Giving Children Hope: Implications for Schools and Leaders

Monograph Editors: Allan Walker and Anissa Chan Correspondence The Joseph Lau Luen Hung Charitable Trust Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change, Hong Kong Institute of Education, Tai Po, N.T., HONG KONG. Fax: +852 2948 8634 Tel: +852 2948 6257 Email: [email protected] Website: www.ied.edu.hk/apclc/

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APCLC - HKPI Monograph Series We are pleased to introduce this new series of monographs as part of the ongoing collaboration between the Asia Pacific Centre of Leadership and Change (APCLC) and the Hong Kong Principals' Institute (HKPI). Both organizations are focused on promoting deeper understanding of school leadership through innovative research and to improved leadership practice in schools. We believe that working partnerships between organizations such as ours provide fertile tracts within which ways to more successful leadership can be explored, tested, practiced and disseminated in ways that neither partner can achieve individually.

We hope that you enjoy reading the monograph and that it in some way helps you reflect on what you do as a leader, regardless of where that is.

Allan Walker Joseph Lau Chair Professor of International Educational Leadership Dean, Faculty of Education and Human Development Director, The Joseph Lau Luen Hung Charitable Trust Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change Hong Kong Institute of Education

Anissa Chan Convener, Hong Kong Principals’ Institute Principal, St. Paul’s Co-educational College APCLC - HKPI Monograph Series APCLC - HKPI Monograph Series

2015 Number 2 Gateways to Leading Learning Giving Children Hope: Implications for Schools and Leaders

Bruce Barnett

Contents 1 Abstract 2 Introduction 6 Literature Review 19 Embedding Hope in the Curriculum 28 Leadership Preparation and Development 32 Conclusion

36 References

About the author Bruce is a Professor in the Educational Leadership and Policy Studies Department at the University of Texas at San Antonio and Senior Research Fellow of Asia Pacific Centre for Leadership and Change at the Hong Kong Institute of Education. For over a decade, he has become involved in international research and program development, co-authoring books on school improvement; researching mentoring and coaching programs operating around the world; and presenting workshops in Australia, New Zealand, England, Hong Kong, Ireland, and Canada. One of the current projects being implemented is the International School Leadership Development Network, a collaboration of colleagues around the world examining leadership preparation and development in different cultural contexts.

Giving Children Hope: Implications for Schools and Leaders Bruce Barnett

Abstract Growing concerns about violence, drug abuse, school drop outs, and the civic and political disenchantment of our youth have caught the attention of policymakers, community agencies, religious institutions, and school systems. A significant consequence of these social conditions is the sense of hopelessness expressed by children and young adults. In America, upwards of 30% of adolescents have a sense of hopelessness (Child Trends, 2012), which poses significant challenges for school systems and leaders, whose role is to prepare students for future success. Given these circumstances, this monograph proposes the moral imperative for 21st century school leaders is to build students’ hope for a bright future. To build this argument, the monograph asserts school leaders must become moral stewards by helping students develop a greater sense of future success. Using elements of hope theory--goal development, motivation, and pathways--as the foundation for action, promising ways for how school leaders can understand and apply these elements to become agents of hope for our youth are explored.

1 Introduction

Confidence in American public schools has been wavering since the release of the Nation at Risk (National Commission on Excellence in Education, 1983). This report was a springboard for policymakers, business organizations, and citizens to support several waves of educational reform that have continued into the 21st century. Furthermore, an alarming number of students are dropping out of school, indicating that parents and their children are losing faith in our educational systems’ ability to prepare our youth for future

2 success. Besides increasing numbers of K-12 students who join gangs, engage in substance abuse, and commit violent crimes, consider these statistics: 35% of students drop out of school, 50% of these dropouts are Latinos and African Americans, and 50% of high school graduates are not prepared for college (Spathas, 2011). The plight of students in urban school systems is even more alarming, as evidenced by these features of urban communities and schools:

3 ● High levels of poverty, mobility, homeless families, children in foster care, incarcerated students, drug abuse, and non-English speakers (Barnett & Stevenson, forthcoming; Duke 2008, 2012; Picus, Marion, Calvo, & Glenn, 2005)

● Limited instructional resources for teachers who have little control over the curriculum (Chung, 2005; National Center for Education Statistics, 1996)

● Politicized school boards, cumbersome central office bureaucracies, incoherent instructional practices, inadequate data management systems and resources, and decaying buildings (Haberman, n.d.; Jacob, 2007; National Center for Education Statistics, 2006)

● High teacher absenteeism, low morale, and constant turnover (Barnett & Stevenson, forthcoming; Duke 2008, 2012; Picus, Marion, Calvo, & Glenn, 2005)

● Lack of qualified applicants to fill principal vacancies (The New Teacher Project, 2006)

Many students in these school settings have lost hope in their ability to control their lives and become productive members of society. Although American adolescents and undergraduate students tend to be more hopeful than their counterparts in other countries (Lester, 2013, 2015), studies indicate that upwards of 30% of American adolescents have a sense of hopelessness (Child Trends, 2012), which often is associated with high suicide rates (Beck, Brown, Berchick, Stewart, & Steer, 1990; Jain, Singh, Gupta, & Kuman, 1999). Higher feelings of hopelessness have been reported for

4 various ethnic groups. For example, to income and wealth (Gallup, 2009a), inner-city African American dropout and suicide statistics indicate adolescents report high levels of significant numbers of students have hopelessness, particularly when they given up on their educational future, are repeatedly exposed to violence, which can negatively affect their experience constant disruptions in income, increase the likelihood of parental stability, lack a sense of being incarcerated, and raise the community, and have no religious probability of enrolling in social affiliation (Bolland, Lian, & programs (Sum, Khatiwada, Formichella, 2005). In addition, McLaughlin, & Palma, 2009). Therefore, hopelessness is prevalent for many an increasingly important moral Native American adolescents imperative for school leaders is to build (Johnson & Tomren, 1999), especially students’ hope for a bright future. As a when they live in urban areas and do foundation for this argument, the not possess a sense of cultural monograph begins by reviewing competence (LaFromboise, Albright, literature on the learning expectations & Harris, 2010). for 21st century students followed by an explanation of hope theory, South African Archbishop Desmond illustrating how school systems and Tutu’s words provide a resounding leaders can provide a more optimistic statement of the effects of future for our nation’s youth. As the hopelessness: moral stewards for students’ learning

A great deal of violence happens among and future life chances, we highlight young persons who feel that their lives will how educational leaders can use the end in a cul-de-sac. They may come from elements of hope theory to create depressed communities and lack father school-based programs and practices. figures or caring adults. Without human Some of the illustrations are from comforts and outlets for wholesome recreation, they may turn to drugs for research findings emerging from the excitement and seek status or security in International School Leadership guns and knives. They desperately want to Development Network, a multi- count but take short cuts to gaining national study of school principals who respect. If you can’t be recognized for doing good, maybe people will take notice are committed to working in high-need of you if you are troublesome. (as cited in schools where hopelessness prevails. Brendtro, Brokenleg, & Van Brockern, The monograph concludes by 1990, p. x) suggesting implications for how to prepare and develop school leaders’ Although hopelessness is not related capabilities to promote hope in their students and local communities.

Literature Review Student Success of-class activities (e.g., community visits, service projects). School officials must in the 21st Century provide support for students to: (a) be healthy, (b) stay safe, (c) enjoy and Attention is being directed to achieve, (d) make a positive understanding the essential knowledge contribution, and (e) achieve economic and skills students need to become well-being (Morrison et al, 2009). In successful citizens, consumers, and addition, governmental policies, such as contributors in the 21st century. For Getting It Right for Every Child in instance, based on growing concerns Scotland (Scottish Government, 2012) about social disintegration, disorder, and massive efforts to direct resources moral decline, and civic and political to disadvantaged schools in China disenchantment in the United (Chinese Ministry of Education, 2005), Kingdom, the Every Child Matters have attempted to integrate services for (ECM) reform initiative has been children regardless of their social and implemented. One of the tenets of this economic standing. reform is the inclusion of citizenship Furthermore, the recently-formed education in formal classes (e.g., Partnership for 21st Century Skills (n.d.) Enterprize, Health and Relationships, is a collaborative national organization Finance, Careers Education) and in out-

6 that advocates for 21st century One of the challenges facing schools and readiness for every student in the their leaders will be how to build time in United States. Similar to ECM, the the curriculum to address these types of guiding themes for student learning skills, especially with so much emphasis include global awareness; civic literacy; placed on raising students’ academic financial, economic, business, and performance. Developing curriculum entrepreneurial literacy; and health and organizing schools dedicated to literacy. Three essential skill areas achieving these types of 21st century comprise this learning framework: knowledge and skills will demand school 1. Learning and innovation skills: leaders who not only value these (a) creativity and innovation, (b) critical thinking and problem solving, learning outcomes, but who also have and (c) communication and collaboration the moral courage to advocate for those 2. Information, media, and technology students who have lost hope in skills: (a) information literacy, (b) media literacy, and (c) information, achieving success, especially their communications, and technology literacy motivation to develop life and career 3. Life and career skills: (a) flexibility and skills. Before describing promising hope- adaptability, (b) initiative and self-direction, (c) social and cultural skills, building learning activities, we first (d) productivity and accountability, and examine how hope has been (e) leadership and responsibility conceptualized, measured, and affects individuals’ thoughts and actions.

7 The Importance of Hope patients (Beck & Steer, 1988; Beck, Defining hope. Hope has been defined Weissman, Lester, & Trexler, 1974). as a positive motivational state that To further refine the concept, scholars influences our ability to expend energy in the field of positive psychology to pursue individual goals (Helland & developed what has been come to be Winston, 2005). Hopeful people set known as hope theory (Snyder, Irving, & goals, value progress in meeting these Anderson, 1991). Similar to Beck’s goals, enjoy existing relationships and conceptualization of hopelessness, hope establishing new relationships, are less theory is comprised of three anxious in stressful situations, adapt interrelated components: (a) setting well to environmental change, and goals, (b) being motivated to achieve have compassion for others (Peterson goals, and (c) possessing the means to & Luthans, 2003). One of the earliest overcome obstacles in pursing goals conceptualizations of hope is reflected (Helland & Winston, 2005; Luthans & in the Beck Hopeless Scale (BHS), Jensen, 2002). Setting goals provides which examines individual’s feelings individuals with direction and a future about the future, motivation, and orientation. High-hope individuals expectations. The BHS has been used pursue goals enthusiastically and have primarily with adult psychiatric more goals than low-hope individuals,

8 believing they have “something (1998) notion of optimism, claiming it significant yet to do in their lives” helps individuals react positively to advocated by Barker (1991). The setbacks, guards against depression, second component, motivation (also and improves physical and emotional referred to as agency or willpower), is health. The following formula captures believing we possess the personal the elements of hope theory: capacity and determination to Hope = maintain the effort to reach our Goal setting desired goals (Leithwood & Mascall, (direction/future orientation) + 2008; Luthans & Jensen, 2002). Finally, Motivation having the means (also referred to as (agency/willpower) + pathways or waypower) is the ability to Means generate alternative solutions when (pathways/waypower) obstacles are confronted during goal pursuit (Luthans & Jensen, 2002). Hope has been compared to other These pathways are based on a psychological constructs (see Table 1). person’s problem-solving abilities, On one hand, it is quite similar to resilience, and coping strategies resiliency and creativity. Resilient (Leithwood & Mascall, 2008). individuals meet challenges, overcome Persistence is similar to Seligman’s them, and learn from their experiences

9 to deal with problems they may envision various future outcomes, are encounter in the future (Milstein & self-directed, and have the patience and Henry, 2008). Research has shown that willingness to accept alternatives. On high-hope individuals not only have the other hand, Helland and Winston more effective coping strategies, but (2005) suggest hope differs slightly from also are more persistent when they optimism, self-efficacy, and self-esteem. possess clear goals, motivation to Optimism is the perceived ability to achieve goals, and the means for pursue goals; however, it ignores the achieving their goals (Helland & means for achieving goals. Self-efficacy, Winston, 2005). Hopeful people also the belief that an outcome can be tend to be creative because they can achieved, does not acknowledge how 10 emotions affect our ability to achieve measure the hopelessness of goals. Finally, self-esteem is the adolescents and adults in countries personal estimation of how well we where these languages are spoken (e.g., conduct our lives, but does not account Lam, Michalak, & Swinson, 2005; Shek, for the goals we seek to achieve. 1993; Shek & Merrick, 2007). Another popular instrument is the Adult Hope Measuring hope. Various instruments Scale (AHS), a 12-item self-report have been developed to measure measure that asks questions related to adults’ and children’s hope (Helland & two of the domains of hope theory - Winston, 2005). As noted earlier, one motivation and pathways (Luthans & of the first instruments was the Beck Jensen, 2002; Snyder, Irving, & Hopelessness Scale, a 20-item self- Anderson, 1991). The AHS has been report inventory examining feelings found to be valid and reliable and has about the future, expectations, and been used in hundreds of studies to motivation. The BHS has been found to better understand hope in adults be a highly valid and reliable (Pedrotti, Edwards, & Lopez, 2008). instrument, one that continues to be used today by clinically-trained In the late 1990s, the AHS was adapted professionals. This scale has been for school-aged children (Snyder, translated into Chinese, Danish, Cheavens, & Michael, 1999). Referred to Finnish, and Portuguese and used to as the Children’s Hope Scale (CHS),

11 this six-item self-report examines Effects of hope. Interest in universitychildren’s admissions perceptions (Brunold about-Conesa, their notunderstanding sufficiently hope assessed and its influence(Lee et al., 2010;goals and Resnik, the ways 2009; they strive Tarc, to 2009). meet 2013).has emerged in nursing, counseling, them. Reporting high validity and business, bioethics, and education (Li, The capacity of leaders to achieve both A particular concern among teachers reliability, the instrument was initially Mitton-Kukner, & Yeom, 2008). Not only idealistic and pragmatic objectives of and administrators was that such developed for seven to 16 year olds are empirical findings related to hope in the IB is influenced, to a large extent, students under-prioritized the (Lopez, Snyder, & Pedrotti, 2003). their infancy (Avolio, Gardner, by the wider school community. For Creativity, Action, Service (CAS) course, Originally focusing on White students, Walumbwa, Luthans, & May, 2004), but example, prior research has shown which is central to the IB organization’s there have been recent attempts to current measures also tend to focus on that the educational expectations of philosophy of educating the “whole broaden the use of the CHS to other individual hope, rather than collective families of East Asian heritage tend to person” (Peterson, 1972). For the cultures, including Mexican-American hope in organizations or communities be rooted in a socio-culture that Service component, the IB states that (Edwards, Ong, & Lopez, 2007) and (White-Zappa, 2001). Despite these emphasizes the importance of potential CAS projects include, “helping African-American youth (Valle, shortcomings, tentative claims about achieving high grades in assessments children with special needs, visiting Huebner, & Suldo, 2006); however, the effects of hope reveal its effects on (Lee, Hallinger, & Walker, 2012b). hospitals and working with refugees or “more information is needed regarding adults’ thinking and performance. For Teachers and administrators in our homeless people” (IB, 2014c). conceptual equivalence of the instance, hopeful leaders not only case study of IBDP schools in China Interviewees in Lee et al.’s (2013) study construct of hope across cultures” increase company profits, but also reinforced this view. They described reported that difficulty quantifying (Pedrotti, Edwards, & Lopez, 2008, p. improve employees’ retention rates, job that as a result students often authentic engagement alongside the 102). satisfaction, and commitment (Helland neglected aspects of the IBDP that are &binary Winston, 2005; nature Peterson of & Luthans, the

12 2003). In addition, hope is associated Hale, 2001) with improving academic and athletic ● Career-development skills, particularly assessment criteria, as simply pass or educationalvocational identityresources development such (Diemeras the performance, enhancing mental and & Bluestein, 2007) and future identity fail, meant that CAS was reduced to a internet.development Additionally, (Super, 1980) in one public physical health, reducing stress, and ‘box-ticking’ exercise by many school half (50 percent) of IBDP living longer lives (Luthans & Jensen, We contend school systems and their students. Instead, there was a socio- students were employed in part-time 2002; Stern, Dhanda, & Hazuda, 2001). leaders have the moral and ethical cultural emphasis in the schools on responsibilityjobs to support to their ensure families the academic, (Barnett, Research has focused on ways in which more assessed components of the social,2013). and For emotional these students, development major of hope positively influences children’s IBDP that could more directly support studentsbarriers to in engaging their care. in the If educational IBDP were and adolescents’ thoughts and actions. university admissions (Lee et al., 2013). institutionsmore likely to stem are from serious a lack of about Studies indicate hope is related to: available time or basic resources. Thus, The implementation of the IBDP is also developing successful citizens, ● Personal and social outcomes, such as we wish to note that the diverse social, affected by the socio-economic status consumers, and contributors, then accomplishing goals (Snyder, Sympson, cultural, and economic background of of theMichael, school &community. Cheavens, 2000), Notably, achieving in a school leaders must create the satisfaction (Chang, 1998), and relieving the school community can shape the studydepression of IBDP state (Kwon, sector 2000; schools Snyder, in conditions for students not only to specific obstacles to successful Ecuador,Cheavens, Barnett & Michael, (2013) 1999) reported that achieve and overcome obstacles in their implementation of the IBDP in many● Academic of the students performance, were including from current situations, but also to thrive in attendance and credits earned (Gallup, developing countries. relatively2009b), poor grade backgrounds point average (Marques,and often the future. Therefore, this moral Pais-Riebero, & Lopez, 2009; Snyder, struggled2002; Snyder, financially. Irving, & Anderson,An implication 1991; obligation to affect the hopes and was thatSnyder, many Cheavens, of these & Michael, students 1999), had dreams of children and adolescents scholastic competence (Onwuegbuzie, limited1999), opportunities problem-solving (McDermottto access et al,core rests on school leaders’ core values and 2000), and dropout rates (Worrell & ethics, which we now examine. 13

Values and Ethics being “a set of moral principles or for School Leaders values; a theory or system of moral values” (p. 426). Although many Because large numbers of children and American researchers view ethics, adults are affected by school leaders’ morals, and values as synonymous, decisions, administrators must possess Canadian scholars are more likely to strong values and model ethical view values as a generic term with behavior. The importance of this ethics being a particular category or stance is echoed by Willower (1992): instance of values in action (Begley, “[A] significant portion of the practice 2003). Generally, values are what in educational administration requires individuals, groups, or societies find rejecting some courses of action in desirable or worthwhile, and ultimately favor of a preferred one, [so] values shape their behaviors (Begley, 2003). are generally acknowledged to be Any discussion of this topic poses a central to the field” (p. 369). Popular fundamental question: Why are values literature and research studies and ethics so critical for school leaders? constantly emphasize the importance In attempting to answer this question, of “values,” “ethics,” “principles,” and some of the reasons and forces behind a “morals” when describing the world of values orientation for school leaders are educational leadership. The connection examined below. between these concepts is evident in Webster’s (1987) definition of ethics The school leadership literature 14

● When mediating conflict, leaders must constantly reminds us that leaders reconcile personal, professional, make a host of decisions, many of organizational, and societal values which are values based (Hodgkinson, ● Leaders need to be aware of their core values to determine if they are compatible 1991; Shapiro & Stefkovich, 2005; with the values of the organization and Willower, 1992). The heart of a school community leader’s job, according to Strike, Haller, ● When leaders’ espoused values do not and Soltis (2005), is the intersection of match their actions, they lose credibility value judgments and moral decision As a result of the increasing concerns making. Begley (1999, 2000) describes about social disintegration and moral a variety of contextual factors decline, Murphy (2002) believes school highlighting the importance of values leaders need to be moral stewards and their influence on school capable of defining the purpose of leadership: schools, articulating their own personal

● Value conflicts increase in a pluralistic beliefs and values, and being passionate society, making it essential to understand about their role. This shift in leaders’ the norms and values of other ethnic and cultural groups responsibilities means that the days of

● Leaders’ work is not predictable, routine, solely managing budgets, obtaining or well structured resources, and telling others in their ● Professional ethics are often vague and organizations what to do have long open to differing interpretations passed. ● Decision making requires a judgment of alternative courses of action and their possible consequences

● Authentic leadership focuses on mutual The Moral Obligation trust to help others become more positive, build on their strengths, expand their of Creating Hope horizons of possibilities, behave morally and ethically, and become committed to Because our society expects schools to continuous improvement (Avolio et al, instill hope in our youth (Lopez, 2008; 2004; Luthans & Avolio, 2003). ● Reflective leadership encourages leaders Rath & Conchie, 2009), school leaders to assist teachers and students to examine play a vital role to ensure this occurs. past practices to make better-informed future decisions (Barnett & O’Mahony, This proposition is very compatible 2006; Barnett, O’Mahony, & Matthews, with other concepts and models of 2004; Osterman & Kottkamp, 2004). leadership that emphasize future Consequently, the concepts of aspirations and commitment (Shorey & leadership and hope both deal with Snyder, 2004): envisioning the future, developing ● Spiritual leadership examines the relationships, and affecting outcomes. fundamental needs of leaders and followers that influence their The explicit connection between commitment and productivity (Fry, leadership and hope is articulated by 2003). Burns (2003): ● Positive approach to leadership (PAL) deals with optimism, emotional A leader not only speaks to immediate intelligence, and confidence (Luthans, wants but elevates people by vesting in Luthans, Hodgetts, & Luthans, 2001). them a sense of possibility, a belief that changes can be made and that they can make them. Opportunity beckons

16 where none had appeared before, and once seized upon opens another and rights. The justice lens forces school opportunity and another. (p. 239) leaders to consider: How do we govern ourselves to ensure equitable In conceptualizing the moral and participation in societal and school ethical obligations of school systems affairs? Finally, the ethic of critique and leaders, Starratt’s (1991, 1994) demands school leaders recognize who typology of the ethic of care, justice, has the power and privilege in the and critique has shaped the discourse decision-making process. The key on this topic for well over two decades. question guiding the critique The ethic of care is concerned with perspective is: Who benefits and is relationships with others and how compromised by those in control and school leaders attend to humans’ power? Other scholars have expanded individualism, dignity, and potential. these ethical dimensions to include the The fundamental question school ethic of community (Shapiro & leaders ask themselves using the care Stefkovich, 2005), which is similar to the lens is: How do relationships with notion of cosmopolitanism advocated others influence the quality of our by Appiah (2006). lives? When addressing situations from the ethic of justice perspective, school Despite potential tensions between leaders examine how policies and these three ethics, Starratt (1994) practices affect access, due process, maintains they are compatible and

17 mutually reinforce one another: leaders take a proactive approach to [E]ach ethic needs the very strong educating children; however, little convictions embedded in the other; the ethic of justice needs the attention is devoted to the types of profound commitment to the dignity student outcomes an ethical school of the individual person; the ethic of caring needs the larger attention to would promote. General student social order and fairness if it is to outcomes, such as becoming avoid an entirely idiosyncratic responsible society and community involvement in social policy; the ethic of critique requires an ethic of caring members, developing social skills, and if it is to avoid the cynical and enjoying a fully human life, are depressing ravings of the habitual malcontent; the ethic of justice envisioned in an ethical school requires the profound social analysis environment (Starratt, 1991, 1994). of the ethic of critique in order to move beyond the naïve fine-tuning of Hope theory, on the other hand, clearly social arrangements in a social acknowledges that student success is a system with inequities built into the very structures by which justice is direct result of goal development, self- supposed to be measured. (p. 55) efficacy, and persistence. To The ethic of care, justice, and critique demonstrate how the tenets of hope frame the conditions for establishing theory can guide schools and their an ethical school environment, rather leaders, we now turn our attention to than providing a recipe for school describing how educational leaders can leaders’ actions. Starratt’s framework infuse hope in the curriculum. is extremely valuable in helping school

Embedding Hope in the Curriculum Because school leaders’ daily decisions strategies and learning experiences that impact students’ life chances and focus on developing these three pillars future aspirations, they have the of hope are examined below. In power to build students’ hope for addition, examples are provided from future success. This sentiment is the International School Leadership espoused by Lorraine Monroe, the Development Network (ISLDN), a principal of the Frederick Douglass collaborative research project Academy in Harlem, New York, who sponsored by the University Council for indicates educators need to “be Educational Administration (UCEA) and allowed to work [students] into their the British Educational Leadership bright future” (60 Minutes, 2009). Management and Administration Therefore, school leaders who are Society (BELMAS). The ISLDN is familiar with the elements of hope examining principals from around the theory would be equipped to provide world who are committed to promoting learning activities aimed at developing social justice by working in high-need students’ capabilities to set goals, schools where hopelessness often foster their motivation/willpower, and prevails (Bryant, Cheng, & Notman, establish means/pathways for dealing 2014). with obstacles and failure. Specific

19 Setting Goals

To successfully establish and monitor goals, the fundamental properties of this process must be understood, which include: (1) determining an accomplishment to be achieved, (2) identifying measurable outcomes of the goal, (3) setting timelines and milestones for goal achievement, and (4) assessing personal and resource costs (Rouillard, 2003). Wilson and Dobson’s (2008) ten-step process clarifies the essential elements of effective goal setting. They advocate that goals must: 1. Be written 2. Be defined in measurable terms 3. Be visualized 4. Be achievable 5. Have realistic deadlines 6. Consist of manageable parts 7. Identify potential problems or obstacles 8. Identity solutions to these roadblocks 9. Be reviewed periodically for progress 10. Be rewarded when accomplished (Wilson & Dobson, 2008) It is important to note that the seventh and eighth processes reinforce the importance of confronting obstacles to goal completion (third dimension of hope theory) and processes 3, 4, and 10 deal with motivation (second element of hope theory). Examples of hope-generating techniques used in school counseling provide

2420 educational leaders with practical developing integrated intervention goal-setting guidelines and strategies. plans using comprehensive data Snyder, Feldman, Shorey, and Rand collection and decision-making (2002) claim the first step in engaging processes (Drysdale, Gurr, & Villalobos, youth about hope is to help them 2012), and being organized and identify goals in various aspects of planning thoughtfully (Notman, 2012). their lives (e.g., school, friendships, More importantly, principals had an family). When students complete unwavering commitment to expand inventories to assess their values, students’ goals, aspirations, and life interests, skills, and abilities, they chances. They strived to give students a identify and prioritize important goals. voice by treating them as individuals, Typically, when goals are clearly stated ignoring their past mistakes, and and have distinct endpoints, students providing them with learning have a better chance of determining opportunities they had not previously how well they are progressing towards experienced (Richardson & Sauers, goal achievement. Rouillard (2003) 2014; Slater, Potter, Torres, & Briceno, suggests a useful exercise is for 2014). Their compassion for students’ students to identify opportunities, future success is evident in these write goal statements, develop goals, comments: and formulate and implement action plans. Other examples include I think about equality, opportunities, human rights, dignity for all, and trying student-led conferences and to level the playing field. I think one assessment “for” learning strategies cannot help but live here in India and not question, why me? Why do I have (Stiggins, 2002). these opportunities in life? Why not this other person? (Indian principal). The ISLDN studies point out how (Richardson & Sauers, 2014, p. 107) principals prioritized goal setting Every person has a value, not only to themselves but to the world. You within their schools and with students never know which student might be (Bryant, Cheng, & Notman, 2014). that one student that ends up making a difference. Taking the time to figure Many of these school leaders out those individual needs and taking demonstrated the importance of goal the time to get to know how to fulfill those needs makes a tremendous setting in working with staff to alter difference. It is important that we the school’s vision and culture. maximize our resources. Our resources are our kids (American Examples include clarifying and principal). (Norberg, Arlestig, & communicating desired values and Angelle, 2014, p. 103) performance expectations (Gu & Johansson, 2012; Hipp & Baran, 2013),

2521 Fostering Motivation

The second pillar of hope, having the motivation or willpower to achieve goals, can be nurtured in a variety of ways. Luthans, Vogelgesang, and Lester (2006) identify promising strategies for fortifying the willpower of youth by developing their emotional capacities. First, positive emotion strategies use emotional responses (e.g., smiling, laughing) to trigger a wide range of thoughts and actions. The ability to self- manage emotions, referred to as emotional intelligence, can be developed with practice and feedback (Goleman 1995, 1998). Second, individuals who possess self-enhancement strategies can channel their positive emotions in order to adapt to new situations, cope with stressful events, and believe they will find a way to succeed. Third, attribution strategies focus on examining perceptions of whether the causes of events are within or outside an individual’s influence. Similar to internal (self) and external (other) locus of control, practicing these strategies allows youth to emotionally disassociate themselves from stressful situations, a quality of people with high optimism. Finally, meaning making, self-reflection, and self-awareness exercises intentionally develop hardiness strategies whereby youth can find purpose in their lives, realize they can influence their surroundings and outcomes, and learn from

2422 positive and negative experiences. One re-connect with communities that had of the best examples of how these lost confidence in the school, seek types of strategies can build young additional resources to address the adults’ emotional intelligence and the community’s needs, and incorporate agency to succeed is the “live it community values within the school forward” philosophy (Julian, 2010) or environment and curriculum (Qian, the ability to confront barriers in life 2013; Szeto, 2014). They viewed by developing optimism, passion, community values and culture as an excellence, integrity, energy, and asset, rather than a liability to the leadership. school. Advocacy for students, families, and communities is expressed in these The ISLDN research suggests principals principals’ words: worked with their local communities to help motivate parents and students I educate the youngsters other schools do not want - my school protects other (Bryant, Cheng, & Notman, 2014). For schools from the challenge these instance, they capitalized on local students present and the low base of their starting point… I cannot spend my needs and interests in designing the money just on teachers, I have to spend curriculum. A Costa Rican principal it on social support, enforcement officers, personal tutors and the like… developed art, music, and computer The social injustice is that this is not video game programs to allow understood (England principal). (Slater, students to see the school as a place et al, 2014, p. 114) where their talents and interests were As a principal, I feel the pain and the struggles that the families are going relevant and could be applied (Slater, through. So, when the parent calls you Potter, Torres, & Briceno, 2014). An and says “My car is broken in the driveway, I need to get my child to Australian principal recognized the school,” I’ll put them in my car and I’m students’ and community’s love of art going to bring them to school. Some parents do not have money to by displaying murals and pictures [purchase] their children’s uniform, around the school, designing math some do not have money for electricity, and their children cannot do homework lessons to incorporate artistic (American principal). (Medina, drawings, and creating an art gallery to Martinez, Murakami, Rodriguez, & display students’ work (Wildy & Clarke, Hernandez, 2014, p. 95) 2012). In addition, principals were The parents need to know that other children are equal to and as important highly visible in the community in as their own. Every student in our order to better understand physical, school should enjoy equal [and fair] opportunities to learn and be shown economic, social, and cultural aspects mutual respect. This is the notion of of the environment. This first-hand social justice we want to share with the parents (Hong Kong principal). (Szeto, knowledge allowed them to 2014, p. 119)

2523 Developing Pathways

The final leg of hope theory is possessing pathways, or the ability to surmount obstacles arising during goal pursuit. This may be the most challenging aspect of hope to instill in our youth since two-thirds of American students do not believe they are capable of overcoming the problems they encounter in their lives (Lopez, 2010). In addition to some of the previously- mentioned strategies for goal and motivational development, a variety of other approaches can be used. Notable examples include:

● Solution-focused training includes “solution talk,” not “problem talk” by teaching people to monitor negative self-talk by creating positive self-statements (e.g., “I can do this,” “I’m a capable person”) (Snyder et al, 2002) and keeping a personal journal to monitor the types of language used to describe personal actions, thoughts, and behaviors (Lopez, Rose, Robinson, Marques, & Pais Reibero, 2009).

● Mental rehearsal uses visual imagery, similar to watching yourself in a movie. This process is similar to systematic desensitization used by psychologists to help clients overcome their phobias or fears (Luthans & Jensen, 2002) and psycho-cybernetics, which assists individuals to visualize positive outcomes (Maltz, 2002).

● Hope reminding techniques explore solutions by working with trusted friends, colleagues, and mentors. School counselors assist students develop manageable sub-goals by providing resources (e.g., finding a peer tutor, completing extra assignments) and offering assistance as obstacles arise in pursuing these goals (Pedrotti, Edwards, & Lopez, 2008).

24 Finally, strong pathways are developed Sauers, 2014). Attempting to when students possess resiliency. One overcome these challenges, principals way to help students become more utilized school resources to purchase resilient is to promote conditions that food for students; worked with local build internal protective qualities that agencies to provide medical, social, and can be used to cope with setbacks and educational services; organized failure to accomplish goals. Resilient multicultural activities for parents and individuals possess certain internal community members; and provided job mechanisms, such as having a sense of training for disabled adults (Richardson humor, possessing an internal locus of & Sauers, 2014; Szeto, 2014; Wildy & control, being independent, holding a Clarke, 2012). To gain greater parental positive view of the future, being involvement, some schools established flexible, and being self-motivated formal agreements with parents, (Milstein & Henry, 2008). Another requiring them to monitor their strategy for building resiliency is to children’s homework assignments, lower students’ risk and stress, provide attend conferences with teachers, and them with personal and organizational provide transportation (Hipp & Baran, resources, and develop their cognitive 2013). abilities (Luthans, Vogelgesang, & Lester, 2006). Furthermore, community members gained a renewed sense of hope for Principals working in high-need and commitment to the school when schools in the ISLDN studies leaders revitalized the school grounds demonstrated a keen interest in (Sharvashidze & Bryant, 2014) and building the capacity of students, acknowledged how the school was parents, and community members to overcoming previous failures and withstand the continuous challenges inefficiencies (Drysdale, Gurr, & and obstacles they faced (Bryant, Villalobos, 2012; Qian, 2013). Based on Cheng, & Notman, 2014). They did this their own significant life experiences by gaining an understanding of the (e.g., religious upbringing, personally factors affecting their community experiencing disadvantaged contexts, especially the values and conditions), principals were staunch assets of parents and community advocates for their students and organizations. They were well aware of communities. Their words capture the the chronic problems facing families important life experiences that shaped living in poverty, such as lack of food their commitment to under-privileged and health care services (Gurr, youth and families: Drysdale, Clarke, & Wildy, 2014; Medina et al, 2014; Richardson &

25 Developing Pathways

Growing up in an at-risk home, but hanging around with a friend who had money and a father who exposed me to other areas, other than I was exposed to when I was growing up, helped me to broaden my vocabulary and allowed me to learn new things. I can pay attention to those kids with the same background as I had and say to them that regardless of where you come from, you actually have the ability to be anything that you want (Swedish principal). (Norberg, Arlestig, & Angelle, 2014, p. 104) As a Latina leader, I work for restorative justice because we had a difficult road growing up and in our education. We will never forget the struggles we had within our families (American principal). (Medina et al, 2014, p. 95) My parents, my grandmother… they never had any patronizing comments about others. And I have also seen people suffer at close distance (Swedish principal). (Norberg, Arlestig, & Angelle, 2014, p. 103) Table 2 summarizes the types of learning activities that can be used to foster each element of hope. As these examples of goal- setting, motivation, and pathway development demonstrate, the three pillars of hope are interdependent and mutually reinforce one another. For instance, when developing goals, potential roadblocks are identified and solutions are proposed (Wilson & Dobson, 2008). In addition, the motivational development strategies of improved self-enhancement, attribution, and hardiness (Luthans, Vogelgesang, and Lester, 2006) also focus on pathway development. Finally, the “live it forward” philosophy relies

2426 on motivation (e.g., developing passion and energy) as a means for creating pathways to confront life’s obstacles and setbacks (Julian, 2010).

2527 Leadership Preparation and Development Given the social, health, and emotional experience that create and maintain problems many students experience, hopelessness. By taking to heart the leadership preparation programs must admonition of Beck and Murphy (1994), help leaders to better understand how the profession may well begin to they can influence students’ hope for redefine itself: future success. While research is … preparing administrators for ethical clarifying how school leaders can practice requires more than the establishment of courses. It demands improve the academic performance of that faculty and students engage in students (e.g., Heck & Hallinger, 2009; ongoing reflection and conversation about their beliefs and commitments Leithwood, Anderson, Mascall, & and the ways in which practices and Strauss, 2009; Robinson, 2010; policies support or contradict these… [S]elf-examination and dialogue can Robinson, Lloyd, & Rowe, 2008), far ensure that efforts to address ethics in less attention has been directed at how preparation programs resist the tyranny of technique and, instead, promote leaders can improve students’ social moral thinking and acting in and emotional well being, especially in departments of educational developing their sense of hope. administration and in our schools. (p. 95) Preparation programs should help school leaders develop a sense of So, what would a leadership empathy for the situations children development curriculum look like

28 that focuses on creating more hopeful Snyder, & Heim-Bekos, 2004; Snyder, students? Summarized below are Lopez, Shorey, Rand, & Feldman, 2003). promising activities aimed at Particular attention could be devoted to developing aspiring and practicing learning about the Making Hope school leaders’ capacities to ensure Happen for Kids (MHHK), Making Hope students are provided with learning Happen (MHH), and Making Hope experiences to build their hopefulness. Happen High School (MMH-HS) programs (Bouwkamp & Lopez, 2001;

Edwards & Lopez, 2000; Pedrotti, Lopez, Study Existing Programs & Krieshok, 2000). Leaders also can for Developing Hope learn about instruments measuring Although educational programs to hope (e.g., Children’s Hope Scale), foster children’s and adolescents’ hope administer them in schools, and employ exist, aspiring and practicing school action research to determine the effects leaders may have little or no of programs intended to increase knowledge of these initiatives. One hopeful thinking and behavior (see next tact would be to introduce them to section for examples). hope-generating curricula being used Furthermore, leaders can understand in educational, psychotherapeutic, and how hope is conceptualized and adolescent foster care settings (Shorey, practiced in different cultures. Brendtro,

Brokenleg, and Van Brockern (1990) collaborative efforts of various have examined ways of providing hope constituencies committed to leadership for troubled youth, especially Native preparation and development, this Americans. Based on the spirit of initiative intends to: (a) examine belonging, mastery, independence, contextual issues affecting preparation, and generosity, those who are (b) describe innovative preparation and successful in building hope with Native professional development programs, (c) Americans recognize the importance of define how programs can support creating “reclaiming” environments by: leadership aimed at student learning, (a) relating to the reluctant, (b) using and (d) develop action plans for brain-friendly learning strategies, (c) program improvement and evaluation developing discipline for responsibility, (Jackson & Kelley, 2003; Young & and (d) having the courage to care. Petersen, 2002). In addition to reforms suggested by the NCAELP, many educational leadership Implement Promising Practices scholars have made strong and Programs recommendations for preparing moral Over the past 25 years and ethical leaders whose awareness of a host of reforms have been proposed and sensitivity to different value by national commissions and systems are raised. In building organizations concerned with educators’ capacity to lead democratic educational leadership preparation institutions, Starratt (2003) urges (e.g., National Commission on instructors to blend readings, Excellence in Educational discussions, and research by engaging in Administration, National Policy Board rigorous discussions about what is for Educational Administration, known about school transformation, Interstate School Leaders Licensure critical reflection on what students are Consortium), some of which have learning about their experiences with underscored the importance of values democratic deliberation, and action and ethics (Beck & Murphy, 1994). A research aimed at assessing their recent effort is the creation of the attempts to practice democratic National Commission for the leadership. Grogan and Andrews (2002) Advancement of Educational argue that leadership preparation “must Leadership Preparation (NCAELP), attend to belief, attitude, and whose purpose is “to improve the philosophy” (p. 249) and focus on practice of educational leadership “leadership that leads to an through high-quality preparation and improvement in student performance” professional development” (Young & (p. 250) through the collaborative Petersen, 2002, p. 131). Through the efforts of practitioners and university 30

faculty by: “explicit ideological commitment to ● Admitting students who have addressing social and political problems demonstrated a commitment to social justice and are highly competent of education through participatory reflective practitioners research” (Hollingsworth, 1997, p. 89).

● Focusing knowledge and learning Illustrations of the social and political activities on problems of practice issues affecting students that action ● Allowing experts and novices to reflect researchers have explored include: together on their actions ● How belongingness affects African- ● Structuring programs to assist students American students’ achievement to understand that social justice is a moral obligation of schools and their ● Teaching strategies that improve leaders reading development of struggling high school students ● Immersing students in year-long internships in diverse settings where ● How non-English language learners social justice is practiced segregate themselves during academic and social activities (Caro-Bruce, 2000; These recommendations and the Hollingsworth, 1997) actions and quotes from the principals A promising approach would be to participating in the ISLDN research conduct action research studies on embody the tenets of social justice, school programs explicitly designed to noting the importance of “fairness for increase students’ sense of hope. For all” and recognizing that social instance, at the elementary level, injustice means unequal life chances Making Hope Happen for Kids (MHHK) is based on poverty and discrimination a series of five sessions aimed at helping (Risku, 2012; Tian, 2012; Torres, Cerdas students apply hope constructs in their Montano, & Slater 2012). Therefore, lives. In addition, junior high students one of the important ways prospective have participated in the Making Hope and practicing school leaders can focus Happen program (MHH), a five-week on social injustice, especially the program using didactic teaching and factors contributing to hopelessness, is group work. Finally, Making Hope to conduct action research studies. Happen High School (MHH-HS) is a Typically, action research occurs when program for 9th grade students in urban small groups of practitioners and schools, consisting of five 70-minute researchers identify a problem, sessions with groups of 20 or more determine a plan of action, collect and students. (For a detailed description of analyze data, and use the results for MHHK, MHH, and MHH-HS, see future action (Caro-Bruce, 2000; Sagor, Pedrotti, Edwards, & Lopez, 2008.) 2000). A premise of action research is its focus on social change (Kemmis, 1988), which means research team members need to have an

Conclusion How might our schools and society be Hope Scale (CHS) not only can affected if school leaders and teachers determine the degree of hope reported were committed to creating hopeful by elementary, middle, and high school students? In other words, what students (Lopez, Snyder, & Pedrotti, benefits might occur if communities, 2003), but also can reveal the schools, leaders, and teachers paid hopelessness expressed by various more attention to helping students set racial and ethnic groups, including goals, become motivated to reach Mexican-American (Edwards, Ong, & these goals, and possess the means for Lopez, 2007) and African-American overcoming adversity? One approach youth (Valle, Huebner, & Suldo, 2006). would be to determine how the Using an instrument to assess hope curriculum is affecting 21st century does not reveal the underlying reasons learning outcomes, especially for or consequences of hopelessness. students’ adaptability, self-direction, Therefore, the real benefits of accountability, and responsibility increasing our students’ sense of hope (Partnership for 21st Century Skills, will be evident in their social and n.d.). Another way is to measure the emotional actions. Tangible evidence degree to which students are that schools are successfully becoming more hopeful about their life implementing the programs and, chances. Administering the Children’s

32 activities described above would To achieve these outcomes, school include: leaders must have an unwavering belief

● Reduced school dropout rates, in students’ learning capabilities, especially for Latino, African- maximize instruction time, develop the American, and low-income students problem-solving capacities of their ● Lower violence and gang activity teachers, and use empirical evidence to ● Lower suicide rates monitor results (Chenoweth & Theokas, ● Improved college retention and 2013). Schools, however, are not the graduation rates, especially for first- generation students only institutions that can affect these outcomes. Recent studies have ● Improved mental and physical health, resulting in reduced health identified factors outside the school care costs that impact student learning, such as ● Greater personal accountability and prenatal care, diet and nutrition, responsibility, resulting in less criminal activity and reduced police, environmental pollution, medical care, social welfare, and court costs family relations and stress, and ● Improved civic engagement as neighborhood norms (Berliner, 2009). demonstrated by increased Therefore, parents, social agencies, community participation and voting in local and national elections businesses, and religious organizations must contribute to creating

33 environments of hope. In concert with strengthening high-poverty urban these individuals and agencies, school schools, such as the Coalition of leaders need to confront negative Essential Schools (Brown University), stereotypes about race and class that School Development Project (Yale can promote deficit thinking. They can University), Communities in Schools lead the way by modeling an “asset- (headquartered in Arlington, Virginia), based” view of students and Institute for Urban School Improvement communities by following the guiding (University of Connecticut), and principles of the National Institute for National Institute for Urban School Urban School Improvement (2004- Improvement (Arizona State University). 2005), which underscore that When our youth, especially those from educators should value the knowledge underprivileged backgrounds, begin and experience of children and displaying the anticipated positive social families, use community resources, and academic outcomes listed earlier, and provide an education based on we will know our schools, leaders, and care and respect. School communities are creating more hopeful administrators also can work students. We also will know Robert collaboratively with other Kennedy’s words have come true: organizations committed to

Each time a man stands up for an ideal, or acts to improve the lot of others, or strikes out against injustice, he sends forth a tiny ripple of hope, and crossing each other from a million different centers of energy and daring, those ripples build a current which can sweep down the mightiest walls of oppression and resistance. (as cited in Lopez, 2010, p. 41)

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Gateways to Leading Learning Giving Children Hope: Implications for Schools and Leaders

2015, Number 2