Article Investigation of Attack on Cultural Heritage Buildings: A Case Study in Province,

Novita Novita 1,2,* , Hasbi Amiruddin 3, Husaini Ibrahim 4, Teuku Muhammad Jamil 1, Syaukani Syaukani 5, Emiko Oguri 6 and Katsuyuki Eguchi 7

1 Doctoral Program of Social Sciences Education, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam Banda, Aceh 23111, Indonesia; [email protected] 2 Department of Family Welfare, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam Banda, Aceh 23111, Indonesia 3 Post GraduateProgram, Universitas Islam Negeri Ar-Raniry, Darussalam 23111, Indonesia; [email protected] 4 Department of History Education, Faculty of Teacher Training and Education, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam Banda, Aceh 23111, Indonesia; [email protected] 5 Biology Department, Faculty of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala, Darussalam Banda, Aceh 23111, Indonesia; [email protected] 6 Faculty of Education, Tokyo Gakugei University 4-1-1 Nukuikita-machi, Koganei-shi, Tokyo 184-8501, Japan; [email protected] 7 Systematic Zoology Laboratory, Department of Biological Science, Graduate School of Science, Tokyo Metropolitan University 1-1 Minami Osawa, Hachioji-shi, Tokyo 192-0397, Japan; [email protected] * Correspondence: [email protected]

 Received: 23 April 2020; Accepted: 17 June 2020; Published: 22 June 2020 

Abstract: Surveys of the conditions of termite attack were conducted in two regencies, Pidie and Greater Aceh, Aceh Province, Indonesia (40 houses in each location). Interviews were also conducted with home owners to collect data on the building history; culture, such as daily life in the house; the frequency and intensity of termite attacks; and traditional knowledge for avoiding and/or suppressing termite attacks. We found that 51% of traditional houses were infested by two termite species: gestroi and matangensis. The lower parts of traditional houses were frequently attacked and severely damaged by . Previous land use and the ages of the traditional houses affected the intensity of the termite attacks. Several measures for avoiding and/or suppressing termite attacks on cultural heritage buildings are also proposed.

Keywords: traditional house; wood pest; Coptotermes; Nasutitermes; ; tropical Asia

1. Introduction Various factors can individually or collectively decrease the sturdiness and durability of buildings, as well as their quality and value. Physical factors such as, heat, moisture, and sunlight (UV), may cause the shrinkage, deformation, and degradation of building materials. Furthermore, wood and other materials used in buildings can be destroyed or decomposed by the activities of organisms like termites [1,2] and fungi [3,4]. Damage to buildings is exacerbated by hot and humid climates with a higher level of rainfall and higher activity of wood-eating pests [5], especially in tropical areas such as Indonesia. Termites are one of the main types of destructive insects attacking buildings in tropical areas [1,6,7]. Traditional Acehnese houses are sacred to the social lives of the (Figure1), an ethnic group from Aceh Province, Indonesia [8]. These houses are decorated with many artistic carvings that symbolize the culture of the people and enriching their daily lives [9–12]. Traditional

Insects 2020, 11, 385; doi:10.3390/insects11060385 www.mdpi.com/journal/insects InsectsInsects 20202020,, 1111,, x 385 22 of of 12 12 carvings that symbolize the culture of the people and enriching their daily lives [9–12]. Traditional houseshouses have have irreplaceable irreplaceable value value and and must must be be preser preservedved as as a a cultural cultural heritage heritage for for the the nation nation [13,14]. [13,14]. However,However, mostmost ofof the the existing existing traditional traditional houses houses in Aceh in Aceh suffer suffer from seriousfrom serious damage damage caused caused by various by variousfactors, includingfactors, including termite attack. termite Damage attack. to Damage these traditional to these housestraditional can causehouses serious can cause economic serious loss economicand socio-cultural loss and impactssocio-cultural in Aceh, impacts because in Aceh, such houses because are such the corehouses of eco-culturalare the core tourismof eco-cultural [15,16]. tourismSimilar situations[15,16]. Similar are common situations across are thecommon country across [12,14 the,17]. country Several [12,14,17]. species of Several termite, species including of termite,Coptotermes including gestroi (Wasmann) Coptotermes and gestroiNasutitermes (Wasmann) matangensis and (Haviland),Nasutitermes are matangensis common to (Haviland), the local villages are commonand surrounding to the local forests villages in Aceh; and surrounding these termites forests are suspected in Aceh; these to be termites a potential are pestsuspected in traditional to be a potentialhouses and pest other in traditional wood products. houses and other wood products.

FigureFigure 1.1. TraditionalTraditional Acehnese Acehnese house house (stilt-style, (stilt-style, with with a single a single story) instory) Pidie in Regency, Pidie Regency, Aceh, Indonesia. Aceh, Indonesia.Lower right: Lower semi-modern right: semi-modern additional additional construction construction (combination (combination of concrete of andconcrete wood and material; wood material;pink-wall), pink-wall), not part ofnot the part traditional of the traditional house. house.

TheThe subterranean termite,termite, C.C. gestroigestroi,, is is a a serious serious pest pest species species worldwide worldwide [2 [2].]. Formerly Formerly restricted restricted to toSoutheast Southeast Asia Asia [18 [18],], this this species’ species’ range range has has expanded expanded due due to the to globalizationthe globalization of human of human activity activity [19]. [19].This speciesThis species reached reached the North the North American American Continent Cont [inent19] and [19] has and become has become an invasive an invasive termite termite species speciesin Florida in (USA),Florida where(USA), it where attacks it native attacks trees, native such trees, as Slash such pine, as SlashPinus pine, elliottii PinusEngelm elliottii (Pinaceae), Engelm (Pinaceae),and woodin and service wood [20 in]. service The timber [20]. andThe constructiontimber and construction industries are industries suspected are to besuspected the most to eff beective the mostmedia effective for the spreadmedia offorC. the gestroi spreadin Indonesia.of C. gestroi Even in Indonesia. though wood Even preservation though wood methodsagainst preservation methodsagainstC. gestroi are well C. developed gestroi are [21 well,22], economicdeveloped loss [21,22], caused economic by this species loss caused is increasing by this in species Southeast is increasingAsia [21], andin SoutheastCoptotermes Asiaspp. [21], are and known Coptotermes to be serious spp. are pests, known attacking to be buildingsserious pests, in China attacking [23], buildingsMalaysia [24in ],China and Indonesia [23], Malaysia [25]. Coptotermes [24], and isIndonesia the most economically[25]. Coptotermes important is the genusmost worldwideeconomically [2]. importantThe arboreal-nesting, genus worldwide wood-feeding [2]. termite N. matangensis is dominant in Sumatran tropical forests.The This arboreal-nesting, species, along wood-feeding with other “nasute-group” termite N. matangensis species, is is the dominant main mechanical in Sumatran decomposer tropical forests.of wood. This Although species, Nasutitermesalong with otherspp. “nasute-grou are rarely reportedp” species, to be is destructivethe main mechanical pests of wood decomposer in service of wood.(when comparedAlthough toNasutitermes subterranean spp. termite are rarely species, reported such as toCoptotermes be destructivespp. pests in Southeast of wood Asia in [service26,27]), (whenthis genus compared exhibits to a subterranean relatively wide termite adaptation species, to such environmental as Coptotermes conditions spp. in and Southeast was reported Asia [26,27]), to be a thissuccessful genus pioneeringexhibits a relatively insect species wide inadaptation the recolonization to environmental of the Krakatau conditions Islands and (Indonesia) was reported after to thebe acatastrophic successful pioneering eruption in insect 1883 [species28,29]. in the recolonization of the Krakatau Islands (Indonesia) after the catastrophicThis research eruption aims to in investigate 1883 [28,29]. and highlight the conditions of termite attack against selected traditionalThis research houses inaims Aceh. to investigate The results willand behighlight particularly the conditions valuable for of establishingtermite attack measures against to selected protect traditional houses in Aceh. The results will be particularly valuable for establishing measures to

Insects 2020, 11, 385 3 of 12 Insects 2020, 11, x 3 of 12 traditionalprotect traditional Acehnese Acehnese houses. houses. The impact The ofimpact previous of previous land use land in relation use in relation to termite to termite attack, theattack, ages the of theages houses, of the termitehouses, attacktermite strategies, attack strategies, and several and strategies several strategies for suppressing for suppressing termite attack termite on traditional attack on housestraditional are discussed.houses are discussed.

2. Material and Methods

2.1. Study Sites Aceh Province Province is is located located in in the the northernmost northernmost part part of Sumatra. of Sumatra. The area The of area the ofprovince the province is 56.770 is 56.770km2. Of km this,2. Of 22910 this, km 22,9102 is forest, km2 is 8004 forest, km 80042 is kmplantation,2 is plantation, and 39.28 and km 39.282 is km human2 is human developments. developments. This Thisprovince province consists consists of 23 of districts, 23 districts, with with a population a population of ofmore more than than 5.28 5.28 million. million. This This region region is is defined defined as tropical, with an annual average temperaturetemperature ofof 25.7–28.925.7–28.9 ◦°C[C [30].30]. Surveys of termite attack were conducted from MarchMarch 20182018 toto July 2019. A total of 80 traditional houses were randomly assessed for termite infestationinfestation based on visual observations in the traditional houses preserved in AcehAceh thethe PidiePidie RegencyRegency (5(5°22◦220′13.487”13.487′′ N 9595°56◦560′8.4738.473”′′ E) E) (40 houses) and the Greater Aceh Regency 55°27◦270′10.50110.501”′′ N 95°28 95◦28′040.01240.012”′′ E E (40 (40 houses), houses), Aceh Aceh Prov Province,ince, northern northern Sumatra, Sumatra, Indonesia (Figure2 2).). TheThe structurestructure ofof thethe houseshouses surveyedsurveyed waswas stilt-style,stilt-style, with with a a single single story. story.

Figure 2. Map of the study sites in the Greater Aceh Regency (pale-yellow) and the Pidie Regency (orange), AcehAceh Province,Province, Sumatra,Sumatra, Indonesia.Indonesia.

2.2.2.2. Collection of Termites andand Determination of Species The indications of termite attacks recorded in the present study included galleries (trails of termites covered by soil, wood particles, andand/or/or feces), termite nests around houses, and parts of termite nests that werewere connectedconnected toto thethe buildings.buildings. These These signs signs were were used to locate and indicateindicate termite attack in the selectedselected structures [[31–33].31–33]. When a traditional house was found to be infestedinfested by termites, the condition was recorded digitally and manually. The termites attacking each house were collected in a vial with 70% ethanol and labe labeledled with the house ID number and and relevant relevant data. data. Interviews (semi-structured(semi-structured questionnaires) questionnaires) were were also also conducted conducted with with the the home home owners owners to collect to collect data ondata the on building the building history, history, culture culture (such as(such daily as lifedail iny thelife house),in the house), the frequency the frequency and intensity and intensity of termite of attacks,termite andattacks, their and traditional their traditional knowledge knowledge of avoiding of and avoiding/or suppressing and/or termitesuppressing attacks. termite Termites attacks. were identifiedTermites bywere referring identified to [18 by,19 ,referring34–36]. Photographs to [18,19,34–36]. were taken Photographs as multi-layer were montages taken as using multi-layer a Leica montages using a Leica M205C stereomicroscope at the Fort Lauderdale Research and Education

Insects 2020, 11, 385 4 of 12 Insects 2020, 11, x 4 of 12

Center,M205C stereomicroscopeUniversity of Florida, at the FortUSA. Lauderdale Collected Researchvoucher andspecimens(preserved Education Center, Universityin 70% ethanol) of Florida, are housedUSA. Collected in the termite voucher collection specimens(preserved of the Biology in 70%Department, ethanol) areFaculty housed of Mathematics in the termite and collection Natural of Sciences,the Biology Universitas Department, Syiah Faculty Kuala. of Mathematics and Natural Sciences, Universitas Syiah Kuala.

3. Results Results and and Discussion Discussion

3.1. Termite Termite Species Attacking Traditional AcehneseAcehnese HousesHouses Forty-one houseshouses (51%) (51%) were were attacked attacked by two by termite two species:termite Coptotermesspecies: Coptotermes gestroi and Nasutitermesgestroi and Nasutitermesmatangensis. matangensis. Termite attacks caused by other termite species we werere not found in the present study. We found that C. gestroi was the most prevalent destructive termite in thethe houseshouses surveyed.surveyed. This subterranean termite species species is is a acommon common pest pest in inhouses houses in Indonesi in Indonesia,a, as it as attacks it attacks wooden wooden structures structures in both in rural both andrural urban and urban areas. areas. Worker Worker and andsoldier soldier castes castes inva invadede traditional traditional buildings buildings through through wood wood or or other structural parts in contact with or near the ground.ground. The houses with an abundance of wood debris nearby appeared to have higher levels of termite infestationinfestation (Figure3 3).). InfestationInfestation byby thesethese speciesspecies was recognized by the presence of mud tubes on buildingsbuildings up to the roofs (3–4 m), which were often not observed by the occupants.

Figure 3. SchematicSchematic diagram diagram of of CoptotermesCoptotermes gestroi gestroi’s (top (top right) right) strategies strategies of attack attack against against a a traditional traditional house [33,34]. [33,34]. Termites Termites from the main nest first first atta attackck the the lower lower part part of of the the house house through through the the pillars. pillars. The decayed stumps,stumps, trees,trees, and and wood wood debris debris remaining remaining on on or or under under the the ground ground around around the the houses houses act actas theas the pathways pathways through through which whic termitesh termites attack attack the the house. house.

Our observations suggestsuggest thatthatN. N. matangensis matangensisoften often build build their their arboreal arboreal nests nests on on fruit fruit trees, trees, such such as asmango mango (Mangifera (Mangifera indica indicaL.) L.) and and sapodilla sapodilla (Manilkara (Manilkara zapota zapotaL.), L.), surrounding surrounding traditionaltraditional houses and can invade the houses by constructingconstructing galleries on branches that come in contact with the house (Figure 44).). AbundantAbundant andand well-functioningwell-functioning galleriesgalleries indicatedindicated aa higherhigher activityactivity ofof termitetermite colonies.colonies. Nasutitermes matangensis will build several satellite nests in the top corners of houses in the late stages of infestation. The outer cover of the nests is carton-like, carton-like, soft, and friable, so a nest can be easily easily broken broken and penetrated.

Insects 2020, 11, 385 5 of 12 Insects 2020, 11, x 5 of 12

Insects 2020, 11, x 5 of 12

FigureFigure 4. Schematic 4. Schematic diagram diagram of Nasutitermes of Nasutitermes matangensis matangensis’s (top’s (top right) right) strategies strategies of attack of attack against against a a traditionaltraditional house house in inGreater Greater Aceh Aceh Regency. Regency. Termites Termites invade invade from undergroundunderground and and arboreal arboreal nests nests into into houses by constructing galleries on branches that come into contact with the house. The branches houses by constructing galleries on branches that come into contact with the house. The branches of of the trees around such houses should be regularly trimmed to suppress termitetermite invasion.invasion. Figure 4. Schematic diagram of Nasutitermes matangensis’s (top right) strategies of attack against a 3.2. Structuraltraditional Damage house to in Traditional Greater Aceh Houses Regency. Termites invade from underground and arboreal nests 3.2. Structuralinto Damage houses toby constructingTraditional galleri Houseses on branches that come into contact with the house. The branches Globally,Globally,of termites the termites trees around have have such become becomehouses shoulda great a great be regularlythreat threat totrimmed toresidential residential to suppress buildings termite buildings invasion. in inboth both rural rural and and urban urban areas.areas. Termites’ Termites’3.2. Structural preferences preferences Damage to for Traditional for buildings buildings Houses to to attack attack are are related related to various factorsfactors [[37].37]. WeWe foundfound that that the lower parts (pillars, floors, walls, doors, and windows) of traditional houses were frequently attacked the lower partsGlobally, (pillars, termites floors, have walls, become doors, a great andthreat windows) to residential of buildings traditional in both houses rural andwere urban frequently attacked(Figure (Figure5areas.) and Termites’ severely 5) and preferences severely damaged damagedfor by buildings termites by to intermitesattack 31 houses are inrelated 31 (39% houses to various of the (39% 80factors surveyed of the[37]. 80 We houses),surveyed found that significantly houses), significantlyreducingthe the lowerreducing robustness parts (pillars,the ofrobustness thefloors, houses walls, of (Figuredoors,the housand6). windows)es Similar (Figure trendsof traditional6). Similar were houses reported trends were inwere frequently Pakistan reported [ 31 ]in and PakistanNigeria [31]attacked [33 ].and Among (Figure Nigeria the5) and [33]. lower severely Among parts, damaged pillarsthe lower by tend termites parts, to be in attackedpillars31 houses tend first(39% to byof be theC. attacked gestroi80 surveyed; this first houses), may by beC. duegestroi to the; significantly reducing the robustness of the houses (Figure 6). Similar trends were reported in thispillars may be usually due to being the pillars in contact usually with being the ground. in contact Even with in casesthe ground. where Even a stone in orcases concrete where foundation a stone Pakistan [31] and Nigeria [33]. Among the lower parts, pillars tend to be attacked first by C. gestroi; had been set at the base under the pillars, termites had constructed galleries over the stone to the wood. or concretethis foundation may be due tohad the beenpillars set usually at the being base in counntactder withthe thepillars, ground. termites Even in had cases constructed where a stone galleries overAttacks the orstone extended concrete to thefoundation to thewood. floors, had Attacks been doors, set extended at walls the base (ornaments), unto derthe the floors, pillars, and roof.doors,termites Conversely, wallshad constructed (ornaments), the uppergalleries and house roof. parts Conversely,(roofs andover the gables)the upperstone showed to house the wood. attacks parts Attacks in(roofs four extended and of the gables) to houses the floors,showed (5%) doors, surveyed, attacks walls (ornaments),in and four both of the theand lower housesroof. and (5%) upper surveyed,parts wereConversely, and attacked both the in upperlower six ofhouse and the upper housesparts (roofs parts (8%) and were surveyed. gables) attacked showed in attacks six of inthe four houses of the (8%)houses surveyed. (5%) surveyed, and both the lower and upper parts were attacked in six of the houses (8%) surveyed.

FigureFigure 5. Frequency 5. Frequency of of structural structural damage damage in di infferent different parts partsof the houses of the surveyed. houses surveyed.

Figure 5. Frequency of structural damage in different parts of the houses surveyed.

Insects 2020, 11, 385 6 of 12 Insects 2020, 11, x 6 of 12

(A)

(B)

FigureFigure 6. ( 6.A,B(A) ,TraditionalB) Traditional houses houses showing showing moderate moderate termite termite attack attack by Coptotermes by Coptotermes gestroi gestroi (Wasmann)(Wasmann) in Pidiein Pidie Regency, Regency, Aceh, Aceh, Indonesia. Indonesia. Red Red arrows arrows indi indicatecate where where the the termites termites were were collected. collected. A number A number of galleriesof galleries ran ran from from subterranean subterranean nest(s nest(s)) to the to the ornamental ornamental parts parts of the of the house. house.

CoptotermesCoptotermes gestroi gestroi buildbuild their their nests nests in inthe the soil, soil, and and workers workers forage forage away away from from the the nest nest to tofind find woodwood that that generally generally has has a high a high moisture moisture content. content. Th Thisis species species usually usually first first consumes consumes the the wood wood inside inside wallswalls and and poles poles and and builds builds pathways pathways (thus, (thus, the the main main structures structures of ofthe the infested infested houses houses seemed seemed to to remainremain intact intact when when seen seen from from the the outside); outside); they they then then reach reach other other parts parts of ofthe the house house using using the the inner inner pathways,pathways, as aswell well as as galleries. galleries. We We found thatthat N.N. matangensis matangensisusually usually consumes consumes the the outer outer parts parts of house of housewooden wooden structures structures first first (Figure (Figure7). 7). We also found that termite attack in the lower and upper parts of the surveyed houses may have been associated with the presence of fungal decay. We suspect that fungi accelerate the termite’s ability to attack wood by reducing wood density, as it is has been shown that wood consumption by termites can be correlated to the degree of wood decay [38,39]. For example, Coptotermes acisnaciformis (Froggatt) is attracted to and consumes wood decayed by brown and white rot fungi [40]. The odor of fungal mycelium also appears to stimulate termite activity [4,41]. Poor ventilation, damp conditions, and poor cleanliness in and around the house likely accelerate termite attacks coupled with fungal decay.

Insects 2020, 11, 385 7 of 12 Insects 2020, 11, x 7 of 12

(A)

(B)

FigureFigure 7. 7.(A(,AB),B. )Traditional Traditional houses houses attacked byby NasutitermesNasutitermes matangensis matangensis(Haviland) (Haviland) in in the the Greater Greater Aceh AcehRegency. Regency. Red Red arrows arrows indicate indicate where where the termites the termit werees were collected. collected. A number A number of large of gallerieslarge galleries ran from ranarboreal from arboreal and underground and underground nests. Workers nests. Workers actively carriedactively wood carried particles wood backparticles to the back nests to throughthe nests the throughgalleries the ( Agalleries). The ornamental (A). The ornamental parts (indicated parts (indicated by a yellow by arrow)a yellow and arrow) walls and were walls heavily were attacked heavily by attackedthe termites by the ( Btermites). Both of(B the). Both houses of the were houses unoccupied. were unoccupied.

We also found that termite attack in the lower and upper parts of the surveyed houses may have been associated with the presence of fungal decay. We suspect that fungi accelerate the termite’s ability to attack wood by reducing wood density, as it is has been shown that wood consumption by termites can be correlated to the degree of wood decay [38,39]. For example, Coptotermes acisnaciformis (Froggatt) is attracted to and consumes wood decayed by brown and white rot fungi [40]. The odor of fungal mycelium also appears to stimulate termite activity [4,41]. Poor ventilation, damp

Insects 2020, 11, x 8 of 12 conditions,Insects 2020 ,and11, 385 poor cleanliness in and around the house likely accelerate termite attacks coupled8 of 12 with fungal decay. 3.3. Previous Land-Use 3.3. Previous Land-Use All the traditional houses that we surveyed were located in a previously forested area that had beenAll loggedthe traditional and cleared houses for that farmland. we surveyed Previous were land located use in might a previously be related forested to the area frequency that had and beenintensity logged of and termite cleared attacks for farmland. on traditional Previous houses. land Termite use might attack be wasrelated recognized to the frequency in 31 traditional and intensityhouses of (78% termite of 41 attacks attacked on houses) traditional built houses. in areas Termite that had attack experienced was recognized forest logging. in 31 traditional We observed housestermite (78% attack of 41 in attacked 11 houses houses) (22%) builtbuilt inin areasareas transformedthat had experienced from farmland forest (Figurelogging.8). We We observed also found termitethat a attack number in of11 rottenhouses stumps (22%) built still remained in areas tr onansformed or under thefrom ground farmland around (Figure the some 8). We of also the surveyedfound thathouses. a number These of arerotten a major stumps risk still factor remained for termite on attack,or unde becauser the ground they can around become the nesting some of sites the for surveyedC. gestroi houses.from whichThese theare termitea major attackrisk factor can expandfor termite to the attack, nearby because houses they (Figure can become3). Mo etnesting al. [ 42 ] sitesreported for C. gestroi that subterranean from which the termites termite like attackCoptotermes can expandspp. to are the predominantly nearby houses found (Figure in 3). housing Mo et areasal. [42]that reported were previously that subterranean covered bytermites forest orlike used Coptotermes as farmland. spp. Theare woodpredominantly debris mixed found into in the housing soil after areasland that clearing were becomespreviously a foodcovered source by andforest nesting or used site as for farmland. subterranean The wood termites debris [27]. mixed into the soil after land clearing becomes a food source and nesting site for subterranean termites [27].

FigureFigure 8. Frequency 8. Frequency of termite of termite attack attack in traditional in traditional houses houses for fordifferent different house house ages ages (>200 (>200 or or 100–200100–200 (years)), (years)), previous previous land useuse (farmland(farmland or or forest), forest), regencies, regencies, and and survey survey sites (Pidiesites (Pidie Regency Regency(PD) or (PD) Greater or AcehGreater Regency Aceh (GAR)).Regency (GAR)).

3.4.3.4. Age Age of Traditional of Traditional Houses Houses AccordingAccording to tointerviews interviews with with home home owners, owners, 72 72houses houses (90%) (90%) were were built built using using selected selected hard hard woodwood species species (e.g., (e.g., ShoreaShorea spp.,spp., ArtocarpusArtocarpus spp., andspp., Vitex and spp.)Vitex dependingspp.) depending on their culture, on their art, culture, beliefs, art, andbeliefs, traditional and traditionalknowledge knowledge of biological of resources, biological as resources, reported asin Saudi reported Arabia in Saudi [9], Malay Arabia Peninsula [9], Malay [10],Peninsula and Africa [10 [32].], and Such Africa wood [32 species]. Such were wood common species werearound common the villages around at the the time villages of construction. at the time of However,construction. with increasing However, deforest with increasingation, these deforestation, wood species these have wood become species scarce have and become expensive. scarce The and localexpensive. people have The been local peopleforced to have use been low-quality forced to wood use low-quality for building wood or repairing for building their orhouses. repairing These their circumstanceshouses. These make circumstances such houses make vulnerable such houses to termite vulnerable disturbances, to termite disturbances,as well as other as well physical as other disturbances,physical disturbances, such as storms such and as stormsearthquakes. and earthquakes. TermitesTermites usually usually prefer prefer soft soft woods woods compared compared to tohard hard woods woods [43] [43 because] because the the latter latter contains contains a a largerlarger amount amount of oflignin lignin and and is not is not easily easily digested digested by bytermites termites [1,44]. [1,44 Undigested]. Undigested lignin lignin is excreted is excreted by by termitestermites as asfeces feces and and used used for for nest nest building building [[45].45]. Traditional AcehneseAcehnese houses houses were were usually usually made made with withpreferred preferred hardwood hardwood species, species, often often with with a combination a combination of woodof wood and and concrete. concrete. We We found found that that the the ages agesof of traditional traditional houses houses aff ectedaffected the the intensity intensity of theof the termite termite attacks. attacks. All All the the traditional traditional houses houses that that were weremore more than than 200 200 years years old old (19 (19 houses) houses) were were attacked attacked by by termites termites at aat serious a serious (32%) (32%) and and moderate moderate level level(68%) (68%) (Figure (Figure8). Many8). Many wood wood species species used used for fo traditionalr traditional houses houses contain contain chemical chemical compounds compounds that thatcan can suppress suppress the the attacks attacks of xylophageousof xylophageous insects insects [46]. [46]. Some Some wood wood species species are preferredare preferred by termite by

Insects 2020, 11, 385 9 of 12 species [47]. However, given the long time since their construction (>200 years), the quality of the wood had deteriorated due to environmental factors. Basidiomycete fungi can change the wood’s physical–mechanical properties and reduce the durability of wooden materials [48] that are preferred by termites [22]. Fungal mycelium can trigger and accelerate termite activity and consequently increase the level of wood destruction [4,49]. The annual local climate conditions in Aceh (24–29 ◦C and 80% humidity) are ideal for fungal growth and termite activity.

4. Conclusions All the traditional houses that we surveyed were located in areas developed after forest logging or transformed from farmland that remained close to farmland or the edges of forests. These conditions appeared to help both subterranean and arboreal termites to infest houses. A lack of cleanliness around the houses and home age (100 to >200 years old) were also found to be risk factors for termite attack. In recent years, it has been difficult to obtain durable wood. Consequently, homeowners tend to use lower quality wood to repair their houses. This might enhance termite attack against traditional historic houses. The frequency and intensity of termite attacks seem to have rapidly increased in the last 20 years. The activities of the timber, construction, and manufacturing industries, which use wood on large geographic scales, may have exacerbated the recent termite situation. We recommend the following measures for suppressing termite attack against cultural heritage houses: (1) remove decayed wood debris and unnecessary wood products on and under the ground around houses, (2) regularly trim the branches of trees around houses, (3) provide good quality wood for repairing houses, and (4) regularly monitor for signs of termite attack. It is necessary to pay attention to the activities of the timber, construction, and manufacturing industries. By contrast, we do not recommend the use of highly toxic insecticides in land [50]. Traditional houses also provide potential nesting sites and nest-building materials for bees and wasps. It is widely known that bees are important pollinators of crops and that wasps act as effective natural enemies of crop pests in rural agro-ecosystems [50,51]. The baiting protocol suggested by Su et al. [52] could be adjusted and used in this area of cultural heritage buildings in Aceh and other parts of Indonesia where these termite species are prevalent.

Author Contributions: N.N.: conceptualization, methodology, investigation, writing—original draft paper, writing—review and editing, and funding acquisition. H.A.: methodology, validation, and supervision. H.I.: methodology, validation, and supervision. T.M.J.: methodology, validation, and supervision. S.S.: methodology, writing—reviewing and editing, and funding acquisition. E.O.: writing—reviewing and editing. K.E.: writing—reviewing and editing, and funding acquisition. All authors have read and agreed to the published version of the manuscript. Funding: This research was partly funded by the Doctoral Dissertation Grant, the Ministry of Research, Technology and Higher Education, Indonesia (MRTHEI) (Leader Novita: FY 2018), International Conference Support, Universitas Syiah Kuala (Leader Novita: FY 2019), Fundamental Grant, MRTHEI (Leader Syaukani FY 2018-FY 2020). Eguchi’s research activities were partly supported by the Tokyo Metropolitan University Fund for TMU Strategic Research (Leader: Noriaki Murakami; FY 2020-FY 2022). Acknowledgments: We thank the various parties who have helped carry out this research. The Communities and Local Governments of Pidie and Greater Aceh Regencies were very helpful during the data collection in the field. We are also grateful to Rudolf Scheffrahn (Florida University, USA) for facilitating Syaukani in taking the specimen photos. Conflicts of Interest: The authors declare no conflict of interest.

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