Secularism and Religion in Nineteenth-Century Germany: the Rise of the Fourth Confession Todd H

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Index

Cursive numerals indicate pages with short biographies in the footnotes.

Abarbanell, Adolph, 143, 148, 154, 204, 221, 224 Argentina, 240 Adler, Felix, 224, 243 aristocracy, 112, 134, 244 Adorno, Theodor, 118 Arnim, Adolf Heinrich von, 45, 47, 48 Allgemeines Landrecht. See Prussian Civil Code Arnoldi, Bishop, 39 Alliance Israélite Universelle, 239 artiﬁcial languages, 257, 263 Alsace-Lorraine, 187 Esperanto and Volapük, 243, 252 Altgeld, Wolfgang, 213 Artisans’ Association. See anarchism, 169, 262 Handwerkerverein Anderson, Margaret, 10, 195 Asad, Talal, 12, 16 Anthroposophy, 258 Association for School Freedom, 185, 189 anticatholicism, 3, 11, 40 Association for School Reform, 147 anticlericalism, 1, 21, 104–105, 133, 166–169, Association for the Cultivation of Free Religious 187, 193, 195–200, 207, 240, 264–265, Life, 194, 204 271–272, 275–276 atheism, 5, 25, 63, 65, 102, 103, 104, as ideology critique, 128 117, 122, 128, 193, 199, 215, Anti-Dühring, 166 216, 217 Anti-Jesuit Laws, 188 Augsburg Confession, 33 antisemitism, 27 Austria, 52, 81, 82, 176, 181 anticatholicism, 213 ban on Deutschkatholizismus, 40 godless Jewry, trope of, 209 Kulturkampf in, 176 racial, 212, 218 Austro-Prussian War, 176 secularism and, 218 Avenarius, Richard, 256 Antisocialist Congress of 1877, 196 Awakening, 35, 72 Anti-Ultramontane Reichsverband, 255 apostolic Christianity, 36, 54, 72 Baader, Ottilie, 6, 203 Apostolic Confession, 33, 70, 72, 197 Baden, 8, 40, 151, 189 criticism of, 29, 48, 50, 71, 103 Bainbridge, William, 103 defense of, 33, 34, 55, 198 Baltzer, Eduard, 36, 90, 98, 142, 202 apostolic spirit, 72 conﬂict with Protestant Church, 56 Arbeiterverein Jugendweihe, 94 Democratic, 162–164, 165 on Jewish Congregations, 223 Progressive, 151, 152, 155, 161–162, 180, 185 popular science, 89 Social Democratic, 164 Progressive Party, 171

293

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294 Index

Baltzer, Eduard (cont.) Blum, Robert, 51, 52, 75, 78, 79 Revolution of 1848, 78 Bluntschli, Johann Caspar, 196 vegetarianism, 88 Bollenbeck, Georg, 10 worldview, 85, 104, 256 Bölsche, Wilhelm, 69 baptism, 29, 45, 47, 55, 62, 70, 71, 83, 94, 251 co-founder of Giordano Bruno League, 69, Bavaria, 16, 36, 40, 81, 164 258–262 Bebel, August, 19, 142, 158, 167 Ethical Culture, 244 church exit, 193 mystical monism, 258 natural science, 160, 193 popular science, 91 relations with Democrats, 102, 157, 158, 163 wartime nationalism, 269 religious politics, 192, 196, 200 Bolshevism view of Free Religion, 203 as Judaism, 273 Behnsch, Ottomar, 74, 78 as secularism, 272 Berends, Julius, 49, 50, 62 Bonifatius Association, 114 Bergmann, Ernst, 275 Borchardt, Bruno, 167 Berlin Borutta, Manuel, 11, 178 peculiarities of secularism in, 24–25 Boruttau, Karl, 101 University of, 165, 167 Bourdieu, Pierre Berlin Confession, 70 educational field, 117 Berlin Declaration of August 1845, 52 religious field, 19–20 Berliner Freie Presse, 159, 194 sociology of religion, 111 Bernstein, Aaron Brandenburg, 43, 113, 194, 283 Berlin Society for the Reform of Judaism, 89 Brandes, Georg, 132, 143, 225 founder of Volkszeitung, 146 Braß, Otto, 24 Gesellschaft der Freunde, 224 Brauner, Robert, 46, 72 popular science, 89 pantheistic monism, 84–88 Bernstein, Eduard, 155, 158, 163 police persecution, 81–83 church exit, 200 political orientation, 82 Democratic activities, 162, 163 Braunschweig, 274 on antisemitism, 212 Breslau Confession, 71 secularist affinities, 164–167 Breslau, 25, 39, 41, 43, 47, 81, 148, 217, Bethmann-Hollweg 220 Moritz August von, 54, 141 University of, 85, 96, 248 Theobald von, 266 Britain, 7, 9, 30, 59, 72, 81, 114, 152 Beyond. See Jenseits Brown, Wendy, 249 Bezirksvereine, 120, 149 Bruggemann, Karl Heinrich, 49 and political protest, 180, 185 Bruno, Giordano, 5, 62, 86 as political power base, 148, 157 Büchner, Ludwig, 2, 90, 166, 235, 258 popular science, 120 co-founder of Union of Freethinkers, 69, 101, Bible, 34, 38, 46, 74, 75, 196 229, 240 Biedermann, Karl, 188 Democratic politics, 156, 158, 171 Biron, Michael, 101 materialism, 92, 236 Bismarck, Otto von, 254 popular science, 193 and liberals, 144, 176 Büchsel, Carl, 38 great turn of late 1870s, 27, 132, 154, 174, Buddhism, 263 195, 201, 207, 216, 228, 232 Bülow, Bernhard von, 266 Kulturkampf, 187–188 Bund der Konfessionslosen, 251 Blackbourn, David, 9, 173, 195 Bund Neues Vaterland, 6, 155, 269 Blanc, Louis, 161 Bunsen, Christian Carl Josias von, 55, 59, 139 Blaschke, Olaf, 15, 19 burial, 47, 55 blasphemy, 168, 169, 199, 203, 241 Free Religious, 94, 202 Bloch, Ernst, 118 versus cremation, 272

Index 295

Canitz, General von, 52 Neo-Kantian philosophy, 236 Canossa, 229 response to antisemitism, 217, 249 Catholic Church Cologne Cathedral, 36 position on mixed marriage, 33 Cologne Troubles, 32 response to Deutschkatholiken, 40 Committee of the Confessionless, 266 secularization of 1803, 16 Communist Party, 270, 271 ultramontanism, 32 confession Catholic emancipation in Britain, 30, 37 Bekenntnis versus Konfession, 33–35 Center Party, 15, 18, 173, 178, 192, 195, 201, juridical usage of, 16–17 229, 266, 273 statistics, 17 and Moabit Klostersturm, 182 confessional field, 20 antisemitism, 210 cold war impact on, 276–277 Central Association in Prussia for the Welfare of confessionlessness in, 30 the Working Classes, 150 confessional state. See Christian State Central-Verein in Preussen für das Wohl der confessional system arbeitenden Klassen. See Central freedom of conscience in, 30, 254 Association in Prussia for the Welfare of modifications of 1919, 29, 66 the Working Classes confessionalism, 1, 33 Chartism, 8 confessionalization theory, 14–15 Christian rationalism, 2, 26, 30, 65, 67 monoconfessional societies, 14 confessional formulae, 34, 37, 63, 98 quadriconfessional model, 18–23 humanist criticism of, 70–81 triconfessional model, 18 origins of Free Religion in, 8 conservatism, 191 Christian State, 17, 21, 83, 136, 197, 219 antisemitism and, 63, 198, 210, 213, 244 antisecularism and, 7, 24, 184 Christianity and, 7, 10, 30, 33, 35, 59, 78, antisemitism, 218 197, 214 Judaism and, 58–63 parliamentary, 141, 195, 266 redefinition of, 30 revolution and, 78, 83 Christkatholisch congregations. See Constantinople, 82 Deutschkatholisch congregations constitution, 58 Christkatholisch versus Deutschkatholisch, 46 conversion, 36, 43 Church of Christ, 72 church-leaving as, 64, 65, 251 church taxes, 63, 199, 270 Jewish resistance to, 226 church-leaving laws to Free Religion, 93, 223, 225 Austrian of 1869, 252 to secularism, 209 Prussian of 1847. See Religious Patent of to Social Democracy, 157 March 1847 to worldview, 27 Prussian of 1873, 63, 190, 191, 200, 227, cooperatives, 149, 152, 158, 160, 162, 167, 237, 254 263 Saxon of 1870, 193 Cracow, 176 church-leaving movement cremation, 21, 240, 241, 262, 271, 272, 274 of 1878, 200, 267 crystals, 86 of 1906-1914, 233 cultural hegemony, theory of, 11, 12, 175 city council of Berlin, 50, 123, 145, 148, 157, cultural Protestantism, 10, 19 169 culture war. See Kulturkampf city government of Berlin, 46, 47 Czerski, Johannes, 40, 71, 93, 142 support of Lichtfreunde, 52–53 dispute with Ronge, 46, 71–73 civil marriage, 146, 189, 197, 214 influence in Berlin, 46, 71 Clark, Christopher, 60, 201 support by Protestants, 47, 72 clothing reform, 262 Cobden, Richard, 12 Damaschke, Adolf, 263 Cohen, Hermann, 134, 243 Darwin, Charles, 193, 258

296 Index

Darwinism, 86, 124 Douai, Adolph, 101 Daum, Andreas, 69 Dowling, John, 40 Däumig, Ernst, 270 Dresden, 194 David, Eduard, 260 Drews, Paul, 102 deism, 55, 60 Droste-Vischering, Clemens August von, 33 Delbrück, Adalbert, 145 Du Bois-Reymond, Emil, 257 Democratic movement, 8, 26, 137 Dühring, Eugen, 165–166 historiography, 153–154 Dulk, Albert, 51, 114, 166, 171 paciﬁsm, 155 Dumas, Georg, 143, 144, 147, 154, 157, 194 pantheism, 83 Duncker, Franz, 50, 146, 153, 156, 204 social politics, 155–156 owner of Volkszeitung, 146 Democratic People’s Party, 147, 155, 156, 158, Progressive Party involvement, 145 179 school reform, 147, 184, 185 Demokratie. See Democratic movement unions, Hirsch-Duncker’schen, 150 Der Dissident, 91, 119 Duncker, Max, 37, 146 Dethier, Philip Anton, 46, 71, 82 Deutsche Freidenkerverband. See Freethinkers, Eckardt, Ludwig, 156, 161, 179 German Union of Edigy, Moritz von, 243, 245, 251 Deutsche Glaubensbewegung. See German Faith Eichhoff, Wilhelm, 162 Movement Eichhorn, Karl Friedrich, 49 Deutsche Volksverein, antisemitic, 211, 215 increasing suppression of dissenters, Deutschkatholisch Congregations. See also Free 45–48 Religion on Jewish nationality, 61 Baden, 41 uneven treatment of confessions, 31 Berlin, 43–47, 102, 106–114 Einstein, Albert, 90 Berlin Council of 1847, 75, 242 Elcho, Rudolf, 147, 227, 228 Braunschweig, 41 Eley, Geoff, 9 Bremen, 41 Ender, 93 Breslau, 29, 40, 43, 45, 56, 74, 75, 76, 78, 84 Engels, Friedrich, 122, 136 Darmstadt, 78 England. See Britain Frankfurt am Main, 41, 107, 127 Enlightenment, early, 5 Hessen, 41 established churches. See state churches Königsberg, 93 Ethical Culture Leipzig, 76, 89, 102, 160 confession and, 27, 252 Leipzig Council of 1845, 46, 76 German Society of, 5, 243–248 Lübeck, 41 origins of, 225 Mannheim, 62 social aspects, 133–135 Mecklenburg, 41 ethics Nassau, 41 confession and, 233–252 Nauen, 43 secularist, 4, 88, 97, 99–100 Saxony, 41 Eulenburg, Friedrich Albrecht zu, 180 Stettin, 82 Evangelische Kirchenzeitung, 34, 35, 38, 52, 58, Württemberg, 41 59, 74, 78, 206 developmental thinking in secularism, 38, 50, Evangelischer Verein, 199 52, 74, 75, 85, 86, 99, 123, 139, 158, 184, 196, 224, 236–238 Falk, Adalbert, 195, 201 Diesterweg, Adolf, 49 Falkson, Ferdinand, 59, 62, 222, 225 Dissidents movement, 193 Faulhaber, Cardinal Michael, 272 Dissidents’ Law. See Religious Patent of March Fechner, Gustav, 87, 256 1847 feminism. See women’s movement Dittmar, Louise, 69 Feuerbach, Ludwig, 38, 68, 69, 79, 85, 234 Dominicans, 177, 181 Fichte, Johann Gottlieb, 138

Index 297

First International. See International proletarian, 22, 259, 264 Workingman’s Association social aspects, 132–133 First World War, 253, 269 Freethought Association Lessing, 132–133, 243 Foerster, Bernhard, 211 Freie Bühne, 133 Foerster, Friedrich Wilhelm, philosemitism of, Freie Volksbühne, 255 218 French Revolution, 100 Foerster, Wilhelm, 243 Freud, Sigmund, 256 criticism of worldview, 246 Fricke, Dieter, 170 on Jewish nationalism, 247 Friederici, Otto, 240, 244 popular science, 243 Friedrich the Great, 38 Force and Matter, 2, 236 Friedrich Wilhelm III, 32, 53 Fortschrittspartei. See Progressive Party Friedrich Wilhelm IV, 7, 26, 31, 140 fourth confession defense of confessional state, 58–59 heuristic usage of, 21, 27 opposition to rationalism, 39, 50, 51, 53 France, 7, 14, 20, 33, 72, 155 Patent of March 1847, 54–58 Franco–Prussian War, 155, 162 religious beliefs, 35 Frankfurt Parliament of 1848, 78 Friedrichshagener Dichterkreis, 147, 167 Free (Protestant) Congregations. See also Free Friends of Light. See Lichtfreunde Religion Fritzsche, Friedrich Wilhelm, 109, 159, 160, Halberstadt, 57, 84 161, 165, 166, 169, 196, 202, 203 Halle, 57 Free Religion in early socialism, 109, 159–163 Hamburg, 70 Königsberg, 6, 57, 62, 96, 137, 143, 155, 220 Gall, Lothar, 112, 115 Magdeburg, 56, 57 Garibaldi, Giuseppe, 7, 147, 161 Marburg, 41 Gemeinschaft proletarischer Freidenker, 264 Nordhausen, 84 Gerlach, Leopold von, 34 Free Religion Gerlach, Ludwig von, 34, 64 banning in 1934, 275 Gerlach, Otto von, 34 cooperation with völkisch movement after German Christian movement, 274 1933, 274–276 German Faith Movement, 274, 275 ethical debate, 99–100 Gervinus, Georg Gottfried, 40 Jewish conversion to, 224–225 Gesellschaft der Freunde, 224 notables in, 142–144 Gesellschaft zur Verbreitung von Volksbildung. secularization of, 75–96 See Society for the Propagation of Free Religious Congregations Popular Education Berlin, 5, 130–132, 137, 142–144, 146, 179, Giordano Bruno League, 69, 253, 255, 258–262 183, 189–191, 219, 225, 227, 244, 254, Gizycki, Georg von, 243 260, 261, 264, 274 Glagau, Otto, 126, 208, 216 Breslau, 94, 185, 205, 220, 243 Glassbrenner, Adolf, 51 Magdeburg, 94, 102, 147, 194 Gnadau, 37 Mannheim, 94 Gneist, Rudolf, 146, 183, 187 Stettin, 102 Goebbels, Joseph, 275 Union of, 2, 93, 221, 264 Goegg, Amand, 161 freemasonry, 196, 224, 231, 237 Goetz, Walter, 265 Freethinkers, German Union of, 2, 69, 130, 132, Gogarten, Friedrich, 14 147, 232, 263, 264, 277 Göring, Hermann, 275 founding meeting, 233 Gotha, 93 social composition, 261 gottgläubig, 64, 276 Freethinkers, International Federation of, 265 Graf, Friedrich Wilhelm, 8, 136 Freethought Gregory XVI, Pope, 32 as welfare religion, 277 Groschopp, Horst, 9 German reuniﬁcation of 1990, 277 Gross, Michael, 178

298 Index

Gustav Adolf Association, 50, 114 Hirsch, Maurice de, 240 Gymnasium versus Realgymnasium, 117, 123, Hirsch, Max, 127, 152–153, 172, 196 125 Ethical Culture, 243 Freethought, 227 Haeckel, Ernst, 90, 118, 261 popular science, 121 anticatholicism, 255 Progressive politics, 162 church exit, 233, 266 unions, Hirsch-Duncker’schen, 151 founder of Monist League, 3, 253, 258, 260 workers’ education, 158 Freethought, 261 Hirschfeld, Magnus, 253, 271 inﬂuence on socialists, 193, 264 Hirsekorn, C. A., 154 naturalistic monism, 3, 26, 86, 92, 255 historical progress. See developmental thinking on Ethical Culture, 246 Historisch-politische Blätter für das katholische politics, 124 Deutschland, 191, 214 popular science, 69 Hitler, Adolf, 273–274 publications, 67, 256 Höchberg, Karl, 166 wartime nationalism, 269 Hödel, Max, 201 world riddles, 67, 86, 256 Hofferichter, Theodor, 53, 84, 105 Halbbildung versus Bildung, 117–119, 125–128 cooperation with Jewish liberals, 220 Halberstadt, 81 pantheism, 77 Halle, 36, 48, 51, 132, 227, 248, 270 popular science, 89 University of, 34 Progressive Party, 171 Hamburg, 153 Revolution of 1848, 79 Handwerkerverein, Berlin, 121, 146 socialism, 154 politics, 50, 51, 149, 151, 194, 199 Hoffmann, Adolph, 203, 255, 264, 267, 269 popular science, 120, 152 Hölscher, Lucian, 16 proximity to FRC, 130 Holy Roman Empire, 16 Harndt, Adolf, 129 Holy Spirit, 73, 80 Harndt, Ewald, 24 Holyoake, George, 3–4, 12–13, 152 Hartmann, Eduard von, 191, 195 homosexual rights movement, 22 Harzburger Front, 273 Hübinger, Gangolf, 10, 19 Hasenclever, Wilhelm, 166, 196, 204 Hugo, Victor, 161 Hatzfeldt, Sophie von, 143 humanism, 26, 38, 63, 76, 81, 85, 97, 100, Hauer, Jakob Wilhelm, 274 101, 124, 161, 172, 186, 222, 240, Haym, Rudolf, 37, 49, 57, 146 250, 259 Hecker, Friedrich, 51 Humanist Congregation, 96, 143, 243, 248, 264 Hegel, Georg Wilhelm Friedrich, 38, 68, 71, 217 Humanistischer Verband, 277 Hegelianism, Left, 2, 25, 38, 50 Humboldt Academy, 121, 132, 152, 203 Heine, August, 171 Humboldt Associations, 91 Heine, Heinrich, 123 Humboldt, Alexander von, 89, 91, 121, 123, Heinsch, August, 164, 202 186, 258 Hengstenberg, Ernst Wilhelm, 34, 38, 52, 63, Humboldt-Hain, 186 273 Humboldt-Museum, 123, 186 Henrich-Wilhelmi, Hedwig, 240, 241 Herzen, Alexander, 161 ignorabimus, 257 Herzog, Dagmar, 17, 249 Ihrer, Emma, 6 Hess, Moses, 69 immanence, 25, 85, 104, 257 heterodoxy, 13, 20 Inner Mission, 23, 114, 198 Hieronymi, Wilhelm, 78, 97, 158 intermarriage. See mixed marriage Hildebrand, Karl, 125 International Peace League, 161 Himmler, Heinrich, 275 International Workingman’s Association, 162 Hirsch, Carl, 162 Italy, 7, 14 Hirsch, Emanuel, 272 Itzstein, Johann Adam von, 51

Index 299

Jacobson, Hermann, 93, 194, 224 Königgratz, Battle of, 176 conversion to Deutschkatholizismus, 224 Königsberg, 40, 153, 155, 225 leader of Free Religion, 93, 144, 204 Kosmos, 90 Jacobson, Israel, 93, 224 Köthen, 6, 37, 38, 48 Jacoby, Johann, 137–140 Kramer, Georg, 275 followers in Berlin FRC, 142, 154 Kraus, Karl, 252 Free Religion, 62 Krausnick, Heinrich Wilhelm, 46, 47, 53 monism, 138 Krebs, Phillip, 80 paciﬁsm, 161 Krebs, Robert, 161–162 secularist politics, 140, 262 leadership of Arbeiterverein, 161 Social Democracy, 157, 169 Moabit Klosterstum, 180–182 James, William, 257 workers’ movement, 158 Jastrow, Ignaz, 134 Krische, Paul, 271 Jenseits versus Diesseits, 79–81 Kulturkampf, 9, 15, 26, 201 Jesuits, 181, 186, 189 and secularization theory, 13 Jewish Colonization Society, 239 antisemitism and, 208–216 Jewish emancipation Freethought and, 132 and Deutschkatholiken, 61 liberal hegemony, 206 confessional opposition to, 59, 220 Kulturkartells, 263, 264 law of 1869, 209, 254 Kurhessen, 41 Jochmus, Ida, 44 Jodl, Friedrich, 134 laïcité, 7, 19 Johann, crown prince of Saxony, 51 land reform movement, 263 Judaism, 5 Lange, Friedrich Albert, 145 Berlin Reform Congregation, 61 Langerhans, Paul, 50, 134, 143, 146, 148, 182 confession and, 64 as a Jacobyite, 154, 170 Society for the Reform of, 6, 61 Free Religious leadership, 143, 146 Jugendweihe, 94, 276 Moabit Klosterstum, 180 Jung, Carl, 259 Progressive Party involvement, 144, 145, 148 relation to Protestant Church, 146 Kaiser, Jochen-Christoph, 271 Lasker, Eduard, 22, 230, 232 Kaiser, Wolfram, 10 antisocialism, 231 Kalthoff, Albert, 235 freemasonry, 231 Kampe, Ferdinand, 45, 76, 79, 80, 85, 89, 105, on antisemitism, 212, 231 288 on Halbbildung, 126 historian, 43 patron of Berlin Freethinkers, 227, 230, 238 in Revolution of 1848, 79 Secession, 201, 228 Kampffmeyer, Paul, 167 Lassalle, Ferdinand, 158, 160 Kant, Immanuel, 38, 68, 87, 138, 140, 155, 195, Ledebour, Georg, 147, 158, 226, 227, 242, 217 269 Kessler, Gustav, 138, 158, 227, 235, 236, 240, Leeden, Karl van der, 143, 154, 155, 185, 189 242, 244 Leibniz, Gottfried Wilhelm, 195 Ketteler, Bishop Wilhelm von, 158 Leipzig, 49, 51 Kirchenkampf of 1930s, 276 Leipzig Confession of 1845, 71 Kleinpaul, Karl, 70, 74 Leixner, Otto von, 231 Klemich, Oskar, 194 Lenin, Vladimir, 257, 261, 270 Koch, Ignaz, 74, 77 Lenz, Hermann von, 272 Koch, Robert, 134 Lepsius, M. Rainer, 18, 265 Kochhann, Heinrich Eduard, 145 lese majesty, 199, 241 Kocka, Jürgen, 115 Lessing, Gotthold Ephraim, 208 Kögel, Rudolf, 198, 199, 201 Levy, Morten, 169 Konfession. See confession Lewald, Fanny, 139

300 Index

Lewinger, Edmund, 179 Mann, Thomas, 266 liberal hegemony. See cultural hegemony Mannheim, Karl, 262 liberalism. See also Progressive Party Manteuffel, Edwin von, 198 anticatholicism and, 10, 11, 178 Manteuffel, Otto von, 81 antipolitics and, 266 Märkisches Kirchenblatt, 179, 180 confession and, 34 Marr, Wilhelm, 212, 218 crisis of 1877, 197 marriage, 36, 47, 55, 59, 94 Jewish emancipation and, 63, 221 Marx, Karl, 69, 256 political dominance in Berlin, 52, 144–152 materialism Protestantism and, 15, 49, 52, 174 controversy of 1850s, 92 secularism and, 12, 144–152 scientiﬁc versus historical, 241, 260, 271 secularism as threat to, 124, 265 Mauthner, Fritz, 226, 256 town citizenry and, 114, 115 May Laws of 1873, 189, 237 Lichtfreunde, 6 May, Ludwig, 142, 148, 154, 180–182 Berlin, 49–51 Moabit Klosterstum, 180, 181 Breslau, 48, 49, 50 Mayer, Gustav, 170 founding of, 37 McLeod, Hugh, 14 Halle, 25, 37 Mehring, Franz, 200 Königsberg, 49 as Democratic journalist, 147, 155 Magdeburg, 29, 37, 78 as socialist, 158 Lidtke, Vernon, 193 on antisemitism, 230 Liebig, Justus, 193 on Haeckel, 261 Liebknecht, Karl, 267 on Jacoby, 138 Liebknecht, Wilhelm, 102, 159 on Kulturkampf, 191 church exit, 200 Meisel-Hess, Greta, 6 on Freethinkers, 3 Menschenthum, 97, 99, 101, 229, 234 relations with Democrats, 163 Merker, Dr., 49, 50, 51 Liegnitz, 43 Metternich, Klemens von, 52, 54, 59 life reform, 22 Metzner, Thomas, 109, 147, 159, 162, 169, Lippert, Julius, 204 172, 203, 204 Löbe, Paul, 266 Free Religion in early socialism, 109, 164 Loewenthal, Wilhelm, 80, 132, 226 in Berlin FRC, 110 ethical philosophy, 233–239 Meysenbug, Malwida von, 6 freemasonry, 231 microhistory, 23 involvement in Jewish resettlement, 240 milieu theory, 18 leader of national Freethought, 233 Mill, John S., 161 liberalism, 232 mixed marriage, 20, 116 London, 168, 205 Jewish-gentile, 59, 62, 146, 180, 225, 273 Löwe, Wilhelm, 153 Protestant-Catholic, 33, 39, 43, 59 Löwenstein, Kurt, 271 Moabit Klostersturm, 176–183 Lübbe, Hermann, 13 antisemitism and, 210 Luther, Martin, 40, 70, 191 liberal press involvement, 179, 186 Mohrenklub, 165 Mach, Ernst, 256 Moleschott, Jacob, 92, 120, 138, 217 Magdeburg, 34, 37, 45, 48 Mommsen, Theodor, 145, 168, 224, 226, 249, Magistrat. See city government of Berlin 289 Mah, Harold, 206 philosemitism, 223 Makower, Hermann, 204 monasticism, 183, 258 Manasse, Waldeck, 127, 128, 208, 209, 236, monism, 3 244 and materialism, 92 Social Democatic politics, 242 antihumanism, 100 speeches in FRC, 127, 128 cognition, 87

Index 301

energetic, 257 Ostwald, Wilhelm, 257, 267 idealistic versus materialistic, 86, 96–102, 138 church exit, 233 vitalism and, 86 monist activities, 257–258 Monist League, German, 3, 6, 67, 69, 235, 253, wartime nationalism, 269 261, 266, 269, 271 Otto, Louise, 6 Monistenbund. See Monist League, German Morgenstern, Lina, 148, 226, 227, 228 paciﬁsm, 6, 155, 161 Most, Johann, 159, 194, 196, 198–200, 205 Palatschek, Sylvia, 44 secularist afﬁnities, 167–169 pantheism, versus atheism, 85, 258 Mufti, Aamir, 249, 250 Paulsdorff, Friedrich, 119, 152 Mühler, Heinrich von, 186, 188 Peace of Augsburg, 31 Müller, Anton Mauritius, 43, 71, 72, 73 Peace of Westphalia, 30, 31, 55 Müller, Eduard, 177, 186, 210 Peege, Heinrich, 129 Mulsow, Martin, 5 Penzig, Rudolf, 248, 263 Munich, 35, 125, 263, 265, 272, 273 Peter, Carl, 275 Peus, Heinrich, 167, 266, 269 Na’aman, Schlomo, 160 Pfungst, Arthur, 134, 263 Napoleonic era, 16 Phillips, Adolf, 147 Nathan the Wise, 208, 234 philosemitism National Liberal Party, 132, 144, 145, 176, 183, pressure for conversion, 223 188, 192, 194, 201, 206, 207, 216, 228, secularism and, 218–239 266. See also liberalism phrenology, 120 Secession of 1880, 230 Pietism, 35 National Socialism, 273–276 Pinn, Carl, 128 nationalism, 247 Poland, 46 and confession, 35 police surveillance, 24, 203 Nationalverein, 146, 149, 150, 156, 225 Pommerania, 40 Naunyn, Franz Christian, 44, 50 popular science, 2, 89–96, 126, 137, 193, 258 Nauwerck, Karl, 49, 50 positivism, 239 Nees von Esenbeck, Christian, 75, 76, 78, 85, postcolonial theory, 11, 174 86, 87, 89, 154 Pringsheim, Rudolf, 143, 154, 224 neo-humanism versus naturalistic humanism, Progressive Party, 26, 123, 153 See also 123, 127, 167 liberalism Neo-Kantianism, 166, 217, 239 newspapers, 146 New Era, 140, 141, 142, 150 Protestant Church, 14, 36 New York, 40, 169 conservatives in, 33–36, 38 Nietzsche, Friedrich, 256 General Synod of 1846, 54 Nipperdey, Thomas, 18, 173, 259 Union of 1817, 32 Nordau, Max, 227, 238 Protestant freedom, 34, 38 Freethought activities, 227 Protestant League, 15, 18 monist worldview, 3 Protestantenverein, 114, 146, 185 on confessionlessness, 252 Prüfer, Sebastian, 107 on Free Religion, 232 Prussia, 16, 20, 24, 29, 30, 31, 39, 47, 48, North German Union, 60, 176 52, 55, 56, 63, 77, 82, 176, 180, 198, Nowak, Kurt, 14, 18 270 nudism, 262 Prussian Civil Code of 1794, 16, 30, 55 Prussian Diet, 58, 81, 183, 211, 267 Oertel, 141 Prussian Parliament of 1848, 78 Old Catholics, 20 psychophysical parallelism, 87, 256 Old Lutherans, 20, 32, 59 Olmütz, Punctation of, 81 Quidde, Ludwig Osterhammel, Jürgen, 7 philosemitism, 218

302 Index

Rahden, Till van, 22 anticatholic agitation, 180 Ranke, Wilhelm, 118 anticlericalism, 184 Rau, Heribert, 89, 91 atheism, 102 Reformation, 15 conflict with socialists, 202, 204, 205 Reichenbach, Andreas, 171 Democratic politics, 154–156 religion of humanity, 61, 76, 89, 223 Freethought, 242 religion, essentialistic definitions of, 18, 103 naturalistic ethics, 99–100 religious field, 19, 111 philosemitism, 219–224 religious indifference, 277 salary, 110 Religious Patent of March 1847, 29, 30, 54–58, school reform, 147, 185 59, 63, 64, 77, 105, 191, 193, 253 training as a schoolteacher, 111 republicanism. See Democratic movement views on eduation, 127 revisionism. See Social Democracy Schäffle, Albert, 196 Revolution of 1848, 8, 22, 49, 136 Schelling, Friedrich Wilhelm Joseph, 35, 68, 76, Rhineland, 32, 41 86 Richter, Eugen, 153 Schleiermacher, Friedrich, 38, 71, 185 Rickert, Heinrich, 255 Schmidt, Heinrich, 104 Riddle of the Universe. See Welträtsel Schmidt-Cabanis, Richard, 226, 227, 228, 231 Riehl, Alois, 236 Schmitt, Eugen Heinrich, 258 Risorgimento, 7 Schneider, Georg, 246 Roller, Heinrich, 161 Scholl, Carl, 62, 101, 232 Rome, 40, 179 Schopenhauer, Arthur, 195, 256 Ronge, Johannes, 5, 45, 46 Schramm, Carl August, 155, 158, 165 founding of Deutschkatholizismus, 39–40 Schreiner, Helmuth, 27, 270 women’s movement, 44 Schröder, Winfried, 5 Rosenberg, Hans, 8, 195 Schulze-Delitzsch, Hermann, 138, 171, 172 Rossmässler, Emil, 90 educational politics, 123, 152 Democratic politics, 78, 158, 160, 171 Kulturkampf, 189 popular science, 89, 91 Lichtfreunde, 146 Rubenow, W., 142 Progressive Party leadership, 145, 153, 156 Runge, Heinrich, 49, 50, 145, 146 Progressive workers’ movement, 146, 160, Rupke, Nicolaas, 91 161, 204 Rupp, Julius self-help, 151 conflict with authorities, 55, 57 workers’ cooperatives, 150, 151, 158, 167 cooperation with liberal Jews, 62, 137, 220 Schünemann-Pott, Friedrich, 101 pacifism, 6, 155 Schütz, Fritz, 97–99, 101 philosophy, 96 Schwaner, Wilhelm, 258 Progressive Party, 102, 171 Schweichel, Robert, 143, 155, 158, 226, 227, Russell, Bertrand, 257 228 Russia, 28, 225, 239, 272 Schweitzer, Johann Baptist von, 162 secularism Sachse, Heinrich, 147, 171, 194, 204, 231 and biography, 23 Said, Edward, 11 anticlerical versus anti-Christian, 183–187, Salvation Army, 114 206 Sänger, Karl, 127 definitions of, 3–5, 11–13 Saxony neutralization of, 14 Kingdom of, 40, 48, 193 paradoxes of, 21, 28 Prussian Province of, 6, 37, 49 state churches and, 4, 64 State of, 264 versus Freethought, 4 Scarpa, Ludovica, 50 secularity, 13 Schaefer, Georg Siegfried, 21, 96 secularization 1880 visit with Most, 205 as ideology, 11

Index 303

of 1803, 16 vegetarianism, 88 theory of, 9, 13 summepiscopate, 16, 31 versus secularism, 1 Suttner, Bertha von, 134, 218 SED. See Socialist Unity Party Switzerland, 81, 270 Sedlnitzki, Bishop of Breslau, 39 self-help, 151–152 temperance, 262 semi-education. See Halbbildung theosophy, 259 Seydel, Karl Theodor, 145 Thile, Ludwig Gustav von, 47, 54, 56 Silesia, 25, 39, 40, 41, 43, 46, 47, 78, 150 Third Republic, French, 7 Simon-Ritz, Frank, 9 Thölde, Gustav, 129 Singer, Paul, 143, 155, 158, 159, 169 Thuringia, 274 Sintenis, Wilhelm Franz, 35, 37 Tolerance Edict. See Religious Patent of March Smith, Helmut Walser, 173, 212 1847 Social Democracy Tönnies, Ferdinand, 13, 245 Kulturkampf, 192 town citizenry, 107, 115, 116, 130, 135, 150, 260 parties Tractarianism, 72 ADAV, 143, 158, 160, 161, 162 Träger, Albert, 265 SDAP, 157, 158, 161, 162, 163, 171, 196 Treitschke, Heinrich, 47, 51, 211, 216–217 SPD, 18 Trier pilgrimage of 1844, 39 USPD, 147, 242, 270 Troeltsch, Ernst, 3, 269 VDAV, 158, 162 Tschirn, Gustav, 63, 243 religious policies, 158–160 Tutzauer, Franz, 145 secularism and left deviations, 167 Twesten, Karl, 145 secularism and revisionism, 164–167 secularist milieu of, 18 Uhden, Alexander von, 45 social hygiene, 238 Uhlich, Leberecht, 45, 96, 98, 103, 142, 194 socialism. See Social Democracy antisocialism, 158 Socialist Laws, 165, 176, 200–206 leadership of Lichtfreunde, 37, 48, 51 Socialist Unity Party, 276 on Jewish congregations, 223 Society for the Propagation of Popular Progressive Party, 102, 171 Education, 132, 152, 204 rationalism, 37, 48, 78 Sonderweg debate, 9, 174 Revolution of 1848, 78 Soviet Union. See Russia suspension of, 57 Spain, 7, 181 workers’ education, 152 Specht, August, 2, 101, 202, 228 Ule, Otto, 89, 194 Spinoza, Baruch, 5, 155, 195 ultramontanism, 10 spiritualism, 87, 259 unions, Hirsch-Duncker’schen, 151 Stadtbürgertum. See town citizenry Unitarianism, 55 Stahlhelm, 272 United States, 72, 81, 168, 224 Stahn, T., 101, 205 Unruh, Hans Viktor von, 145 Stahr, Adolf, 139 Urban, Friedrich Ludwig, 77 Stark, Rodney, 103 state churches, 189, 270, 272, 276, 277 Vahlteich, Julius, 160–161, 166, 169, 194 as confessions, 19–21, 33, 60, 64, 276 Vatican Council, 176, 185, 187 relations to the state, 16, 29 vegetarianism, 88, 262 Steiner, Rudolf, 258 Verein der Freidenker für Feuerbestattung, 264 Stern, Jakob, 171, 241 Verein zur Pﬂege des freireligiösen Lebens. See Stoecker, Adolf, 23, 198–200, 214–215, 272 Association for the Cultivation of Free Stoecker, Helene, 6, 253 Religious Life Stolzenfels, 51, 54 Vienna, 79, 179 Strauss, David Friedrich, 104, 191, 241 Virchow, Rudolf, 68, 115, 123, 124, 145, 149, Struve, Gustav von, 69, 79 184

304 Index

Virchow-Haeckel controversy, 124 Wiggers, Moritz, 153 Viswanathan, Gauri, 13 Wilhelm I, 45, 140 Vogt, Carl, 89, 92 assassination attempts of 1878, 201 Vogtherr, Eugen, 142 Wille, Bruno, 158, 254, 258 Vogtherr, Ewald, 242, 246 co-founder of Giordano Bruno League, Voigt, Karl, 235, 246 258–262 völkisch movement, 64, 215, 258, 271, 275 Windthorst, Ludwig, 234 Volkov, Shulamit, 212 Winkler, Heinrich August, 170 Volksverein für das Katholische Deutschland, Wislicenus, Adolf Timotheus, 57, 93, 96, 99, 15, 18 100, 114, 142, 177, 183, 194 Volkszeitung, Berliner, 146, 147, 153, 176, Wislicenus, Gustav Adolf, 37 181, 241 censure in 1845, 48 Vormärz, 6 critique of Christian rationalism, 38 Vorwärts, 159 Whether Scripture or Spirit?, 38 Vossische Zeitung, 72, 146, 147, 180, 186 Woeniger, Dr., 49 women’s movement, 6, 44, 241, 262 Wabnitz, Agnes, 6, 159, 203 workers’ education, 6, 121, 128, 152, 158 Waldeck Association, 232, 235, 240 world riddles, 257 Waldow, 180 worldview. See also monism Walker, Mack, 112 and anticlericalism, 4, 104 Weber, Max, 13, 255 Catholic, 52 Wedell, Wilhelm von, 48 criticism of, 14, 233–238, 246, 250 Wehler, Hans-Ulrich, 10, 173 in Weimar Constitution, 66 Weimar Cartel, 263 monistic, 2 Weimar Constitution, 66, 270 politics and, 138 Weimar Republic, 22, 23, 269 popular science and, 137 Weiss, Guido, 114, 142, 154, 228 Würkert, Ludwig, 94, 95, 101, 160, 171 Democratic politics, 148, 153, 154, 156, 169 Zedlitz-Trützschler, Robert von, 243, 254 Free Religious leadership, 114, 142 Zeitgeist, 35, 74 journalistic activities, 147, 150, 169 Zepler, Georg, 251 Welskopp, Thomas, 18 Zimmerwald Movement, 270 Weltanschauung. See worldview Zionism, 3 Welträtsel, 67, 256, 261 Zukunft, democratic journal, 154, 157, 163 Werner, Anton von, 143 Zukunft, socialist journal, 166