Policy Brief June 2010

CENTER FOR Global Studies

Diasporas in Global — TERRENCE LYONS Associate Professor of Conflict Resolution and Co-Director, Center for Global Studies, George Mason University

PETER MANDAVILLE Associate Professor of & Politics and Co-Director, Center for Global Studies, George Mason University

The rise of diaspora politics poses a challenge to traditional approaches to foreign policymaking that tend to emphasize bilateral state-to-state relations, intergovernmental organizations, and NGOs organized around universal, humanitarian agendas. Whether trying to assess the impact of diasporas in terms of exacerbating civil wars or promoting peace, con- tributing to democratization efforts, or transforming the meaning and practice of citizenship, the need today for policymakers and other practi- Summary tioners involved in foreign affairs, development, and national security to gain a better understanding of how diasporas shape political outcomes is paramount. This brief, based on a three-year comparative study of diaspora impacts on politics across nearly twenty national settings, identifies some of the key policy opportunities and challenges associated with diaspora politics. Center for Global Studies

policy opportunities and challenges associ- From in Liberia and Croatia to ated with diaspora politics. local governance in Mexico and Morocco to civil wars in Sri Lanka and Somalia, Politics, diaspora style diasporas play a key role in contemporary Diasporas, in the present context, are not global politics. With remittances outpac- simply groups of people who share the ing foreign direct investment and official same national origin, live outside their development assistance in many parts of country of birth, and wish to remain tied the world, the World Bank and other do- to their place and culture of origin. Such nors have recognized diasporas as pivotal transnational links are common but gener- players in economic development. The ally focus on maintaining family, religious, potential—if sometimes overestimated— and cultural links and are not particularly threat posed by diaspora support for inter- political. Sometimes, however, a leader or national criminal and terrorist networks political movement will cultivate a par- also receives significant attention. Just as ticular sense of diaspora consciousness or important but less appreciated, however, is commitment so as to advance a specific the fundamental importance of diasporas political agenda. The Croatian diaspora, to some of the more mundane aspects of for example, was “imagined” or “invented” day-to-day political life around the globe. in the 1990s in response to a specific set of The questions largely remain the same: opportunities and threats associated with who gets what, who wins, who pays—but the disintegration of Yugoslavia. Globaliza- “Most politics today transnational migration and instanta- tion, with its inexpensive communications neous communication gives political voice remains local, and ease of travel, has made this type of to distant constituents, often thousands of transnational mobilization more attractive even as the actors miles removed from the settings where and has multiplied the access points for lo- and processes their influence is felt. In short, most poli- cal political contests. shaping them tics remains local, even as the actors and processes shaping them are increasingly are increasingly Diaspora politics takes advantage of the globalized. ability to mobilize in and across multiple globalized.” national settings and to leverage the com- The rise of diaspora politics poses a chal- parative advantages of different locations. lenge to traditional approaches to foreign One set of political tasks (e.g., fundraising, policymaking that tend to emphasize bi- public relations, lobbying) may take place lateral state-to-state relations, intergovern- in one country while another set of tasks mental organizations, and NGOs organized (electoral or military campaigns, mass around universal, humanitarian agendas. mobilization) may take place in another. Whether trying to assess the impact of Networks affiliated with Islamist activists diasporas in terms of exacerbating civil in the Middle East, for example, might wars or promoting peace, contributing to focus on fundraising in the North America democratization efforts, or transforming (where cultures of private philanthropy are the meaning and practice of citizenship, more highly developed than in Europe), the need today for policymakers and other but use the United Kingdom as a base for practitioners involved in foreign affairs, coordinating meetings due to its relative development, and national security to gain proximity to the Middle East, or for media a better understanding of how diasporas operations. If an organization is banned shape political outcomes is paramount. in one country, such was the case with the This policy brief, based on a three-year Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam (LTTE), comparative study of diaspora impacts on fundraising and other critical political homeland politics across nearly twenty operations simply migrate to other loca- national settings, identifies some of the key tions. While many diasporas actively lobby in Washington and other major capitals, a

2 Policy Brief June 2010 growing number have recognized new sites lating agendas, validating leaders, and of global influence, and today target the building parties. The relative political World Bank, NGOs, and businesses active freedom available in the diaspora ad- in their . vantages the perspectives and agendas of those at a distance, shaping politics Furthermore, globalization increasingly in particular directions. empowers diasporas to exert direct politi- cal influence on their homelands rather • Insurgent groups and separatist than limiting their activities to lobbying movements have long relied on the the of countries in which they mobilization of diaspora sentiment. reside. Senegalese in France, Somalis in The Eritrean Peoples Liberation Front England, Kurds in Germany, Moroccans in sustained its struggle in large part Spain, Serbians in Sweden, Sikhs and Tam- through the support of the Eritrean ils in Canada, and Croatians and Ethiopians diaspora. In Sri Lanka, the LTTE in the United States intervene directly in extracted crucial resources from the the often quite contentious politics of their Tamil diaspora to sustain their war homelands. The arenas in which political effort. Recent reports indicate that a contests play out are not necessarily the small number of Somali-Americans settings in which their outcomes will be have become engaged in active support felt most directly. For example, candidates for al-Shabaab insurgents in Soma- for president in the Liberian elections of lia. In some cases the most engaged “The arenas in 2005 opened their campaigns in the United are those at a distance, so States in recognition to the fundamental that Oromos in Minnesota or Tamils which political ways that Liberian politics is transnational in Toronto and London can control contests play out and many of the most influential constitu- the boundaries of what is politically are not necessarily encies do not reside in Liberia. Politicians acceptable. In other cases, however, the settings in a variety of settings today regard an ef- diasporas that maintain geographic fective transnational campaign as essential proximity to the conflict, such as in which their to victory. Afghani refugees in Iran or Rwandans outcomes will be in eastern Congo, retain their links to felt most directly.” Diasporas, it is crucial to recognize, are militarized networks and play signifi- important tools in the hands of a wide cant roles in homeland conflict. variety of political actors. One of the most important factors shaping the nature and • Homeland governments increasingly outcome of diaspora mobilization therefore reach out to “their” diasporas. What relates to the question of who is doing the were sometimes seen as suspect popu- mobilizing: lations in the past are now perceived as partners and assets to promote • Opposition parties in the homeland homeland development in a globalized rely on diasporas not only for operating world. The importance of remittances funds but also as a source of ideas and and the state’s interest in sustaining leadership. While the importance of fi- such flows have led to new nancial support from relatively wealthy of providing homeland identification diasporas is clear, diasporas play a cards, setting up specialized govern- more diverse set of roles in homeland ment bureaus, and sometimes offering politics. When a state such as Ethiopia abroad or dual citizenship. In becomes increasingly authoritarian, some cases reaching out to popula- it is not surprising that opposition tions at a distance is a useful strategy politics is displaced to communities in to avoid engaging with more difficult Washington and elsewhere that then populations at home. Offering political engage in the political work of articu- rights to Dominicans in New York, for

Diasporas in Global Politics 3

Center for Global Studies

example, is far less threatening than dependent on context and difficult to gen- recognizing the political rights of Hai- eralize, there seems to be a general pattern tians who have lived for many years whereby diasporas amplify the extremes in Santo Domingo. Croatia and other of a given political spectrum, consequently states with significant diasporas have weakening the moderate middle: reserved special seats in parliament for those who live outside the territory. • Traditional forms of patron-client Emigrants and their countries of origin relationships have not disappeared are negotiating new forms of citizen- with the spread of cell phones and ship based on greater voluntarism, a websites. Instead, localized political greater emphasis on citizen rights over networks have gone global. Political obligations, and the legitimacy of mul- notables with access to resources – tiple affiliations. village “big men” if you will – may now be living abroad while retaining • Countries of settlement also find ad- influence through diaspora networks. vantages in encouraging diaspora mo- If someone in rural Liberia wishes to bilization. The roles played by Jorge appeal to the central government in Mas Canosa and the Cuban American Monrovia for support, for example, the National Foundation and Ahmed closest social link may be to use a cell “Traditional forms Chalabi through the Iraqi National phone to call a relative in Philadelphia Congress demonstrate the symbiotic of power and who is known to have political relationships that sometimes exist be- connections in Monrovia. Geographic authority such as tween a host state and opposition dia- distance does not always erode political patrimonialism, sporas. In addition, the US Agency for influence. International Development (USAID) sectarianism, and as well as the World Bank and other • Diasporas can amplify political hyper- major donors have identified diasporas extremes…or not. The impact of as important intermediaries to their can operate quite highly mobilized diasporas on home- homelands. Diaspora groups that can readily through land politics is diverse. In some cases, promote conflict resolution and recon- diasporas seem to be more radical and transnational ciliation to overcome polarized politi- reinforce local leaders and movements processes…” cal relationships in the homeland are that engage in politics through cat- often sought but rarely found. egorical, black-and-white frameworks. Diasporas shaping political outcomes Indians in the diaspora contributed to Some early observers of globalization the expansion of the Hindu national- anticipated an age of cosmopolitan, liberal ist (BJP). In a . In contrast the qualitative significant number of cases, however, impact of global diasporas on homeland economic migrants (as opposed to politics has been far more diverse and conflict-generated diasporas) play often not particularly liberal. In many cases important roles in fostering good traditional forms of power and author- governance, democratization, and ity such as patrimonialism, sectarianism, increased transparency. Some Mexican and hyper-nationalism can operate quite hometown associations, for example, readily through transnational processes to have demanded and received annual advance their parochial agendas. Diasporas audits and open bidding for develop- sometimes engage in a kind of romantic ment projects in exchange for sig- “long-distance nationalism” that priori- nificant financial contributions from tizes divisive symbolic issues rather than the diaspora. Diasporas often follow engaging in the pragmatic horse trading rather than lead the radicalization of a of interest-based politics. While highly political movement in the homeland.

4 Policy Brief June 2010

Violence in Kosovo, for example, es- any other or interest groups calated before the radicalization of the inherently embody these qualities. What Albanian diaspora. is distinctive about diasporas is that they challenge contemporary notions of how • Distance empowers categorical politics. political life should be organized. Global- In some cases politically active mem- ization and human migration has discon- bers of the diaspora favor hardline nected the territorial state that regulates militants and can make civil wars more politics from the transnational actors and protracted and difficult to resolve. processes that influence outcomes. Some The impulse to demand categorical have bemoaned the long-distance - goals – liberate every sacred inch of alists who attempt to shape homeland territory! – may come more easily to politics as irresponsible but such transna- those at a distance who do not neces- tional engagement is likely to be a growing sarily pay the costs of the violence. part of political life in the coming decades Insurgent groups ranging from the and therefore needs to be figured into the Tamil Tigers to the Oromo Liberation calculations of policymakers and practitio- Front are captives of militant diasporas ners looking to influence particular politi- that make political solutions to these cal settings. conflicts more difficult. The intensity “The impulse of the Armenian diaspora’s campaign Policy implications: diasporas in the to demand to classify the 1914-1918 conflict with political mainstream categorical goals Turkey as genocide has complicated Understanding transnational political actors relations among Turkey, Armenia, and and processes is necessary to meet emerg- – liberate every the United States, among others. ing global policy challenges. As policy- sacred inch of makers in Washington DC and elsewhere territory! – may • But can also help cooler heads to seek to improve prospects for democrati- come more easily prevail. At the same time, diasporas zation or conflict resolution they should can be a force for peace. For years engage with key transnational political ac- to those at a the Irish Northern Aid Committee tors such as diaspora networks. Rather than distance who do (NORAID) dominated the Irish- seeing diasporas as out-of-touch, unrealis- not necessarily pay American diasporas links to the tic, and troublesome intruders in homeland the costs of the conflict in Northern Ireland and politics, they should be understood as the sustained the most militant leaders. In natural outcome of global migration and violence.” the 1990s, however, a group of Irish- increased levels of interconnectedness in American leaders created Americans the world today. for a New Irish Agenda (ANIA) to compete with NORAID and create a Politicians around the world increasingly constituency for peace. ANIA played recognize the advantages of pursuing an important role in lobbying President transnational strategies. These diasporas Clinton to admit Gerry Adams to the are not exotic or inherently dangerous but U.S. and in supporting the Good Friday behave much like other political parties, peace process in general. interest groups, and organiza- tions seeking to mobilize constituencies to Diasporas are not pre-destined to play advance specific political outcomes. Those one or another political role because, like working in the policymaking world there- political parties, interest groups, civil fore need to: society organizations, and insurgencies, they are mobilized as instruments to influ- • Mainstream the diaspora factor. ence political agendas across the spectrum. Integrate analysis of the challenges Diasporas are not always liberal or radi- and opportunities posed by diasporas cal, tolerant or chauvinistic, any more than across a wider range of foreign policy

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and national security issues; Diasporas also vary significantly across countries of settlement, with refugee • Disaggregate diaspora. Realize that, and asylum policies in receiving states like the homeland settings whose often affecting the political orientation politics they seek to influences, of diasporas; diasporas are themselves politically diverse. Diasporas are not and never • Diaspora impact metrics. Develop have been unitary actors, and they clear criteria for measuring rarely represent the full range of and assessing the political and perspectives to be found among developmental impacts of diasporas in citizens resident in their homelands. particular settings and situations.

The Global Migration & Transnational Politics project at George Mason University’s Center for Global Studies, from which this research draws, was made possible through the generous support of the John D. and Cath- erine T. MacArthur Foundation.

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