Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17734-4 — Tropical Ecosystems and Ecological Concepts Patrick L

Cambridge University Press 978-0-521-17734-4 — Tropical Ecosystems and Ecological Concepts Patrick L. Osborne Index More Information

INDEX

abiotic, 104 age altitude abiotic factors, 51, 121, 135, 163, 296, classes, 126, 128, 131 and climate, 3, 325 325, 332, 339, 424 pyramids, 125, 126, 433 and lakes, 154, 158, 160 Abu Simbel, 212 specific death rate, 128 and species richness, 288, 321, 324 Acacia aneura, 36, 84 specific natality, 129 altitude sickness, 53, 316 Acacia spp., 36, 83, 85 structure, 125 aluminium, 190, 435 Acanthaster planci, 359–361 ageing techniques, 125 Amazonia, 259 Acanthophora spicifera, 373 agouti, 120, 277 climate, 263–264 Acanthurus bahianus, 374 Agouti paca, see paca deforestation, 302 Acanthus spp., 337 agriculture, 436–438 forests, 261, 272 acclimation, 53–54, 316 and climate change, 16, 24 tree growth, 266 acid precipitation, 189 plantation, 436 amictic lakes, 159 acidification, ocean, 367 shifting cultivation, 302, 436 ammonia Acinonyx jubatus, see cheetah slash-and-burn, 302, 304, 308, excretion, 41 Acropora millepora, 368 430, 431 ammonification, 187 Acropora spp., 368, 371 yields and El Niño, 11 amphibians, 38, 170, 259, 274, 407 Acrostichum aureum, 335 ahermatypic corals, 361 global decline, 275 Acrostichum spp., 337 air pollution, 429 Amphiprion polymnus, 375 Adansonia digitata,85 albedo, 15 Anabaena azollae, 256 Adansonia gregorii,85 Alcelaphus buselaphus, see hartebeest Anabaena spp., 186 Adaptive Bleaching Hypothesis algae Anabas testudineus, 225 (ABH), 367 benthic, 161, 195 anabranches, 227 adaptive radiation, 412, 425 brown (Phaeophyta), 371 anacladogenesis, 416 addax, 31 calcareous, 365 Anadara granosa, 344 Addax nasomaculatus, see addax coralline, 371 anadromous fish, 237 Adenia pechuelii,33 diatoms, 152, 162, 163, 170, 190, 195, anagenesis, 416 Adenosine Tri-Phosphate (ATP), 227, 346 Andropogon africanus, 252 see ATP dinoflagellates, 163 Andropogon gabonensis, 251, 252 adiabatic cooling, 316 epiphytic, 161, 195 Andropogon greenwayi,89 Aegialitis spp., 339, 341 euglenophytes, 163 Andropogon spp., 84, 86, 252 Aegiceras corniculatum, 337, 355 green (Chlorophyta), 163, 227, anemones, 361, 375 Aegiceras spp., 341, 342 346, 371 angiosperms, 41 aeolian deposits, 43, 49 in deserts, 32 Angola, 85 Aepyceros melampus, see impala red (Rhodophyta), 227, 346, 371 animal aerenchyma, 167 Algeria, 13, 29, 30, 56, 62 behaviour, 38, 45, 46, 53, 94, 109, Aeschynomene pfundii, 244, 245 Algyroides alleni, 329 113, 114, 135, 411 Aeschynomene spp., 243 Allee effects, 106 community, 330–332 Aeschynomene uniflora, 252 allochthonous inputs, 169, 215, 219, 228 life history, 4, 42, 128, 132, 238 aestivation, 38, 54 allopatric speciation, 325, 416, 419 migration, 4, 10, 16, 92–93, 119, Afro-alpine, 325–328, 329 Alnus spp., 323 137, 237 Afrotropical region, 19, 21 Aloe asperifolia,33 Anisoptera thurifera, 296 Agaonidae, 280 Aloe dichotoma,33 Annelida, 170 Agathis spp., 250, 402 Aloe spp., 37 annual plants, 37 Agavaceae, 69 alpha diversity, 287 deserts, 30, 54

502 Index

annual plants (cont.) assimilation efficiency, 175 bacteria, 39, 45, 75, 79, 176, 392 grasses, 60 Asteraceae, 323 decomposition, 278, 347, 349–352, 353 life-form concept, 273 Astrebla pectinata,37 disease, 446 reproductive strategies, 103 Astrebla spp., 84 nitrogen cycle, 186, 352 Anogeissus leiocarpus,86 Aswan High Dam, 207–212, 214, 234 nitrogen fixation, 185, 186, 256, 281 anolis lizards, 180 atelomixis, 153, 159 photosynthesis, 66 anoxia Atlantic Ocean, 19, 32 soil, 14, 50, 54 in lakes, 162, 180, 194, 199 coral reefs, 377 sulphur cycle, 189 in mangrove sediments, 339, 352 mangroves, 335 bacterioplankton, 364 in rivers, 226 atolls, 369, 370 Bahamas, 180, 346 ant plants, 279 ATP, 67, 70, 79, 189 bamboos , 60, 62, 272 ant–Acacia mutualism, 94 Atriplex spp., 37 Bambusoideae, 62 Antarctica Aulacoseira spp., 170, 195 bandicoots, 38, 39, 343, 431 Gondwana, 20 Australasian region, 19, 21 Bangladesh, 336 ozone layer, 14 Australia human population growth, 433, 434 sea level rise, 16 barramundi, 238 sea level change, 16 antbirds, 276 bird migration, 16, 256 Banksia spp., 85 Anthozoa, 361 climate, 11, 13, 35, 36, 78, 139 Barbus gonionotus, 172, 173 anticyclone, 7 climate change, 17 Barbus microps, 172 Aphanizomenon spp., 186 coral reefs, 369, 372, 385 Barbus paludinosus, 245 Aplocheilus panchax, 172, 173 deserts, 35–39 barracudas, 359, 371, 372 Apogon binotatus, 374 exotic species, 37, 198 barramundi, 238 Apogon townsendi, 374 food production, 437 Barringtonia asiatica, 397 Aporosaura anchietae, see sand-diving forests, 261, 300 Batrachochytrium dendrobatidis, 275 lizard Gondwana, 20 Batrachospermum spp., 227 aquaculture, 196, 440–441 Great Barrier Reef, 386 bats, 263, 307, 397, 410 aquatic plants human colonisation, 430 pollination, 272, 278, 342 primary production, 163 Kyoto Protocol, 18 seed dispersal, 272, 399 zonation, 166–168 mangroves, 335, 337, 345 Belize, 353, 373, 390 aquatic resource management, 210 marsupials, 18, 38 benthos, 170, 222 aquatic/terrestrial transition zone, 232 megafauna, 422, 430 Bermuda, 346 Arapaima gigas, 221 Murray River, 207 beta diversity, 287 Araucaria spp., 320, 402 ozone layer, 14 Bhutan, 434 Archaeabacteria, 285 Proteaceae, 18, 85 biennials, 60 Arctic, 15 river discharge, 211 bioaccumulation, 422, 445, 451 global warming, 12, 15 salinity, 47 biodiversity conservation, 260, 288, ozone layer, 14 savanna, 83, 84–85, 87 306, 309–312, 449 sea level rise, 15 waterfowl, 444 biogeochemical cycles, 184–192, 202 soils, 51 autochthonous inputs, 170, 228 biogeographical regions, 18, 19, 21, wetlands, 255 autotrophs, 79, 162, 246, 247, 258 24, 402 Arecaceae, 267 chemosynthetic, 176 biogeography Argentina, 222 definition, 22 coral reefs, 375–380 Aristida contorta, 37, 84 energy flow, 22 definition, 18, 24 Aristida spp., 84 photosynthetic, 176 fish, 225 Arius manilensis, 196 Avicennia germinans, 335, 338, 345 island, 402–410 armadillo, 277 Avicennia marina, 335, 336, 337, mangroves, 335–336 Arthraerua leubnitziae,33 345, 355 rain forests, 259 Arthropoda, 170 Avicennia spp., 335, 337, 339, biological clock, 10 Arthrospira fusiformis, 192 341, 342 biological control, 146, 148 Arundinaria falcata,62 Azolla pinnata, 256 Biological Dynamics of Forest Ascension Island, 404 Azolla spp., 221 Fragmentation Project Asplenium nidus, 268 Azotobacter spp., 186 (BDFFP), 307

Index 503

biological species concept, 415, 425 Brachyplatystoma vaillantii, 234 human population growth, 434 biomanipulation, 200, 203 Brachystegia spp., 85 Buteo galapagoensis, 414 biomass Bradypus tridactylus, 274 Buteo swainsoni, 415 pyramids, 176, 177 Brazil Byrsonima crassifolia,83 biomes, 21, 24 Amazon River, 216

and climate, 22 bamboo ﬂowering, 62 C3 photosynthesis, 69, 71, 79, 364 life-form concept, 273 climate, 11, 13 and altitude, 328–329 primary production, 79 deforestation, 261, 301 epiphytes, 268

Biomphalaria spp., 199 forest fragmentation, 307 C4 photosynthesis, 42, 68, 69, 71, 79, 82 biotic relaxation, 307, 408 forests, 261, 264, 281, 282 and altitude, 328–329 biotrophs, 353 insect diversity, 260 and temperature, 46, 81 bioturbation, 49 Manaus, 428 desert plants, 30 birds, 170 mangroves, 335 Cactaceae, 69 acclimation, 53 oil palm, 438 caddis-fly, 227 and climate change, 16, 275 Pantanal, 83, 84 Caesalpinia spp., 83 and species richness, 290 Rio Negro, 218 Calamus spp., 268 bioaccumulation, 445 Salvinia molesta, 148 Calceolaria spp., 323 body temperature, 46 savanna, 83, 84 Calceolariaceae, 323 diversity, 132, 259, 289, 310 schistosomiasis, 199 calcification, 393 in deserts, 34, 43 species diversity, 292 calcium in estuaries, 237 threatened species, 310 in coral reefs, 365–366 in forests, 259, 263, 274, 306, 307 tree growth, 265 in forests, 281 in mangroves, 334, 343 breeding season, 99, 182, 233, 344 in peat, 250 in savanna, 84, 87 brocket deer, 277 in rivers, 214, 223 in wetlands, 248, 253, 255 Bronze Age, 430 in soils, 49, 190 island colonisation, 397, 401, 402, Bruguiera cylindrica, 342 calcium carbonate 405, 420 Bruguiera gymnorrhiza, 337, 342, aquatic plants, 185 migration, 4, 255, 331 355, 423 coral reefs, 185, 363, 365–366 on mountains, 288 Bruguiera parviflora, 342 precipitation, 185 pollination, 278, 423 Bruguiera spp., 337, 339, 341, 342 Calvin cycle, 68 seed dispersal, 280, 298, 399, 401 Brunei, 269, 271, 288 calving species richness, 84 Brunellia spp., 323 interval, 101 territory, 106 bryophytes, 250, 321, 397 synchrony, 102–103 birth control, 448 Buddleja spp., 323 CAM photosynthesis, 42, 66, 69, 70, 79 birth rate, 97, 98 buffalo, African, 92, 96, 329 desert plants, 33 human, 431, 448 and rainfall, 55, 104, 105 epiphytes, 268 Bitis peringueyi,34 as prey, 113, 116 Cambodia, 85, 261, 434 black fly (Simuliidae), 227 food, 108 camel, 31, 46, 54 blue revolution, 440 habitat preference, 109 Camelus dromedarius, see camel Boa constrictor, 274 poaching, 132 camera traps, 97 Boiga irregularis, 198, 423 population growth, 91 Cameroon, 12, 155 Bolivia, 218, 234, 322 reproduction, 103 camouflage, 53 boron, 49 rinderpest, 91, 101 Campnosperma coriaceum, 250 Boscia albitrunca,33 buffalo, water, 85 Canada, 259, 292, 439 botanical spectrum, 273 Bufo marinus, 198 Canis aureus, see jackal Bothrops asper, 274 Bufo periglenes, 275 capillary water, 49 Botswana, 114, 253, 448 Bulinus spp., 170, 199 Capra hircus, 422 bottom-up control, 174, 195, 200 burity palm, 256 capture-mark-release and recapture, 97 Bowdichia virgilioides,83 Burkea africana,86 capybara, 84, 85, 248, 277 Brachionus caudatus, 170 Burma, 7, 85 caracal, 115 Brachionus falcatus, 172 cyclone Nargis, 9 carbon Brachyplatystoma flavicans, 234 forests, 261, 300 cycle, 184–185, 187, 202

504 Index

carbon (cont.) Chad, 226 agreements, 17–18 global budget, 17 chamaephytes, 273 amphibian decline, 275 isotopes, 353 Chanos chanos, 198 coral reefs, 387 carbon credits, 18 Chaoborus spp., 172, 174 deserts, 33 carbon dioxide Characidae, 183 hydrology, 210 compensation point, 73, 80 character displacement, 382, 417 impacts, 1, 14–17 fixation, 41, 66, 68, 80 Charonia tritonis, 360 rain forests, 266, 271 greenhouse gas, 12, 437 cheetah, 109, 111, 113, 114–115, 135 climax community, 254 in atmosphere, 12–14, 17, 24, 65, 72, Cheilochromis euchilus, 420 clownfish, 361, 375 80, 309 Chelonia mydas, 347 coastal zone management, 354–355 in forests, 265, 283, 297 chemical defences, 94, 278, 297, 374 coati, 120 in lakes, 155, 160 Chenopodiaceae, 37 co-evolution, 281–280, 414, 448 Lake Nyos, 155 chevrotain, 277 cold tolerance, 326–328 ocean acidification, 366 Chile, 13 cold-blooded, 46 uptake by leaves, 65 China Colocasia esculenta, 256 Caridina nilotica, 195 bamboo flowering, 62 Colombia, 83, 234, 261, 322 carrying capacity, 99, 101, 102, 103, birth control, 448 colonisation, islands, 401–402 121, 122, 135 food production, 440 Colophospermum mopane,85 definition, 100 human population growth, Colossoma sp., 223 forest fragments, 307 432, 434 Colpocephalum turbinatum, 415 human population, 435 mangroves, 355 Combretocarpus rotundatus, 249 Carter, J., 435 Chlidonias niger, 178 Combretocarpus spp., 250 cassava, 431 chlorine, 49 Combretum molle,89 Cassia grandis, 279 chlorofluorocarbons (CFCs), 12, 14 comminution (decomposition), 350 cassowary, 400 chlorophyll, 49, 56, 188 Commiphora trothae,89 Castanopsis spp., 320 in lakes, 164, 194 community Casuarina equisetifolia, 397, 401 in photosynthesis, 66, 70 assembly, 254–255, 258, 332, Casuarina spp., 250, 397 Choloepus spp., 274 382–383, 401–402, 417, 418, 424 Casuarius spp., 400 Chordata, 170 definition, 331, 380 catabolism, 350 Chortoicetes terminifera,38 disharmony, 402 catadromous fish, 237, 238 Chromis multilineata, 374 ecology, 23, 330–332 catbirds, 410 Chromis spp., 374 ecology and evolution, 423–424 catchment area Cichla ocellaris, 178, 182–183 holistic concept, 331 lakes, 168–170, 189, 193, 195, Cichlasoma maculicauda, 178, 183 individualistic concept, 331 200, 202 Cichlidae, 150, 182, 198, 412 neutral theory, 383–385 rivers, 205, 212, 218 adaptive radiation, 413 phase shifts, 386 cation-exchange capacity, 51, 436 cladogenesis, 416 compensation point cattle-ranching, 83, 129, 134, 300, Cladopus queenslandicus, 227 carbon dioxide, 73, 80 302, 437 Clarias batrachus, 172, 173 light, 72, 73, 80 Caulerpa sertularioides, 373 Clarias gariepinus, 176, 245 competition, 107–108 cauliflory, 272, 318 Clarias spp., 172 community assembly, 255, 332, 380 Cecropia ficifolia, 294 cleaner fish, 361 definition, 107, 140 Cecropia spp., 278, 295 Clements, F.E., 331 interference, 108, 140 Cedrela spp., 295 Clethra spp., 323 Lotka–Volterra model, 109–111 Ceratophyllum demersum, 146, 167, climate niche theory, 381 221, 244 and altitude, 3, 211 plant strategies, 121 Ceratotherium simum, see rhinoceros, and latitude, 3, 35 resource, 108, 140 white and ocean currents, 15 resource partitioning, 115, 134 Ceriodaphnia cornuta, 172 diagrams, 10, 12, 29, 36 species diversity, 376 Ceriodaphnia spp., 183 global, 1, 10 competitive exclusion principle, 109, 161 Ceriops spp., 337, 341, 342 variation, 18 conductivity, 209, 212–214, 245 Ceriops tagal, 337, 345 climate change 12–18, 24 connectance (food webs), 174, 424

Index 505

Connochaetes taurinus, see wildebeest Costa Rica photosynthesis, 66 conservation altitude distribution, 289 Cyathea percrassa, 321, 322 African wildlife, 132–135, 141 amphibian decline, 275 cycles biodiversity, 260, 288 birds, 259, 276, 289 biogeochemical, 184–192 rain forests, 304–309 carbon credits, 18 hydrological, 172 wetlands, 255–257 forests, 270, 276, 299 predator–prey, 120 consumers seasonal forests, 270 cyclomorphosis, 183 aquatic, 172 species richness, 288 cyclones, 7, 9, 296, 337, 347 definition, 22 tapir, 278 Cyclostephanos sp., 195 continental drift, 18, 19 tree growth, 265 Cymbopogon spp., 89 Conus spp., 346 wetlands, 255 Cymodocea spp., 346 Convention on Biological Diversity, 309 cotingas, 276 Cynometra iripa, 337 Convention on International Trade in Cotyledon orbiculata,33 Cynometra spp., 342 Endangered Species (CITES), 309 Cotylelobium spp., 271 Cynopterus sphinx, 399 convergent evolution, 276–277, crabs, 38, 54, 343, 347, 349 Cynopterus spp., 399 334, 420 Crassulaceae, 69 Cyperaceae, 323 Conyza spp., 243 Crassulacean Acid Metabolism Cyperus digitatus, 243 Cook Islands, 367 (CAM), see CAM photosynthesis Cyperus esculentus, 244, 256 copper, 49 Crematogaster mimosae,94 Cyperus imbricatus, 252 coral Crematogaster nigriceps,94 Cyperus immensus, 243 bleaching, 16, 367–368, 385–388 Crematogaster sjostedti,94 Cyperus laevigatus, 244, 245 calcification, 365–366 Cretaceous Period, 20 Cyperus longus, 244 diversity, 377 crocodiles, 170 Cyperus papyrus, 167, 243, 244, 245, mass spawning, 368–369 sex determination, 17 246, 247, 256 nutrition, 363–365 Crocodylus niloticus, 104, 170 Cyperus spp., 222 reproduction, 368–369, 393 Crocodylus novaeguineae, 343 Cypria javana, 172, 173 structure, 361–363 Crocodylus porosus, 343 Cyprinidae, 151 zonation, 371 Crocuta crocuta, see hyena Cyprinus carpio, 196 coral reef fish Cromwell Current, 413 Cyrtandra sulcata, 397, 399 activity, 374 Croton spp., 136 Cyrtobagous salviniae, 148 diversity, 374 crown-of-thorns starfish, 359–361, Cyrtobagous singularis, 148 feeding, 372–374 375, 385, 386 Cyrtostachys renda, 250 population structure, 391 crude death rate, 128 reproduction, 374–375 Crustacea, 170 Dacrycarpus spp., 320 coral reefs cryoprotection, 327 Dactylocladus stenostachys, 250 algae, 371–372 cryptic colouration, 117 Damaliscus korrigum, see topi biodiversity, 288, 375–380 cryptobiosis, 30, 31 damselfish, 361, 372, 374 biogeography, 375–380 cryptophytes, 273 Daphnia spp., 170, 173 conservation, 386–393 Cryptorhynchidae, 405 Darwin, C., 369, 403, 410, 413 degradation, 385–387, 392 cryptovivipary, 342 Darwin’s finches, 410 global distribution, 2, 378 cryptozoic, 329 Dasyatis americana, 347 herbivory, 373 Cuba, 7, 407 Dasyprocta sp., see agouti pollution, 388 Culex quinquefasciatus, 421 Dasyprocta spp., 279 sea-level change, 16 Curatella americana, 63, 83 Dasyurus hallucatus,38 sedimentation, 388, 390–392 cyanobacteria, 170, 185, 192 dating, sediments, 195, 251 structure, 362 and temperature, 45 day-length, 6 symbiosis, 361 coral reefs, 371 flowering, 17 threats, 388 in phytoplankton, 162, 163, 170, 195, seasonality, 6, 10 types, 369–370 196, 203, 211 de Candolle, A., 1 Coriolis force, 6, 24 in soil, 397 death rate cormorants, 192 nitrogen fixation, 186, 188, 202, 224, age specific, 128 Coryphopterus personatus, 374 371, 393 crude, 128

506 Index

deciduous trees, 37, 270 climate, 8, 26, 29, 30, 32, 43, 56 bilharzia, 199 decomposers, 22 conservation, 56 bubonic plague, 62, 431, 446 community assembly, 255 plants, 30, 42, 43, 54 canine distemper, 105 definition, 23 primary production, 78 Chagas’, 446, 447 in forests, 281, 282, 353 soils, 50, 51 cholera, 429, 446 in lakes, 177, 190, 191 Deserts cowpox, 447 in mangroves, 345, 350, 351, 352 Atacama, 27 dengue fever, 16, 343, 428, 446 in wetlands, 248 Gibson, 36 diarrhoea, 428, 429 decomposition, 12, 14, 15, 349–353, 356 Great Australian, 27 diphtheria, 446 cascade, 350, 351 Kalahari, 27, 253 ebola, 448 in forests, 353 Karoo, 32, 33 endemic, 446 in lakes, 146, 354 Mojave, 27 epidemic, 275, 446, 447 in mangroves, 347–349, 350, Namib, 27, 31–35, 42, 55 hepatitis B, 446, 447 351–352 Sahara, 27–31, 56, 86, 205 influenza A, 446 in savannas, 353 Sahel, 27, 29 Lassa fever, 448 in wetlands, 248, 250 Simpson, 36 leishmaniasis, 446 on mountains, 316 Deshayes gland, 352 malaria, 16, 211, 343, 431, 446, 448 rates, 352–353 desiccation, 38, 41 measles, 446, 447 trophic levels, 177 Desulfomonas spp., 189 mumps, 446 deer, 84 Desulfovibrio spp., 189 pertussis, 446 defence detritivores, 23, 351 rabies, 106 against herbivory, 278 detritus, 23, 34 rinderpest, 91, 101, 105, 106, 135, against predation, 116–117 food chain, 176, 177, 216, 225, 237, 136, 137, 447 deficiency disease, 49, 58 247, 353 rotavirus A, 446 deforestation, 301–304 Diadema antillarum, 359 rubella, 446 and carbon dioxide, 14, 17 Diadema spp., 385 schistosomiasis, 199, 446 Brazil, 301 diaheliotropism, 41 simian immunodeficiency virus, 448 Madagascar, 302, 303 diapause, 30–31 sleeping sickness, 446 Papua New Guinea, 304 diatoms, see algae smallpox, 446, 447 savanna, 85, 89 Dicerorhinus sumatrensis, see syphilis, 446 Degeeriella regalis, 415 rhinoceros, Sumatran tetanus, 446 Democratic Republic of Congo Diceros bicornis, see rhinoceros, black trypanosomiasis, 129, 446 age pyramid, 433 Dichanthium annulatum,85 tuberculosis, 446 climate, 13 Dichanthium spp., 84 typhoid, 62, 429, 446 forests, 261 Dictyosphaeria cavernosa, 385, 386 typhus, 62, 446, 447 human population growth, 433 Dicymbe corymbosa, 301 yellow fever, 16, 446, 447 monodominant forests, 260 Digenia simplex, 373 disharmony, see community savanna, 83 Digitaria macroblephora,89 dispersal demographic failure, 421 Digitaria spp., 89 animal, 98 demographic transition, 431, 433, 434 dikdik, 94, 108, 109, 117 barriers, 325 Dendrosenecio keniodendron, 326, dimictic lakes, 159, 160 coral reef fish, 375 327, 329 Dimorphanthera spp., 321 definition, 106, 140 denitrification, 162, 188–189, 285, 350 dinosaurs, 422 island biogeography, 404 density (population), 92, 139 Diplachne fusca, 244, 245 island colonisation, 401 density and water temperature, 40, 143, Dipterocarpaceae, 260, 269, 271, limitation, 385 145, 149, 152, 156–159 272, 288 dispersion density-dependence, 111, 140 Dipterocarpus spp., 250, 271 definition, 107, 140 density-independence, 121, 140 Dipteryx panamensis, 299 diversity desertification, 55, 56, 58 disease, 105–106 and grazing, 76, 95 deserts AIDS, 446, 448 biological, 285–287 and latitude, 6, 27 avian malaria, 421 genetic, 285 animals, 41, 42, 58 avian pox, 421 in deserts, 35, 37

Index 507

in ecotones, 109 concept, 21 endogenous cues, 31, 34 in forests, 259, 288–293 definition, 22 endorheic lakes, 191, 192, 205, 243 in lakes, 150, 197 diversity, 285 endothermy, 38, 46, 57, 175, 179, 182 in mangroves, 335 models, 135–139, 141, 387 energy in rivers, 224–225, 227 resilience, 306 budget, 175–176 in savanna, 84, 87 ecotones, 108, 300 flow, 23, 174–176, 202, 248 maintenance, 296–300 ectothermy, 38, 46, 57, 175, 182 pyramids, 177 on coral reefs, 375–380 Ecuador, 153, 259, 261 Enhalus acoroides, 346 on mountains, 322, 324 Andes, 315, 322–323 Enhalus spp., 346 species, 285–287, 290, 313 egrets, 192 Entandrophragma spp., 296 domestication, 430 Egypt Enterolobium cyclocarpum, see dormancy climate, 29 guanacaste seed, 82, 297, 338, 342 human population, 56 environment drainage basin, 205 human settlement, 430 definition, 21 drought, 42 industrialisation, 212 environmental and animals, 43, 89, 98, Lake Nasser, 209 cues, 31, 34, 270, 307 104, 132 Nile River, 209 factors, 31, 39, 44, 51–53, 54–55, 57, and climate change, 16, 266 sea level change, 16 59, 66 and El Niño, 11–12, 280, 413 Eichhornia crassipes, 146, 167, 198, Eperua falcata, 260, 301 and humans, 205 221, 233, 243, 252 Ephalophis greyi, 343 and plants, 33, 35, 36, 43, 49, 59, 63, Eichhornia spp., 172, 173, 174, 196 ephemeral plants, 30, 33, 34, 35, 37 64, 70 El Niño Southern Oscillation (ENSO), epifauna, 346 and savanna, 61 10–12, 15, 17, 24, 265, 271, 413, epilimnion Dryobalanops spp., 271 414, 421, 429, 441 definition, 143 dugong, 346, 347, 356, 385 coral bleaching, 367 see thermal stratification Dugong dugon, see dugong Elaeis guineensis, 437 epiphytes duiker, 117, 277, 329 Elaeocarpus azaleifolius, 320 algae, 161, 195 Dunaliella salina, 192 eland, 92, 109, 329 ant plants, 279 dung beetles, 354 Eleocharis plantaginea, 251, 252 in montane forests, 318, 330 Durio spp., 272, 279 elephant, African, 97, 306, 329 in rain forests, 21, 250, 267–269, as prey, 114, 116, 117 299, 300 Earth conservation, 134–135 on seagrasses, 346 physical structure, 19 culling, 135 plants, 69, 316, 321 rotation, 4 feeding, 94, 108 equinox, 4, 334 earthquakes, 19, 143, 295 habitat preference, 109 Equus quagga burchelli, see zebra Echinochloa polystachya, 221–222 ivory, 134–135 Eremitalpa granti namibensis, see Echinochloa pyramidalis, 244, 252 mortality, 105 golden mole Echinochloa stagnina, 252 poaching, 132 Ericaceae, 323 Echinothrix spp., 347 reproduction, 101 Espeletia pycnophylla, 323 ecological vegetation change, 82, 136 estuary, 205, 235–238, 240 density, 92 emigration, 98 Ethiopia, 206, 207 efficiency, 176, 177, 179 endangered species, 256, 309–310, Eubacteria, 285 fitting, 403 421, 487 Eucalyptus spp., 36, 37, 83, 84 footprint, 427 endemism Eudorcas thomsonii, see Thomson’s pyramids, 176–178, 202 in deserts, 30, 32, 33, 35, 37 gazelle redundancy, 305 in lakes, 150, 152, 173, 412, 420 Eunectes spp., 274 release, 402 in rain forests, 288, 298, 302, 306 Euphorbia virosa,33 separation, 115 in rivers, 215 Euphorbiaceae, 69 services, 285, 309, 354, 404 in savanna, 83 euphotic zone, 146, 150, 161, 194 ecosphere on islands, 11, 403, 414, 416, 420, 425 euros, 38 definition, 21 on mountains, 275, 323, 324, 325 euryhaline, 52, 237 ecosystem protected areas, 310 euryspecies, 52

508 Index

eurythermal, 52 Ficus schultesii, 269 grazing, 176 eutrophic lakes, 146, 186, 193, 195, 200 Ficus spp., 253, 268, 280, 397, 399 length, 178–181, 202 eutrophication, 162, 193–196, 200, 203 fiddler crabs, 343, 350 food webs, 170, 179, 181, 182–184, 202 control, 193, 200 field capacity, 49, 51, 57 biomanipulation, 200 definition, 192 fig wasps, 280, 401 connectance, 174 evaporation, 15, 26 figs, 268, 279, 280, 398, 401 in lakes, 170–174 animal, 38, 39 Fiji, 360, 367, 376, 402, 405 in mangroves, 347 from lakes, 192, 209, 244 filter bridge, 402 in rivers, 215, 225 from soils, 43, 46, 49, 295 fire in wetlands, 257 hydrological cycle, 171 climate change, 69 isotope analysis, 353 plant, 81, 337 effects of, 37, 121, 222 microbial, 364 evaporative cooling, 38, 45, 65 forest, 295, 296, 300, 307 on coral reefs, 372 evolution, 410–413 grass growth, 59, 62, 64, 77, 82 forage facilitation, 92, 93, 96 co-evolution, 414, 448 human use, 429 Foraminifera, 346 convergent, 277, 334, 420 on mountains, 267, 319 forest on islands, 411, 414–415 plant adaptations, 37, 63 biogeography, 263 Excoecaria agallocha, 337 savanna, 82, 84, 89, 135–136 climate, 261–266 Excoecaria spp., 341 succession, 254, 255 conservation, 304, 308–306, 309 excretion wetlands, 248 decomposition, 353 and nitrogen, 41 fish deforestation, 301–304, 313 and water balance, 41 biogeography, 225 formations, 262 exogenous cues, 31 diversity, 197, 227 fragmentation, 306–308, 313 exotic species, 172, 198, 234, 243, 275, estuaries, 237 gap theory, 293–296, 313 308, 413, 422, see introduced freshwater, 214–216 profile diagram, 269 species migration, 237 restoration, 308 exploitation efficiency, 175 spawning, 223 succession, 295–296, 297, 298 exponential growth, 98–100, 139 fisheries, 439–441, 451 forests, see rain forest external loading, lakes, 191 and mangroves, 354 deciduous, 300 extinction, 411, 421–422 global, 440 flooded, 223 island biogeography, 407 maximum sustainable yield, 439, low diversity, 300–301 mass events, 421 442–441, 442, 451 mono-dominant, 300–301 extirpation, 17 overfishing, 387 monsoon, 51, 262 on islands, 407 flagship species, 306 montane, 211, 262, 316, 318, 320, floodplains, 220–223, 231–233, 239 323, 326, 330 Fabaceae, 260, 267, 301, 323 flood-pulse concept, see river swamp, 249–250, 256 family planning, see birth control flowering, 37, 123 fossil fuels, 12, 14, 17, 24, 202, 437, Faurea spp., 85 and climate change, 17 438, 451 Favia spp., 368 bamboos, 60, 62 France, 62 Favites spp., 368 grasses, 60, 62 French Polynesia, 367 fecundity, 98, 102, 121, 122, 140, rain forests, 270–273 frogs, 38, 54 238, 386 timing, 10, 17, 36 fruiting fennec fox, 31 fluvial deposits, 43, 49 mast, 271, 272, 278 ferns and fern allies, 39, 41, 147, 256, flycatchers, 410 rain forests, 270–273 268, 316, 320, 321, 344, 397, 403 food timing, 10 Ferrel cell, 28 production (human), 435–444 fungi, 39, 50, 75, 278, 279, 301 fertility supply, 34, 98, 104–105, 118, 137 and leaf-cutting ants, 279 definition, 102, 140 Food and Agriculture Organization, 436 human food, 435 human, 448–449 food chain mangroves, 349, 350, 352 Festuca papuana, 322 detritus, 176, 353 mycorrhiza, 283, 301 Festuca spp., 323, 329 efficiency, 181–182 pathogens, 446 Ficus fulva, 397 energetics, 174–176 Fungi, 285

Index 509

Galápagos hawk, 414, 415 and rain forests, 266 gymnosperms, 33, 41 Galápagos Islands, 400, 411–414, 417, Glossina morsitans, 127 Gynoxys spp., 323 419, 421 Glossina spp., see tsetse fly Galápagos penguin, 421 Glossogobius giurus, 196 habitat Galápagos rail, 423 Gnaphalium sp., 243 conservation, 309, 310 Gambusia nicaraguagensis, 178 Gobiomorus dormitor, 178 fragmentation, 234, 275, 302, 423 gamma diversity, 287 Gobiosoma evelynae, 374 preferences, 109 Gastropoda, 346 golden mole, 34 Hadley cell, 28 Gazella granti, see Grant’s gazelle Gondwana, 20, 21, 85, 276, 292 Haemulon spp., 374 gazelle, 96 Gordonia spp., 323 Hakea spp., 85 geliturbation, 327 Gorilla beringei beringei, see gorilla, Halcyon chloris, 343 Geloina coaxans, 344 mountain Halimeda monile, 373 gemsbok, 34 gorilla, mountain, 96 Halimeda opuntia, 373 gene flow, 325, 411, 423, 430 Grant’s gazelle, 109, 113, 135 Halimeda spp., 366, 373 gene pool, 285 grasses Halimeda tuna, 373 genetic drift, 291, 307, 411, 416, adaptation to fire, 37, 79 halobionts, 192 417, 423 adaptation to grazing, 37, 61, 75, Halodule spp., 346 genetic swamping, 421 76, 79 Halophila spp., 346 geometric growth, 98–100, 139 structure, 37, 60–61 halophiles, 192 Geospiza fortis, 414, 419 grasslands Haplochromis nigripinnis, 156 Geospiza fuliginosa, 414, 419 climate, 79 Hardy, A., 403 Geospiza magnirostris, 414, 419 definition, 59 hare, African, 113 Geospiza scandens, 414 montane, 322 hartebeest, 31, 96, 109, 113 Geospiza spp., 417 Neotropical, 61–64 Hatch and Slack cycle, 68 Germany, 317, 433, 434 gravitational potential, 47 Hawaii, 411, 417, 420–421 germination, 36, 37, 175, 254, 272, 279, gravitational water, 49, 57 atmospheric carbon dioxide, 12 285, 295, 385 grazing avian disease, 421 timing, 10, 108 and grass growth, 77 climate, 317 gestation period, 101 and species diversity, 95 grasses, 328 Ghana, 282 effects of, 37, 61, 76, 95 sewage disposal, 385 Gilbertiodendron dewevrei,260,300,301 food chain, 176 hawks, 276 Giraffa camelopardalis, see giraffe rotational-passage, 94, 95 heat giraffe, 97, 109, 135 sustained-yield, 94 capacity, 6, 40, 57, 327 as prey, 116 Great Barrier Reef, 360, 366–369, 373, specific, 40 feeding, 94 378, 379, 385, 386, 389 stress, 45, 46 food, 108 grebes, 192 transfer, 6 rinderpest, 91 green revolution, 436 heat of fusion, 40 glaciers green world hypothesis, 183 heat of vaporisation, 40 and climate change, 15 greenhouse effect, 1, 12–15 heavy metal, pollution, 445 Gleason, H., 331 greenhouse gases, 12–15, 24 Hedyosmum spp., 323 Gleichenia spp., 321 emission, 18 Heeria mucronata,89 global circulation models (GCMs), 15 Grevillea spp., 85 Helarctos malayanus, 272 global warming, 1, 18, 185 Grewia bicolor,89 Heliconia spp., 279 and climate change, 12–17, 24 gross primary production, 74, 80, heliophytes, 73, 295 and coral reefs, 388 163, 164 hemicryptophytes, 273 and cyclones, 7 gross production efficiency, 175 Hemidactylus frenatus, 397 and disease, 16 groupers, 359, 361, 372 Henderson Island, 405 and glaciers, 320 grunts (fish), 374 herbicides, 436, 445 and lakes, 152 Guam, 198, 392, 423 herbivores, 139 and mangroves, 355 guanacaste, 279 definition, 93, 176 and ocean acidification, 367 Gulf Stream, 15 grasslands, 63, 75 and plant growth, 33 Guyana, 260, 345 in rain forests, 274

510 Index

herbivory deserts, 30 birth control, 448 coral reefs, 373 grasslands, 59 climate, 11 defences against, 41 mountains, 318 continental drift, 20 rain forests, 278 rain forests, 261, 295 food production, 436 savanna, 93–96 hummingbirds, 263, 276, 279 forests, 261, 300 hermatypic corals, 361, 363, 365 hurricanes, 7, 180, 241, 255, 289, 295, Gondwana, 20 herons, 178, 192 386, 422 human population growth, 434 Herpestes javanicus, 421 Huxley, A., 402 mangroves, 335 Heteropogon contortus,82 Hwange National Park, 94, 114 Salvinia molesta, 147 heterotrophs, 246 Hyaena hyaena barbara, see hyena savanna, 83, 85 decomposition, 255 hybridisation, 414 smallpox, 447 definition, 22, 176 Hydnophytum spp., 279 Indian Ocean, 31, 360 energy flow, 22, 79, 228 hydraulic lift, 90 coral reefs, 378 Hexarthra insulana, 172 Hydrochoerus hydrochaeris, see Indonesia hibernation, 38 capybara bird migration, 16 Hibiscus cannabinus, 244 Hydrocynus vittatus, 170 Bogor, 306 hippopotamus, 76, 104, 112, 116, hydroelectric power, 145, 199, 212 climate, 11, 13, 261 168, 170 hydrogen bonding, 40, 57 coral reefs, 369, 377 Hippopotamus amphibius, see hydrogen sulphide, 40, 145, 189, forests, 261, 264, 272, 281, hippopotamus 203, 221 287, 308 hippopotamus, pygmy, 277 hydrograph, 226 freshwater fish, 172 Hippotragus equinus, see roan hydrologic connectivity, 234 glaciers, 317 antelope hydrological cycle, 171, 172, 202 human migration, 304 Hispaniola, 407 Hydrophilus bilineatus, 172 human population growth, 432, 434 Holocanthus tricolor, 374 hydrophytes, 41, 161, 166, 201, 221, Jakarta, 428–429 Holocentrus rufus, 374 241, 257 Krakatau Island, 396 holomictic lakes, 149 hydrosere, 254 mammals, 276 Holothuria, 346 hyena, 31, 111–115 mangroves, 337 Holthuisana transversa,38 predation, 113, 119 oil palm, 438 home range, 106 Hymenophyllum spp., 321 Ranu Lamongan, 170 homeothermy, 46 Hyparrhenia diplandra, 251, 252 swamp forest, 249 hominids, 429 Hyparrhenia rufa, 251, 252 threatened species, 310 Homo neanderthalensis, 429 Hyparrhenia spp., 86, 252 Wallace’s line, 21 Homo sapiens, 429 Hyphydrus spp., 172, 173 Indo-West Pacific homoclimes, 13 hypolimnion, see thermal stratification mangroves, 335 homoiohydry, 39 definition, 143 industrial revolution, 12, 431 honey-eaters, 263, 279 infauna, 237 Hong Kong, 228, 231 ice age, 430 Insecta, 170 Hoodia spp., 33 Icosta nigra, 415 insects Hooker, J., 403 iguanas, 120 aquatic, 168, 174, 227 Hopea spp., 271 Ilex spp., 323 as pests, 132 hornbills, 276 immigration disease vectors, 446 human origins, 429–430 human, 132 diversity, 259, 260, 274, 292 human population island biogeography, 402–410, 418 in deserts, 34 age structure, 431–434 population ecology, 97, 98, 101 in forests, 274 carrying capacity, 435 impala, 93, 96, 108, 109, 116, 117 in mangroves, 334, 342, 343, 345 fertility, 432 Impatiens spp., 243 island colonisation, 409 growth, 196, 431–435, 450 Imperata brasiliensis,62 on mountains, 329 momentum, 433 Imperata cylindrica, 252, 283 pollination, 17, 30, 184, 278 Humboldt Current, 322, 335 India Integrated Coastal Zone Management humidity, 8, 18 bamboo flowering, 62 (ICZM), 355, 357 and stomata, 66 biogeography, 402 internal loading, lakes, 152, 191

Index 511

Inter-Tropical Convergence Zone tourism, 132 Gatun, 120, 178, 182–183, 200, (ITCZ), 6–7, 8, 24, 27, 263, 322 Tsavo, 90, 105 294, 408 introduced species, 182, 196, 403, see wetlands, 247 George, 154, 157, 158, 168 exotic species Wildlife Service, 134 Gerehu, 148 introgression, 414 key factor analysis, 132, 140 Guri, 120, 184 iodine, 49 keystone species, 305–306, 314 Kariba, 143–146, 149, 158, 159, 160, Ipomoea aquatica, 256 Kielmeyera spp., 83 167, 234 Ipomoea cairica, 166 kingﬁshers, 178, 192 Khashm El Girba, 211 Ipomoea pes-caprae, 397 Kiribati, 16 Kilotes, 158 Ireland, 62 Kleinia longiﬂora,33 Kioga, 207 iron Kobus ellipsiprymnus, see waterbuck Kivu, 158, 166 in lakes, 154, 155 Kobus kob kob, see western kob Kutubu, 153–154, 159, 160, in soils, 49, 190 Kobus leche, see lechwe 170, 193 Iron Age, 430 Krakatau Island, 401, 402, 406, 407, 408 Laguna de Bay, 196–199, 200 irrigation, 37, 196, 204, 209, 210, colonisation, 397, 401 Lanao, 151–153, 159, 160, 163, 165 436, 437 eruption, 396, 408 Lewis Tarn, 158 and soil salinity, 47 Kruger National Park, 119 Lungwe, 158 island biogeography, 402–410 K-selection/strategists, 121, 122, Mahoma, 158 protected areas, 311 140, 401 Malawi, 145, 146–151, 158, 160, 174, Isoberlinia spp., 85, 86 kudu, 109 193, 412, 419, 420 iteroparous, 102, 375 Kyllinga nervosa,89 Murray, 238 Kyllinga pungens, 252 Naivasha, 158, 243–244 jacamars, 276 Kyoto Protocol, 18 Nakuru, 158, 192 jackal, 31 Nasser-Nubia, 207, 209 jackal, golden, 115 Labidochromis vellicans, 420 Nyos, 155 jackal, silver, 115 Labrochromis spp., 420 N’zilo, 158 Jamaica, 359, 402, 405, 407 Labroides phthirophagus, 374 Pawlo, 158 Janzen–Connell hypothesis, 299 Lagarosiphon ilicifolius, 146, 167 Piunde, 154, 156, 157 Japan, 18 Laguncularia racemosa, 338 Ranu Lamongan, 170, 174, 182 Jardinea congoensis, 252 Laguncularia spp., 335, 341 Roseires, 209, 211 Jardinea gabonensis, 252 lake San Pablo, 153 Jardinea spp., 251 altitude and latitude Sennar, 211 Juglans spp., 323 decomposition, 354 Sidi Ali, 158 Julbernardia spp., 85 eutrophication, 193–199 Tana, 158, 207, 209 morphometry, 156, 159 Tanganyika, 145, 146–151, 158, 174, Kandelia spp., 337, 342 saline and sodic, 192 193, 234, 413, 420 kangaroos, 38 Lakes Titicaca, 167, 256 Kenya, Abaya, 158 Tumba, 158 coral reefs, 367 Aguelmame, 158 Valencia, 163, 174 deforestation, 89 Albert, 158, 197, 207, 209 Victoria, 88, 93, 120, 152, 158, 174, glaciers, 319 Aswan, 158 193–198, 199, 200, 205, 206, 207, grasses, 70, 328 Aunde, 154, 157 247, 420, 422 human population growth, 433, 448 Bangweulu, 158 Wisdom, 159 Lake Elementaita, 192 Bujuku, 158 Lamprologus tretocephalus, 420 Lake Naivasha, 243 Chad, 158, 177 land bridges, 84, 400 Lake Nakuru, 192 Chilwa, 199, 244–245, 251, 255, 439 land degradation, 23, 56, 76, 84, 152, land use, 138 Curling Pond, 158 430, 441, 446, 449 Masai Mara, 87, 112 Edward, 158, 209 Laos, 85 Mount Kenya, 325–329 Ellis, 158 Lasiorhinus latifrons,38 Nile perch, 197 Elementaita, 192 Laterallus spilonotus, 423 Samburu, 114 Eyre, 35 Lates calcarifer, see barramundi savanna, 89, 93 Florida, 158 Lates niloticus, see Nile perch

512 Index

latitude reaction (photosynthesis), 66, 67, 79 Ludwigia spp., 243 and climate, 3, 35 saturation point, 72 Luehea seemannii, 260 and day-length, 6, 10 limiting factors, 42, 52 Lumnitzera littorea, 337 and global warming, 16 Limnothrissa miodon, 234 Lumnitzera spp., 341 and lakes, 158, 159, 160 Lindeman’sefﬁciency, 181 lungﬁsh, 221 and solar radiation, 5 lion, 31, 97, 111 Lutjanus apodus, 390 and species diversity, 289–293 disease, 105 Lutjanus campechanus, 441 and species richness, 290 food intake, 114 Luxembourg, 62 deserts, 27 habitat preference, 109 Lycaon pictus, see wild dog, African latitude and diversity predation, 111–114, 119 Lygosoma atrocostatum, 397 coral reefs, 378 prey, 115 Lynx canadensis, 117–118 mangroves, 335, 336 Lipochromis spp., 412 Lyrodus pedicellatus, 351 rain forests, 289–293 Lithocarpus spp., 320 Laurasia, 292 lithosphere, 20 Mabuya irregularis, 329 Laurencia papillosa, 373 Lithothamnion spp., 366 Mabuya multifasciata, 397 leaching Litoria platycephala,38 Macaranga tanarius, 270, 397 decomposition, 350, 351 litter (organic matter), 12, 34, 48, 74, 85, MacArthur–Wilson theory, 402–410, 411 soils, 18, 49, 50, 51, 281, 282, 302 124, 191, 231, 281, 283, 294, 307, Macrobrachium sintangense, 172 lead-210 dating, 195 329, 343, 345 Macrobrachium spp., 173, 216 Leaf Area Index (LAI), 65 bags, decomposition, 352 macro-evolution, 411 leaf-cutting ants, 263, 279 decomposition, 349–352 Macroglossus spp., 399 lechwe, 117, 247, 253 production (mangroves), 345, 347 Macropus robustus,38 Lecythidaceae, 267 litter (reproduction), 101, 102, 114 Macropus rufus,38 Leersia hexandra, 252 littoral zone, 161 Macrotermes michaelseni, 253 Lemanea spp., 227 lakes, 166–168 Macrotis lagotis,38 Lemna gibba, 166 lizards Madagascar lemurs, 279 climate change, 17 deforestation, 303 lentic, 204 Lobelia keniensis, 327 forests, 261, 263, 264 lenticels, 339 Lobelia spp., 325, 417 lemurs, 279 leopard, 31, 109, 111, 113, 115 Lobelia telekii, 327 mid-domain effect, 289 Lepidochora spp., 34 Lobochilotes labiatus, 420 threatened species, 310 Lepidosiren paradoxa, 221 Lobophora variegata, 386 magnesium Leptocoryphium lanatum,63 locust, 38 coral reefs, 365 Lepus americanus, see snowshoe hare biology, 97–98 in forests, 281 Leucopogon suaveolens, 322 population growth, 100 in peat, 250 lianas, 250, 267–269, 299, 301, 307, reproduction, 121 in rivers, 214 320, 321 Locusta migratoria migratorioides,97 in soils, 49 Libya, 29, 30, 56 logistic growth Maireana pyramidata,37 lichens, 30, 32, 54 equation, 100, 101, 121, 139 maize, 11, 72, 138, 302, 438 Liebig, J., 44, 53 models, 109, 135 Malawi Liebig’s law of the minimum, 42–45, 57 Lotka–Volterra equations, 119 food production, 437 life expectancy, 126, 128, 131, 431 Lotka–Volterra models Lake Chilwa, 199, 244, 439 life-history strategies, 4, 10, 121–125, 140 competition, 109–111 Lake Malawi, 145, 146–151, 174, 193 life tables, 125–131, 140 predator–prey, 118–119, 140 savanna, 76, 84, 85 life-form concept, 273, 274 longitudinal diversity, 239 Malaysia light Lophira lanceolata,86 forests, 271, 285, 287 and coral growth, 363–364, 376 Lophognathus temporalis, 343 human population growth, 432, 434 and photosynthesis, 64–65, 66, 67, lotic, 204 oil palm, 438 72–73 Lovenula africana, 192 Maldives, 16 compensation point, 72, 73, 80 Loxodonta africana, see elephant, mallee, 37 in rain forests, 284 African malnutrition, 198, 437, 447, 448 penetration (lakes), 164–166 Ludwigia natans, 221 Malthus, T., 435

Index 513

mammals, 170 Meliphagidae, 279 mineralisation (decomposition), 349 acclimation, 53 Melocanna bambusoides,62 Mitragyna spp., 249 biogeography, 21, 84, 400, 402 Melosira spp., 170 mockingbirds, 413 convergent evolution, 277 mercury, 445 models diversity, 84, 87, 96, 108, 132, 253, in fish, 238 competition, 109–111 259, 310 meristems, 37, 60, 75, 79 ecosystem, 135–139 feral, 85 meromictic lakes, 149, 193 global circulation, 15 in deserts, 31, 34, 35, 38, 43 Merostachys sp., 62 niche, 17 in forests, 263, 274, 276 Mesocyclops leuckarti, 172, 173 predator–prey, 118–119 in mangroves, 343 mesophytes, 41 Mollusca, 170 in savanna, 84 metabolic rate, 38, 46 monkeys, 120 marine, 306, 413 metabolic water, 41 monocarpy, 62 on mountains, 329 metalimnion, see thermal stratification monomictic lakes, 143, 158, 159, 160, pollination, 278 definition, 143 162, 194, 201 reproduction, 102 metapopulation, 375 monophyly, 415 temperature regulation, 46, 175 methane, 15 Monopterus albus, 172, 173 water balance, 41 greenhouse gas, 12, 14, 437 monsoons, 7 manatees, 222, 223, 347, 356 in lakes, 145 Montipora spp., 368 manganese, 49 -producing bacteria, 350, 352 Montreal Protocol, 14 mangroves methanogenesis, 350 Montserrat, 407 animals, 342–344 Metroxylon sagu, 148, 249, 431 Mora excelsa, 260, 301 biogeography, 335–336 Mexico, 7, 17, 222, 345 Moraceae, 267 dispersal, 338 Miconia spp., 323 Morocco, 30, 56 diversity, 355 microbial loop, 347 morphometry (lake), 156, 159 ecological adaptations, 339–342 microbivores, 351 mortality, 104–106 gap dynamics, 338 micro-climate definition, 98 global distribution, 2, 336 forests, 262, 283–285, 295, 307 density-dependent, 104, 140 morphology, 339, 340 grasslands, 76 density-independent, 104, 140 organic matter export, 347–349 mountains, 322, 329 rate, 126–128 production, 345–346, 356 micro-environments mosquitoes, 319, 342, 446, 448 reproduction, 356 deserts, 38 mosses, 32, 39, 41, 43 salt balance, 339–342 micro-evolution, 411 mountain sea-level change, 16, 355 micro-habitats climate, 316, 317–318, succession, 338 coral reefs, 371, 376 325, 330 zonation, 337–339, 356 mangroves, 342 soils, 316, 327 mariculture, 440–441 mountains, 329 zonation, 317, 318, 319, 320, Marquessa Islands, 405 savanna, 89 322–323, 330 marsupials, 18, 38–39, 54, 84, 402 Microspathodon chrysurus, 374 Mountains Masai Mara, 87, 88, 104, 105, 132, 136 mid-domain effect (MDE), 289 Andes, 216, 218, 275, 315, 318, 320, Massenerhebung effect, 330, 333 migration, 10, 140 323, 324–325 mast fruiting, 271, 272, 278, 312 and climate change, 16 Chimborazo, 322 matric potential, 47 bird, 4 Drakensberg, 32 Mauritia flexuosa,83 fish, 191, 238 Fubilan, 443 Mauritia vinifera, 256 human, 304, 428, 431 Green, 403 Mediterranean climate, 29 manatees, 223 Himalayas, 20 meiofauna, 237 Serengeti, 92–93, 137 Jaya, 319 Melaleuca spp., 84, 249 turtles, 223 Kenya, 315, 319, 325–329 Melaniris chagresi, 178 vertical (lakes), 172, 174 Kilimanjaro, 319, 327 Melaniris spp., 183 mimicry, 279 MacDonnell, 35 Melastomastrum spp., 252 Mimosa asperata, 252 Musgrave, 35 Melastomataceae, 323 Mimosa pigra, 198 Ruwenzori, 271 Meliaceae, 267 Mimosa rubicaulis,85 Wilhelm, 154, 156, 157, 315, Meliosma spp., 323 Mimosa spp., 252 317–322, 325

514 Index

Mozambique, 11 Ngorongoro Crater, 87, 88, 114, 138 Nymphaea calliantha, 166 mudskippers, 344 niche Nymphaea lotus, 252 Munsell colour chart, 50 breadth, 382 Nymphaea mildbraedii, 166 Musanga cecropioides, 295 concept, 110, 380–382 Nypa spp., 337 Musanga spp., 278 fundamental, 381 mutation, 285, 411, 423 models, 17 ocean acidification, 367, 387, 388 mutualism, 292, 306, 332, 351, realised, 381 Ochroma lagopus, 295 380, 411 Nicotinamide Adenine Dinucleotide Oldenlandia adscensionis, 403 ant-plant, 94 Phosphate, see NADP oligomictic lakes, 154, 159, 170, fig-wasp, 280 Nigeria, 447 193, 201 forests, 279–281 Nile lechwe, 247 oligotrophic lakes, 186, 196, 200 mycorrhiza, 282, 283, 313 Nile perch, 120, 170, 195, 197, 198, omnivory, 176, 177, 180, 374 Mylossoma sp., 223 420, 422 Oncomelania spp., 199 Myripristis spp., 374 nitrification, 186–187, 285 Ontragus megaceros, see Nile lechwe Myrmecodia spp., 279 Nitrobacter spp., 186 Onymacris langi,34 nitrogen Ophiocephalus gachua, 172, 173 NADP, 67, 79 coral reefs, 371 optimal foraging, 179–180 Najas marina, 166 cycle, 185–189, 202 Opuntia sp., 198 Namibia, 29, 34, 45, 55 excretion, 41 Orchidaceae, 69, 323 Nasalis larvatus, see proboscis fixation, 32, 54, 157, 162, 184, Oreochromis alcalicus grahami, 192 monkey 185–186, 202, 256, 285, 371 Oreochromis mossambicus, 172, 196 Nasturtium officinale, 256 in food, 93, 95 Oreochromis shiranus chilwae, 245 Nasua narica, see coati in forests, 281 Oreopanax spp., 323 natality, 98, 121, 129, 384 in lake sediments, 195 organic matter natural selection, 280, 410–413 in lakes, 162, 168, 172, 201 decomposition, 167, 169, 177, 184, Nauclea spp., 249 in peat, 250 185, 189, 283, 349–353 neanderthals, 429 in rivers, 214 export (mangroves), 347–349 Nearctic region, 19 in soils, 49 floodplains, 233 necrotrophs, 353 Nitrosococcus spp., 186 in estuaries, 237 Nectarinia reichenowi, 106 Nitrosomonas spp., 186 in lake sediments, 190 Nectariniidae, 279 nitrous oxide, 12 in lakes, 145, 149, 153 nekton, 170 Nitzschia acicularis, 195 in mangroves, 334, 343, 348 nematocysts, 362 Nitzschia spp., 170 in peat, 250 Neochromis nigricans, 420 Nomadacris septemfasciata,97 in soils, 9, 18, 43, 47, 49, 50, 54 Neonauclea calycina, 397 Nothofagus spp., 320 in streams, 219, 228–231 Neotropical nutrient in wetlands, 247, 248 grasslands, 61–64 budgets, 193 oribi, 96, 116 rain forests, 261, 276, 298 flux, 191 Oriental region, 21 region, 19, 21 loading, 191–193 orioles, 410 rivers, 173 piracy, 268 oryx, 31, 54 savannas, 83–84, 87 nutrient cycling, 23, 202 Oryx dammah, see oryx Nepal, 434 carbon, 184–185, 202 Oryx gazella, see gemsbok Nepenthes spp., 250 in rain forests, 281–283 Oryza perennis, 221, 252, 253 Neptunia oleracea, 221 in wetlands, 245–249 Osbornia spp., 341 net primary production, 64, 74, 75, 78, nitrogen, 185–189, 202 osmoregulation, 192, 237 80, 181, 330, 372, 435 phosphorus, 189–190, 203 osmosis, 46, 237 net production efficiency, 175 silicon, 191–190 osmotic potential, 47 New Caledonia, 402, 405 sulphur, 189, 203 Otomys orestes, 329 New Guinea, 18, 84, 214, 227, nutrient enrichment Ourebia ourebi, see oribi 261, 405 coral reefs, 392 outwelling, mangroves, 348 coral reefs, 369 lakes, 162, 193–199, 200, 203 overfishing, 387–390 New Zealand, 18, 179, 396, 437 Nymphaea caerula, 244 overgrazing, 56, 58

Index 515

oxycline, 154 Panthera onca, see jaguar pelagic zone, 161–163, 201 oxygen Panthera pardus, see leopard pelicans, 192 and corals, 367 Papua New Guinea Pennisetum mezianum,89 and mangroves, 339, 345 agriculture, 437 Pennisetum purpureum, 166 and photorespiration, 67 climate, 317 Pennisetum spp., 86, 166 in aquatic plants, 221 coral reefs, 372 PEPC, 68, 70, 73 in decomposition, 190, 233, 256, 350, deforestation, 304 perennial plants, 30, 33 352 Fly River, 207 grasses, 37, 60, 61, 63 in lakes, 143, 145–146, 150, 153, 154, forests, 281, 282, 287, 296 in deserts, 35, 37 160–161, 162, 193, 194, 201 grasslands, 60 peripatric speciation, 416 in respiration, 70 human population growth, 434 Peru, 11 in rivers, 221, 226 insect diversity, 260 Amazon River, 216 in soils, 48, 337 Kikori River, 153 anchovy fishery, 441 on mountains, 315, 316 Lake Aunde, 154, 157 Andes, 322 production, photosynthesis, 67, 73, Lake Kutubu, 153, 160 climate, 11, 317 156, 163 Lake Murray, 238 forests, 261, 269, 287, 308 ozone layer, 14, 65 Lake Piunde, 154, 156, 157 glaciers, 320 Lake Wisdom, 159 Lake Titicaca, 167 paca, 277 mangroves, 335, 336, 337–338, 341 mangroves, 335 Pacific Islands, 2 Mount Wilhelm, 154, 315, 317, 319, species richness, 288 coral reefs, 392 320, 321, 322 streams, 234 forests, 261 Ok Tedi mine, 443 upwelling, 376 freshwater fish, 216 Pawaia, 430–431, 438 Urubamba River, 218 savanna, 83 Purari River, 205, 207, 236 pesticides, 436, 445–446 Pacific Ocean, 11, 360, 400 Salvinia molesta, 148 Petrogale rothschildi,38 coral reefs, 378 Sepik River, 148, 198 PGA, 67, 79 mangroves, 335 Soro River, 153 pH Padina jamaicencis, 373 species diversity, 288, 292 and coral reefs, 365 Padina spp., 366 stream fauna, 231 and ocean acidification, 366 Pakistan, 434, 447 Wahgi River, 213 carbon in water, 185 Palaearctic region, 19 wetlands, 249 soils, 190 palaeolimnology, 195 Papyrus spp., 242, 245 Phacochoerus aethiopicus, see warthog Palaeolithic, 212 papyrus swamps, 243 phanerophytes, 273 Palaquium sp., 250 Paralabidochromis chilotes, 420 phenology, 17, 312 Palau, 392 Paralabidochromis victoriae, 420 and climate change Panama, 405 parapatric speciation, 416 in rain forests, 270–273 amphibian decline, 275 parasites, 94, 129 leaf, 270 Barro Colorado Island, 408 birds, 414–415, 421 Philippines bird diversity, 402 human, 199, 446–448 climate, 11 forests, 294, 295, 296, 299, 385 plant, 268 coral reefs, 369, 389 insect diversity, 260 parasitoids, 446 forests, 261, 264, 308 Lake Gatun, 120, 182, 408 Parinari spp., 296 human population growth, 428, 434 liana growth, 268 Parkia spp., 279 Laguna de Bay, 196–199 panda, 306 parrotfish, 347, 354, 359, 361 Lake Lanao, 151, 160, 165 Pandanus spp., 249, 250 parrots, 263, 276, 410 Wallace’s line, 21, 402 Pangea, 18 Paspalidium geminatum, 166 Phoeniconaias minor, 192 pangolin, 277 Paspalum repens, 221 Phoeniconaias roseus, 192 Panicum maximum, 252 Paspalum spp., 84, 222 Phoenix spp., 249 Panicum repens, 167, 244 Paulinia acuminata, 146 phorophytes, 268 Panicum spp., 252 peat, 250, 256 phosphoenolpyruvate carboxylase, see Pantanal, 83, 84, 499 peccary, 84 PEPC Panthera leo, see lion pedogenesis, 48, 57 phosphoglycerate, see PGA

516 Index

phosphorus community, 330–332 Porites spp., 366, 371 and coral reefs, 371 Plasmodium relictum, 421 possums, 343 and eutrophication, 193 Plasmodium spp., 421 Potamogeton pectinatus, 166 cycle, 189–190, 191, 203 plate tectonics, 1, 18, 19, 20, 24 Potamogeton pusillus, 146, 167 in forests, 281 Platycarpum orinocense,64 Potamogeton spp., 166 in grasses, 96 Platygyra spp., 368 potamon, 205, 226, 227 in lake sediments, 195 Plectrachne spp., 37, 84 potassium, 49, 250, 281 in lakes, 162, 168, 172, 201 Plectroglyphidodon lacrymatus, 372 prawns, 216, 344 in peat, 250 pneumatophores, 249, 339 predation, 111–120 in rivers, 224 Poaceae, see grasses avoidance, 96, 116–117 in soils, 49, 190 poaching, 132–133, 135, 137, 139 predator photon density, 65 Podocarpus pilgeri, 321 –prey cycles, 119 photon flux, 65 Podocarpus spp., 320, 402 –prey interactions, 117–120 photoperiodism, 271 Poecilia mexicana, 178 –prey models, 118–119 photorespiration, 67, 72, 73, 79 Poecilia reticulata, 172 pressure potential, 47 photosynthesis, 14, 64–70 Poeciliidae, 183 prey algae, 163–164 Pohnpei, 392 escape strategies, 116–117 and climate change, 15, 16 poikilohydry, 32, 39, 41 primary production and global warming, 72 poikilothermy, 46 above-ground, 74, 75, 80 and water balance, 41 pollen and grazing, 75, 80 bacteria, 66 in sediments, 250, 251 and rainfall, 75, 88, 104 carbon dioxide, 12, 65–66 pollination, 17, 184, 255 aquatic, 163–168, 172, 201 environmental factors, 66, 70–73, 80 figs, 280 below-ground, 74 in lakes, 163–166 in deserts, 30 definition, 74 light reaction, 66 in mangroves, 342, 423 environmental factors, 168 pigments, 66 in rain forests, 270, 272, mangroves, 345–346 plant strategies, 67–70 278–279, 288 measurement, aquatic systems, Photosynthetic Photon Flux Density in seagrasses, 346 163–164 (PPFD), 65 pollution, 23, 444–446 measurement, grasslands, 73–75 Photosynthetically Active Radiation coral reefs, 388, 392 mountains, 329 (PAR), 65 lakes, 162, 193 phytoplankton, 163–164, 165 Phragmites karka, 211, 245 marine, 367 rain forests, 281–283 Phragmites mauritianus, 166, 244 Polygonum pulchrum, 252 wetlands, 247–249 Phragmites spp., 166, 167 Polylepis spp., 323 proboscis monkey, 256 phyllodes, 37 polymictic lakes, 154, 159, 201 Procambarus clarkii, 243 Phyllostachys pubescens,62 Polypedilum vanderplanki,30 Procavia johnstoni mackinderi, 329 phylogenetic species concept, 415, 425 Pomacentrus partitus, 374 production efficiency, 181, 182 physiognomy, 260 Pomacentrus variabilis, 374 Protea spp., 85 phytoplankton Pongo pygmaeus, 272 Proteaceae, 18, 85 definition, 161 population protected areas, 139, 310–312, 389 estuaries, 237 age structure, 125–132, 433–434 Protista, 285 lakes, 146, 152, 153, 154, 161–163, carrying capacity, 100, 101, 102, Prunus spp., 323 170, 172, 174, 183, 188, 192, 201 104, 121 Psammotermes allocercus,34 marine, 346, 353, 364, 371, 413 definition, 96, 139 Pseudomyrmex ferruginea, 281 production, 163, 164, 168, 195 estimating density, 96–97 Pseudotropheus spp., 420 succession, 162, 163 limitation, 104 Pteridium aquilinum, 283 Piliostigma spp., 85 regulation, 104 Pteropus spp., 343, 399 Piper spp., 323 population growth, 96–101, 139 Puerto Rico, 228, 230, 407 pirarucú, 221 exponential, 98–100 puffer fish, 347 Pistia stratiotes, 166, 221, 233, 244 geometric, 98–100 puma, 120 plant human, 431–435 Puma concolor, see puma –animal interactions, 277–281 logistic, 100–101 pyramids, ecological, 176–178, 202

Index 517

rabbits, 37 reproduction diversion, 225 rain forest animal, 101–104, 140 drainage basin, 205 Amazonia, 263–267 corals, 368–369 ﬂood-pulse concept, 231–233, animals, 276 mangroves, 342 234–235, 239 biogeography, 260–261 plants, 103 longitudinal diversity, 204, climate, 8, 10, 261–266 strategies, 103, 104, 121–125 226–227 global distribution, 2, 264 vegetative, 37, 60, 147, 221, 247 regulation, 209–212 phenology, 270–273 reproductive isolation, 291, 414 serial discontinuity concept, primary production, 78 reptiles, 34, 41, 84, 97, 129, 170, 259, 234–235, 240 proﬁle diagram, 269–270 274, 343, 397, 407 stream order, 205, 228 soils, 281–283 rescue effect, 408 Rivers vegetation, 273 reservoirs, 209, see Lakes Amazon, 182, 204, 205, 207, rainfall resource 216–225, 231, 235, 239, 245, and biomes, 21, 78, 86 non-renewable, 444 263, 294 and life history, 10, 15 partitioning, 108–109, 115, 237, 276, Apurimac, 216 and migration, 92 383, 384 Atbara, 206, 207, 211 and plant growth, 18, 75, 97, 137 renewable, 444 Ba, 376 and primary production, 88, resource competition Boteti, 253 95, 104 in plants, 122 Brahmaputra, 218, 320, 336 and river discharge, 205, 211, 219 respiration, 12, 15, 30, 39 Chagres, 120 and savanna, 82, 87, 89 and water balance, 41 Chari, 226 and vegetation, 1 animals, 181 Congo, 216, 249, 251–253 animal density, 55, 105 coral reefs, 364, 367 Euphrates, 210 climate diagrams, 10 in decomposition, 350, 352 Fly, 207, 238, 336, 443 distribution, 3, 86 in mangroves, 339, 355 Ganges, 218, 320, 336 in deserts, 26, 29, 30, 32, 35, 43 in streams, 228 Grumeti, 89, 93 in forests, 261, 263 phytoplankton, 163 Indus, 320 in grasslands, 61 plants, 70, 74, 265 Irrawaddy, 7 on mountains, 317, 322, 326 Rhabdomys pumilio,35 Japura, 217 seasonality, 4, 7–10, 87, 88 rhinoceros Kagera, 206 variability, 8, 9, 11, 118 black, 109, 116, 117, 132 Kikori, 153, 336 rain-shadow, 27 Sumatran, 256 Kuiseb, 34, 35 RAMSAR convention, 241, 257 white, 117 Lam Tsuen, 231 Raphia spp., 249 Rhizobium spp., 186, 202 Limpopo, 11 Rapoport’s rule, 292 Rhizophora mangle, 339 Logone, 226 Rasbora lateristriata, 172, 173 Rhizophora mucronata, 337 Madeira, 217, 218, 219 Rastrineobola argentea, 195 Rhizophora sp., 341 Mara, 89, 107 Rattus norvegicus, 421 Rhizophora spp., 337, 339, 341, 342 Marañon, 216, 218 Rattus rattus, 397, 421 Rhizophora stylosa, 337, 345, 355 Mekong, 205, 207, 336 Raunkiaer, C., 273 Rhododendron spp., 321 Mississippi, 207, 216, 217 recruitment ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/ Murray, 205, 207 animals, 101, 119, 129 oxygenase, see RUBISCO Mwogo, 206 coral reefs, 359, 361, 375, 386, rice, 72, 196, 256, 302, 430, 444 Negro, 217, 218, 219, 223, 224, 294, 428 388, 392 rinderpest, see disease Nile, 29, 199, 204, 205–212, 214, 234, limitation, 296, 297, 385 rithron, 205, 226, 227 239, 243 mangroves, 423 river Nya, 226 prawns, 344 capture, 224 Nyabarongo, 206 trees, 82, 120, 272, 294, 307 catchment area, 168 Ok Tedi, 443 Red Data Books, 309 channel structure, 206 Okavango, 253 Redonda, 407 continuum concept, 227–231, Orinoco, 83 Redunca redunca, see reedbuck 234–235, 239 Pará, 224 reedbuck, 117 discharge, 163, 205 Pasig, 196

518 Index

Rivers (cont.) Salvinia spp., 196, 221, 233 in mangroves, 352 Purari, 204, 205, 207, 211–216, 224, Samburu, 114 in savanna, 81, 139 225, 236, 336, 430 Samoa, 405 on mountains, 315 Purus, 217 sand-diving lizard, 34 rainfall, 7–10, 75, 88 Rukarara, 206 Sapotaceae, 267 Secchi disc, 164, 165, 214 Sebangu, 249 saprotrophs, 353 secondary compounds, 89, 231, 248, Sepik, 148, 198, 215 Sarotherodon niloticus, 156, 157 278, 293, 342, 350, 373 Shire, 150 Sarotherodon spp., 198 secondary forests, 283, 296, 299, 306, Solimões, 218, 428 satellite imagery, 56 397, 401 Soro, 153 saturation response, 52 secondary growth Strickland, 443 Saurauia spp., 323 plants, 60 Tapajós, 217, 219 savanna secondary production, 79, 233, 247 Tigris, 210 Africa, 85–87 secondary succession, 254, 255 Tocantins, 217 Asia, 85 sediment Ucayali, 217, 218 Australia, 84–85 cores, 195 Urubamba, 218 bird diversity, 84, 87 dating, 195, 251 Wahgi, 213 classification, 82, 83 deposition, 170 Xingú, 217, 219 climate, 89 focusing, 170 Zambezi, 143, 144, 146, 150 decomposition, 353 sedimentation roan antelope, 96 fire, 81–82, 139 coral reefs, 367, 390–392 rodents, 54, 62, 120 Neotropical, 83–84, 87 floodplains, 220 Rosaceae, 267 plants, 89–91 lakes, 169 rotational-passage grazing, 94 primary production, 78 wetlands, 251 Rotifera, 170 seaonality, 81 seed Rousettus spp., 399 Scarus coeruleus, 374 bank, 37, 295 royal antelope, 277 Scarus croicensis, 374 dispersal, 279 r-selection/strategists, 121, 122, 140, Scarus guacamaia, 354 dormancy, 82, 297, 338, 342 223, 401 Schefflera polybotrya, 397 germination, 10, 37, 42, 108, 175, Rubiaceae, 323 Schistocerca gregaria, 97, 98, see locust 254, 272, 279, 285, 295, 385 RUBISCO, 67–72, 79 Schistosoma haematobium, 199 predation, 278 Rubus niveus, 423 Schistosoma japonicum, 199 Sehima nervosum,85 ruderals, 122, 124, 125, 140 Schistosoma mansoni, 199 Sehima sulcatum,85 Ruppia spp., 346 Schistosoma spp., 199 semelparous, 102, 104 Russia, 18 Schoenoplectus californicus ssp. Senecio spp., 323, 325 Rwanda, 206 tatora, 256 Senegal, 85 Rynchotragus kirkii, see dikdik sciophytes, 73, 296 Senegalia catechu,85 Scirpus subulatus, 166 Senegalia senegal,89 Saba, 407 Scleractinia, 361 Serengeti, 87–89, 108 Saccharum spontaneum, 397 sclerophylls, 37, 46, 84 climate, 87–88 sago, 148, 249, 256 Scrophulariaceae, 323 ecosystem models, 135–139 Sahel, 85 Scylla serrata, 343 herbivores, 96, 107 Salacca sp., 250 Scyphiphora hydrophyllacea, 337 migration, 4, 92 saline lakes, 192 sea cucumbers, 346, 347 poaching, 91, 111, 132 salinity, 39 sea level change, 15, 16, 24 predation, 111 in estuaries, 235–238 and mangroves, 355 predators, 111–115, 119 in mangroves, 339–342 sea urchins, 347, 359, 361, 373, 375 rinderpest, 91, 101, 136 in rivers, 214 sea-floor spreading, 19 tourism, 134 in soil, 47, 58 seagrasses, 16, 334, 346–347, 356 vegetation, 88–89, 136 saltwater crocodile, 397 seasonality serial discontinuity concept, see river Salvinia auriculata, 147 climate, 3 serval cat, 115 Salvinia molesta, 146, 147, 148, 167, in forests, 268, 270, 300 Sesarma spp., 344, 347 234, 243 in lakes, 162–163 Setaria anceps, 252

Index 519

Setaria spp., 252 Solanaceae, 323 stenothermal, 52 sexual selection, 413 Solanum spp., 323 stingrays, 347 Shannon–Weaver index, 286, 287 solar radiation, 4, 5, 12, 31, 41, 78, 81, Stipa spp., 323 sharks, 371, 372 89, 156, 171, 172, 176, 219, 263, Stipagrostis sabulicola, 32, 34, 44 Shelford’s law of tolerance, 52, 57 266, 268, 317, 326 stomata, 33, 39, 41, 42, 46, 65–66, 69, 72 Shorea acuminata, 272 solifluction, 327 stream order, 205 Shorea albida, 250 Solomon Islands, 261, 377 stress-tolerators, 122, 124, 125, 140 Shorea dasyphylla, 272 solstices, 4, 5 Strombus spp., 346 Shorea lepidota, 272 Sonneratia alba, 337 strontium, 365 Shorea leprosula, 272 Sonneratia lanceolata, 211 Styloceras spp., 323 Shorea macroptera, 272 Sonneratia spp., 337, 339, 341, 342 Styrax spp., 323 Shorea parviflora, 272 Sorensen’s similarity index, 287 succession Shorea spp., 250, 271 South Africa allogenic, 258 Sierra Leone, 227 bird migration, 256 autogenic, 254, 258 silicon climate, 29 ecological, 23, 257 and diatoms, 162, 195 elephant conservation, 134 forest, 295–298 cycle, 191–190 human population growth, 448 hydrarch, 254 in lakes, 152, 201 Kruger National Park, 119 in mangroves, 338 in rivers, 212–214 Umfolozi, 128, 129, 131 primary, 253, 254, 258 in soils, 49 wildebeest, 102 secondary, 254, 258 Simulium spp., 227 Southern Oscillation (SO), 11 wetland, 251–253 sitatunga, 117 Spathelia excelsa, 272 xerarch, 254 snappers (fish), 347, 390, 441 speciation, 411, 414–420, 424, 425 succulents, 30, 33, 37, 46, 54 snowshoe hare, 117–118 in lakes, 413 Sudan sodic lakes, 192 on islands, 418 climate, 10, 29, 55 sodium on mountains, 324, 325 Lake Nubia, 209 in grasses, 96 species concepts, 415–420 Nile River, 206, 243 in rivers, 214 species savanna, 85, 86 in soils, 49 area curves, 287–287 wetlands, 256 soil concepts, 415–416 sugar cane, 72 aeration, 50 cryptic, 260 sugar gliders, 343 cation exchange capacity, 51, 436 diversity, 285–287, 290, 313 sulphur classification, 50, 51 richness, 285, 287–288, 313, bacteria, 189 colour, 50 324, 349 cycle, 189, 203 erosion, 9, 43, 48, 76, 437 species diversity in soils, 49 fertility, 56, 58, 137 and latitude, 289–293 sunbirds, 263, 279 formation, 48, 50 Sphaeranthus suaveolens, 243 surgeonfish, 347, 374 horizons, 49, 57 Spheniscus mendiculus, see Galápagos Suriname, 284, 296 leaching, 49, 50 penguin survivorship, 121 nutrients, 49, 50, 51 spinifex, 37 curves, 128–129, 133 organisms, 48, 50, 436 Sporobolus cubensis,62 Sus barbatus, 272 profile, 48, 49, 57 Sporobolus ioclados,89 sustainable development, 449–450 salinity, 46, 47, 56, 58 Sporobolus spp., 89 sustained-yield grazing, 94 structure, 47, 48, 50 Sri Lanka, 261, 402, 434 Swainson’s hawk, 415 texture, 43, 47, 50, 78 human population growth, 432 sweet potato, 431 water, 9, 48, 49, 57, 81 St Kitts, 402, 405 swifts, 276 water potential, 47 St Lucia, 402, 405 Sylvicapra grimmia, see duiker weathering, 48, 50, 57 stable isotopes, 180 Symbiodinium microadraticum, see soils standing crop, 74 zooxanthellae deserts, 30, 43, 46, 47 starfish, 346 symbiosis montane, 316 stenohydric, 52 coral reefs, 361 rain forests, 281–283 stenospecies, 52 sympatric speciation, 416

520 Index

Symplocos spp., 323 photosynthesis, 70, 72, 73 and wildlife, 132, 137 Syncerus caffer, 55, see buffalo, African regulation, 34, 38, 39, 45–46, 65 Trachypogon spp., 84 Synedra spp., 170 seasonality, 3, 4, 10, 57 Trachypogon vestitus,63 Syringodium spp., 346 stratification, 143–162 trade winds, 7, 24, 31, 371 tolerance, 31, 45, 52 Tragelaphus spekei, see sitatunga Tachaea lacustris, 172, 173 Tenebrionidae, 34, 54 transpiration, 33, 39, 45, 46, 61, 65, Tachyoryctes rex, 329 Tenualosa toli, 102 66, 253 Taeniura lymma, 347 Teredo bartschi, 351 Trapa natans, 256 Tanganicodus irsacae, 420 Terminalia catappa, 397 Trematocranus placodon, 420 Tanzania Terminalia mollis,89 Treron vernans, 398 climate, 13 Terminalia spp., 85, 86 Trianthema hereroensis, 33, 44 Lake Manyara, 105 termites, 54, 85, 253, 354 Trichechus inunguis, 222 land use, 138 territory, 106, 120, 372 Trichechus spp, see manatees Serengeti, 87, 93, 106 defence, 106, 120, 343 Tridacna spp., 363 Tarangire, 108, 109 Tertiary Period, 84 Trilepisium madagascariense, 271 tourism, 132 Tethys Sea, 335, 378, 379 Trinidad, 300, 402, 405 tapir, 84, 278 Tetragnatha spp., 417 Triodia spp., 37, 84 Tapirus bairdii, see tapir Thailand, 85, 261, 434 Triops spp., 30 Tarangire, 108, 109 human population growth, 432 Tripneustes spp., 347 taro, 431 Thalassia, 346 triton, 360 tarpon, 177 Thalassina spp., 343 trogons, 276 Tarpon atlanticus, 178 Thalassodendron spp., 346 Tropheops spp., 413 Taurotragus oryx, see eland Thalassoma bifasciatum, 374 Tropheus spp., 420 taxon cycle, 417 Thalassoma duperrey, 374 trophic cascade, 182–184, 202 Telescopium telescopium, 344 Themeda australis,82 trophic level, 176, 202 temperature Themeda triandra,89 Trypanosoma spp., 129, 305 and altitude, 316, 323, 330 Therapon plumbeus, 196 Tsavo, 90, 105 and animals, 34, 45, 46, 329 thermal stratification, 143, 145, 146, tsetse fly, 127, 129, 133, 305 and biomes, 21 151–162 tsunamis, 337, 354, 396 and coral reefs, 363, 366, 376 thermocline, see thermal stratification tuna fisheries, 439 and mangroves, 335, 345 definition, 143 tundra, 21, 78 and photosynthesis, 73 Thermocyclops hyalinus, 156, 157, Tunisia, 56 and plants, 45–46 170, 173 turtles, 222, 223, 347, 385 and soils, 82, 89, 284 thermodynamics sex determination, 17 and tree growth, 265 laws of, 23, 174 Tuvalu, 16 and water density, 143 therophytes, 273 Typha domingensis, 244–245 cold tolerance, 326–328 Thomson’s gazelle, 92, 113, 114, 115 Typha spp., 167, 242, 246, 251, 256 coral bleaching, 367 tidal bore, 223 typhoon, 7 decomposition, 316, 352, 353 tides, 236, 237, 334, 342, 343, 344, 346, diurnal, 3, 4, 10, 45, 57, 154, 261, 283, 348, 363, 369 Uapaca spp., 249 315, 330 tiger, 306 Uca spp., 347 global, 3, 14 Tilapia spp., 170, 173, 198 Uganda heat balance, 45 tinamous, 276 forests, 260 in deserts, 27, 29 Tiphobia horei, 152 Kibale, 271 in forests, 261, 266–264, 271, Tokelau, 370 Lake George, 154, 157, 168 283, 295 tolerance, 52, 57, 325 ultraviolet radiation, 14, 65, 165, 315, in rivers, 209, 212, 213, 218, 220, Tonga, 402, 405 326, 367 226, 230 top-down control, 174, 200 Umfolozi, 128, 129, 131, 133 inversion, 32 topi, 92, 96, 113, 116 United States lethal, 31, 45 toucans, 276 age pyramid, 433 on mountains, 315, 318, 319, 322, tourism birds, 259 324, 329 and coral reefs, 389, 392 climate, 11

Index 521

human population growth, 433, 434 Mekong River, 336 conservation, 255–257 Kyoto Protocol, 18 Vigna luteola, 166 loss, 255–257 upwelling, 146, 376, 413 Vismia japurensis, 294 succession, 251–253 urbanisation, 427–429 Vismia lauriformis, 294 wheat, 72 urea, excretion, 41 vivipary, 342 wild cat, African, 115 uric acid, excretion, 41 Vochysia spp., 83 wild dog, African, 106, 109, 111, urine, 31, 38, 40, 41, 42, 76, 89, 95, 199 Vochysiaceae, 267 113, 115 Utricularia spp., 221, 244 Vossia cuspidata, 243, 244, 251, wildebeest, 87, 92, 93, 96, 252, 253 106, 116 Vachellia spp., 34, 86, 253 Vossia spp., 245 as prey, 113, 114, 116 Vachellia cornigera, 281 Vulpes zerda, see fennec fox food, 109 Vachellia drepanolobium, 89, 94 vultures, 276 grazing, 92, 93 Vachellia erioloba, 33, 55 habitat preference, 109 Vachellia hockii, 89 wallabies, 38 life table, 128 Vachellia tortilis, 89, 90, 137 Wallace, A., 21, 402, 413 migration, 4, 88, 92, 137 Valeriana spp., 323 Wallace’s line, 21, 400, 402, 404 mortality, 104 Valerianaceae, 323 warm-blooded, 46 population, 96 Varanus salvator, 397 warthog, 94, 109, 113 population growth, 91, 101, 102, 103, Varanus spp., 343 wasps, 279, 280, 397, 398, 401 135, 136, 137 Vatica spp., 271 water reproduction, 92, 102, 121, 129 vegetation balance maintenance, 26, 34, 37, 38, rinderpest, 91, 101 and climate, 1, 16, 18 39, 41, 66 survivorship curve, 133 and fire, 82 chemistry, 212–214 winds, 7, 8 and rainfall, 1, 43 cycle, 172 wombats, 38 aquatic, 166–168 density, 40, 143 woodpeckers, 276 desert, 32, 35, 56 heat capacity, 6, 40 World Conservation Union, 309 global distribution, 1, 18 light penetration, 164–166 wrasse, 361, 379 mangrove, 337–339 loss by animals, 38, 39, 41 montane, 318–325 loss by plants, 39, 65 xerophytes, 41, 54 rain forest, 267–273 osmosis, 46–47 xerosere, 254 riverine, 251–253 potential, 46, 49 Xylocarpus spp., 337, 341 savanna, 82–86, 88–91, 135–136 properties of, 26, 39–40, 57 swamp forest, 249–250 residence time, 145, 168, Yucca spp., 37 wetland, 243–249 172, 193 Venezuela, 308 supply, 39, 57, 210 Zambia Andes, 322 surface tension, 40 climate, 11 climate, 13, 317 temperature, 143, 146–152, fish production, 255 grasses, 62, 63 156–162 Lake Kariba, 143, 144, 160 insect diversity, 260 waterbuck, 96, 109 savanna, 85 Lago Guri, 120, 184 watershed, 205 zebra, 87, 92, 96, 97, 106, 107 Lake Valencia, 163 Weber’s line, 400 as prey, 113, 114, 116 Orinoco River, 83 weeds food, 109 savanna, 63, 83 agricultural, 302 habitat preference, 109 vertical migration (lakes), 172, 174 aquatic, 146, 148, 167, 256 migration, 92 Viburnum spp., 323 Wegener, A., 18 population growth, 91, 92 vicariance, 408, 416 Weinmannia spp., 323 reproduction, 92 Victoria amazonica, 167 Welwitschia mirabilis, 33, 34 Zimbabwe Vietnam western kob, 76 AIDS, 448 forests, 261, 308 wetland climate, 11 human population growth, carbon storage, 248 elephant conservation, 134 432, 434 classification, 242 human population growth, 448

522 Index

Zimbabwe (cont.) Zizyphus jujuba,85 zooplankton, 170, 173 Hwange, 94, 114, 116, 134 zonation zooxanthellae, 361–365, 376 Lake Kariba, 143, 144, 160 in lakes, 166–168 coral bleaching, 367–368 savanna, 77, 85 in mangroves, 337–339 nutrients, 392 tsetse ﬂy, 127, 133 in rivers, 226–227 Zostera spp., 346 zinc, 49 on mountains, 318–323, 326, 330 Zygophyllum stapﬁi, 33