SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION IN THE WATERLOO MORAINE,
SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO
A Thesis
Presented to
The Faculty of Graduate Studies
of
The University of Guelph
by
LAURA WEAVER
In partial fulfilment of requirements
for the degree of
Master of Science
December, 2008
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SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION IN THE WATERLOO MORAINE, SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO
Laura Weaver Advisor: University of Guelph, 2008 Dr. E. Arnaud
A sedimentological investigation was carried out in the Regional Municipality of
Waterloo to determine the nature and distribution of soft-sediment deformation. Both a detailed local study and broader regional study were conducted to better constrain the origin and evolution of parts of the Waterloo Moraine as well as the record of active ice in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, southwestern Ontario.
Vertical, simple shear and compressional styles of deformation were observed in mud, sand and gravel. The morphologically diverse deformation structures are likely related to glacial encroachment, melting of buried ice blocks and sediment remobilization. Observed laterally and vertically persistent deformation has the potential to affect regional groundwater flow models. By incorporating the analysis of deformation structures, one is able to gain a better understanding of syn- and post- depositional stresses and the characteristics of the glacigenic stratified sediments in the
Waterloo Moraine. Acknowledgements
Many people made the completion of this thesis possible. I would like to thank my advisor, Dr. Emmanuelle Arnaud, for her patience, guidance and friendship. I am most grateful to Jim Kieswetter of Kieswetter Holdings Ltd., Dave Bell of Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd., Grower's Choice, Tri-City Aggregates, Erb Sand and Gravel,
Bannerman Contracting, Steed and Evans Ltd. and Dino's Trucking for access to their operation(s). Andy Bajc of the Ontario Geological Survey was most generous in lending his field notes. Dr. Peter Martini and Dr. Gary Parkin provided many helpful discussions throughout the course of this research.
This thesis could not have been completed without Sarah Ouellette and her assistance in the field. I would also like to thank my family for their never-ending support and Jennifer Hyland for her love, friendship and encouragement. Lastly, I would like to thank my friends - you rock my socks!
This research was funded by an NSERC Discovery Grant to Dr. Arnaud, the
University of Guelph and a two-term Ontario Graduate Scholarship (OGS-ST) to the author. This financial assistance is greatly appreciated.
1 Table of Contents
Acknowledgements i
Table of Contents ii
List of Tables iii
List of Figures iv
1.0 INTRODUCTION 1
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION 2 2.1 Deformed Sediments 2 2.1.1 Deformation and Glacial Environments 2 2.1.2 Classification of Deformation Structures 4 2.2 The Waterloo Moraine 8 2.2.1 Geomorphology of the Waterloo Moraine 8 2.2.2 Glacial History of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo 8 2.2.3 Paleozoic Geology 13 2.2.4 Quaternary Geology 14 2.3 Groundwater Applications 17
3.0 POLYPHASE GLACIGENIC DEFORMATION IN THE WATERLOO MORAINE, KITCHENER, SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO 20
4.0 DISTRIBUTION OF SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION IN SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS OF THE WATERLOO MORAINE, REGIONAL MUNICIPALITY OF WATERLOO, SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO 64
5.0 CONCLUSION 103
REFERENCES 106
APPENDIX A: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo - Technical Document Ill
APPENDIX B: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo - Metadata Detail Page 141
APPENDIX C: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo Dataset-CD Attached to Thesis
n List of Tables
Table 3.1 Summary of the characteristics and interpretations of stratigraphic units at KW-1 and KW-2 38 Table 3.2 Structural data of normal faults recorded at KW-1 and KW-2 corrected for magnetic declination 41
Table 4.1 Relative dominance of deformation styles in various glacial depositional environments (modified from McCarroll and Rijsdijk (2003)) 74
Table A.l Deformation attributes 125 Table A.2 Feature codes of selected attributes (Deform) 129 Table A.3 Feature codes of selected attributes (Sur_Geol) 132 Table A.4 Summation of sine and cosine measurements in radians 139
iii List of Figures
Figure 2.1 Location of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo showing the extent of the Waterloo Moraine (morainal outline modified from Bajc and Karrow, 2004) 7 Figure 2.2 Conceptual cross-section of the Waterloo Moraine within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (modified from Bajc, 2004) 9 Figure 2.3 Quaternary geology map of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (morainal outline modified from Bajc and Karrow, 2004) 10 Figure 2.4 Five major ice lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in southwestern Ontario. The Waterloo Moraine is thought to form under the influence of the Georgian Bay, Huron, Erie and Ontario Lobes (modified from Barnett, 1992; morainal outline taken from Bajc and Karrow, 2004) 11 Figure 2.5 Time-distance diagram highlighting the major till units that have been identified in the Waterloo Moraine (modified from Bajc and Karrow, 2004) 12
Figure 3.1 Location of study site in Kitchener, Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Ontario. A) Overview map of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo in southwestern Ontario. B) Location of Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. mine and extent of the Waterloo Moraine showing regional topography. Note the northwest-southeast trending ridge (arrow). C) Map of Kieswetter Holdings Limited property showing local topography, location of detailed study sites KW-1 and KW-2, and location of other sites of observation in the pit 24 Figure 3.2 Photographs of mud subfacies. A) Low angle inclined fine-grained sediment (Fl) in Panel 8 at KW-1. B) Slightly faulted horizontally interbedded clay, silt and sand (Fh) in Panel 2 at KW-1. C) Climbing ripple cross-laminations in sandy silt (Fcr) in Panel 9 at KW-1. Heavy minerals define ripple cross- laminations. Metre stick shows 10cm increments. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (right) and inches (left) 28 Figure 3.3 Photographs of sand subfacies. A) Faulted horizontally bedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand (Sh) in Panel 2 at KW-1. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (right) and inches (left). B) Cross-bedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand (St) with occasional clasts in Panel 9 at KW-1. Metre stick shows 10cm increments 30 Figure 3.4 Photographs of gravel subfacies. A) Fine-grained massive matrix-supported gravel (Gmm/Gcm) in Panel 6 at KW-1. B) Lens of coarse-grained massive matrix-supported gravel (Gmm/Gcm) in Panel 3 at KW-1. C) Normally graded matrix-supported cobble to boulder gravel (Gmg) with clast-supported sections in Panel 8 at KW-1. D) Cross-bedded matrix-supported gravel (Gmt) in Panel 11 at KW-1. Ruler in A is 15cm long 32 Figure 3.5 Contiguous section of highly deformed sediments exposed at site KW-1 showing the distribution of facies and sedimentary units 36 Figure 3.6 Contiguous section of deformed sediments exposed at site KW-2 showing the distribution of facies and sedimentary units 37
IV Figure 3.7 Photographs of normal faulting. A) Sporadic small-scale extensional faulting in Panel LW-13 at KW-2. B) Pervasive extensional faulting in Panel 11 at KW-1. C) Graben-like feature in Panels 6 and 7 at KW-1. Metre stick in A and B shows 10cm increments. Handle of trowel in C is 12cm 42 Figure 3.8 Photograph of density-driven deformation. Loading structures in clay and silt in Panel 2 at KW-1. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (bottom) and inches (top) 44 Figure 3.9 Photograph of small-scale open anticlines and synclines (arrows) in interbedded mud and sand in Panel LW-12 at KW-2. Metre stick shows 10cm increments 46 Figure 3.10 Photograph of large overturned fold in Panels 5 to 7 at KW-1. The handle of the shovel is 30cm 47 Figure 3.11 Photographs of simple shear deformation at KW-1 and KW-2. A) Attenuated beds (arrows) in Panel LW-12 at KW-2. B) Shear fold in Panel 4 at KW-1. Metre stick in A and B shows 10cm increments. C) Shear zone with shear folds in Panel 3 at KW-1. The handle of the knife in C is 12cm 49 Figure 3.12 Simplified block diagram of local depositional model showing fan development and ice encroachment in stages 1-4 52 Figure 3.13 Summary of the deformation and depositional history erected for the Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. mine 53
Figure 4.1 Location of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo showing the extent of the Waterloo Moraine and regional topography. The distribution of aggregate mine, road, river and subdivision outcrops examined by Andy Bajc (2002), Emmanuelle Arnaud (2005) and Laura Weaver (2007) is also shown. Note the northwest-southeast trending regional ridge (white arrows) 69 Figure 4.2 Distribution of dominant deformation styles in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. No pure shear deformation was observed. Inset shows map of the cluster of deformed sediment 75 Figure 4.3 Distribution of simple shear deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Simple shear deformation was commonly observed along the crest and east of the regional northwest-southest trending ridge. Fault planes of three thrust faults are shown and have no preferred dip direction 77 Figure 4.4 Photographs of simple shear deformation. A) Attenuated bedding (arrow) in interbedded mud and sand at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. Ruler shows centimetres (top) and inches (bottom). B) Shear fold of pebble gravel extending into overlying interbedded mud and sand at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. (black arrow). Metre stick shows 10cm increments. Deformation was observed by Weaver in 2007 78 Figure 4.5 Panel diagram of a thrust fault observed by Weaver in 2007 at Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. Cedar Creek Pit, North Dumfries Township 79 Figure 4.6 Distribution of compressional deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Compressional deformation was observed along the crest of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge and in the Hawkesville Spur ... 81
v Figure 4.7 Overturned fold at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. observed by Weaver in 2007. No 3-dimensional structural data was collected; however, the apparent strike of the fold axis is to the west. The handle of the shovel is 30cm 82 Figure 4.8 Distribution of vertical deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Vertical Deformation was observed throughout the region, but is most abundant along, east and north of the regional northwest-southeast trending regional ridge 84 Figure 4.9 Examples of vertical deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo observed by Weaver in 2007. A) Panel diagram of dikes in coarse-grained sediment at Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. Wolfe Pit, Hawkesville Spur. B) Slump of coarse-grained gravel over an inclined erosional surface cut into sand observed by Weaver in Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. B&B Pit, southern Kitchener (arrow indicates flow direction). C) Small-scale load casts (upper third of photograph) at Erb Sand and Gravel Inc. aggregate mine, Crosshill Spur. Black bar is 10cm long. D) Normal faulting in Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine, southern Kitchener 85 Figure 4.10 Large-scale loading structures observed in Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. B&B Pit, southern Kitchener. A) Overview photograph of deformed panel showing large load cast, flame structure and pseudonodule. B) Close-up photograph of flame structure associated with load cast. C) Sketch of flame structure highlighting texture and internal structure. Metre stick shows 10cm increments 87 Figure 4.11 Distribution of undeformed sediment in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo 89 Figure 4.12 Texture of dominant deformation structures in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Note that 49 sites had deformation structures consisting of sand and gravel, whereas 36 sites had deformation structures consisting of mud anddiamict 91 Figure 4.13 Scale of dominant deformation observed in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. A small-scale map of the cluster of deformed sediment is shown in the inset map. Note most deformation is <25cm or >2m thick 92
Figure A.1 Conceptual cross-sectional model of the Waterloo Moraine 117 Figure A.2 Stadial and interstadial periods 117 Figure A.3 Trigonometric vector mean determination 138
VI 1.0 INTRODUCTION
The Waterloo Moraine is a complex deposit consisting of stratified sand and gravel with discontinuous interbeds of diamict and mud. Previous studies of the
Waterloo Moraine have focused on mapping sediment types and establishing a regional stratigraphy to reconstruct the local glacial history (Karrow and Greenhouse, 1986;
Karrow, 1988; Barnett, 1992; Paloschi, 1993; Rajakaruna, 1994; Bajc and Karrow, 2004).
To date, there has not been any systematic study of deformation in the Waterloo Moraine.
The examination of deformed sediment can reveal additional information relating to the process(es) occurring during and after deposition (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003), which in turn, aids in determining the environmental conditions under which these sediments accumulated (Mills, 1983). Furthermore, analyzing the regional distribution of deformation may improve existing groundwater flow models in the Regional
Municipality of Waterloo as laterally and vertically persistent macroscopic deformation can affect groundwater flow (Martin and Frind, 1998).
The purpose of this thesis is to examine the nature and distribution of macroscopic soft-sediment deformation to refine the depositional model of the Waterloo
Moraine within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, southwestern Ontario.
Deformation was studied at two different scales: a detailed study of the sedimentology and deformation within the Waterloo Moraine at one aggregate mine in southern
Kitchener as well as a regional spatial analysis of the nature and distribution of deformation structures within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Both of these studies use deformation structures to infer the active ice record of the region and the origin and evolution of parts of the Waterloo Moraine. Additionally, the regional study
1 seeks to examine sediment heterogeneity related to deformation in an area under the influence of numerous ice lobes.
After this brief introduction, an overview of deformed sediments, the location and geological setting of the study area and groundwater applications of deformation studies are first presented in section 2.0. Section 3.0 deals with a reconstruction of the depositional history of highly deformed sediments within the Kieswetter Holding Ltd. aggregate mine in southern Kitchener. Section 4.0 describes and analyzes the regional distribution of deformation styles to demonstrate their morphological and stylistic heterogeneity in the Waterloo Moraine. Finally, section 5.0 provides a summary of the principal conclusions and outlines possibilities for future expansion of this research.
2.0 BACKGROUND INFORMATION
2.1 Deformed Sediments
2.1.1 Deformation and Glacial Environments
Deformation structures are defined as any modification to the original sedimentary structure by a secondary process(es) (Maltman, 1994). By examining deformation structures, one can determine syn- and post-depositional stresses acting on or within a sediment body; these can used in combination with sedimentological data to reconstruct the prevailing conditions during and after deposition (Mills, 1983; Owen,
1987).
Deformed sediments are present in many depositional environments. This includes: involutions and ice-wedges in modern and Pleistocene periglacial sediment
(Morgan, 1972; van Vliet-Lanoe et ah, 2004; Gao, 2005), folding and loading in seismically active lacustrine systems (van Loon, 2002; Luirei and Bhakuni, 2007; Moretti
2 and Sabato, 2007), recumbent folding resulting from current drag in cross-bedded fluvial sediment (Allen and Banks, 1972; Hendry and Stauffer, 1975; Wells, 1993) water escape structures in saturated sediment (Lowe and LoPiccolo, 1974; Lowe, 1975) and loading due to reversed density gradients in vertically heterogeneous sediment (Anketell et al.,
1970; Visher and Cunningham, 1981). These deformation features occur at a variety of scales and result from a myriad of processes including bioturbation, temperature changes, mass movements, water and gas migration, sudden loading and compaction (Van Loon and Brodzikowski, 1987). Deformation structures resulting from glacial activity are also well documented.
Most studies examining glacigenic deformation focus on ice-marginal and subglacial deformation in modern and ancient glacial deposits. For example, Boulton et al. (1999) describe the lateral distribution of stratified sediment and macroscopic deformation structures in a push moraine in Spitsbergen. Polyphase deformation in diamict and stratified sediment related to an oscillating ice margin is examined at the outcrop scale by Phillips et al. (2002), whereas Le Heron et al. (2005) describe large- scale compressional structures thought to result from a surging glacier and shear-induced deformation in Ordovician rocks in northern Africa. Overturned folding, thrusting and shearing related to glacial over-riding of sediment have been inferred from
Neoproterozoic rocks in Norway (Arnaud, 2008). Glacitectonic deformation in subglacial till is explored in some detail in the literature (Hart and Roberts, 1994; Benn and Evans, 1996; van der Meer et al., 2003; Piotrowski, 2004); however, very few studies address deformation structures in areas that were influenced by several active ice lobes like the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. In addition, all of the described studies
3 examine deformation at one site, or few sites within a large area: there is a lack of regional studies of deformation. The examination of regional trends in deformation may allow for improved reconstructions of active ice dynamics and paleoenvironmental conditions.
To date, deformation structures within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo have received very little to no attention. Morgan (1972) and later Gao (2005) have analyzed the nature and distribution of periglacial ice-wedges in Kitchener. Arnaud
(2005) examined soft-sediment deformation within two aggregate mines. No other studies document deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. By studying the nature and regional distribution of deformation, this thesis is thus filling a gap in our understanding of Quaternary sediments in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo.
2.1.2 Classification of Deformation Structures
In glacigenic sediment, deformation structures are classified into styles based on their scale and structural characteristics (Hatcher, 1995). McCarroll and Rijsdijk (2003) present a comprehensive classification scheme of glacigenic deformation that relates the morphology and structure of the deformation structures to different stresses and depositional settings. There are five main styles of glacigenic deformation in their classification scheme: pure shear, simple shear, compressional, vertical and undeformed.
Pure shear deformation results from the vertical shortening of sediments. Pure shear deformation features are common in subglacial and ice-marginal environments where glacial ice overrides and compacts underlying sediment (McCarroll and Rijsdijk,
2003). Crushed clasts, clast realignment (perpendicular to the vertical stress) and compressional fractures are examples of pure shear deformation.
4 Simple shear strain records the affects of tangential and/or horizontal stress on or within a sedimentary body involving the displacement and elongation of sedimentary structures in the direction of maximum shear. Like pure shear deformation, simple shear deformation features are dominant in subglacial and ice-marginal environments where glacial ice encroaches and overrides underlying sediment (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003).
As the deformed sediment geometries record the direction of maximum shear, the general flow direction of glacial ice can be interpreted from orientation of fold axes, rooted and detached shear folds and thrust faults.
Deformation structures involving the horizontal shortening of sediment are classified as compressional deformation. Compressional deformation is common in ice- marginal environments where encroaching glacial ice pushes sediment within the glacier forefield in the direction of ice advancement (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Anticlinal and synclinal open to closed folds, nappes, compressional fractures and compressional dikes are examples of compressional deformation.
Vertical deformation is gravity-driven and encompasses the vertical displacement of sediment. This style of deformation is common in proglacial, glaciolacustrine and glaciomarine depositional environments. Processes responsible for vertical deformation include the collapse of the sedimentary floor by the melting of buried ice blocks and reversed density gradients in saturated sediment (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003).
Examples of vertical deformation include normal faulting, ball and pillow structures, pseudonodules, flame structures and diapirs.
In most glacial depositional settings, sediment is not deformed; primary sedimentary structure(s) is maintained. When focusing on deformation structures,
5 undeformed sediments may be perceived as inconsequential; however, the lack of visible macroscopic deformation can be an indication of the lack of syn- and post-depositional deformational stress(es) within/on a sedimentary system.
The distribution of a single deformation style can not be used to determine depositional conditions as glacial environments can possess a mosaic of deformation styles (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). It is the relative abundance and associations of macroscopic deformation styles that can be used to determine the glacigenic depositional environment. In addition, deformed sediments can be farther deformed by one or more subsequent, distinct deformation events leading to a complex variety of deformation features within one outcrop (Phillips et al, 2002).
In summary, deformation structures result from a modification of the original sedimentary structure(s) of a sedimentary unit (Maltman, 1994). Deformed sediment can develop in numerous environments ranging from glacial, periglacial, fluvial, lacustrine, and terrestrial. In glacial environments, deformation structures can be divided into five classes based on morphology and structural parameters. By examining the abundance and associations of deformation styles, one can reconstruct the glacigenic depositional environment of a deposit.
6 •i Regional Municipality of Waterloo | Lake/River ' ! Waterloo Moraine n Study Area — Road
0 2.5 Source: Census Canada, 2001
Figure 2.1. Location of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo showing the extent of the Waterloo Moraine (moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow, 2004). 2.2 The Waterloo Moraine
The Waterloo Moraine is situated north of Lake Erie and west of Lake Ontario within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, mid-way between the cities of Toronto and London (Figure 2.1). The moraine underlies many urban and rural settlements, including the cities of Kitchener and Waterloo (Figure 2.1). The general characteristics of the moraine are discussed below.
2.2.1 Geomorphology of the Waterloo Moraine
The Waterloo Moraine has a very irregular shape with an undulating topography
(Rajakaruna, 1994). The moraine rises -50-100m from the surrounding plains as a lenticular mass of stratified sediment and till (Figure 2.2; Rajakaruna, 1994). The
Waterloo Moraine is bounded by a drumlinized till plain, outwash plains, kames and isolated eskers to the east and south. Extending northwest from the moraine is an undulating till plain.
Vast amounts of stratified sand and gravel are documented at or near the surface of the landform (Figures 2.2 and 2.3; Farvolden et al, 1987; Rajakaruna, 1994; Bajc et a\., 2003; Bajc, 2004; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Irregular and discontinuous till sheets and lenses overlying the sand and gravel are interpreted as the remnants of a superimposed till plain that has undergone extensive erosion by glacial meltwater
(Rajakaruna, 1994; Karrow and Paloschi, 1996).
2.2.2 Glacial History of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo
The Waterloo Moraine was formed under the influence of four lobes of the
Laurentide Ice Sheet: the Georgian Bay Lobe, the Huron Lobe, the Erie Lobe and the
8 W Waterloo Moraine E
Figure 2.2. Conceptual cross-section of the Waterloo Moraine within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (modified from Bajc, 2004).
Ontario Lobe (Figure 2.4; Karrow and Paloschi, 1996; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). These lobes formed in the troughs of the Great Lakes basins, thickening and spreading laterally outward (Barnett, 1992). During the Laurentide Ice Sheet maximum, regional ice flow stemmed from the northeast as result of the Huron and Georgian Bay Lobes (Bajc and
Karrow, 2004).
Mid to Early Wisconsinan time was characterized by the deposition of the
Canning Till or Canning Drift, as well as several unnamed tills (Figure 2.2; Barnett,
1992). These tills reflect the Guildwood and Nicolet Stades (Figure 2.5; Barnett, 1992).
The Middle Wisconsinan period was dominated by the deposition of fluvial and lacustrine silt and sand during a major glacial retreat known as the Port Talbot Interstade
9 Regional Municipaltty of W L^' Vfeterloo Moraine IK Modem Sediment
HiHH Ice Contact Sand and Grav I". v-| Outwash Sand and Gravel | | (Glacio)Lacustrine Sand, S v^%P\ Paleozoic Bedrock I Study Area
0 2.5 5 Source: Ontario Geological Survey, 2003 Figure 2.3. Quaternary geology map of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow, 2004). 82 W k£& 2 2 in Georgian Bay r ippasi 82°W Figure 2.4. Five major ice lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in southwestern Ontario. The Waterloo Moraine is thought to form under the influence of the Georgian Bay, Huron, Erie and Ontario Lobes (modified from Barnett, 1992; morainal outline taken from Bajc and Karrow, 2004). (Figure 2.5; Dreimanis and Karrow, 1972). A study of marl deposits taken from boreholes in the Waterloo area show a gradual transition from lowland, forested peatland to wetland with more open water (Karrow and Warner, 1984). Although the climate is believed to be slightly cooler and drier than the present, the study indicates a slight warming (Karrow and Warner, 1984). 11 Huron-Georgian Bay Lobe Erie-Ontario Lobe West East Port Huron Stade (-13 Ka) Mackinaw Interstade c (-13.4 Ka) "tco o « Port Bruce Stade (-14.8 Ka) Waterl CO Moraine Deposits Erie Interstade (~15.5J Port Talbort Interstade co w Guildwood Stade Canning Till CO St. Pierre Interstade LU Nicolet Stade Figure 2.5. Time-distance diagram highlighting the major till units that have been identified in the Waterloo Moraine (modified from Bajc and Karrow, 2004). During the Nissouri Stade, approximately 16ka to 24ka ago, the Laurentide Ice Sheet reached its glacial maximum (Dyke and Prest, 1987). An expansive till (Catfish Creek Till) was deposited over much of the southern Ontario (Karrow, 1988). The Erie Interstade followed the Nissouri Stade (Figure 2.5). During this time, numerous large glacial lakes formed along the margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in the Erie and Huron basins with smaller lakes forming on the surface of the Catfish Creek Till (Karrow, 1988). Deposition of fine-grained lacustrine sediment occurred. Laterally discontinuous lacustrine sediment was deposited on the surface of the Catfish Creek Till in topographic lows. Some of the Maryhill Till sediment may record these lacustrine conditions (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). 12 The ice readvanced regionally during the Port Bruce Stade. During this time, the Huron-Georgian Bay Lobe and the Erie-Ontario Lobe deposited several tills that are present in the Waterloo Moraine (Figure 2.5): Maryhill Till, Stirton Till, Tavistock Till, Mornington Till, and Port Stanley Till. Of significance is the Maryhill Till and its associated fluvial deposits as they make up the greatest proportion of surficial deposits in the Waterloo Moraine. Eventually, the climate warmed, and the ice retreated, ushering in the Mackinaw Interstade (Figure 2.5). The final glacial stade is termed the Port Huron. It is during this time that the Erie-Ontario Lobe deposited the Wentworth Till in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (Karrow, 1974). Following this period, the Earth's climate gradually started to warm ending the Wisconsinan ice age. Periglacial processes dominated during the retreat of the Laurentide Ice Sheet as shown by ice-wedge casts and polygons found near Kitchener within fluvial sediment (Morgan, 1972; Gao, 2005). The end of periglacial conditions coincides with the end of the Pleistocene and the beginning of the warmer Holocene. In summary, the Laurentide Ice Sheet formed pronounced lobes in southern Ontario. The fluctuations of the lobal margins during the Wisconsinan glaciation coincide with the sequential deposition of the Waterloo Moraine. The deposits found in the Waterloo Moraine were deposited during the Nissouri, Port Bruce and Port Huron stades and associated interstades. 2.2.3 Paleozoic Geology From east to west (oldest to youngest), the Waterloo Moraine is underlain by: the Silurian Guelph Formation composed of dolostone, the Salina Formation composed of 13 interbedded shale and dolostone with salt and gypsum beds, the Bass Islands Formation composed of dolostone, and the Bois Blanc Formation composed of cherty limestone (Miller e/a/., 1979). Incised channels into the underlying Paleozoic bedrock leads to Quaternary sediment thicknesses up to 100m (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The Quaternary overburden thickens westward through the Waterloo Moraine (Russell et ah, 2006). 2.2.4 Quaternary Geology The majority of the Waterloo Moraine consists of stratified sand and gravel (Figures 2.2 and 2.3); however, studies to date have focused on establishing till stratigraphy as part of regional mapping programs (Karrow, 1963; Karrow, 1971). Seven different till units as well as stratified sand and gravel units have been identified (Figures 2.2 and 2.5; Karrow and Paloschi, 1996; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The till units have been predominantly identified based on differences in calcium carbonate content and stratigraphic relationships. An overview of the characteristics of each of these deposits is provided below. Canning Till The Canning Till represents a northward advance of the Erie Lobe (Krzyszkowski and Karrow, 2001). It is a fine-grained till with a characteristic red colour attributed to its parent material, the Queenston Shale (Krzyszkowski and Karrow, 2001). The Canning Till is generally only exposed in the valleys of the Grand and Nith Rivers; although it was recently observed at the base of an aggregate mine in the Waterloo Moraine (Karrow, 14 1993; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The Canning Till is stratigraphically the oldest glacial deposit in the Waterloo Moraine, however the exact date of this till remains unknown. Catfish Creek Till The Catfish Creek Till was deposited during the Nissouri Stade of the Late Wisconsinan (Figure 2.5; Barnett, 1992), while the Laurentide Ice Sheet was at its maximum (Dreimanis and Karrow, 1972). This is a hard, stony, sandy to silty till that is laterally extensive in the subsurface throughout southwestern Ontario (Karrow, 1974). In the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, the Catfish Creek Till is typically exposed in aggregate mines near the Grand River valley (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The Catfish Creek Till is typically only 2 to 6m thick (Karrow, 1974; Huntley, 1991). The uniformity of its characteristics makes the Catfish Creek Till an excellent marker bed for stratigraphic correlations throughout the southern Ontario region. Stirton Till The Stirton Till is a thin, mud-rich till with very rare clasts (Karrow, 1974). It is 1 to 3m thick. This is a subsurface unit that outcrops along the Grand River and Nith River valleys. The Stirton Till is thought to be deposited as a ground moraine by the advance of the Georgian Bay-Huron lobe during the Port Bruce Stade (Bajc and Karrow, 2004; Barnett, 1992). Maryhill Till One of the many distinctive till units that were deposited during the Port Bruce Stade (Figure 2.5), the Maryhill Till is a clay-rich till with rare to occasional clasts deposited primarily by lodgement under the Ontario Lobe (Barnett, 1992; Rajakarana, 15 1994). The Maryhill Till has been identified in several locations and at different stratigraphic levels within the Waterloo Moraine, suggesting that it may not just be a result of lodgement during the Port Bruce Stade. Tavistock Till The Tavistock Till is a silty clay to clayey silt till that coarsens northward (Krzyszkowski and Karrow, 2001). The Tavistock Till onlaps the Waterloo Moraine. It has been interpreted as a ground moraine deposited by the Huron-Georgian Bay Lobe in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (Barnett, 1992). It is 2 to 15m thick with common interbeds of glaciolacustrine sediment (Krzyszkowski and Karrow, 2001). Mornington Till The Mornington Till is derived from glaciolacustrine clay and older till (Barnett, 1992). It is generally thin (1 to 3m thick) (Barnett, 1992). It is a brown silty clay-rich till with desiccation cracks (Karrow, 1974). It overlies the Tavistock Till in some regions, but they are generally considered to be stratigraphic equivalents (Karrow, 1974). Port Stanley Till The Port Stanley Till is the youngest of the Erie Lobe tills. The Port Stanley Till onlaps the Waterloo Moraine. It consists predominantly of glaciolacustrine clay near the Erie basin, but coarsens northward (Barnett, 1992). The northern facies of the Port Stanley Till within the Waterloo Moraine area is interpreted as a ground moraine (Barnett, 1992). The Port Stanley Till is commonly associated with glacio fluvial outwash (Barnett, 1992). 16 Waterloo Sands The Waterloo Sands are the stratified sand and gravel, as well as intermittent fine grained sediment that are interbedded with the Maryhill Till (defined by Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). The Waterloo Sands form the core of the Waterloo Moraine (Bajc, 2004) and are up to ~30m thick (Rajakaruna, 1994). Many depositional environments have been proposed for the Waterloo Sands depending on the location within the Waterloo Moraine: quiet water basinal, subaquatic fan, deltaic, braided stream and tunnel valley (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). In summary, the Waterloo Moraine is composed of stratified sediments interbedded with till lenses and sheets. Various lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet deposited the tills during periods of glacial advance, whereas the stratified sediments are the result of variable conditions during periods of ice retreat. 2.3 Groundwater Applications The stratified sediments of the Waterloo Moraine are important to the infrastructure of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo as the Waterloo Sands act as the primary aquifer for the region (Martin and Frind, 1998). Protecting and preserving the quality of groundwater resources from potential contamination is a provincial priority in Ontario. Watershed-based source protection plans require communities that depend on groundwater to protect their resources from urban runoff and rural nutrient loading (O'Connor, 2002). As such, it is necessary to have a comprehensive understanding of the history and internal geometries of the sediment that make up these aquifers. The broad geometry and intrinsic characteristics of subsurface sediment of the Waterloo Moraine have been three dimensionally mapped by the Ontario Geological 17 Survey (Ontario Geological Survey, 2007) to create a comprehensive, user-friendly tool for groundwater or hydrogeologic modelers. Generalized homogeneous units were created in a GIS-environment from outcrop and borehole observations to aid in visualizing the subsurface lateral and vertical distribution of sedimentary units throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. However, like any data created through interpolation, this dataset makes numerous assumptions about subsurface distributions and geometries. As such, more detailed data that captures sediment heterogeneity can help to effectively model this valuable groundwater resource. Presently, hydro geological models in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo interpret groundwater flow based on sediment-facies architecture, ignoring the distribution of deformation structures. In their review paper, Huggenberger and Aigner (1999) discuss the role of sediment heterogeneity in assessing the dynamic character of groundwater systems. According to Huggenberger and Aigner (1999), highly deformed sediment increases sediment heterogeneity in the near-surface zone, making generalized hydrogeological models invalid if deformation is extensive and laterally persistent. Busby and Merritt (1999) used ground-penetrating radar to map large-scale deformation features in glacial drift in the United Kingdom. It was concluded that deformation was laterally continuous on the scale of hundreds of metres (Busby and Merritt, 1999). This study was conducted because deformed sediment exhibits complex groundwater flow patterns, creating difficulty and uncertainty in flow prediction within the near-surface hydrogeological regime (Busby and Merritt, 1999). Delineating the distribution of deformed sediments may therefore eliminate some uncertainty in groundwater flow models. 18 The unknown distribution and geometry of complex deformed sediments in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo likely create similar problems with hydrogeological models. While the prediction of groundwater flow is beyond the scope of this study, defining the nature and delineating the distribution of deformation structures at the surface will provide information that can be used to improve the capabilities of hydrogeological models in subsurface situations. The following two sections are manuscripts. The first manuscript reports a detailed sedimentological investigation of the sediment and deformation structures in the two contiguous panels of highly deformed sediment in Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine, southern Kitchener. Trends in the styles of deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo are investigated in the second manuscript. 19 3.0 POLYPHASE GLACIGENIC DEFORMATION IN THE WATERLOO MORAINE, KITCHENER, SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO ABSTRACT A sedimentological investigation of Quaternary sediments in the Waterloo Moraine was conducted in order to characterize the nature of deformation in two sections of stratified sediments in the Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine, Kitchener, southwestern Ontario. Highly deformed interbedded clay, silt, fine- to very coarse grained sand and granular to cobble gravel is exposed in two series of contiguous panels. Analysis of the sediment reveals five recognizable sedimentary units: 1) climbing ripple cross-laminated sandy silt, 2) normally graded cobble gravel, 3) cross-bedded, fine- to coarse-grained sand, 4) interbedded clay, silt and fine- to very coarse-grained sand with granules and 5) crudely channelized interbedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand and granule to pebble gravel. These units suggest rapid deposition and fluctuating energy in a subaqueous environment prior to deformation. Deformation structures are predominantly characterized as vertical, compressional and simple shear styles of deformation. Vertical structures include normal faults with offsets ranging from 1 to 50cm as well as widespread occurrences of density-driven ductile deformation on the order of 0.5 to 5cm. Compressional deformation structures include open to closed folding and isolated occurrences of overturned folding ranging in size from 0.5cm to ~1.2m. Deformation structures related to simple shearing processes include widespread occurrences of boudinage, bed attenuation, and shear folds. Shearing structures range in scale from 0.5cm to 1.5m. The nature and scale of deformation structures suggest complex polyphase deformation of heterogeneous sediments related to sediment remobilization, glacial ice encroachment and over-riding, and melting of buried ice in a dynamic subaqueous to emergent environment. 21 INTRODUCTION The Waterloo Moraine is a complex deposit consisting of till and stratified sand and gravel with discontinuous units of finer-grained sediment that were deposited between several ice lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Wisconsin glaciation (Barnett, 1987; Barnett, 1992). The relatively complex stratigraphy and lack of geochronology in the Waterloo Moraine has made modelling the ice dynamics and reconstructing the glacial history of the region difficult. As a result, there is a relatively poor understanding of the exact depositional origin and evolution of the deposit. Current depositional models include quiet water basinal, deltaic, subaquatic fan, glaciofluvial and subglacial environments that temporally and spatially vary (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). To date, deformation structures, defined as any modification to the original sedimentary structure by a secondary process(es) (Maltman, 1994), have received little attention within the Waterloo Moraine. Yet, when coupled with sediment facies analysis, the examination of deformation structures can reveal syn- and post-depositional stresses acting on sediment, which can improve current depositional models (Mills, 1983; McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). The use of deformation structures as an interpretational tool has grown (Mills, 1983; Owen, 1987; Hart and Roberts, 1994; Benn and Evans, 1996; Boulton et al, 1999; Godin et al, 2002; van Vliet-Lanoe et al, 2004; Le Heron et al, 2005; Phillips et al, 2007; Arnaud, 2008). Therefore, an examination of the nature of deformation features was undertaken to contribute to the understanding of the origin and evolution of the Waterloo Moraine. 22 The purpose of this study is to characterize the nature of deformation and determine syn- and post-depositional stresses on sediment within one aggregate mine in southern Kitchener. A detailed sedimentological investigation of two Wisconsinan successions of highly deformed sediments was conducted. The sites of these successions are significant as they are located along a local topographic high of a greater regional northwest-southeast trending ridge that runs through the Waterloo Moraine. This ridge is thought to be important to paleoenvironmental reconstructions (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Analysis focused on detailed morphological, sedimentological and structural descriptions of brittle and ductile deformation structures, interpreting the timing, mechanisms, triggers and driving forces of the deformation events. GEOLOGICAL SETTING The Waterloo Moraine lies north of Lake Erie and west of Lake Ontario within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, mid-way between the cities of Toronto and London (Figure 3.1a). The Waterloo Moraine has a very irregular shape with an undulating topography (Figure 3.1b; Rajakaruna, 1994). Several arms branch out from the larger moraine body: the Hawkesville Spur (north), the Crosshill Spur (northwest), the Philipsburg Spur (west), and the Washington Spur (south). The Waterloo Moraine is bounded by a drumlinized till plain, outwash plains, kames and isolated eskers to the east and south. An undulating till plain extends to the north and west of the moraine. The moraine rises ~50 to 100m from the surrounding plains (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996) as a lenticular mass of stratified sediment and till. The Waterloo Moraine is underlain by the gently (<1°) westward dipping Paleozoic carbonates of the Guelph, Salina, Bass Islands and Bois Blanc formations (Bajc, 2004). Quaternary 23 to 1 3 1 L C i0n StU Site in Kitchener fA /?!"'? ' ' ° t? ? ~\ > Regional Municipality of Waterloo, Ontario. A) Overview map of the Regional Municipality of Water nn in «ni lth\A/octorn Ontarn n\ rt^^ti^r. *f is;~r...,~tt U_I-J: i *-i __: . . . .'. \ ai^nai iviunioi|jaMiy ui XSS£ ™ T^TT °T-°- Bl I0™*™0*KieSWetter Holdin9s Ltd' mine and extent of the Wateri°° Moraine showing regional topography (moraine outline taken ram Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Note the northwest-southeast trending ridge (arrow). C) Map of Kieswetter Holdings Limited property showing local topography, location of detailed study sites KW-1 and KW-2, and location of other sites of observation in the pit overburden thickens westward towards, and through, the Waterloo Moraine complex (Russell et al., 2006). Vast amounts of stratified sand and gravel are documented at or near the surface of the landform (Farvolden et al., 1987; Bajc, et al., 2003; Bajc, 2004; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Irregular and discontinuous till units overlying the sand and gravel are interpreted as the remnants of a superimposed till plain that has undergone extensive erosion by glacial meltwater (Rajakaruna, 1994; Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). Seven distinct till units (Canning Till, Catfish Creek Till, Maryhill Till, Port Stanley Till, Tavistock Till, Stirton Till and Mornington Till) as well as stratified sand and gravel units have been identified in the Waterloo Moraine. The till units are thought to record periods of glacial advance by the various lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet (Barnett, 1992). In contrast, the stratified sand and gravel units (termed the Waterloo Sands by Karrow and Paloschi (1996)) are considered the result of variable depositional conditions during periods of ice retreat. The Waterloo Sands are up to ~30m thick (Rajakaruna, 1994) and consist of stratified sand and gravel as well as intermittent fine-grained lacustrine sediment (Bajc, 2004). Many depositional environments have been proposed for the Waterloo Sands: 1) quiet water basinal, 2) subaquatic fan, 3) deltaic, 4) braided stream,and 5) tunnel valley (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The Waterloo Sands are thought to be deposited during the Middle Wisconsinan Period (-32,000 - 64,000 yr. BP; Barnett, 1992). This study focuses on two sections of stratified sediment within the Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine in southern Kitchener: 73m exposed at site KW-1 and 16.5m exposed at site KW-2 (Figure 3.1c). The mine is on the eastern side of a regional northwest-southeast trending ridge (Figure 3.1b). The mine also straddles a local 25 topographic high superimposed on the larger regional ridge. A narrow band of diamict (~40m wide) outcrops along the crest of this local high (Figure 3.1c). The highly deformed 73m and 16.5m sections lay approximately 500m and 44m southeast of the diamict exposure, respectively. The sections lay stratigraphically below the diamict unit. Sediment exposed on the western slope of the local high are characterized by undeformed channelized sand with lesser amounts of granule to pebble gravel. In contrast, sediments east of the local high are characterized by extensive lateral and vertical textural variability. A unit of laterally persistent sandy silt underlies the whole site both east and west of the local high. The variations in sedimentary characteristics east and west of the local topographic high suggest spatially and temporally variable depositional conditions within the aggregate mine. METHODOLOGY This study focuses on the detailed morphological description of deformation structures using detailed field sketches, photos, and standard sedimentological and structural description techniques. Emphasis is placed on the analysis of two sections of contiguous panels of highly deformed sediment though observations were made at other sites within the mine (Figure 3.1c). Facies and stratigraphic units were delineated based on lithofacies characteristics and their lateral and vertical distribution. Lithofacies were described and identified using a classification scheme modified from Miall (1977) and Eyles et al. (1983), which stresses sediment texture (based on the Wentworth Scale) and sedimentary structure(s). Sediment texture was determined by visual inspection of sediment in the field. General environmental conditions were reconstructed based on the vertical and lateral distribution 26 of fades within stratigraphic units. Deformation style was determined based on the morphology and scale of deformation features following McCarroll and Rijsdijk's (2003) classification scheme. The relative timing, mechanisms, triggers and driving forces of the deformation events were interpreted from the distribution, style and scale of deformation structures as recorded in detailed field descriptions. Interpretations of deformation events were combined with facies analysis to develop a comprehensive depositional model at this locality. SEDIMENTARY FACIES Analysis of the sediments reveals four recognizable lithofacies at KW-1 and KW- 2 (refer to Figure 3.1c for relative location of the two sites): common occurrences of mud, abundant sand and gravel as well as very minor diamict. Their characteristics are described below. Mud Three subfacies of mud were identified based on textural and structural differences (Figure 3.2). Inclined Bedded Clay and Silt (Fl) Low angle inclined bedded mud with minor sand is laterally discontinuous throughout KW-1. This litho facies was not observed at KW-2. Beds tend to be inclined at -10° following the relief of its associated substrate. Beds are defined by textural changes from clay to very coarse-grained sand (Figure 3.2a). Clay and silt interbeds are 1 to 4cm thick, whereas sand interbeds are <3cm thick. The sand is moderately sorted. No grading is observed. Contacts between mud and sand interbeds are sharp and slightly 27 Figure 3.2. Photographs of mud subfacies. A) Low angle inclined fine-grained sediment (Fl) in Panel 8 at KW-1. B) Slightly faulted horizontally interbedded clay, silt and sand (Fh) in Panel 2 at KW-1. C) Climbing ripple cross-laminations in sandy silt (Fcr) in Panel 9 at KW-1 Heavy minerals define ripple cross-laminations. Metre stick shows 10cm increments. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (right) and inches (left). 28 irregular. Beds of inclined bedded mud vary from 7 to 64cm thick, and have sharp basal and upper contacts with associated sediment. Horizontally Bedded Clay and Silt (Fh) At KW-1 and KW-2, beds of horizontally interlaminated clay, silty clay, clay-rich silt, and silt are laterally continuous across both exposures (Figure 3.2b). Rare clasts are present in the basal 5cm of the mud beds. Clast size ranges from <1 to 3cm (along the a- axis). Clasts are sub-rounded to rounded with low sphericity and no preferred depositional fabric. Clasts are predominantly carbonates with a lesser proportion of crystalline lithologies. Discontinuous interbeds of coarse- to very coarse-grained sand with occasional granules were observed. Sand interbed thickness ranges from 1 to 4cm. Beds of horizontally bedded mud vary from 10 to 23cm thick, and have planar, sharp basal and upper contacts with associated sediment. Climbing Ripple Cross-Laminated Sandy Silt (Fcr) At KW-1, climbing ripple cross-laminated sandy silt is observed (Figure 3.2c). The sand was very-fine grained. This subfacies unit was not observed at KW-2. The exposed section of Fcr is 30cm at its thickest. This subfacies unit is laterally persistent throughout the mine, at times with thicknesses of 2 to 3.5m. Ripple cross-laminations are 3.5cm in height and crests are frequently cemented. Ripple cross-laminations are defined by heavy minerals. The ripples climb towards the east (apparent direction); however, 3- dimensional paleocurrent data was not collected. The basal contact of climbing ripple cross- laminated sediment is not exposed at any site throughout the mine. Co-sets 29 of climbing ripple cross-laminated sediments have an erosive, irregular upper contact with associated overlying sediment. Sand Two sand subfacies were identified based on textural and structural differences (Figure 3.3). Horizontally Bedded Sand (Sh) Beds of horizontally bedded sand consist of medium- to very coarse-grained sand (Figure 3.3a). The sand is moderately to well sorted with no visible grading. Beds of Sh are interbedded. Interbeds vary in thickness from 2 to 5cm and are defined by textural changes. Subrounded to rounded granules of mixed lithologies are common (~5% of material). Granules range in size from 2.5 to 4mm, and are preferentially aligned along bedding planes at the base of very coarse-grained sand interbeds. Granules have low to Figure 3.3. Photographs of sand subfacies. A) Faulted horizontally bedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand (Sh) in Panel 2 at KW-1. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (right) and inches (left). B) Cross-bedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand (St) with occasional clasts in Panel 9 at KW-1. Metre stick shows 10cm increments. 30 moderate sphericity. Contacts between interbeds are sharp and planar, at times erosional. Beds of horizontally bedded sand vary from 15 to 23cm thick, and have sharp basal contacts and erosional upper contacts with associated overlying gravel sediment. Cross-bedded Sand (St) Cross-bedded medium- to very coarse-grained, moderately sorted sand is laterally continuous over 10s of metres at KW-1 and KW-2. Cross-bed sets are 14 to 30.5cm thick (Figure 3.3b). Granules to cobbles are found at the base of sets and fine upwards to very coarse- to medium-grained sand (over a distance of 4 to 10cm). Clasts have low to high sphericity and range in size from 0.5 to 14cm, with a mean of approximately 0.6cm. Clasts are preferentially aligned along bedding planes. There is no dominant clast lithology - carbonate, shale, sandstone and crystalline lithologies are present. Contacts between sets are erosive. Co-sets of cross-beds vary from 0.6 to 1.7m thick. Co-sets of cross-bedded sand have a sharp, irregular or erosive basal contact, and a sharp upper contact with associated sediment. Gravel Three gravel subfacies were identified based on textural and structural differences (Figure 3.4). Massive Gravel (Gmm/Gcm) Massive, sandy, matrix-supported gravel occurs discontinuously throughout sites KW-1 and KW-2, with clast-supported gravel in some sections. There are two broad categories: relatively fine-grained and relatively coarse-grained gravel (Figures 3.4a and 3.4b). 31 Issi 1* ... .*«£'.lUffS. ••••?•••--..•.:•• t.*** T .„.«-.-.«..-.! .!tvM yK*Hi » -«*>• mm .*:*« *sm r f " ~.*«V .13 a. . •»_• • *Mtti- •• ' • * • tT • » JfS2 ' . Figure 3.4. Photographs of gravel subfacies. A) Fine-grained massive matrix-supported gravel (Gmm/Gcm) in Panel 6 at KW-1. B) Lens of coarse-grained massive matrix-supported gravel (Gmm/Gcm) in Panel 3 at KW-1. C) Normally graded matrix-supported cobble to boulder gravel (Gmg) with clast-supported sections in Panel 8 at KW-1. D) Cross-bedded matrix-supported gravel (Gmt) in Panel 11 at KW-1. Ruler in A is 15cm long. 32 The relatively fine-grained granule to pebble gravel has a medium- to very coarse grained, moderately to well sorted sand matrix. Clasts range in size from 0.3 to 3cm, with a mean of 1cm. Clasts are angular to subrounded with low sphericity. There is no dominant clast lithology - carbonate, shale, sandstone and crystalline lithologies are present. No preferred depositional fabric or grading was observed. The relatively coarse-grained pebble to cobble gravel has a medium- to very coarse-grained, moderately to well sorted sand matrix. Clasts range in size from 0.5 to 19cm, with a mean of 6cm. Clasts are subangular to rounded with low to moderate sphericity. Carbonate clast lithologies dominate (60%) with lesser proportions of crystalline clast lithologies (40%). No preferred depositional fabric or grading is observed. Beds of massive matrix- supported gravel are < 1.25m thick and < 9m wide and have sharp, irregular or erosional basal contacts and sharp, irregular upper contacts with associated sediment. Normally Graded Gravel (Gmg) Normally graded, matrix-supported pebble to boulder gravel is discontinuously exposed throughout KW-1 in Panels 8, 9 and 12. Gmg was not observed at KW-2. Gmg has a medium- to very coarse-grained, moderately to well sorted sand matrix (Figure 3.4c). Clasts fine upwards, ranging in size from 15 to 0.5cm, with a mean of 2cm. Clasts are subangular to well rounded with low sphericity. There is no dominant clast lithology - carbonate, shale, sandstone and crystalline lithologies are present. Beds of normally graded, matrix-supported gravel are ~lm thick, and have an erosive or irregular basal contact (where exposed) and a sharp, irregular upper contact with associated sediment. 33 Trough Cross-bedded Gravel (Gmt) Trough cross-bedded, matrix-supported granule to pebble gravel has a coarse- to very coarse-grained, moderately sorted sand matrix (Figure 3.4d). Clasts range in size from 0.3 to 12cm, with a mean of 3cm. Clasts are angular to rounded (most clasts are subangular to subrounded) with low to moderate sphericity. Carbonate clast lithologies dominate (60%) with lesser proportions of crystalline clast lithologies (40%). Sets of cross-beds are 30cm to ~lm thick from the basal scree to the upper contact. From limited 3-dimensional paleocurrent data measured at KW-1, foresets have a mean dip direction of 284° (n = 6; corrected for magnetic declination). Co-sets of trough cross- bedded, matrix-supported gravel tend to have erosional basal contacts (where exposed) and sharp, irregular upper contacts with associated sediment. Massive Diamict (Dmm) A thin, discontinuous bed of massive, matrix-supported, sandy diamict is exposed in Panels 5, 6, and 7 at KW-1. No diamict was observed at KW-2. Dmm has a sandy clay matrix with common clasts. Clast size ranges from 0.5 to 12cm, with a mean of lcm. No grading or preferred depositional clast fabric is observed. Clasts are subangular to rounded with low sphericity. Carbonate and mudstone clast lithologies dominate. The massive matrix-supported diamict bed is 2 to 15cm thick over a distance of 1 lm. It has sharp, irregular basal and upper contacts with associated sediment. Stratigraphic Units Analysis of the sediment exposed at KW-1 (Figure 3.5) and KW-2 (Figure 3.6) reveals five recognizable, stacked stratigraphic units (SUI at the base through SU V at 34 the modern surface). All SUs are laterally continuous, with a relatively tabular geometry, throughout the exposures a both KW-1 and KW-2. Contacts between SUs tend to be sharp. A fining-upwards trend is present from SUII to SUIV, suggesting a waning of flow energy or fluctuations in the supply of coarse-grained sediments to the system (Reading, 1996). Overall, the SUs suggest rapid deposition in a dynamic subaqueous environment with variable energy conditions. SU I consists of climbing ripple cross-laminated very sandy silt (Fer; Table 3.1). SU I sediment is only visible at the base of Panel 9 at KW-1 (Figure 3.5), but is laterally persistent throughout the mine. Climbing ripple cross-laminations are an indication of sedimentation in systems where a large amount of sediment is available (Allen, 1970a). From the thickness of SU I observed throughout the mine (2 to 3.5m), there was a large, continuous sediment supply to the system. Climbing ripple cross-laminations in fine grained sediment record quiet water conditions with high sedimentation rates (Jopling and Walker, 1968). Proglacial lakes tend to have large amounts of sediment from point and non-point meltwater sources (Gilbert and Shaw, 1981). SU I sediments likely record glaciolacustrine or distal subaquatic fan conditions. SU II consists of normally graded gravel (Gmg) and coarse-grained cross trough- bedded gravel (Gmt; Table 3.1). At KW-1, SU II is exposed at the base of Panels 8, 9 and 12, whereas it is exposed along the base of Panels LW-12 and LW-13 at KW-2 (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). The coarse texture and erosive basal contacts of SU II sediments suggest high energy conditions in a subaqueous environment (Reading, 1996). Normally graded beds reflect waning flow conditions (Lowe, 1976). SU II sediments record 35 LidJlM^^.'^^r g~». Panel 10 S^Rgurt' £!&5S£?£ 1ST6e,0me " Set"men,S eXP0Sed a'Ste X"-1 Sfl°Wi"a ,he *"»*" * »*• *"« «*»«** «"* w 12 _____ .^ --"^-si^" ^ Cr""' Wm^TTTT^^ "«w._- Mud (silt and clay) lE&ggagg^^^ • SUII • SUIV 1 m Very fine- to very |\ ,'| Fault Granule to cobble j^j coarse-grained sand ^^ sum 1 SUV IQ3 gravel (with internal structure) Y/A Scree Location of Panel Diagrams at Site KW-2 Figure 3.6. Contiguous section of deformed sediments exposed at site KW-2 showing the distribution of facies and sedimentary units. See Figure 3.1c for location of site KW-2. Table 3.1. Summary of the characteristics and interpretations of stratigraphic units at KW-1 and KW-2. Stratigraphic Lithofacies Depositional Process(es) Unit (subfacies units) SUI Fcr Rapid deposition in lower energy, quiet water conditions. Subaqueous high energy flow conditions that gradually sun Gmg wane due to decrease in discharge, change in point source discharge, or change in water level. Subaqueous deposition by prograding bedforms prior to St, Gmt, minor Sh sum deformation. Fh, Fl, Gmm, Subaqueous deposition of sediments as a result of SUIV minor Sh, minor sediment gravity flows and settling of suspended Dmm sediments in variable energy conditions. SUV St, minor Gmm Subaqueous deposition by prograding bedforms. waning high energy, subaqueous flow conditions. The gravel could be a mass flow into the glaciolacustrine system during a period of peak meltwater discharge (Postma et al, 1983). Cross-bedded fine- to very coarse-grained sand (St) and gravel (Gmt) with minor interbeds of mud (Fh) and horizontally bedded sand (Sh) characterize SU III sediments (Table 3.1). SU III can be traced across the all panels at KW-1 and KW-2 (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). SU III is laterally persistent throughout the mine, with thicknesses of 1 to 4m. Near the local topographic high, SU III can reach thicknesses >3m. The thickness of the foresets (~30cm) implies a flow depth of at least 9m (Yalin, 1964; Allen, 1970b; Bridge, 1997; Storms et al, 1999; Leclair, 2002). Textural variability may be the result of fluctuations in flow energy (Allen, 1985). SU III sediments likely record prograding bedforms prior to deformation (Miall, 1977; McCabe et al, 1987; Fyfe, 1990; Phillips et al, 2002; Larson et al, 2003; Makinen, 2003). Finer-grained SU IV sediment (Table 3.1) overlay SU III and can be traced across all panels at KW-1 and KW-2. Interbedded mud, sand and minor gravel reflect variable flow conditions (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). These sediments may record the settling of 38 suspended mud (Macquaker and Bohacs, 2007) with minor sand and gravel beds and lenses accounting for occasionally high discharge events and flow fluctuations. These processes may record deposition on a subaqueous fan slope (Lonne, 1993; Lonne, 1995). A thin discontinuous bed of diamict (Dmm) is present at the top of SU III at KW- 1 in Panels 5 and 6. It is difficult to establish the origin of this facies due to the limited extent of its exposure. At KW-1, a local gravel lens (coarse Gmm) is observed above a shear zone in Panels 3 and 10 (Figure 3.5). A shear zone is the relative displacement of the material to accommodate simple shear stress within a given zone. The gravel lens is ~ 1.5m thick and bordered by interbedded mud and sand. The gravel has a tabular geometry, but has a western boundary that resembles a flow nose. The large lens of gravel overlying a shear zone likely records a mass flow event. The flow nose observed in the gravel supports the interpretation of a localized hyperconcentrated density flow (based on Mulder and Alexander's (2001) classification scheme of subaqueous sediment gravity flows), which is common in subaqueous fan and deltaic settings (Plink-Bjorklund and Ronnert, 1999). A subaqueous hyperconcentrated density flow is capable of hydroplaning as it travels downslope, creating a zone of shearing (Mulder and Alexander, 2001) in contrast to the zone of erosion that develops at the base of continental hyperconcentrated flows (Benvenuti and Martini, 2002). In summary, the interbedded mud, and gravel lens may record subaqueous deposition by settling of suspended mud and sediment gravity flows, respectively. Deposition appears to be relatively continuous at KW-2 and west of Panel 3 at KW-1, whereas a period of localized erosion is recorded by the intraformational 39 unconformity between SU III and SUIV sediment east of Panel 3 at KW-1 (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). This unconformity may record a brief fluctuation of flow to higher energy and erosional conditions. Interbedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand (St) and granular to pebble gravel (Gmm) characterize SU V sediments (Table 3.1). At KW-1, SU V is exposed at the top of panels west of Panel 1, whereas it is exposed along the top of all panels at KW- 2 (Figures 3.5 and 3.6). SU V records a return to a subaqueous environment (Horton and Schmitt, 1996) similar to SU III. Textural variability may be the result of fluctuations in flow energy. The massive nature of the gravel suggests minimal transport from source. DEFORMATION STRUCTURES Deformation affects most SUs. Deformation structures are predominantly characterized as vertical, compressional and simple shear styles of deformation. Though highly complex and variable throughout the outcrop at KW-1, brittle-like deformation is most common east of Panel 3, whereas ductile-like deformation dominates to the west (Figure 3.5). There is no such divide of deformation structures at KW-2. Deformation at KW-2 is predominantly of a ductile nature (Figure 3.6). Vertical Deformation Vertical deformation is defined as structures created through gravity-driven processes or reversed density gradients (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Examples include normal faults, ball and pillow structures, pseudonodules, and flame structures. 40 Normal Faulting SU III, IV and V sediments are affected by normal faults in all Panels at KW-1 and KW-2 (Figures 3.5, 3.6 and 3.7). There are three broad categories of normal faults: sporadic normal faulting throughout sites KW-1 and KW-2 (Figure 3.7a), exceptionally abundant small-scale normal faulting (with minor reverse faulting) in Panels 10 to 12 at KW-1 (Figure 3.7b) and a graben-like feature in Panel 7 at KW-1 (Figure 3.7c). Faults have offsets of 1 to 50cm. The strike of most fault planes is roughly west (Table 3.2). Faults are both low- and high-angle with dip angles ranging from 33° to 79°. Interpretation Sporadic small-scale faulting with no preferred strike direction is most prevalent in cross-bedded sand of SU III and V at KW-1 and KW-2 (Figure 3.7a). Sporadic normal faulting is the result of extensional stress, which in this case may be related to sediment adjustment after dewatering (Bray and Karig, 1988). SU III and V sediments are interpreted to be deposited in subaqueous conditions. Sediment deposited in a subaqueous environment have water-filled pores - inducing a state of saturation. Once dewatered, these pores become void spaces. Abundant void spaces reduces the strength of a given material (Hirono, 2005). Void spaces are reduced by adjustments in Table 3.2. Structural data of normal faults recorded at KW-1 and KW-2 corrected for magnetic declination. Refer to Appendix A for mean calculation process. Strike of Fault Planes Vector Mean Vector Magnitude 219° 296° 86° 266° 161° 308° 116° 281° 115° 285° 273° 52% 282° 268° 290° 278° 285° 296° 277° 41 Figure 3.7. Photographs of normal faulting. A) Sporadic small-scale extensional faulting in Panel LW-13 at KW-2. B) Pervasive extensional faulting in Panel 11 at KW-1. C) Graben-like feature in Panels 6 and 7 at KW-1. Metre stick in A and B shows 10cm increments Handle of trowel inCis 12cm. 42 sediment packing triggered by the weight of overlying sediments on weakened underlying sediments (Hirono, 2005). This vertical adjustment is recorded in sporadic small-scale extensional faulting (Figure 3.8a). Localized, exceptionally abundant small-scale extensional faulting occurs in SU IV sediment in Panels 10 to 12 at KW-1 (Figures 3.5 and 3.7b). Faulting is highly visible in the fine-grained SU IV sediment; however, faults are difficult to trace into the underlying SU III sediment. This may be because SU III sediment responded differently to the applied stress(es) due to textural differences between the materials (Owen, 1987). It has been proposed that in order to have such extensive brittle deformation, unconsolidated sediment needs to be frozen (Owen, 1987). Periglacial conditions persistent during and after sediment emergence can freeze surficial sediment (Morgan, 1992; Gao, 2005). Freezing likely affected SU IV sediments, whereas the pore water in the underlying coarse-grained SU II and III sediment may have remained in a liquid state. Pore water pressure would have increased in SU II and SU III sediment due to compaction from the weight of the overlying sediment (Lowe, 1975; Sibson, 2000). Over pressurized pore water would eventually be released through extensive faulting. Extensional forces exerted along the edges of the conduits would account for the predominant extensional nature of the faults. In summary, pervasive faulting is believed to have occurred as a result of hydrofacturing from over pressurized pore water. High-angle faults or graben-like structures in outwash deposits have been previously interpreted as collapse features in response to melting buried ice blocks (Hambrey, 1984; Aitken, 1998). A similar graben-like structure is observed in Panels 6 and 7 at KW-1 (Figures 3.5 and 3.7c). As this feature affects all visible SUs in Panel 7 43 and other deformation structures, this deformation event is thought to have occurred after all other deformation events. Ball and Pillow Structures, Pseudonodules Small-scale ball and pillow structures and pseudonodules were observed at KW-1 and KW-2 within, and along the outer contacts of, the interbedded mud and sand of SU IV (Figure 3.8). Deformation structures vary in scale from 0.5 to 5cm. Figure 3.8. Photograph of density-driven deformation. Loading structures in clay and silt in Panel 2 at KW-1. Ruler shows increments in centimetres (bottom) and inches (top). 44 Interpretation Loading structures were observed where a coarse-grained material was underlain by a fine-grained material. As the coarse material is more dense, a gravitationally unstable density gradient is created (Anketell and Dzulynski, 1968; Anketell et al, 1970). As deformation structures were observed between interbeds of mud and sand (Figure 3.8), deformation is thought to have occurred during, or shortly after, deposition of saturated sediment in a subaqueous environment. Compressional Deformation Compressional deformation is defined as structures created in response to the horizontal shortening of sediment (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Examples at KW-1 and KW-2 includes open to closed and overturned folds. Open and Closed Folds Small-scale symmetrical and asymmetrical, synclinal and anticlinal, open to closed folds were observed in Panels 1 and 2 at KW-1 and Panels LW-12 and SO-09 at KW-2 (Figures 3.5, 3.6 and 3.9). Folds are most visible in relatively fine-grained SU IV sediments. Thicknesses of folds range from 2cm to 1.15m. Interpretation At KW-1, small-scale open to closed folds were observed adjacent to a lens of coarse gravel that overlies a shear zone (Figure 3.5, Panels 1 and 3). The gravel lens is interpreted to record a subaqueous sediment gravity flow. Compressional stresses in the flow forefield likely led to small-scale folds and convolutions. 45 The small- and large-scale open, synclinal and anticlinal folding is observed at KW-2 (Figure 3.9). Sediment exposed at KW-2 are very close to and stratigraphically lower than the observed diamict on the local topographic high (Figure 3.1c). These sediments are interpreted to have deformed in response to compressional stresses imparted through the sediment by an encroaching glacial ice mass (Boulton et ah, 1999). Overturned Folding SU III and IV sediment are affected by overturned folding only in Panels 5 to 7 at KW-1 (Figure 3.5). Due to the orientation of the panel faces relative to the fold, the latter is only observed when viewing the outcrop from the east (Figure 3.10). The fold is 1.5m 46 thick and includes mud, sand and gravel beds. The fold axis plane has a strike of roughly northeast and a plunge toward the south-south-east. Interpretation Overturned folds are strain responses in the direction of maximum stress (Owen, 1987). The presence of diamict on the nearby local topographic high, and abundance of simple shear structures in the sediment surrounding the fold, suggest the influence of glacial ice (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). This fold is interpreted to be in response to compressional stresses imparted at the surface of SU IV sediment by encroaching glacial Figure 3.10. Photograph of large overturned fold in Panels 5 to 7 at KW-1. The handle of the shovel is 30cm. 47 ice in the glacier forefield (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003; Benediktsson et ai, 2008). Simple Shear Deformation Simple shear deformation is generated by a rotational strain response to shear stress (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Examples at KW-1 and KW-2 include widespread boudinage, attenuated bedding and shear folds (Figures 3.5, 3.6 and 3.11). Boudinage and Attenuated Bedding Shearing of beds into boudins and attenuated bedding is observed west of Panel 3 at KW-1 (Figure 3.5) and in Panels LW-12 and SO-09 at KW-2 (Figure 3.6). Isolated occurrences of boudinage and bed attenuation are present east of Panel 3 at KW-1. Boudins of mud and attenuated mud beds predominantly occur in medium- to very coarse-grained sand within SUIV. Boudins tend to be 1 to 13cm thick and 1 to 50cm long. Outer contacts are sharp and irregular. Attenuated beds are predominantly present in SU III, IV and V sediment (Figure 3.1 la). Interbedded clay, silty clay, clay-rich silt, silt and silty sand beds, 4 to ~80cm thick, are attenuated over 2cm to ~3m (as in Panel 6 at KW-1 and LW-12 at KW-2). Contacts with surrounding material tend to be sharp and irregular. Interpretation Boudinage and bed attenuation are strain responses to bulk sediment extension along a persistent surface, such as an ice-substrate interface (Goscombe et ah, 2004) or at the base of debris flows (Nardin et ah, 1979). The presence and relative stratigraphic level of diamict on the nearby topographic high suggests the presence of glacial ice 48 Figure 3.11. Photographs of simple shear deformation at KW-1 and KW-2. A) Attenuated beds (arrows) in Panel LW-12 at KW-2. B) Shear fold in Panel 4 at KW-1. Metre stick in A and B shows 10cm increments. C) Shear zone with shear folds in Panel 3 at KW-1. The handle of the knife in Cis 12cm. 49 following the deposition of SUIV sediment. The complexity and penetration of deformation throughout SU IV also suggests post-depositional glacigenic processes acting on sediment (Benn and Evans, 1996; McCarroll and Rijsdijk's, 2003; Lee and Phillips, 2008), rather than shearing at the base of a sediment gravity flow (Nardin et ah, 1979). In summary, these sediments are thought to deform in response to horizontal shear stresses imparted by over-riding glacial ice prior to the deposition of SU V sediments. Shear Folds At KW-1, shear folds were observed in Panels 3 and 10, and Panel 4 at the SU III - SU IV boundary (Figures 3.5, 3.11b and 3.11c). No shear folds were observed at KW- 2. The shear folds in Panel 4 consist of SU IV interbedded mud (Fh) sediment that protrudes into medium- to very coarse-grained sand (Figure 3.1 lb). These structures are 10 to 15cm thick. Shear folds in Panel 3 are composed of fine- to coarse-grained sand that protrude into clay with rare to occasional clasts (Figure 3.11c). Clasts are < 2cm in size. Below the beds is a 1cm thick bed of clay. Contacts with associated sediments are sharp. Shear folds also occur within a shear zone below a coarse-grained Gmm lens (Figure 3.2). The shear zone is 4.5cm and thickens westward to 30cm. Interpretation Shear folds require tangential stress to develop (Hart and Roberts, 1994). The tangential stress required to develop shear folds can be generated at the base of an over riding subaqueous sediment gravity flow (Mulder and Alexander, 2001), at the base of an over-riding glacier, or from water waves if the sediment origin is subaqueous. The shear 50 folds in Panel 3 occur within a shear zone below a coarse gravel lens (Figure 3.5) that records a subaqueous hyperconcentrated density flow. Shear folds occur at the SUIV - SU V boundary in Panel 4 at KW-1. The presence of diamict, on the nearby local topographic high and abundance of simple shear deformation in surrounding sediments suggest the influence of glacial ice (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). As such, shear folds in Panel 4 are attributed to over-riding by glacial ice (Hart and Roberts, 1994). POLYPHASE DEPOSITIONAL MODEL Overall, the nature and scale of deformation structures suggest complex deformation of heterogeneous sediment related to sediment remobilization, encroachment of glacial ice and melting of buried ice in subaqueous deposits. Deformation at these two sites is considered polyphase because numerous events acted upon KW-1 and KW-2 sediment at various times. A four stage depositional model (Figure 3.12) is proposed for the sediment within Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. mine based on the sedimentology, stratigraphic relationships, and deformation structures. In this model, brittle and ductile deformation can be attributed to variable syn- and post-depositional stresses (Figure 3.13). Stage 1 - Deposition of SU I to SU IV Stage 1 consists of the deposition of SU I, II, III and IV sediment (Figure 3.12-1). Varying grain sizes between and within SUs suggest variation in supply of coarse-grained sediment or proximity to sediment source. Deposition appears to be relatively continuous 51 Mud Granule to Glacial ice (silt and clay) Sand cobble gravel Diamict Faults -Jf Site KW-1 -J^f Site KW-2 Figure 3.12. Simplified block diagram of local depositional model showing fan development and ice encroachment in stages 1-4. See text for discussion. Oldest Relative Timing of Deformation Structures Youngest Deposition of SU I, II Deposition of SU IV Active Ice Deposition of SU V Emergence/Periglacial and III (Stage 1) Deformation (Stage 3) Deformation (Stage 1) (Stage 2) (Stage 4) Normal and minor reverse __ Normal Faulting ^ Shear folds Folding Normal faulting •4 • faulting in Panels 10-12 Interpretation: Minor normal Interpretation: Shearing and Interpretation: Large-scale Interpretation: Minor normal Interpretation: Hydrofracturing of faulting from vertical adjustment compression by sediment- shearing and compression faulting from vertical frozen sediment. of dewatered sediment. gravity flow (recorded in the of sediment by adjustment of dewatered large gravel lens at KW-1, encroaching and over sediment. Normal faulting panels 3, 10). riding glacial ice from the in Panel 7 southeast. •* ; •) interpretation: Collapse of Boudinage and sedimentary floor by melting of bed attenuation buried ice blocks. Figure 3.13. Summary of the deformation and depositional history erected for the Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. mine. with only localized periods of erosion (e.g. intraformational unconformity between SU III and SU IV in Panel 11 and 12 at KW-1). Deformation at this stage is limited to minor fluidization and liquefaction related to rapid sedimentation and reversed density loading as well as minor normal faulting related to vertical adjustment of dewatered sediment (Figure 3.13). Small-scale compressional folding (Panel 1 at KW-1) and shear folding within a basal shear zone (Panel 3 at KW-1) are associated with the deposition of a localized subaqueous hyperconcentrated density flow. Stage 2 - Active Ice Deformation Stage 2 is characterized by pervasive simple shear deformation of SU I - IV sediment. The presence of diamict, both on the local topographic high and on the upper surface of SU IV in Panels 5 and 6 at KW-1, suggest the influence of glacial ice (Ivany et al., 2006). The abundance of simple shear and compressional deformation observed at KW-1 and KW-2 are typical of ice-marginal and subglacial environments (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). The complexity and persistence of deformation east of the topographic high are also typical of glacigenic structures (Benn and Evans, 1996). As such, the shearing structures are attributed to a local re-advance of glacial ice (Figures 3.12-2 and 3.13). Based on apparent structural data from overturned, open to closed, and shear folds, ice may have re-advanced from the southeast. Deformation is abundant to the east, but absent west of the local topographic high. Sediment west of the local high is predominantly channelized gravelly sand. The local topographic high therefore likely records the maximum extent of the local glacial re-advance. 54 Stage 3 - Deposition of SU V Stage III is marked by the retreat of glacial ice, the deposition of SU V, and return to subaqueous conditions (Figure 3.12-3). Minor variations in texture may be related to fluctuating flow conditions. Sediment overlying SU V has been removed by mining activities. SU V likely reflects shallow subaqueous fan deposition with intermittent subaerial deposition following the alteration of proglacial basin characteristics by the local glacial re-advance (Hunter et ah, 1996). At this time, deformation is related to minor normal faulting associated with the vertical adjustment of dewatered sediment (Figure 3.13). Stage 4 - Periglacial Deformation At KW-1, there is extensive normal faulting east of Panel 10. This fault system is mostly confined to SU IV. Sediment likely needs to act in a brittle manner to develop such extensive faulting as observed in Panels 10-12. Evidence of ice wedge polygons have been documented in the Kitchener area (Morgan, 1992; Gao, 2005), denoting the prevalence of periglacial conditions during deglaciation. If freezing did not penetrate to the bedrock, pore water in unconsolidated sediments would become over-pressurized by the overburden (Owen, 1987). Upward movement of the pore water would induce brittle strain in frozen sediment in response the upward stress of the underlying pressurized water (Davidson and Hambrey, 1996). In this context, the sediment and deformation structures suggest following the deposition of SU V, sediments emerged to subaerial conditions and began to freeze (Figure 3.12-4). Deformation related to buried ice block melting and collapse of the sedimentary floor leads to additional localized extensional faulting of sediments (Panel 7 at KW-1). 55 As this feature affects all visible SUs and other deformation structures, this deformation event is thought to have occurred after all other deformation events (Figure 3.13). CONCLUDING REMARKS A detailed sedimentological investigation of surficial stratified sediment within the Waterloo Moraine was conducted in one aggregate mine. The nature of deformation structures, and their associated deposits, were examined in order to determine the local depositional history. Highly deformed interbedded clay, silt, fine- to very coarse-grained sand and granule to cobble gravel are exposed in two series of contiguous panels. Facies analysis reveals five recognizable stratigraphic units at the two sites. Overall, these stratigraphic units suggest rapid deposition and fluctuating energy in a subaqueous environment prior to deformation. Deformation is stylistically and structurally heterogeneous and affects most SUs. Deformation structures are predominantly vertical, compressional and simple shear styles of deformation. Vertical structures consist of normal faults with offsets ranging from 1 to 50cm as well as common density-driven deformation (0.5cm to lm in scale). Compressional deformation structures include open to closed folds and isolated occurrences of overturned folding. Simple shear deformation (0.5cm to 1.5m) includes boudinage and shear folding. The nature and scale of deformation structures suggest complex polyphase deformation related to sediment remobilization, encroachment and over-riding of glacial ice and melting of buried ice. The Kieswetter Holding Ltd. aggregate mine straddles a local topographic high superimposed on the larger ridge. Sediments east of the local high are highly deformed 56 and record glacial ice advancement and over-riding, whereas the sediments west of the local high consists of undeformed channelized sand and gravel. The proposed depositional model of stratified sediments in Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine is broadly consistent with existing depositional models of Waterloo Moraine sediments (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). 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Deformation styles as a key for interpreting glacial depositional environments. Journal of Quaternary Science, 18(6): 473- 489. Miall, A. D. 1977. A review of the braided-river depositional environment. Earth Science Reviews, 13(1): 1-62. Mills, P. C. 1983. Genesis and diagnostic value of soft-sediment deformation structures - a review. Sedimentary Geology, 35: 83-104. 61 Morgan, A. V. 1992. Late Wisconsinan ice-wedge polygons near Kitchener, Ontario, Canada. Canadian Journal of Earth Sciences, 9(6): 607-617. Mulder, T. and J. Alexander. 2001. The physical character of subaqueous sedimentary density flows and their deposits. Sedimentology, 48: 269-299. Nardin, T.R., F. J. Hein, D. S. Gorsline and B. D. Edwards. 1979. A review of mass movement processes, sediment and acoustic characteristics and contrasts in slope and base-of-slope systems versus canyon-fan-basin floor systems. In: Geology of Continental Slopes (Eds. L.J. Doyle and O.H. Pilkey), Society of Economic Paleontologists and Mineralogists Special Publication, (27): 61-73. Owen, G. 1987. Deformation processes in unconsolidated sands. Geological Society Special Publications, 29: 11-24. Phillips, E. R., D. J. A. Evans and C. A. Auton. 2002. Polyphase deformation at an oscillating ice margin following the Loch Lomond Readvance, central Scotland, UK. Sedimentary Geology, 149: 157-182. Phillips, E. R., J. Merritt, C. A. Auton and N. Golledge. 2007. Microstructures in subglacial and proglacial sediments: understanding faults, folds and fabrics, and the influence of water on the style of deformation. Quaternary Science Reviews, 26: 1499-1528. Plink-Bjorklund, P. and L. Ronnert. 1999. Depositional processes internal architecture of Late Weichselian ice-margin submarine fan and delta settings, Swedish west coast. Sedimentology, 46: 215-234. Postma, G., T. B. Roep and G. H. J. Ruegg. 1983. Sandy-gravelly mass-flow deposits in an ice-marginal lake (Saalian, Leuvenumsche Beek Valley, Veluwe, the Netherlands), with emphasis on plug-flow deposits. Sedimentary Geology, 34(1): 59-82. Rajakaruna, N. 1994. The Waterloo Moraine Project Phase 1: Subsurface stratigraphy of western Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, 41 pp. Reading, H. G. 1996. Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Fades and Stratigraphy. 3rd Edition. Blackwell Publishing, London, 688 pp. Russell, H. A. J., D. R. Sharpe and A. F. Bajc. 2006. Sediment architecture and composition of the Waterloo Moraine, southern Ontario: Emerging insights. In: A.J. Russell, R.C. Berg and L.H. Thorleifson (Editors), Three-dimensional geological mapping for groundwater applications: Workshop Extended Abstracts. Geological Survey of Canada, pp. 71-74. 62 Sibson, R. H. 2000. Fluid involvement in normal faulting. Journal ofGeodynamics, 29(3- 5): 469-499. Storms, J. E. A., R. L. Van Dam and S. F. Leclair. 1999. Preservation of cross-sets due to migration of current ripples over aggrading and non-aggrading beds: comparison of experimental data with theory. Sedimentology, 46(1): 189-200. van Vliet-Lanoe, B., A. Magyari and F. Meilliez. 2004. Distinguishing between tectonic and periglacial deformations of Quaternary continental deposits in Europe. Global and Planetary Change, 43: 103-127. Yalin, M. S. 1964. Geometrical properties of sand waves. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 90: 105-119. 63 4.0 DISTRIBUTION OF SOFT-SEDIMENT DEFORMATION IN SURFICIAL SEDIMENTS OF THE WATERLOO MORAINE, REGIONAL MUNICIPALITY OF WATERLOO, SOUTHWESTERN ONTARIO 64 ABSTRACT An investigation of surficial sediments in the Waterloo Moraine and surrounding area was conducted in order to document the morphology and style of macroscopic soft- sediment deformation and assess its significance in the context of existing depositional models of the moraine. Over 300 observations throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo were used to construct a geodatabase of deformation structures. The geographical location, type, dominance (dominant, subordinate, and sub-subordinate), scale, sedimentological and structural characteristics of deformation structures were captured in a series of 64 attribute fields. Deformation is morphologically diverse and spatially variable. Simple shear deformation (shear folds, attenuated bedding, and thrust faulting) and compressional deformation (open to closed and overturned folding) are most common along the crest of a regional northwest-southeast trending ridge. In contrast, vertical deformation (loading structures, dikes, and normal faulting) is recorded throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, although it is more common in the vertically and laterally heterogeneous coarse grained sediment in the eastern half of the moraine. No pure shear deformation was observed. In general, deformation was more often observed in coarse-grained sediment. The regional distribution and associations of deformation styles suggest a regional glacial re-advance from the east within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. This is consistent with previous depositional models of the Waterloo Moraine stratified sediments. Additionally, the abundance of macroscopic deformation in the eastern portion of the 65 Regional Municipality of Waterloo confirms the importance of the northwest-southeast trending ridge in paleoenvironmental reconstructions of the Waterloo Moraine. 66 INTRODUCTION The Waterloo Moraine is a complex deposit consisting of stratified sand and gravel with discontinuous lenses of fine-grained sediment (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). The moraine was deposited between several lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Wisconsinan glaciation (Barnett, 1987; Baraett 1992). Multiple depositional settings have been proposed for the heterogeneous morainal sediments: quiet water basinal, deltaic, subaquatic fan, glaciofluvial and subglacial (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Spatially restricted depositional settings have been identified at various sites within the Waterloo Moraine, creating a mosaic of environments (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). However, the precise spatial distribution and extent of these depositional settings is poorly constrained. Most paleoenvironmental reconstructions of the Waterloo Moraine are based on sediment texture and distribution as well as the regional stratigraphy of till units (Karrow and Greenhouse, 1986; Karrow, 1988; Barnett, 1992; Paloschi, 1993; Rajakaruna, 1994; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). In the Waterloo Moraine, deformation structures (defined as any modification to the original sedimentary structure by a secondary process(es) (Maltman, 1994)) have received little attention to date. Yet, when coupled with sediment analysis, the examination of deformation structures can help to determine the environmental conditions under which these sediments accumulated (Hart and Roberts, 1994; Benn and Evans, 1996; Boulton et al, 1999; van Vliet-Lanoe et al, 2004; Phillips et al, 2002; Arnaud, 2008). Glacigenic deformation can be classified into five distinct styles (pure shear, simple shear, vertical, compressional, and undeformed), each indicative of syn- and post- depositional process(es) and stress(es) acting on or within a sedimentary body (McCarroll 67 and Rijsdijk, 2003). Analysis of the distribution and associations of these styles within the Waterloo Moraine will help to refine and contribute additional data to existing depositional models of the Waterloo Moraine. In addition to refining paleoenvironmental models, the analysis of macroscopic deformation has groundwater management applications as well. The unknown distribution and geometry of complex deformed sediments in the Waterloo Moraine have the potential to create problems with hydrogeological models (Martin and Frind, 1998). Generalized hydrogeological models become invalid if deformation is laterally persistent because of increased sediment heterogeneity (Huggenberger and Aigner, 1999). By mapping the distribution of the deformation in an area, one is able to identify heterogeneous complexes of deformed sediment that might impede vertical and lateral groundwater movement (Busby and Merritt, 1999). Additionally, a geodatabase of deformation constructed from field observations will add to our understanding of the scale and complexity of these deformed zones. An investigation was conducted in order to characterize the nature and distribution of deformed sediments in the Waterloo Moraine (Figure 4.1). Analysis focused on the detailed morphological and structural description of brittle and ductile macroscopic deformation structures in outcrops to establish the spatial variability of deformation in a deposit influenced by numerous ice lobes. 68 as Figure 4.1. Location of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo showing the extent of the Waterloo Moraine and regional topography. The distribution of aggregate mine, road, river and subdivision outcrops examined by Andy Bajc (2002), Emmanuelle Arnaud (2005) and Laura Weaver (2007) is also shown. Note the northwest-southeast trending regional ridge (white arrows). Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). GEOLOGICAL BACKGROUND The Waterloo Moraine rises up to -100m from the surrounding plains as a mass of stratified sediment and till (Figure 4.1; Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). The moraine has a very irregular shape with an undulating topography (Rajakaruna, 1994). A regional northwest-southeast trending ridge runs through the moraine and rises an additional ~50m from the surrounding moraine surface (Figure 4.1). Vast amounts of stratified sand and gravel as well as intermittent fine-grained sediment have been documented at the surface of the landform (Farvolden et ah, 1987; Bajc et al, 2003; Bajc, 2004; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The Waterloo Moraine is underlain by the Paleozoic carbonates of the Guelph, Salina, Bass Islands and Bois Blanc formations (Bajc, 2004). To the east and south, the Waterloo Moraine is bounded by a drumlinized till plain, outwash plains, kames and isolated eskers. An undulating till plain bounds the moraine to the northwest. Seven distinct tills (Canning Till, Catfish Creek Till, Maryhill Till, Port Stanley Till, Tavistock Till, Stirton Till and Mornington Till) as well as stratified sand and gravel have been identified in subsurface Waterloo Moraine sediment (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). The tills are interpreted to record periods of glacial advance (Karrow, 1987). Till sheets within and surrounding the moraine are thought to be the result of fluctuations of several lobes of the Laurentide Ice Sheet during the Middle and Late Wisconsinan Periods - the Georgian Bay-Huron Lobe to the west of the moraine and the Erie-Ontario Lobe to the east (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Based on distinctive lithological and stratigraphic characteristics as well as regional mapping, till units within the moraine have been used to reconstruct regional ice advances associated with the formation of the 70 moraine (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). However, event chronology is poorly constrained radiometrically. The stratified sand and gravel (termed the Waterloo Sands by Karrow and Paloschi (1996)) can extend up to ~30m thick in subsurface (Rajakaruna, 1994). The Waterloo Sands have been interpreted to record variable conditions during periods of ice retreat (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The northern and western spurs of the moraine have been interpreted as glaciofluvial sediments (Figure 4.1; Bajc and Karrow, 2004). According to Bajc and Karrow (2004), the stratified sediment of the Waterloo Moraine was progressively deposited by a westward prograding delta-fan system into an ice- supported glaciolacustrine setting. The regional northwest-southeast trending ridge that runs through the moraine is interpreted as a series of coalescing ice-contact subaqueous fans that formed in front of the Erie-Ontario ice margin during a regional re-advance in its overall retreat (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). Bajc and Karrow's (2004) depositional model of the Waterloo Moraine is derived from outcrop, borehole and seismic data without any reference to deformation structures. If the regional ridge is actually the remains of ice-contact fans as proposed in Bajc and Karrow's (2004) depositional model, then there should be a difference in the nature, occurrence and associations of deformation structures along and on opposing sides of the ridge. METHODOLOGY There were three components to this study: i) field data acquisition, ii) geodatabase creation and iii) data analysis. Field observations were made at aggregate mine exposures, road and river cuts, and subdivision exposures throughout the Regional 71 Municipality of Waterloo by three researchers (Andy Bajc, Emmanuelle Arnaud and Laura Weaver) during the 2002, 2005 and 2007 field seasons (Figure 4.1). In 2002, Bajc examined glacigenic sediment within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo to 3- dimensionally map the surficial and subsurface geometries of major sedimentary units (Ontario Geological Survey, 2007). Although Bajc's field research focused on the regional stratigraphy and sedimentology of morainal sediment, the morphological and structural characteristics of deformation were noted at many sites. In contrast, Arnaud (in 2005) and Weaver (in 2007) focused on detailed morphological and structural description of macroscopic deformation structures. Raw field data by Bajc, Arnaud, and Weaver were used in the creation of the deformation geodatabase (refer to Appendixes A, B and C). This whole dataset was used for analysis with specific examples based on Weaver's 56 sites of observation. The geographic location, type, dominance (dominant, subordinate and sub- subordinate), scale, and structural characteristics of deformation structures were recorded at each site (refer to Appendix A). Observations were made on an outcrop scale within the Waterloo Moraine and areas surrounding the moraine. The dominance of deformation (dominant, subordinate and sub-subordinate) was determined by identifying the largest deformation structure within an outcrop, or the most abundant type of deformation if numerous types of deformation had similar scales. Sediment was described using a classification scheme modified from Miall (1977) and Eyles et al. (1983), which emphasizes sediment texture and sedimentary structure(s). The acquired data have inherent bias arising from the limitations of available exposures. Within the municipality, sediment may be observed in aggregate mines, road 72 and river cuts and subdivision developments. Part of this limitation is because the cities of Kitchener and Waterloo are constructed on the Waterloo Moraine. Where applicable, information pertaining to geographic location, deformation structure type, morphological and structural characteristics, and the sediment associated with those structures is captured in 64 attributes for 311 sites within the geodatabase framework. ArcGIS 9.2 software was used to compile the geographic and attribute data of sediment at deformed sites. Structural and directional data averages and magnitudes were calculated using the trigonometric method for scalar means (see Appendix A; Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Once the geodatabase was constructed, dominant and subordinate deformation structures were classified into deformation styles based on their morphology following McCarroll and Rijsdijk's (2003) classification scheme. McCarroll and Rijsdijk (2003) classify deformation structures into five classes: pure shear deformation, simple shear deformation, compressional deformation, vertical deformation, and undeformed sediments. Deformation styles reflect the influence of distinct stresses on a sedimentary body, and can be used to infer the setting under which those sediments accumulated (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). However, like sedimentary facies, styles of deformation are not confined to a unique depositional environment; each depositional setting potentially possesses a mosaic of styles (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). It is the relative dominance and scale of macroscopic deformation styles that gives an indication of the type(s) of process(es) acting on or within a sedimentary unit (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003) (Table 4.1). Associations between dominant and subordinate deformation styles, location, scale, abundance, and sediment texture were used to identify local and regional 73 Table 4.1. Relative dominance of deformation styles in various glacial depositional environments (modified from McCarroll and Rijsdijk (2003)). Deformation Proglacial Subglacial Ice Marginal Glaciolacustrine Style (Terrestrial) Rare Simple shear (related to Dominant Common Rare to Common deformation sediment gravity flow deposits) Rare Compressional (related to Rare Dominant Rare deformation sediment gravity flow deposits) Vertical Absent Rare Common Very Common deformation Undeformed Absent Absent Absent Common sediments trends. No pure shear deformation was observed in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Syn- and post-depositional process(es) acting on sediment was determined using standard facies analysis of the sediment associated with the observed deformation structures (Reading, 1996). Deformation distribution maps were created using ArcGIS 9.2 software. The boundary of the Waterloo Moraine within these maps is based on the spatial extent of ice- contact and outwash sand and gravel, Maryhill Till, and other tills at the surface, as captured in the Ontario Geological Survey's (2003) "Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario" dataset and the generalized morainal outline presented in Bajc and Karrow (2004). This boundary provides only a generalized outline of the Waterloo Moraine for reference to the location of deformed sites. DEFORMATION STYLES AND THEIR REGIONAL DISTRIBUTION Deformed sediments were observed at 85 of the 311 sites the recorded in the geodatabase; undeformed sediments were observed at 226 of the recorded sites (Figure 74 N A « mmm L ^ f'tfis -v+ij? •• . miiaK mm -J -&- Simple Shear Deformation A Compressiona! Deformation i§i Vertical Deformation O Undefbrmed Sediment -Pi,? " Regional Municipality of Wa erloo j | Vvaterloo Moraine JSSM t-ake/River U^J Study Area Elevation (ASL) m4Mm ^| 233m 0 2.5 5 1D 15 20 i Kilometres DEM Source: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Figure 4.2. Distribution of dominant deformation styles in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. No pure shear deformation was observed. Inset shows map of the cluster of deformed sediment. 4.2). Overall, dominant simple shear deformation was observed at 18 of the recorded sites, dominant compressional deformation at 3 of the recorded sites, and dominant vertical deformation at 64 of the recorded sites. Simple Shear Deformation There are 18 sites with dominant simple shear deformation (Figure 4.3) and 3 sites with subordinate simple shear deformation. Most sites with simple shear deformation are located along or east of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge. Sites with dominant simple shear deformation tend to occur in close proximity to sites with dominant compressional deformation. These sites also commonly have either vertical or no subordinate deformation. Several types of simple shear deformation were observed: attenuated bedding, boudins, shear folds, and thrust faulting (Figure 4.4). Attenuated bedding tends to occur in outcrops of interbedded mud and sand (Figure 4.4a). On average, zones of attenuated beds are a maximum of 2.5m thick and ~ 2m wide. Boudinage is prevalent in fine grained sediment that protrudes into coarser-grained sediment. Boudins are predominantly composed of mud or sand and range from 4 to 50cm thick and ~ 30cm long. Shear folds occur in interbedded mud and very fine-grained sand to pebble gravel (Figure 4.4b). Shear folds tend to be composed of pebble gravel that extends into fine grained sediment, or mud extending into sand. Shear folds are 10s of centimetres in scale. Thrust faults affect cross-bedded sand and gravel (Figure 4.5). All observed thrust faults could be vertically traced through the entire outcrop exposure. Thrust faults have offsets that range from 0.5cm to 2m. Limited structural data collected from thrust faults have no preferred dip orientation (Figure 4.3). 76 -J 1 * Simple Shear Deformation Regional Municipality of Waterloo EZJ Waterloo Moraine H Lake/River • Study Area Elevation (ASL) 454 m si,iitt • 233 m 0 2.5 5 DEM Source: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Figure 4.3. Distribution of simple shear deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Simple shear deformation was commonly observed along the crest and east of the regional northwest-southest trending ridge. Fault planes of three thrust faults are shown and have no preferred dip direction. •11 |ii lilBIIHIIiHH HP W'Wiwi"! I © 329 S«.^%'-"i Figure 4.4. Photographs of simple shear deformation. A) Attenuated bedding (arrow) in interbedded mud and sand at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. Ruler shows centimetres (top) and inches (bottom). B) Shear fold of pebble gravel extending into overlying interbedded mud and sand at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. (black arrow). Metre stick shows 10cm increments. Deformation was observed by Weaver in 2007. 78 Figure 4.5. Panel diagram of a thrust fault observed by Weaver in 2007 at Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. Cedar Creek Pit, North Dumfries Township. Simple shear deformation was observed in predominantly interbedded very fine- to very coarse-grained sand and granule to cobble gravel with minor interbeds of mud. Cross-bedded coarse-grained sediment tends to have channelized or cut and fill geometries. In one aggregate mine, a 1.5m thick bed of massive, matrix-supported diamict overlies the deformed stratified sand and gravel beds; however, the diamict is not deformed. Cross-bedded sand and gravel beds with minor mud are observed in association with simple shear structures. The thickness of the foresets (~30cm to lm) implies a flow depth that ranges from-7.5 to ~30m (Yalin, 1964; Allen, 1970; Bridge, 1997; Storms et ah, 1999; Leclair, 2002). Cross-bedded sand and gravel likely record the progradation of subaqueous bedforms (Miall, 1977; McCabe et ah, 1987). In the regional model, these are thought to record the migration of an ice-contact subaquatic fan (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The sediments and the geomorphology of the area are consistent with glacially 79 influenced fan-delta systems elsewhere (Lonne, 1993; L0nne, 1995). Mud interbeds in the coarse-grained sediment may record fluctuations in flow conditions (Macquaker and Bohacs, 2007). The diamict deposit may have been the result of subglacial lodgement or remobilized glacigenic material (Boulton, 1972). Compressional Deformation There are 3 sites with dominant compressional deformation. None of the observed sites have subordinate compressional deformation. Two of these sites are located near the crest of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge (Figure 4.6). The third is located in the Hawkesville Spur (northern arm of the moraine). Two types of compressional deformation were observed: overturned folding and open to closed folds. Overturned folding was only observed in the Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine in southern Kitchener (by Weaver in 2007). The overturned fold was observed in interbedded mud, sand and gravel (Figure 4.7). This fold is 1.2m thick. Open to closed, symmetrical and asymmetrical synclines and anticlines commonly occur in bedded sand. On average, open to closed folds range from 20cm to 3m thick and are centimetres to metres wide. Due to the unstable nature of outcrops, structural data was not collected. Compressional deformation is generally observed in interbedded mud, sand and gravel. Sediment textural variability may be the result of fluctuations in flow energy (Allen, 1985). These sediments likely record the deposition of suspended muds with minor sand and gravel beds and lenses accounting for occasionally high discharge events and flow fluctuations prior to deformation (Macquaker and Bohacs, 2007). These processes may record deposition on a subaqueous fan slope (Lonne, 1993; Lonne, 1995). 80 • Compressional Deformation Regional Municipality of Waterloo I | V\fctertoo Moraine Jill Lake/River ^^1 Study Area Elevation (ASL) 454 m ymii 233 m 0 2.5 5 DEM Source: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Figure 4.6. Distribution of compressional deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Compressional deformation was observed along the crest of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge and in the Hawkesville Spur. - * .* « * * 2n^3f(- •*u,r J * - ."•'• • 4w» • «•» • fit ! ... •<- if +*, I *•*• j ^•Wrf : J' . ;\::^ ^JM :.^- " ..'^'"' " /"" '±*...7W.... •....» * . *.r.,..~:*'- ij '^TJMfc...^ .-•aftk',«jaMr'"^^---^. Figure 4.7. Overturned fold at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. observed by Weaver in 2007. No 3- dimensional structural data was collected; however, the apparent strike of the fold axis is to the west. The handle of the shovel is 30cm. The sediments are consistent with glacially influenced subaquatic fan systems elsewhere (McCabe et ah, 1987; Larson et al, 2003). In the Hawkesville Spur of the Waterloo Moraine, an open anticline was observed in coarse- to very coarse-grained sand in association with cross-bedded cobble to boulder gravel. No paleocurrent data was collected for safety reasons. Sets of cross-beds range from 30cm to 2m in thickness. The geometry of the gravel lithofacies unit is tabular suggesting large-scale bedform migration in a very large channel (Ito and Saito, 2006). The thicknesses of cross-bed sets suggest a maximum flow depth of 60m (Yalin, 1964; 82 Bridge, 1997; Storms et ah, 1999; Leclair, 2002). Large outlet channels have been recorded to reach channel depths in excess of 60m (O'Cofaigh, 1996; Fisher et ah, 2005; Hooke and Jennings, 2006; Jorgensen and Sandersen, 2006). These sediments are interpreted to record a large outlet channel. Vertical Deformation There are 64 sites with dominant vertical deformation and 46 sites with subordinate vertical deformation. Vertical deformation is recorded throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo; however it is most abundant along the crest, and east and north of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge (Figure 4.8). Several types of vertical deformation were observed: dikes, slumps, small-scale loading structures, normal faulting, and large-scale loading structures. Dikes tend to consist of mud intruding into sand; however, coarse- to very coarse-grained sand dikes have also been observed intruding into cobble to boulder gravel (Figure 4.9a). Dikes tend to be ~2.25m long and ~20 to 50cm wide. Slumps consist of coarse-grained pebble to cobble gravel with minor fine-grained sediment. These deposits range from 50cm to 8m in thickness and are metres wide. (Figure 4.9b). Four occurrences of slumps were observed. Small-scale loading structures occur where coarse-grained sediment overlays fine grained sediment (Figure 4.9c). This is the most common type of deformation within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. On average, small-scale loading structures are ~8cm thick and ~15cm wide. Normal faulting is the dominant deformation type at 23 sites in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Normal faults affect cross-bedded very fine-grained sand to 83 00 * Vertical Deformation Regional Municipality of Waterloo EZI Waterloo Moraine HH Lake/River • Study Area Elevation (ASL) 454 m Sliii • 233 m 0 2.5 5 • Kilometres DEM Source: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Figure 4.8. Distribution of vertical deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Vertical Deformation was observed throughout the region, but is most abundant along, east and north of the regional northwest-southeast trending regional ridge. (A) NW 307° 1m Very fine-to very Granule to cobble 1m coarse-grained sand (with gravel Scree I | and without internal structure) E3 *»"" Figure 4.9. Examples of vertical deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo observed by Weaver in 2007. A) Panel diagram of dikes in coarse-grained sediment at Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. Wolfe Pit, Hawkesville Spur. B) Slump of coarse grained gravel over an inclined erosional surface cut into sand in Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. B&B Pit, southern Kitchener (arrow indicates flow direction). C) Small-scale load casts (upper third of photograph) at Erb Sand and Gravel Inc. aggregate mine, Crosshill Spur. Black bar is 10cm long. D) Normal faulting in Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine, southern Kitchener. 85 pebble gravel (Figure 4.9d). Normal faults can commonly be vertically traced through entire outcrop exposures with the base of the outcrop concealed by scree. Normal faults have offsets that range from 0.5cm to 36cm. Large-scale loading structures (load cast, flame structure, and pseudonodules) were observed in Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd.'s B&B Pit in southern Kitchener (Figure 4.10). The load cast is 1.1m thick and 1.5m wide (Figure 4.10a). The cast consists of cobble gravel loading into sand. A flame structure associated with the load cast consists of very fine- and medium-grained sand (Figures 4.9b and 4.9c). It is 75cm thick and 65cm wide. A pseudonodule of very fine- and medium-grained sand was observed within cross-bedded cobble gravel. The pseudonodule is on the opposite side of the large load cast of the flame structure at roughly the same stratigraphic level (Figure 4.10a). The nodule is 10cm thick and 18cm wide. The internal structure of the nodule is disorganized and convoluted. Vertical deformation was predominantly observed in vertically heterogeneous sediment along the crest and flanking the eastern slope of the regional ridge. Vertical deformation occurs in sediment similar to those associated with compressional deformation in the main body of the Waterloo Moraine. These sediments likely record the deposition of suspended muds with minor sand and gravel beds and lenses accounting for occasionally high discharge events and flow fluctuations prior to deformation (Macquaker and Bohacs, 2007). These processes may record deposition on a subaqueous fan slope (Lonne, 1993; Lonne, 1995). 86 25 cm Figure 4.10. Large-scale loading structures observed in Preston Sand and Gravel Company Ltd. B&B Pit, southern Kitchener. A) Overview photograph of deformed panel showing large load cast, flame structure and pseudonodule. B) Close-up photograph of flame structure associated with load cast. C) Sketch of flame structure highlighting texture and internal structure. Metre stick shows 10cm increments. 87 Undeformed Sediment There are 226 sites of undeformed sediment observed throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo based on the 2002,2005 and 2007 field seasons (Figure 4.11). Thick successions of channelized sand and gravel that fine westward are observed west of the regional ridge. East of the ridge, vertically and laterally heterogeneous interbedded mud, sand and gravel are observed. General Trends in Deformation Style Distributions Within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, vertical deformation is the most common style of deformation; however, there are several other styles of deformation present in the moraine including simple shear and compressional deformation. No pure shear deformation was observed. Sites with dominant simple shear deformation tend to occur in close proximity to sites with dominant compressional deformation, forming a deformed complex ~ 4km (Figure 4.2). Sites with dominant vertical deformation tend to be isolated or occur within 1km of the deformed sediment complex. Sites with dominant simple shear deformation commonly have either vertical or no subordinate deformation, whereas sites with dominant compressional deformation commonly have either vertical or simple shear subordinate deformation. If the dominant deformation is ductile vertical deformation, the subordinate deformation tends to be brittle vertical deformation. The opposite also holds true: if the dominant deformation is brittle vertical deformation, the subordinate deformation tends to be ductile vertical deformation. Simple shear, compressional and vertical deformation is always closely associated with undeformed sediment. 88 N A o Undeforrned Sediment Regional Municipality of Waterloo o V\feterloo Moraine mil Lake/River P™jj Study Area Elevation (ASL) i^^^H 454 m 1 233 m 0 2.5 5 10 15 i Kilometres PEM Source: Ministry of Natural Resources, 2002. Figure 4.11. Distribution of undeformed sediment in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Deformation structures exist within both coarse- and fine-grained sediment (Figure 4.12). Forty-nine sites had dominant deformation in coarse-grained sediment, whereas 36 sites had dominant deformation in fine-grained sediment. Of the 36 sites with deformed fine-grained sediment, only 5 had deformation structures involving diamict. Deformed diamict tends to be related to vertical deformation (slumps). Widespread small-scale ductile vertical deformation occurs in interbedded mud and sand, whereas simple shear, compressional and large-scale vertical deformation tend to occur in sand and gravel. Macroscopic deformation structures are predominantly <25cm or >2m (Figure 4.13). Of the 85 sites with observed deformation, 34.9% had panels of highly deformed sediment or dominant deformation structures <25cm thick, 1.2% had dominant deformation structures ranging from 25 to 50cm thick, 7.2% had dominant deformation structures ranging from 50cm to lm thick, 14.5% had dominant deformation structures ranging from 1 to 2m thick, and 42.2% had dominant deformation structures >2m thick. Deformation structures <25cm are commonly loading structures related to vertical deformation, whereas structures >2m are related to simple shear, compressional and vertical deformation. Regionally, deformation appears to be predominantly found east of the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge. Additionally, deformation structures along the crest of the ridge tend to occur in a deformed complex (~4km2); however, the cluster may be a relict of the spatial limitations of exposures. Dominant deformation within the cluster has an average thickness of >2m (Figure 4.13). It is interesting to note that most sites in the clusters involve simple shear, compressional and large-scale vertical deformation of 90 •k Fine-grained Deformed Sediment "§i Coarse-grained Deformed Sediment Regional Municipality of Waterloo ! 1 Waterloo Moraine BH Lake/River Study Area VO Base Map Source: Census Canada, 2001. Figure 4.12. Texture of dominant deformation structures in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline taken from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Note that 49 sites had deformation structures within sand and gravel, whereas 36 sites had deformation structures within mud and diamict. N A it <25cm • 25 to 50cm 0 50 to 100cm • 100to200cm • > 200cm Regtonal Municipality of Waterloo £=1 Waterloo Moraine Hi Lake/River o Study Area 0 2.5 5 10 15 20 I Kilometres Base Map Source: Census Canada, 2001. Figure 4.13. Scale of dominant deformation observed in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Moraine outline take from Bajc and Karrow (2004). Note most deformation is <25cm or >2m thick. coarse-grained sediment with lesser small-scale vertical deformation of fine-grained sediment. Overall, deformation within the Waterloo Moraine and surrounding sediment is stylistically and morphologically variable over space than initially perceived. Additionally, simple shear, compressional and vertical deformation appears to be more abundant along and east of the regional ridge. DISCUSSION Regionally, simple shear and compressional deformation structures are most abundant along the regional northwest-southeast trending ridge (Figures 4.2). Compressional deformation dominates in ice marginal environments, whereas simple shear deformation dominates in subglacial environments (Table 4.1; McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Compressional and simple shear deformation styles have been documented in the forefield of advancing glaciers (Boulton et al., 1999; Benediktsson et al., 2008). From the distribution and associations of simple shear and compressional deformation along the ridge, the deformation structures may record the re-advancement of and overriding by the Ontario-Erie Lobe. There is an abundance of vertical deformation east of the regional ridge (Figure 4.9). Vertical deformation is most common in glaciolacustrine environments (Table 4.1; McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). Observed vertical deformation can be attributed to reversed density gradients in saturated sediment. The observed vertical heterogeneity of sediment likely induced sediment loading and deformation. This is consistent with rapid deposition typical of high discharge events in interlobate settings (Russell and Arnott, 2003). 93 Overall, variable abundance of deformation east and west of ridge suggests different stresses acting on those sediments. Vertical deformation related to gravity- driven processes is abundant east, and rare west of the ridge. Glacitectonic simple shear and compressional deformation is observed east of the ridge. This suggests glacial ice did not cross the regional ridge. The distribution of macroscopic deformation structures in the Waterloo Moraine is consistent with the model developed by Bajc and Karrow (2004) of the ridge recording coalescing ice-contact fans in front of the Erie-Ontario Lobe, as well as glacially influenced fan-delta systems elsewhere (Lonne, 1993; Lonne,1995; Hunters ah, 1996). Few studies focus on deformation in stratified sediments; rather most document deformation involving diamict (e.g. Bolton, 1972; van der Meer et ah, 2003; Roberts and Hart, 2005; Larson et ah, 2006; Piotrowski et ah, 2006). Interestingly, 58% of deformation structures were observed in coarse-grained sand and gravel in this study, whereas 46% were observed in mud with minor sand and gravel (Figure 4.12). Only 6% of deformation structures were observed within diamict. In the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, deformation structures in stratified glacigenic sediments are texturally variable. The thickness and spatial extent of deformation structures is important as generalized groundwater flow modelling assumes relative textural homogeneity in units of stratified sediment. A bimodal distribution of deformation thicknesses exists in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (Figure 4.13). Approximately 35% of dominant deformation structures are <25cm thick, whereas roughly 42% of dominant deformation is >2m thick. Deformation structures <25cm thick are predominantly vertical deformation related to reversed density gradients. Overturned, open and closed folding, 94 thrust faults, normal faults, dikes, slump deposits and large-scale loading structures reach thicknesses in excess of 2m. The thickness of deformation structures in interbedded mud, sand and gravel influences the vertical heterogeneity of sediment in the near-surface zone (Huggenberger and Aigner, 1999), which in turn may impede the lateral and vertical movement of groundwater and contaminants through the sediment (Busby and Merritt, 1999; Martin and Frind, 1998). Small-scale features (<25cm) will not have a large effect on generalized groundwater flow models. Deformation structures along the regional ridge tend to form a cluster (Figure 4.2). Laterally persistent deformation structures at the 10s metre scale may render groundwater flow models erroneous due to increased lateral sediment heterogeneity (Huggenberger and Aigner, 1999). Groundwater flow through this cluster will likely be impacted. Therefore, generalized groundwater flow models may not accurately capture groundwater flow paths in the near-surface zone within the 4km2 region (Busby and Merritt, 1999). SUMMARY A regional study was conducted on surficial sediment within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo to characterize the spatial variability of macroscopic deformation structures in a setting that was influenced by multiple ice lobes. Field observations made in the 2002, 2005 and 2007 field seasons were used to construct a geodatabase that captures location, type, dominance (dominant, subordinate and sub- subordinate), scale, and textural and structural characteristics of deformation structures in outcrops. Analysis of the nature and distribution of deformation structures yields five major conclusions for the Waterloo Moraine that could be applicable to similar settings. 95 1. In outcrop, deformation includes large-scale simple shear, compressional and vertical styles of deformation; the morphology and style of deformation is variable. 2. Deformation can be common in stratified glacigenic gravel, sand and mud. 3. Deformation structures tend to be <25cm or >2m thick. 4. Simple shear, compressional and vertical deformation structures tend to form a cluster. This cluster covers a ~4km2 area. Groundwater flow models may be inaccurate as persistent deformation results in increased vertical and lateral sediment heterogeneity in the near-surface zone. 5. The spatial variability and regional distribution of deformation styles within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo are consistent with existing depositional models of the Waterloo Moraine, where stratified sediment is thought to have been progressively deposited by a westward prograding delta-fan system into an ice-supported glaciolacustrine setting. 6. Glacitectonic deformation along and east of the regional northwest- southeast trending ridge suggests this feature is likely a ice-contact ridge. The geodatabase of deformation presented in this study will provide a framework for later expansion as additional data is collected. As deformation structures can be used as an interpretative tool in paleoenvironmental reconstructions, analyzing the regional distribution of deformation styles can aid in interpreting large-scale stresses and regional 96 ice dynamics for complex glacigenic deposits. Additionally, identifying complexes of deformed sediment can aid in refining groundwater flow models as deformation structures at this scale leads to substantial sediment heterogeneity in the near-surface zone. 97 REFERENCES Allen, J. R. L. 1970. Physical Processes of Sedimentation. London: George Allen & Unwin. Allen, J. 1985. Principles of Physical Sedimentology. G. Allen & Unwin, London, 272 pp. Arnaud, E. 2008. Deformation in the Neoproterozoic Smalfjord Formation, northern Norway: an indicator of glacial depositional conditions? Sedimentology, 55(2): 335-356. Bajc, A. F., A. L. Endres, J. A. Hunter and S. E. Pullen. 2003. 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V. R. 1993. Subsurface stratigraphy of the Waterloo moraine. Department of Earth Sciences. Waterloo, University of Waterloo. Master of Science: 153p. Piotrowski, J. A., N. K. Larsen, J. Menzies and W. Wysota. 2006. Formation of subglacial till under transient bed conditions: deposition, deformation, and basal decoupling under a Weichselian ice sheet lobe, central Poland. Sedimentology, 53: 83-106. Prothero, D.R. and F. Schwab. 1996. Sedimentary Geology: An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks and Stratigraphy. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company. 575 pp. Rajakaruna, N. 1994. The Waterloo Moraine Project Phase 1: Subsurface stratigraphy of western Kitchener-Waterloo, Ontario. Department of Earth Sciences. Waterloo, University of Waterloo. Master of Science: 41p. Reading, H. G. 1996. Sedimentary Environments: Processes, Fades and Stratigraphy. 3rd Edition. Blackwell Publishing, London, 688 pp. Roberts, D. H. and J. K. Hart. 2005. 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Global and Planetary Change, 43(1-2): 103-127. Yalin, M. S. 1964. Geometrical properties of sand waves. Journal of Hydraulic Engineering, 90: 105-119. 102 5.0 CONCLUSION Two sedimentological investigations of the glacigenic stratified sediment in the Waterloo Moraine were conducted in order to characterize the nature and extent of soft- sediment deformation within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Both of these studies use deformation to infer the depositional history of parts of the Waterloo Moraine, refine the record of active ice within the region, and determine the scale and morphological heterogeneity of deformation structures in an area that was influenced by multiple ice lobes. These studies were conducted at two different scales: a local scale within one aggregate mine and a regional scale throughout the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. The aim of this research was to determine local and regional syn- and post- depositional stresses acting on or within the stratified sediment of the Waterloo Moraine and surrounding area. Delineating the nature and distribution of deformation structures in the Waterloo Moraine ultimately adds to our collective understanding of the glacial history of the region as well as making new geological data available for groundwater modelling. The first study documents two highly deformed outcrops of interbedded mud, sand and gravel within an aggregate mine (73m and 16m in length). Analysis of the sediment reveals five recognizable sedimentary units from the base to the modern surface: climbing ripple cross-laminated very fine-grained sandy silt; crudely stratified cobble gravel with minor very coarse-grained sand; cross-bedded, fine- to very coarse grained sand with interbedded clay, silt and fine- to very coarse-grained sand with granules; laminated mud with a localized lens of cobble gravel and common occurrence of sand and granule beds; and interbedded medium- to very coarse-grained sand and 103 granule to pebble gravel. These sediments suggest rapid deposition and fluctuating energy in a subaqueous environment prior to deformation. It was found that deformation structures affect most sedimentary units and are dominated by vertical, compressional and simple shear styles of deformation. Vertical structures are predominantly normal faults with offsets ranging from 1 to 50cm as well as common density-driven deformation (0.5cm to lm in scale). Compressional deformation structures include open and closed folds and isolated occurrences of overturned folding. Simple shear deformation (0.5cm to 1.5m) includes widespread boudinage as well as rooted and detached shear structures. The nature and scale of deformation structures suggest complex polyphase deformation of heterogeneous sediment related to sediment remobilization, melting of buried ice, and ice encroachment and over-riding. The second study utilized a geodatabase of soft-sediment deformation to identify trends in the nature, abundance and associations of deformation structures to each other as well as to regional geomorphic features in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. The geodatabase consists of 311 records that contain 64 attribute fields. The attributes capture the location, type, dominance, scale, and structural characteristics of deformation structures. In the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, the deformation style of documented deformation structures is either vertical, simple shear, or compressional. No pure shear deformation was observed. The deformation structures were observed more commonly in sand and gravel rather than fine-grained sediment. This is interesting as previous studies document deformation more commonly in fine-grained sediment (i.e. diamict). 104 At the outcrop scale, deformation structures were found to be either <25cm or >2m in thickness. Regionally, a cluster of laterally and vertically persistent deformed sediment, ~4km2 in size, was observed along the crest of a regional ridge in southern Kitchener. If fine-grained sediment is involved, zones of deformed sediment may impede the flow of groundwater by increasing sediment heterogeneity in the near-surface zone (Huggenberger and Aigner, 1999). As such, groundwater flow through this cluster will likely be impacted. Other sites of observed deformation are scattered throughout the region and are less likely to influence regional flow. In sum, the regional spatial analysis of deformation structures illustrated that deformation readily occurs in coarse-grained sediment and is morphologically and stylistically variable in a region that was influenced by numerous ice lobes. Compressional and simple shear deformation was most commonly observed along the crest and east of a regional northwest-southeast trending ridge. It is inferred that this ridge marks the maximum of a regional ice re-advance of the Erie-Ontario Lobe. The sediment analyzed in both the local and regional studies are consistent with existing models that suggest the Waterloo Sands was progressively deposited by a westward prograding ice-contact subaquatic fan. A geodatabase of macroscopic soft-sediment deformation structures constructed as part of this thesis (Appendixes A, B and C) provides a framework for later expansion as more information becomes available. More site specific investigations and regional surveys of soft-sediment deformation may better constrain the regional depositional model of the Waterloo Moraine within the Regional Municipality of Waterloo. 105 REFERENCES Allen, J.R.L. andN. Banks. 1972. An interpretation and analysis of recumbent-folded deformed cross-bedding. Sedimentology, 19: 257-283. Anketell, J., J. Cagla and S. Dzulynski. 1970. On the deformation structures in systems with reversed density gradients. Rocznik Polskiego Towarzystwa Geologicznego, 41: 3-30. Arnaud, E. V. 2005. Deformation in Quaternary glacial deposits of the Waterloo Region, Canada. Geological Society of America Abstracts with Programs, 37(7): 424. Arnaud, E. 2008. 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Sedimentary Geology, 85: 63-83. 110 APPENDIX A: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo - Technical Document Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo Technical Document 2008 Laura Weaver University of Guelph Department of Land Resource Science 111 Table of Contents Table of Contents 112 List of Tables 113 List of Figures 113 1.0 Introduction 114 1.1 General Quaternary Geology of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo 115 2.0 Data Sources 119 3.0 Process 120 3.1 Section I (Objectives) 120 3.1.1 Objective 1 -Tabulation of field data 120 Task 1: Creation of Surficial Deformation Geodatabase 120 3.1.2 Objective 2 - Creation of New Arclnfo Coverages 122 Task 1: Construction of Waterloo Moraine Coverage 122 Task 2: Construction of Generalized Quaternary Geology Map of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo 123 3.2 Section II (Coverages and Feature Codes) 124 3.2.1 Coverages and Attributes (Geological) 124 DEFORM 124 WMORAINE 131 SUR_GEOL 131 3.2.2 Coverages and Attributes (Other) 132 ROAD 132 RIVER 132 RMOW_OUTLINE 133 RMOW_BUFF 133 RMOW_DEM 133 4.0 Limitations 134 References 135 Appendix 1 137 112 List of Tables Table A.l. Deformation attributes 125 Table A.2. Feature codes of selected attributes (Deform) 129 Table A.3. Feature codes of selected attributes (SurGeol) 132 Table A.4. Summation of sine and cosine measurements in radians 139 List of Figures Figure A.l. Conceptual cross-sectional model of the Waterloo Moraine 117 Figure A.2. Stadial and interstadial periods 117 Figure A.3. Trigonometric vector mean determination 138 113 1.0 Introduction In 2003, the Ontario Geological Survey (OGS) released "Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario" that captures Quaternary surficial geology across southern Ontario in Arclnfo coverages. Data were digitized and standardized from hard copy maps. This enabled geologists to spatially overlay sediment distributions with other variables of landform evolution (e.g. geomorphic features), thus furthering the information available for paleoenvironmental reconstruction. Following the Walkerton Inquiry (and subsequent legislation requiring watershed- based source protection plans), the OGS developed its Groundwater Mapping Program to acquire the detailed geological data essential for constructing effective and comprehensive source protection plans. In the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (RMOW), the "3-Dimensional Mapping of Quaternary Deposits, Regional Municipality of Waterloo" dataset was released in 2007 by the OGS. This dataset permits quick constructions of subsurface sediments along user-defined transects in the RMOW. This has given geologists access to approximate subsurface geometries and extent of the surficial units captured in the 2003 dataset. Knowing the geometries and surficial and subsurface distributions of sediment types greatly advances the information available for paleoenvironmental reconstructions and environmental applications. The data releases mentioned above focus on sediment texture distribution and stratigraphy, ignoring the distribution of deformation structures. Ductile and brittle deformation reveal information relating to processes occurring during and after deposition (McCarroll and Rijsdijk, 2003). In this regard, deformation structures can be 114 used as a key indicator of environmental conditions when coupled with sedimentological and geomorphological data. Presently, hydrogeological models interpret groundwater flow based on the texture and generalized extent of sedimentary units. However, highly deformed sediments make generalized hydrogeological models invalid if deformation is extensive and laterally persistent. Therefore, a geodatabase of ductile and brittle deformation has been created for the RMOW as part of a Masters thesis completed at the University of Guelph. The following notes outline the geological context and procedure used to compile the deformation database. The accompanying Masters thesis discusses the interpretation of the deformation structures as related to the glacial history and evolution of the Waterloo Moraine (WM), and briefly comments on implications for groundwater modelling. 1.1 General Quaternary Geology of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo In Canada, multiple glaciations have altered the appearance and form of the surficial landscape and associated surface and subsurface sediment. During the last glaciation (ending -10,000 ybp in southern Ontario), the Laurentide Ice Sheet covered most of Canada (Dyke et ah, 2002). The impact of the Laurentide Ice Sheet has an exceptionally strong imprint in regions of southern Ontario, where glacial landforms such as drumlins, moraines, outwash fans and eskers characterize the landscape. Due to the lobal partitioning of the Laurentide Ice Sheet in southern Ontario, large moraines (composed of both stratified outwash sediment and till) formed where two or more glacial lobes come in close proximity or contact with each other (Black et ah, 115 1973). One such deposit, an interlobate moraine called the WM in the Kitchener- Waterloo region is of particular interest in terms of urban and environmental development. Understanding the nature and distribution of sediments within the morainal deposit is imperative as the RMOW relies primarily on groundwater extracted from aquifers within the moraine for its residential, commercial and industrial water (Martin and Frind, 1998); it also boasts one of the highest population growth rates in southern Ontario (Bajc and Karrow, 2004). The WM is a complex deposit consisting of stratified sand and gravel with discontinuous interbeds of till, diamict and fine-grained lacustrine sediment (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). Stratified sand and gravel as well as seven different tills can be distinguished in the WM (Figure A.l). The WM was progressively deposited during the last glaciation in southern Ontarion during the Wisconsinan Period (115,000 to 10,000 yr. BP). Till sheets aid in reconstructing the sequence of events that lead to the formation of the moraine. However, due to the complex glacial history of the region and lack of datable materials, precise event chronology is poorly constrained. A generalized reconstruction is presented below. Mid to Early Wisconsinan time (Figure A.2) was characterized by the deposition of the lowest tills of the WM: the Canning Till and several unnamed tills (Krzyskowski and Karrow, 2001). These tills reflect the Guildwood and Nicolet Stades when glacial ice spread laterally from the present Great Lake basins. The Middle Wisconsinan was dominated by the deposition of stratified sediments of the WM; known as the Waterloo Sands (Karrow and Paloschi, 1996). The climate during this time period was generally warmer than other periods of the Wisconsinan 116 Waterloo Moraine w 1HT MT/TT/ST ••' MHT MHT ~'\Z2P^~ CCT CD JQ}^er Tills & Stratified Sediments I i& B Bl 1 M 1 IT n ( MT - Momington Till CCT - Catfish Creek Till ZH Diamict TT - Tavistock Till CD - Canning Drift •HI Paleozoic bedrock ST - Stirton Till PST - Port Stanley Till Bigg] Stratified deposits MHT - Maryhill Till *V/ Unconformity Figure A.1. Conceptual cross-sectional model of the Waterloo Moraine (modified from Bajc, 2004). (Dreimanis and Karrow, 1972). Karrow and Warner (1984) first interpreted the sediment deposited during this time to compose the core of the WM. However, Paloschi (1993) subsequently argued that the core of the Waterloo Moraine was deposited at a later date based on the stratigraphic relationship Period Stades and Interstades Ka to till units. Recent subsurface studies Holocene have yet to clarify the origin and age Port Huron Stade — 13 — Mackinaw Interstade — 13.4 — of the core sediment (Bajc et al., 2003; Port Bruce Stade — 14.8 — Lat e Erie Interstade — 15.5 — Wisconsina n Bajc, 2004; Bajc and Karrow, 2004; Nissouri Stade — 20 — Russell et al., 2006; Sharpe and Plum Point Interstade — 22+ — Cherrytree Stade Middl e Russell, 2006). Port Talbot Interstade — >40 — Wisconsina n Guildwood Stade During the Nissouri Stade, an St. Pierre Interstade — 75 — Earl y Nicolet Stade expansive till was deposited over Wisconsina n Figure A.2. Stadial and interstadial periods within the Wisconsinan much of southern Ontario, including glaciation (modified from Barnett, 1992). the entirety of the RMOW (Karrow, 117 1988). Known as the Catfish Creek Till, it is believed to have been deposited during the glacial maximum by the Georgian Bay-Simcoe Lobe flowing from the north-northeast (Karrow, 1988). During the subsequent Erie Interstade, numerous large glacial lakes formed along the margins of the Laurentide Ice Sheet with smaller lakes forming on the surface of the Catfish Creek Till (Karrow, 1988). Laterally discontinuous lacustrine sediment was deposited on the on the Catfish Creek Till in topographic lows. Again, the ice regionally re-advanced during the Port Bruce Stade. During this time, the Huron-Georgian Bay Lobe and the Erie-Ontario Lobe deposited several tills that are present in the WM (Figure A.l): i) Maryhill Till, ii) Stirton Till, iii) Tavistock Till, iv) Mornington Till, and v) Port Stanley Till. Of significance is the Maryhill Till and its associated fluvial deposits as they composed the greatest proportion of surficial deposits in the WM. The final glacial stade of the Wisconsinan is termed the Port Huron. It is during this time that the Halton and Wentworth Tills were deposited in the RMOW by the Erie- Ontario Lobe (Karrow, 1974). Although these till sheets are not present within the moraine, they extend eastward of the WM and record the last glacial advance in southern Ontario. In summary, the Laurentide Ice Sheet formed pronounced lobes in southern Ontario. The fluctuations of the lobal margins during the Wisconsinan glaciation coincide with the sequential deposition of the WM. The deposits found in the WM complex were deposited during the Nissouri, Port Bruce and Port Huron stades, as well as their associated interstades. 118 2.0 Data Sources Field Investigations Fieldwork was undertaken in 2002, 2005 and 2007. In 2002, data was collected by Andy Bajc of the OGS at road exposures, river exposures, subdivision exposures, and within aggregate pits as part of their data acquisition for the "3-Dimensional Mapping of Quaternary Deposits, Regional Municipality of Waterloo" dataset released in 2007. These data focus on sedimentary texture distribution and stratigraphy; however, deformation structure type, location, and sediment composition were also noted where present. In 2005, data was collected in two aggregate mines by Dr. Emmanuelle Arnaud (University of Guelph) as part of her investigation of the WM. These data specifically focus on deformation morphology, type, location, extent, and sedimentology of associated deposits. Lastly, in 2007, Laura Weaver (University of Guelph) collected data at road exposures, subdivisions and within aggregate pits focusing on deformation structures. As such, detail description of deformation characteristics and location are captured. Digital Surficial Geology Maps The distribution of surficial Quaternary geological units within the RMOW used in the project were compiled by the OGS in 2003 ("Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario" dataset) from hard copy maps previously published by the OGS. 119 Infrastructure and Natural Pathway Geographic Files The 2006 location of roads, waterways and municipal boundaries within the RMOW used in the project were obtained from Census Canada and accessed through the University of Guelph. Digital Elevation Models (DEMs) Digital Elevation Models used in the project were generated by the Ministry of Natural Resources in 2002 and accessed through the University of Guelph. 3.0 Process 3.1 Section I (Objectives) 3.1.1 Objective 1 -Tabulation of field data The first objective of this project was completed in November, 2007. The software used to create the surficial deformation coverage in a GIS structured format was ArcMap 9.2, Microsoft Excel, and Microsoft Access. A total of 311 entries were used to create the coverage. A comprehensive review of the construction of the surficial deformation geodatabase is presented below. Task 1: Creation of Surficial Deformation Geodatabase An Arclnfo coverage was created for all surficial deformation within the RMOW. Field data from three researchers - Andy Bajc, Emmanuelle Arnaud, and Laura Weaver - were standardized and tabulated in a Microsoft Excel database. Standardization involved moving from an interpretative classification of deformation structures to a descriptive 120 classification. For example, a clast termed a dropstone in the field notes is described as an outsized clast with deformed underlying bedding in the database. Attributes define the characteristics of deformation structures and the sediment in which they occur. All feature codes of attributes were limited to descriptive terminology, with the exception of minor interpretative comments restricted to the COMMENTS field. Interpretive models of deformation feature(s) are those proposed by the respective researcher of the data. The TYPE of deformation field in the database was populated using each researcher's original description of the deformation feature(s). At multiple sites, numerous features of the same deformation type were present (e.g. multiple faults in one outcrop). In these instances, structural and directional measurements were collected for each feature and the outcrop mean calculated. Averages and magnitudes of structural and directional data were calculated using the trigonometric method for scalar mean calculations (Appendix 1; Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Data have been corrected for magnetic declination. Once compiled, the database was imported into ArcMap 9.2 as an event table. The event table was used to create a point coverage of sites of deformation in the RMOW. It is important to note that the coordinate system of the resultant geodatabase is consistent with the OGS "Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario" and "3-Dimensional Mapping of Quaternary Deposits, Regional Municipality of Waterloo" datasets for ease of compatibility. The co-ordinate system description for the surficial deformation coverage is as follows: Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator, Zone 17 T Units: Metres 121 Geodetic Model: Datum: North American Datum (1983) Spheroid: Geodetic Reference System (1980) 3.1.2 Objective 2 - Creation of New Arclnfo Coverages The second objective of this project was completed in December, 2007. The software used to create both an outline of the WM and a generalized surficial geology of the RMOW was ArcMap 9.2. Detailed descriptions of these processes are outlined below. Task 1: Construction of Waterloo Moraine Coverage The surficial WM boundary was produced using the spatial extent of surficial Quaternary geological units constructed by the OGS (2003) in the Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario dataset and the generalized boundary presented in Bajc and Karrow (2004). Using the rough outline of the surficial extent of the WM presented in Bajc and Karrow (2004) as a guide, polygons of surficial geological units in the Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario (OGS, 2003) dataset, which lay within the bounds of the outline were selected. The selected units were then exported to create a new coverage. The resultant coverage was then clipped to the RMOW with a 2km buffer. It is important to note that the delineation of the surficial boundary of the Waterloo Moraine is based on the spatial extent of surficial Quaternary geological units without consideration of topographic changes. As such, topographically high areas not 122 captured within this coverage may still be part of the WM. For a comprehensive representation of the WM boundary, integration of geological and geomorphological data is recommended. The created coverage yields only a broad outline of the WM for reference of deformation sites. The co-ordinate system description for the WM coverage is as follows: Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator, Zone 17 T Units: Metres Geodetic Model: Datum: North American Datum (1983) Spheroid: Geodetic Reference System (1980) Task 2: Construction of Generalized Quaternary Geology Map of the Regional Municipality of Waterloo This coverage is based on the Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario (OGS, 2003). Geological units were aggregated based on environmental interpretations presented by the OGS (2003). Like polygons were selected and a new coverage created. The resultant coverage was then clipped using a mask of the study area to create a single polygon coverage of generalized geological units. Units were then unioned together to create a single coverage of 15 distinct surficial geological units. Edits to the attribute table of the coverage were made so that the only attribute is the name of the generalized geological unit. The co-ordinate system description for the surficial geology coverage is as follows: 123 Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator, Zone 17 T Units: Metres Geodetic Model: Datum: North American Datum (1983) Spheroid: Geodetic Reference System (1980) 3.2 Section II (Coverages and Feature Codes) 3.2.1 Coverages and Attributes (Geological) Point and polygon coverages were created as part of the project. Coverages include deform, wmoraine and surgeol. Attribute tables were populated with relevant geological data. DEFORM This coverage captures all sites of surficial deformation in the RMOW as point data. This coverage captures 311 points of deformation noted during field observations in 2002, 2005 and 2007. At each site 64 attributes are documented in the attribute table (where applicable). The attributes are described in Table A.l. Feature codes of select attributes follow in Table A.2. 124 Table A.l. Deformation attributes. Attribute Description EASTING UTM easting reading (North American Datum 1983). NORTHING UTM northing reading (North American Datum 1983). ACCURACY Horizontal accuracy of UTM reading in metres. RESEARCHER Person responsible for data collection. VALUE Quality of the data. Calendar year that the researcher collected the YEAR sedimentological data. Road exposure, river exposure, subdivision exposure or OPERATOR company/organization/person responsible for granting access to aggregate pit. WHERE Description of record location. DOM DEF Dominant deformation type. Textural description of dominant sediment composing the DDDOM MAT dominant deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Textural description of subordinate sediment composing DDSUB MAT the dominant deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Minimum size of dominant deformation feature(s) DD MIN SCA expressed in centimetres. Average size of dominant deformation feature(s) DD AVG SCA expressed in centimetres. DD MAX SCA Maximum size of dominant deformation feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Average strike direction of dominant deformation feature(s) DD STR AVG calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees (see Appendix 1; Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Vector magnitude (see Appendix 1; Prothero and Schwab, DD MAG 1996) of the calculated average strike direction of the dominant deformation feature(s) expressed as a percentage. Average dip direction of dominant deformation feature(s) DD DIPDIR calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees. DD DIPANG Average dip angle of dominant deformation feature(s). DD MIN OFF Minimum offset of dominant deformation feature{s) expressed in centimetres. DD AVG OFF Average offset of dominant deformation feature(s) expressed in centimetres. 125 Table A.l. continued Attribute Description Maximum offset of dominant deformation feature(s) DD MAX OFF expressed in centimetres. Depth of dominant deformation feature(s) below DD DEPTH modern/altered surface expressed in metres from the surface. SUB DEF Subordinate deformation type. Textural description of dominant sediment composing the SDDOM MAT subordinate deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Textural description of subordinate sediment composing SDSUB MAT the subordinate deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Minimum size of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD MIN SCA expressed in centimetres. Average size of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD AVG SCA expressed in centimetres. Maximum size of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD MAX SCA expressed in centimetres. Average strike direction of subordinate deformation SD STR AVG feature(s) calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees (see Appendix 1). Vector magnitude of the calculated average strike direction SD_MAG of the subordinate deformation feature(s) expressed as a percentage (see Appendix 1; Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Average dip direction of subordinate deformation SD DIPDIR feature(s) calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees. SD DIPANG Average dip angle of subordinate deformation feature(s). Minimum offset of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD MIN OFF expressed in centimetres. Average offset of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD AVG OFF expressed in centimetres. Maximum offset of subordinate deformation feature(s) SD MAX OFF expressed in centimetres. Depth of subordinate deformation feature(s) below modern SD_DEPTH altered surface expressed in metres from the surface SD2 DEF Second subordinate deformation type. Textural description of dominant sediment composing the SD2DOM MAT second subordinate deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Textural description of subordinate sediment composing SD2SUB MAT the second subordinate deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Minimum size of second subordinate deformation SD2 MIN SC feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Average size of second subordinate deformation feature(s) SD2 AVG SC expressed in centimetres. 126 Table A.l. continued Attribute Description SD2 MAX SC Maximum size of second subordinate deformation feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Average strike direction of second subordinate SD2 STR AVG deformation feature(s) calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees (see Appendix 1). Vector magnitude of the calculated average strike direction SD2 MAG of the second subordinate deformation feature(s) expressed as a percentage (see Appendix 1; Prothero and Schwab, 1996). Average dip direction of second subordinate deformation SD2 DIPDIR feature(s) calculated using the trigonometric method expressed in degrees. Average dip angle of second subordinate deformation SD DIPANG feature(s). Minimum offset of second subordinate deformation SD2 MIN OF feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Average offset of second subordinate deformation SD2 AVG OF feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Maximum offset of second subordinate deformation SD2 MAX OF feature(s) expressed in centimetres. Depth of second subordinate deformation feature(s) below SD2 DEPTH modern altered surface expressed in metres from the surface. Description of sediment associated with the dominant, SS DESCRIP subordinate and second subordinate deformation feature(s). SSDOM MAT Textural description of dominant sediment associated with deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Textural description of subordinate sediment associated SSSUB MAT with deformation feature(s) using the Wentworth Scale. Average scale of the bedding of surrounding sediments SCALE expressed in metres. Description of the geometry of sedimentary units of the GEOMETRY surrounding sediments. Description of characteristic upper bounding surface of UP BOUND sedimentary units containing deformation feature(s) if still preserved. Description of characteristic lower bounding surface of LOW BOUND sedimentary units containing deformation feature(s) if still visible. Size of the outcrop examined expressed in metres OUT SIZE (horizontal distance by vertical distance). CLAST SIZE Average size of clasts expressed in centimetres. CLAST LITH General lithological classification of clasts. CLAST SHAP Average clast shape CLAST SPH Average clast sphericity. CLAST FPAC Fabric characteristics of clasts. 127 Table A.l. continued Attribute Description . g Additional comments relating to sediment interpretation, data collection restrictions, etc. Attributes were classified based on an outcrop (of various size) at each site. The size of the outcrop is described in OUTSIZE. The dominance of deformation (i.e. DOMDEF, SUBDEF and SD2DEF) is determined based on the relative abundance and scale of deformation feature(s) based on field notes sketches in a given outcrop. The texture of the sediment associated with the deformation feature(s) (SSDOMMAT and SSSUBMAT) is based on the relative abundance of that sediment texture (as described using the Wentworth Scale). Other characteristics (e.g. UPBOUND, GEOMETRY, SCALE, and SS_DESCRIP) are determined based on sedimentary units within the outcrop, while others are based on dominant clast characteristics within gravel units (e.g. CLAST_SIZE, CLASTLITH, CLASTSHAP, CLASTSPH and CLAST_FPAC). The surrounding sediment type described in SSDOMMAT and SSSUB_MAT of the deform coverage may not coincide with GEOL_ID in the surgeol coverage. The data used in the deform coverage occur in subdivision exposures, road cuts, river exposures or aggregate mines where surficial overburden may have been removed during construction and extraction processes. Additionally, the scale of the OGS maps is of a much coarser resolution than the detailed sedimentological studies used to compile the deformation database. Finally, differences in surficial geological descriptions may be a function of the variability inherent in the geology of a glaciated region. 128 WMORAINE This coverage captures the approximate extent of the Waterloo Moraine within the RMOW. This coverage was created using Bajc and Karrow's (2004) generalized moraine outline and focusing on the spatial extent of surficial geology deposits, specifically ice-contact sand and gravel, and Maryhill Till. This polygon vector coverage does not provide any attribute information. Table A.2. Feature codes of selected attributes (deform). Attribute Feature Code Feature Type VALUE 1 All attribute data is not provided. All attribute data is not provided where 2 applicable. DOM DEF, SUB DEF, Contorted Contorted bedding. SD2 DEF Convoluted Convoluted bedding. Contorted/Convoluted Contorted and convoluted bedding. Contorted/Convoluted; Contorted, convoluted, and disrupted Disrupted bedding/laminations. Chaotic Chaotic bedding. Distorted Distorted bedding. Ball and Pillow Ball and pillow structure(s). Ball and Pillow, Diapirs Ball and pillow structure(s) and diapirs. Ball and pillow structure(s) and flame Ball and Pillow, Flame structure(s). Flame Flame structure(s). Asymmetrical Syncline Asymmetrical syncline fold. Fold Open Syncline Open syncline. Open Anticline Open anticline. Overturned Folding Overturned anticline. Vertical Vertical bedding. Normal Normal faulting. Thrust Thrust faulting. High Angle High angle faulting. Reverse Reverse faulting. 129 Table A.2. continued Attribute Feature Code Feature Type Extensional Extensional faulting. Faulting Undifferentiated faulting. Dike(s) Dike(s). Sill(s) Sill(s). Slumped Slumped bedding- Slump Slump. Slump/Flow Slump/flow nose. Nose Debris Flow(s) Slumped material. Rooted Shear Rooted shear structure(s). Rooted and Rooted and detached shear structure(s) and Detached; attenuated bedding. Attenuated Rooted; Rooted shear structure(s) and attenuated Attenuated bedding. Rooted and Rooted and detached shear structure(s). Detached Rooted and Detached; Rooted and detached shear structure(s), Attenuated; attenuated bedding and boudins. Boud Outsized clast with deformed underlying Outstones bedding. No visible No visible deformation. deformation DDDOM_MAT, SDDOM_MAT, SD2DOM_MAT, SSDOM_MAT, CS Clast-supported material. DDSUB_MAT, SDSUB_MAT, SD2SUB_MAT, SSSUB MAT MS Matrix-supported material. vf Very fine-grained sand. f Fine-grained sand. m Medium-grained sand. c Coarse-grained sand. 130 Table A.2. continued vc Very coarse-grained sand. grav Gravel. Gravel with clasts 2-4 mm in size (granule gran sized clasts). Gravel with clasts 4-64 mm in size (pebble peb sized clasts). Gravel with clasts 64 - 256 mm in size (cobble cob sized clasts). Gravel with clasts >256 mm in size (boulder bou sized clasts). Sediment particles <1/16 mm (silt and clay sized mud particles). Stratified sedimentary structure (applies only to strat gravel or diamict). Massive sedimentary structure (applies only to mass sand, gravel or diamict). DD_DEPTH, Deformation structure(s) extend to the modern SD_DEPTH, surface surface. SD2 DEPTH SS DESCRIP x-bedded Cross-bedded material. GEOMETRY cont Laterally continuous sedimentological unit. discont Laterally discontinuous sedimentological unit. CLAST LITH lime Limestone clast lithology. dolo Dolomitic clast lithology. Mixed clast lithology (unspecified granitic, mixed sedimentary and metamorphic clasts present). Clasts have no preferred fabric (visually CLAST FPAC no fab determined). bed aligned Clasts are aligned to the bedding plane of the sedimentary unit (visually determined). no grade Clasts are not graded. norm grade Clasts are normally graded. openwo Presence of openwork sections in gravel unit. Some of the clasts in the sedimentary unit are some facets faceted. SUR_GEOL This coverage captures the general distribution of surficial Quaternary geologic units in the RMOW as aggregated from the Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario dataset (see Task 2; OGS, 2003). Attribute information associated with this coverage consists of deposit names. The attribute and feature codes are described in Table A.3. 131 Table A.3. Feature codes of attributes (surgeol). Attribute Feature Code Feature Type GEOL ID Catfish Creek Till Catfish Creek Till. Ice-contact Deposits Ice-contact gravel and sand. Paleozoic Bass Island, Bois Blanc, Paleozoic Bedrock Salina and Guelph formations and Detroit River Group. Wentworth Till Wentworth Till. Maryhill Till Maryhill Till. Glaciolacustrine/Lacustrine Glaciolacustrine sand and lake Deposits deposits. Middle Till Middle Till (not present in WM). Tavistock Till Tavistock Till. Undifferentiated Till Undifferentiated Till. Stratford Till Stratford Till. Alluvial Deposits Modern alluvium and stream deposits. Glaciofluvial sand, outwash sand and Outwash Deposits gravel, kame and esker deposits. Port Stanley Till Port Stanley Till. Momington Till Momington Till. Organic Deposits Bog, swamp and peat deposits. 3.2.2 Coverages and Attributes (Other) ROAD Digital geographic files of the road network in the RMOW were obtained from Census Canada. This coverage was created by clipping the obtained road network of Ontario by RMOWJBUFF (see below). This vector coverage does not provide any attribute information. RIVER This coverage captures the lakes, rivers and streams in the RMOW. Digital geographic files of the surficial water pathways throughout the RMOW were obtained from Census Canada. This coverage was created by clipping the obtained water networks 132 of Ontario by RMOW_buff. This vector coverage does not provide any attribute information. RMOW_OUTLINE The municipal boundary of the RMOW (encompassing the townships of North Dumfries, Wellesley, Wilmot and Woolwich as well as the City of Kitchener-Waterloo) was created from digital geographic files obtained from Census Canada. This coverage was constructed by selecting the RMOW municipal boundary and exporting a new coverage from the municipal boundaries of Ontario shapefile. This vector coverage does not provide any attribute information. RMOW_BUFF This coverage captures the spatial extent of the project. This polygon extends 2 km past the RMOW municipal outline. This coverage was created by constructing a 2 km buffer around RMOWoutline. This vector coverage does not provide any attribute information. RMOW_DEM The Digital Elevation Model of the study area was obtained from the Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources (MNR). Each pixel (10 m) of this coverage contains an elevation value. The DEM of the study area was created by joining four DEM tiles created by the MNR. The RMOW (study area) was extracted from the resultant DEM using RMOWbuff as a mask. 133 4.0 Limitations Every effort has been made to ensure the information presented in this project is accurate. The information contained within the surficial deformation database will provide the framework for later expansion as additional information on deformation is collected in the region. That is, this geodatabase is limited in spatial data as researchers were restricted to fresh road exposures, river cuts, subdivision exposures and aggregate mines. Additionally, the research conducted by both Dr. Emmanuelle Arnaud and Laura Weaver were limited to exposures on the Waterloo Moraine itself, as a result of research interests. Deformation structures have not been widely examined in the RMOW. The amount of research pertaining to the location and character of deformation structures within the RMOW is limited to data collected by three investigators recorded in this project. As a result, the number of records in the geodatabase is relatively limited. Since deformation structures can be used as an interpretative tool and in groundwater modeling, analyzing the spatial distribution and character of such structures is an area of future research in the RMOW. Users are encouraged to use the database and add to the framework. Please contact the author for more information (Appendix B). 134 References Bajc, A. F., A. L. Endres, J. A. Hunter, S. E. Pullan and J. Shirota. 2003. An update on three-dimensional mapping of Quaternary deposits in Waterloo Region, southwestern Ontario. Summary of Field Work and Other Activities, Ontario Geological Survey, 6120: 24-1-24-6. Bajc, A. F. 2004. Three-dimensional mapping of Quaternary deposits in Waterloo Region, southwestern Ontario. Summary of Field Work and Other Activities, Ontario Geological Survey, 6145: 24-1-24-4. Bajc, A. F. and P. F. Karrow. 2004. 3-dimensional mapping of Quaternary deposits in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo, southwestern Ontario, Lake to Lake: GAC- MAC Joint Annual Meeting. Geological Association of Canada/Minerological Association of Canada, FT-7, St. Catherines, ON. 72p. Barnett, P. J. 1992. Quaternary Geology of Ontario. Geology of Ontario, Special Volume 4, Part 2. P. C. Thurston, H. R. Williams, R. H. Sutcliffe and G. M. Stott. Toronto, Ontario Geological Survey: 1011-1090. Black, R. F., R. P. Goldthwait and H. B. Willman. 1973. The Wisconsinan Stage. United States of America, The Geological Society of America. Dreimanis, A. and P. F. Karrow. 1972. Glacial history of the Great Lakes- St. Lawrence region, the classification of the Wisconsin(an) Stage, and its correlatives. Proceedings, 24l International Geological Congress, Montreal, section 12: 5-15. Dyke, A. S., J. T. Andrews, P. U. Clark, J. H. England, G. H. Miller, J. Shaw and J. J. Veillette. 2002. The Laurentide and Innuitian ice sheets during the Last Glacial Maximum. Quaternary Science Reviews, 21: 9-31. Karrow, P. F. 1974. Till stratigraphy in parts of southwestern Ontario. Geological Society of America Bulletin 85: 761-768. Karrow, P. F. and B. G. Warner. 1984. A subsurface Middle Wisconsinan interstadial site at Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Boreas 13: 67-85. Karrow, P. F. 1986. Quaternary geology of the Stratford-Conestogo area, Ontario. Ontario Geological Survey, Open File Report 5606: 27lp. Karrow, P. F. and G. V. R. Paloschi. 1996. The Waterloo kame moraine revisited: new light on the origins of some Great Lake region interlobate moraines. Z. Geomorph. N.F. 40(3): 305-315. 135 Krzyszkowski, D. and P. F. Karrow. 2001. Wisconsinan inter-lobal stratigraphy in three quarries near Woodstock, Ontario. Geographie Physique et Quaternaire, 55(1): 3-22. Martin, P. J. and E. O. Frind. 1998. Modeling a complex multi-aquifer system: the Waterloo Moraine. Ground Water 36(4): 679-690. McCarroll, D. and K. F. Rijsdijk. 2003. Deformation styles as a key for interpreting glacial depositional environments. Journal of Quaternary Science 18(6): 473-489. Ontario Geological Survey (OGS). 2003. MDR-128: Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario. Queen's Printer for Ontario. Ontario Geological Survey (OGS). 2007. 3-Dimensional Mapping of Quaternary Deposits, Regional Municipality of Waterloo. Queen's Printer for Ontario. Paloschi, G. V. 1993. Subsurface stratigraphy of the Waterloo Moraine. M.SC. thesis, Department of Earth Sciences, University of Waterloo, Waterloo, Ontario, Canada. Prothero, D.R. and F. Schwab. 1996. Sedimentary Geology: An Introduction to Sedimentary Rocks and Stratigraphy. New York: W. H. Freeman & Company. 575 pp. Russell, A. J., D. R. Sharpe and A. F. Bajc. 2006. Sediment architecture and composition of the Waterloo Moraine, southern Ontario: Emerging insights. Three- dimensional geological mapping for groundwater applications: Workshop Extended Abstracts. A. J. Russell, R. C. Berg and L. H. Thorleifson, Geological Survey of Canada. Open File 5048: 71-74. Sharpe, D. R. and A. J. Russell 2006. Geological frameworks in support of source water protection in Ontario. Three-dimensional geological mapping for groundwater applications: Workshop Extended Abstracts. A. J. Russell, R. C. Berg and L. H. Thorleifson, Geological Survey of Canada. Open File 5048: 79-83. 136 Appendix 1 At numerous outcrops, the mean of structural and directional data of faults are recorded in the deformation database. Averages were calculated using the trigonometric method described in Prothero and Schwab (1996). This method is briefly outlined below using examples. Vector Mean First, one must determine the sum of the sine and cosine of the structural measurement (in radians) in order to calculate the tangent of the mean (Equation 1). tan x = X sin x / X cos x (Equation 1) Where: tan x is the tangent of the mean vector, £ sin x is the sum of the sine of structural measurements in radians and £ cos x is the sum of the cosine of structural measurements in radians. Using the tangent of the mean, the arc tangent of the dividend must be calculated (Equation 2) and converted into degrees from radians. One can determine the vector mean using Figure A.3 (and the signs of the sum of sine and sum of cosine values). arctan = [arctan (tan x)] * (180/7t) (Equation 2) Where: arctan is the arc tangent of the tangent of the mean and tan x is the tangent of the mean. 137 N Figure A.3. Using this diagram, the vector mean can be determined from the tangent of the mean vector (Equation 1) and the signs of £ sin x and £ cos x (modified from Prothero and Schwab, 1996: 51). See calculations in text. Vector Magnitude Vector magnitude is how much the mean vector represents of the sum of component vector lengths (expressed as a percentage). Vector magnitude is calculated using Equation 3. L = lY^sinxf+fXcc-sx)2] * 100% {Equation 3) In Where: L is vector magnitude of the mean vector, £ sin x is the sum of the sine of structural measurements in radians, £ cos x is the sum of the cosine of structural measurements in radians and X n is the sum of the number of measurements. Example - LW-03 at Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine in Kitchener, ON (dip direction mean and magnitude calculations for multiple normal faults at one outcrop location). 138 Summation table of sine and cosine in radians. Table A.4. Summation of sine and cosine measurements in radians. n Azimuth (x) sin x cosx 1 251 -0.945 -0.326 2 206 -0.438 -0.899 3 205 -0.423 -0.906 Therefore, £ sin x = (-0.945 - 0.438 - 0.423) = -1.806, £ cos x = (-0.326 - 0.899 - 0.906) = -2.131 and £n = 3. Using Equation 1, one can calculate the tangent of the mean vector to determine the mean vector direction. tan x = X sin x / X cos x = (-1.806)/(-2.131) = 0.848 rad Now, one can determine the arctan of the tangent of the mean vector in degrees using Equation 2. arctan = [arctan (tan x)] * (180/7t) = [arctan (0.848)] * (180/TT) = 40° As the sign of ^ sin x is negative and the sign of X cos x is negative, the mean vector falls into quadrant III of Figure A.3. To determine the mean vector direction, move clockwise in quadrant III 40°. This gives a mean vector direction of 220° (180° + 40°). To determine the magnitude of the mean vector direction, one must use Equation 3. L = \(Y sin x)z + (Y cos x)2] * 100% = r(-1.806r + (-2.131)2] * 100% 3 = 93.1% 139 Therefore, the mean vector direction is 220° with a magnitude of 93.1% for the structural measurements at LW-03 in Kieswetter Holdings Ltd. aggregate mine, Kitchener. Vector magnitude is how much the mean vector represents of the sum of component vector lengths (expressed as a percentage). 140 APPENDIX B: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo - Metadata Detail Page METADATA DETAIL PAGE This is a selection from the Ontario Land Information Directory for Metadata Holdings. The following represents the Basic description of an information holding. To obtain more information about this holding, see the section entitled Contacts. Agency Information: Agency Name: UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH - DEPARTMENT OF LAND RESOURCE SCIENCE Agency Description: ONTARIO UNIVERSITY Effective Date: 15/12/2008 Detail Information: GENERAL INFORMATION Official Name of the Data Set or Information Holding: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo Acronyms Used to Identify the Data Set or Information Holding: Deformation Description of the Data Set or Information Holding: The Surficial Deformation and Sedimentology in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo data is a GIS based map that shows the distribution and characteristics of surficial deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo (RMOW). It illustrates the type, material, scale and surrounding sedimentology of surficial ductile and brittle deformation structures in the Waterloo Moraine of southern Ontario. The data used in generating the map was derived from field studies completed by the Laura Weaver of the University of Guelph in 2007, Emmanuelle Arnaud of the University of Guelph in 2005 and Andy Bajc of the Ontario Geological Survey in 2002. Coverages created include: deform, surgeol and WMoraine. Attribute tables were populated with geological related information. By capturing these attributes, an assortment of derivative maps can be produced. Intended Use and Purpose for Collecting the Data Set or Information Holding: To provide information about surficial deformation in the Waterloo Moraine of the RMOW, Southern Ontario and make associated attributes available for consulting, aggregate industry and land-use planning as well as government and resource geoscientists and academic researchers. This dataset will also be valuable to the larger scientific community, educators and the general public who are interested in local geological history and sediments. Please see the license agreement for further details on product use. Restrictions and Legal Prerequisites for Accessing the Data Set (Data Privacy/Security): None Description of Constraints for Using the Data Set: None Legislated or Legal Authority for Collecting the Data Set: None 141 Level of Privacy for this Metadata Information: Public Time Coverage: Wednesday May 1, 2002 to Friday July 27, 2007 Time Coverage Comments: N/A Current Status of the Data Set: Complete Frequency with which Changes or Additions are Made to the Data Set: As needed Keywords: AGGREGATE RESOURCES DATA COLLECTION DEFORMATION DIGITAL DATA EDUCATIONAL RESOURCES GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION SYSTEMS GLACIAL SEDIMENTS MAPPING QUATERNARY SURFICIAL GEOLOGY REGIONAL MUNCIPALITY OF WATERLOO SEDIMENT Business Theme: UNIVERSITY OF GUELPH LAND RESOURCE SCIENCE - GEOLOGY Digital Processing Environment for the Data Set: The software used to create data layers was ArcMap 9.2 and Arclnfo Workstation. Data was captured as Arclnfo coverages. Specify the Storage Formats for the Data Set: Format: GIS Database Format Description: ESRI Arclnfo coverages Format: Electronic Document Format Description: PDF and Microsoft 2000 technical documents GEOGRAPHIC INFORMATION Selected geographic type: Bounding Box only North Bounding Coordinate: 4836246 m South Bounding Coordinate: 4795099 m West Bounding Coordinate: 517226 m East Bounding Coordinate: 550443 m Geographic Completeness: 100% Complete MAPPING INFORMATION Grid Coordinate System Used: Geographic (Lat, Long) Map Projection: Universal Transverse Mercator Horizontal Geodetic Datum: North American Datum 1983 (NAD83) Vertical Geodetic Datum: Not Applicable 142 Position Accuracy of Features: Horizontal: Approximately +/- 10 m Vertical: Not Applicable DATA SOURCE INFORMATION Data Source Type: Digital Map File Description for the Source Data Contribution: Used to produce county boundary, road and water coverages for the RMOW. Time Period Comments: Data collected in 1996 Name of the Source Data Set: Canadian Census Digital Geographic Files Acronyms Used to Identify the Source Data Set: N/A Description of the Data Source: 1996 Canadian census data. Name of the Organization that Created the Source Data Set: Census Canada Data Source Type: Digital Map File Description for the Source Data Contribution: Used to produce generalized surficial geology, county boundary and Waterloo Moraine coverages for the RMOW Time Period Comments: Data collected from January 1, 1950 to October 6, 2003 Name of the Source Data Set: Surficial Geology of Southern Ontario Acronyms Used to Identify the Source Data Set: MRD 128 Description of the Data Source: OGS digital copy of Quaternary surficial geology of Southern Ontario Name of the Organization that Created the Source Data Set: Ontario Geological Survey, Ministry of Northern Development Data Source Type: Digital Elevation Model Description for the Source Data Contribution: Used to produce DEM of the RMOW Time Period Comments: Digital Elevation Model was created from January 8, 2003 to December 20, 2005 Name of the Source Data Set: Provincial Digital Elevation Model - Tiled Data Set Acronyms Used to Identify the Source Data Set: Not Applicable Description of the Data Source: MNR digital high resolution elevation model of Ontario Name of the Organization that Created the Source Data Set: Ontario Ministry of Natural Resources CONTACT GENERAL INFORMATION CONTACT: Title: Dr. Surname: Arnaud First Name: Emmanuelle Position: Assistant Professor Language: English, French 143 Organization: University of Guelph Organization Sub-Unit: Department of Land Resource Science Business Phone: FAX: ADDRESS: Street No: 50 Street Name: Stone Street Type: RD Street Direction: East Unit Type: Unit Number: Municipality: Guelph Non address description: Province/State: ON Ontario Country: CA Canada Postal Code: NIG 2W1 Address used for: Physical Location DISTRIBUTOR/PUBLISHER CONTACT: Title: Dr. Surname: Arnaud First Name: Emmanuelle Position: Assistant Professor Language: English, French Organization: University of Guelph Organization Sub-Unit: Department of Land Resource Science Business Phone: FAX: ADDRESS: Street No: 50 Street Name: Stone Street Type: RD Street Direction: East Unit Type: Unit Number: Municipality: Guelph Non address description: Province/State: ON Ontario Country: CA Canada Postal Code: NIG 2W1 Address used for: Physical Location 144 METADATA CUSTODIAN/CONTACT: Title: Dr. Surname: Arnaud First Name: Emmanuelle Position: Assistant Professor Language: English, French Organization: University of Guelph Organization Sub-Unit: Department of Land Resource Science Business Phone: FAX: ADDRESS: Street No: 50 Street Name: Stone Street Type: RD Street Direction: East Unit Type: Unit Number: Municipality: Guelph Non address description: Province/State: ON Ontario Country: CA Canada Postal Code: NIG 2W1 Address used for: Physical Location AUTHOR - ORIGINATOR/DATASET CUSTODIAN Title: Ms. Surname: Weaver First Name: Laura Position: Graduate Student Language: English Organization: University of Guelph Organization Sub-Unit: Department of Land Resource Science Business Phone: FAX: ADDRESS: Street No: 50 Street Name: Stone Street Type: RD Street Direction: East Unit Type: Unit Number: Municipality: Guelph Non address description: Province/State: ON Ontario 145 Country: CA Canada Postal Code: NIG 2W1 Address used for: Physical Location METADATA Date of this Metadata Description/Update: Friday December 14, 2007 Date when Metadata Should be Reviewed: Monday December 14, 2008 Metadata Additional Location: Further metadata and detailed information on the dataset can be found in the Technical Document delivered with the Deformation dataset. Metadata Additional URL Address: N/A DISTRIBUTION INFORMATION General Distribution Information: Surficial Deformation in the Regional Municipality of Waterloo is available as ESRI coverages. Explanatory notes, metadata and technical details of the dataset are provided. Please mail requests to the following address: ~ rce Science Applicable DistributionTees^nd Payment Options: The data are available on one CD-R at no cost. The Language(s) which the Data are Distributed in: English 146