Building Design and Environmental Performance Thermal Comfort Through Thermal Mass and Natural Ventilation in Social Housing in Northeast Brazil

BUILDING DESIGN AND ENVIRONMENTAL PERFORMANCE THERMAL COMFORT THROUGH THERMAL MASS AND NATURAL VENTILATION IN SOCIAL HOUSING IN NORTHEAST BRAZIL.

A thesis submitted to the University of Manchester for the degree of Doctor of Philosophy in the Faculty of Science & Engineering

2018

BIANCA DE A. NEGREIROS

SCHOOL OF MECHANICAL, AEROSPACE AND CIVIL ENGINEERING

Table of Contents LIST OF TABLES ...... 4 LIST OF FIGURES ...... 5 ABSTRACT ...... 9 DECLARATION ...... 10 COPYRIGHT STATEMENT ...... 10 ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS ...... 11 1 INTRODUCTION ...... 12

BACKGROUND ...... 12 EARTH CONSTRUCTION AND HOUSING IN BRAZIL ...... 15 BUILDING PERFORMANCE STANDARDS IN BRAZIL ...... 18 PROBLEM STATEMENT AND HYPOTHESIS ...... 20 RESEARCH AIM ...... 21 METHODOLOGY ...... 22 THESIS STRUCTURE ...... 23 2 LITERATURE REVIEW ...... 25

2.1 THE CLIMATE OF NORTHEAST BRAZIL ...... 25 2.2 HOUSING IN BRAZIL ...... 31 2.3 EARTH CONSTRUCTION ...... 39 2.4 THERMAL MASS PERFORMANCE ...... 47 2.5 THERMAL PERFORMANCE ASSESSMENT ...... 49 2.5.1 Brazilian thermal performance standards ...... 50 2.5.2 Thermal performance indices ...... 58 2.6 DISCUSSION OF THE CHAPTER ...... 64 3 METHODOLOGY ...... 67

3.1 MODELLING ...... 67 3.1.1 DesignBuilder Software...... 67 3.1.2 Site characterization ...... 71 3.1.3 Base case ...... 73 3.1.4 Variations in the base case ...... 77 3.1.5 Case summary ...... 85 3.2 VALIDATION ...... 86 3.2.1 Monitoring ...... 86 3.2.2 Validation ...... 89 3.3 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS ...... 90 3.3.1 Performance analysis through standards ...... 90 3.3.2 Performance analysis through thermal comfort index ...... 91 3.3.3 Cases combination ...... 92 4 RESULTS ...... 95

4.1 VALIDATION RESULTS ...... 95 4.2 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS THROUGH STANDARDS ...... 98 4.3 PERFORMANCE ANALYSIS THROUGH THERMAL COMFORT INDEX ...... 100 4.3.1 Piatã – BA, Zone 5 ...... 101 4.3.2 Monteiro – PB, Zone 6 ...... 109 4.3.3 Picos – PI, Zone 7 ...... 117 4.3.4 Salvador – BA, Zone 8 ...... 125

5 DISCUSSION ...... 133

5.1 VALIDATION ...... 133 5.2 THERMAL PERFORMANCE ...... 134 5.2.1 Piatã – BA, Zone 5 ...... 134 5.2.2 Monteiro – PB, Zone 6 ...... 137 5.2.3 Picos – PI, Zone 7 ...... 139 5.2.4 Salvador – BA, Zone 8 ...... 142 6 CONCLUSIONS ...... 145 7 REFERENCES ...... 149 8 APPENDIX ...... 160

8.1 PIATÃ – BA, ZONE 5 ...... 161 8.1.1 Windows size ...... 161 1.1.1. No overhang ...... 166 1.1.2. Overhang 60cm ...... 167 1.1.3. Overhang 1m ...... 168 1.1.4. Roof systems ...... 169 1.1.5. Wall systems ...... 172 8.2 MONTEIRO – PB, ZONE 6...... 173 1.1.6. Windows size ...... 173 1.1.7. No overhang ...... 178 1.1.8. Overhang 60cm ...... 179 1.1.9. Overhang 1m ...... 181 1.1.10. Roof systems ...... 182 1.1.11. Wall systems ...... 185 8.3 PICOS – PI, ZONE 7 ...... 186 1.1.12. Windows size ...... 186 1.1.13. No overhang ...... 191 1.1.14. Overhang 60cm ...... 192 1.1.15. Overhang 1m ...... 194 1.1.16. Roof systems ...... 195 1.1.17. Wall systems ...... 198 8.4 SALVADOR – BA, ZONE 8 ...... 198 1.1.18. Windows size ...... 198 1.1.19. No overhang ...... 203 1.1.20. Overhang 60cm ...... 204 1.1.21. Overhang 1m ...... 206 1.1.22. Roof systems ...... 207 1.1.23. Wall systems ...... 210

Word count: 40,834

List of tables

Table 1 – Proportions of clay, silt and sand to adobe bricks construction according different authors ...... 46 Table 2 – Detailing strategies for thermal conditioning. Source: ABNT, 2005 ...... 53 Table 3 – Construction guidelines for Northeast zones (ABNT, 2005b) ...... 55 Table 4 – Transmittance for external envelope according to NBR 15.220 and NBR 15575...... 56 Table 5 – The A factor values as a function of airspeed. Source: ISO 7730 (1994) ...... 60 Table 6 – Occupant’s control requirements categories according Lamberts et al (2013) 64 Table 7 – Suggested labeling categories for naturally ventilated buildings according Lamberts et al (2013) ...... 64 Table 8 – Wind Speed Profile Coefficients (EnergyPlus, 2017) ...... 70 Table 9 – Wind pressure coefficients of normal exposure (EnergyPlus, 2017)...... 71 Table 10 – Monthly soil temperatures adopted for each city (°C) ...... 73 Table 11 – Physical properties of the construction systems calculated according NBR 15220-2 (ABNT, 2005c) ...... 74 Table 12 – Wind pressure coefficients according DesignBuilder Software Ltd (2009). ... 75 Table 13 – Flow coefficient and flow exponent according to DesignBuilder Software Ltd (2009)...... 76 Table 14 – Metabolic rates, lighting density and internal equipment load of the cases (Brazil, 2012) ...... 76 Table 15 – Occupation and lighting pattern (Brazil, 2012)...... 77 Table 16 – Physical properties of the construction systems calculated according NBR 15220-2 (ABNT, 2005c) ...... 78 Table 17 – Properties of roof cases for simulation according Brasil (2010) ...... 79 Table 18 – Input parameters of vegetation and soil layer according Capozzoli et al (2013) and ABNT (2005)...... 81 Table 19 – Base case classification of windows ...... 82 Table 20 – Openings size used in the simulation process ...... 82 Table 21 – Base case and variation defined to the simulation process ...... 85 Table 22 – Thermal properties limits according NBR 15220 and NBR 15575 ...... 90 Table 23 – Temperature limits of the comfort zones ...... 92 Table 24 – Statistical indicators after first simulation of the four houses ...... 95 Table 25 – Statistical indicators of the four houses with different exposition factor input 96 Table 26 – Physical properties of the materials to be used in simulation ...... 99

List of Figures

Figure 1 – Location of Brazil ...... 12 Figure 2 – Regions of Brazil ...... 13 Figure 3 – Walls been filled with clay ...... 14 Figure 4 – House plastered and finished ...... 14 Figure 5 – Old Town Hall and Prison ...... 15 Figure 6 – Church of Saints Cosme and Damien ...... 15 Figure 7 – Wattle and daub house in Areia Branca - RN ...... 16 Figure 8 – Wattle and daub house in Campo Grande - RN ...... 16 Figure 9 – Complexo do Alemão, “Favela” in Rio de Janeiro ...... 17 Figure 10 – Northeast Region and its nine states ...... 22 Figure 11 – Research Steps ...... 24 Figure 12 – IBGE climate classification with the northeast region highlighted ...... 25 Figure 13 – Brazil climate map with the northeast region highlighted (IBGE, 2010b) ..... 26 Figure 14 – Northeast climate map ...... 26 Figure 15 – Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil with the northeast region highlighted ...... 27 Figure 16 – Global horizontal solar radiation annual average ...... 28 Figure 17 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Salvador – BA, city at the coastal area ...... 29 Figure 18 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Picos – PI, city at the semi-arid area ...... 29 Figure 19 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Monteiro – PB, city in transitional area ...... 29 Figure 20 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Piatã – BA, city at the high altitude area ...... 29 Figure 21 – Residencial Maestro Cristovam in Assu – RN with 396 units...... 32 Figure 22 – Residencial Jardim das Palmeiras in Mossoro – RN with 410 units ...... 32 Figure 23 – Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado in Mossoro – RN with 844 units .... 32 Figure 24 – Design plan of houses in the Residential Santa Julia ...... 33 Figure 25 - Design plan of houses in the Residential Maestro Cristovam ...... 33 Figure 26 – Design plan of the houses in the Residential Maria Odete Góis Rosado ..... 34 Figure 27 – Social housing in the Residential Maria Goes Rosado ...... 34 Figure 28 – Social housing in the Residential Maria Goes Rosado ...... 34 Figure 29 – Living space and kitchen inside the social housing ...... 35 Figure 30 – View of the bedroom entrances in the social housing ...... 35 Figure 31 – Kitchen of the social housing ...... 36 Figure 32 – Bathroom in the social housing ...... 36 Figure 33 – Perimeter walls added by residents ...... 36 Figure 34 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil ...... 38 Figure 35 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil ...... 38 Figure 36 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil ...... 38 Figure 37 – Earth Construction methods ...... 40 Figure 38 – Farm house of the colonial period in Brazil renewed ...... 41

Figure 39 – Fazenda Bela Aliança, Farm house of the colonial period in Brazil ...... 41 Figure 40 – Earth construction residences in the city ...... 42 Figure 41 – Rammed earth social housing prototype built at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul - Brazil ...... 45 Figure 42 – Adobe bricks made manually ...... 46 Figure 43 – Molding compressed earth blocks (BTC) ...... 46 Figure 44 – Residence built with adobe bricks ...... 47 Figure 45 – Bioclimatic zones in Brazil according NBR 15220-3 with the Northeast region highlighted and the percentage of the Brazilian territory in each zone ...... 51 Figure 46 – Proposal for Bioclimatic Zoning of Brazil ...... 52 Figure 47 – Givoni’s psychometric chart adapted with bioclimatic strategies ...... 52 Figure 48 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 5, highlighting the city Santos (SP) ...... 54 Figure 49 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 6, highlighting the city Goiania (GO) ..... 54 Figure 50 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 7, highlighting the city Picos (PI) ...... 54 Figure 51 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 8, highlighting the city Belem (PA) ...... 54 Figure 52 – Adaptive comfort standard for naturally ventilated buildings...... 61 Figure 53 – Acceptable votes from different Brazilian field experiments plotted on the chart proposed by de Dear and Brager ...... 62 Figure 54 – Minimal values for air velocity corresponding to 80 and 90% air movement acceptability...... 63 Figure 55 – Method steps ...... 67 Figure 56 – Hierarchy in DesignBuilder models ...... 68 Figure 57 – Screenshot with DesignBuilder graphical interface ...... 69 Figure 58 – Representative chosen cities and climate areas in Northeast Brazil ...... 72 Figure 59 – Housing unit in the Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado ...... 74 Figure 60 – Design plan of the housing model ...... 74 Figure 61 – Thermal zones definition ...... 75 Figure 62 – Typical green roof design in Brazil ...... 80 Figure 63 – Louvres dimensions used in the simulation process ...... 83 Figure 64 – Sun path of the living room window in the four cities ...... 83 Figure 65 – Frontal façade with perimeter walls added by residents ...... 84 Figure 66 – Perimeter walls added by residents ...... 84 Figure 67 – Base case scheme with initial parameters ...... 85 Figure 68 – Validation process phases ...... 86 Figure 69 – Residential condominium Maria Odete de Góis Rosado in the city of Mossoró – RN ...... 87 Figure 70 – Four monitored social housings in Mossoró – RN ...... 87 Figure 71 – Location of the monitored social housings within the condominium ...... 88 Figure 72 – Precision Infrared Thermometer Fluke 572 ...... 89 Figure 73 – THDL-400 ...... 89 Figure 74 – Example chart for thermal performance evaluation ...... 91 Figure 75 – Scheme of cases to analyze ventilation and shading device ...... 93 Figure 76 – Scheme of cases to analyze wall thickness and shading device ...... 93 Figure 77 – Scheme of cases to analyze roof systems and ventilation pattern ...... 94 Figure 78 – Scheme of cases to analyze different construction systems of walls ...... 94 Figure 79 – Result parts ...... 95 Figure 80 – Coefficient of determination (R2) of operative temperature in House 01, 02. 03 and 04 ...... 97 Figure 81 – Presentation of results order ...... 100

Figure 82 – Solar Chart for Piatã - BA ...... 101 Figure 83 – Compass Rose for Piatã - BA ...... 101 Figure 84 – Weather data analysis of the city of Piatã – BA ...... 101 Figure 85 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Piatã - BA ...... 102 Figure 86 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Piatã - BA ...... 102 Figure 87 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns ...... 103 Figure 88 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size ...... 104 Figure 89 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres ...... 105 Figure 90 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading 106 Figure 91 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns ...... 107 Figure 92 – Thermal performance of cases with different wall arrangements ...... 108 Figure 93 – Solar chat for Monteiro - PB ...... 109 Figure 94 – Compass Rose for Monteiro - PB ...... 109 Figure 95 – Weather data analysis of the city of Monteiro – PB ...... 109 Figure 96 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Monteiro - PB ...... 110 Figure 97 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Monteiro - PB ...... 110 Figure 98 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns ...... 111 Figure 99 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size ...... 112 Figure 100 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres ...... 113 Figure 101 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading ...... 114 Figure 102 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns ...... 115 Figure 103 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls ...... 116 Figure 104 – Solar chart for Picos - PI ...... 117 Figure 105 – Compass Rose for Picos - PI ...... 117 Figure 106 – Weather data analysis of the city of Picos – PI ...... 117 Figure 107 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Picos - PI ...... 118 Figure 108 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Picos - PI ...... 118 Figure 109 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns ...... 119 Figure 110 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size ...... 120 Figure 111 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres ...... 121 Figure 112 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading ...... 122 Figure 113 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns ...... 123 Figure 114 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls ...... 124

Figure 115 – Solar Chart for Salvador – BA...... 125 Figure 116 – Compass Rose for Salvador – BA ...... 125 Figure 117 – Weather data analysis of the city of Salvador – BA ...... 125 Figure 118 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Salvador – BA ... 126 Figure 119 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Salvador – BA ...... 126 Figure 120 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns ...... 127 Figure 121 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size ...... 128 Figure 122 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres ...... 129 Figure 123 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading ...... 130 Figure 124 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns ...... 131 Figure 125 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls ...... 132 Figure 126 – Design recommendation to Zone 05 ...... 136 Figure 127 – Thermal performance of the green roof and 24h ventilation case in Piatã – BA ...... 136 Figure 128 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of green roof and 24h ventilation case in Piatã – BA...... 136 Figure 129 – Design recommendations to Zone 06 ...... 138 Figure 130 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Monteiro – PB ...... 139 Figure 131 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Monteiro – PB ...... 139 Figure 132 – Design recommendations to Zone 07 ...... 141 Figure 133 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and 24h ventilation case in Picos – PI ...... 141 Figure 134 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and 24h ventilation case in Picos – PI ...... 142 Figure 135 – Design recommendations to Zone 08 ...... 144 Figure 136 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Salvador – BA ...... 144 Figure 137 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Salvador – BA ...... 144

Abstract

The University of Manchester Bianca de Abreu Negreiros Doctor of Philosophy (PhD) Building Design and Environmental Performance: Thermal comfort through thermal mass and natural ventilation in social housing in northeast brazil October 2018

Environmental consciousness leads the construction industry to greater concerns about local adaptation, less waste of resources and energy efficiency In Brazil, earth construction is a feasible approach to house building in many locations and can play a useful part in resolving the housing problems faced by that country, being already a popular approach to providing affordable housing for low income groups within the population, particularly in the Northeast Region of the country, although usually not built correctly. Although used since the colonial period, from 1500, knowledge around earth systems is not formally embedded within the Brazilian building standards and this is unhelpful in terms of promoting quality of performance of buildings thus constructed. For example, appropriate use of high thermal mass in conjunction with natural ventilation, which is frequently used in Brazil due to energy costs, can significantly influence the thermal comfort within residences, but appropriate guidance is lacking. This research considers the combined effects of earth construction and natural ventilation upon thermal comfort within social housing in Northeast Brazil. The main thesis hypothesis is that the use of thermal mass provided by earth construction combined with natural ventilation results in acceptable levels of thermal performance with respect to thermal comfort in both hot and humid and hot and dry climates. The aim is to evaluate the thermal performance of high thermal mass dwellings using adobe system combined with natural ventilation in the bioclimatic zones of Brazil’s Northeast Region. The method explores thermal performance simulation using Design Builder, a graphical interface for Energy Plus program. The assessment uses parametric analysis and the adaptive thermal comfort index from de Dear and Brager (1998). The results suggest that earth construction provides a high number of comfort hours in all bioclimatic zones in Northeast Brazil and ventilation use enhances the comfort sensation.

Key-words: thermal performance, thermal comfort, earth construction, thermal mass, natural ventilation, computational simulation, social housing

Declaration

No portion of the work referred to in the thesis has been submitted in support of an application for another degree or qualification of this or any other university or other institute of learning.

The author of this thesis (including any appendices and/or schedules to this thesis) owns certain copyright or related rights in it (the “Copyright”) and s/he has given The University of Manchester certain rights to use such Copyright, including for administrative purposes. Copies of this thesis, either in full or in extracts and whether in hard or electronic copy, may be made only in accordance with the Copyright, Designs and Patents Act 1988 (as amended) and regulations issued under it or, where appropriate, in accordance with licensing agreements which the University has from time to time. This page must form part of any such copies made. The ownership of certain Copyright, patents, designs, trademarks and other intellectual property (the “Intellectual Property”) and any reproductions of copyright works in the thesis, for example graphs and tables (“Reproductions”), which may be described in this thesis, may not be owned by the author and may be owned by third parties. Such Intellectual Property and Reproductions cannot and must not be made available for use without the prior written permission of the owner(s) of the relevant Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions. Further information on the conditions under which disclosure, publication and commercialisation of this thesis, the Copyright and any Intellectual Property and/or Reproductions described in it may take place is available in the University IP Policy (see http://documents.manchester.ac.uk/DocuInfo.aspx?DocID=2442 0), in any relevant Thesis restriction declarations deposited in the University Library, The University Library’s regulations (see http://www.library.manchester.ac.uk/about/regulations/) and in The University’s policy on Presentation of Theses

Acknowledgements

I would like to thank my supervisor Dr. Rodger Edwards for the continuous support throughout my Ph.D study, for his patience and advice. It was a privilege and an honour for me to share of his scientific and human knowledge. I would like to thank the financial support of the CNPq, the National Council for Scientific and Technological Development – Brazil, without it, this would not have been possible. Thanks to Wisam, Chrissy, Vasco, Samira, Ilias and Nurashikin, my dear colleagues at Pariser Building during this journey. Thanks to Aldomar, Tiago, Tati, Giovani and Clara for the precious contribution during my research. I thank Priscilla, for the friendship and priceless support, and all my Brazilian friends, Leopoldo, Duda, Leonardo, Robson, Marília, Samantha, Ana, Arnaldo, Bruna, Giulia, Tati, Gláucio, Tawni and Natalia for being my family in Manchester. Thanks to my British friends Meryl and Carl, for showing me the Mancunian life, for their support and fun moments during this journey. I would like to thank my parents, Maria do Carmo and Janduy, whose guidance are with me in whatever I pursue. Thanks to my sister Samara for the support while I am not at home. Thanks to Danilo, Alexandra, Lucas, Ana Rosa, Alessandra, Carol, Janaína and Francisco Junior for the true friendship and for always being there for me. Finally, I would like to express my gratitude to Téo for all the motivation, patience and support throughout my study.

1 Introduction

This introduction brings a background on Brazil’s climate, geography and housing sector characteristics followed by a brief description of the use of earth construction in the country and the issues around thermal inertia use in face of the Brazilian thermal performance standards in force quoting the subject. Then, the research question is presented with hypothesis and objectives. Lastly, the methodology and thesis structure are presented.

Background

The Federal Republic of Brazil covers a total area of approximately 8,515,767 km², being the fifth largest country in the world, after Russia, Canada, China, and the United States (IBGE, 2012; Léna and Issberner, 2016). The country has a bigger land area than Western Europe and share borders with all countries in South America apart from Ecuador and Chile (Figure 1).

Figure 1 – Location of Brazil Source: Adapted from Worldatlas (2015)

Extending from latitude 5°16’ North to 33°45’ South, most of the country is in the southern hemisphere, meaning that its seasons are opposite to the northern hemisphere countries. Winter is from June to September and summer is from December-March. Being

12 located close to the Equator, the country has high incident solar radiation and high air temperatures during almost all the year and the length of daylight hours varies very little over the year, leading to seasons with smaller differences. In the North and Northeast regions, the climate is often described in terms of humid and dry seasons since the thermal amplitude is not as expressive as in places of greater latitude. Brazil’s territory is divided in five main geographic regions called North, Northeast, Midwest, Southeast and South. These are further subdivided into 26 states and a federal district, Brasília. The most well-known cities of the country are Rio de Janeiro and São Paulo, both in Southeast Region (Figure 2).

Figure 2 – Regions of Brazil Source: Adapted from Branco et al (2016)

Brazil is considered one of the world’s most important environmental powers and its geopolitical role in environmental decisions is crucial to ongoing global negotiations surrounding climate change (Léna and Issberner, 2016). The country holds more than 60% of the Amazon rainforest and nearly 13% of all surface water in the world, along with a rich biodiversity and amount of natural resources; however growth strategies based on extraction and export of raw materials by the mining and agribusiness sectors are thought to threaten both global environmental stability and the continuing sustainability of Brazil’s economy (Léna and Issberner, 2016; Veríssimo et al, 2011). Water, though abundant, is unevenly distributed in the territory, being concentrated in Amazon Region, one of the least densely populated regions, while other areas such as the Northeast semiarid region and the metropolitan area of Sao Paulo, suffer from frequent droughts. Indeed, the latter has recently faced a collapse of water supply due to low rainfall (Léna and Issberner, 2016; Nikolau, 2015; Costas, 2015). According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2018) the country has more than 190 million inhabitants and currently it is estimated that more than 80% of the population, approximately 160 million people, lives in urban areas. Housing in

Brazil is mainly characterized by permanent private dwellings in the house type, representing 88.6% of the total number of housing units, while apartment buildings account for 10.8% (IBGE, 2010). The 2010 census identifies the mainly types of material used in the construction of the external walls of houses in the country as ceramic brick masonry, wood, straw, wattle and daub and other material (thatch, leaf or plant bark and others). Ceramic brick masonry is the main construction material used for walls in the Brazilian houses, being present in 90% of the permanent houses in the country, (more than 59 million units), with and without coating (IBGE, 2010). The wattle and daub technique is the construction system used in nearly one million units representing 1.58% of the total housing stock, and these house more than 3 million people, being most of them in the Northeast Region of the country (IBGE, 2010). The technique is largely used by the low-income population, usually built by self-construction, being well known since it is orally passed through generations. The method consists of making walls in which vertical wooden wattles are woven with horizontal twigs and branches, and then daubed with a material typically prepared with the mixture of wet soil, clay, sand, animal dung and straw. Figure 3 and Figure 4 show examples of wattle and daub residences built in Northeast Brazil in the 1980s as part of a government funded project developed as an emergency scheme to reconstruct buildings after a series of earthquakes suffered in the city of João Câmara, state of Rio Grande do Norte. A total of 972 residences, public and community buildings were rebuilt or reformed using the wattle and daub technique using prefabricated 0.65m wide modular wood panels (Negreiros et al, 2013). The houses, with modular and prefabricated system and proper finishing and foundations, are examples of good practice of the technique.

Figure 3 – Walls been filled with clay Figure 4 – House plastered and finished Source: Guimarães et al (1991) Source: Guimarães et al (1991)

The use of concrete, although not mentioned in the census (IBGE, 2010), has increased in recent years and the use of precast concrete construction methods is spreading in the housing sector (Moreno, 2013). The main perceived advantage is speed

14 of construction. On the other hand, concrete material is high in embodied energy, demanding a lot of energy to be used in manufacturing and transporting, while producing high CO2 emissions (Ali et al, 2011).

Earth construction and Housing in Brazil

Earth construction has been used in Brazil since the arrival of the Portuguese in 1500. Rammed earth and adobe were typical techniques used in the colonial period mainly due to the availability of large amounts of indigenous material, simplicity of the techniques and difficulties related to shipping of more conventional building materials to the new country (Krüger and Santos, 2003). The techniques were largely used in regions where stone materials were unavailable, not only to build houses but also governmental buildings and churches. Some examples are the Old Town Hall and Prison (Figure 5) in the city Ouro Preto, Minas Gerais state, built from 1785, and the Church of Saints Cosme and Damien (Figure 6) in the city of Igarassu, Pernambuco state, built in 1535 and considered the oldest church in Brazil; both built in rammed earth and stones (IPHAN, 2018).

Figure 5 – Old Town Hall and Prison Figure 6 – Church of Saints Cosme and Damien Source: IBRAM (2018) Source: Medeiros (2011)

After the Industrial Revolution in Brazil, earth construction techniques were considered rudimentary and outdated and were left aside for the use of industrialized materials such as ceramic bricks and reinforced concrete (Neves and Faria, 2011). The earth techniques in Brazil were superseded up to the point where they become viewed as a provincial material for use by poor people (Krüger and Santos, 2003). While the newer systems of concrete block and ceramic bricks are well regulated within the Brazilian standards, the traditional earth techniques are still unregulated in Brazil and related standards cite only bricks stabilized with cement and blocks for masonry, road paving and for small dams (Neves and Faria, 2011). Currently, among the five regions in Brazil, the Northeast of the country is the one with the greatest number of earth constructions. However many buildings are built by low

15 income population without technical guidance to ensure the stability of the construction and are informal in the sense of not going through a project development process and formal approval by competent authorities such as planning departments (Villaça, 2012). Usually the houses are constructed with different sizes of twigs and branches found in the locality, so the wood frames are not uniform and usually not completely filled. Another frequently encountered problem is the lack of protection against moisture and rain, such as proper eaves, foundations and external walls finishes. Lack of technical knowledge and/or capital to invest in the constructions results in low quality of life for the occupants and shorter service life of the buildings with low performance. Figure 7 and Figure 8 show a typical wattle and daub house built in Northeast Brazil where the lack of proper finishing to the buildings is a major risk to the integrity of the building fabric.

Figure 7 – Wattle and daub house in Areia Branca - RN Figure 8 – Wattle and daub house in Campo Source: Costa (2014) Grande - RN Source: Costa (2014)

However, the wattle and daub technique, as well as other earth techniques, when properly constructed, as in the colonial period, offers great potential for mitigating the housing shortages currently being experienced in Brazil. According to Boyer (2005), although several social housing programs have been implemented, inequitable land distribution and ownership, together with inadequate housing are well known problems in the country. The well known “favelas” from Brazil, or slums, are consequence of these housing problems, where most of the homes are built by residents with unappropriated materials and lack proper sewage and water systems (Boyer, 2005) (Figure 9 shows a typical favela). Earth constructions can be a solution to Brazilian great low-cost housing deficit as the technologies can be easily reproduced by the local population and could regain the character of being part of the local culture (Krüger and Santos, 2003).

Figure 9 – Complexo do Alemão, “Favela” in Rio de Janeiro Source: Phillips and McOwan (2013)

Housing shortages and suburban emergence have been observed from the end of the nineteenth century onwards in Brazil, when with the urban growth, sanitation and landscaping improvements were being implemented, as well as the legal basis for a private housing market. The low-income population, financially excluded from this process and the capitalist housing market, was expelled to the hills and suburbs of the cities (Maricato, 2000). According to Rubin and Bolfe (2014) despite the large number of houses built by the last governmental housing policy “Minha Casa Minha Vida” (My House My Life), today housing shortage is still a severe problem in Brazil and the housing policies implemented only mask the problem and ultimately benefit the private sector and the most influential classes in the country's wealth generation. The low income population, unable to buy or rent a place in a structured neighbourhood, has as its main option the occupation of uninhabited urban spaces and the suburbs of large cities (Rubin and Bolfe, 2014). The suburbs have lower land value and usually lack basic infrastructure such as piped water supply, sewage collection network, electricity and paving. According to the Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2010) about 11 million inhabitants in Brazil live in inadequate housing, such as favelas and illegally occupied land and only 52.5% of the homes in the country are presented as fully adequate housing, that is, with water supply, sewage, refuse collection and up to two people residing per bedroom. According to Carta Capital (2013) some improvements happened since 2002 as at that point in time only 6 out of 10 people had access to piped water, whereas in 2013 the number increased to 9 out of 10, an increase of 50%. The percentage of people who

17 benefit from collective refuse collection reached 80%, while in 2002 only 40% of their waste was collected and was done so indirectly (Carta Capital, 2013). Although an improvement, there is still a long way before Brazil ensures access to safe, adequate and affordable housing to its population. Along with the housing problem, sustainability in the construction field has increasingly been discussed as a concern at a global level, since the sector is responsible for high greenhouse gases (GHG) emissions and energy production demand. During the Third United Nations Conference on Housing and Sustainable Urban Development - Habitat III, in 2016, UN member states adopted the New Urban Agenda to guide their actions towards sustainable urbanization over the next 20 years (Caccia et al, 2017; United Nations, 2015). Within the international commitments assumed by Brazil related to the United Nations Agenda 2030 is the reduction of GHG emissions by 37% by 2025 and by 43% by 2030 over 2005 levels (Caccia et al., 2017). In addition, the Agenda aims to ensure access to safe, adequate and affordable housing by 2030 as a right for all and to increase the implementation of integrated policies and plans for the inclusion of resource efficiency, mitigation and adaptation to climate change in the cities and human settlements (Caccia et al., 2017, United Nations, 2015). According to Brambilla and Jusselme (2017), interest in natural construction materials with low embodied environmental impacts has increased leading to the (re)inventing of more sustainable building materials and components from vernacular architecture. The advantages of earth construction with respect to the new environmental concerns are the large availability of the resource, the low energy input required to extract, transform and produce components in earth and the recyclability of earth bricks that have not been chemically stabilised (Cagnon et al, 2014) The use of earth construction in Brazil can make a valuable contribution to the alleviation of housing shortages and its use has several potential advantages, being a local character system with high availability of material in the country and needing simple tools to its construction, besides being a sustainable and reusable material with low embodied energy already in use in the country. Common disadvantages are the long time that the techniques take to be completed, the large volume of land needed, loss of space in the construction due to the thickness of the walls and the physical effort needed (Santos, 2015).

Building Performance standards in Brazil

There are two operative standards in Brazil related to performance of buildings that give design recommendations based on the local climate. The (mandatory) standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b), is related to performance in different aspects of the construction

18 dealing with durability, acoustic and thermal performance. A minimum level of performance is set. The review of this standard was already announced, and regarding thermal performance, the adequacy of the evaluation methods of the building was considered a major issue (CBIC, 2018). The (non mandatory) standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a), is related to thermal performance. It indicates design recommendations according to local climate and divides Brazil into eight bioclimatic zones. The standard is currently under review to improve the bioclimatic zoning. Research groups have already presented revisions on the bioclimatic zoning present in the standard, but it has not yet been changed within the standards (Roriz, 2012b) With respect to wall construction systems, both standards give maximum levels of U-values according to the bioclimatic zones in the country defined in the NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005b). However, the maximum values are not always consistent between the two standards, preventing compliance with both standards. For example, for Zone 7, a semi- arid zone, the U-value limit to external walls system varies according to the solar absorptance of the wall according the mandatory standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b), being 3.7W/m².K to surfaces with solar absorptance less or equal to 0.60 and 2.5W/m².K to surfaces with solar absorptance higher than 0.60, while the limit set is 2.2W/m².K according to the non-mandatory standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005b). While the mandatory standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b) tied the U-value limit according to the solar absorptance, in the non-mandatory standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005b) the use of lightweight construction systems of walls is associated with hot and predominant humid zones while the use of higher thermal mass is associated with hot and dry zones. This is a traditional approach in the architectural field and recent research has examined the effectiveness of high thermal mass wall systems as a cooling technique in hot and humid climates with satisfactory results (Badeira, 2015; Nascimento et al, 2013; Amos-Abanyie et al, 2013; Kemajou and Mba, 2012; Motamedi and Akhavan, 2012; Szokolay, 2008; Cheng, Ng, and Givoni, 2005). In this process, the high thermal mass of the walls reduces the rate of heat transfer and the amplitude of diurnal temperature swings, thus enabling the operative temperature within the building to stay lower for longer. The increasing interest in near Zero Energy Buildings also comes with a significant growth of research interest in thermal comfort assessment, being linked with the awareness of the impact of comfort on health and well-being as well as in the buildings’ energy and environmental performance (Antoniadou and Papadopoulos, 2017). The Brazilian thermal performance standards have not yet incorporated the use of adaptive thermal comfort index in thermal comfort assessment as well, unlike the consolidated European Standard EN 15251 (2007) and ASHRAE 55 (2010), although its use has already been indicated (Negreiros et al, 2016; Lamberts et al, 2013). The Brazilian

19 standards nowadays evaluate thermal comfort through degree-hours methods or humidity and temperature levels (described in Chapter 2).

Problem statement and hypothesis

Nowadays Brazil faces housing problems in terms of both quantity and quality of construction. Earth construction, a traditional and sustainable system with economic advantages has a great potential for use in the residential construction field within the country. Ready availability of material and lower levels of skill required applying earth construction techniques make them popular amongst the low income Brazilian population especially in Northeast Region; however, the lack of technical knowledge and/or investment harms the final quality of the construction. There is also a lack of regulatory control of construction that is reflected in the inconsistency of quality seen in the building stock. The thermal performance of earth buildings in Brazil is an issue as well. There is disagreement between the local performance standards related to the use of high thermal mass construction systems of walls and the benefits of its use, with diverse applications not yet considered by the Brazilian thermal performance standards, like the new approach on the use of high thermal inertia in hot and humid climates. Yet, the high thermal mass of the earth systems plays an important role in the thermal performance of the buildings so constructed, influencing the internal operative temperature experienced, currently used to assess thermal comfort in the ambient by worldwide performance standards (EN 15251, 2007, ASHRAE 55, 2010). Verbeke and Audenaert (2018) cite that in the past analytical methods have been used to study the thermal inertia effect, relying its performances on parameters which describe steady state thermal resistance (R-value) or thermal transmittance (U-value), however, failing to incorporate the dynamic behaviour resulting from time-varying outdoor conditions and building usage. The authors suggest that, with the advent of capable dynamic whole building simulation tools, further research to assess how the high thermal mass buildings performance can be optimized, and the effects of heat storage and release can be studied in conjunction with the governing heat flows resulting from solar heat gains, occupants and air flows (Verbeke & Audenaert, 2018). Therefore, there is a gap of technical knowledge in the use of high thermal mass buildings and it is necessary to develop the topic to gain an appropriate knowledge base in order to be able to make more effective use of earth construction techniques within the housing sector in Brazil. The growing interest in environmentally friendly materials, affordable houses and energy performance of buildings also brings researchers from diverse backgrounds

(engineering, materials science, architecture, chemistry, and more) to investigate the different properties of earth with the aim of promoting the construction techniques. In this context, the use of earth construction techniques in social housing and its relationship with local climate and the thermal comfort of the occupants in Northeast Brazil are the main motivation of this research. The relation between the high thermal mass, characteristic of earth buildings, with natural ventilation and the tropical climate of the country is the central topic. The main thesis hypothesis is that the use of thermal mass provided by earth construction combined with natural ventilation results in acceptable levels of thermal performance with respect to thermal comfort in both hot and humid and hot and dry climates. In order to check the viability of earth residences use in the area, the annual thermal comfort performance of free running adobe residences is assessed in the four bioclimatic zones of Northeast Region. As a result, the study discusses the influence of diverse design strategies in the thermal performance of the residences and proposes building recommendations to earth construction regarding climate respect and contributes to the widespread of earth construction in the Northeast Brazil to respond to the housing problems faced. The building recommendations derived from the study also contribute to support the performance regulations in Brazil, NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a) and NBR 15.575 (ABNT, 2013a) currently under review and discussion, with more accurate indications for the climatic conditions of the area. The recommendations also support designers and architect’s choice of solutions for the adaptation of the houses to the local climate in the first stages of design and provide subsidies for future housing policies in the region. This contributes to the improvement of the quality of life of the residents and reduces the dependence of air conditioners or electric fans, lowering the energy demand.

Research Aim

The aim is to evaluate the thermal comfort performance of earth construction houses combined with natural ventilation in Brazil’s Northeast Region climate. The research specific objectives are: 1. Simulate the thermal performance of typical social housing types using Design Builder software, and carry out a basic validation of predicted temperatures against measured data 2. Assess the thermal comfort performance of the cases using adaptive thermal comfort index indicated to the local climate 3. Identify the influence of design parameters and construction materials in the performance of the cases and compare them

4. Compare the results with the bioclimatic recommendations in the Brazilian thermal comfort standards 5. Develop design recommendations for achieving effective use earth construction residences operation.

Methodology

Due to Brazil’s continental size it is difficult to study the whole country in great detail. Since the Northeast of the country is the region with the largest current number of earth constructions and presence of low income population (IBGE, 2010), the region has been selected as the study area for this research. The region has approximately 1.558.000 km² of area and a population of 53.6 million people, approximately 28% of the total population of the country (IBGE, 2010). The Northeast Region and its nine states are highlighted in Figure 10.

Figure 10 – Northeast Region and its nine states Source: MD Powder (2018)

The method uses thermal simulation using Design Builder, a graphical interface that uses the EnergyPlus simulation program. This tool and its use are described in more detail in chapter 3. Design Builder software is used to model and simulate a base case along with variations based on typical Brazilian Northeast social housing types implemented by the government in recent years in order to represent typical housing units in the country. The variations include different construction systems of walls and roofs and ventilation routines. For the validation process, four existing social housings in the area are monitored and internal and external temperatures recorded and compared with predicted values. Statistical indicators are used to compare the results and measure the model reliability.

For the thermal performance assessment, the physical properties of the construction systems of the wall investigated are first compared to the limits presented in the current Brazilian thermal performance standards in order to demonstrate compliance. Then, after the simulation process, the annual predicted internal operative temperature from the cases is used to evaluate the thermal comfort level through an adaptive comfort index. The index is based on de Dear and Brager (1998) and held to be appropriate for Brazil’s climate zones (Lamberts et al., 2013). The comfort rates of the cases are compared, and the influence of the parameters investigated in order to propose design recommendations to the use of earth construction in the region.

Thesis Structure

The thesis is divided in six chapters: introduction, literature review, method, results, discussion and conclusions. The first chapter is the introduction (This chapter). The second chapter is the relevant literature. It brings the climate area description and main bioclimatic strategies indicated for it, considerations about social housing and earth construction in Brazil and concepts related to thermal mass performance and thermal performance assessment. The third chapter describes the research method. It contains a detailed description of the simulation techniques and the process used to analyse the results. The chapter is divided into sections describing the modelling process, validation process, simulation process and procedure to quantify the performance of the cases for analysis. The fourth chapter presents the results. The validation results are first presented followed by the thermal performance evaluation of the walls system investigated according the Brazilian performance standards. Finally, the thermal comfort rates of the simulated cases are presented. The fifth chapter is dedicated to the discussion of the results and the building recommendations proposals. The sixth and last chapter presents conclusions with final considerations, limitations of the research and recommendations for future work. Figure 11 shows a guide for the research steps.

•Northeast Brazil climate •Housing in Brazil Literature Review •Earth construction •Thermal mass performance •Thermal performance assessment

•Modelling process •Validation process Method •Simulation process •Quantifying performance

•Validation results Results •Thermal performance according standards •Thermal performance according index

•Influence of the parameters in the cases performance •Comparison of the performances according to the two Discussion methods •Design recommendations

•Final considerations Conclusions •Limitations •Recommendations for future work

Figure 11 – Research Steps

2 Literature review

This chapter reviews the relevant literature. The first section presents the climate description of the research area, Northeast Brazil, with the main strategies presented in the literature and specified to be appropriate for the region's climate. The second part presents considerations of the Brazilian housing sector and the design project of social housings built in Northeast Brazil to serve as a basis for the modelling process of a representative local residence. Earth construction is discussed through characteristics, uses and potential in the housing problem in Brazil in the third section, whilst the fourth section deals with high thermal mass buildings and the parameters involved in their performance in hot climate. Lastly, Brazilian thermal performance standards and thermal comfort assessment are discussed. These topics are the basis for the consideration of climate and design aspects, thermal performance assessment method and the execution of the investigation.

2.1 The climate of Northeast Brazil

92% of Brazil’s territory lies between the tropics of Cancer and Capricorn meaning that incidence of solar radiation is both high and relatively constant during of the year. The remaining 8% of the territory are in the South temperate zone. Because of the large territorial extension, Brazil presents a wide variety of climates. The Brazilian Institute of Geography and Statistics (IBGE, 2002a) classifies the climate of Brazil in five main types namely: equatorial climate, equatorial zone in tropical climate, eastern north tropical climate, central Brazil tropical climate and temperate climate (Figure 12). All climates, except for temperate, are encountered in the Northeast region of the country (highlighted in Figure 12).

Figure 12 – IBGE climate classification with the northeast region highlighted Source: IBGE (2002)

Further, the climates are characterized according to the averages of temperature distributions (IBGE, 2002b). The country is divided into four areas called medium mesothermal (average temperature less than 10°C), mild mesothermal (average temperature between 10° and 15°C), sub-hot (average temperature between 15° and 18°C) and hot (average temperature greater than 18°C) (Figure 13). Most of the Northeast is in the hot climate area, with a small fraction in the sub-hot area (highlighted in Figure 13).

Figure 13 – Brazil climate map with the northeast region highlighted (IBGE, 2010b) Source: adapted from IBGE (2002b)

Each one of these areas is further divided according to its rainfall distribution. Figure 14 shows the Northeast division in closer detail. The most humid areas are on the east coast and nearby the Amazon Forest in North Region. A big part of the central area is categorized as semi-arid, with more than six months of dry season. The Northeast Region holds about 89.5% of the semi-arid region of the country (IBGE, 2002b). A subtropical area is present in high altitude zones, presenting lower average temperatures.

Figure 14 – Northeast climate map Source: adapted from IBGE (2002b)

A widely used system for classifying the world's climates is the Köppen Climate Classification System (Kottek et al, 2006), which categorizes climate based on annual and monthly averages of temperature and precipitation. Alvares et al (2013) presented a new digital Köppen-Geiger world map of climate classification and Chvatal (2014) developed a geographical information system to classify Brazil’s climate according to the Köppen Climate Classification based on monthly temperature and rainfall data from 2,950 weather stations present in the country. According to the studies three zones (A, B and C) and 12 types of climates were classified throughout Brazil. The climates are shown and listed in Figure 15, the Northeast Region climates are highlighted.

Figure 15 – Köppen’s climate classification map for Brazil with the northeast region highlighted Source: adapted from Alvares et al (2013)

As in the Brazilian classification, the Northeast Region is mainly in the tropical and semi-arid zone. The semi-arid zone is in the central area, while more humid zones are on the east coast and west region, nearby North Region, where Amazon Forest is located. A few areas with humid subtropical climate are closest to Southeast Region. The tropical zone (A) embodies 81% of the area, dry zone (B) represents 5% and humid subtropical zone (C) represents 14% of the total area. The minor Köppen climate types designation is based on seasonal distribution of rainfall. The tropical zone (81% of the country) is divided in areas without dry season, where precipitation occurs all year long; tropical monsoon climate, with equal or greater rainfall but most of the precipitation falls in the hottest months; and areas with a dry winter

27 or a dry summer. The dry zone is the semi-arid zone and humid subtropical zone is divided into three further subdivided zones, oceanic climate without dry season, dry winter and dry summer. The Northeast region presents high global horizontal solar radiation as showed in Figure 16 from the Brazilian Solar Energy Atlas published by the National Institute for Space Research – INPE (Pereira et al, 2006). From the figure higher global horizontal radiation in the central area of the region can be seen, decreasing to the seaside area. Therefore, the semi-arid zone is the central area.

Figure 16 – Global horizontal solar radiation annual average Source: Pereira et al (2006)

From the above, it is concluded that most of the Northeast Region presents a hot climate with an average temperature above 18°C, being typically subdivided into areas according to the distribution of rainfall. Due to large amount of radiation and high temperatures throughout the year the four seasons are not well defined being the most common division between summer and winter, with the main difference in the amount of rainfall, since the annual thermal amplitude is low. The entire coastal area and the area nearest to the Amazon region show greater volume of rainfall during the year, while the central part is characterized as semi-arid with little amount of rain during the year mostly concentrated in summer period, while winter is dry. A transitional area presents rainy and dry seasons with similar periods and a small subtropical area in high altitude presents the lowest temperatures in the region. Climate graphics of four different cities show examples of temperature and rainfall distribution over the year in the four areas respectively (Figure 17, Figure 18, Figure 19, Figure 20).

Figure 17 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Salvador – BA, city at the coastal area Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 18 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Picos – PI, city at the semi-arid area Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 19 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Monteiro – PB, city in transitional area Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 20 – Temperature and rainfall distribution over the year for Piatã – BA, city at the high altitude area Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Typical recommendations for the housing sector in hot climates consider mainly the high radiation aspect, which may lead to overheating discomfort, and ventilation intake. Some recommendations are next described based on Ferreira et al (2014); Corbella & Yannas (2009); Szokolay (2008) and Holanda (1976). The analysis of the shape of the building and orientation are important points in order to capture prevailing and necessary winds and protect the building from excessive radiation incidence. Elongated buildings on the east-west axis buildings are indicated for tropical zones, so that the smaller facades oriented to east and west receive direct solar radiation at low angles in the mornings and evenings, while horizontal protections for openings should be used to block radiation in the hours of the highest sun. Bigger facades oriented to north-south directions receive less direct radiation as well (Szokolay, 2008). Regarding wind direction, the building should be located perpendicular to the prevailing winds to capture it (Holanda, 1976). The use of square plan is recommended for high altitudes zones, which is characterized by lower temperatures leading to overcooling discomfort. The square plans hinder the ventilation of the rooms and avoid the loss of incident radiation. Compact plans with internal patios are indicated for hot and dry areas where very hot wind is to be avoided, creating an internal space that promotes the removal of the hot air. Internal patios are frequently used for evaporative cooling use as well (Corbella & Yannas, 2009). Regarding openings, in regions that need to avoid excessive solar radiation, the use of brises, eaves, marquees, balconies and external areas reinforce the shade. Window protection allows the protected windows to remain open, contributing to the ventilation rates. Openings at the height of the human body on the side exposed to the wind are more acceptable in zones in which acceptable air temperatures encourage ventilation. Openings in the higher parts of the building are indicated for hot climates as they promote air circulation removing the heat by natural convection, improving the thermal conditions in the environment (Ferreira et al, 2014). Wall openings at different heights with control devices for both are indicated to facilitate the ventilation control in hot and dry zones and high altitudes zones that better benefit from selective ventilation. Cross ventilation is encouraged whenever the internal temperature is greater than the external temperature, to guarantee the thermal comfort of the users and the withdrawal of hot air. Semi buried buildings and presence of water for cooling (evaporative cooling) are also indicated for zones with high temperatures and low humidity levels and high ceilings are indicated for hot zones to increase the ambient air volume contributing to heat dissipation. Vegetation use is encouraged in hot zones and effects the microclimate through four processes according Dimoudi and Nikolopoulou (2003). The first process is the reduction of solar heat gains on windows, walls, and roofs through shading. The second

30 process is the reduction in a building’s long-wave exchange with the sky as the building surface temperatures are lowered through shading. The third process is the reduction in the conductive and convective heat gains by lowering dry-bulb temperatures through evapotranspiration and the fourth process is the increasing evaporative cooling. Thus, the most current indications for hot zones concerns the high radiation incidence and the ventilation intake with respect to building and openings orientation, control devices for radiation incidence and ventilation intake and building shape.

2.2 Housing in Brazil

Although the Industrial Revolution began in the mid-eighteenth century in England, spreading throughout Europe in the same period, the Industrial Revolution began to develop significantly in Brazil only in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries (Bonduki, 2004). Urbanization and the demand for infrastructure in Brazil intensified after 1930, when the Brazilian economy ceases to be primarily agrarian-exporting to give way to an urban-industrial production structure. At this moment, the claims regarding housing are no longer addressed to employers and it is redirected to the state (Bonduki, 2004). Between 1940 and 1960 the housing policy in the country consisted of the provision of estate credit through banks and retirement institutes (Rubin and Bolfe, 2014). From 1965, with the population growth and modernization of productive sectors, immigration to urban centres continued increasing and the first housing policy was implemented, the National Housing Bank (BNH), with the production of large-scale and serial housing (Rubin and Bolfe, 2014). The National Housing Bank (BNH) was a Brazilian public company, focused on the financing and production of real estate projects. When BNH started its activities, the housing problem in Brazil was already serious and the main criticism to the program was the lack of urban and architectural quality, aiming only to solve the housing problem in numbers and not in quality and efficiency (Bonduki, 2004). From 1995 onwards, new housing policies of successor governments presented new guidelines, with more flexibility and diversity, where municipalities and states would have greater flexibility in defining the alternatives to be adopted, according to local priorities and peculiarities (Rubin and Bolfe, 2014). In 2009, the government launched the Minha Casa, Minha Vida (My House, My Life) program, that offered conditions for financing housing for low-income families, particularly those with monthly income between zero and three minimum wages, for which benefits were granted as economic subsidy for the payment of benefits and exemption from notary public expense (Brasil, 2009). The program, based in large-scale and serial housing, was also criticized for focusing on number of units without emphasis on needs,

31 generally built in plots with difficulty of access and mobility, contributing to social segregation. On the other hand, the plan built more than 2 billion residences taking billions of people out of unhealthy living conditions (Rubin and Bolfe, 2014). Figure 21, Figure 22 and Figure 23 bring three social housing construction sites built from 2015 to 2017 by the program in Northeast Region.

Figure 21 – Residencial Maestro Cristovam in Assu – RN with 396 units. Source: Construtora CAGEO (2015)

Figure 22 – Residencial Jardim das Palmeiras in Mossoro – RN with 410 units Source: Construtora CAGEO (2015)

Figure 23 – Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado in Mossoro – RN with 844 units Source: Construtora CAGEO (2015)

The houses built during the program represent much of the dwellings usually built in the country in terms of construction system, finishing and design. The houses built by the social housing program are conceptually planned to house a family of four, being detached or semidetached and single storey. Detached housing units are the most used topology, not only by the program but in the whole country. The use of semidetached or attached housing units is not typical since the space around the houses is traditionally important to the Brazilian culture, habituated to having garden and private open space, the reason why the model used in this research is detached. Single storey houses are also more common due to lower construction price. The houses built by the program typically have two bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom. The minimum specification for the houses fixed one-story houses with 32m2 as having a minimum area (internal area without counting areas of walls and utility area) (CAIXA, 2009). The specifications do not establish minimum size of rooms but minimum amount of furniture, avoiding conflicts with state or local laws that deal with minimum dimensions of rooms. The only minimum specifications are related to the width of kitchen and bathroom, established as 1.80m and 1.50m respectively (CAIXA, 2009). The house also must be of minimum 2.50m ceiling height with clay ceramic tile or fiber cement roof on wooden or metal frame with concrete, wood or PVC ceiling. Windows should be made of iron, steel or aluminium and doors made of wood (internal) or metal for the entrances in the living room and kitchen. All internal and external walls should be plastered and painted, except internal walls of kitchen, bathroom and utility area which are protected with ceramic tile to a height of 1.50m. Glazed ceramic floor tiles are used in all houses. Three design projects are given below as examples of actual homes built during the housing policy in the Rio Grande do Norte State, in the Northeast Region ( Figure 24, Figure 25 and Figure 26).

Figure 24 – Design plan of houses in the Residential Figure 25 - Design plan of houses in the Residential Santa Julia Maestro Cristovam

Figure 26 – Design plan of the houses in the Residential Maria Odete Góis Rosado

The three design projects follow the housing program specifications and are single floor with total area between 35m2 and 50m2 with a 0.50m concrete sidewalk on the perimeter of the building. Figure 24 and Figure 26 are detached houses and Figure 25 is a semidetached house. Figure 26 shows the design plan of the houses monitored during the validation process and used as model to the modelling phase of this research; it is located in the Residential Maria Odete Góis Rosado (which construction site is shown in Figure 23). Figure 27 and Figure 28 show two examples of social housing built in the Residential Maria Goes Rosado, used as model to the modelling phase of this research.

Figure 27 – Social housing in the Residential Maria Goes Figure 28 – Social housing in the Residential Maria Rosado Goes Rosado

Figure 29 and Figure 30 show examples of internal living space of a house unit in the Residential Maria Odete Góis Rosado with bedroom entrance doors and open plan kitchen. It is possible to see the PVC ceiling, ceramic tiles on the floor, outside metal door 34 in the kitchen area and internal wood door of the bathroom. Figure 31 and Figure 32 show kitchen and bathroom in the same house unit, both with ceramic tiles to 1,50m high. Both entrance metal doors (living and kitchen) are full louver door, with a high level of infiltration, as well as the single glazing window type in the living room, which is the same used in the bedrooms. The houses are delivered with the minimum sanitary and hydraulic facilities and the residents after receiving them can make changes. One of the first modifications frequently made is the construction of perimeter walls, usually for safety issues (Figure 33).

Figure 29 – Living space and kitchen inside the social housing

Figure 30 – View of the bedroom entrances in the social housing

Figure 31 – Kitchen of the social housing Figure 32 – Bathroom in the social housing

Figure 33 – Perimeter walls added by residents

All the houses presented were built with single layer of ceramic brick masonry (9.0x19.0x19.0cm) plastered with cement and sand mortar and painted, without insulation and roof system with PVC ceiling and ceramic tiles with wood frame 2.50m high. These characteristics were also used to model the cases based on typical materials used in the region during the method of the research.

The Minha Casa Minha Vida (My House My Life) housing policy financed only ceramic brick masonry houses until November 2012 (Alves, 2014). The use of wood, an abundant material in the country, carbon sequestration and completely renewable, was only officially accepted for construction and housing reform in June 2014, and yet only under the National Rural Housing Program (PNHR) and in the North region of the country. It was an old request from regional governments in the Amazon Region, which complained of the high cost of building masonry houses in locations far from the construction production centres and with logistical difficulties (Alves, 2014). A project proposal that includes in the Minha Casa Minha Vida (My House My Life) social housing program the financing of real estate using bioconstruction techniques (PLS 296/2018) was presented and awaits the appointment of a rapporteur in the Committee on the Environment (CMA) (Agência Senado, 2018). The project was a request of mobilized movements in favour of the promotion of affordable and sustainable popular housing and will also go through the Regional Development and Tourism Commission (CDR), where it will receive a final decision (Agência Senado, 2018). Moreno (2013) in research on the Brazilian housing policies confirmed that the most commonly construction systems used by the housing policy in the country are the ones in the guide “Boas práticas para habitação mais sustentável” (Good practices for more sustainable housing) (CAIXA, 2010). The guide brings practices for more sustainable housing with strategies adapted to the reality of the country to support designers and entrepreneurs and it was developed by the bank Caixa Econômica Federal, which manages the social housing policy (CAIXA, 2010). The guide describes 15 different wall systems, composed of ceramic brick or concrete blocks, which may or may not have internal and external covering that may be in plaster or mortar. Insulation is showed in four systems and consists of an inner layer of gypsum plasterboards of 2cm, never used in Northeast Region. The guide also describes 12 different roof systems, composed of ceramic tile and fiber cement tiles with ceiling or slab. The ceiling may range from PVC, gypsum plasterboard or wood and the slab may be solid flat or precast. Besides these materials, precast concrete single panel is cited by Moreno (2013) as a widely system used although not mentioned in the guide. Figure 34, Figure 36 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil Figure 35 and Figure 36 show a Residential under development being built with concrete single panel walls with 10 cm thick in the city of Mossoro – RN in the Northeast Region in 2018. The use of highly industrialized materials, such as cement, steel and ceramic blocks, have high environmental impact during its life cycle, characterized by a high energy incorporated and high rates of carbon emission. Also, the high thermal transmittance of the concrete usually constructed with small overhangs allied to the high rates of solar radiation of the Northeast Region are not a good formula for the thermal comfort in these houses.

Figure 34 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil

Figure 35 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil

Figure 36 – Concrete panel social housing being constructed in 2018 in Northeast Brazil

2.3 Earth construction

The broad term earth construction is used as a generic name for building methods that use most varied soil as basic building material, however, without going through the cooking or burning process, which is applied with different construction techniques. It is found in different forms in many parts of the world, sometimes mixed with other construction materials such as stone or wood, or with more modern materials such as cement. The land is used as a building material since the early days when the man used only what was taken from nature. Archaeologists have found evidence of earth use as a building material in Neolithic period in Middle East and North Africa, in some places of what is today Syria, Jordan, Lebanon and Iraq. Structural remains at the ancient city of Jericho, located today in Israel, show that the earth has been used in construction for over 10,000 years (Schroder and Ogletree, 2010). The Phoenician civilizations spread from the eastern Mediterranean to the north coast in Africa and excavation in their capital Carthage, founded in 814BC, revealed the use of rammed earth walls in the city (Jaquin and Augarde, 2012). According to the authors, rammed earth and adobe were the most used technique in Africa. First, they were used for monumental constructions, pyramids, tombs and homes. In Europe these techniques were more used in southern regions, while in northern region earth is used in combination with timber in wattle and daub techniques and half-timbered techniques (Jaquin and Augarde, 2012). The Phoenicians may have brought rammed earth to Europe when finally they spread from eastern Mediterranean and founded settlements in Spain (Jaquin and Augarde, 2012). Countries in Asia, from China to Turkey and Yemen have examples of earth constructions, and even whole cities, mostly using rammed earth and adobe, made for ancient civilizations (Hall et al, 2012). Construction techniques with earth emerged in almost all civilizations of the past and expanded through invasion and colonization, common in human history, and so native techniques have been united with foreign techniques everywhere (Neves and Faria, 2011). Native North Americans were already using earth when the Europeans came; the village of Taos in New Mexico is an example of ancient earth constructions estimated to have been built around 1000 AD (Jaquin and Augarde, 2012). In South America, Peru has the earliest examples of earth construction, recorded from between 100 and 800 AD (Jaquin and Augarde, 2012). Many different techniques were developed over time and Stulz and Mukerji (1993) produced a diagram with different earth construction methods used worldwide showed in Figure 37.

Figure 37 – Earth Construction methods Source: Stulz and Mukerji (1993)

In Brazil, the construction techniques of land, widely used during the colonial period from 1500 to 1822, were brought by the Portuguese and Africans, since it has not been proven evidence that the Indians have used to build their homes (Neves, 1995). Most common techniques used in colonial Brazil were adobe, wattle and daub and rammed earth (Carvalho and Lopes, 2012). Those systems were applied according to the characteristics and needs of the inhabitants of each area, being associated with other materials such as wood, straw and stone (Carvalho and Lopes, 2012). Initially, the colonial architecture used the techniques of wattle and daub due to the quick construction process and the use of abundant materials in the colony: mud and wood. Soon the masonry of stone or adobe bricks were also adopted to raise walls, that allowed the construction of bigger structures and the inclusion of woodwork for floors and ceilings (Carvalho and Lopes, 2012). During the colonial period, marked by the agricultural economy, so called “casas grandes” or large houses, housing of the farming families, typical manifestations of the Brazilian colonial architecture, often had external structure in rammed earth and internal partitions in wattle and daub with thick walls and large number

40 of windows. Figure 38 shows the Chácara do Rosário or Rosário’s Farmhouse, an example of “casa grande” from 1726, which produced sugar. Figure 39 shows the Fazenda Bela Aliança or Beautiful Alliance Farmhouse, which produced coffee. Both houses constructed of wattle and daub and rammed earth.

Figure 38 – Farm house of the colonial period in Brazil renewed Source: Sala (2005)

Figure 39 – Fazenda Bela Aliança, Farm house of the colonial period in Brazil Source: Guigo (2015)

The large balconies and windows and garden patio were typical of the colonial period and are still used in rural constructions, being good design strategies to stop the high radiation incidence. In the urban area the colonial houses had a different aspect, being in narrow and deep lots and without front gardens. The twinned model was one of the ways to protect the walls from the high radiation levels, leaving only two exposed facades (Figure 40).

Figure 40 – Earth construction residences in the city Source: Battista (2009)

After the Industrial Revolution earth construction declined as mass-produced manufactured materials, such as bricks, were created, enabling construction in less time with great durability. Earth construction was considered rudimentary and outdated, being neglected in the face of industrialized products, the same way as happened in industrialized countries, from which Brazil is strongly influenced by these, absorbing their customs in detriment of local customs, losing their cultural identity. Nowadays, the growth experienced in environmental awareness reflected in the construction with a bigger concern for ways to build that lead to better match the conditions of the site. The objective, besides energy efficiency, is an architecture with less wasteful of resources (Ponte, 2012). Therefore, earth construction resurges as an alternative, being a lower carbon material possible to replace conventional materials. The land use in building construction presents many environmental, economic and cultural advantages when compared to other building materials most commonly used (Macedo and Chandiwala, 2010). Earth is perceived to be environmentally friendly and sustainable as it is a construction material with low embodied energy and a locally available material. Even when cement is used for stabilization increasing the embodied energy it is still better them full industrialized modern construction systems. Using material that is available locally means considerably reducing the energy consumed for manufacturing and transporting, which accounts for 29% to 40% of the total embodied energy of that material (Bribián et al, 2011). For example, Roaf et al (2013) using a life cycle analysis including embodied energy and emissions, established that a rammed earth and local timber house has a lifetime energy impact in the area of 20% less than medium-density concrete blocks house.

Also, at the end of the useful life of the building, when not stabilized, the material is completely recyclable, enabling demolition and rebuilding with the same soil multiple times (Pisani and Canteiro, 2006). Earth construction is also responsible for an indoor air relative humidity beneficial to human health; therefore, earth construction has clear competitive advantages in the field of eco-efficiency over conventional construction assuring it a promising future in the years to come (Torgal and Jalali, 2011). The material also offers advantages for use in urban housing construction as it demands less skilled labour and requires simple tools and encourages self-construction. In fact, many families come together to build their houses in some cultures. Goulart et al (2011) cite that when used for single family housing units, some of the capacities of earth architecture include roof structural flexibility, natural energy sources utilization and preservation, contribution to reducing the greenhouse effect; lack of manufacturing waste; different aesthetics and environmental suitability for social housing. Hall et al (2012) show earth building constructions offer durability, low maintenance, healthy indoor environments and energy efficiency, besides developed better-quality acoustics, seismic stability and fire barriers. The durability and quality of the houses is linked to the soil quality, which can cause shrinkage cracks and lower wall strength compared with high-quality fired bricks or concrete (Zami and Lee, 2010). According to Pinto (1993) the greatest threat to earth buildings are water seepage, therefore, it is important to protect the building from soil moisture, rising from the ground or using a foundation of stones or bricks, properly waterproofed. As well as the use of large overhangs and waterproofed walls. When walls absorb water, the connections between particles and crushing strength is diminished, creating holes and cracks within the wall. Besides deep overhangs and breathable finishes, stabilization is also indicated to decrease the maintenance requirements and improve the longevity of the structure. While initially representing an embodied energy charge, this result in life cycle energy savings and long term environmental benefits (Treloar et al, 2001). Currently, Brazil is part of the PROTERRA, an Iberic American network that promotes and discusses earth architecture practice in Brazil and Latin America, established in 2006 (Bayer, 2010). In the Brazilian scope there is the Rede Terra Brasil, a network that promotes the use of land in the country and performs every two years the event Terra Brasil. Other institutions that stand out in the country are the permaculture centres working with teaching and diffusion of earth construction technology, usually adopting adobe, superadobe (earthbag construction), wattle and daub, cob and rammed earth techniques (Bayer, 2010). In Brazil, the first recommendations for building with earth were produced by the Centre for Research and Development (CEPED - Centro de Pesquisas e

Desenvolvimento) and the Technological Research Institute (IPT - Instituto de Pesquisas Tecnológicas) in 1970 (Villaça, 2012). In the subsequent decade some standards have been published by the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards (ABNT - Associação Brasileira de Normas Técnicas), but most of them are related to the use of soil-cement bricks (Villaça, 2012). Villaça (2012) mentions that due to recent advances in the field of materials, these technical standards could already be revised to update criteria, besides the lack of updated standards that address current needs weakens the earth use as construction material. The country lacks standards to disseminate and regulate earth construction and besides it is necessary to clarify the opportunities that the material provides for civil construction. Earth construction systems are also superficially mentioned at architecture courses in the country, resulting in few professionals trained to design and build with earth. For Nito and Amorim (2010) the current land use in construction in Brazil has three main fronts. The first is the individual production on its own initiative and development by the permaculture and sustainability. The second is the social initiatives production, by both non-governmental and governmental organizations, mainly in the production of housing, developing participatory work with communities. The third is through companies that are gaining more space through construction elements standardization. Yet the authors say that the last case has not sufficiently developed in Brazil, since earth construction is not yet seen as plausible possibility to the general population, and the possibility of its success been the basis for the development of other two fronts. The lack of trust of earth construction, quite evident in Brazil’s society, is related primarily to cultural reasons and lack of knowledge around the material’s possibilities. The considerable number of wattle and daub homes built by low income population in Brazil also contributes to this tendency. The houses serve many times as only reference for much of the population that does not know the potential of the material. Perhaps the greatest challenge to be faced in the development of earth construction in Brazil is the fact that most people still do not know the advantages of the systems and regard it as a symbol of precariousness, relating it to a lack of resources and Chagas disease (Santos, 2015). Chagas disease is an infection caused by a parasite which is transmitted to animals and people by insect vectors (Silva, 2000). Silva (2000) clarifies that the insect vectors can live in gaps and cracks in all kinds of wall, the problem being the lack of maintenance of the housing unit and not related to the material which the wall is built. Common mistakes in earth constructions pointed to the author are too much water concentration in the soil mixture or bigger percentages of clay than sand, which causes a shrinkage of the mortar when dried leading to the appearance of gaps and cracks, however, a proper house maintenance solve the issue (Silva, 2000).

Although earth construction is frequently linked to a less dignified and poor construction, the search for modern expression in new buildings’ design has shown physical and plastic potential of the usage of earth in modern architecture. A prototype constructed in rammed earth at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul – UFMS in Brazil in 2014 showed in Figure 41 is an example of the potential of earth construction for social housing (Guerra, 2017). During research on the user’s perception in this building, Guerra (2017) cites that the question about the Chagas Disease exists, as well as doubts about its structural safety, but are not the most recurrent. The possibility of releasing dust and problems with infiltration and moisture were most frequent, as well as a requirement for smoother walls with no imperfections (Guerra, 2017).

Figure 41 – Rammed earth social housing prototype built at the Federal University of Mato Grosso do Sul - Brazil Source: Guerra, 2017

In this research the adobe technique is used in the evaluation of thermal performance using a system of bricks without cavity resulting from the mixture of clay, sand and water, without the addition of stabilizers. The choice of the adobe technique is due to the use of bricks similarity to the technique of ceramic brick masonry, typical in the housing sector. Adobe is the name given to the unfired clay masonry bricks, dried in the sun and made in wood or metal forms, often with added materials to be more resistant. Some additions employed are straw and vegetable fibers, animal, asphalt emulsion, cement, lime and gypsum. Some advantages of adobe system pointed out are easiness of extraction to the earth and to manufacture, dry and stack, possibility of diverse shapes and sizes of bricks and systems (walls, arches, vaults and domes), recyclability, non-requirement of skilled labour, economical handmade equipment (mold), long duration of high-performance use, nontoxic (Neves and Faria, 2011; Schroder and Ogletree, 2010). As disadvantages, Neves and Farias (2011) cite the low tensile and flexural strength in relation to masonry executed

45 with compressed blocks or ceramic block and concrete block, the need for lots of water and the long time and human effort and in its manufacture. The compressed earth blocks (BCT), or compressed blocks, are a similar system to adobe bricks to use in masonry walls in which manual or mechanical presses are used making the manufacturing easier, being also a good system to use in social housings. It is a relatively recent type of land-based construction and it is an ideal mixture of clay, sand and water placed in a manual or automated press, with immediate release (Neves and Farias, 2011). Figure 42 shows adobe bricks made manually drying and Figure 43 shows the molding process of compressed earth blocks (BTC).

Figure 42 – Adobe bricks made manually Figure 43 – Molding compressed earth blocks (BTC) Source: Adamá Bioarquitetura (2016) Source: Neves et al (2010)

A soil grading curve is usually used to assess the suitability of material for adobe construction. Different proportions of clay, silt, sand and sand are proposed based on case studies in different countries and diverse types of land and some authors set limits only for the amount of clay. If the selected soil has a lot of clay, it increases the risk of fissures appearing on the adobe when drying, if it has too much sand or silt content, it may lack adequate internal cohesion and disintegrate easily, as well as reduce the compressive strength (Neves and Farias, 2011). Table 1 presents some indicated proportions of clay, silt, sand and gravel by different authors.

Table 1 – Proportions of clay, silt and sand to adobe bricks construction according different authors Source: Neves and Farias, 2011 and Schroder and Ogletree (2010) Authors Clay (%) Silt (%) Sand (%) Gravel (%) Schroder and Ogletree (2010) Up to 20-25 Up to 35 Up to 70-75 Up to 25 Proyecto Hornero (2007) 50% clayey soil and 50% sandy soil HB 195 (2002) 10-40 10-30 30-75 Peruvian standard NTE E 080 - 10- 20 15- 25 55- 70 (Sencico, 2000) Barrios et al (1987) 35-45 55-65

Several laboratory experiments studies demonstrate acceptable earth bricks engineering properties, like compressive strength, moisture content, rate of water absorption, percentage of void, density and durability, made by hand or machinery

(compressed blocks) (Aubert et al, 2013; Cid-Falceto et al, 2012; Miqueleiz et al., 2012; Muntohar, 2011; Oti et al, 2009). The studies have been done with different mixtures and stabilization materials, like cement, lime, and gypsum (Alam et al, 2015) or recycled oyster- shells ash (Li et al, 2015). There are several international building standards that address adobe constructions and in Brazil, a draft standard has already been submitted to the Brazilian Association of Technical Standards - ABNT and is in the process of being approved (Santos, 2015). While early studies on earth buildings were mainly focused on structural safety, with the energy crisis and environmental pollution a focus of attention, studies are progressively being related to indoor environment and energy saving (Zhang et al., 2015). Figure 44 shows an example of house built with the technique of adobe being important to note the high foundation of stones which protects the building from soil moisture. The front terrace and overhangs are also good features to be used to protect the walls from rains.

Figure 44 – Residence built with adobe bricks Source: Museu de Caculé (2016)

2.4 Thermal Mass Performance

Thermal mass describes the heat capacity of a material related to absorb heat, store it and release it later. High thermal mass construction systems delay the heat transfer to the interior of the building contributing to keep lower internal radiant temperature for several hours, and so it is indicated for places with large differences of temperature from day to night (Sadineni et al, 2011). The higher the thermal mass of a building, the lower heat transfer that will occur within the same, moderating the daily amplitude reached inside delaying the moment at which the temperature peak occurs (Antinucci et al, 1992). According to Walsh et al (2006) thermal mass provides the chance to achieve thermal energy variations of a building on behalf of its occupiers, without the requirement for great quantities of high-grade energy.

Reilly and Kinnane (2017) states that high thermal mass structures are likely to be effective in energy efficiency in hot climates; however, the authors warn that in cold climates the drawbacks of high thermal mass likely outweigh the advantages and can cause an increase in energy use according. Silva et al (2016) say that, for hot climates, the effect of the thermal mass of the outer walls on the decrease of the thermal amplitude of the interior increases with the thermal amplitude of the climate. In high thermal mass buildings, once the heat gains reach the interior, ventilation is a possible strategy to provide internal heat removal of the building and increases the heat loss of individuals due to the air movement (Goulart, 2004). In hot and dry climates daytime ventilation is avoided as it brings warm air into the buildings. Thus, night ventilation is more useful to dissipate the heat generated during the day and bring cool night breeze inside. Night ventilation works cooling the surfaces and it is more effective where a building includes a reasonably high thermal mass to absorb the heat during the day (Goulart, 2004). Szokolay (2008) says the articulated use of thermal mass with natural ventilation can enlarge its application for climates with high humidity. Cândido et al (2010) state that in hot climate regions, natural ventilation combined with solar protection are the most effective building design strategies to achieve thermal comfort without resorting to mechanical cooling. The authors also identified air movement acceptability levels inside naturally ventilated buildings in Brazil with main results indicating that the minimal air velocity required were at least 0.4 m/s for 26°C reaching 0.9 m/s for operative temperatures up to 30°C. The results revealed subjects not only preferred more air speed but also demanded air velocities closer or higher than the 0.8 m/s ASHRAE limit for air speed (Cândido et al, 2010). Amos-Abanyie et al (2013) aiming to investigate a way to reduce cooling load in buildings in the warm-humid climate of Ghana, noted that an optimization of thermal mass and window size coupled with activation of night-time ventilation interacted in an effective way to obtain reduced peak indoor air temperature increasing thermal comfort. From the analysis, the authors concluded that increasing the thermal mass by changing to materials of higher densities led to a reduction in peak indoor air temperature (Amos-Abanyie et al, 2013). Nascimento et al (2013) analysed the thermal performance of a farmhouse with thick walls constructed of solid earth brick, in semi-arid zone in Northeast Brazil and observed the simultaneous use of natural ventilation and thermal mass. In the study, the natural ventilation was responsible for removing warm air from inside the room and tiles, causing air movement in the level of the occupants and cooling them. The design of the building, ground floor with high roof and no ceilings, contributed to the air movement inside the rooms.

According to Nascimento et al (2013) as the climate of the region studied shows high frequency of occurrence of temperatures below the body, unlike desert climates, it allows the removal of heat from the individual by air movement. Thermal inertia is cited as responsible for the reduction of internal surface temperatures by removing heat from occupants through the exchange of thermal radiation. According Byrne and Ritschard (1985), besides the climate, the effectiveness of the thermal mass use depends on the interaction of the building design parameters affecting solar gain and natural ventilation rate and the physical properties of the mass, mainly thermal conductivity, specific heat and density. Other characteristics that influences its thermal performance are the exposed surfaces areas and orientation, thickness and location of the storing elements (as an external or an internal partition), occupancy and internal heat gains (Byrne and Ritschard, 1985; Goulart, 2004). From the above, the most cited parameters which significantly alter the thermal performance of thermal mass are mainly related to solar contribution heating load, ventilation rates and the physical properties of the mass. The understanding of the influence of these factors in the thermal performance of high thermal mass houses permits a more energy efficiency house project to be developed in the early phases of the design.

2.5 Thermal performance assessment

For measuring thermal performance of constructions, it is necessary to define a criterion. In countries with a cold and temperate climate, thermal performance evaluation is associated with energy consumption since heating use is common. In naturally ventilated buildings without heating, this principle is not appropriate since much of the energy consumption comes from lighting and appliances. Worldwide standards use calculation or measurement of energy consumption for thermal performance assessment of conditioned buildings, while for naturally ventilated buildings it is typical to use thermal comfort indices. These indices are currently employed in thermal comfort standards such as ISO 7730 (2005), EN 15251 (2007) and ASHRAE Standard 55 (2013). Suitable indices are required to reach the final stage of a performance evaluation, which is referred to as the performance development. The importance relies on the correct representation of the building’s conditions to allow the assessment of the performance in different circumstances (Silva et al, 2016). In Brazil, thermal performance standards have not yet included the use of indices for thermal comfort assessments; however, according Lamberts et al (2013) the necessity of establishing thermal comfort zones to the massive climatic diversity in Brazil has been mentioned since 1991 during the first national standards workshop for thermal comfort and energy efficiency in buildings. A summary of

49 the Brazilian standards that address thermal comfort are then presented followed by a discussion around thermal comfort indices indicated to the area.

2.5.1 Brazilian thermal performance standards

The standard NR 17 – Ergonomics (NR 17, 1990) from the Ministry of Labour presents adequate health and safety conditions within work environments. The standard is simple and only specifies as acceptable thermal conditions a small range of operative temperature, between 20°C and 23°C, with air velocity lower than 0.75 m/s and humidity above 40%. These parameters are indicated for workplaces where intellectual activities and constant attention are requested. The Brazilian HVAC systems design standard, NBR 16401 (ABNT, 2008), presents thermal comfort conditions for air-conditioned indoor environments. This standard limits the indoor operative temperatures during summer from 22.5°C to 25.5°C at 65% humidity, and from 23°C to 26°C at 35% humidity, assuming a clo value of 0.5 (Clo is the unit used to characterize the insulation effect provided by clothing in thermal comfort, it is a measure of thermal resistance and includes the insulation provided by any layer of trapped air between skin and clothing and insulation value of clothing itself, 1 clo is the equivalent of 0.155 m2°C/W). For normal air distributions, systems air speed is limited to 0.2 m/s, whilst displacement ventilation is below 0.25m/s. During winter, the operative temperature is limited from 21°C to 23.5°C at a 60% humidity and from 21.5°C to 24°C at 30% humidity, assuming a clo value of 0.9. Air speed is limited in this case to 0.15m/s, for normal air distribution systems, and 0.2 m/s for displacement ventilation. The Standards NBR 15220 – Thermal performance of Buildings (ABNT, 20d05a) presents more details around thermal performance conditions being the main standard that address the subject nowadays in Brazil. The standard is not mandatory and presents a Brazilian bioclimatic zone division and building guidelines for low-cost houses directed for each zone. The building guidelines aim to optimize the thermal performance of buildings through climate adaptation, supporting the development of thermal performance evaluation in the design phase. The recommendations are related to opening sizes for ventilation, protection of openings, external seals (thermal mass of outer wall and coverage) and passive thermal conditioning strategies. The standard does not address comfort assessments after construction. Currently, according to the standard, Brazil’s territory is divided into eight bioclimatic zones shown in Figure 45, in which the hatching scheme represents the country areas in each bioclimatic zone. Northeast Brazil covers 4 distinct zones, being Zones 5 to 8 (highlighted in Figure 45) (ABNT, 2005b).

Figure 45 – Bioclimatic zones in Brazil according NBR 15220-3 with the Northeast region highlighted and the percentage of the Brazilian territory in each zone Source: Adapted from (ABNT, 2005b)

The need to review the zoning has been raised and, according to (Martins et al, (2012), the use of monthly averages in the Brazilian standard can produce distortions, especially in regions with important annual and seasonal amplitudes, such as the climatic region of the Brazilian semiarid region. Bastos et al (2007) and Rocha et al 2009) drew up a map showing the regional wind potential for the use of natural ventilation and point out that this potential was not correctly considered in the bioclimatic zoning concluding that, although a remarkable initiative, in some regions the ventilation strategy indicated will not reach its purpose. Martins et al (2012) conducted a comparative analysis of climate data from three cities in zones 07 and 08 and simulated and compared the thermal performance of a base case defined through the construction guidelines recommended by the standard for each climate. The study demonstrates the existence of different periods in the same city (8 months of drought and 4 months of rain), requiring different bioclimatic strategies. The authors advise about the existence of a hybrid zone of transition between the hot and dry regions and the hot and humid and concluded that it is necessary to improve the criteria of classification of the cities in the semi-arid region, as well as to establish sub-zones, covering the particularities of the region's climate. The ANTAC (National Technology Association in the Built Environment) already established group's activities to study the review the Brazilian bioclimatic zoning contained in the NBR 15220-3 (ABNT, 2005b) and a number of proposals have already been

51 submitted for discussion, as the one shown in Figure 46, however the standard has not changed yet (Roriz, 2012b).

Figure 46 – Proposal for Bioclimatic Zoning of Brazil Source: Roriz, 2012

In the current standard, the bioclimatic zones are characterized by climatic variables related to monthly average temperature, and maximum, minimum, and average monthly relative humidity. These variables are plotted on an adaptation of Givoni’s psychometric chart (Givoni, 1992) in order to establish design strategies for each region. The adapted Givoni’s psychometric chart and design strategies are shown in Figure 47 and described in Table 2.

Figure 47 – Givoni’s psychometric chart adapted with bioclimatic strategies Source: (ABNT, 2005a)

Table 2 – Detailing strategies for thermal conditioning. Source: ABNT, 2005 Design strategy Description A Artificial heating Required to mitigate discomfort by cold conditions. system B Use of building’s shape, orientation, glazed surfaces and Solar heating external finishing colour to optimize heating in cold period through solar radiation. C Use of thermal mass to help keeping the building warmed Thermal mass longer. D Thermal comfort Characterizes the thermal comfort zone with low humidity. (low humidity) E Thermal comfort Characterizes the thermal comfort zone.

F Dehumidification of environments to improve thermal sensation. Air renovation It can be obtained through the air renewal through ventilation. G + In hot and dry regions, summer heat can be mitigated through Evaporative H the water evaporation achieved using vegetation and water cooling sources. H + I To hot regions in which the use of high thermal mass systems Thermal mass for helps storing heat in its interior during the day and returning to cooling the external during the night, when the outside temperature decreases. I + J Use of ventilation and attention to the predominant winds of the Ventilation region and how the surroundings can alter its direction. K Artificial cooling required to mitigate the possible discomfort by Artificial system heat. L When relative humidity is very low and air temperature is between 21°C and 30°C, the air humidification provides best Air humidification thermal sensations and can be accomplished using containers with water and ventilation control.

The standard provides bioclimatic charts presenting the climatological conditions of cities of each zone and the respective indication of construction strategies. Figure 48 to Figure 51 shows the bioclimatic charts existing in the standard representing zones 5 to 8, present in Northeast Region (ABNT, 2005). The grey area in the chart represents the climatological conditions of the cities of this zone and the blue straight lines represent monthly averages of one distinct city representing the zone. For each month of the year, a blue straight line represents the hours of an average day of the month considered obtained using as input data in the chart the monthly averages of maximum and minimum temperatures and monthly average relative humidity (ABNT, 2005).

Figure 48 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 5, Figure 49 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 6, highlighting the city Santos (SP) highlighting the city Goiania (GO)

Figure 50 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 7, Figure 51 – Monthly averages of cities to Zone 8, highlighting the city Picos (PI) highlighting the city Belem (PA)

All zones present high air temperatures and radiation levels with mainly differences in the thermal amplitudes reached and humidity intensities. Zone 5 represents a zone with milder temperatures among the four zones. Zone 6 presents higher thermal amplitude with dry and humid seasons. Zone 07 covers the semi-arid climate area, reaching the highest temperatures with longer dry period and Zone 08 covers the extensive and more humid seaside zone. The standards construction recommendations are related to window sizes for ventilation, window shading, external walls and roofs and passive thermal conditioning. The windows size (A) is classified based on floor area and external walls and roofs are classified according to U value, thermal delay (ᵩ) and solar factor (SF). According the standard the thermal delay (ᵩ) is the time elapsed between a thermal variation in a location and its manifestation on the opposite surface of a building component subjected to a periodic heat transfer regime. The solar factor of opaque elements (SF) is the quotient of the rate of solar radiation transmitted through an opaque component by the rate of total solar radiation incident on the outer surface of the same and is given by the Equation 1. The strategies indicated for Northeast bioclimatic zones are presented in Table 3.

SF = 100.U.α.Rse Equation 1 Where:

SF is the solar factor of opaque elements in percentage; U is the thermal transmittance of the component; α is the absorptivity to the solar radiation; Rse is the external surface resistance.

Table 3 – Construction guidelines for Northeast zones (ABNT, 2005b) Zones Windows Walls Roofs Summer Winter Light and reflective 5 U  3.60 Light and Cross ventilation   4.3 isolated High thermal Medium mass in SF  4.0 U  2.00 (15% < A < 25%) internal   3.3 partitions SF  6.5 6 Evaporative cooling, Heavy thermal mass for U  2.20 cooling and selective ventilation (during hot Heavy   6.5 periods when internal Small SF  3.5 U  2.00 temperature is higher 7 - (10% < A < 15%)   6.5 than outside) SF  6.5

Light and Light and reflective reflective Big 8 U  3.60 U  2.30.FT* Cross ventilation - (A > 40)   4.3   3.3 SF  4.0 SF  6.5 Units: U-value in W/m².K, Thermal delay () in hours Solar factor (SF) in % * The transmittance factor (FT) is defined by NBR 15220-3 as dimensionless and allows a higher limit value of U if the attic is ventilated. For unventilated roofs, like in this research, FT = 1.

The main design principles for the four bioclimatic zones present in the region are related to the use of ventilation and thermal mass. Thermal mass use is indicated for Zones 5, 6 and 7 (with lower average humidity), while for zone 8 (more humid) it is only indicated permanent cross ventilation. However, while bioclimatic zoning based its indications in the hot and humid or hot and dry weather, it can be seen in the climate classification of Northeast Region that several regions have these two climates but at different times, since various locations have a few rainy months and some dry months in the same climate. These differences challenge the adoption of U-value use based on only dry or only humid climate. The Brazilian Standard NBR 15575: Residential Buildings – Performance (ABNT, 2013), mandatory, first published in 2008 and with revision published in 2013, defines criteria and evaluation performance methods of five systems: structure, internal floors, walls, roofs and hydraulic and sanitary installations. The standards establishments concern life expectancy, performance, efficiency, sustainability and maintenance of housing buildings, and inserts the quality factor into the building delivered to the users.

Regarding thermal performance, the evaluation method prescribed by the standard considers two methods to assess the performance level: a simplified procedure and a computational simulation method. If the minimum performance is not achieved through the simplified procedure, the simulation method must be done. The simplified procedure consists in check the attendance requirements for maximum U-value of the external walls and roofs and minimum thermal capacity of external walls. Although the standard mentions that the housing construction must meet characteristics that meet the thermal performance requirements considering the bioclimatic zone defined in the NBR 15220-3 (ABNT, 2005b), the standard establishes maximum levels of U-value related to solar absorptance not always compatible to the ones present in NBR 15220-3 (ABNT, 2005b). Table 4 shows the U-value limits to both standards to the Northeast bioclimatic zones where the incompatibility can be noted. Regarding thermal capacity the standard limits the value to 130 KJ/m-2-K-1 to zones 1 to 7, while there is no indication to zone 8.

Table 4 – Transmittance for external envelope according to NBR 15.220 and NBR 15575. Transmittance U (W/m².K) Zone Construction system type NBR 15220 NBR 15575 Walls Z 5 Light and reflective U ≤ 3.6 Z 6 U ≤ 3,7 and α ≤ 0,60 Heavy U ≤ 2.2 Z 7 U ≤ 2,5 and α > 0,60 Z 8 Light and reflective U ≤ 3.6 Roofs Z 5 U ≤ 2,3 and α ≤ 0,6 Light and isolated U ≤ 2.00 Z 6 U ≤ 1,5 and α > 0,6 Z 7 Heavy U ≤ 2.00 U ≤ 2,3 FT* and α ≤ 0,4 Z 8 Light and reflective U ≤ 2,3.FT* U ≤ 1,5 FT* and α > 0,4 * FT is dimensionless and allows a higher limit value of U if the attic is ventilated. For unventilated roofs FT = 1.

Some authors have criticized the standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013) pointing to inconsistencies between the simplified procedure and the simulation procedure (Chvatal, 2014; Brito et al, 2012; Marques and Chvatal, 2013). Chvatal (2014) sought to investigate the reasons for these inconsistencies and the results showed that the combined impact of the U-values and solar absorptance is not adequately represented in the simplified method. It was also observed that thermal capacitance influences these limits and that the annual simulation proved to be the best way to evaluate different performance requirements in summer and winter (Chvatal, 2014). Regarding opening sizes, the standard cites external openings must meet the specific legislation of the building site and in case there are no legal requirements, minimum values are indicated to be adopted in living rooms and dormitories. Medium openings (A ≥ 7%) is indicated to zones 1 to 7 and big openings (A ≥ 8%) is indicated to the part of zone 8 present in Northeast Region with bigger openings (A ≥ 12%) being

56 indicated to the part of zone 8 present in North Region. The area A is calculated according Equation 2:

A= 100. (AA / AP) (%) Equation 2

Where: AA is the effective ventilation opening area AP is the floor area

The simulation method fixes limits to internal air temperatures to so called “winter and summer typical days”. During summer, the maximum daily value of indoor air temperature must always be less than or equal to the maximum daily value of the outside air temperature for all bioclimatic zones. During winter, to Zones 1 to 5, the minimum daily values of the indoor air temperature of long-stay rooms on the typical winter day shall always be greater than or equal to the minimum external temperature plus 3°C. thermal performance evaluation for winter season is not necessary to Zones 6 to 8. Nudel (2017) highlights that the temperature conditions required for the simulation of the so called “typical day” of summer by the standard NBR 15575 actually represents a critical day when the temperature conditions are observed. This means that to meet the requirements of the standard NBR 15575 by the Simulation Method, projects evaluates the complete set of the envelope and must prove acceptable internal conditions, being a more complete evaluation method. Nudel (2017) cites the dangers of considering only the Simplified Method by exemplifying that design projects with extensive glass areas, which could comply with the prescriptive requirements to the walls systems for transmittance and thermal capacity, would fail in the Simulation Method. By ignoring area and glass performance, the Simplified Method makes legal the design of "greenhouse buildings", with large glazed facades, exposing the internal spaces to high thermal loads of radiation, typical in Brazil’s climate (Nudel, 2017). The standard recommends the use of EnergyPlus software on the Simulation Method. Other simulation programs may be used if they permit the determination of the thermal behaviour of buildings under dynamic conditions of exposure to the climate, being able to reproduce the effects of thermal mass and are validated by ANSI/ASHRAE 140 (2004) (ABNT, 2013). The Technical Quality Regulation for the Level of Energy Efficiency in Residential buildings - RTQ-R (Brasil, 2012) is the operative energy efficiency regulation for residential buildings in Brazil. It was developed in 2001 after a prolonged period without rain, when there was a decrease in the levels of the rivers that feed the hydroelectric. In 2003 the voluntary labelling of projects began intending reduction of energy consumption and increase in the use of alternative sources. The criteria for performance classification are grouped according to the building type: independent housing units, single-family buildings, multi-family buildings and

57 communal areas of multi-family buildings or residential buildings condominiums. According to the Regulation, the energy efficiency of a single-family dwelling is determined by the efficiency of your envelope, your water heating system and some bonuses related to the existence of initiatives that increase their efficiency, like natural ventilation and lighting and rational use of water. The regulation presents technical requirements and methods for obtaining the efficiency level, which can vary from A (more efficient) to E (least efficient) and serves as a parameter for the issuance of the National Energy Conservation Label (ENCE) for housing, currently optional. The evaluation can be performed by meeting specified requirements of each bioclimatic zone, prescriptive method, given by their numerical equivalent established through equations according to bioclimatic zones and simulation method. For naturally ventilated buildings or naturally ventilated areas for long-term, it is mandatory verification by simulation that internally environments provide temperatures within the comfort zone for a percentage of occupied hours. The regulation assesses thermal performance based upon the degree-hour method. This method shows the intensity of the level of discomfort by counting the number of hours where indoor air temperature is either higher or lower than the cooling and heating limits. The base air temperature for cooling is 26°C and for heating it is 18°C. This degree- hour index is then typically used to estimate the necessary energy required to run mechanical conditioning systems. For the simulation process, there are some prerequisites that the computer simulation program must meet, like being able to analyse energy consumption; model 8760 hours per year; model hourly variations of occupation, lighting power and equipment, natural ventilation network and artificial conditioning systems, defined separately for each day of the week and holidays; modelling the effects of thermal mass and thermal multizone; have the ability to simulate the bioclimatic strategies adopted in project; determine the capacity required by the air conditioning system; and report schedules of air changes, the infiltrations and energy end-use, besides being validated by ANSI/ASHRAE 140 (2004) (Brasil, 2012). The regulation set occupation and usage patterns for simulation process used in this research method and better described in chapter 3.

2.5.2 Thermal performance indices

Thermal performance evaluations within naturally ventilated dwellings are frequently carried out through the use of comfort indices; these are currently employed in thermal comfort standards such as ISO 7730 (1994), EN 15251 (2007) and ASHRAE 55 (2010). These standards are used within multiple countries for example ISO 7730 is an international standard, EN 15251 is primarily used across European countries and

ASHRAE is chiefly used within America. Hence these are widely accepted standards used in many different countries, yet Brazil has yet to incorporate such indeces into legislation. Comfort indices are empirical equations that represent the relationship between thermal comfort variables, such as outside temperature, humidity, air velocity, metabolic rate and clothing factors (clo value). A base comfort temperature and a range of thermal zones are then established by the comfort indices in order to represent limits, which can be used when quantifying the comfort of different case studies. Suitable indices are required to reach the final stage of a performance evaluation, which is referred to as the performance development. Correctly representing building’s conditions is important as it allows for the comparison of a building’s performance in different circumstances (Silva, 2016). In Brazil, thermal performance standards have not yet included the use of indices for thermal comfort assessments; however, the use of such indices has previously been recommended (Lamberts et al, 2013). One of the most widely used indices is the heat balance model PMV/PPD index proposed by Fanger (1972). Fanger’s work has formed the foundation stone of most international thermal comfort standards such as ISO 7730 (2005) and ASHRAE 55 (1992) and has widely been used elsewhere (Nguyen et al, 2012). The reliability of the PMV index for British perception of comfort was confirmed by Francis and Edwards (1995), as well as its failings at higher temperatures and when the mean radiant temperature differs from the air temperature. In this case, the authors provided a reminder of the importance of correctly calculating the operative temperature through ISO 7730. One of the criticisms of the PMV index is the rigid comfort limits, not considering human adaptation in naturally ventilated environments and possible wider range of temperatures in which comfort would still be reached. Some studies have proposed an expectancy factor to be multiplied with the PMV in order to improve its applicability for occupants of non-air-conditioned building in tropical regions (Fanger and Toftum, 2002; Yao et al, 2009; d’Ambrosio Alfano et al, 2013). For Kwong et al, 2014) even though adaptive PMV models have been proposed, each tropical region has sufficient lifestyle and cultural routine to justify in depth study to improve the applicability of these models directed to each region. Unlike the heat-balance-based approach, the adaptive theory considers the interaction of occupants with their thermal environment using adaptations in terms of physiological, behavioural and psychological dimensions in order to achieve thermal comfort (Liu et al, 2012). According Nicol and Humphreys (2002), the main principle of adaptive thinking is that if there is a change that produces discomfort, people react in order to restore comfort. Occupants are considered to play an active part in adjusting to the thermal environment. In addition, according to the adaptive approach, people in warm

59 climate zones would prefer higher indoor temperatures than people living in cold climate zones, because of a gradual human response to repeated exposure conditions. The adaptive model recognizes that thermal sensations are the result not only of physiological but also psychological factors parameters, such as the expectation that each user has on indoor thermal conditions of the building and the possibility of the influence (opening and closing windows control equipment, HVAC and shading mechanisms for example) (de Dear and Brager, 2002). The models consider neutral temperature in naturally ventilated building directly linked to the outdoor temperature. The models are expressed in equations that relate these temperatures to suggest a range of temperatures in which the occupiers of a building would be in comfort. In addition to the temperature comfort ranges are suggested, with temperatures added or subtracted to these monthly values found where the user is also in comfort according to the possibility of adapting or acceptability of users to the conditions of heat stress. Some thermal comfort indices proposed relate the average outdoor air temperature with the internal dry bulb air temperature to rate comfort (Auliciems, 1981; Nicol and Humphreys, 2002). De Dear and Brager (1998) proposed an adaptive comfort index relating the average outdoor air temperature with the internal operative temperature, to highlight the contribution of thermal radiation or mean radiant temperature. Operative temperature is calculated according Equation 3 (ISO 7730, 1994). t = At +(1− A)t Equation 3 o a r

Where: to: operative temperature, in °C ta: air temperature, in °C tr: mean radiant temperature, in °C A: factor that depends on the air speed, according to Table 5

Table 5 – The A factor values as a function of airspeed. Source: ISO 7730 (1994) Air velocity (m/s) A

v < 0,2 0,5 0,2 < v < 0,6 0,6 0,6 < v < 1,0 0,7

De Dear and Brager (1998) thermal comfort index is calculated according Equation 4. The range to 90% of satisfied people is ± 2.5°C in comfort temperature, to 80% of satisfied people is ± 3.5°C (Figure 52).

Tc = 0,31Te + 17,8 Equation 4

Where: Tc is comfort temperature, in °C Te is average monthly external temperature, in °C

Figure 52 – Adaptive comfort standard for naturally ventilated buildings. Source: de Dear and Brager 2002

This comfort range is recommended for naturally ventilated places, where the thermal conditions are mainly controlled by users through the opening and closing windows; places with artificial heating but the method does not apply to in service; places with mechanical cooling and mechanical ventilation systems, but without air conditioning. Occupants must be in sedentary activity (1-1,4 met) with light clothing between 0.5 and 0.7clo and able to free adaptation of clothing and thermal conditions between the inside and the outside. The standard ASHRAE 55 (2010) incorporated the principle and considers the air speed as a factor that can cause an increase in upper limit comfort temperature by physiological cooling. The standard allows an increase of 1.2°C of the upper temperature limits for air speed of 0.6 m/s. This upper limit can also be extended by 1.8°C for an air speed of 0.9 m/s and 2.2°C for air speeds of 1.2 m/s. The European Standard EN 15251 (2007) also adopted an adaptive method to the comfort temperature calculation in naturally ventilated buildings and correlates the internal comfort temperature with outdoor conditions. The comfort zones limits are given in terms of categories based on the operative temperature versus running outdoor mean temperature, being ±2K for Category I, ±3K for II and ±4K for III. The effects of air movement in comfort range are also considered for indoor operative temperatures higher than 25ºC, however a specific equation or values are not indicated but a figure from which the exact temperature correction should be derived. According de Dear et al (2013) the standards EN15251 and ASHRAE standard 55 contain linear equations with a difference of about 1K, being very alike. However, the geographical range of input data to ASHRAE 55 standard was global, while EN15251 was based on European field study data (Nicol and Humphreys, 2010).

Lamberts et al (2013) plotted acceptable votes from different Brazilian field experiments on the chart proposed by de Dear and Brager (1998) where it is possible to see minor discrepancies in relation to the model (Figure 53). The orange dots group in the figure means complaints relate to constraints with the dress code and, conversely, occupants were satisfied with a flexible one. The blue dots group means occupant’s complaints associated to inadequate air movement, especially for the hot humid zone, where there the demand for higher air velocities was strongest. This demand was more noticeable for operative temperatures above 26°C. It is visible that the range of temperatures that were found as acceptable for occupants fell in similar range predicted by the adaptive model (Lamberts et al, 2013).

Figure 53 – Acceptable votes from different Brazilian field experiments plotted on the chart proposed by de Dear and Brager Source: Lamberts et al. (2013)

Negreiros et al (2016) exploring methods of building thermal performance assessment for hot and humid climate in naturally ventilated houses in Brazil concluded that the comfort index from de Dear and Brager (1998) is more sensitive to changes in project variables in the region, showing greater changes in the occurrence of hours in the thermal zones of performance when the model had its parameters altered. The index also presented a greater linearity with the method of degree-hour which is used in the locally regulation of the level of energy efficiency (Negreiros, 2016). Lamberts et al, (2013) proposed a Brazilian standard guideline to determine acceptable thermal conditions in occupied and artificially conditioned spaces, occupant- controlled naturally conditioned spaces and mixed-mode buildings, besides a method to assess thermal comfort through measurements. The PMV/PPD method is indicated for artificially conditioned moments, while for naturally conditioned spaces two equations are indicated for acceptable operative temperature based on de Dear and Brager index (1998) for 80% acceptability. Equation 5 is used to calculate the upper limit temperature in the comfort range and Equation 6 is used for lower limit temperature.

Tc = 0,31Te + 21,3 Equation 5 Tc = 0,31Te + 14,3 Equation 6

Where: Tc is comfort temperature, in°C Te is average monthly external temperature, in°C

The medium outside temperature is determined based on the last seven days before the day in question using Equation 7.

Tmpa(ext)=0.34Tod-1+0.23Tod-2+0.16Tod-3+0.11Tod-4+0.08Tod-5+0.05Tod-6 Equation 7 +0.03Tod-7

Where: Tmpa(ext) is the predominant average outdoor air temperature, in°C Tod-1 is the average temperature of the day preceding the day in question, in°C Tod-2 is the average temperature on the day before yesterday, in°C, and so on

The average daily temperature of the outside air for each of sequential days should be a simple arithmetic average of all the dry bulb temperature observations outdoor considering 24 hours a day. It is also indicated an increase in the acceptable operative temperature range for air speeds up 0,3m/s. It is specified an increase of 1,2°C for 0,6m/s air velocity, 1,8°C for 0,9m/s air velocity and 2,2°C for 1,2m/s air velocity. The standard proposes that naturally ventilated buildings willing to receive a thermal comfort label will be graded into three different categories according to percentage of hours into the comfort zone, air movement acceptability and occupant’s control possibility. Minimal air velocity acceptability target to be achieved during the occupied period are classified for 80 and 90% acceptability according Figure 54. For operative temperatures higher than 26°C, complementary ventilation is required. Table 6 summarizes the three different categories defined by occupant’s control requirements over openings and complementary mechanical devices.

Figure 54 – Minimal values for air velocity corresponding to 80 and 90% air movement acceptability Source: Lamberts et al (2013)

Table 6 – Occupant’s control requirements categories according Lamberts et al (2013) Avaiable occupant’s control Categories Openings Fans Individual access – Operable and airflow Individual directional design Group access – operable and airflow Every four occupants direction design

Group access - Operable Every six occupants

Table 7 shows the suggested requirements for the labels. Category 1 comprises indoor environments where air movement acceptability achieved 90% and received three stars for occupant’s control. Category 2 corresponds to buildings where air movement acceptability was 80% and two stars for occupants’ control. The last category, 3, considers indoor environments where 80% of air movement acceptability was achieved but only one star for complementary occupants’ control.

Table 7 – Suggested labeling categories for naturally ventilated buildings according Lamberts et al (2013) % Hours into the Label Category NatVent Category EqNumV comfort zone (PHC) A PHC ≥ 80% 1 5 B 70% ≤ PHC < 80% 2 4 C 60% ≤ PHC < 80% 2 3 D 50% ≤ PHC < 70% 3 2 E PHC < 50% - 1

The index of de Dear and Brager (1998), indicated for use in Brazil (Lamberts et al, 2013) and whose principle is used by the norms of thermal performance EN 15251 (2007) and ASHRAE 55 (2013) is used to assess the annual thermal performance of cases in this research.

2.6 Discussion of the chapter

The literature review focus on the Brazilian climate and design strategies for hot climates, social housing stock and earth architecture in Brazil, thermal mass performance and thermal performance assessment. Once the research focuses on the Northeast Region of Brazil, the discussion was concentrated on the region as well. The local climate was described showing the elevated temperatures through the year presented in the area, with different levels of humidity and slightly different and low thermal amplitudes. Solar radiation is the most important contributor for heat gain in the area. The main points for design in intense solar radiation zones are linked to provide maximum protection of direct and diffuse solar radiation, avoid heat storage and use ventilation for heat loss (Corbella and Yannas, 2009). The objective is to maintain indoor temperature below the outdoor temperature when this is not favourable.

The earth construction investigation explored the potential of the system, considering historical and modern scenarios. It was noticeable that although earth construction is known in Brazil since the colonization period, nowadays the techniques are considered outdated in relation to the industrialized materials. With the sustainability recent approach, earth construction systems have been revisited showing high potential with many economic and environmental advantages. Wattle and daub technique is the most used one in Brazil by the low-income population due to its easiness however the buildings are frequently poorly finished. Other traditional techniques, usually show marked variations from region to region, are earth bricks (adobe), compressed earth blocks (CEB) and rammed earth, besides wattle and daub. In this work the adobe technique is used in the method to evaluate thermal performance of an earth system. The choice of technique is because it is more like the technique of ceramic brick masonry, more common in the region and with more structural confidence by the population, making it easy to use, since it uses the well-known masonry technique and have the potential of being more acceptable. Regarding social housing policy in Brazil, the usual design plan features two bedrooms, a living room, a kitchen and a bathroom. The houses are usually single storey and built using ceramic brick masonry with internal and external plaster and painting. Lately concrete single panel system has been implemented. Thermal mass performance review showed the concepts about the process of thermal performance involving residences with high thermal mass in hot climates. Although high thermal mass is traditionally indicated to hot and dry climate areas, its use has been studied, with positive performances, in climates with high humidity. Ventilation is a key strategy cited to the use with high thermal mass buildings, in both hot and dry and hot and humid climates areas. Thermal performance assessment review showed the methods used in Brazilian standards, usually based on static acceptable thermal conditions for operative temperature, humidity and air speed. Bioclimatic strategies and limit values for physical properties are indicated as well based on the bioclimatic zoning zone according the standard NBR 15220 - Part 3 (ABNT 2005c). The use of comfort indices is not yet considered in Brazil’s standards. Through the climate analysis and the bioclimatic zone according the standard NBR 15220 - Part 3 (ABNT 2005c) it is possible to identify four different climate zones in Northeast Brazil. The four zones have hot climate being different in the amount of rainfall and difference in temperature amplitudes and called Zones 5 to 8 according the standard NBR 15220 - Part 3 (ABNT 2005c). Zone 5 represent climate of high altitude areas with milder temperatures, between 20° and 26°C and presents dry and humid seasons. Zone 6 represent areas with hot

65 climate with two well defined seasons, one of them with high humidity for about six months and a low humidity season. Zone 7 is a region with highest temperatures experienced and low humidity throughout almost all year, usually lower than 50%, the semi-arid zone. Zone 8 is a region with elevated temperatures and highest humidity levels throughout the year or maximum couple months dry humid. The main design principles for the four bioclimatic zones present in the standard NBR 15220 - Part 3 (ABNT 2005c) are related to minimize heat gains by the high radiation, maximize heat loss and regulate air circulation and thermal storage in the building structure, especially considering the use of ventilation and thermal mass. Those strategies are taken into consideration in the definition of the simulated cases. For the analysis, the index suitable for Brazilian climate according standard proposed by Lamberts et al (2013), based on De Dear and Brager (1998) and adopted by ASHRAE 55 (2010), was chosen for the thermal performance assessment process. The index determines the internal temperature comfort based on the latest outside temperatures, which should be confronted with the indoor operative temperatures. The use of operative temperature in thermal performance assessment allows the evaluation of the thermal mass contribution through the inside radiant temperature.

3 Methodology

This chapter describes in detail the methods of the research including building modelling, validation process, simulation process and analysis procedure. First, the modelling process is described with site characterization, geometry, physical properties and routines adopted by the base case and variations. Next, the validation process is presented with monitoring procedure of social housings in Brazil and statistical indicators used to evaluate the accuracy of the model. Finally, simulation and thermal performance assessment procedure are described with the thermal properties of the investigated construction systems of walls analysis through Brazilian performance standards, the method to quantify the thermal comfort rates of the simulated cases through the adaptive index and the combination of cases to be analysed. The research method steps in the form of a flowchart are shown in Figure 55.

Modelling Validation Simulation and analysis procedure

•Site •Monitoring •Performance characterization through standards •Statistical •Base case indicators •Performance throught adaptive •Variations index •Combination of cases

Figure 55 – Method steps

3.1 Modelling

The first step to the simulation process was the modelling of the study cases. First, the software DesignBuilder is presented with equations used by the software to calculate natural ventilation. Next, the site characterization is described with weather data choice, to accurate represent the climate of the bioclimatic zones in Northeast of Brazil, and ground temperature calculation. Next, base case model and variations are described.

3.1.1 DesignBuilder Software

DesignBuilder (DesignBuilder, 2018), used in the simulation process, is a graphical interface that enables the user to model the building in three-dimensional format and uses EnergyPlus calculation algorithms (EnergyPlus, 2018). EnergyPlus is a building energy

67 analysis and thermal energy simulation program that combines the best features and capabilities of two existing building energy simulation programs: BLAST (building energy analysis and system thermodynamics) and DOE-2 (Lee et al, 2015). The software combines the advantages of an intuitive and accessible interface for graphical designers and consultants, with the advantages of a validated algorithm (Crawley et al, 2001). In this research DesignBuilder Software v.4.7.0.027 was used, with EnergyPlus v.8.3.0.001. The input data in DesignBuilder program has hierarchical levels established by the software, in which the default data is inherited from the level above in the hierarchy. The first level is the site, next comes the building, block, zone, surface and opening respectively. (Figure 56) (DesignBuilder Software Ltd, 2009)

Figure 56 – Hierarchy in DesignBuilder models Source: DesignBuilder Software Ltd, 2009

The first level, site data, represents information about the site including location, conditions of the ground and weather. The second level, building data, includes all the definitions on material and routines of the building models, being separated in the next hierarchical levels: blocks, zones, surfaces and openings respectively. Block data is inherited from building level, zone data is inherited from block data and surface data from zone data. The building model data groups the characteristics of the building models on the tabs activity, construction, openings, lightings, HVAC, options (related to output options) and CFD. Activity data allows the definition of zones usage including information on metabolic rates, occupancy, internal equipment gains. Construction data includes the construction components used in DesignBuilder to model the conduction of heat through walls, roofs, ground and other opaque parts of the building envelope. Opening data describes any opening in the main building fabric like windows, doors, vents and holes. Lightings and HVAC data describe the routine use and gains of the systems in the model. Options data is related to the output data that is generated in the design

68 calculations and simulations and the CFD data allows the setting of boundary condition for CFD calculations. Figure 57 shows a screenshot with a model, the hierarchy data division and the model data tabs in the DesignBuilder graphical interface.

Figure 57 – Screenshot with DesignBuilder graphical interface Source: DesignBuilder Software Ltd, 2009

The software has databases of templates and components to load into model data and assist in characterization. The templates are databases of typical generic data, as construction systems, facade, HVAC and location templates, while the components are databases of individual data items, like construction materials, panes, schedules, window blinds and vents. DesignBuilder allows the conception of new libraries of templates and components as well. There are two general approaches to natural ventilation and infiltration modelling in DesignBuilder, named Scheduled and Calculated. Scheduled model defines the natural ventilation change rate for each zone model in terms of a maximum ACH value and a schedule, and infiltration air change rate is defined by a constant ACH value. Calculated model, used in this research, calculates natural ventilation and infiltration based on window openings, cracks, buoyancy and wind driven pressure differences crack dimensions using the EnergyPlus Airflow Network. Ventilation depends on a setpoint temperature as well in this case, set under Environmental Control on the Activity tab. Calculated model was used intending to better estimate natural ventilation and infiltration through the dynamic behaviour of the building. The method uses wind speed from weather files to calculate ventilation. These values are measured at meteorological stations with possibly different surrounding topography. To calculate local wind speed, Energy Plus uses Equation 8 .

훼 훼 훿푚푒푡 푚푒푡 푧 Equation 8 푉푧 = 푉푚푒푡 ( ) ( ) 푧푚푒푡 훿 Where: 푉푧= wind speed at altitude z (m/s) 푉푚푒푡= wind speed measured at the meteorological station 훿푚푒푡 = wind speed profile boundary layer thickness at the meteorological station 푧푚푒푡 = height above ground of the wind speed sensor at the meteorological station 훼푚푒푡 = wind speed profile exponent at the meteorological station 훿 = wind speed profile boundary layer thickness at the site 푧 = altitude, height above ground 훼 = wind speed profile exponent at the site

The wind speed coefficient profile 훼, 훿, 훼푚푒푡 푎푛푑 훿푚푒푡 are variables that depend on the roughness characteristics of the surrounding terrain. Design Builder considers the value as shown in Table 8. There are three options: sheltered normal and exposed.

Table 8 – Wind Speed Profile Coefficients (EnergyPlus, 2017) Terrain Description Exponent, Boundary Layer 휶 Thickness, 휹 (m) Exposed: Flat open country (Country) Open land with scarce 0.14 270 obstructions less than 10 meters

Normal: Rough, wooded country (Suburbs) Urban or suburban 0.22 370 area, wooded or terrain with several obstructions. Sheltered: Towns and cities (City) Large city center with at least 50% of buildings larger than 21m at a distance of 2km or 0.33 460 10 times the height of the building.

The ventilation rate (q) through each opening and crack in Design Builder is calculated based on the pressure difference using wind and stack pressure effects according to Equation 9 (EnergyPlus, 2017):

푄 = 퐶 ∗ ∆푃푛 Equation 9

Where: Q is the volumetric flow through the opening (kg/s) C is the flow coefficient, related to the size of the opening/crack (kg/s.Pan) ∆P is the pressure difference across the opening/crack (Pa) n is the flow exponent varying between 0.5 for fully turbulent flow and 1.0 for fully laminar flow.

There are five settings of the Airtightness slider in DesignBuilder to indicate the crack template with flow coefficient and flow exponent applied when setting crack properties: Very poor, Poor, Medium, Good and Excellent. Wind pressure calculation through openings and cracks in the building envelope are simulated using Bernoulli's equation ( Equation 10): 2 푉푟푒푓 Equation 10 푃 = 퐶 휌 푝 2 Where: P = Wind surface pressure (Pa) ρ = Air density (kg/m3) Vref= Reference wind speed at local height (m/s) Cp= Wind surface pressure coefficient (dimensionless)

The wind pressure coefficient, Cp, is a function of wind direction, position on the building surface and side exposure. The program automatically calculates the Cp values for rectangular buildings. The normalized surface pressure coefficient is calculated using Equation 11 (Swami and Chandra, 1988): 훼 1.248 − 0.703 sin ( ) − 1.175푠푖푛2 (훼) + 0.131푠푖푛3 (2훼퐺) Equation 11 퐶푝,푛 = 0.6 ∗ ln [ 2 ] +0.769푐표푠(훼/2) + 0.07퐺2 푠푖푛2(훼/2) + 0.717 푐표푠2(훼/2) Where: 퐶푝,푛 = = Cp value at a given angle between wind direction and the outward normal of the surface under consideration (dimensionless) α = Angle between wind direction and outward normal of wall under consideration (deg) G = Natural log of the ratio of the width of the wall under consideration to the width of the adjacent wall (dimensionless) n = Index of incident angle at 30-degree increments

DesignBuilder uses data from Liddament (1986), Liddament (1996) and (Orme, 1998) to populate coefficients templates and provide default pressure coefficients suitable for use in design calculations for buildings having no more than three storeys, with square surfaces for the 3 levels of site exposure: Sheltered, normal and exposed. The wind pressure coefficients vary according to the wind angle and the horizontal slope of the surface specified in. The data is given in 45° increments and it is showed in Table 9.

Table 9 – Wind pressure coefficients of normal exposure (EnergyPlus, 2017) Wind Exposed Normal Sheltered angle <10° 11-30° 31-89° Vertical <10° 11-30° 31-89° Vertical <10° 11-30° 31-89° Vertical

0° -0.8 -0.4 0.3 0.7 -0.6 -0.35 0.3 0.4 -0.5 -0.3 0.25 0.2 45° -0.7 -0.5 -0.4 0.35 -0.5 -0.45 -0.5 0.1 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 0.05 90° -0.6 -0.6 -0.6 -0.5 -0.4 -0.55 -0.6 -0.3 -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 -0.25 135° -0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.4 -0.5 -0.45 -0.5 -0.35 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 180° -0.4 -0.4 -0.5 -0.2 -0.6 -0.35 -0.5 -0.2 -0.5 -0.3 -0.4 -0.25

3.1.2 Site characterization

The thermal performance of the elements of a building is associated directly with its external climatic variables, so for the simulation process it is necessary to represent the climate area correctly using appropriate weather data. Four different cities were chosen to represent the four bioclimatic zones present in Northeast Brazil according to the standard NBR 15220–3 (ABNT, 2005b). The selection was based on the cities’ climate classification within the standard and the existence of weather data file compatible with EnergyPlus software. The standard NBR 15220–3 (ABNT, 2005b) brings a list with more than three hundred cities classified according to the bioclimatic zones and weather data in EnergyPlus Weather File format (EPW) for more than four hundred Brazilian cities, based on weather stations run by the Brazilian National Institute of Meteorology (INMET) between

2000 and 2010 (Roriz, 2012a). The weather stations were chosen as part of the initial research to review the current bioclimatic zoning by the National Technology Association in the Built Environment – ANTAC and the weather data collects are available to use. The selected cities are Piatã in Bahia State (BA), representing high altitude areas in Zone 5, Monteiro in Paraíba State (PA), representing the hot weather with six months dry and six months humid in Zone 6, Picos in Piauí State (PI), representing the hot and dry area in Zone 7 and Salvador in Bahia State (BA), representing the hot and humid area in Zone 8. The locations of these cities are shown in Figure 58, in which the hatching scheme represents the areas in the eight bioclimatic zones present in Brazil according NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005b).

Figure 58 – Representative chosen cities and climate areas in Northeast Brazil

According to the guidelines on EnergyPlus (EnergyPlus, 2017), in the case of evaluation of ground floor buildings, in contact with the ground, especially residential buildings and small buildings, it is necessary to determine the monthly soil temperature, since it has a major influence on the thermal performance of the building and the values provided in the climatic archive are too extreme (EnergyPlus, 2017). The use of the auxiliary programs Slab or Basement to calculate custom monthly average ground temperatures is also indicated by the guidelines (EnergyPlus, 2017). In this research the Slab program was used through the EP-Launch. The program performs heat transfer calculations for the ground below the building in question and provides average ground temperature profiles for the outside surface at the core and at the perimeter of the slab. It also produces the average based on the perimeter and core areas used in the calculation. This phase contains some difficulties around the use of the program and took considerable time, being an obstacle in the use of DesignBuilder

72 program in the day to day of buildings design process. The soil temperatures predicted by the program for the four representative cities are shown in Table 10.

Table 10 – Monthly soil temperatures adopted for each city (°C) Salvador Picos Monteiro Piatã

Zone 8 Zone 7 Zone 6 Zone 5 Jan 25,77 29,10 26,51 21,58 Feb 25,77 29,44 26,29 21,97 Mar 25,89 28,81 26,86 22,32 Apr 25,23 28,73 26,43 20,95 May 24,26 27,25 26,47 19,75 Jun 23,7 26,91 25,87 19,32 Jul 23,52 26,11 25,96 19,34 Aug 23,65 26,41 26,84 19,57 Sep 24,46 27,95 27,58 21,06 Oct 24,79 28,87 27,57 21,2 Nov 25,74 29,44 27,61 21,86 Dec 26,22 29,03 26,66 21,72

3.1.3 Base case

Earth construction is represented in the research by adobe bricks walls. The adobe brick is a dried mud brick formed in open moulds, typically made with compacted earth, clay, and straw, and dried or baked in the sun. The system is well known in the country, with the possibility to easily create regular moulded bricks, ensuring standardization while it is more likely the typical masonry system, once uses bricks and enables the houses to have the same finishing looking desirable to the local population. Although the technique is perfectly sound with soil-based mortar and paint, the technique can also be built and finished with concrete mortar and/or stabilised bricks, for the most unconvinced or who prefer a more durable finishing with less maintain. The wall construction system was modelled using adobe brick walls with 30cm thickness with internal and external plaster and painting. The thickness was chosen in order to achieve the conditions to be classified as a “heavy” construction system according the Brazilian standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a) indicating high thermal mass. According to the standard “heavy” wall systems presents U-value lower or equal to 2.20 W/m².K, thermal delay higher or equal 6.5h and Solar Factor lower or equal to 3.5% (ABNT, 2005a). The properties of the adobe wall 30cm thick is in Table 11 and it was calculated according to procedures established by the NBR 15220-2: "Thermal Performance of Buildings - Part 2: Thermal transmittance calculation methods, thermal capacity, thermal lag and solar factor of elements and building components" (ABNT, 2005c). The standard uses as normative reference the BS EN ISO 6946 (EN ISO 6946, 1996).

Table 11 – Physical properties of the construction systems calculated according NBR 15220-2 (ABNT, 2005c) U φ SF Construction system (W/m².K) (h) (%)

Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) 1 Earth Block(30x30x60cm) 2.08 8.44 1.67 External plaster and painting (1.5cm)

The first step of the modelling process is the geometry of the cases with definition of zones and surfaces and characterization of the construction systems and use routines. The common characteristics of all cases are first presented followed by the variations in the base case. The common characteristics are building geometry and occupation, equipment and lighting routines. The geometry of the cases was based on the previously presented Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado, part of the housing policy Minha Casa Minha Vida (My House My Life), with the objective of modelling a representative case of the housing stock in the country. The design plan of the housing model is shown in Figure 60 – whilst Figure 60 shows a real housing unit of the based upon the plan.

Figure 60 – Design plan of the housing model Figure 59 – Housing unit in the Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado

The model has two bedrooms, one lounge/dining room, kitchen, bathroom and external utility area with total area of 47.04m2. All simulated cases have aluminium windows with single glass panels, metal external doors, wooden internal doors and ceramic floors, like all the social housing types previous presented in chapter 2. The roof system was modelled with the same roof systems of the real social housing used as a reference, ceramic tiles and PVC ceiling with 0.60m overhangs and medium size openings

74 based on the real social housing design as well. The thermal zones and geometry of the cases modelled are show in Figure 61.

Figure 61 – Thermal zones definition

The occupation and usage patterns adopted the references indicated for thermal simulation process regarding natural ventilation units established by the Brazilian Regulation for the Energy Efficiency Level of Residential Buildings - RTQ-R (Brasil, 2012). As indicated by the regulation (Brazil, 2012), the roughness coefficient (α) was set as a Sheltered pattern in DesignBuilder, which means a coefficient of 0.33, boundary layer thickness (훿) of 460m and wind pressure coefficients varied according to the wind angle and the horizontal slope of the surface according to Table 12.

Table 12 – Wind pressure coefficients according DesignBuilder Software Ltd (2009). Sheltered Wind angle <10° 11-30° 31-89° Vertical

0° -0.5 -0.3 0.25 0.2 45° -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 0.05 90° -0.4 -0.5 -0.5 -0.25 135° -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.3 180° -0.5 -0.3 -0.4 -0.25

Flow coefficients for windows and doors and flow exponent were set as "very poor" in the software to represent the typical openings with high infiltration of social housings in Brazil, values according Table 13. The ventilation set point temperature is set to 20°C according the indication of the Brazilian regulation RTQ-R (Brasil, 2012).

Table 13 – Flow coefficient and flow exponent according to DesignBuilder Software Ltd (2009). Windows External Flow coefficient (kg/s.m) 0.001 Flow exponent (n) 0.6

Internal Flow coefficient (kg/s.m) 0.0018 Flow exponent (n) 0.6

Doors External Flow coefficient (kg/s.m) 0.0018 Flow exponent (n) 0.66

Internal Flow coefficient (kg/s.m) 0.02 Flow exponent (n) 0.6

The occupation pattern specified by the regulation RTQ-R (Brasil, 2012) represents a family of four, with one couple, in which one person is present at home the full day and the other works in the morning and afternoon; and two children, who study in the morning. Each room is occupied by two people while the living room is occupied by all inhabitants. Metabolic rates, lighting density and internal equipment load used according the RTQ-R (Brasil, 2012) are presented in Table 14. The regulation does not mention other contributions such as cooking and hot water and so they were not used.

Table 14 – Metabolic rates, lighting density and internal equipment load of the cases (Brazil, 2012) Metabolic rate (Average skin area 1.80m2)

Living room 60W/m2 of produced heat (siting or watching tv) 108W of produced heat for skin area. Bedroom 45W/m2 of produced heat (sleeping or resting) 81W of produced heat for skin area Lighting density Living room 6 W/m2 All other rooms 5 W/m2 Internal Equipment loads in 24h Living room 1.5 W/m2 (only room cited in the regulation)

Table 15 brings the occupation and artificial lighting usage pattern dividing week into days and weekend days and represented by the percentage of people available each hour (Brasil, 2012). Lighting power density was considered 100W for living room and kitchen, 60W for both bedrooms and 40W for bathroom, as indicated by the regulation (Brasil, 2012).

Table 15 – Occupation and lighting pattern (Brazil, 2012) Occupation pattern Lighting pattern Bedrooms Living Bedrooms Living Hour Week Weekend Week Weekend Week Weekend Week Weekend (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) (%) 1h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 2h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 3h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 4h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 5h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 6h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 7h 100 100 0 0 100 0 0 0 8h 0 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 9h 0 100 0 0 0 100 0 0 10h 0 50 0 0 0 0 0 0 11h 0 0 0 25 0 0 0 100 12h 0 0 0 75 0 0 0 100 13h 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 14h 0 0 25 75 0 0 0 0 15h 0 0 25 50 0 0 0 0 16h 0 0 25 50 0 0 0 0 17h 0 0 25 50 0 0 100 100 18h 0 0 25 25 0 0 100 100 19h 0 0 100 25 0 0 100 100 20h 0 0 50 50 0 0 100 100 21h 50 50 50 50 100 100 100 100 22h 100 100 0 0 100 100 0 0 23h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0 24h 100 100 0 0 0 0 0 0

3.1.4 Variations in the base case

Variations in the base case are based on the design recommendations in the thermal performance standards in Brazil NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a) and NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013a) and more typical construction systems in the area (Moreno, 2013; CAIXA, 2010; IBGE, 2010) and involved construction system of walls and roofs, ventilation openings routine, size and outside shading existence. Alternative construction systems variations are specified in order to be able to compare the performances of different adobe thickness walls and typical systems used in Brazil. Ventilation patterns with different openings size and opening schedules aimed to evaluate the influence of different ventilation strategies.

3.1.4.1 Construction system of walls

The base case 30cm thick adobe wall had variations in the thickness set to 10cm, 20cm and 40cm, aiming to consider the effects of thermal mass values upon the

77 performance of the house, and compare one adobe system with the similar thickness of usual masonry bricks and concrete panel used in the country (in the case of adobe walls of 10cm). The common local construction systems simulated were ceramic brick masonry (9 cm thick ceramic bricks) and concrete walls (10cm). All systems are simulated in the same conditions with internal and external plaster and painting (1.5cm). In the early stages of the simulation process in Design Builder, constructions can be easily defined with the library of materials. However, the systems given are not usually used in South America. For this reason, a library of materials used in the construction of social housing in Brazil had to be assembled. To characterize the construction systems in DesignBuilder it is necessary to enter the U-value (W/m2. K) and internal heat capacity (KJ/m2-K) into the construction database. These thermal properties were calculated for the different walls systems used in this study in order to correctly represent the systems typical used. The properties were calculated according to procedures established by the NBR 15220-2: "Thermal Performance of Buildings - Part 2: Thermal transmittance calculation methods, thermal capacity, thermal lag and solar factor of elements and building components" (ABNT, 2005c). Table 16 presents the thermal properties of all the wall construction systems used in the simulation process and the nomenclature used to refer to each case.

Table 16 – Physical properties of the construction systems calculated according NBR 15220-2 (ABNT, 2005c)

Construction system U CT φ SF Cases (Nomenclature) (W/m².K) (KJ/m-2-K-1) (h) (%) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(10x10x20cm) 1 3.45 231.45 3.27 2.76 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) (Adobe 10cm) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(20x20x40cm) 2 2.60 397.34 5.83 2.08 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) (Adobe 20cm) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) 3 Earth Block(30x30x60cm) BASE 2.08 563.04 8.44 1.67 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CASE (Adobe 30cm) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(40x40x80cm) 4 1.74 728.68 11.05 1.39 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) (Adobe 40cm) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Ceramic brick (9x19x19cm) 5 2.55 108.08 2.73 2.04 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) (Ceramic brick) Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Concrete wall(10cm) 6 3.95 300 3.19 3.16 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) (Concrete panel)

3.1.4.2 Construction system of roofs

Four different roof systems were simulated. Sloped clay tiles with PVC ceiling is the system used in the base case and it is the most common system in the area, used in all social housing projects shown in this research. Sloped clay tiles with concrete slab with hollow clay block ceiling are commonly used to leave the possibility to build another floor in the house in future modifications. The system has a U-value value similar to the previous option but with a higher thermal capacity. A green roof case is simulated with concrete slab structure and grass vegetation. The system, with high thermal capacity, has environmental advantages as creating usable vegetated spaces and using rainwater. The last roof system variation uses sloped metal roof tile, polyurethane layer and concrete slab with hollow clay block ceiling, being a high-performance system with insulation and low U- value. Despite being a more expensive system, the evaluation of the high-performance system aims to show the influence of an insulated system, since the roofing system represents a great part of the heat gain in the buildings in tropics. The physical properties of the roof systems used as input to characterize the cases in the software were based on information in a catalogue published by the Brazilian National Institute for Metrology, Quality and Technology – INMETRO (Brasil, 2013). The construction systems properties and the nomenclature used to refer to each case are in Table 17.

Table 17 – Properties of roof cases for simulation according Brasil (2010) Construction system U Ct Cases (Nomenclature) W/m2. K KJ/m2-K Sloped clay tile (1cm) Air chamber (>5cm) 1 1.75 21 PVC ceiling (1cm) (Clay tile + PVC)

Vegetation Soil depth (10cm) 2 2.18 363 Concrete base (10cm) (Green roof)

Sloped clay tile (1cm) Air chamber (>5cm) 3 Concrete slab with hollow clay block 1.79 185 ceiling (10cm) (Clay tile + Concrete slab) Sloped Metal Roof Tile (0.1cm) Polyurethane (4cm) Air chamber (>5cm) 4 0.53 176 Concrete slab with hollow clay block ceiling (10cm) (Isolated roof)

The characterization of green roofs in DesignBuilder involves more parameters besides U-value and heat capacity and they depend upon the roof design. Green roofs design differ widely worldwide but there are four layers present: vegetation layer, growing 79 media layer, drainage layer and protection layer, which can include waterproof membranes and root barriers (Sailor, 2008). One typical design for a green roof used in Brazil is shown in Figure 62. It uses grass, which is easier to plant and maintain. Over the main roof structure (usually concrete slab), an asphalt blanket or canvas is laid as a waterproof membrane, followed by a geotextile blanket as roof barrier. Next a layer of expanded clay or gravel keeps the bottom of the system well drained, preventing root rot and facilitating the flow of water. A new geotextile blanket prevents the soil layer from mixing with the expanded clay layer. Finally, the layers of growing media (soil) and grass are positioned.

Figure 62 – Typical green roof design in Brazil

Sailor (2008) has developed a model of the energy balance of a vegetated rooftop and integrated it into the EnergyPlus building energy simulation program, allowing the exploration of design options including growing media thermal properties and depth, and vegetation characteristics such as plant type, height and leaf area index. The green roof is modelled in DesignBuilder by creating a roof construction template using a green roof material as the outer layer and including irrigation system and/or site precipitation definition from the weather data. The input properties of the vegetation and soil layer required in the software includes heights of plants, Leaf Area Index (LAI), leaf reflectivity, leaf emissivity, minimum stomatal resistance and maximum (saturation), minimum (residual) and initial volumetric moisture content of the soil layer (EnergyPlus, 2017). The Leaf Area Index (LAI) is a dimensionless variable that represents how effective the vegetation is in blocking solar radiation from reaching the ground and the values are given by the Global Leaf Area Index Data from Field Measurements, 1932-2000 (Scurlock et al, 2001). A value of 0 represents bare ground and values of 3-5 are for shrub covers (Decruz et al, 2014). A LAI of 2 were used to represent grassland with 0.15cm of soil depth and 0.10cm of height of plants, representing a system of easier and cheaper construction and low maintenance. The common parameters for the green roof case are described in Table 18. Vegetation layer properties are based on Capozzoli et al (2013) and soil properties based on ABNT (2005c).

Table 18 – Input parameters of vegetation and soil layer according Capozzoli et al (2013) and ABNT (2005). Concrete slab 10cm Gravel (drainage layer) 5cm Leaf reflectivity 0.22 Leaf emissivity 0.95 Minimum stomatal resistance 180 s/m Max volumetric moisture content at saturation 0.4 Min residual volumetric moisture content 0.01 Initial volumetric moisture content 0.15 Irrigation pattern off Soil thermal conductivity 0.52 W/m.K Soil density 1700 kg/m3 Soil specific heat capacity 840 J/kg.K

3.1.4.3 Openings schedule – Ventilation

Four ventilation patterns were considered to all internal doors and windows in the simulation process. The patterns are referred as “Day ventilation”, “Night ventilation”, “24h ventilation” and “No ventilation”. External doors present in the living room and kitchen are closed at all time in all patterns. Day ventilation refers to daytime ventilation with openings opened from 6.00am to 6.00pm. The pattern represents the most common use in Brazil with windows opened during occupation hours of the day to allow ventilation and lighting. Internal bedroom doors are opened during the same time to allow cross ventilation. Night ventilation refers to nocturnal ventilation, a bioclimatic strategy commonly indicated to use with high thermal inertia buildings to cool off ambient heated during the daytime. The pattern uses openings opened from 6.00pm to 6.00am, with internal bedroom doors opened at the same time. 24h ventilation considers all external windows and internal bedroom doors opened during night and day hours to evaluate the full ventilation option; external doors are considered closed. No ventilation considers all external and internal openings closed all the time and was adopted to represent cases where the design or the environment does not allow ventilation inside the building, like inadequate orientation, presence of barriers to the winds as building and natural elevations and insufficient space between the housing units. This pattern allows exploiting the high thermal mass case, for situations in which the temperature exceeds the recommended limit for use of natural ventilation, as very hot days. For diurnal ventilation, windows and doors are opened if the zone air temperature is equal to or higher than the ventilation setpoint temperature of 20°C (Tint ≥ Tset point) and when internal air temperature is higher than outside air temperature (Tint ≥ Text). For nocturnal ventilation the mode that is used allows venting according to the

81 opening's operation schedule, like this all zone’s windows and internal doors are open between 18h and 6h, independent of indoor or outdoor conditions. For 24h ventilation and no ventilation, all of zone’s windows and internal doors are always opened and closed respectively independent of indoor or outdoor conditions. It is known that keeping the openings of residences open in Brazilian houses is a problem due to the safety issue, making it difficult to use night ventilation strategy, for example. However, the alternatives were considered in order to evaluate the bioclimatic indications present in literature and possibilities of surfaces cooling.

3.1.4.4 Openings size

According to the standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005) the opening size is classified based on floor area rate as small (10% < A < 15%), medium (15% < A < 25%) or big (A > 40). Table 19 brings the classification of the windows present in the base case and based in the social housing in the Residencial Maria Odete Góis Rosado used as based in the modelling process. Although the kitchen and bathroom windows are classified as small, the same dimensions were used in the base case to replicate the actual case.

Table 19 – Base case classification of windows Opening area Room area Rate Opening (m2) (m2) (%) classification Bedroom 01 1.44 (1.20x1.20m) 8.00 18 Medium Bedroom 02 1.44 (1.20x1.20m) 7.50 19.2 Medium Living room 2.58 (2.15x1.20m) 14.11 18.28 Medium Kitchen 0.66 (0.55x1.20m) 4.75 13.89 Small Bathroom 0.50(1.00x0.50m) 4.00 12.5 Small

All windows were set as a sliding model according to the construction specifications of the design project followed, releasing 50% of openable area effectively for ventilation. Along with the base case representing real constructions, openings were simulated with all small and big sizes, with 12% and 40% on floor area rate respectively (Table 20).

Table 20 – Openings size used in the simulation process Room area Small size Small Opening Big size Big Opening (m2) 12% (m2) size(m) 40% (m2) size (m) Bedroom 01 8.00 0.96 0.96x1.00 3.20 2.67x1.20 Bedroom 02 7.50 0.90 0.90x1.00 3.00 2.50x1.20 Living room 14.11 1.69 1.40x1.20 5.64 4.70x1.20 Kitchen 4.75 0.57 0.57x1.00 1.90 1.90x1.00 Bathroom 4.00 0.48 0.48x1.00 1.60 1.60x1.00

3.1.4.5 Shading

The use of shading is indicated to all Northeast bioclimatic zones according the standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005) and its influence is evaluated through the simulation of different overhang configuration and a case with external louvres. The overhang

82 arrangements are: no overhang, overhang of 60cm (as built by the housing scheme in Brazil) and overhang with 1m. Cases with opening shading had horizontal and vertical external wood louvres of 1cm with dimensions according Figure 63 modelled in all windows. Vertical louvres were inclined 33° degrees. The sun paths of the living room window (south orientated) in the four cities is presented in Figure 64 to indicate how the brises are effective in blocking the sun's radiation during daylight hours.

Figure 63 – Louvres dimensions used in the simulation process

Figure 64 – Sun path of the living room window in the four cities

Blue lines indicate the solar hours and the horizontal dark lines indicate the months of the year. The sun paths are very similar since all cities are in similar and low latitudes. They show that after 8h until 16h, time of greatest solar incidence, the louvres are effective and completely protect the openings from radiation since the sun path during this time is shaded in red. Before and after this interval the louvres protect the opening during part of the year, since the path is not completely shaded in red.

3.1.4.6 Perimeter walls

A common procedure by the residents after receiving the social housing is the construction of perimeter walls in the plot limits usually due to safety. Figure 65 and Figure 66 show social housing with the perimeter walls already added by the residents after receiving the house from the housing policy. The addition of the perimeter walls potentially changes the ventilation rates and shading situation of the houses. With the objective of analysing this influence on the performance of the house, a simulation case with perimeter walls was added. The typical plot dimensions in housing policy in the construction site in Brazil, and used as base model in this research, is 10mx15m. The perimeter walls were modelled along the plot limits with adobe system 10cm thick and 2.50m high, chose for being the usual values of the ceramic brick perimeter walls built in the local.

Figure 65 – Frontal façade with perimeter walls added by residents

Figure 66 – Perimeter walls added by residents

3.1.5 Case summary

Figure 67 shows a schematic of the base case initial parameters in the simulation process. Table 21 shows the characteristics of the base case and all the variances defined to the simulation process.

Figure 67 – Base case scheme with initial parameters

Table 21 – Base case and variation defined to the simulation process Base Case Variations

Adobe Adobe Adobe Ceramic Concrete Walls Adobe 30cm 10cm 20cm 40cm Brick Panel

Clay tile + PVC Green roof Clay tile + Concrete Isolated roof

slab Roof

Day ventilation Night Ventilation 24h ventilation No ventilation Ventilation

Windows Medium Small Big

Louvres No louvres Louvres

Overhang Shading No overhang Overhang 1m 60cm

Perimeter No Yes walls 30cm

Not all combinations were simulated. The simulated cases and their combinations are described together with the thermal performance analysis method in point 3.3.3 Cases Combination.

3.2 Validation

Dynamic simulation models contain inherent simplifications and assumptions compared to the way that a real building would operate, such as the assumption that U- values are constant, when they are actually dynamic, and the climatic conditions reproduction based on weather data with historic data, which will be different from the conditions in any given year that the building is operating (Cheshire et al, 2013). Evaluating the accuracy of the simulation results is a significant issue for users and developers. Verification and validation are the primary methods for responding to this issue (Baharvand et al, 2013). The validation process should quantify the accuracy of results obtained by simulation and compare them to the results obtained through measurements (Anđelković et al, 2016). For the validation process in this research, four social housings with different orientation and position within the block in Northeast Region were monitored and then simulated in the same conditions and the results compared through statistical indicators. After modelling and simulation of the houses, predicted and measured operative temperatures in the living room were compared and statistical indicators calculated. The operative temperature is the parameter used to assess comfort through the adaptive comfort index indicated by Lamberts et al, 2013 to Brazil’s climate, and the living room is the room used to assess comfort of the houses in this research being a long-term room. Further simulations with alterations in the model were performed and new statistical indicators were calculated until the final representative model was established. Figure 68 shows the validation process phases.

Monitoring Simulation Validation

Statistical parameters Internal air and surface Weather data edition temperatures of living room calculation

Modelling of the four External air temperature Model alterations and humidity houses

Figure 68 – Validation process phases

3.2.1 Monitoring

The objective of the monitoring was to record external and internal climatic conditions for comparison with predicted values and validation of the simulation model. Four social housings were monitored during eight days from the 25th of January to the 03th of February 2017. The social housings are located in the residential condominium

Residencial Maria Odete de Góis Rosado in the city of Mossoró – RN, in climate zone 7 in Northeast Brazil. The condominium consists of 844 social housings of identical design project constructed in 2017 and part of the housing policy implemented by the Brazilian government in 2009 called “Minha Casa Minha Vida” (My House My Life) (Figure 69).

Figure 69 – Residential condominium Maria Odete de Góis Rosado in the city of Mossoró – RN

Internal air temperature and surface temperature of the four living room walls and external air temperature and humidity were monitored. The internal surface temperatures measurement aimed to calculate the radiant and subsequently the operative temperature of the room to be compared with predicted values. Local weather data measured was used as input during the simulation of the four social housings. The social housings were closed all day and unoccupied, only opened during the data collection times. Figure 70 shows the social housings monitored. They are in different positions within the condominium with different orientations showed in Figure 71.

House 01 House 02

House 03 House 04 Figure 70 – Four monitored social housings in Mossoró – RN

Figure 71 – Location of the monitored social housings within the condominium

The validation was limited by the scope of the measurements made during working hours by part of the construction staff in the construction site. The measurements were done five times a day (7h, 11h, 13h, 15h and 17h) in the living room of the residences. Air temperature and air humidity were measured internally and externally. In the living room it was measured also the surface temperature of the four walls to calculate the mean radiant temperature and operative temperature of the room. Mean radiant temperature was calculated by the average of the four superficial temperatures measured. Operative temperature was calculated by the average of mean radiant temperature with air temperature. The instruments used in the temperatures measurement were a precision infrared thermometer Fluke 572 with accuracy of ±0.75% of reading or ±0.75°C whichever is greater at 25°C (Fluke, 2017) (Figure 72). The humidity was measured with a THDL-400, an instrument that measures sound and light level, relative humidity and air temperature. The instrument measures humidity on a scale of 25% to 95% of humidity and accuracy of ±5% (25ºC, > 35% and < 95% RH) (Instrutherm, 2017) (Figure 73).

Figure 72 – Precision Infrared Thermometer Fluke 572 Figure 73 – THDL-400

3.2.2 Validation

The four social houses monitored were modelled and simulated during the same eight days of measurement. Local weather data measured was used as input to represent the local climate. To create the new weather file the Elements Software was used. The software is a cross-platform tool for creating and editing custom weather files for building energy modelling (Big Ladder Software, 2017). To examine the deviations between the values, statistical indicators were calculated. The statistical indicators used were Mean Bias Error (MBE), Coefficient of Variation of the Root Mean Squared Error (Cv(RMSE)) and Coefficient of Determination (R2). Maximum and minimum differences between measured and predicted data are also calculated. These statistical values are recommended by the Guideline 14-2002 (ASHRAE, 2002) and frequently used to validate cases in academic researches (Goulart, 2004; Marinosci et al, 2011; Baharvand et al., 2013; Anđelković et al, 2016). The equations of the statistical indicators are shown below:

∑(Si – Mi) MBE = × 100 Equation 12 (n−p)×y̅

∑(Si – Mi)2 RMSE = √ n−p Equation 13

RMSE CV(RMSE)= × 100 y̅ Equation 14

n 2 2 ∑i=1(Si− Mi) R =(1 − n 2 ) ∗ 100 Equation 15 ∑i=1(y̅− Mi) y̅=∑(Mi)/n Equation 16

DMIN = min (Si – Mi) Equation 17

DMAX = max (Si – Mi) Equation 18 Where:

Si = Predicted value

Mi = Measured value n = Number of observations

The Mean Bias Error (MBE) indicates the average deviation of the predicted values from the measured values. A positive value suggests that the model over-predicts values while a negative value indicate under-prediction (Anđelković, 2016). The ideal MBE value would be zero, signifying that there are no differences between predicted and measured values (ASHRAE Guideline 14-2002, 2002) The Root Mean Squared Error (RMSE) is used to indicate the difference between predicted and measured data; its value is always positive and ideally equal zero. It suggests the average mean deviation and the degree of data variation, but it does not provide direct information on the extent of the average difference between the predicted and measured value (Anđelković, 2016). The Coefficient of Variation of the Root Mean Squared Error (Cv(RMSE)) is expressed in per cents and indicates the relation between RMSE to the arithmetic mean. The Coefficient of Determination (R2) is a relation between covariance divided by predicted and measured data and its recommended borderline value is equal or higher 75% (Anđelković, 2016). ASHRAE Guideline 14-2002 (2014) recommends an acceptable range from ±10% for MBE to ±30% for CV(RSME) when using hourly data, while lower values indicate better results.

3.3 Performance analysis

3.3.1 Performance analysis through standards

The wall systems used in the simulation process are analysed to check the compliance of the thermal properties of U-value and thermal capacity of the systems with the limits stablished by the Brazilian standards that deals with thermal performance, NBR 15220: 3 (ABNT, 2005b) and NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b). The properties limits for the bioclimatic zones in Northeast Brazil are presented in Table 22. All roof construction systems used in this research have U-value within the limits established by the two standards, while these do not limit thermal capacity for roof systems.

Table 22 – Thermal properties limits according NBR 15220 and NBR 15575 Zones 05 06 07 08 NBR U-value (W/m².K) ≤3.60 ≤2.20 ≤3.60 15220 ≤3.70 if α≤0.6 U-value (W/m².K) NBR ≤2.50 if α>0.6 15575 Thermal Capacity (KJ/m-2-K-1) ≥130 -

3.3.2 Performance analysis through thermal comfort index

After simulation, the predicted data was treated using MSExcel and the predicted operative temperature of the living room of the study cases and the predicted outside temperature are used to assess the comfort rate of the cases through the adaptive thermal comfort index indicated by Lamberts et al. (2013). The graph used to analyse the comfort performance of the cases shows the variation of thermal zones bounded over the hours of the day, every day of the year. The total of hours in a year is represented in the x axis exhibited along the 24 hours of the day, the y axis shows the comfort level reached in each hour of the day. The thermal zones are zone of discomfort for overcooling (blue colouring), thermal comfort zone (green colouring), thermal comfort zone with the use of air movement (yellow colouring) and zone of discomfort for overheating (red colouring) (Figure 74).

Figure 74 – Example chart for thermal performance evaluation Source: Negreiros (2010)

This representation helps the designer to perceive the critical hours of discomfort and define occupation of spaces according to their performance throughout the day, relating to the operation mode for climate adaptation. As an example, ensuring that bedrooms stay in more comfortable areas at night while other rooms are during the day Negreiros and Pedrini (2011). The first step to achieving the chart is calculating the limits of comfort temperature range using the comfort temperature equation of the adaptive comfort index (Equation 5 and Equation 6). For this calculation it is necessary the medium outside temperature, which is determined, based on the last seven days before the day in question, using Equation 7. An increase of ± 3.5 ° C was considered for the definition of the upper and lower limits of the comfort zone, equivalent to 80% of comfort users, and an air velocity of 1.2m/s,

91 which establishes the upper limit of the comfort zone with air movement at 2.2°C above the comfort zone limit. This wind speed can be achieved by natural ventilation or by mechanical ventilation with a desktop fan. The comfort temperature limits calculated for each city using their weather data is presented in Table 23.

Table 23 – Temperature limits of the comfort zones Limit with air Zones Cities Inferior limit Superior limit movement 5 Piata 19.3 28.6 30.8 6 Monteiro 20.8 29.7 31.9 7 Picos 22.0 31.4 33.6 8 Salvador 21.5 30.2 32.4

The living room operative temperatures originate in the simulations of the cases studies are compared to these limits, resulting in the level of comfort achieved every hour of the year for each case. Temperatures below the inferior limit comfort temperature are predicted in discomfort zone to cold. Temperatures between inferior and superior limits are predicted in comfort zone. Temperatures between superior limit and the limit with air movement are in comfort by use of ventilation. Upper temperatures are in heat discomfort zone. Although this graph was made for all cases, it is presented in the results section only the annual percentage of comfort, due to the large number of data. All annual graphics are presented in Appendix.

3.3.3 Cases combination

After simulation data treatment, the cases are presented to each bioclimatic zone. First, the base case is presented in the four ventilation patterns defined: day ventilation, night ventilation, 24h ventilation and no ventilation. The cases are presented using the graphic showed in Figure 74 with the variation of thermal zones bounded over the hours of the day, every day of the year. Due to the large number of simulated cases, next it is presented the annual thermal performance results for each case with the following combinations in order to understand the influence of the parameters change on the final performance of the cases. The graph with annual hourly performance of each case is presented in the appendix. The first combination of cases presents the different windows sizes cases (small size and big size) in the four ventilation patterns. These cases count 48 cases to discuss ventilation patterns. Next the same cases are simulated adding outside louvres in all windows, counting more 48 cases. Figure 75 shows a scheme of the cases to analyse ventilation, opening size and louvres use.

• Four bioclimatic zones: Zone 05, Zone 06, Zone 07 and Zone 08 • Three windows sizes: small, medium and big size • Four ventilation patterns: day ventilation, night ventilation, 24h ventilation and no ventilation

• Four bioclimatic zones: Zone 05, Zone 06, Zone 07 and Zone 08 • Three windows sizes with outside Louvres: small, medium and big size • Four ventilation patterns: day ventilation, night ventilation, 24h ventilation and no

ventilation

Figure 75 – Scheme of cases to analyze ventilation and shading device

Next, the performance of the cases with different adobe wall thickness (10cm, 20cm, 30cm and 40cm) and overhang presence (no overhang, 60cm overhang and 1m overhang) are presented. Cases with overhang of 60cm are also presented with outside louvres in the windows. These cases count 64 cases to discuss wall systems thermal mass and shading. Figure 76 shows a scheme of the cases.

• Four bioclimatic zones: Zone 05, Zone 06, Zone 07 and Zone 08 • Four adobe wall thickness: 10cm, 20cm, 30cm and 40cm • Four shading patterns: no overhang, overhang of 0.60m, overhang of 0.60 and outside louvres, overhang of 1m

Figure 76 – Scheme of cases to analyze wall thickness and shading device

Next, the performance of the cases with different roof systems (sloped clay tiles roof and PVC ceiling, sloped clay tiles with concrete slab with hollow clay block ceiling, green roof and sloped metal roof tile, polyurethane layer and concrete slab with hollow clay block ceiling) are presented in the different ventilation patterns (day ventilation, night ventilation, 24h ventilation and no ventilation). These cases count 64 cases to discuss roof system thermal mass and ventilation pattern. Figure 77 shows a scheme of cases.

• Four bioclimatic zones: Zone 05, Zone 06, Zone 07 and Zone 08 • Four roof systems: Clay tile + PVC, green roof, Clay tile + concrete slab and Isolated roof • Four ventilation patterns: day ventilation, night ventilation, 24h ventilation and no ventilation

Figure 77 – Scheme of cases to analyze roof systems and ventilation pattern

Last, the performance of the cases with different walls systems (ceramic brick and concrete panel) and perimeter walls are presented to be compared with the base case (30cm thick adobe walls) and the case with 10cm thick adobe walls, for being the system with closer thickness in order to compare similar systems and the case with perimeter walls. These cases count 20 cases to discuss different walls systems. Figure 78 shows a scheme of cases to analyze different construction systems of walls.

• Four bioclimatic zones: Zone 05, Zone 06, Zone 07 and Zone 08 • Five walls systems: adobe 30cm thick, adobe 10cm thick, perimeter walls,

ceramic brick and concrete panel.

Figure 78 – Scheme of cases to analyze different construction systems of walls

Summing up all the cases combinations, a total of 53 cases are simulated in each bioclimatic zone, making 212 simulated cases in total in the research method.

4 Results

This chapter describes the research results divided into three parts: validation results, thermal performance assessment through Brazilian performance standards and thermal performance assessment through comfort index. First, the validation results are presented with statistical indicators and analyses comparing measurements from fieldwork with thermal simulation predictions. Second, the thermal properties of U-value and thermal capacity of the construction systems of walls used in the simulation process are compared with the limits stablished by the Brazilian thermal performance standards to check the compliance of the systems with the standards in force. Finally, the thermal comfort rate of the simulated cases according the adaptive index are presented for the four bioclimatic zones in Northeast Region and the influence of the parameters in the comfort rates of the cases are analysed. The results parts are shown in Figure 79.

Validation Results Performance Performance through standards though comfort index

•Statistical •U-value •Comfort rate of indicators study cases •Thermal capacity

Figure 79 – Result parts

4.1 Validation results

After the first simulation, statistical indicators were calculated using measured and predicted operative temperature of the living room in the four houses. The results obtained are present in Table 24.

Table 24 – Statistical indicators after first simulation of the four houses MBE CV (RMSE) DMAX DMIN R2 unitless % °C °C % House 01 4.49 7.26 4.7 -1.2 0.85 House 02 5.01 7.48 6.1 -1.6 0.82 House 03 4.67 7.45 4.9 -1.7 0.83 House 04 4.01 7.20 4.6 -2.0 0.82

The indicators presented values within the indicated limits, with coefficient of determination (R2) varying from 82% to 85%, the limit being 75%, and low coefficient of variation (CV (RMSE)) with values around 7.20% and 7.48% in the normal range, with 30% being the maximum indicated value (ASHRAE, 2002). Medium bias error parameter (MBE) showed prevailing positive values of the average deviation between the predicted

95 and measured values indicating that the model predicts above the actual value. While the minimum differences (DMIN) of temperature is close to zero (-1.2°C and -2.0°C), the differences in the maximum differences (DMAX) rang up to −6.1°C in the House 02 case. While the statistical indicators had good results, the maximum differences in the temperature were considered high. This first simulation used exposure factor of the dwellings set in DesignBuilder as “Sheltered” pattern according to the Brazilian regulation (Brasil, 2012) to thermal performances simulation process. The pattern represents “city centre with at least 50% of buildings larger than 21m at a distance of 2km or 10 times the height of the building” (EnergyPlus, 2017). However, this set does not correspond to the surroundings in social housing condominium built in Brazil as they are mostly constructed far from the urban centres and often with transport and water and sanitary structural problems being the main problems pointed in the housing policy. To try to get better statistical indicators results, with lower maximum temperature differences (DMAX), simulations were done using the other two sets established by DesignBuilder called Exposed and Normal with coefficients according Table 8. The choice for the change in the pattern is to try to better represent the location of the measured social housings and check the influence of the ventilation pattern and improve the predicted operative temperatures results. After the following simulations, the statistical indicators were calculated again to find the operative temperature of the living room in the four houses using the different exposition factors. The statistical indicators of the four houses using the three different exposition factors are showed in Table 25. The “Exposed” factor option is highlighted in the table as presented better results.

Table 25 – Statistical indicators of the four houses with different exposition factor input Exposure Factor MBE CV (RMSE) DMAX DMIN R2

Exposed 2.53 4.91 3.6 -1.1 0.88 House 01 Normal 3.23 5.72 4.0 -1.0 0.87 Sheltered 4.49 7.26 4.7 -1.2 0.85 Exposed 3.19 5.07 5.3 -1.1 0.86 House 02 Normal 3.83 5.93 5.6 -1.4 0.85 Sheltered 5.01 7.48 6.1 -1.6 0.82 Exposed 2.79 5.01 3.9 -1.4 0.87 House 03 Normal 3.48 5.88 4.2 -1.6 0.85 Sheltered 4.67 7.45 4.9 -1.7 0.83 Exposed 1.96 4.58 3.3 -2.0 0.87 House 04 Normal 2.70 5.48 3.8 -1.9 0.85 Sheltered 4.01 7.20 4.6 -2.0 0.82

The change in the exposure factor of the houses improved the results of the statistical indicators. Predicted values were closer to the measured ones with simulation using the exposition factor set as “Exposed”, representing “flat open land with scarce obstructions less than 10 meters” (EnergyPlus, 2017). All cases presented lower medium bias error parameter (MBE) showing less deviation between the predicted and measured values, lower coefficient of variation (CV (RMSE)) with values around 4.58 and 5.07. Minimum differences (DMIN) of temperature remained practically the same and close to zero (-1.1 and -2.0) and maximum differences (DMAX) had better results with lower values, ranging up to −5.3 in the House 02 case. The coefficient of determination (R2) of the operative temperatures of the four cases using Exposed factor indicates a high degree of explanation of the simulation models, varying from 86% to 88%. Bearing in mind the set standard in this field by which the value of the statistical parameter determination coefficient greater than or equal to 75% is considered desirable, the housing model used can be characterized as a quality model in terms of prediction. Figure 80 shows the coefficient of determination graph of all four houses showing the high degree of agreement of the simulation model.

Figure 80 – Coefficient of determination (R2) of operative temperature in House 01, 02. 03 and 04

Simulations with changes in the brick density were also run. The thermal properties used to characterize the construction materials are based on the Brazilian standard NBR 15220-2 (ABNT, 2005). The values are indicated by the standard as indicative as it may vary according to the manufacture and the material. The original value was 1600 kg/m3 and it was changed to 1300 kg/m3, the minimum values indicated by the standard. The change aimed at reducing the thermal capacity and checking the influence of the property in the results; however, the alteration showed no expressive change in the results, not being adopted to As a conclusion, all statistical indicators have shown a fair level of accuracy and matching between the results obtained by the simulation and measurement. The low value of MBE and CV (RSME) found in all models indicate good agreement of data, good flexibility of simulation model and thereby small simulations deviations between predicted and measured data. The coefficient of determination (R2) of the operative temperatures indicates high agreement between the result of measurements and model simulations in all cases. Even the exposure factor indicated by the norm (Brasil, 2012) resulting in statistical indications within the limits, the cases set with “Exposed” factor had better results according the statistical indicators with lower differences of maximum temperature predicted and measured and it was set to be used in the simulation process of this research.

4.2 Performance analysis through standards

The thermal properties of U-value and thermal capacity of the walls construction systems used in the simulation process are presented and compared with the limits existing in the Brazilian performance standards NBR 15220 – Thermal performance of Buildings (ABNT, 2005), which presents limits to U-value, and the standard NBR 15575: Residential Buildings – Performance (ABNT, 2013), which presents limit to both U-value and thermal capacity. Table 26 brings the construction systems properties values and standard compliance to the four bioclimatic zones present in Northeast Brazil. Red cells indicate the property evaluated is not in accordance with the zone limit indication according the related standard, meaning the system should not be used in that zone, as it would result in poor thermal performance of the building. Green cells indicate the construction system follows the standard limits and therefore indicated to be used, as it should offer acceptable performance. Grey cells indicate the U-value of the system is in accordance to the standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013) depending on the solar absorptance, being in accordance if the solar absorptance is less than 0.6.

Table 26 – Physical properties of the materials to be used in simulation NBR 15220 NBR 15575 Construction system Thermal

(Nomenclature) properties U U CT (W/m².K) (W/m².K) (KJ/m-2-K-1) Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(10x10x20cm) U = 3.45 Z6 Z6 Z6 1 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 231.45 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Adobe 10cm) Z8 Z8 -

Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(20x20x40cm) U = 2.60 Z6 Z6 Z6 2 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 397.34 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Adobe 20cm) Z8 Z8 -

Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(30x30x60cm) U = 2.08 Z6 Z6 Z6 3 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 563.04 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Adobe 30cm) Z8 Z8 -

Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Earth Block(40x40x80cm) U = 1.74 Z6 Z6 Z6 4 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 728.68 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Adobe 40cm) Z8 Z8 -

Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Ceramic brick (9x19x19cm) U = 2.55 Z6 Z6 Z6 5 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 108.08 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Ceramic brick) Z8 Z8 -

Z5 Z5 Z5 Internal plaster and painting (1.5cm) Concrete wall(10cm) U = 3.95 Z6 Z6 Z6 6 External plaster and painting (1.5cm) CT = 300 Z7 Z7 Z7 (Concrete panel) Z8 Z8 -

According to the standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a), regarding U-value, the adobe systems of 10cm and 20cm bricks are not indicated to zones 6 and 7, all other adobe systems are in accordance in all zones. Ceramic brick masonry system is also not indicated to zone 6 and 7 and concrete panel is not indicated to any zone according U- value limits of the standard. According to the standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b), regarding U-value, the adobe systems of 10cm and 20cm and the ceramic brick system are in accordance to all zones if the solar absorptance of the wall system is less than 0.6. The adobe systems of 30cm and 40cm are in accordance to all zones. Concrete panel system is not in accordance to any zone. Regarding thermal capacity limits present in the standard NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013b), all adobe systems and concrete panel system are in accordance with the standard for zones 5, 6, and 7. Ceramic brick masonry otherwise it is not. The standard does not limit thermal capacity of wall system to zone 8.

The concrete panel system, nowadays being used to build new housing units in zone 7 area in Brazil (Figure 34, Figure 35, Figure 36) is not in accordance with both standards regarding U-value limits because its U-value of 3.95W/m².K is higher than the limit of both standards. The U-value limit according to NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a) is 3.6W/m².K to zones 5 and 6 and 2.2W/m².K to zones 6 and 7. The maximum acceptable U-value according to NBR 15575 (ABNT, 2013) is 3.7W/m².K to surfaces with solar absorptance less than 0.6. Ceramic brick masonry system is not in accordance with the standard NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005a) regarding U-value as well in zone 6 and 7, however the cases shown in Figure 21, Figure 22, Figure 23 are in the city of Mossoro, in zone 7. The system is also very common in all Northeast Region of Brazil.

4.3 Performance analysis through thermal comfort index

The cases performances are presented divided into the cities, representing each bioclimatic zone in Brazil, being Piata - BA, representing zone 5, Monteiro - PB, representing zone 6, Picos - PI, representing zone 7 and Salvador - BA, representing zone 8. Initially, the climate of each city is described with monthly averages of temperature and rainfall, direction of prevailing winds and sun path. Next, air temperatures from the weather data of the cities used in the simulation process are analysed according the adaptive comfort index to characterize the comfort feeling in the cities. Then, the comfort assessment of the simulated cases is described. Regarding the comfort assessment of the cases, first, it is calculated the performance rates of the base case in the four ventilation patterns analysed. Next, the cases with variations of windows size and ventilation patterns, with and without external louvres, are presented. Next, the cases with variations in thickness of adobe walls and shading (different overhang sizes and external louvre use) are presented. Next, the cases with variations in the construction system of roofs and ventilation patterns are presented. Finally, the comparison of the base case with ceramic brick masonry and concrete panel cases is presented, a case with adobe walls in the same thickness of the typical systems and base case with perimeter walls. Figure 81 shows the presentation of results order.

Variations of Variations in Variations in windows size, thickness of Base case in construction Variations in with and adobe walls the four system of construction without external and shading, ventilation roofs and system of louvres, and overhang sizes patterns ventilation walls ventilation and external patterns patterns louvre

Figure 81 – Presentation of results order

100

4.3.1 Piatã – BA, Zone 5

Piatã is located in a humid subtropical zone with temperate summer, according to Köppen Climate Classification System (Kottek et al, 2006). It is in a high elevation area with 1238m of altitude which results in the lowest temperatures among the bioclimatic zones in Northeast Region. Figure 82 shows the solar chart for the city with the lower radiant flux incidence among the Northeast bioclimatic zones, with afternoon hours witnessing greater intensity. Figure 83 shows the compass rose for the city with prevailing winds from Southeast and air velocity predominantly between 2-4m/s.

Figure 82 – Solar Chart for Piatã - BA Figure 83 – Compass Rose for Piatã - BA Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018) Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 84 shows the weather data (in gray) analysis through the adaptive comfort index with the comfort ranges limits for Piatã - BA

38 35 32

29 ℃) 26 23 20

Temperature( 17 14 11

Outside Temp Tcomfort minimum Tcomfort maximum Tcomfort + Air speed

Figure 84 – Weather data analysis of the city of Piatã – BA

101

The weather data of the city confirms the lowest temperatures recorded in the four cities used to represent the bioclimatic zones. The weather data showed an average temperature of 19.8°C, with maximum temperature of 30.2°C, and minimum of 11.4°C. The warmest month of the year is October and July has the lowest temperatures. The weather data of this city presented the lowest temperatures reached among the studied regions. The analysis showed no discomfort due to hot conditions, 0.7% of hours predicted in comfort with air movement, 36.1% of hours predicted in comfort and 63.2% of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions (Figure 84). The main consideration about the climate is the high percentage of hours predicted in discomfort due to overcooling conditions, more than half of the annual hours of the year. Figure 85 shows the average temperatures of the year’s hours over a day of the base case operative temperature and external air temperature. The operative temperature is always higher than external air temperature, with low amplitude and the temperatures are closer between noon and 17h. Figure 86 shows the maximum, medium and minimum internal operative temperature of the base case and external air temperature averages over the year. The maximum temperature limits are closer while medium and minimum operative temperatures are higher than outside air temperatures.

Figure 85 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Piatã - BA

Figure 86 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Piatã - BA

102

4.3.1.1 Ventilation

The base case annual performance is presented along the hours of the day in the four ventilation patterns set in the research with maximum and minimum temperatures predicted (Figure 87).

DAY VENTILATION Base Case NIGHT VENTILATION

max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 30.2 15.2 30.4 15.3

24H VENTILATION NO VENTILATION max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 30.0 15.4 30.6 15.2

Figure 87 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns

The four cases present similar thermal performance with high number of hours in comfort, more than 70% in all cases, and high discomfort to cold conditions as well, minimum of 25% of annual hours, mainly in the first hours of the day and peak discomfort predicted around 6am. Realistically, heating is not an option, The small number of hours predicted in need of ventilation to achieve comfort is concentrated between 12h and 17h. No cases presented discomfort due to hot conditions. The non-ventilated case presented the lowest number of hours in thermal comfort, followed by the case with night ventilation. Day ventilation and 24h ventilation had better and equal performances. Maximum and minimum temperature of the four cases were very similar and between 15.2°C and 30.6°C. High number of hours in comfort shows that it is possible to

103 have comfort in most annual hours of the year using the adobe technique; however, the discomfort due to overcooling conditions is an issue in almost half of the time during the first hours of the day.

4.3.1.2 Window size

Figure 88 shows the performance of the cases with different windows sizes and ventilation patterns. Figure 89 shows the same cases with the addition of external louvres.

No Louvres 1 100% 1 1 2 2 1 1 2 2 3 5 3 5 S – Small window M – Medium 80% window B – Big window 60% 73 73 72 73 72 70 74 73 73 72 71 69 DAY – Day ventilation NIGHT – Night 40% ventilation Frequency (%) Frequency 24h – 24h 20% ventilation 26 26 26 25 25 25 25 26 25 26 26 25 NO – No ventilation 0% S M B S M B S M B S M B Base Case DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 88 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size

The cases within the same ventilation pattern and different window size presented small variations in the results, with bigger windows presenting slightly more hours predicted in need of ventilation to achieve comfort and less hours predicted in comfort in all ventilation patterns. Medium and small windows have very similar results with better performance, presenting more hours predicted in comfort. Small windows presented the better performance, especially with 24h ventilation pattern. Day ventilation and 24h of ventilation cases have better results than night ventilation cases, presenting more hours predicted in comfort. Non-ventilated cases have worse performance with lower hours predicted in comfort, higher need of ventilation to achieve comfort and some discomfort due to overheating conditions in the case with big windows. All cases present minimum of 69% of the annual predicted hours in comfort. He case with less hours in comfort was the case with big windows and no ventilation. Night ventilation and no ventilation cases had higher difference in the performances of the cases when changing the window size. They had the cases with smallest number of hours predicted in comfort meaning they reached higher temperatures, needing more ventilation hours to achieve comfort as well.

104

Louvres 100% 1 1 1 1 1 3 0 1 1 1 2 3 S + L – Small window + Louvres 80% M + L – Medium window + Louvres 70 69 69 60% 71 72 71 68 73 71 72 70 67 B + L – Big window + Louvres

40% DAY – Day

Frequency (%) Frequency ventilation 20% NIGHT – Night 28 29 30 27 28 29 27 28 30 27 28 30 ventilation 24h – 24h 0% ventilation S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L NO – No ventilation DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 89 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres

The use of louvres increased the number of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions and caused more change among the performances of cases of different size of openings and same ventilation pattern. In the cases without louvres, the percentage of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions was lower and more similar. Among the cases considered, small windows presented higher number of hours predicted in comfort, especially in the case with 24h ventilation pattern, with 73% of the hours case. The cases with small windows with night ventilation and no ventilation had the same performances (72% of hours predicted in comfort), being day ventilation predicted with fewer hours in comfort (71% of the hours). Cases with big windows presented worst performance among the cases, with less hours predicted in comfort (67% in the worst cases, with no ventilation). Cases with 24h ventilation presented better results with more comfort hours and less ventilation need to achieve comfort predicted. As this bioclimatic zone presents a great number of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions, the use of louvres, that diminishes the solar radiation incidence, proved not to be positive. The cases with small windows and no louvres had better performances in all ventilation patterns.

4.3.1.3 Adobe thickness x shading

Figure 90 shows the performance of the cases with different wall thickness and shading presence, with different overhang possibilities (no overhang, overhang with 60cm and overhang with 1m) and louvres use with overhang of 60cm.

105

A10 – Adobe 10cm A10 + L – Adobe 10cm + Louvres A20 – Adobe 20cm A20 + L – Adobe 20cm + Louvres A30 – Adobe 30cm A30 + L – Adobe 30cm + Louvres A40 – Adobe 40cm A40 + L - Adobe 40cm + Louvres

Figure 90 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading

Cases with no overhang and consequently more exposed to solar radiation have higher number of hours predicted in comfort and fewer hours predicted in overcooling discomfort. Thinner wall cases, representing lower thermal capacity, presented greater hours predicted in overcooling discomfort and greater hours predicted in need of ventilation, showing greater thermal amplitude. Thicker walls (higher U value) and less shaded walls present better performances. The better performance among the cases was predicted in the case with 40cm thick adobe walls and no overhang, presenting higher percentage of hours in the comfort range (76%) and less discomfort to overcooling conditions (22%). The case with thinner wall, 10cm, and bigger overhang of 1m presented worst performance with only 60% of the hours in comfort and 38% of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions. No cases presented discomfort due to hot conditions.

4.3.1.4 Roof systems

Figure 91 shows the performance of the cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns.

106

Clay tile + PVC Clay tile + Concrete slab

Green roof Isolated roof

Figure 91 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns

The construction system of roof usually used by the government policy, with sloped clay tile and PVC ceiling, presented fewer hours predicted in comfort and a greater number of hours predicted in comfort with air movement. Green roof and isolated roof system (cases with higher thermal capacity) had better performance with higher number of hours predicted in comfort and no presence of hours predicted in need of ventilation to achieve comfort. The system with concrete slab also presented high number of hours predicted in comfort, however with slightly more hours predicted in overcooling discomfort and 1% of hours in need of ventilation to achieve comfort in the case with no ventilation. High number of hours predicted in overcooling discomfort is noticeable in all cases and no presence of discomfort due to overheating conditions was predicted. All cases presented performances very similar.

107

4.3.1.5 Wall systems

Figure 92 shows the performance of the cases with different wall arrangements.

Figure 92 – Thermal performance of cases with different wall arrangements

The base case with adobe case with 30cm thicker presented better performance than all the other cases, with higher number of hours predicted in comfort (73%) and fewer hours predicted in overcooling discomfort (26%). The addition of walls increased the number of hours predicted in overcooling discomfort and decreased the number of hours in predicted in comfort. Ceramic brick presented worst performance among the cases with similar thickness, with higher number of hours in due to cold conditions and a smaller number of hours in comfort. The adobe system with 10cm presented higher number of hours predicted in need of ventilation to achieve comfort (3%). According the performance of the hours along the day, presented in the annex, the overcooling discomfort is higher during the night times, when the differences among the cases is clear, during the day the cases present more similar behaviour.

108

4.3.2 Monteiro – PB, Zone 6

Monteiro has a tropical climate and is at an altitude of 607m. The climate classification is tropical with dry winter according to Köppen Climate Classification System (Kottek et al. 2006). There is much less rainfall in the second semester of the year than in the first one. Figure 93 shows the solar chart for the city, in which is possible to see how the radiant flux incidence is higher than in the last city of Piatã, representing zone 5. After 8pm and all afternoon the city experience high radiant flux incidence. Figure 94 shows the compass rose of the city with prevailing winds from East and air velocity predominantly between 2-4m/s.

Figure 93 – Solar chat for Monteiro - PB Figure 94 – Compass Rose for Monteiro - PB Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018) Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 95 shows the weather data analysis through the adaptive comfort index with the comfort ranges limits for Monteiro – PB.

38 35 32

℃) 29 26 23 20

Temperature( 17 14 11

Outside Temp Tcomfort minimum Tcomfort maximum Tcomfort + Air speed

Figure 95 – Weather data analysis of the city of Monteiro – PB

109

The weather data of the city showed an average temperature of 24.2°C, with maximum temperature of 34.4°C, and minimum of 13.7°C. December it the hottest month and July has the lower temperatures recorded. The analysis through the comfort index showed 5.4% of the hours predicted in discomfort due to hot conditions, 10.0% predicted in comfort with air movement, 52.2% predicted in comfort and 32.4% of the hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions (Figure 95). The climate presents high percentage of hours predicted in comfort, more than half of the annual hours of the year, with presence of both discomfort due to cold and hot conditions. Figure 96 shows the average temperatures of the year’s hours over a day of the base case operative temperature and external air temperature. The operative temperature is always higher than external air temperature but with closer values during daytime than in the last zone. The temperatures are also higher than in the last zone. Figure 97 shows the maximum, medium and minimum internal operative temperature of the base case and external air temperature averages over the year. The maximum temperature limits are closer while medium and minimum operative temperatures are higher than outside air temperatures. Minimum internal operative temperatures are closer to the medium outside temperature.

Figure 96 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Monteiro - PB

Figure 97 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Monteiro - PB 110

4.3.2.1 Ventilation

The base case annual performance is presented along the hours of the day in the four ventilation patterns set in the research with maximum and minimum temperatures predicted (Figure 98).

DAY VENTILATION Base Case NIGHT VENTILATION max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 21.6 max (°C) min(°C) 33.7 21.5

24H VENTILATION NO VENTILATION max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 33.3 21.4 34.2 21.8

Figure 98 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns

This bioclimatic zone presented already a very different behavior compared to the previous one. None of the cases presented hours predicted in overcooling discomfort, while presents a high number of hours in overheating discomfort. Overheating discomfort is predicted in all cases between 11h and 17h, ventilation is necessary to achieve comfort after 10am to around 8pm or 9pm, while in all cases after 22h until 9am there is 100% of the hours in predicted in comfort. The non-ventilated case presented the lowest number of hours in thermal comfort (75%), followed by the case with night ventilation (79%). 24h ventilation presented higher number of hours predicted in comfort (85%). Overall, high number of hours predicted in comfort in all cases showing the adobe system has good performance in the area. As the

111 region has high temperatures there is a significative need of ventilation during the day. While the weather data showed considerable number of hours in discomfort to cold conditions (32.4%) reaching minimum temperature of 13.7°C, there is no presence of it in the cases that reaches minimum of 21.4°C. Even though the city has high radiation incidence and overheating hours during noon, night ventilation didn’t improve the performance, the small thermal amplitude may be the reason, so night temperatures don’t drop enough to provoke a huge temperature change.

4.3.2.2 Window size

Figure 99 shows the performance of the cases with different windows sizes and ventilation patterns. Figure 100 shows the same cases with the addition of external louvres.

No louvres 100% 4 5 4 6 3 4 7 6 9 11 9 14 S – Small window 14 14 15 15 15 15 13 17 14 14 16 M – Medium 80% 16 window B – Big window 60% DAY – Day ventilation NIGHT – Night 40% 81 80 77 81 79 83 82 80 77 75 75 70 ventilation

24h – 24h Frequency (%) Frequency 20% ventilation NO – No ventilation 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 S M B S M B S M B S M B Base Case DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 99 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size

Regarding the windows size, small and medium windows present similar results with high number of hours predicted in comfort (more than 80%); with medium windows with slightly worse performance between the two of them. Big windows presented fewer hours predicted in comfort in all ventilation patterns (between 70 and 80%) with higher overheating discomfort. Regarding the ventilation pattern, cases with 24h ventilation presented better performances, followed by day ventilation cases. Again, night ventilation didn’t result in better performance. The best performance was achieved by the case with small windows and 24h ventilation, with 83% of hours predicted in comfort. The worst performance was achieved by the case with big windows and no ventilation, with 70% of hours in comfort, 16% of hours in comfort with the use of ventilation and 14% of hours in overheating discomfort. No cases presented discomfort due to cold conditions.

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Louvres 100% 2 1 2 3 3 6 3 6 4 4 5 9 S + L – Small 15 15 15 15 14 14 14 15 14 17 16 window + Louvres 16 80% M + L – Medium window + Louvres 60% B + L – Big window + Louvres

82 82 83 82 85 84 82 40% 80 79 79 79 75 DAY – Day

ventilation Frequency (%) Frequency 20% NIGHT – Night ventilation 24h – 24h 0% 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 ventilation S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L NO – No ventilation DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 100 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres

All cases with louvres had better performance than the cases without. The predicted hours in the comfort zone in need of air movement and overheating discomfort zone among the cases diminished as well. Regarding window size, small windows presented better performance. The cases with better performance had small windows. The cases with big windows presented a smaller number of hours predicted in comfort, especially night ventilation and no ventilation patterns cases, which presented the worst performances. Regarding the ventilation patterns, cases with 24h ventilation presented the better performances. Cases with day and night ventilation patterns presented very similar performances. The case with better performance of all had small windows and 24h ventilation, followed by the case with small windows and nigh ventilation. No presence of discomfort due to cold conditions in any case.

4.3.2.3 Adobe thickness x shading

Figure 101 shows the performance of the cases with different wall thickness and shading presence, with different overhang possibilities (no overhang, overhang with 60cm and overhang with 1m) and louvres use with overhang of 60cm.

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Figure 101 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading

The number of hours predicted in comfort in all cases is higher than 72%, indicating a good performance of the systems, however there is a great range of discomfort dut to overheating conditions, as well as all cases presented more than 14% of hours in need of ventilation to reach comfort. Thinner wall presents less hours predicted in comfort and higher number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort, also presenting 1% of hours predicted in overcooling discomfort, showing greater thermal amplitude. Thicker walls (higher U value) and more shaded cases present better performances with more hours predicted in comfort and less hours predicted in overheating discomfort. The better performance was reached by the cases with 30cm and 40cm thick walls with overhang of 60cm and louvres use. The third better performance was achieved by the base case and the case with 30cm thick wall and overhang of 1m.

4.3.2.4 Roof systems

Figure 102 shows the performance of the cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns.

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Clay tile + PVC Clay tile + Concrete slab

Green roof Isolated roof

Figure 102 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns

The construction system of roof usually used by the government policy, with sloped clay tile and PVC ceiling, presented fewer hours predicted in comfort and a greater number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort. The difference among the performance of the cases with different roof systems is higher than in the previous zone, which presented more similar performances among the performance of the different roof systems cases. Isolated roof systems, system with lower thermal capacity, had higher number of hours predicted in comfort, with the 24h ventilation case achieving 100% of the hours predicted in comfort. The night ventilation case presented 99% of hours predicted in comfort and only 1% in need of ventilation. Green roof cases, system with higher U-value, presented the second better performances, with high number of hours predicted in comfort but high number of hours in need of ventilation as well (between 9 and 19% of hours). The cases with clay tile and concrete ceiling presented third better performances but there were hours predicted in overheating discomfort which did not happen in any case with isolated or green roof systems. 24h ventilation pattern had the better performances in all roof systems cases. Night ventilation pattern presented a better performance than day ventilation in all systems apart from clay tile and PVC ceiling. No presence of overcooling discomfort was predicted in any case.

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4.3.2.5 Walls systems

Figure 103 shows the performance of the cases with different wall arrangements.

Figure 103 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls

The perimeter walls case presented better performance than all cases compared, with higher number of hours predicted in comfort and fewer hours predicted in overcooling discomfort. The base case had the second better performance. The number of hours predicted in comfort when using ventilation was very similar in all cases, around 14% and 15% of the predicted hours. The number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort had bigger differences, with the case with perimeter walls achieving 3% and 10cm adobe walls cases presenting 10% of hours in this comfort range. The adobe case with 10cm thickness presented the worst performance with fewer hours predicted in comfort and overheating discomfort until late hours at night when analyzing the performance along the hours of the day. Ceramic brick and concrete walls presented similar performances, with less hours predicted in comfort and more overheating discomfort than the base case of study. When analyzing the performance along the hours of the day of these cases, all cases presented 100% of hours in comfort in the first hours of the day until 9h, with few hours predicted in overheating discomfort in the case with adobe 10cm and ceramic brick walls.

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4.3.3 Picos – PI, Zone 7

Picos is located in the semi-arid area of Brazil with higher temperatures and lower humidity levels among the Northeast bioclimatic zones. The city has an altitude of 208m. shows the solar chart for the city, in which is possible to see the high radiant flux in all day hours of the year, presenting higher incidence among the zones in Northeast Region. Figure 105 shows the compass rose of the city with prevailing winds from Northeast, East and Southeast respectively and air velocity predominantly between 0-2m/s with high frequency between 2-4m/s as well.

Figure 104 – Solar chart for Picos - PI Figure 105 – Compass Rose for Picos - PI Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018) Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 106 shows the weather data analysis through the adaptive comfort index with the comfort ranges limits for Picos – PI.

38 35 32

℃) 29 26 23 20 Temperature( 17 14 11

Outside Temp Tcomfort minimum Tcomfort maximum Tcomfort + Air speed

Figure 106 – Weather data analysis of the city of Picos – PI

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The weather data showed an average temperature of 28.2°C, with maximum temperature of 39.5°C, and minimum of 16.8°C. October is the hottest month and June the month with lower temperatures. The weather data of this city presented the highest temperatures reached among the studied regions. The analysis through the comfort index showed 23.5% of the hours predicted in discomfort due to overheating discomfort, 12.4% predicted in comfort with air movement, 52.5% predicted in comfort and 11.6% of the hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions (Figure 106). The limit of comfort with air movement reaches 33.6°C, the comfort limit is 31.4°C and the limit of discomfort due to cold conditions limit is 22.0°C. Figure 107 shows the average temperatures of the year’s hours over a day of the base case operative temperature and external air temperature. This time the internal operative temperature is not always higher than external air temperature. Outside temperature is higher than inside operative temperature from noon until 18h. The temperatures are higher than in the other three zones. Figure 108 shows the maximum, medium and minimum internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year. The internal maximum temperatures are lower than outside temperature while medium and minimum operative temperatures are higher than outside air temperatures.

Figure 107 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Picos - PI

Figure 108 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Picos - PI 118

4.3.3.1 Ventilation

The base case annual performance is presented along the hours of the day in the four ventilation patterns set in the research with maximum and minimum temperatures predicted (Figure 109).

DAY VENTILATION NIGHT VENTILATION Base Case

max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 37.6 23.4 37.8 22.6

24H VENTILATION NO VENTILATION max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 37.4 22.6 38.0 24.5

Figure 109 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns

The highest temperatures witnessed in this city are reflected in the high percentage of hours predicted in overheating discomfort and in need of air movement to achieve comfort, with fewer hours predicted in comfort, with a maximum of 62% of the hours in the case with 24h ventilation, and no overcooling discomfort presence. The case with 24h ventilation had the better performance, followed by the case with night ventilation. Comfort hours were predicted mainly during the first hours of the day until 9h. Between 13h and 15h more than 60% of the hours of the year were predicted in overheating discomfort, and high number of hours were predicted in comfort in the presence of air movement. In all cases the need of ventilation last until midnight, with day ventilation case and no ventilation case presenting higher number of hours predicted in this comfort range.

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4.3.3.2 Window size

Figure 110 shows the performance of the cases with different windows sizes and ventilation patterns. Figure 111 shows the same cases with the addition of external louvres.

No Louvres 100% 19 20 18 19 16 17 22 22 S – Small window 26 25 24 30 80% M – Medium window 22 21 22 21 27 26 17 17 B – Big window 22 28 27 60% 23 DAY – Day ventilation 40% NIGHT – Night ventilation 60 60 62 62 61 54 54 52 58 24h – 24h Frequency (%) Frequency 50 49 47 20% ventilation NO – No ventilation 0% S M B S M B S M B S M B Base case DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT

Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 110 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size

The number of hours predicted in discomfort due to overheating conditions (between 16% and 30%) and in comfort in need of ventilation (between 17 and 27%) is very expressive. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case. Regarding the windows size, small and medium windows present similar results, with small windows presenting slightly better performance with more hours predicted in need of air movement and less hours predicted in overheating discomfort. The cases with big window presented inferior performances with lower number of hours predicted in comfort, fewer hours in need of air movement to achieve comfort and more overheating discomfort. Regarding the ventilation patterns, the cases with 24h ventilation presented better performances with higher comfort rates, night ventilation pattern cases had second better performances.

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Louvres 100% 14 14 17 17 21 16 16 20 18 19 20 S + L – Small 24 window + Louvres 80% M + L – Medium 22 22 22 22 19 27 26 23 19 window + Louvres 28 27 24 60% B + L – Big window + Louvres

40% DAY – Day 64 64 63 56 57 56 62 62 61 ventilation

Frequency (%) Frequency 53 53 52 20% NIGHT – Night ventilation 24h – 24h 0% ventilation S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L NO – No DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT ventilation Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 111 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres

The use of louvres diminished the number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort while increased the number of hours predicted in comfort. The number of hours predicted in comfort with air movement remained practically the same for cases of small and medium windows and increased somewhat in the case of large windows. Regarding the windows size, small and medium windows continued to present similar and better results than big windows cases. The cases with big window presented lower number of hours predicted in comfort, fewer hours predicted in need of air movement to achieve comfort and more hours predicted in overheating discomfort. Regarding the ventilation patterns, the cases with 24h ventilation presented higher comfort rates followed by night ventilation cases. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

4.3.3.3 Adobe thickness x shading

Figure 112 shows the performance of the cases with different wall thickness and shading presence, with different overhang possibilities (no overhang, overhang with 60cm and overhang with 1m) and louvres use with overhang of 60cm.

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Figure 112 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading

The cases with thicker walls and use of overhang and louvres had higher number of hours predicted in in comfort and less hours predicted in overheating discomfort. These cases present higher number of hours in need of ventilation to reach comfort than the cases with thinner walls. The case with better performance is 40cm thick walls with overhang of 60cm and louvres use, followed by the same shading pattern with 30cm walls, both presented the same number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort (17%). The case with inferior performance was the case with thinner wall (10cm) and no overhang. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

4.3.3.4 Roof systems

Figure 113 shows the performance of the cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns.

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Clay tile + PVC Clay tile + Concrete slab

Green roof Isolated roof

Figure 113 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns

Bigger differences in the predicted performances among the same roof systems. Regarding ventilation pattern, 24h ventilation presented the better performance with all roof systems, with a greater number of hours predicted in comfort. Night ventilation cases had the second better performances. While the case with PVC and concrete ceilings presented high presence of hours predicted in overheating discomfort (between 12% and 24%), the green roof cases presented this comfort range in between 8% and 16% of the hours. Isolated roof presented the better performances with overheating hours predicted in only 1% in case of 24h ventilation pattern (case with better performance among the roof systems cases) and maximum of 6% in case of no ventilation pattern. Green roof and isolated roof presented more hours predicted in need of ventilation to reach comfort. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

4.3.3.5 Wall systems

Figure 114 shows the performance of the cases with different wall arrangements.

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Figure 114 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls

The case with perimeter walls presented the best performance with more hours predicted in comfort (58%) and less hours predicted in overheating discomfort (17%). The ceramic brick case presented the second higher percentage in hours in comfort, however it presented more overheating discomfort in relation to the base case of study. The base case presented instead higher number of hours predicted in need of ventilation to reach comfort. The case of adobe walls 10cm thick presented the highest number of hours in overheating discomfort, 27% of the hours, followed by the concrete panel case, which presented one quarter of the years hours predicted in overheating discomfort. When analyzing the graphics with the performance along the hours of the day (present in the annex), all cases presented comfort during the first hours of the day, while the afternoon hours presented high number of hours predicted in discomfort, reaching the night hours. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

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4.3.4 Salvador – BA, Zone 8

Salvador is a seaside city with an altitude of 19m. The city has high humidity all year and the climate classification is tropical without dry season according to Köppen Climate Classification System (Kottek et al. 2006). Figure 115 shows the solar chart for the city, in which is possible to see how the radiation incidence is milder than in zones 6 and 7, with high incidence around noon. Figure 116shows the compass rose of the city with prevailing winds from Southeast and South and air velocity predominantly between 2- 4m/s, with high frequency between 4-6m/s as well.

Figure 115 – Solar Chart for Salvador – BA. Figure 116 – Compass Rose for Salvador – BA Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018) Source: adapted from Projeteee (2018)

Figure 117 shows the weather data analysis through the adaptive comfort index with the comfort ranges limits for Salvador – BA.

38 35 32

29 ℃) 26 23 20

Temperature( 17 14 11

Outside Temp Tcomfort minimum Tcomfort maximum Tcomfort + Air speed

Figure 117 – Weather data analysis of the city of Salvador – BA 125

The weather data of the city showed a small thermal amplitude throughout the year and an average temperature of 25.9°C, with maximum temperature of 33.5°C, and minimum of 20.6°C. February is the hottest month of the year and July has the lower temperatures. The analysis through the adaptive index showed a small percentage of 0.3% of the hours predicted of discomfort due to hot conditions, 7.8% of hours predicted in comfort with air movement, a very high percentage of 90.6% of hours predict in comfort and 1.3% of hours predicted in discomfort due to cold conditions (Figure 117). The weather data of this city presented the lowest thermal amplitude and highest number of hours predicted in comfort among the studied regions. Figure 118 shows the average temperatures of the year’s hours over a day of the base case operative temperature and external air temperature. The internal operative temperature is always higher than external air temperature and closer values appears in the morning. Figure 119 shows the maximum, medium and minimum internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year. The average internal operative temperature limits are higher than outside temperatures.

Figure 118 – Average temperatures of the year hours over a day for Salvador – BA

Figure 119 – Internal operative temperature and external air temperature averages over the year for Salvador – BA

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4.3.4.1 Ventilation

The base case annual performance is presented along the hours of the day in the four ventilation patterns set in the research with maximum and minimum temperatures predicted (Figure 120).

DAY VENTILATION Base Case NIGHT VENTILATION

max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.2 34.6 22.1

24H VENTILATION NO VENTILATION max (°C) min(°C) max (°C) min(°C) 34.1 22.0 35.0 22.4

Figure 120 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns

The different ventilation patterns reflected in higher differences in the performance of the cases in this zone. While the percentage of hours predicted in overheating discomfort range varied from 3% to 9%, the comfort range in need of air movement to reach comfort varied from 11% to 15% and the hours predicted in comfort suffered a 10% variation between the best and worst performance cases (24h ventilation and no ventilation case respectively). 24h ventilation case presented higher number of hours predicted in comfort and fewer hours in overheating discomfort, followed by day ventilation with second better performance. These two cases presented 3% of hours predicted in overheating discomfort,

127 while night ventilation and no ventilation cases presented 8% and 9% respectively. Overheating discomfort hours are concentrated between 10h and 17h in all cases. All cases presented almost 100% of hours predicted in comfort after 19h until 9h. No overcooling discomfort presence was predicted.

4.3.4.2 Window size

Figure 121 shows the performance of the cases with different windows sizes and ventilation patterns. Figure 122 shows the same cases with the addition of external louvres.

No louvres 100% 3 3 5 6 3 3 4 8 11 8 9 13 S – Small window 13 13 11 11 12 13 13 12 13 15 15 M – Medium 80% 17 window B – Big window 60% DAY – Day ventilation 84 84 86 86 84 NIGHT – Night 40% 82 81 80 77 76 76 70 ventilation

24h – 24h Frequency (%) Frequency 20% ventilation NO – No ventilation 0% S M B S M B S M B S M B Base Case DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 121 – Thermal performance of the cases with different ventilation patterns and window size

Regarding ventilation pattern, 24h ventilation cases presented the best performances, followed by the day ventilation cases. Small and medium windows present equal results in these ventilation patterns, being the best combination. The cases of no ventilation and night ventilation patterns presented fewer hours predicted in comfort, with more hours predicted in overheating discomfort. The cases with big window presented lower number of hours predicted in comfort, more hours in need of air movement to achieve comfort and more overheating discomfort, presenting the worse performances, especially when there is no ventilation. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions was recorded in any case.

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Louvres 100% 2 2 3 5 5 8 2 2 3 6 6 11 11 9 S + L – Small 12 12 12 12 12 11 12 14 14 14 window + Louvres 80% M + L – Medium window + Louvres 60% B + L – Big window + Louvres

86 86 85 83 83 87 87 86 40% 80 80 80 77 DAY – Day ventilation Frequency (%) 20%Frequency NIGHT – Night ventilation 24h – 24h 0% ventilation S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L S + L M + L B + L NO – No DAY NIGHT 24H NO VENT ventilation Overcooling discomfort Comfort Comfort w/ air movement Overheating discomfort

Figure 122 – Thermal performance of cases with different ventilation patterns and window size with outside louvres

The use of louvres diminished the overheating discomfort in all cases while increased the number of hours predicted in comfort. Small and medium windows had better and equal performances in all ventilation patterns. The cases with big window presented lower number of hours predicted in comfort and more overheating discomfort in all ventilation patterns. Regarding ventilation pattern, 24h ventilation cases presented the best performances, followed by day ventilation cases. Night ventilation and no ventilation cases presented less hours predicted in comfort and more overheating discomfort. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

4.3.4.3 Adobe thickness x shading

Figure 123 shows the performance of the cases with different wall thickness and shading presence, with different overhang possibilities (no overhang, overhang with 60cm and overhang with 1m) and louvres use with overhang of 60cm.

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Figure 123 – Thermal performance of cases with different walls thickness and shading

While the number of hours predicted in comfort in all cases is more similar, the higher thickness and use of overhang and louvres cause more differences in the hours predicted in comfort in need of air movement and overheating discomfort. Thicker walls (higher U-value) with shading presented better performances. The cases with better, and equal, performance were the cases with thicker walls (30 and 40cm) with louvres and overhang of 0.60m. The case with inferior performance was the case with thinner wall (10cm) and no overhang. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions in any case.

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4.3.4.4 Roof systems

Figure 124 shows the performance of the cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns.

Clay tile + PVC Clay tile + Concrete slab

Green roof Isolated roof

Figure 124 – Thermal performance of cases with different roof systems and ventilation patterns

The construction system of roof usually used by the government policy, with sloped clay tile and PVC ceiling, presented fewer hours predicted in comfort and a greater number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort. The difference among the cases with different roof systems is more expressive than among other parameters change. Isolated roof and green roof cases had the best performances, with the first one presenting higher number of hours predicted in comfort, while green roof cases presented high number of hours predicted in need of air movement to achieve comfort. The case with isolated roof and 24h ventilation pattern achieved 100% of hours predicted in comfort, followed by the case with nigh ventilation, which presented 99% of the hours predicted in comfort. The cases with green roof and clay tile with concrete ceiling followed the same pattern in the ranking of performances, but the case with PVC ceiling, night ventilation was not better than day ventilation. No presence of hours predicted in overcooling conditions was recorded in any case.

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4.3.4.5 Wall systems

Figure 125 shows the performance of the cases with different wall arrangements.

Figure 125 – Thermal performance of cases with different construction system of walls

The perimeter walls case presented the best performance with 87% of the hours predicted in comfort and only 2% of the hours predicted in overheating discomfort. Base case and ceramic brick cases presented similar performances, with adobe case with slightly fewer hours predicted in comfort, more hours in need of ventilation to reach comfort and fewer hours predicted in overheating discomfort range. Concrete panel and adobe with 10cm presented worse performances with fewer hours predicted in comfort, more hours in need of air movement to reach comfort and more hours predicted in overheating discomfort.

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5 Discussion

This chapter presents considerations around the validation process and limitations, the thermal performances results to the four bioclimatic zones through standards and comfort index and a proposal of design recommendations. Four design proposals are presented, one for each bioclimatic zone of the Brazilian Northeast, based upon the parameters that presented the best performances during the simulation process. Some different parameters had very close responses, as in the case of small and medium windows with louvre use in the city of Salvador (Zone 8), for example, that presented the same performance in the different patterns of ventilation. For these close responses, both parameters are indicated. It is necessary to make clear that the recommendations are a summary of the parameters that presented better performances rates, with higher number of hours predicted in comfort, in the conditions presented in this research. Individual needs of building occupants in different occasions may require different uses and responses, thus with the advent of thermal simulations, design recommendations should be examined together with the specific needs of each building project in order to test the solutions in a more particular and complete way and find the best options for each design project.

5.1 Validation

After the validation process, all statistical indicators showed a fair level of accuracy and matching between the results obtained by the simulation and measurement, indicating agreement of data. Other possible contribution to get better correlation between measured and predicted values and limitations are believed to be due to uncertainties related to calibration of the instruments used in the monitoring process, difficulty to replicate materials in the simulation process and the limited number of measurements performed. Regarding the calibration of the instruments, after the monitoring process, it was noticed that the infrared thermometer used was not calibrated in Brazil with the right emissivity, what led to small variations in the temperatures measured. Some materials and construction systems common in Brazil are not present in the DesignBuilder library such as ceramic bricks, tiles, shutter doors. Although the software permits us to create and add materials, the method of configuration of the materials has an intricate way of representing construction systems through representative layers making it difficult to precisely replicate the materials used in Brazil. Lack of night data (temperature) during the monitoring: Once the measurements were made five times during working hour of the technicians from the construction

133 company in Brazil, the night data was completed based on the available weather file of the city and it was not possible to have accurate minimum temperatures. The small number of measurements during a day and the few days of measurements are a limitation of the work. During the period of the measurements it was not possible to have access to instruments that could measure hourly temperatures, like Hobo, which limits the precision of the work. In future research, the measurement interval must be lowered with increased period time of measurements, including the night. Comparing the limits of the Brazilian standards with the predicted performance of the cases, it is possible to see that the systems not in accordance with the standards present inferior performances compared with the best cases, however most of them showed more than 50% of annual hours in comfort showing that the consideration of one isolated property is not enough to provide harmful performances. With the advent of dynamic simulation, it is possible to evaluate the performance of the buildings in a more complete view, making it possible to find better options to increase and adjust the performance of the constructions in accordance with the construction systems used.

5.2 Thermal performance

5.2.1 Piatã – BA, Zone 5

Zone 5 is characterized by subtropical climate present in high altitude areas with the lower temperatures among the four bioclimatic zones in Northeast Region and rainfall well distributed all year. Thus, the zone presents lower temperature limits in the comfort zones and greater presence of cold discomfort was predicted in all cases analysed. Overcooling discomfort, unlike the other Northeast zones, is the main thermal discomfort verified in the area, being predicted in at least 21% of the annual hours (predicted in the case with adobe walls of 30cm, medium windows and green roof with night ventilation pattern). The highest number of hours predicted in cold discomfort is felt at the first hours of the day, while in the first hours in the afternoon there is a need for ventilation to achieve comfort while no incidence of overheating discomfort was recorded. Thus, bedrooms, night-time environments up to the morning, need heating while daytime occupancy environments need to allow ventilation mainly around 12h and 16h. The different ventilation schedules analysed made little difference in the performances of the cases, with slightly less hours in need of ventilation to achieve comfort and overcooling discomfort in day ventilation and 24h ventilation patterns cases. The use of window shading was not positive, increasing the cold discomfort and decreasing the comfort rate.

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Small windows presented slightly better performances than medium windows, however it is important to cite the differences among the predicted performances with small and medium windows sizes were very close. Large windows presented fewer hours predicted in comfort and more need for ventilation to achieve comfort. Regarding wall thickness, the best case (more hours predicted in thermal comfort) were registered with walls of 30cm and 40cm without overhang. Both cases presented a little more of hours predicted with ventilation need than the same cases with overhang presence, but with less hours in discomfort due to cold conditions. The roof change varied little the results, but green roof and metal and insulated tile with concrete slab ceiling model presented better performances with less overcooling discomfort and no need of ventilation to reach comfort of overheating discomfort. Clay tile roof and PVC ceiling presented inferior performance among the cases with more need of ventilation to reach comfort and higher number of hours in discomfort due to cold conditions. The use of perimeter walls diminished the performance of the base case, adding hours predicted in overcooling discomfort. In comparison with traditional systems, the base case presented a greater number of hours predicted in comfort, almost same need for ventilation and less discomfort due to cold conditions than conventional systems. The strategies of thermal inertia for heating, natural ventilation and passive solar heating proved to be efficient in many hours in this zone. The cases simulated in this zone presented a minimum of 59% of annual hours predicted in comfort, showing good performance of the earth systems. A maximum of 79% of comfort hours was predicted in the case with adobe walls of 30cm, overhangs of 60cm, night ventilation pattern, medium windows and green roof. Comparing the performances through standards and comfort index, the earth systems U-value were all in accordance with the limit stablished by the Brazilian standards for this zone and the predicted performances of the cases through comfort index indicated the systems result in high number of comfort hours as well. According the performance through the standards, the ceramic brick system was considered adequate for Zone 5, while concrete panel was considered inadequate, however, the concrete panel case presented higher number of hours in comfort than the ceramic brick case when evaluated through the comfort index. Figure 126 brings the parameters with higher number of comfort hours predicted in Zone 05. The best results were achieved with the use of 24h ventilation closely followed by day ventilation. Small windows and medium windows presented better and close performances as well. Shading with overhangs and louvres was not positive, however overhangs protect adobe walls from rainfalls and this protection must be considered. Green roof system presented better performances followed by the case with sloped metal

135 tile with polyurethane and hollow clay block and concrete ceiling (isolated roof). Thick walls with 40cm had better performances, followed by the case with 30cm thick walls.

Figure 126 – Design recommendation to Zone 05

Figure 127 shows the thermal performance of the case with green roof, 24h ventilation, adobe walls of 30cm, medium windows and no louvres, which presented the higher number of hours predicted in comfort among the simulated cases in zone 5. Cold discomfort is more intense in the morning from 6h to 9h. Figure 128 shows the maximum, medium and minimum averages internal operative temperature over the year for the same case. Maximum temperatures reached are within the comfort zone limits while the minimum temperatures reached are always in cold discomfort area.

Figure 127 – Thermal performance of the green roof and 24h ventilation case in Piatã – BA

Figure 128 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of green roof and 24h ventilation case in Piatã – BA

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5.2.2 Monteiro – PB, Zone 6

Zone 06 is a tropical climate zone with rainy summer and dry winter. The temperatures in this zone are slightly higher than in the previous Zone 5 but not as high as the semi-arid Zone 7. It presents greater thermal amplitude than the humid Zone 8, reaching lower temperatures but with maximum temperatures very similar, it is less humid than Zone 8 as well. Although the analysis of the climate showed little more than 30% of hours predicted in cold discomfort, most of the cases analysed did not presented overcooling discomfort rates, only few cases with small percentages of up to 1% of the annual hours. The first hours of the day until midday have high comfort rates predicted in all cases analysed, indicating night occupancy rooms have high thermal comfort sensation. The base case presented over 80% of the predicted hours in comfort with 24h ventilation and daytime ventilation pattern, the cases with better performances when comparing ventilation patterns. The need for ventilation to reach comfort and overheating discomfort conditions were predominantly perceived in the early afternoon. Ventilation is necessary to reach comfort until the end of the day, around 19h, for better performances cases, until cases in need of ventilation until late at night, around 23h. Night ventilation and no ventilation patterns decreased the comfort sensation and increased overheating discomfort sensation overall. The cases with day ventilation or 24h of ventilation patterns had better performance with more hours predicted in thermal comfort. Small and medium windows cases presented better performances results than big windows cases, small windows with few more hours predicted in comfort. Large windows increased overheating discomfort rates and the use of louvres was positive in all cases, increasing comfort sensation and diminishing overheating sensation. Regarding thickness of walls and shading device use, the walls with 30cm and 40cm thickness with louvres and overhang of 60cm presented the best performances with more hours predicted in thermal comfort, followed by the cases of same thickness and overhangs of 60cm or 1m without louvres. The roof system with better performances and higher number of comfort hours predicted were the metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling with 24h ventilation pattern case reaching 100% of the hours predicted in comfort. The green roof system presented second best results regarding roof systems, but with higher number of hours in need of ventilation to achieve comfort, with 24h ventilation pattern or night ventilation pattern presenting lower ventilation hours needed and more hours predicted in comfort. Clay tile and concrete slab ceiling system had third better performance, presenting some

137 heat discomfort, while clay tile and PVC ceiling system cases presented expressive heat discomfort of up to 9% of the predicted hours, when using no ventilation pattern. The use of perimeter walls increased the performance of the base case, adding hours predicted in the comfort zone and diminishing the overheating sensation. In comparison with traditional systems of ceramic brick and concrete panel, the base case presented a better performance, with greater number of hours predicted in comfort, almost same need for ventilation and less discomfort due to hot conditions than conventional systems. The cases simulated in this zone presented a minimum of 70% of annual hours predicted in comfort, showing good performance of the earth systems, even with a case with 100% of the hours predicted in comfort (isolated roof case with 24h ventilation pattern). Comparing the performances through standards and comfort index, the earth systems U-value of the cases with 10cm and 20cm were not in accordance with the limits stablished by the Brazilian standards, as well as the U-value of the ceramic brick and concrete panel. However, all these systems presented more than 72% of hours predicted in comfort in the cases analysed. The systems in accordance with the Brazilian standards limits (30cm and 40cm adobe) presented better performance, with more hours predicted in comfort, than systems that do not conform to the standard. Figure 129 brings the parameters with higher number of comfort hours predicted in Zone 06. The best results were achieved with the use of 24h ventilation pattern and small windows. The use of shading, with overhangs and louvres, is indicated to diminish overheating discomfort. The case with sloped metal tile with polyurethane and hollow clay block and concrete ceiling (isolated roof) presented better performances followed by the green roof system cases, which showed higher number of hours predicted in need of ventilation to reach comfort. The case with thick walls of 40cm had better performances, followed by the case with 30cm thick walls. The use of perimeter walls was positive and diminished the number of hours predicted in overheating discomfort as well.

Figure 129 – Design recommendations to Zone 06

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Figure 130 shows the thermal performance of the case with isolated roof system, day ventilation, adobe walls of 30cm, medium windows and no louvres, which presented 96% of hours predicted in comfort. The same cases but with 24h ventilation and night ventilation presented 99% and 100% of the hours in comfort, the case below was chose to emphasize the hours that needs ventilation when using the day ventilation pattern, which is more typical in the area. Ventilation is need from 14h until 21h. Figure 131 shows the maximum, medium and minimum averages internal operative temperature over the year for the same case. Maximum temperatures reached the zone of comfort with air ventilation use during hottest months of the year while the minimum temperatures never reached cold discomfort area staying within the comfort zone limits.

Figure 130 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Monteiro – PB

Figure 131 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Monteiro – PB

5.2.3 Picos – PI, Zone 7

Zone 7 is characterized by semi-arid climate with low rainfall concentrated in few months of the year. The zone presented the higher air temperatures recorded among the four zones, with higher comfort limits temperatures. This zone presented the highest records of hours predicted in overheating discomfort zone and in necessity of ventilation to reach comfort. Yet, the high external air temperatures experienced may restrict the use

139 of ventilation during the day, since it could cause increase in internal temperature and tends to approximate internal temperatures to the external temperature. Among the different ventilation patterns analysed, the cases with 24h ventilation pattern presented higher number of hours predicted in comfort, followed by night ventilation cases. Cases with no ventilation pattern presented higher discomfort due to hot conditions, up to 30% of the predicted hours, especially in the case modelled with big windows or the case with adobe walls 10cm thick and no overhangs. Small and medium windows presented better and similar performances. Large windows had inferior performance in all ventilation patterns, increasing discomfort due to hot conditions. Shading is a great need in this zone since the heat gain through radiation level is high and improved the comfort levels of all cases. Thicker walls cases presented higher number of hours predicted in comfort, presenting the best performances, improved when using overhangs and louvres. Great variation of performance was presented with different roof systems and ventilation patterns. Lack of ventilation or day ventilation pattern cases presented inferior performances with all roof systems. Cases with 24h ventilation pattern presented the best performances with the different roofs systems, followed by night ventilation pattern cases. The roof change had a greater influence on the performance of the cases than other parameters. The system with metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling had the best performance results with higher number of hours in comfort, followed by green roof system. Perimeter walls use improved the number of hours predicted in comfort and diminished overheating sensation. Regarding different systems, the adobe base case presented a smaller number of hours predicted in comfort and higher necessity of ventilation but presented less hours predicted in discomfort due to hot conditions than the ceramic brick and concrete panel walls cases. The parameters with better performance in this zone had higher level of shading and 24h of ventilation or ventilation in cooler hours (night time). High thermal inertia walls need to be used together with shading devices in order to present better performances. Shading and a roof system with low U-value are efficient strategies for the zone. The cases simulated in this zone presented a minimum of 49% of annual hours predicted in comfort, showing the lowest performance in all zones. A maximum of 78% of comfort hours was predicted in the case with adobe walls of 30cm, overhangs of 60cm, 24h ventilation pattern, medium windows and isolated roof. As in zone 06, the earth systems U-value of the cases with 10cm and 20cm were not in accordance with the limits stablished by the Brazilian standards, as well as the U- value of the ceramic brick and concrete panel. However, all these systems presented more than 51% of hours predicted in comfort. The systems in accordance with the Brazilian

140 standards limits (30cm and 40cm adobe) presented better performance with more hours predicted in comfort than systems that do not conform to the standard as well. Figure 132 brings the parameters with higher number of comfort hours predicted in Zone 07. The best results were achieved with the use of 24h ventilation or night ventilation pattern. Small windows and medium windows had better and close performances. The case with sloped metal tile with polyurethane and hollow clay block and concrete ceiling (isolated roof) presented better performances among the roof systems. Thick walls with 40cm had better performances, closely followed by the case with 30cm thick walls. The use of perimeter walls was positive and diminished overheating discomfort as well. The use of shading with overhangs and louvres is strongly advised as the zone presents high solar incidence all year and shading help to diminish overheating discomfort.

Figure 132 – Design recommendations to Zone 07

Figure 133 shows the thermal performance of the case with isolated roof system, 24h ventilation, adobe walls of 30cm, medium windows and no louvres, which presented the higher number of hours predicted in comfort among the simulated cases in zone 7. Ventilation is required from 9h until the end of the day with pick at 16h. Heat discomfort occurs from 13h to 20h. Figure 134 shows the maximum, medium and minimum averages internal operative temperature over the year for the same case. Maximum temperatures reached hot discomfort zone (hottest months) and comfort zone with ventilation use while minimum temperatures stayed within the comfort zone limits.

Figure 133 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and 24h ventilation case in Picos – PI 141

Figure 134 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and 24h ventilation case in Picos – PI

5.2.4 Salvador – BA, Zone 8

Zone 08 is a tropical region without dry season, present in region of low altitude on the coastal region and region next to the Amazon region. It has the higher rainfall average of the four zones and the lower thermal amplitude. It presents high levels of comfort rates in all cases. 24h ventilation pattern cases had the best performances rates with higher number of hours predicted in comfort, followed by day ventilation pattern cases, which presented higher number of hours in need of ventilation to reach comfort until later hours. Discomfort due to hot conditions was predominant between 9h and 17h. Shading use through overhangs and louvres use improved comfort levels in all cases. Small and medium windows presented better (and similar) performances than large windows. The case with thicker walls of 30 and 40cm had better performances, with more hours predicted in comfort, than thinner wall cases. Regarding the roof system, the case with metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling presented 100% of the hours predicted in comfort when using 24h ventilation pattern and the better performances in all ventilation patterns when compared to the other roof systems. The green roof system presented good performance as well but with a greater number of hours predicted in need of ventilation to reach comfort. The cases with 24h of ventilation presented the better performances with all roof systems. The cases with clay tile and PVC ceiling presented better performance with day ventilation than with night ventilation. The opposite happened with the other systems, in which night ventilation presented more hours predicted in comfort. The cases with clay tiles and PVC ceiling and concrete slab ceiling roofs showed hours predicted in overheating discomfort, which almost did not happen in other cases. The case with clay tiles and PVC celling presented the worst performances with the least number of hours predicted in comfort.

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Perimeter walls use improved the number of hours predicted in comfort and diminished overheating sensation. The case with conventional brick presented little more hours predicted in comfort than the adobe base case; however, the case with adobe walls presented less discomfort due to hot conditions, with higher necessity of ventilation hours to reach comfort. The case with concrete panels presented the worst performance among the conventional system and base case, with the least number of hours predicted in comfort. Shading and ventilation are the best strategies to this zone, improving the comfort sensation in all cases. The cases simulated in this zone presented a minimum of 70% of annual hours predicted in comfort, showing good performance of the earth systems. The case using isolated roof case with 24h ventilation pattern presented 100% of the hours predicted in comfort. This zone presented performances closely related to the ones in Zone 06, presenting the best and worst performance cases as Zone 06 with the same parameters. Comparing the performances through standards and comfort index, the earth systems U-value were in accordance with the limits stablished by the Brazilian standards in all configurations and the predicted performances of the cases indicated the systems resulted in high number of hours predicted in comfort as well. The ceramic brick system U-value was in accordance to the limits to Zone 8 as well and presented a high number of hours in comfort. Concrete panel system U-value was not in accordance to the limits to this zone according the Brazilian standards, being considered inadequate to use the system in the zone, however, the case presented more than 80% of the hours predicted in comfort. Figure 135 brings the parameters with higher number of comfort hours predicted in Zone 08. The best results were achieved with the use of 24h ventilation pattern and small windows. The case with sloped metal tile with polyurethane and hollow clay block and concrete ceiling (isolated roof) presented better performances, with higher number of hours predicted in comfort, followed by the green roof system cases, which need a greater number of ventilation hours. Thicker walls with 40cm had better performances, with higher number of hours predicted in comfort, followed by the case with 30cm thick walls. The use of perimeter walls was positive and diminished overheating discomfort sensation as well. The use of shading with overhangs and louvres is indicated to diminish overheating discomfort sensation.

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Figure 135 – Design recommendations to Zone 08

Figure 136 shows the thermal performance of the case with isolated roof system, day ventilation, adobe walls of 30cm, medium windows and no louvres, which presented 96% of hours predicted in comfort. The same cases but with 24h ventilation and night ventilation presented 99% and 100% of the hours in comfort, the case below was chose to emphasize the hours that needs ventilation (afternoon and night time) when using the day ventilation pattern, which is more typical in the area. Figure 137 shows the maximum, medium and minimum averages internal operative temperature over the year for the same case. Maximum temperatures reached the zone of comfort with air ventilation use during hottest months of the year (less than in Zone 6) while the minimum temperatures never reached cold discomfort area staying within the comfort zone limits.

Figure 136 – Thermal performance of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Salvador – BA

Figure 137 – Average internal operative temperatures and comfort limits of the isolated roof and day ventilation case in Salvador – BA

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6 Conclusions

The research discusses residential construction in accordance with the climate of the area, one of the challenges faced nowadays when several environmental crises are motivating builders to revaluate how to plan, design and construct buildings. In this context, earth construction has the potential in Brazil to contribute to the construction field, recognized as highly responsible for energy demand and CO2 emissions, as well as to the housing problems faced nowadays. Some of the advantages of earth constructions use are material availability in Brazil, low maintenance cost of the buildings, self-construction possibility, low embodied energy level, reuse opportunity and fire resistance. In northeast of Brazil, earth construction is highly used by low income population, however the houses are not built in a proper way, typically without proper foundation and overhangs, important factors to the longevity of the construction, lacking quality to users and spreading an idea that earth constructions are not able to produce quality buildings. High thermal mass, a characteristic of thick earth construction system, is traditionally known for decreasing the peak temperatures recorded inside constructions and delaying the moment it occurs. This concept is allied the external thermal amplitude, which controls heat exchange during the day. However, in Northeast Brazil the thermal amplitude is not high, thus to take advantage of the thermal mass potential of earth constructions in the area, it is necessary to correctly apply the strategy in accordance of the local climate area. In Northeast of Brazil, earth constructions are largely used with natural ventilation, since the last one avoids energy costs with cooling or heating demand, and the tropical climate allows its use in many hours of the day. However, the literature around the practice of the two strategies linked with climate adaptation and thermal comfort performance are not well developed. The Brazilian performance standards present diverse thermal properties limits to the use of high thermal inertia residences making difficult the implantation of the practices and inhibiting a greater spread of their uses. The Brazilian performance standards also consider acceptable conditions based on static physical properties of the building envelope, lacking in consider thermal performance based on worldwide used adaptive comfort index and the interactions of use of buildings in a unified form. Thus, a clear knowledge around earth construction application is necessary to spread the use within the construction sites, as well as Brazilian thermal standards need to absorb the new approaches of assessing thermal comfort. In this context, the potential of thermal comfort provided by the high thermal capacity of social housings built with adobe walls and different ventilation patterns was analysed using dynamic thermal simulation with DesignBuilder Software. Different adobe

145 wall thickness, perimeter walls, ceramic brick masonry, concrete panel walls and different roof systems were also simulated to compare the performance of most usual construction systems in use in the country and compare systems with different thermal mass. All the cases were assessed in four different cities in Northeast Brazil, representing the four bioclimatic zones present in the area according the Brazilian thermal performance regulation NBR 15220 (ABNT, 2005). The comfort assessment used adaptive thermal comfort index from de Dear and Brager (1998), indicated to the local climate (Lamberts et al, 2013). The performance of the cases was compared, and the influence of the parameters discussed and compared with recommendations in the Brazilian thermal comfort standards. The different response of the thermal performance of the cases in the different zones showed the importance of the architectural design adaptation to local climate and the preliminary study of the architectural design in order to obtain the best possible performance. The results of the simulations confirmed that it is possible to obtain thermally comfortable buildings during most of the time of the year in all zones using high thermal mass system. Thicker wall systems, representing higher thermal mass, had the best performances in all zones, with a greater number of comfort hours. Natural ventilation was responsible for enlarging the comfort sensation over many hours of the year, being the simplest strategy to promote thermal comfort when the internal temperature becomes high and decreasing the need for artificial conditioning. Therefore, design alternatives for enabling permeability, use of hollow elements and continuous spaces are welcome in order to allow permanent ventilation in the rooms. On the other hand, it is necessary to use the strategy in the right moments, where the outside air temperature is at acceptable conditions of comfort, helping in dehumidification and removal of excess heat generated by occupants. When outside air temperature is too high, like in the semi-arid zone, ventilation may bring the hot air temperature to internal rooms impairing the comfort sensation. The ventilation pattern using 24h of ventilation had the better performances with higher number of hours in comfort in all zones, suggesting that continuously ventilation is preferable. However, there are practical points that do not allow its use like the safety issue in the country. Although night ventilation has been typically indicated to use with high thermal mass buildings to cool the internal temperature heated by daytime, it does not seem to happen frequently, the small amplitude of the region’s climate being the cause. Among the four zones, zone 7, the semiarid climate zone, was the only zone in which night ventilation had the second best performance, in the other zones day ventilation was the second best pattern. Lack of ventilation diminishes the comfort sensation in all zones.

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General recommendations to tropical climates in the literature are related to ventilation intake and the high radiation levels that contributes to the heating of internal spaces. The recommendation around the high radiation levels proved to be consistent in zones 6, 7 and 8, which presented hours predicted in overheating discomfort. Zone 5 presented high number of hours predicted in discomfort due to overcooling discomfort and no presence of overheating discomfort, so, even though located in small latitude zone, the high altitude and the lower temperatures experienced have higher influence. As the roof systems counts for higher heat gain in the tropics, their choice has a great impact in the buildings performance. The system with lower U-value had the best performances in all zones. The system with lower thermal capacity had inferior performances in all zones. Green roof system had better performance than the traditional systems with clay tile and PVC and concrete slab in all zones. As a conclusion, earth systems with high thermal mass can provide thermal comfort in the different bioclimatic zones in Northeast Brazil. Using the strategy linked with natural ventilation enlarges the comfort sensation in many hours especially in zones 6 and 8, zones with higher humidity levels. In these zones the use of louvres was positive increasing comfort sensation as well. Zone 5 presents high number of hours predicted in overcooling discomfort and the need of ventilation predicted was little, while the use of louvres was not positive to thermal comfort. Without the overhangs, the adobe walls need better waterproof finishing. Zone 7 presents the most difficult climate with higher temperatures and high number of hours in overheating discomfort. The use of louvres is strongly advised, and the use of ventilation needs attention to extreme outside conditions that may lead to heating internal rooms. The recommendations present in Brazilian performance standards based in the physical properties of the building’s envelope is indicative of the material potential itself, but it proved to be simplistic and failing in not taking into consideration the building interactions. With the possibilities of thermal simulation, design strategies should be evaluated along with the routines of the buildings in order to find better design solutions to each necessity. It is necessary to approach the simulation and design process as well, with more direct methods to simulate and analyse the big data resulting from simulation process. The difficulties involved in these processes make it more difficult to use thermal simulations in the day to day of the design professionals that already have to deal with different issues related to the architectural project like client’s desires, budget, laws, plot dimensions, etc. Recommendations to each zone based on the simulated cases in this research are: • Zone 5: all simulated cases had high number of comfort hours predicted and similar results, but best performance cases include adobe systems with thicker walls (30 and 40cm), no shading from overhangs, louvres and

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perimeter walls, since cold discomfort was found (mainly in the early morning hours) and the building would benefit from radiation incidence, ventilation use around 12h and 16h to reach comfort, small or medium windows and green roof system use (although all the roofs presented high number of hours in comfort, the green roof cases presented fewer cold discomfort rates). • Zone 6: better performances with use of adobe systems with thicker walls (30 and 40cm), shading from overhangs, louvres and perimeter walls to minimize absorbed solar energy, ventilation to reach comfort mainly from 11h until the end of the day, around 19h, small or medium windows and roof system with metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling. Green roof reaches high number of hours predicted in comfort however needs more ventilation hours. • Zone 7: since the zone presents the highest temperatures, shading is very necessary to minimize absorbed solar energy and is encouraged using different solutions like louvres, overhangs and perimeter walls. Thicker adobe walls (30 and 40cm), small or medium windows and roof system with metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling offered better performances among the evaluated cases. Ventilation is highly necessary to reach comfort, but it must be used with attention to extreme outside conditions that may lead to heating internal rooms, with night ventilation useful for building cooling. • Zone 8: with lower radiation incidence than the last zone and the benefits from a cooler breeze, zone 8 benefits from use of adobe systems with thicker walls (30 and 40cm), shading from overhangs, louvres and perimeter walls, ventilation to reach comfort in the morning from 9h until the end of the day, around 19h, small or medium windows and roof system with metal and insulated tile and concrete slab ceiling. Green roof system showed good performance as well but with a greater need of ventilation to reach comfort.

Limitations of this research are related to the basic validation process done, with a limited number of measurements and availability of instruments and specialized personnel to carry out the task. The big number of data and graphics generated by the simulation process, and presented here in the appendix, show specific details of the cases performances and it is recommended further study of them. It is also recommended the study on other design configuration of the houses and different construction system in order to continue develop the subject.

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8 Appendix

This appendix presents the hourly annual performance of all simulated cases, less those that have already been shown in the results (chapter 4), the base case in the four ventilation patterns. The graphics presented, explained in Figure 74, represents the performance of the cases showing the variation of thermal zones bounded over the hours of the day, every day of the year. The cases are presented in the same order presented in chapter 4 and a presentation order is showed below. Each case is presented with hourly annual thermal performance and minimum and maximum operative temperature reached in the year.

1. Small windows – day ventilation 25. Overhang 60cm – A10 2. Big windows – day ventilation 26. Overhang 60cm – A10 + Louvres 3. Small windows – night ventilation 27. Overhang 60cm – A20 4. Big windows – night ventilation 28. Overhang 60cm – A20 + Louvres 5. Small windows – 24h ventilation 29. Overhang 60cm – A40 6. Big windows – 24h ventilation 30. Overhang 60cm – A40 + Louvres 7. Small windows – no ventilation 31. Overhang 1m – A10 8. Big windows – no ventilation 32. Overhang 1m – A20 9. Small windows – day ventilation + Louvres 33. Overhang 1m – A30 10. Medium windows – day ventilation + Louvres 34. Overhang 1m – A40 11. Big windows – day ventilation + Louvres 35. Green roof – day ventilation 12. Small windows – night ventilation + Louvres 36. Green roof – night ventilation 13. Medium windows – night ventilation + Louvres 37. Green roof – 24h ventilation 14. Big windows – night ventilation + Louvres 38. Green roof – no ventilation 15. Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres 39. Clay tiles + concrete slab – day ventilation 16. Medium windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres 40. Clay tiles + concrete slab – night ventilation 17. Big windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres 41. Clay tiles + concrete slab – 24h ventilation 18. Small windows – no ventilation + Louvres 42. Clay tiles + concrete slab – no ventilation 19. Medium windows – no ventilation + Louvres 43. Isolated roof – day ventilation 20. Big windows – no ventilation + Louvres 44. Isolated roof – night ventilation 21. No overhang – A10 45. Isolated roof – 24h ventilation 22. No overhang – A20 46. Isolated roof – no ventilation 23. No overhang – A30 47. Perimeter walls 24. No overhang – A40 48. Ceramic brick 49. Concrete panel

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8.1 Piatã – BA, Zone 5

8.1.1 Windows size

1 Small windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 29.9 15.3

2 Big windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.8 15.0

3 Small windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.0 15.4

4 Big windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.6 15.1

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5 Small windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 29.7 15.5

6 Big windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.7 15.2

7 Small windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.3 15.3

8 Big windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.8 15.0

162

9 Small windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.5 15.3

10 Medium windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.7 15.2

11 Big windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.4 15.0

12 Small windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.7 15.3

163

13 Medium windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.9 15.2

14 Big windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.7 15.0

15 Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.4 15.5

16 Medium windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.6 15.4

164

17 Big windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.3 15.1

18 Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.9 15.3

19 Medium windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.1 15.2

20 Big windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.9 15.0

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1.1.1. No overhang

21 No overhang – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 31.6 14.5

22 No overhang – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 30.7 14.9

23 No overhang – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 30.4 15.2

24 No overhang – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 30.5 15.4

166

1.1.2. Overhang 60cm

25 Overhang 60cm – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 31.0 14.5

26 Overhang 60cm – A10 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 30.8 14.5

27 Overhang 60cm – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 30.4 14.9

28 Overhang 60cm – A20 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.9 14.9

167

29 Overhang 60cm – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 30.2 15.4

30 Overhang 60cm – A40 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 29.8 15.3

1.1.3. Overhang 1m

31 Overhang 1m – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 30.8 14.5

32 Overhang 1m – A20

168

max (°C) min(°C) 30.1 14.9

33 Overhang 1m – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 30.1 15.2

34 Overhang 1m – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 30.2 15.4

1.1.4. Roof systems

35 Green roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 28.1 15.5

36 Green roof – night ventilation

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max (°C) min(°C) 28.0 15.5

37 Green roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 27.8 15.7

48 Green roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 28.3 15.5

39 Clay tiles + concrete slab – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 29.1 15.3

40 Clay tiles + concrete slab – night ventilation

170

max (°C) min(°C) 29.0 15.4

41 Clay tiles + concrete slab – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 28.9 15.5

42 Clay tiles + concrete slab – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 29.3 15.3

43 Isolated roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 26.4 15.8

44 Isolated roof – night ventilation

171

max (°C) min(°C) 26.4 15.8

45 Isolated roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 26.2 16.0

46 Isolated roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 26.7 15.7

1.1.5. Wall systems

47 Perimeter walls max (°C) min(°C) 29.6 15.2

172

48 Ceramic brick max (°C) min(°C) 30.4 14.6

49 Concrete panel max (°C) min(°C) 30.7 14.6

8.2 Monteiro – PB, Zone 6

1.1.6. Windows size

1 Small windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.2 21.8

173

2 Big windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.5 21.2

3 Small windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.3 21.6

4 Big windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.8 21.1

5 Small windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.8 21.6

6 Big windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C)

174

34.3 21.0

7 Small windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.7 21.9

8 Big windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 35.3 21.3

9 Small windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.7 21.8

10 Medium windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C)

175

32.8 21.6

11 Big windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 21.0

12 Small windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.8 21.6

13 Medium windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.9 21.4

14 Big windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C)

176

33.7 21.0

15 Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.4 21.5

16 Medium windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.5 21.4

17 Big windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.3 20.9

18 Small windows – no ventilation + Louvres

177

max (°C) min(°C) 33.2 21.9

19 Medium windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.3 21.7

20 Big windows – no ventilation + L max (°C) min(°C) 34.1 21.1

1.1.7. No overhang

21 No overhang – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 35.3 19.9

178

22 No overhang – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 34.4 21.2

23 No overhang – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 21.8

24 No overhang – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.0

1.1.8. Overhang 60cm

25 Overhang 60cm – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 34.4 19.9

179

26 Overhang 60cm – A10 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.0 19.9

27 Overhang 60cm – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 21.1

28 Overhang 60cm – A20 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.1 21.1

29 Overhang 60cm – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 33.8 21.9

180

30 Overhang 60cm – A40 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 32.9 21.8

1.1.9. Overhang 1m

31 Overhang 1m – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 34.1 19.9

32 Overhang 1m – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 33.5 21.1

33 Overhang 1m – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 33.5 21.6

181

34 Overhang 1m – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 33.7 21.8

1.1.10. Roof systems

35 Green roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.8 22.2

36 Green roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.7 22.0

37 Green roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.3 21.9

182

38 Green roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.2 22.8

39 Clay tiles + concrete slab – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.6 22.0

40 Clay tiles + concrete slab – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.6 21.7

41 Clay tiles + concrete slab – 24h ventilation

183

max (°C) min(°C) 32.2 21.8

42 Clay tiles + concrete slab – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.0 22.3

43 Isolated roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.5 22.6

44 Isolated roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.5 22.2

45 Isolated roof – 24h ventilation

184

max (°C) min(°C) 30.1 22.2

46 Isolated roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.1 23.4

1.1.11. Wall systems

47 Perimeter walls max (°C) min(°C) 33.0 21.5

48 Ceramic brick max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 19.7

49 Concrete panel

185

max (°C) min(°C) 33.9 20.2

8.3 Picos – PI, Zone 7

1.1.12. Windows size

1 Small windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 37.2 23.7

2 Big windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 38.5 23.0

3 Small windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 37.3 22.9

186

4 Big windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 38.8 22.2

5 Small windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 22.9

6 Big windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 38.4 22.3

7 Small windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 37.5 24.7

187

8 Big windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 39.0 24.1

9 Small windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 36.7 23.6

10 Medium windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 36.9 23.3

11 Big windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.6 22.9

188

12 Small windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 36.9 22.9

13 Medium windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 22.6

14 Big windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.8 22.2

15 Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 36.6 22.8

189

16 Medium windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 36.7 22.6

17 Big windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.5 22.2

18 Small windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.1 24.6

19 Medium windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.2 24.4

190

20 Big windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 38.0 23.9

1.1.13. No overhang

21 No overhang – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 39.3 22.3

22 No overhang – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 38.1 23.1

23 No overhang – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 37.9 23.5

191

24 No overhang – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 38.0 23.6

1.1.14. Overhang 60cm

25 Overhang 60cm – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 38.3 22.3

26 Overhang 60cm – A10 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.9 22.3

27 Overhang 60cm – A20

192

max (°C) min(°C) 37.6 23.1

28 Overhang 60cm – A20 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 23.0

29 Overhang 60cm – A40 Adobe 40 – 60cm max (°C) min(°C) 37.7 23.5

30 Overhang 60cm – A40 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 23.4

193

1.1.15. Overhang 1m

31 Overhang 1m – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 38.1 22.3

32 Overhang 1m – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 37.4 23.0

33 Overhang 1m – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 37.5 23.3

34 Overhang 1m – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 37.7 23.4

194

1.1.16. Roof systems

35 Green roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 35.7 24.0

36 Green roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 35.7 23.3

37 Green roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 35.4 23.3

38 Green roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 36.0 25.5

195

39 Clay tiles + concrete slab – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 36.6 23.7

40 Clay tiles + concrete slab – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 36.7 22.9

41 Clay tiles + concrete slab – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 36.4 23.0

42 Clay tiles + concrete slab – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 25.0

196

43 Isolated roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.4 24.2

44 Isolated roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.5 23.5

45 Isolated roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 23.4

46 Isolated roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.8 26.0

197

1.1.17. Wall systems

47 Perimeter walls max (°C) min(°C) 37.0 23.3

48 Ceramic brick max (°C) min(°C) 37.6 22.1

49 Concrete panel max (°C) min(°C) 37.9 22.5

8.4 Salvador – BA, Zone 8

1.1.18. Windows size

1 Small windows – da y ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.8 22.3

198

2 Big windows – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.9 22.2

3 Small windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.2

4 Big windows – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 35.6 22.0

5 Small windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.7 22.1

199

6 Big windows – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.7 21.9

7 Small windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 34.5 22.4

8 Big windows – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 36.1 22.4

9 Small windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 22.2

200

10 Medium windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.7 22.2

11 Big windows – day ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.1

12 Small windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.9 22.2

13 Medium windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.9 22.1

201

14 Big windows – night ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.1

15 Small windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.5 22.1

16 Medium windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.5 22.0

17 Big windows – 24h ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.9 21.9

202

18 Small windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.1 22.4

19 Medium windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 22.3

20 Big windows – no ventilation + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.9 22.2

1.1.19. No overhang

21 No overhang – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 35.7 21.1

203

22 No overhang – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 34.8 21.9

23 No overhang – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 34.5 22.3

24 No overhang – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 34.5 22.6

1.1.20. Overhang 60cm

25 Overhang 60cm – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 34.9 21.2

204

26 Overhang 60cm – A10 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 34.6 21.2

27 Overhang 60cm – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 34.3 21.8

28 Overhang 60cm – A20 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.9 21.8

29 Overhang 60cm – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 34.3 22.5

205

30 Overhang 60cm – A40 + Louvres max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 22.4

1.1.21. Overhang 1m

31 Overhang 1m – A10 max (°C) min(°C) 34.8 21.2

32 Overhang 1m – A20 max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 21.8

33 Overhang 1m – A30 max (°C) min(°C) 34.1 22.2

206

34 Overhang 1m – A40 max (°C) min(°C) 34.3 22.4

1.1.22. Roof systems

35 Green roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.3 22.6

36 Green roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.1 22.5

37 Green roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 31.9 22.4

207

38 Green roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 32.5 23.0

39 Clay tiles + concrete slab – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.2 22.4

40 Clay tiles + concrete slab – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.3 22.2

41 Clay tiles + concrete slab – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.0 22.1

208

42 Clay tiles + concrete slab – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 22.6

43 Isolated roof – day ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.5 23.0

44 Isolated roof – night ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.3 22.7

45 Isolated roof – 24h ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.2 22.6

209

46 Isolated roof – no ventilation max (°C) min(°C) 30.7 23.4

1.1.23. Wall systems

47 Perimeter walls max (°C) min(°C) 33.6 22.2

48 Ceramic brick max (°C) min(°C) 34.2 21.1

49 Concrete panel max (°C) min(°C) 34.6 21.3

210