst, Chr., & Wilmer, K. (1993). PCDD/PCDF in commercial chicken eggs—dependence on the type of housing. such that appropriate means must be used in order Organohalogen Compounds, 13, 31–34. to inform the public in the most neutral and com- Jennings, P., & Turner, J. A. (2000). Overview of fusarium ear blight in plete way. the UK—effect of fungicide treatment on disease control and (6) Finally, it would be advisable to continue, at the mycotoxin production. The BCPC Conference—Pests and diseases, European and international levels, the efforts of 2, 707–712. Jorgensen, K., & Jacobsen, J. S. (2002). Occurrence of Ochratoxin A in harmonization as well as the efforts for methodolog- Danish wheat and rye 1992–1999. Food Additives and Contami- ical improvements about the detection of residues nants, 19(12), 1180–1183. (pesticides, mycotoxins, environmental contami- Pussemier, L., Mohimont, L., Huyghebaert, A., & Goeyens, L. (2004). nants). It is indeed very important that common Enhanced levels of dioxins in eggs from free range hens; a fast criteria are set concerning the detection limits, the evaluation approach. Talanta, 63, 1273–1276. Schuler, F., Schmid, P., & Schlatter, C. (1997). The transfer of PCDD list of molecules to analyze and the sampling and PCDF from soil into eggs of foraging chicken. Chemosphere, methods. 34, 711–718. Tamm, L., & Thu¨rig, B. (2002). FiBL position paper: mycotoxins in organic food. Ecology and Farming,4. Tangni, E. K., Ponchaut, S., Maudoux, M., Rozenberg, R., & References Larondelle, Y. (2002). Ochratoxin A in domestic and imported beers in Belgium: occurrence and exposure assessment. Food AFSCA-FAVV (2001). Chemical safety of organically produced Additives and Contaminants, 19(12), 1169–1179. foodstuffs. Report from the scientific committee of the Belgian Tangni, E. K., Theys, R., Mignolet, E., Maudoux, M., Michelet, J. Y., federal agency for the safety of the food chain (AFSCA-FAVV), & Larondelle, Y. (2003). Patulin in domestic and imported apple- Brussels (http:www.afsca-favv.be). based drinks in Belgium: occurrence and exposure assessment. Ahmed, F. E. (1999). Trace metal contaminants in food. In C. F. Food Additives and Contaminants, 20(5), 482–489. Moffat & K. J. Whittle (Eds.), Environmental contaminants in food Wells, D. E., & de Boer (1998). Polychlorinated biphenyls dioxins and (pp. 146–214). England: Sheffield Academic Press. other polyhalogenated hydrocarbons as environmental contami- Baker, B. P., Benbrook, C. M., Groth, E., III, & Benbrook, K. L. nants in food. In C. F. Moffat & K. J. Whittle (Eds.), Environ- (2002). Pesticide residues in conventional, IPM-grown and organic mental contaminants in food (pp. 305–429). England: Sheffield foods: insights from three US data sets. Food Additives and Academic Press. Contaminants, 19(5), 427–446. Woese, K., Lange, D., Boess, C., & Bo¨gl, K. W. (1997). A comparison Baert, K., Kasase, C., De Meulenaer, B., & Huyghebaert, A. (2003). of organically and conventionally grown foods—results of a review Incidence of patulin in organic and conventional apple juices of the relevant literature. Journal of the Science of Food and marketed in Belgium, 1st International Symposium on Recent Agriculture, 74, 281–293.