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1. Methods of investigation: textual, visual, material Recovery of Spanish Civil War sites in the Valencia Region: From methodological research to the creation of tourist routes

JOSÉ RAMÓN VALERO ESCANDELL

Despite the enormous amount of literature on 1 Sites built for wartime purposes, namely, the Spanish Civil War (1936–39) there are still shelters, trenches and bunkers a great many gaps in the record, even where Many of these disappeared shortly after there is relatively abundant information and in being built, due to the unusual and the most thoroughly studied fields, such as the temporary nature of their construction. political and military aspects of the conflict. Some shelters and similar structures were There is still considerable ignorance about sealed up once the Second World War everyday wartime life, the civilian work carried ended, though many can easily be out by the defeated side, the repression during recovered. As a rule, only those sites located and after the war. Little has been recorded away from urban areas still show evidence about most of the sites that played a major role of their original use. throughout the war and immediately after. In 2 Sites whose use was changed during the some parts of there were so many sites war to meet new requirements that they could be said to make up real warfare backdrops. This does not necessarily mean that Examples include recreation centres and battles were fought on those sites. schools that were turned into military clinics or field dressing stations, or country estates near urban areas that became school The concept of war sites: camps for evacuated children. memory and evocation of times 3 Sites that experienced important events of warfare during the war, both military and political We class as ‘war sites’ all places significantly These include sites of battles, involved in the conflict, not just those with bombardments or strategic positions – for political and military associations, but pro- example the location where the Nationalists duction sites and sites of cultural and social broke through to the Mediterranean via relevance. To be included as a ‘war site’ a place Vinarós. Sites of political importance of cultural and social relevance must however include the site of El Fondó de Monòver have undergone significant changes as a result airport from where the defeated Spanish of the war. This means, for instance, that a government left the country. factory that was manufacturing soap in the 4 Structures built or altered after the conflict years before, during and after the war could in memory of the war hardly be considered a war site, unless there had been relevant and exceptional changes in Many memorials were erected to remember its operative, structural or complementary the victorious side. These include numerous uses. war memorials and the commemoration of War sites are therefore classified into the buildings, such as the Alicante prison where following four types: José Antonio Primo de Rivera – founder of the

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Spanish fascist party, the Falange Española [Spanish Phalanx] – was jailed until he was finally executed in 1936 by a firing squad. The prison became a place of pilgrimage for Falangist organisations.1 What has happened to the sites In all the types of sites mentioned above, both the/their remembrance of the wartime period and their re-use for cultural purposes differ quite considerably. This depends on whether: • the site essentially is evocative of that time • the site is properly preserved (regardless of the fact that the activities currently carried out are different from those undertaken in times of war) • the site has been transformed, to a greater or lesser extent • memorials have been built at the site

Sites that are evocative could include some government, also the residence of the Republi- Fig 1.41 Finca El Poblet in defensive fortifications in the interior of the can prime minister of Spain, Juan Negrín, who was the last residence Valencian region, and almost all types of shel- held office during the last two years of the war, of the Spanish Republican ters, including municipal, factory and military 1936 to 1939. The estate is in the province of Ali- government. The photo was shelters. Occasionally such sites have been pre- cante; it is known as Finca El Poblet, in the town taken in 1956 when a US military aircraft flew over served almost untouched after so many of Petrer – or the Yuste Position – in the military Spain taking the first ever decades. They were almost always closed to the jargon of the time. It has hardly been altered aerial photogrammetric public, shrouded in mystery. This is what hap- since the war and was hidden away from prying picture of the country. pened to the last seat of the Spanish Republican eyes by a dense thicket (Valero 2004). (Reproduced by permission of SIGUA at Alicante University)

Fig 1.42 Finca El Poblet at the start of the 21st century. (Photo: Juan Miguel Martínez Lorenzo)

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Valencia’s City Hall is an example of a site military and political events occurred rather that has been properly preserved, although the than about those used for financial, social or activities currently carried out in it today are cultural purposes. A battlefield is much more different from those undertaken in times of likely to be associated with war than a building war. The building was used during the war as that was adapted to house refugees. seat of government, parliament or venue for the People are more aware of a site’s connection Anti-Fascist Intellectuals Congress (Aznar with the conflict and its original role in cases 2007). where its use has been maintained ever since. Sites that have been transformed, sometimes Some places were used for several different radically, include the port of Alicante, which purposes during the war. For example, the witnessed a massive exodus of Republicans, Salon La Mundial in , was originally a shoe and the Campo de los Almendros, an unirri- factory but was used during this period (simul- gated grove, also in Alicante, where those who taneously or successively) as a social club run were unable to flee the country by sea gath- by the Spanish socialist party, a company store, ered.2 Neither of these two places recall these a field dressing station, the improvised tragic episodes, as the port is now a recreation premises of the local leisure centre, the main area while the grove has become a suburb. welfare service canteen and a billet for Moroc- At some sites memorials have been built. can occupation troops. Examples include the numerous crosses scat- The public may have little awareness of a site tered around all towns and villages in memory if its current use or appearance is very different of the fallen on the victorious side. Recently, the today from what it was during the war. Unless memory of the defeated side is being recovered, one is a connoisseur of the Spanish Civil War, it and memorials and commemorative stone is quite difficult to evoke the events that took plaques in their honour are now more common. place in the old docks in the port of Alicante, Whatever the type of site, preserving, or which has now been developed into a recre- where appropriate promoting, such sites in ation area, or in the vineyard which in the past memory of the Civil War requires highlighting used to be the airfield from which Negrín’s identifiable traits connected with that point in Republican government and Dolores Ibarruri, time, disseminating available information on known as La Pasionaria – the most renowned the sites, explaining their connection with the female member of the Spanish Communist conflict, and – if necessary – researching funda- Party, member of the parliament and icon of mental or complementary aspects that may the popular and military resistance against the foster knowledge of those places. Depending on fascists – took flight in 1939. their intended use, further data and learning Another factor determining the extent of materials will be needed to add to their didactic public awareness is whether the powers that be appeal as well as to promote their cultural show any wish to commemorate the war. That potential (even for touristic purposes if inte- is something that General Franco’s regime was grated in clearly defined projects). Awareness highly aware of during its first decades in of war sites can be boosted, and a good example power. Gradually, however, interest in remem- to follow is that of Alcoi. There, a visit to a shel- bering the conflict – which had a role in the ter has been complemented by the restoration foundation, recognition and even justification of an infirmary, with photographs on the walls of the dictatorial regime – waned. With the of bombardments on the town and testimonials transition to democracy after Franco’s death, of those who survived the attacks. efforts were made to try to forget something that divided a society in which a number of Factors affecting current public known participants remained alive. Attempts knowledge were made to overcome past events, fostering Although many structures and places are still obscurity and removing many symbols without today linked to the Civil War in some way, pub- replacing them with others that might evoke lic knowledge of these depends (to a greater or the defeated side. lesser extent) on a number of factors. Following on from this factor affecting First and foremost, the extent of public public awareness, is the issue of whether the knowledge depends on how the site is con- site or structure stresses values defended by nected to the conflict. People usually know the powers that triumphed, which in Spain significantly more about sites where notable was the armed forces who won the war. The

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latter sought to keep the memory alive of both Researching an issue that what they considered to be heroic deeds in remains controversial battle, and the pain suffered by their support- ers. In doing so a great number of symbols Some features peculiar to the Spanish Civil War and gravestones – anything that brought prevent much detached objectivity on events the defeated side to mind – were utterly and places. One must not forget that the clash obliterated. was characterised by its ideological nature and Levels of public awareness also depend on conflicting conceptions of the world. It was the extent to which a site or its history is part a civil conflict, although there was a significant of what people know about their environment. foreign intervention: Nazis and fascists The role played by emblematic buildings of supported the ultra-conservatives, while inter- their city or of places that support their iden- nationalist volunteers and Soviet advisers tity is generally remembered. More backed the Republicans. The conflict was a con- inconspicuous war sites that are less at the frontation more between national concepts and heart of people’s everyday lives are for the understanding of concepts of state role and most part condemned to oblivion. organisation. This is proved by the great If a large group of protagonists or direct involvement of Catalonia in defending Madrid. witnesses in the events connected with a par- The Civil War constituted an internal conflict at ticular site are still alive memory of the the core of each particular territory and society, connection between historical facts and places where supporters of both sides coexisted. is higher. Subsequent generations took on the legacy This memory decreases significantly of the dispute. On 25 May 2006, 68 years after among the public if witnesses have disap- the bombing of Alicante’s market that killed peared, are few in number, had tangential more than 300 people, a commemorative stone involvement, or are relatives who evoke those plaque was placed on one of the building’s episodes. Today there are hardly any direct entrance doors. A few days later the plaque was political participants in the Spanish Civil War vandalised and has been replaced with another still alive. There are also fewer and fewer peo- one with a glass shelter. The conflict still gener- ple who were militarily engaged, and – after ates a lot of attention: it is virtually the main seven decades – only the young of the time can Spanish issue of the 20th century. bear witness to this. Hence, it is no longer pos- In view of all this, one can easily imagine sible to interview important figures – compare how much reluctance is encountered when this to more recent conflicts such as in Bosnia, attempting to undertake research on the Civil Algeria or the Cuban revolution. War. In recalling specific events, people express The number and quality of documents con- concern about who might benefit or be dam- nected with a site helps inform the public and aged. There is sometimes distrust because make them aware of the significance of a par- disclosed information could reveal a relative or ticular spot. Archives and collections friend’s guilt. Some people believe that throw- represent a superb wealth of material and ing light on these matters only hampers the include a great variety of sources, such as reconciliation that began following the press articles, literature, personal writings, Amnesty Act, which was actually a piece of leg- photographs, souvenirs and recordings. On islation intended to bring closure.3 Crucial the other hand, as one comes down to the subjects remain taboo. Any in-depth study daily routine of specific sites – especially in would furthermore touch on the role played by small towns – the number and quality of docu- institutions that held effective control, such as ments notably decreases. Sometimes, it is the army, the Catholic Church, financial corpo- simply impossible to learn with any certainty rations large and small – ranging from main what happened there during the conflict. banks to local farming cooperatives, and the Finally, personal memories, hazy or clear, most influential families in each area. It is endure when past episodes become legends. therefore not uncommon to find those who This is the case for great battles, important seek totally or partially, legally or to all intents political events or violent incidents. Connec- and purposes, to hinder access to archives. tions are barely made between major events All this obviously has an effect on any and daily routines such as work, supply man- museum project or on promoting and bestow- agement and culture. ing greater status to war sites. Curiously

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enough, places where military action took special attention to the period’s best remem- place can be approached with more neutrality. bered episodes (yet often not explicitly). There is especially extensive data about both landscapes where battles were fought and the Biographies regional capitals that were controlled by the Biographies and memoirs – usually hand-writ- conflicting sides, including Valencia (Aragó et ten – are only recently being published, as those al 2007), Salamanca (Robledo 2007) and who previously feared to express how much Barcelona. Barcelona’s city archive has not only repression and hardship they had suffered have collected a great many publications, but also now reached old age, and either they or their allows for online access to a well-stocked pho- families have decided to publish their memoirs. tographic collection. When it comes to more day-to-day matters, however, connected with Magazines and newspapers life in small towns and villages, factory environ- Various periodicals and newspaper sources ments and social relationships, the coverage of with local scope were frequently published by information is nevertheless insufficient, patchy workers’ parties or trade unions, and even and fragmentary. though they were prone to an ideological bias, In approaching the recovery and preserva- they contain extremely rich information on tion of sites linked to the Civil War in specific events and places. Regional papers were pub- geographical areas it is first necessary to deter- lished right until the end of the conflict, almost mine what is meant by war sites, to assess all always following the seizure of existing news- available resources on the subject matter, as papers. The national press enjoyed much well as to ascertain the basic role played by greater dissemination – very rarely did it offer those places during the conflict. Doing this data on small towns but it has nonetheless con- involves using often uneven data from all tributed by depicting key events. sources connected with library collections, newspapers, traditional archives, photographs, Archives cartography and oral testimonies. A considerable amount of documents con- In the case of Valencia, sources available tained in archives are yet to be explored. include: People studying them usually focus on politi- • local histories cal and military aspects, at different levels. Local archives confer special importance to • local journals town council minutes, which reflect local • literary works vicissitudes. These collections, however, also • biographies and memoirs contain a wide range of documents, including • periodicals and newspapers plans, lists, inventories and public health- related files. Such information is sometimes • archives extraordinarily valuable to discover how • photographs estates and buildings were altered to meet the • maps needs of war. • oral histories National collections, such as the section on the Civil War in the Salamanca AHN (National History Archive) or those managed by the army, Local histories such as those in Ávila and Segovia, keep mili- Local histories give a general picture of the tary records, maps and information on local development of the war in particular territories political organisations throughout the country. and studies on specific issues. A large number of files on political parties and trade unions are preserved, though not very Local journals uniformly. There are also many private Several of these – often published annually – archives which are certainly disparate but are preserved, often featuring festivities focus- nonetheless indispensable at local level. ing on historical events or local customs. Photographs Literary works Photographs can teach us a great deal about Novels, plays and poems enjoyed more or less landscapes of war and sudden turning points widespread dissemination, some of which pay in people’s lives and environment.

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Photographic archives – or specific sections tives were involved in the war, one frequently within broader archives, specialised websites observes mythologisation and biased informa- (Memoria republicana, guerracivil.org or Ali- tion and they tend to be afraid to convey the cante vivo, to name a few) and extraordinary horror suffered by those closest to them. It is collections owned by photographers – portray possible, however, to recover typical family his- the conflict. The few aerial photographs that tories and gain access to important material, exist arouse particular interest. A recently including letters, photographs and objects. published book about the air attacks on the Increasing the number of participants produces town of Alcoi is a good example (Beneito a snowball effect that allows many more than 2007). There are also thousands of private expected to be contacted. photographs taken by families, some better Recovering the memory of war sites than others, but all of which contribute some- becomes a simpler task if a conscious synthesis thing. They are zealously kept as private of sources is undertaken. The following case heritage, however, their owners often make shows what I mean. A book published in New them available to researchers. York during the war (SCWAA 1938) contains drawings by evacuated children who had been Maps admitted to school camps around the country. Cartography is extremely helpful for Many portray both disasters of war and the researchers. The pages contained in the Span- quiet life they were leading in their new homes. ish National Topographic Map have proven to A few of those drawings include the stamp of a be especially useful: more so when combined school camp located in (Alicante). with modern mapping and aerial photographs When I visited this town an old man gave me using Geographical Information Systems and directions unhesitatingly it seemed. He pointed other computer applications to overlay layers of out the farmland where the school camp had information. An example of the latter is the so- been established. He told me about events that called 1956 American Flight.4 had taken place there and came with me to visit Pictures show that many towns have the site, which surprisingly preserved features remained almost unchanged since 1939 as depicted in the children’s drawings. A history of regards urban planning. There are also numer- the camp’s evolution was achieved thanks to ous military maps. Studies on key issues that complementary testimonials. Fig 1.43 Title page of They had an effect on people’s daily lives can be The school camp was moved from its origi- still draw pictures, published made thanks to simple notes in the margin of a nal location to a beautiful stately home in the in New York in 1938 by the map or thematic plans. For instance, some centre. Later it was permanently established in Spanish Child Welfare Association of America. maps have survived featuring the places a convent located in the nearby Villa de .

attacked during the bombardment of Alicante Cartography, archive documents, new personal Fig 1.44 An evacuee boy and showing how flour was distributed testimonials and photography will undoubtedly made this drawing of throughout the province. enable us to reveal more about the history of Beneixama School Camp in that school camp. Alicante province. Oral histories Finally, although compilations of written tran- scriptions and tape recordings are available, though often disparate, gathering oral sources is equally imperative and urgent. First-hand wit- nesses of the conflict can contribute valuable information that may shed light on conven- tional data or enable us to understand the past better. Since almost all major protagonists have died, ordinary people – usually they were teenagers or young men and women at the time of the Civil War – who have little connection with the conflict but in-depth knowledge of spe- cific sites can provide clarification, anecdotes and clues to continue researching, despite mem- ory lapses and continuing silences due to fear. When approaching interviewees whose rela-

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Fig 1.45 The building that housed Beneixama School Camp as it looks today. (Photo: José Ramón Valero Escandell)

Fig 1.46 (right) The stately home in the centre of Beneixama, to which the school camp was moved, as it looks today. (Photo: José Ramón Valero Escandell)

Fig 1.47 (far right) Eventually the Beneixama School Camp occupied this convent in the nearby Villa de Biar. (Photo: José Ramón Valero Escandell)

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Cultural and/or tourist use of war sites The research presented here has been under- taken in a systematic way. Information from different sources has been synthesised, thus enabling an in-depth study of Civil War sites In those places where the rich cultural her- Fig 1.48 (above left)One of and suggesting cultural uses for them. Further- itage is suitable for public interpretation – and the data sheets used by the Universidad de Alicante more a team from the Universidad de Alicante even tourist potential, if it evokes general inter- team to survey four villages conducted a detailed analysis on four villages in est – further research should cover potential in the region of Valle Medio the region of Valle Medio del Vinalopó (Valero new uses. The assessment needs to address the del Vinalopó. 2007). The first step was to produce an individ- value of the resources at hand; the degree of © José Ramón Valero ual record for each village, including: its preservation and fragility; accessibility; infor- Escandell

accurate location, using maps, photographs mation signs; available equipment and services Fig 1.49 (above) Data sheet and even geographical coordinates to facilitate both on-site and nearby; the kind of potential used by the Universidad de access by GPS (global positioning system); land use; and closeness to other similar sites which Alicante team in its survey uses before, during and after the war; a may add to its value. As an example, see of four villages in the region detailed description of the site; its possible his- datasheet 2 (Figure 1.49), including one such of Valle Medio del Vinalopó, torical interest to further understand the proposal designed by Professor Rosario assessing the value of the evolution of the conflict in the site’s zone of Navalón who works at the University Institute resources, preservation and influence; and information sources to confirm for Geographic Research at Alicante University. fragility, accessibility, information signs, available the village’s connection with the war. She is a co-director of the study on the region of equipment and services both The aim is to achieve a more detailed picture Medio del Vinalopó. Professor Navalón pro- on-site and nearby, the kind of life there and to formally add interesting duced the section on potential tourist interest of potential use, and additional comments (see data sheet Figure and creation of cultural routes. closeness to other similar 1.48). Similarly, a number of supplementary Dissemination of the key role played by sites which may add to its resources – including documentary archives, these sites during the Civil War inevitably significance. museum collections, audio recordings, interest- requires strengthening the levels of planning © Rosario Navalón ing objects and photographs – will need a legislation or policies to protect the sites from systematic, detailed inventory to be produced. redevelopment, especially should no such This will facilitate access to the resources in preservation policy be currently in place, or if order to promote the architectural heritage’s major construction works are being carried out appeal and understanding. nearby. It would be even more convenient if

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relevant war sites were officially declared lugares: los construidos por razones bélicas – ‘assets of cultural interest’. Interest is undoubt- refugios, trincheras, casamatas...–; los que se edly fostered by publication, both in the form of adaptaron a la situación excepcional genera- specialised academic analysis and articles writ- da por la guerra – hospitales de sangre o ten in the local media. Further promotion is fincas de recreo reconvertidas en colonias ensured by holding temporary exhibitions on escolares–; los escenarios de batallas o actos the most interesting issues connected with the políticos relevantes; y los monumentos con- site, more so if rich and appealing period mate- memorativos de aquella tragedia. rial is available. There are areas that bore El recuerdo del tiempo bélico y su reuti- witness to major war episodes, including Valen- lización cultural depende del grado de cia (capital of the Republic for a number of conservación del lugar: continúan usos y months) and Vinarós and Maestrazgo (in the apariencia de entonces, mantiene sólo la vieja province of Castellón), where Nationalist imagen del lugar, ha sufrido cambios radi- troops chose to drive a wedge between Catalo- cales o es conmemorativo. Conservar los nia and the other Republican territories. The lugares como memoria del conflicto requiere Elda Valley is another significant war site, since resaltar los rasgos identificativos del it was there that Negrín’s Republican govern- momento, divulgar la información destacable ment finally fell. The prime minister’s residence vinculada al tema o investigarla en was located in the nearby town of Petrer, close profundidad, elaborar materiales comple- to Monòver airfield, from which his govern- mentarios que potencien su atractivo ment left the country. didáctico y expositivo. Some very important landscapes of war – Su grado de conocimiento público depende where the final defeat actually occurred – are de factores como el tipo de vinculación con el scattered around the . One conflicto (atrae más lo militar), la pervivencia such site is the harbour area or Campo de los de funciones, la conservación de la imagen Almendros. Permanent exhibitions or heritage histórica, la divulgación o silencio de la vincu- visitor centres may introduce the public to this lación por parte de los poderes públicos, su period of the country’s history and to resources carácter de lugares socialmente identitarios o that help to understand this better. significativos, la supervivencia de testigos, la Creating more or less permanent cultural abundancia de documentación o la mitifi- routes on suitably preserved war sites with his- cación de los hechos a ellos asociados. torical relevance, and various interesting Abordar la recuperación implica conceptua- characteristics is anything but nonsensical. lizar tales lugares, analizar los recursos People’s interest in these is unquestionable if disponibles, precisar las funciones desem- they are displayed to new generations as a path peñadas. La información es fragmentaria, for reflection upon past mistakes which no pero rica y variada. En Valencia las fuentes country should ever repeat: a clear commit- bibliográficas predominantes son historias y ment to peace, tolerance and peaceful revistas locales, obras literarias, biografías a coexistence. veces manuscritas. Disponemos de prensa republicana desde la escala local a la estatal y Resumen de archivos – locales, nacionales...– parcial- mente inexplorados. La fotografía de época, La recuperación de los lugares de la imprescindible, conservada en fondos públi- guerra civil en la comunidad cos o colecciones particulares, es accesible en valenciana: de la investigación algunas páginas web; además, existen metodológica a la creación de rutas fotografías aéreas, como las de los bom- turísticas bardeos italianos. La cartografía facilita el estudio con mapas temáticos de época Los lugares que protagonizaron la Guerra –frentes, abastecimiento, siniestralidad...– y Civil Española son tan abundantes en algunos su comparación con otros actuales. Final- espacios geográficos concretos que podríamos mente, los testimonios directos, de urgente hablar de auténticos paisajes de guerra, no recuperación. Interrelacionar conveniente- sólo en los ámbitos políticos o militares, sino mente estas fuentes – oralidad, archivos también en los productivos, culturales y locales, mapas, fotos, biografías...– facilita la sociales. Básicamente son cuatro tipos de recuperación de la memoria de los lugares.

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La investigación sistemática profundiza en Spanish Child Welfare Association of America 1938 They ellos y permite su utilización cultural. Se still draw pictures. New York: Spanish Child requieren fichas detalladas de lugares y edifi- Welfare Association of America cios – uso, localización, conservación...–, a Valero Escandell, J R 2004 El territorio de la derrota, Los partir de fuentes informativas diversas, ampli- últimos días del Gobierno de la II República en el adas con material complementario que Vinalopó. Petrer: CEL Valero Escandell, J R (ed) 2007 Inventario de lugares y potencie el atractivo y su comprensión recursos de los municipios de la Mancomunidad del histórica. Cuando la riqueza patrimonial per- Vinalopó vinculados a la Guerra Civil y posibilidades mita el aprovechamiento cultural, deberemos de utilización turística de los mismos. Unpublished reforzar la protección urbanística y realizar survey from a contract for advisory work and estudios paralelos valorativos sobre fragilidad, technical assistance between the University of accesibilidad, equipamiento, servicios Alicante and Mancomunidad Intermunicipal del disponibles... Publicaciones, científicas o divul- Valle del Vinalopó gativas, y exposiciones temporales potenciarán el interés. Sobre territorios ligados a momentos esenciales – Valencia capital, Negrín y el Footnotes Vinalopó, el puerto de Alicante...– caben 1 Members of the fascist group Falange Española, were exposiciones permanentes y centros de inter- known as Falangists pretación; incluso rutas culturales, ligadas al 2 During the civil war, Republicans were supporters of fomento de la convivencia pacífica. the democratically elected government, fighting against Nationalist rebels List of references 3 Translator’s note: an amnesty act was passed in Spain Aragó, L et al 2007 Valencia 1931–1939: Guía Urbana: La on 14 October 1977 awarding immunity to those ciudad en la 2ª República. Valencia: PUV responsible for repression under Franco’s regime with Aznar Soler, M (ed) 2007 Valencia capital cultural de la a view to stabilising the country and ensuring República, 1936–1937. Valencia: Consell Valencià democracy de Cultura 4 Translator’s note: On 17 June 1956 a US military Beneito, L A 2007 Alcoi, objetivo de guerra. Alcoy: aircraft flew over Spain, taking the first ever aerial Producciones Kronos photogrammetric picture of the country, including the Robledo, R (ed) 2007 Esta salvaje pesadilla: Salamanca en photo of Finca El Poblet. The operation was known as la guerra civil española. Barcelona: Crítica the 1956 American Flight

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