Rome at War AD 293-696

OSPREY Michael Whitby PUBLISHING Essential Histories

Rome at War AD 293-696

OSPREY Michael Whitby PUBLISHING First published in Great Britain in 2002 by Osprey Publishing, For a complete list of titles available from Osprey Publishing Elms Court, Chapel Way, Botley, Oxford OX2 9LP. UK please contact: Email: [email protected] Osprey Direct UK. PO Box 140, © 2002 Osprey Publishing Limited Wellingborough. Northants, NN8 2FA, UK. Email: [email protected] Ail rights reserved. Apart from any fair dealing for the purpose of private study, research, criticism or review, as permitted under Osprey Direct USA, c/o MBI Publishing, the Copyright, Design and Patents Act. 1988. no part of this PO Box 1, 729 Prospect Ave, publication may be reproduced, stored in a retrieval system, or Osceola.WI 54020. USA. transmitted in any form or by any means, electronic, electrical, Email: [email protected] chemical, mechanical, optical, photocopying, recording or www.ospreypublishing.com otherwise, without the prior written permission of the copyright owner Enquiries should be made to the Publishers.

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ISBN 1 84176 359 4

Editor: Rebecca Cullen Design: Ken Vail Graphic Design, Cambridge, UK Cartography by The Map Studio Index by David Ballheimer Picture research by Image Select International Origination by Grasmere Digital Imaging, Leeds. UK Printed and bound in China by L. Rex Printing Company Ltd.

02 03 04 05 06 10 9 8 7 6 5 4 3 2 I Contents

Introduction 7

Chronology 10

Background to war Controlling the empire 12

Warring sides Inside and outside the empire 19

Outbreak Creating crisis 27

The fighting Challenges to empire 34

Portraits of soldiers Brothers in arms 62

The world around war Impact of conflict 67

Portraits of civilians Notable individuals 77

How the war ended Making new boundaries 81

Conclusions and consequences

Roman legacies 86

Further reading 92

Index 94 Introduction

In the early third century AD the Roman the , with specific leaders emerging in Empire stretched from Scotland to the Sahara certain areas: Bulgars in the north-east, Serbs and to the northern River Tigris - an enormous and Croats in the north-west. In the imperial enterprise and the most powerful Lombard kingdom, based in the Po valley, state in the world. Four centuries later the fragmented authority in the peninsula, and Empire had shrunk to consist of , the so it remained until reunification in the Aegean fringes of the Balkans and limited 19th century. controlled , though territories in Italy around Rome and Ravenna. it was usually split between different branches Still strong in Mediterranean terms, it was of the ruling Merovingian dynasty. In the forced to confront and interact with a variety Iberian peninsula the had of new powers. To the east Arabs, inspired by established authority, sometimes tenuously, Islam, had overrun the Levant and Egypt, as over the groups who had settled during the well as the Persian kingdom. More than a fifth century; however, their switch from millennium of conflict between Islamic east Arian to Nicene Christianity in the seventh and Christian west was introduced as Arab warriors pushed westwards through North The Emperor Theodosius and his family receive tokens Africa and into Spain and regularly raided of submission from barbarians while seated in the imperial box at the hippodrome. From the base of towards Constantinople. Slav tribes the obelisk at the Hippodrome in Constantinople. established themselves throughout much of (Ancient Art and Architecture) Essential Histories • Rome at War century provided a force for unity which would survive centuries of conflict with Muslim invaders. The British Isles presented another mosaic, with Saxons increasingly dominant in the south and east, Britons holding on in the west, and rival Pictish and Scottish kingdoms in control of southern Scotland. Here again religion offered hope for future unity, with the Saxons progressively converted through the Roman mission based at Canterbury and the Celtic Church, which was dominant in Ireland, Scotland and the north-west, then reconciled with Roman traditions. By the end of the seventh century many of the important elements of the modern European political landscape were in place, or at least in evidence, but the stages whereby Roman hegemony fragmented are complex. It is essential, above all, to remember that there was nothing inevitable about this process: Europe did not have to be organised into the territorial units and dominated by the national groups with which we are familiar today. 'Decline and fall' has been a powerful model for analysing this transition, from the Bronze head of Constantine with eyes characteristically composition of Edward Gibbon's masterwork gazing to heaven. (Ancient Art and Architecture) in the late eighteenth century, and before. But the vitality of the Roman system - especially but the setback ushered in 140 years of almost when reinvigorated by Christianity - the unbroken peace in the eastern Empire. In 378 commitment of peoples to the Roman ideal, the eastern emperor Valens was killed in and the sheer power of Roman arms also need battle at Adrianople in , and many of to be stressed in opposition to this analysis. his Gothic opponents had to be allocated Identification of turning points is an lands for settlement, but thereafter successive understandable temptation, and acceptable eastern emperors generally managed the provided that the qualifications for each 'Gothic problem' to their advantage. When particular date are not forgotten. The the last sole Roman ruler Theodosius I died in conversion of Constantine to Christianity in 39S, the Empire was split between his young AD 312 initiated the Empire's transformation sons, and emperors ceased to campaign from polytheism to Christianity, and regularly in person, but such divisions had prompted the development of the Church as occurred in the past, often beneficially, and a powerful and wealthy institution. For some there were advantages in withdrawing the scholars the Church was yet one more emperor from the battlefield. 'Immortal' substantial group of idle mouths for Roman Rome was captured by Alaric's Visigoths in tax-payers to support, with unfortunate AD 410, but it had long ceased to be an long-term consequences, but the Church also imperial capital, so the event was largely of served imperial goals beyond the frontiers and symbolic importance: Augustine in Africa reinforced loyalties within. In 363 Julian's wrote City of Cod to demonstrate the grand invasion of Persia ended in death for superiority of the heavenly over the terrestrial him and near disaster for the , city, but in Italy the Visigoths withdrew and Introduction 9 emperors continued to rule from Ravenna. In cumulatively they contributed to diminishing the 440s Attila challenged imperial authority imperial authority, undermining the fiscal and - in both east and west, threatening even to military structures which permitted the reduce emperors to vassal status - but his imperial machine to function. By the late fifth Hunnic federation disintegrated after his century an emperor had become irrelevant in death in 453 so that within a decade his heirs the western Mediterranean, although the were seeking Roman help. In 476 the last eastern ruler was accepted as a figurehead by Roman emperor in the western Empire was some. The eastern Empire's continuing power deposed by a 'barbarian' general, but the was revealed by its ability to organise the authority of the eastern emperor was still reconquest of the Vandal and Ostrogothic acknowledged. A western consul was annually kingdoms, which extended to the recovery of nominated to share the chief titular parts of Spain and the exercise of intermittent magistracy with eastern colleagues, and under influence in Gaul. Even if the cumulative Theoderic the Ostrogoth a regime, which impact of recurrent bubonic plague and the carefully maintained a Gotho-Roman facade demands of western warfare left the Empire dominated the western Mediterranean from economically and militarily weaker in AD 600 Ravenna. than it had been in AD 500, in comparative Individually the significance of each of terms it might have been stronger, since its these 'key' dates must be qualified, but greatest rival, the Persian kingdom, also suffered heavily during a century of conflict; its then ruler, Khusro II, had only secured the One of the more accurate assessments of the throne with Roman help. In the early seventh Empire's demise occurs in a conversation century internal dissension and foreign between lews in prison at Carthage in the invasion seemed to have forced the Romans 630s. They discuss the state of the Empire to the brink of destruction, symbolised by the and the news of a new prophet among the arrival of a Persian army on the and Saracens in terms of the vision of Empire in its co-operation with the Avar Chagan in the the Book of Daniel (Doctrine of the AD 626 attack on Constantinople. But the city Newly-baptised Jacob 3.8). and its Empire survived: within two years 'Jacob asked him: "What do you think Heraclius had defeated the Persians, and of the state of Romania? Does it stand as overseen the installation of friendly rulers on once, or has it been diminished?" the Persian throne, including, briefly, the Justus replied uncertainly, "Even if it Christian Shahvaraz; and during the 630s the has been somewhat diminished, we hope Avar federation began to disintegrate as the that it will rise again." reduced prestige of its leader permitted But Jacob convinced him, "We see the subordinate tribes to assert their nations believing in Christ and the independence. For the eastern Empire the fourth beast has fallen and is being torn decisive blow came out of the blue when in pieces by the nations, that the ten the new religion of Islam transformed horns may prevail."' long-standing manageable neighbours into a potent adversary. Chronology

226 Ardashir overthrows Parthian dynasty. 395 Death of Theodosius; Empire divided 235 Murder of Severus Alexander by between Arcadius and Honorius. troops. 406 German tribes breach frontier. 243/4 Gordian defeated by of 408 Stilicho executed. Persia. 410 Sack of Rome by Alaric and Visigoths. 251 Death of Decius in battle against 418 Establishment of Visigoths in . Aquitania. 260 Defeat and capture of by 429 cross into Africa. Persians. 445 Attila becomes sole ruler of Huns. Franks invade Gaul; Alamanni invade 451 Attila invades Gaul; defeated at Italy; revolts in Balkans. Catalaunian Plains (near Troyes). 261-68 of takes 453 Death of Attila. control of eastern provinces. 455 Vandals sack Rome. 262-67 Goths invade Asia Minor. 476 Odoacer deposes Romulus Augustulus, 271 withdraws Romans from Dacia. the last western emperor. Circuit of walls built for Rome. 493 Theoderic captures Ravenna and kills 272 Aurelian defeats Palmyra. Odoacer. 275 Murder of Aurelian. 502 Kavadh invades eastern provinces and 284 Accession of Diocletian. captures Amida (Diyarbakir). 293 Tetrarchy with Maximian as co- 505 Truce on eastern frontier; and Constantius and construction of Dara starts. Galerius as Caesars. 507 Clovis and Franks defeat Visigoths at 305 Abdication of Diocletian and Maximian. Vouillé. 312 Constantine captures Rome after 527 Renewed warfare in east. Accession of battle of Milvian Bridge. Justinian. 324 Constantine defeats Licinius and 532 'Endless Peace' with Persia. becomes sole emperor. 533 defeats Vandals and 337 Death of Constantine at start of recovers Africa. campaign against Persia. 540 Belisarius enters Ravenna and ends 353 Constantius II defeats usurper . Magnentius and reunifies Empire. Khusro I invades eastern provinces 355 Julian co-opted by Constantius as and captures Antioch. Caesar. 542 Arrival of bubonic plague. 357 Julian defeats Alamanni at Strasburg. 546 recaptures Rome. 361 Death of Constantius. 552 Narses defeats and kills Totila at Busta 363 Julian's invasion of Persia and death. Gallorum. 376 Goths cross the . 562 50 Years Peace with Persia. 378 Defeat and death of Valens at 568 Lombards invade Italy. Adrianople (Edirne). 572 Justin II launches new war on eastern 382 Theodosius settles Goths in Balkans as frontier. federates. 578/9 Avar invasions of Balkans start. 394 Theodosius defeats usurper Eugenius 586/7 Slav raids reach and Corinth. and reunifies Empire. 591 Termination of war with Persia. Chronology

602 Revolt of Balkan army and overthrow 632 Death of Muhammad. of Maurice. 636 Arabs defeat Romans at River Yarmuk. 610 Heraclius captures Constantinople 638 Arabs capture Jerusalem. and kills Phocas. 639 Arabs attack Egypt. 614 Persians capture Jerusalem. 642 Arabs capture . 622 Muhammad leaves Medina (Hijra). 651 Death of Yazdgard III, last Sassanid 626 Avars besiege Constantinople, with ruler. Persian support. 661 Mu'awiyah becomes Caliph at 627 Heraclius defeats Persians at Nineveh. Damascus. Background to war Controlling the empire

Marking boundaries conquest of Gaul, although it was only a century later that the frontier stabilised The centuries of conflict covered in this along the river - once grander Roman volume saw the Romans pitted against visions to incorporate Germania were enemies in three main sectors: along the renounced. Temporary military installations Rhine against the Alamanni, Franks and were replaced in stone, permanent camps other Germanic tribes; on the Danube against attracted settlements of veterans, traders and first the and Goths, then the other camp-followers, and prosperous sites Hunnic tribes, and finally the Avars and were honoured with colonial status, for manifold Slav groups; in Armenia and example Colonia Agrippina () and Mesopotamia the Sassanid Persians; Moguntiacum (Mainz). Stability along the eventually, towards the end of the period, frontier required active defence, and there Arab tribes erupted from the Arabian were major campaigns commanded by an peninsula to sweep through the Levant. Since emperor in the 90s (Domitian), 170s (Marcus the was a military institution Aurelius) and 230s (Severus Alexander). whose widespread control had been imposed The Rhine provided a partial barrier to by force, there was naturally a long history of tribal movement which the Romans could conflict in each sector, even if the precise opponents were not always the same. Impressive defences reinforced Rome's psychological The Romans first campaigned on the superiority along the frontiers. Taken from Trajan's column Rhine in the 50s BC during Caesar's in Rome. (AKG London/Hilbich) Background to war I 3

Troops crossing a river by pontoon bridge, from a The second major European river frontier, section ofTrajan's column. (AKG Berlin) along the Danube, was joined to the Rhine frontier by linear defences, which protected a control through naval squadrons and by triangle of territory to the south-east of supervising recognised crossing-points. Argentoratum (Strasburg), always a sensitive Beyond the Rhine were numerous tribal area. The Romans had reached the upper and groups whose relationship with the Romans middle Danube during the reign of Augustus was not always hostile: tribesmen served in (31 BC-AD 14), confirming their control over Roman armies, Roman garrisons had the hinterland in the face of massive rebellions considerable wealth (by local standards) to in and Illyricum; further spend on slaves, furs or basic foodstuffs, downstream the Danube became the frontier while the Romans were a source of luxury during the first century AD. A process of goods such as wine or spices. A symbiotic consolidation similar to that on the Rhine got relationship could emerge: Romans wanted under way, but in this case the need to tribal manpower and supplies, while tribal dominate the Dacian tribes of the lower leaders relied on Romans for the wealth and Danube led to major campaigns across the display goods to demonstrate superiority river under Trajan (98-117) in the early second over their rank and file. A cyclical pattern to century and the creation of a new province relations on the frontier can be seen: the within the arc of the Carpathian mountains. Romans bolstered the authority of compliant In the eastern Empire the Romans leaders whose expanding following encountered the Parthians during the first generated greater demands; when these century BC, experiencing one of their worst became excessive, conflict ensued between defeats in 53 BC when three legions were Rome and a major tribal grouping; thereafter annihilated at Carrhae (Harran) in the cycle would begin again. Mesopotamia. Until the mid-first century AD,

Background to war 15 small client kingdoms constituted buffer North Africa, which the Romans gradually states for Roman territory in Anatolia and took over between the mid-second century the Levant. Thereafter the upper and middle BC and the mid-first century AD, resembled provided a suitable line on which the southern portion of the eastern frontier. to base legionary positions - though, as Desert, supplemented on occasion by linear along the European rivers, the Romans barriers, played a significant part in marking maintained a keen interest in events beyond. the boundaries of Roman authority. Tribal Between the River Euphrates and the Arabian instability could pose threats, though, as Gulf, desert offered a reliable buffer zone, along the European frontiers; 'outsiders' were although tribes who knew how to operate in tied into the Roman system through military this inhospitable terrain troubled Roman service and economic exchanges. The British lands to the west intermittently. For the Isles, which the Romans invaded in the first Romans the east was the prestigious area for century AD, stands in contrast to the other conflict, ideally for expansion, with the major frontiers as a place where the Romans renown of Alexander the Great's relied primarily on linear defences - the achievements luring successive western rulers walls of Hadrian and Antoninus - to separate to emulation: in the early second century the untamed tribes of Caledonia from Trajan campaigned to the head of the Persian Roman areas. Gulf, briefly establishing a province in It is ironic that the best-studied Roman Mesopotamia; in the 160s Lucius Verus defences - the salient between the Rhine and (161-9) fought energetically in lower Danube in south-western and the Mesopotamia, and in the 190s Septimius walls of north Britain - are not typical of Severus (193-211) again defeated the Roman frontier areas overall. As a Parthians and annexed new territory. consequence, however, we may fail to understand how the frontiers operated. The

A view along part of Hadrian's wall (showing Chester's traditional view is that frontiers were fort), another defensive structure which combined maintained to delimit and protect Roman protection and propaganda. (Ancient Art and Architecture) territory by barring entry to foreigners. But I 6 Essential Histories • Rome at War

frontiers are now seen as zones of contact, as maintain imperial control and ensure the much as lines of exclusion: this is clearly smooth collection of taxation. They true for the European river frontiers, and suppressed brigandage (which subsisted at a even in the case of an apparent barrier, low level in many parts of the Empire), scrutiny of the installations along Hadrian's regulated disputes between provincial cities Wall reveals its purpose was to control, but and ensured their internal stability, and not prevent, movement. It is also argued that oversaw communications between the generals and emperors were more interested province and Rome, including the in the rewards of conquest than in routine important annual expressions of allegiance defence of the Empire's inhabitants, and that to the emperor. from the military perspective the provinces more often required subjugation than Taxes and trade protection. Exchanges across frontiers, the Taxation was the lifeblood of the Empire, significance of military glory, and the which depended upon a regular cyclical flow preservation of law and order are all valid of wealth. The areas of greatest consumption considerations, but the ideology of pax were Rome - where the imperial court and Romana was also important: emperors were senatorial households spent lavishly - and the believed to have a duty towards the civilian frontier armies whose salaries had to be paid members of the Empire - or at least their to prevent the risk of mutiny. Most frontier performance of this role was an issue which provinces could not support the full costs of might be picked up in speeches of praise or the legions based in them, and so tax defamatory tracts. surpluses had to be transferred from 'interior' Within the frontier Roman territory was regions, for example Spain or Asia Minor divided into provinces, of which there were where the inhabitants generated cash to meet about 60 in the early third century AD. Most tax demands by selling produce: the Empire provincial governors were drawn from the evolved quite a complex system which locked senate, the council made up of former different areas together. The two most magistrates, which had considerable important taxes were a poll tax and a land tax. authority but little real power. Governors of The former was simpler, although its coverage frontier provinces with substantial armies and rate varied. The latter was based on an were chosen from among former consuls assessment of land value as determined by (the most senior group within the senate) by agricultural use, for example arable as opposed the emperor. In the 'interior' provinces the to vineyard or pastureland, and was levied as a governors' primary functions were to fixed percentage of the valuation. These taxes were not progressive, which meant that financial burdens fell more heavily on A panel from Constantine's arch at Rome showing the emperor distributing largesse. This victory monument small-holders than grandees, who would also depicts the emperor's civilian virtues as well as his have greater influence to secure exemptions. military triumphs. (AKG London/Pirozzi) In addition there were customs duties at both Background to war I 7 imperial and provincial boundaries, and a enriched both the imperial exchequer 5 per cent tax for Roman citizens on through customs revenues and the inheritances and the freeing of slaves. middlemen whose profits were invested in Movement of produce, as both trade and Petra and Palmyra. The current view of the tax revenue, was an important aspect of the Roman economy, based in part on the Empire's economic system. Massive amounts increasing evidence from ship-wrecks, is that of grain from Egypt and other parts of North trade played a minor but significant role in Africa, and of oil and wine from Spain, were the Empire's prosperity: trade in luxury items transported to supply Rome as taxation or was the tip of an iceberg of local, intra- the produce of imperial estates; similarly regional and inter-regional exchange which senators' provincial estates supported their was greatly facilitated by the existence of the palatial households in the capital. Supplies roads, ports and other installations for the army might also seem to be located established to service the crucial elements of within this command economy and to an the imperial system, namely the capital and extent they were, but the Vindolanda writing the armies. tablets, which preserve correspondence of an Overall, the Empire was prosperous during auxiliary cohort based in north Britain the first two centuries AD, as can be seen c. AD 100 reveal that army units were also from the archaeological remains of provincial supported by their own supply networks. cities where local elites competed to beautify The best evidence for Roman trade their home towns. Wealth did flow out of the inevitably relates to the exceptional needs of Empire, but this was balanced by the the elite, who had an enormous appetite for eastern 'luxuries': spices from eastern Africa, The colonnaded streets of Palmyra were evidence of the and silks, gems and spices from India. The wealth derived by the city from its trading activities. eastern trade was a substantial enterprise; it (Ancient Art and Architecture) 18 Essential Histories • Rome at War substantial production of mines (such as the silver mines of Spain), imperial properties Cassius Dio, historian, twice consul and which were exploited under the protection experienced provincial governor, writing of military units. In spite of the inflexibility about 230, assesses the change in the of the tax system, imperial revenue tended Empire's fortunes in 180 (72.36). to exceed expenditure during peace time, '[Marcus Aurelius] encountered a host while wars could be supported, especially if of problems practically all through his they were of limited duration and generated reign ... he both survived himself and some booty: the agricultural production of preserved the Empire in extraordinary the provinces sustained both the imperial and untoward circumstances. One thing machine and the demands of local cities. alone marred his personal happiness: his On the other hand, there were already son [Commodus] ... our history now ominous signs of strain in the second falls away, as affairs did for the Romans century, the golden age of imperial of that time, from a realm of gold to prosperity. The purity of the basic silver one of iron and rust.' coin, the denarius, was reduced from about 90 per cent to 75 per cent, and then to 50 per cent under Septimius Severus. The Empire functioned best when rulers Prolonged warfare was expensive, especially survived for reasonably long reigns with the along the European river frontiers where support of both senate and provincial booty was unlikely to offset costs: troops armies, when conflicts remained localised had to be moved to the area of conflict, and did not coincide with challenges on imposing demands on communities along other frontiers, and when climatic and other their lines of , and extra resources conditions permitted a reasonable level of were demanded to make good losses. Civil agricultural production. The accession of war was an even worse prospect, partly Septimius Severus in 193 provided a severe because such conflicts were, at best, a jolt, since this was followed by three years of zero-sum game (and at worst ruinously internal conflict across much of the Empire. expensive to ravaged provinces and all His son Caracalla, who succeeded in 211, who supported the losers), but more had to buy favour with the troops by significantly because any attempt to secure awarding a 50 per cent pay increase, the throne required lavish promises of financed by issuing a new (overvalued) silver donatives and higher pay for armies, which coin and by doubling the 5 per cent would also be expanded to meet the crisis. inheritance tax: to increase the revenue from The plague brought back from the east by the latter, he gave Roman citizenship to all Lucius Verus' army in AD 167 was also a the free inhabitants of the Empire and so significant factor, and the consequences of brought them into the tax net. The Empire the loss of agricultural population can be survived Caracalla, but if the balance of traced in papyrus records of land leases in imperial prosperity was delicate during the Egypt: in some areas the impact seems to second century it now become precarious, have lasted for a generation, in others three with a major external threat or significant generations. internal upheaval likely to generate a crisis. Warring sides Inside and outside the empire

Army of the Roman Empire were recruited into the legions, while non-citizens traditionally entered The Roman Empire depended on the the auxiliary units. Remarkably little is power of its armies, which had always known about the process of recruitment: been composed of a combination of citizen and non-citizen troops. Before the universal Late Roman . Artwork by Christa Hook. extension of citizenship in AD 212 citizens (Osprey Publishing) 20 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Late Roman infantry. Artwork by Christa Hook. (Osprey Publishing) Warring sides 21

conscription was probably always a feature, a horseman equipped with a composite bow with manpower needs being apportioned in to represent the ideal contemporary soldier. line with census records of citizens, but there But infantry remained the basis for most was also some element of hereditary service armies, and Roman foot-soldiers, when as units drew on veteran settlements. At properly trained and led, were capable of times, perhaps often, military service offered defying all opponents. a reasonably good and quite safe career for Another development in the late Roman the young provincials, especially if they army was that, from the fourth century, served close to home. distinctions were drawn, in terms of status In the later Empire it is often alleged that as well as rewards, between limitanei and the balance of the armies changed, with troops of the comitatus, i.e. between more citizens being outnumbered by foreigners, static provincial units and those which the traditional infantry backbone eclipsed accompanied the emperor or senior by cavalry units, and frontier units generals. It is often claimed that limitanei (limitanei) relegated to an inferior status. became soldier-farmers, losing their military Romans were progressively demilitarised quality along with their professionalism, and the increasingly un-Roman armies but that misrepresents the nature of the declined in discipline and loyalty. These estates which helped to support them and theories reflect developments in the later ignores their continuing use in conjunction army, although they are all ultimately with mobile troops on major eastern misconceptions. campaigns. It is noticeable that the limitanei Roman armies did continue to rely on included more cavalry units than the substantial units of non-citizens, especially comitatus, a reflection of the usefulness of when troops had to be recruited quickly, as horses for local patrolling and of the greater in civil war and after military defeat, or for ability of infantry to retain fighting special expeditions. These 'outsiders' were strength when required to move long often excellent troops who provided reliable distances quickly. bodyguards for emperors and generals, There had been a gradual change in the whose personal retinues of bucellarii deployment of Roman armies. In the early (biscuit-men) might represent the elite part empire legions were quartered in major of an army. There were also several senior bases near the frontier (e.g. Cologne), but non-Roman commanders who played military need dictated that units were important political roles, especially during detached for specific duties as frontier the fragmentation of the western Empire in garrisons or in the interior. Later this ad hoc the fifth century, but it is invalid to infer dispersal was consolidated so that troops from their prominence that non-Romans were spread across provinces in numerous also dominated the ranks of the army. forts and cities. Emperors, however, also Infantry had always been the particular needed mobile forces for more rapid strength of the Romans, and it is true that deployment. In the east there came to be cavalry units performed a more important two armies 'in the presence' stationed near role in late Roman armies, but there is little Constantinople, and others in the Balkans evidence to support the popular notion and the east; in the west Gaul and Italy had that the Romans switched to reliance on their own armies until imperial authority heavy-mailed cavalry, an anticipation of contracted from the former. medieval knights. The Romans had a few Overall, Roman armies changed between units of mailed lancers (clibanarii or the third and seventh centuries, but the boiler-boys) in imitation of Parthian and majority of troops were drawn from the Persian units, but mounted archers on the Empire's inhabitants. Specific upland Hunnic model were probably more common. regions had the reputation for producing The sixth-century historian chose good recruits: the Balkan highlands, 22 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Late Roman parade helmet (AKG London) looked quite barbaric and undisciplined, but the same could often have been said mountainous in southern Asia about early imperial armies. Minor, and Armenia. Goths, Germans and The size of late Roman armies is a complex Huns also made important contributions, game for which most of the pieces are missing. but such soldiers often came from groups In the third century army units probably who had been accepted into the Empire and numbered upwards of 350,000, with a further given lands with the explicit purpose of 40,000 in the navy. Numbers increased providing recruits. To educated observers significantly under Diocletian (284-305) and from the cities, the people who wrote most Constantine (306-37), so that the total of our evidence, Roman armies undoubtedly military establishment exceeded 500,000 - Warring sides 23

perhaps even 600,000. But paper strength will Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum, depicting the always have surpassed disposable strength, and responsibilities of the Master of Offices which included many troops were committed to particular the imperial weapons factories (fabricae). (MS Canon assignments so that only a small proportion of Misc. 378, f. 141 r, Bodleian Library) the total establishment could be deployed for individual campaigns. In the fourth century Empire, although it is probably correct that an army of 50,000 was large, and by the sixth organisation, rather than basic military skill, century mobile armies rarely exceeded 30,000. increasingly emerged as the way in which In spite of complaints about discipline, Romans surpassed their opponents. The Roman training appears to have remained Romans had the capacity to co-ordinate troops tough. A succession of military manuals over long distances to build up complex indicates that attention was devoted to armies, with artillery units as well as infantry training and tactics, at least in the eastern and cavalry, and then keep these supplied on 24 Essential Histories • Rome at War campaign: the infrastructure of roads, warehouses, granaries, arms factories and the The Greek historian Theophylact preserves billeting arrangements generated a complex rare information on Persian military body of law, and enabled the Romans to move arrangements.(3.15.4) their men wherever thev were needed. 'For, unlike the Romans on campaign, Persians are not paid by the treasury, not even when assembled in Persian arrangements their villages; the customary distributions from the king, which they Only in the East did the Romans face an administer to obtain income, are enemy with a sophistication comparable to sufficient to support themselves until their own. The Iranian Sassanids supplanted they invade a foreign land.' the Parthian Arsacids during the 220s, imposing themselves as a new military elite on a heterogeneous population, which Persian kings did not maintain a large included substantial groups of Jews and standing army until at least the sixth Christians in densely populated lower century: there were garrisons in frontier Mesopotamia. Persian armies are not clearly cities and fortresses, but for major campaigns understood, since almost all our knowledge kings instructed their nobles to mobilise comes from Roman informants reporting provincial levies. Minor gentry of free status Persian actions during the repeated conflicts. served as mounted warriors providing a One important strategic point to bear in backbone, and they probably brought along mind is that, from the Persian perspective, their own retinues. The system was feudal, their north-eastern frontier, the sector in with royal land grants carrying an obligation which they confronted the nations of central to serve or send troops on demand; Asia, took priority; we occasionally glimpse campaigns inside the Persian kingdom seem Persian action in this area, as when King to have been unpaid, on the assumption that Peroz led his armies to disaster against the soldiers could support themselves from their Hephthalite Huns in the late fifth century, or estates, but payment was given for foreign during the service of the Armenian Smbat expeditions. Feudal arrangements could be Bagratuni in the early seventh, but there is extended to attract troops from outside the a substantial gap in our appreciation of kingdom - who worked for specific terms - Persian might. but mercenaries were also recruited, sometimes from the Hunnic and Turkic tribes beyond the north-east frontier, The career of Smbat sometimes from specific internal groups The Armenian Smbat, a member of the such as the Dailamites who inhabited the noble Bagratid house, commanded mountains south of the Caspian. cavalry for the Romans in the Balkans in Persian armies are often associated with the 580s, but was exiled to Africa for heavily mailed cavalry, but their most potent instigating revolt. In the 590s he element were mounted archers: Roman reappears in Persian service, being tactical writers advised that the Persians appointed provincial governor by King could not withstand a frontal charge, but Khusro II; he was trusted to suppress that any delay in engaging at close quarters awkward rebellions in the east and would permit them to exploit their received the nickname 'Joy of Khusro', superiority at archery. The Persians were but Khusro was reluctant to allow him heirs to a long Middle-Eastern tradition of to return to Armenia and Smbat was warfare and they had a formidable kept at court as an honoured advisor. capacity to organise , dig mines and deploy a variety of engines to capture even Warring sides 25

the most strongly fortified positions. In the mobilise 10,000 warriors, and larger forces - sixth century there was a substantial such as those that confronted Julian at overhaul of the tax system as well as a Strasburg in AD 357 - could be produced redistribution of land, which was intended through alliances. On rare occasions to bolster royal power by permitting the German leaders commanded larger numbers - payment of some permanent units, an the Amal-led fielded imitation perhaps of the Roman comitatus. 25,000-30,000 warriors after subsuming a But the feudal link between king and rival Gothic group in the Balkans - but nobility remained crucial, dictating that this was exceptional, the product of Roman military prestige was essential for royal power which forced tribes to coalesce or authority: kings might embark on foreign face defeat. campaigns to acquire booty and prestige for The most powerful Roman enemies were internal consumption. the supranational federations, represented by the Huns in the fifth century and the Avars in the sixth and seventh. These groupings Enemies in Europe swallowed the variety of smaller tribal units within their sphere of action, with terror and The personal prestige of the war leader was booty providing the cement; their existence also vital for Rome's various tribal enemies in required regular warfare, and their ruthless Europe. These groups ranged from small war leaders had the manpower to overrun the bands from an extended family or single defences of even major cities. Both Huns and village, through more complex clan and Avars posed serious challenges to Roman tribal bands into which the family units authority, but their inherent instability was would be subsumed, to the occasional but their undoing: Attila's death in 453 led to mighty international federation. At the fatal dissension among his potential heirs, bottom of the scale were the Slav raiders who while the Avars never recovered from their crossed the Danube in the sixth century; failure at Constantinople in 626, since these might operate in groups of 200 or weakness at the top permitted constituent 300, perhaps accompanied by their families sub-groups to rebel. The image of the Huns is in wagons as they sought land for settlement. of nomadic warriors whose attachment to Most of the German and Gothic groups their horses was such that they could who challenged the Empire were collections scarcely walk, and it is true that the various of such smaller clan or village units, united warrior elites will have fought as cavalry, under the authority of a king. The right to but all these groupings could also field lead depended ultimately on success, substantial infantry forces which would especially in warfare; although leading have been provided by less prestigious families (such as the Gothic Balti and Amali) elements, for example the Slavs within the attempted to create dynasties, these could not Avar federation. survive the shock of prolonged failure or the Collectively Rome's enemies rivalled, or absence of a suitable war-leader. There was surpassed, its military strength, but the some instability in these groups, and units - Romans could usually hold their own, partly such as the Carpi, who were prominent down through superior organisation and training, to AD 300 - might disappear permanently; partly through strong defences, but above others such as the Lombards are absent from all by the strategy of trying to avoid our sources for several generations before re- simultaneous conflict on different frontiers. emerging in the sixth century. Such changes Along the Danube or Rhine tribal groupings did not represent the elimination of these might co-operate in the short term, but people but their subjection to a different elite Roman diplomacy was adept at exploiting which imposed its identity on its followers. potential splits. Wider collaboration was Powerful German kings might be able to extremely rare, the only real instance 26 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Movement of Goths across Europe

occurring in 626 when Persian troops which distinguished the Romans from all encamped on the Bosporus attempted to join their opponents, with the exception of the Avar attacks on Constantinople, only to Saxon raiders in the North Sea and the be thwarted by the Roman fleet. Possession Vandal kingdom in North Africa which took of a small but powerful navy was a factor over part of the western Roman fleet. Outbreak Creating crisis

After the murder of Severus Alexander in 235 the Roman Empire experienced 50 years The Greek historian Herodian records of instability, commonly termed the demands of a Persian embassy to Alexander Third-century Crisis, a period which marks the Severus in the 220s (6.4.5). transition to the later Empire. The 'crisis' can 'The mission declared that by order of be viewed from a number of interlocking the Great King the Romans and their aspects - frontier pressure, usurpers, religious ruler must abandon and the whole change, financial shortages - but it is of Asia opposite Europe, allowing Persian reasonable to begin from the frontiers: here rule to extend as far as Ionia and Caria developments can be identified which then and the peoples within the Aegean- arguably prevented the Empire from Pontus seaboard. For these were the controlling change in other areas. traditional possessions of the Persians.' Beyond the eastern frontier a new dynasty was inaugurated when the Sassanid Ardashir was crowned in Ctesiphon in 226. The inevitable refusal. Gordian's attempt to change was significant since the Romans had discipline Ardashir's son Shapur I ended in generally dominated the Parthians, and humiliation in 244, with Gordian defeated indeed repeated Roman successes had and murdered and his successor Philip the contributed to undermining royal prestige, Arab forced to purchase the withdrawal of but the Sassanids propagated a dynamic his army. Shapur's invasions in 253 and 260 nationalism, including links with the resulted in the capture of Antioch, the major Achaemenids, who ruled Persia before city of the eastern provinces as well as Alexander the Great's conquests. Embassies demanded the return of their ancestral The ruined walls of Dura by the River Euphrates. property, with war as the consequence of the (Ancient Art and Architecture) 28 Essential Histories • Rome at War

The Valerian Wall at Athens, cutting across the agora. mouth; a decade later they swept across the (Author's collection) north-eastern Balkans, and Emperor Decius was killed and his army annihilated while numerous lesser places such as Dura on the trying to force them back across the Danube Euphrates, and the transport to Persia of in 251. Further ravaging occupied the , massive booty; Emperor Valerian was with the Goths commandeering shipping on captured in battle at Edessa (Urfa) in 260 and the to cross to Asia Minor and sail taken back to Persia. For the next decade into the Aegean where they sacked Athens in imperial authority in the east was limited, 268. Mining operations in and with the most effective resistance to the Thrace were inevitably disrupted. Persians being provided by the ruler of This great movement of Goths naturally Palmyra, Odaenathus. The east had become displaced other peoples who might find an expensive military arena for the Romans, themselves squeezed against the Roman and the substantial tax revenues of its frontier; this process could trigger the provinces were jeopardised. formation of substantial federations as The problem was compounded by events different tribes steeled themselves for the on the Danube, where the Romans also had ultimate challenge of attacking the Romans. to face a new enemy. Here change had been On the upper Danube the Vandals, Quadi slow, the result of the gradual movement of and Marcomanni breached the frontier, and Gothic peoples from northern Poland. The on the upper Rhine the Alamanni increased first attested Gothic incursion came in 238, their strength to the extent that they twice when they sacked Istria near the Danube invaded Italy in the 260s. On the lower Rhine Outbreak 29

Porchester Castle. One of the late third-century Alexander, who had just campaigned Saxon shore , built to protect southern and unsuccessfully in the east, was overthrown eastern Britain from raids across the North Sea. (Ancient Art and Architecture) by the Rhine armies who feared his leadership. They proclaimed as their leader Maximinus the Thracian (allegedly an the Franks gradually came to dominate uneducated peasant risen from the ranks). another large federation which threatened Maximinus made no attempt to conciliate frontier defences during the latter half of the the senate, his control of the armies, century, and Saxon pirates began to raid especially those in the east, was shaky in across the North Sea and down the Channel. spite of a promise to double military pay, Of the Roman world only Africa, the and the extensive confiscations needed to Iberian Peninsula and, to a lesser extent, provide funds for his promises damaged his Britain, were spared invasion. The reputation further. Maximinus survived until cumulative nature of the frontier pressure is 238 when his failure to deal with rivals evident, with emperors unable to divert supported or proclaimed by the senate troops from one sector to another and caused his troops to mutiny. Seven emperors instead constrained to confront invaders in within one year, fighting in North Africa and conditions which led to defeat. The northern Italy, and disturbances in Rome consequences for imperial prestige are were a foretaste of the anarchy to come; such obvious, and by the late 260s the Empire was substantial internal upheavals naturally virtually split into three units which afforded external enemies a chance to attended separately to their own security. invade, which then increased the problems Trouble began in 235 when Severus for whoever happened to occupy the throne. 30 Essential Histories • Rome at War

The rapid turnover of emperors is best Rome's foundation in spectacular fashion, illustrated by a simple list - with the proviso but the military reverses of the 250s that it is difficult to include all the effectively split the Empire into three. shorter-lived local claimants to the throne. Odaenathus' defence of the east fuelled ambitions for imperial authority, which were 235-38 Maximinus inherited by his wife in 268/9, while 238 Gordian I & Gordian II in Gaul, the Rhine armies proclaimed their 238 Balbinus & successful general . The air of crisis 238 Pupienus generated apocalyptic literature in the east 238-4 Gordian III (for example, the Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle), 244-19 Philip the Arab and a circuit of walls for Rome, 11.8 miles 249-51 Decius (19 km) in length, was rapidly constructed in 251-53 Trebonianus Gallus 271. The Empire was only reunited by 251-53 Volusianus Aurelian in a series of energetic campaigns, 253 Aemilianus which were helped by instability in Gaul 253-60 Valerian following the murder of Postumus in 269 253-68 and by the death of Odaenathus; also, he 268-70 Claudius II Gothicus was prepared to abandon the exposed 270 Quintillus province of Dacia and redeploy Roman 270-75 Aurelian troops along the lower Danube. Perhaps 275-76 Tacitus most significantly, the energetic Shapur died 276 Florianus in 270 and it was to be 50 years before the 276-82 Probus Persians had a comparable leader. If military 282-83 Carus failure guaranteed overthrow, success did not 283-85 Carinus ensure survival: both Aurelian and Probus, 283-84 Numerian who continued Aurelian's re-establishment of the Empire, succumbed to plots in Each new emperor meant another military camps, and Cams died while donation to the troops; each bout of civil invading lower Mesopotamia, allegedly war more loss of life, physical destruction struck by lightning. and distraction from the frontiers. Ironically, in 248 Philip celebrated the millennium of Aurelian's wall at Rome. (Ancient Art and Architecture) Outbreak 31

Prolonged warfare inside the frontiers, sums of cash. A consequence was an regular defeat, and the rapid turnover of increasing reliance on taxation in kind: emperors cumulatively had major economic troops needed to be supplied and, rather than consequences. Emperors required more extracting increasingly worthless coin from money to pay donatives and salaries to their rural taxpayers to permit units to purchase troops, and the available supplies of bullion food and other necessities, the cycle was had to be squeezed in order to produce the short-circuited by the transfer of goods necessary precious metal coins. Under directly to the troops. This development Gallienus this resulted in the silver content might have been accidental and haphazard, of the denarius, the standard coin for military with armies gradually adopting the practice pay, declining to 5 per cent; subsequently of securing their own supplies and leaving there were issues of bronze washed in arsenic provincial administrations to acknowledge to provide a short-lived silvery brightness. that their appropriations could be offset The declining value of coinage triggered an against tax demands. Other victims of offsetting rise in prices which resulted in an inflation were the cities, where the inflationary spiral, particularly during the spectacular building developments of the last third of the third century. previous 150 years ceased. One victim of inflation was the

government, whose tax revenues declined in Gold medallion ofValerian I and Gallienus Salonim value; granted the inflexibility of the tax proclaiming Concordia Augustorum. (© R Sheridan system, it was difficult to raise large new Ancient Art and Architecture) 32 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Coin with legend Carausius et fratres, c.AD 286. Empire, it transpired that Pannonians, and (Ancient Art and Architecture) other officers of Balkan extraction, became prominent. These were professional soldiers, Another consequence of crisis was the at whom civilian intellectuals might sneer marginalisation of the senate and a for their lack of culture, but they proved professionalisation of military command. In to be solidly committed to the idea of 238 the senate and armies had contested the Rome and its traditions, as well as imperial succession, but under Gallienus effective generals. senators were effectively removed from The crisis also had a religious impact, since military commands. This development a natural inference from repeated misfortune had begun earlier, since the Severans was that the gods had to be placated. At first had sometimes preferred trustworthy this took the form of intensified supplication non-senators for important commands, but to traditional deities: in 249 Decius issued a the insecurity of emperors furthered the general instruction to all citizens to offer change while troops also demanded reliable prayers and sacrifices on his behalf. A leaders rather than aristocratic amateurs. consequence, probably unintended, of this When Aurelian came to power with the order was that Christians were faced with the backing of the upper Danube legions and choice of disobedience or apostasy; some then used these troops to restore the abandoned the faith, many more probably Outbreak 33

Radiate coin of Aurelius (AD 270-275). (Barber Institute of Fine Arts) A papyrus of AD 250 demonstrates the consequences of Decius' demand for sacrifice: found means to evade or connive in the everyone needed a receipt to prove compliance. ruling, but there were enough martyrs to 'To those superintending the identify Christians as traitors to the Empire. sacrifices of the village of Theadelphia, Persecution lapsed with Decius' death, but was from Aurelia Bellias, daughter of Peteres, restarted in 257 by Valerian who specifically and her daughter Capinis. We have targeted the Christians, with attention focused sacrificed to the gods all along, and now on the priestly hierarchy; his defeat in battle in your presence according to orders I terminated proceedings. The successful have poured a libation and offered Aurelian advertised his devotion to the sacrifice and eaten of the sacrificial traditional divinities, especially Victoria, Mars, offering; we ask you to sign below to Hercules and Jupiter who were all connected this. Farewell. with success in war, and to these he added a Signatures: We Aurelius Serenus and special devotion to the cult of the Aurelius Hermas saw you sacrificing. Unconquered Sun, Sol Invictus, after the defeat Signed by me, Hermas. of Palmyra in 273. Devotion to the correct Year 1 of the Emperor Caesar Gaius divinity did bring success, as Diocletian and Messius Quintus Traianus Decius Pius Constantine would continue to demonstrate Felix Augustus, Payni 27.' in their different ways. The fighting Challenges to empire

Diocletian's stabilisation for Diocletian and Hercules his son for Maximian. After six years of joint reign, Aurelian reunified the Roman Empire, but rebellion in Egypt prompted Diocletian to Diocletian re-established imperial stability increase his imperial resources by appointing through a reign of 20 years which ended in two junior colleagues as Caesars, Galerius for planned retirement. The secret of success was the east and Constantius for the west. an imperial college, since one factor Marriage between the Caesars and daughters promoting earlier disunity had been the of the Augusti united the Tetrarchy. desire of major armies to have their own The energetic campaigning of Diocletian emperor. Power-sharing had worked in the and his colleagues is reflected in the victory second century when Marcus Aurelius titles which precede his Edict on Maximum co-opted Lucius Verus to command his Prices of 301: Parthian campaign, and was tried in the 'The emperor Caesar Gaius Aurelius third century by the families of Valerian and Valerius Diocletianus, pious, fortunate, Carus. Family control might enhance loyalty, unconquered, Augustus, pontifex maximus, but perhaps at the expense of ability. Germanicus maximus six times, Sarmaticus Diocletian elevated a long-standing maximus four times, Persicus maximus two colleague, Maximian, to the rank of Caesar times, Britannicus maximus, Carpicus in 285 and dispatched him to Gaul to quell maximus, Armenicus maximus'. an uprising of baccaudae, rebels who have Constantius was sent to recover Britain, been variously interpreted as Robin which permitted Maximian to leave the Rhine Hood-style brigands or supporters of local frontier and move to Africa to deal with warlords. In 286 Maximian was promoted Moorish incursions. In the east the major to Augustus, with the relationship between achievement was Galerius' success against the the Augusti represented by their divine Persians in 298, after initial defeat in the companions, Jupiter king of the gods previous year. The decisive action was Galerius' capture of King Narses' womenfolk, although he also ravaged lower Mesopotamia. An orator in Gaul addresses Maximian in Narses sued for peace and surrendered territory 289, praising his co-operation with Diocletia east of the Tigris to recover his women. (Latin Panegyrics 10.11). Almost as important as the victories was 'Your harmony has this result, Diocletian's administrative overhaul, which invincible princes, that even Fortune doubled the number of provinces - where responds to you with an equally great governors were expected to keep closer measure of success. For you rule the control of their areas - and introduced State with one mind, nor does the great dioceses which grouped provinces and distance which separates you hinder you provided a judicial buffer between the from governing, so to speak, with right governor and the praetorian prefect at court. hands clasped. Thus, although your The tax system was reformed perhaps to doubled divinity increases your royal distribute the burdens of land and poll majesty, by your unanimity you retain tax more fairly, perhaps to improve the advantage of an undivided Empire.' efficiency. Provision was made for regular reassessment; for the first time it was The fighting 35 theoretically possible to construct an imperial budget. Diocletian also attempted to Diocletian explains the need to control prices. stabilise the coinage, with new issues of gold, (Preamble to Edict on Maximum Prices.) silver and bronze, but he seems to have 'Who does not know that wherever lacked the bullion to issue enough precious communal safety requires our armies to metal coins to convince people. As a result be sent, profiteers insolently and covertly inflation continued, and in 301 Diocletian attack the public welfare, not only in issued an Edict on Prices, a law for display in villages and towns, but on every road? all towns and markets of the Empire on They charge extortionate prices for which was listed the maximum prices for a merchandise, not just fourfold or wide range of goods and services. In terms of eightfold, but so that human speech military organisation, Diocletian may have cannot find words to characterise their been less innovative than in other areas, profit and practices. Indeed, sometimes although the evidence for his actions is in a single transaction a soldier is indecisive. His concern for frontiers was stripped of his donative and pay. reflected in the strengthening of defensive Moreover, the contributions of the whole installations, the construction of new roads - world for the support of armies fall as for example the Strata Diocletiana which ran profits into the hands of these from the Gulf of Aqaba to the Euphrates - plunderers, and our soldiers appear to and the deployment of troops near the bestow with their own hands the rewards frontiers. The army most probably increased of military service and their veterans' in size during his reign, though there are no bonuses upon the profiteers.' precise figures.

Augustus of the west died at York in 306, Constantine and conversion his troops promptly acclaimed his son Constantine. Over the next six years Diocletian retired in 305, to a specially Constantine schemed and fought his way to prepared palace at Spalato (Split), but his mastery of the whole western Empire, a succession arrangements faltered because process which culminated outside Rome at they disregarded the soldiers' strong dynastic the battle of the Milvian Bridge in 312: his loyalties: when Constantius the new opponent, Maxentius, son of Diocletian's partner Maximian, deployed his troops on

Towers at Constantina (modern Viransehir. Turkey). the north bank of the Tiber, but they were The large horseshoe towers of basalt date back to the routed and during the confused flight back fourth century. (Author's collection) to the city the wooden bridge collapsed. The 36 Essential Histories • Rome at War most significant aspect of the victory was that Constantine's men fought under the Constantine writes to the king of Persia sign of Christ, whose inspiration (Eusebius, Life of Constantine 4.9-13). Constantine proclaimed; after the battle he 'With God's power as ally 1 began set about rewarding his new God. In some from Ocean's shores and progressively ways this marked a decisive change from raised up the whole world with sure Diocletian (who had initiated persecution of hopes of salvation ... 1 believe that I am Christians in 303) and Constantine's not mistaken, my brother, in confessing conversion did eventually lead to the this one God the Author and Father of Christianisation of the Empire and so of all, whom many of those who reigned Europe, but the underlying religious attitude here, seduced by mad errors, have was the same: correct worship of the right attempted to deny. But such divinity provided victory. punishment finally engulfed them that all men saw that their fate superseded all other examples, warning those who A contemporary Christian teacher, attempt the same ends ... With these Lactantius, records how Constantine had persons - 1 mean of course the the chi-rho monogram (the first two Greek Christians, my whole concern is for letters of Christ's name) painted on his them - how pleasing it is for me to learn soldiers' shields (On the Deaths of the that the chief regions of Persia too are Persecutors 44.5-6). richly endowed! ... These therefore I 'Constantine was advised in a dream entrust to you, since you are so great, to mark the heavenly sign of God on putting their persons in your hands, the shields of his soldiers and then because you too are renowned for piety.' engage in battle. He did as he was commanded and by means of a slanted letter X with the top of its head bent Christian population of lower Mesopotamia round, he marked Christ on their to raise hopes of 'liberation'; he had already shields. Armed with this sign, the army written to the young Persian king Shapur II took up its weapons.' to inform him of the benefits of Christianity and to warn him not to harm his Christian subjects. In the event Constantine For the next 12 years Constantine shared bequeathed the conflict to his successors, the Empire in uneasy partnership with since he died near Nicomedia in 337 at the Licinius in the east, but in 324 the two start of the march east. clashed in a decisive naval engagement in Although his accession disrupted the the Bosporus, with Constantine emerging as Tetrarchy, Constantine was in most ways a sole ruler of the whole Empire. This victory true heir to Diocletian's purpose. For half his was marked by the construction of a new reign Constantine was involved in civil capital - Constantinople - on the site of the conflicts, which diverted attention from old city of , which gained new frontiers: he reorganised the central forces walls, a palace and the other appurtenances which accompanied the emperor, the of an imperial seat. Constantine now comitatns, and created two prestigious inherited responsibility for the Danube and commands for cavalry and infantry, the Persian frontiers. During the 330s he magister eqiutum and magister peditum. The campaigned energetically against the Goths, praetorian prefect lost operational military to such effect that the area was quiet for the responsibility, but took overall charge of next generation. Towards the end of his administration, including military supplies reign tension began to rise in the east, with and recruitment; in recognition of this Constantine probably contacting the increased role, the Empire was divided into The fighting 37

four grand prefectures. At provincial level confrontation. Constantius was engaged on military command was also separated from the Danube, when Shapur II planned to civilian duties. Constantine's greatest strike deep into Roman territory, for once achievement was the establishment of a disregarding Nisibis. The Romans stable currency, based on gold solidi struck at implemented a scorched-earth policy and 72 to the pound: the bullion gained from placed strong guards at the Euphrates civil war and confiscations of temple crossings, but the river was in flood and the treasures underpinned this coinage. Persians turned northwards. At Amida Shapur attempted to overawe the defenders by a display of might, but a Roman The eastern Empire artilleryman disrupted proceedings when a bolt aimed at the king struck a member of The Empire was divided between his entourage. Shapur felt obliged to punish Constantine's three surviving sons, the city, which eventually fell after 73 days Constantine II in Gaul, Constans in Rome, of determined resistance, but the with Constantius II in the east inheriting the combination of delay and heavy casualties war against Shapur. Constantius II has terminated the Persian invasion. suffered historiographically, since most Civil conflicts as well as the demands of Christian writers regarded him as heretical, other frontiers distracted Constantius, while the major contemporary secular especially after he became sole ruler in 353. author, Ammianus Marcellinus, Between 351 and 353 Constantius co-opted misrepresented him because of his clash with his cousin Gallus to supervise the east, but the pagan Julian. As a result his dogged he proved unsuitable. In 355 Constantius conduct of 24 years of war with Persia is turned to Gallus' younger brother, the underrated, although he managed to intellectual Julian, and used him to control preserve the eastern frontier with only the west, with better results until in 360 limited losses in the face of one of the most Julian's troops - quite possibly with Julian's dynamic Persian rulers. There was only one encouragement - demanded imperial pitched battle during the conflict, outside equality for their commander. Constantius Singara in 344: the Romans had the stabilised the frontier before turning west to advantage until a disorderly pursuit and confront his rival, but he died en route; attack on the Persian camp permitted the Julian inherited the Empire without a battle. enemy to recover so that the engagement Julian arrived in the empire of the east in ended indecisively. Constantius' strategy was 361 with a reputation as a successful general to build new forts and rely on the major and a need to demonstrate that he could cities of the frontier to hold up Persian surpass Constantius. A major factor in this incursions, with Nisibis holding the key to was religion: Julian espoused the old gods advances across upper Mesopotamia: Shapur and had renounced formal adherence to besieged the city three times, bringing the Christianity when challenging Constantius. full might of Persian siege technology to Persia offered the great testing ground, where bear, but the defences held, with divine Julian could prove the rectitude of his beliefs support provided through the city's deceased and the pusillanimity of Constantius' bishop, Jacob, whose corpse was paraded policies. Preparations were made for a grand around the ramparts as a talisman. Singara, invasion in 363: Julian himself would lead an however, was captured in 360 when a newly army down the Euphrates while a second repaired section of wall was undermined, army created a diversion in northern and Bezabde also fell that year. Mesopotamia. The campaign began well, The siege of Amida (Diyarbakir) in 359, of with Julian overrunning Persian forts along which Ammianus was a fortunate survivor, the Euphrates and reaching the vicinity of illustrates the dynamics of strategic the capital Ctesiphon in spite of Persian 38 Essential Histories • Rome at War

The arch of Galerius. Thessaloniki, showing fighting supply ships which could not be hauled between Romans and Persians. (Author's collection) upstream. Treacherous guides led him astray and then Shapur, whose army had not been attempts to thwart his advance by breaching tied down effectively in the north, began to their irrigation canals. However, he now harass; Julian was mortally wounded in a realised that he had little chance of capturing skirmish, and his successor, the officer Jovian, the city, and resolved to march back up the could only extricate his army by surrendering Tigris; this entailed burning his fleet of territories to the east of the Tigris, plus The fighting 39

Eastern frontier in the fourth century

Nisibis and Singara. Bitter opposition from experienced, a fact crucial for the eastern the inhabitants of Nisibis who pleaded to Empire's survival during the fifth century. continue their battle with the Persians was There were moments of tension, and two overruled, and they were resettled in Amida. brief conflicts, but no prolonged warfare Blame for the Roman reverse was until 502. Tension persisted for a time, allocated in accordance with religious primarily over control of Armenia, but this loyalties: for pagans the heroic Julian's was settled in 387 when the Armenian success was squandered by the cowardly kingdom was suppressed and its territory Jovian, whereas for Christians Jovian's piety partitioned between Rome and Persia. In rescued the Romans from Julian's folly. The 421/2 war was provoked by the behaviour of loss of Nisibis rankled, and its recovery was Christian activists in Persia against still on the imperial agenda two centuries Zoroastrian shrines; the Christians fled west later, but the agreement of 363 ushered in and Theodosius II refused to surrender his the most prolonged period of peace which co-believers. In 440-42 conflict flared again, the Roman eastern frontier had ever this time over Roman payments for the 40 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Tne Baptistery at Nisibis with the lintels of the original position also became easier when doctrinal doors just visible. Only a year after the building's questions separated them from Roman dedication Nisibis was transferred to Persian control by Christians. Attempts were made to regulate Jovian (AD 363). (Author's collection) the transhumant Arab tribes of the frontier, construction of new fortresses was banned, defence of the Caucasus; the Romans once the defence of key fortifications in the more had the better of limited fighting. On Caucasus was accepted as a shared burden, each occasion the Romans were prompted to and trade was funnelled through specific agree peace because of Hunnic activity in the markets at Nisibis, Callinicum and Balkans, while the Persians also had Artaxata. Rome and Persia came to see distractions on their north-eastern frontier. themselves as the two lights of the world, During these years there emerged a with a mutual obligation to help each system of diplomatic arrangements, which other against disruptive and uncivilised reduced the risks of disagreements spilling outsiders. There was even a story that over into full-scale war. The rights of Emperor Arcadius appointed his Persian minority religions were recognised, which counterpart Yazdgard as guardian for his protected the Christians in Persia; their infant son Theodosius. The fighting 41

(perhaps compounded by jealousies) Khusro appeals to Emperor Maurice, unravelled the strategy and the army of Italy recalling the tradition of collaboration was defeated near Basel. But in August Julian between their states. (Theophylact 4.11.2-3) confronted the Alamanni on the right bank 'God effected that the whole world of the Rhine near Argentoratum (Strasburg): it should be illumined from the very was a hard-fought struggle. Since Ammianus beginning by two eyes, namely by the described it in reasonable detail, it is one of most powerful kingdom of the Romans the few battles in whose course and the most prudent sceptre of the can be reconstructed. Ammianus commented Persian state. For by these powers the that superior Roman discipline and training disobedient and bellicose tribes are overcame the Alamanni's advantage in winnowed and man's course is physical size, which gave their intitial charge continually regulated and guided.' such ferocity; it is also noticeable that the battle was won by the Roman infantry, whereas their cavalry, which included some heavy-armed cataphracts (suit of armour), was European frontiers in the forced to flee. fourth century After Jovian's brief reign, the brothers Valentinian and Valens shared the Empire, After Constantine's death, the crucial factor with the senior Valentinian taking charge of in the west was civil war: Constantine 11 was the Rhine and upper Danube and Valens killed while fighting Constans in 340; in 350 responsible for the lower Danube and east. Constans was overthrown by Magnentius, an On the Danube the stability established by officer on his personal staff, who then Constantine was broken, the reason, as so dispatched a rival in Rome. Constantius, after often, Roman internal conflict. The Goths' seducing the troops of another usurper in relations with Constantius had moments of Illyria, clashed with Magnentius at Mursa on tension, especially when imperially 28 351 in one of the most sponsored attempts to promote Christianity destructive battles of the century. Once provoked a backlash, but they remained Magnentius was eliminated after a further allies of the house of Constantine to the defeat in 353, the Rhine armies were again extent that when Procopius, Julian's cousin disrupted when court intrigues pushed a (and hence distant relative of Constantine) Frankish general into revolt in 354; revolted against Valens in 365, he was able finally Julian (who had been sent to Gaul in to secure help from the Tervingi, the main 355 because internal conflict had permitted confederation on the Danube. Thereafter Franks and Alamanni to breach the frontier) Valens set about disciplining these rebels, but was acclaimed Augustus at Paris in severe flooding and the Goths' ability to 360; he marched his best troops east to disappear into the swamps and mountains confront Constantius. prevented a decisive encounter. When Valens Julian's actions in Gaul are painted in rosy halted proceedings in 369, the Tervingi colours by Ammianus, whose surviving books secured better terms, which included a open with the suppression of Silvanus, a reduction in their obligation to provide daring action in which Ammianus troops for the Romans. South of the river participated. During 356 Julian campaigned Valens embarked on energetic , energetically and re-established Roman while the Tervingi returned to persecution of authority along the Rhine. In 357 an Christians. Further west Valentinian was ambitious campaign was planned to take the engaged in similar operations against the war into Alamannic territory, with the armies Alamanni, Quadi and Sarmatians, while his of Gaul and Italy operating a pincer subordinates dealt with disturbances in movement. Problems of co-ordination North Africa and Britain. 42 Essential Histories • Rome at War

LEFT BATTLE OF ARGENTORATUM Battle of Argentoratum Phase I: I Alamanni infantry in ambush; 2 Main Alamanni infantry in wedge formation; 3 Alamanni skirmishes; 4 Alamanni cavalry; 5 Roman flank guard under Severus: 6 Roman light infantry; 7 Roman front line including Cornuti and Brachiati: 8 Roman second line including Batavi and Reges; 9 Roman reserve including Primni; 10 Julian's personal guards; I I Roman cavalry; 12 Roman baggage and camp guards. Phase 2: 13 Alamanni infantry drives Roman light infantry behind front line; 14 Alamanni cavalry routs Roman cavalry on right wing; IS Alamanni ambush discovered and neutralised by Roman left wing, helped by Julian's personal guard. Phase 3: 16 Alamanni break through Roman front line, but are held by second line; 17 Julian re-forms Roman cavalry and stabilises right wing; 18 Roman left wing pursues Alamanni ambush from field; 19 Alamanni drive back Roman lines to foot of hill where camp sited; 20 Roman reserve and camp guards push Alamanni back: 21 Alamanni flee towards Rhine, pursued by Romans.

RIGHT BATTLE OF ADRIANOPLE Phase I: Roman army deploys from front line of march with cavalry on the right wing and light infantry in lead. I Gothic wagon circle defended by infantry; 2 Gothic light infantry; 3 Roman light infantry; 4 Roman cavalry on right wing (sagitatti and scutarii); 5 Roman heavy infantry; 6 Roman cavalry on left wing; 7 Roman reserves (Batavi); 8 Gothic cavalry (arriving late). Phase 2: While Goths try to delay the battle to allow their cavalry to return, the two armies come to blows. 9 Gothic infantry withdraws to laager during negotiations; 10 Sagitatti and scutarii repulsed; I I Main Roman infantry force attacks laager; 12 Part of cavalry on Roman left wing attacks laager; 13 Gothic cavalry returns, shatters Roman left wing; 14 Roman cavalry on left still forming up. Phase 3: 15 Most Roman cavalry driven from field; 16 Roman reserves withdraw; 17 Roman army trapped between Goths counterattacking from laager and Gothic cavalry.

In the 370s the position on the frontiers changed. In the west Valentinian suffered a stroke while trying to overawe a delegation of Quadi, and was succeeded by Gratian, whose military experience was limited, and the infant Valentinian II. On the lower Danube masses of Goths arrived to pester Roman officials for the right to cross and settle peacefully. Their desperation was caused by the westward movement of the Huns, who had been displaced from further east and were now approaching the Black Sea with a The fighting 43

Battle of Adrianople 44 Essential Histories • Rome at War consequent domino effect on the tribes intervene against usurpers, first in 387 and there. The most powerful Gothic group, the then in 394: the destruction of these battles, Greuthungi, who had been based between especially at the Frigidus River in 394, the Dneister and Dneiper, was destroyed and certainly weakened the Goths, but more the Tervingi were the next to be threatened: importantly they destroyed the best the might of Rome appeared less daunting elements in the western armies. When than the Hunnic scourge, and the Danube Theodosius died at in AD 395 the seemed to offer safety. Roman attempts to Empire was divided between his young sons, control the Goths, by admitting only the Arcadius in the east and Honorius in Italy. It Tervingi and removing their leaders failed, was the east which was in a much stronger but thereafter they managed to contain position, as can be seen from the the Gothic threat quite successfully by increasingly desperate legislation on exploiting control of food and by harassing recruitment and other military matters the Goths as soon as they dispersed to issued by Honorius' court over the next seek supplies. dozen or so years. In 378 it appeared that the Romans would crush the Goths as Valens returned from Antioch and Gratian marched from Ammianus reports the recognition by the the Rhine to co-operate against them. victor of Adrianople that his men could not However, Gratian's arrival was delayed attack cities (31.6.4). when the Alamanni heard about his plans 'Fritigern realised that it was pointless and decided to invade. Valens still felt for men without experience of siege- confident of defeating the Goths, and on works to fight at such a disadvantage. 9 August 378 he led his army out of camp He suggested that the siege should be at Adrianople towards the Gothic position. abandoned and a sufficient force left The Romans probably outnumbered the behind to contain the enemy. He had no Goths, but their deployment from the line quarrel, he said, with stone walls, and he of march was confused and the battle was advised them to attack and pillage in joined haphazardly, with the result that the perfect safety rich and fruitful regions Roman wings were driven back. At this which were still unguarded.' moment the Gothic cavalry, which had Ammianus (16.2.12) made the same been absent foraging, returned and the point with regard to the Alamanni. combination of their flank attacks, the 'They avoided the actual towns as if they heavy fire of Gothic archers, and the heat were tombs surrounded by nets.' of the long day gradually wore down the Roman centre. Resistance was stubborn, but two-thirds of the army, including Valens, were killed. The Huns Adrianople is often seen as the turning point for the Roman Empire, but it is The Huns began to arrive along the necessary to remember that the eastern Danube in the early fifth century, but forces survived the destruction of one of its until AD 395 their epicentre had been field armies and the Gothic victors were further east as they had raided across the successfully managed by the new eastern Caucasus. In 408/9 a Hunnic chief Uldin Emperor, Theodosius, who gave them lands crossed the lower Danube but his followers in Thrace in return for military service. They were seduced by Roman diplomacy. By were a major nuisance, but their inability to the middle of the next decade the Huns capture walled cities limited their impact. were established on the Hungarian plains, Gothic help was fully exploited when and their approach should probably be Theodosius was drawn westwards to connected with the construction of a The fighting 45

Defences at Diocletianopolis (modern Hissar. Bulgaria) The Greek historian Priscus, who served on showing the characteristic late Roman brick-banded an embassy to Attila's court, records Hunnic rubble core of city walls. (Author's collection) demands, (fr.11) 'Edeco came to court and handed massive new set of walls for Constantinople over Attila's letters, in which he blamed in 413. the Romans in respect of the fugitives. In the 420s Hunnic power expanded In retaliation he threatened to resort to through subordination of neighbouring war if the Romans did not surrender tribal groups and consolidation of them and cease cultivating the territory authority within a single ruling family, he had won, extending along the that of Rua, who was succeeded by his Danube from Pannonia to Novae in nephews, Attila and Bleda. Rua extracted Thrace; furthermore, the market in annual peace payments from the eastern Illyria was not to be by the Danube as Empire, which were 700 pounds of gold in previously, but at Naissus, which he had the 430s increasing to 2,100 pounds in laid waste and established as the border 447 (perhaps 5 per cent of total imperial between Scythian and Roman territory, revenue) at the height of Attila's power. it being five days' journey from the During the 440s Attila ravaged the northern Danube for an unladen man. He ordered Balkans, sacking cities and driving off booty that ambassadors come to him, not just to fuel Hunnic prosperity, but in 450 he ordinary men but the highest ranking of turned westwards where Honoria, sister the consulars.' of Emperor Valentinian III, offered herself in marriage. 46 Essential Histories • Rome at War The fighting 47

Hunnic power depended upon the northern and central Balkans were repeatedly personal authority of their leader, his ability crossed by Gothic groups in search of land to dominate all members of his federation. and safety, while the Romans reverted to This was achieved partly through the exercise reliance on fortifications and control of food of patronage and the disbursement of the supplies, plus the incentive of imperial rewards of military victory, but even more by military titles with their accompanying the exercise of sheer terror: Attila repeatedly salaries, to hold the balance. The Goths demonstrated that it was impossible to escape recognised the Roman strategy of playing off his grasp, and potential rivals were painfully different groups, and on occasions tried to killed. As a result the Romans could not counteract this, but the incompatible operate their traditional diplomatic strategy ambitions of Gothic leaders played into of divide and subvert: they were required to Roman hands. Only the opportune death of hand back Huns, who were probably refugees one powerful leader permitted his main rival from Attila's power, and so were denied the Theoderic the Amal to unite most of the chance to cultivate alternative leaders. Attila Balkan Goths into an army whose strength was also a skilled diplomat, with a wide was such that the Emperor Zeno knowledge of the international scene: he commissioned them to invade Italy and knew the invasion routes into Persia, timed reassert imperial control there. his attacks on the Balkans to coincide with an eastern military expedition to Africa, and exploited tensions between Goths, Franks Two Gothic leaders (Theoderic Strabo - son and Romans in the west; his reception of of Triarius - and Theoderic the Amal) Roman envoys was a masterful reproach each other for playing into Roman demonstration of psychological pressure. As hands. (Malchus, fr. 18.2.30-38) his federation expanded he came to control 'But the son of Triarius kept riding up vast military resources, which it was in his to the other's camp, insulting and interest to exploit. His armies, spearheaded reproaching him and calling him a by Hunnic cavalry, were capable of rapid swearer of useless oaths, a child and a movement to anticipate defences, while the madman, an enemy and betrayer of his masses of expendable subordinates could be own race, who did not know the thrown at Roman walls to supplement the Romans' mind or recognise their Huns' considerable skill at siegecraft. The intentions. "For they remain at peace, threat was such that Constantinople was while the Goths wear each other down. provided with a further set of fortifications, Whichever of us loses, they will be the the Long Walls, which stretched from the winners without effort."' Sea of Marmara to the Black Sea. Salvation for the Romans lay in the fact that the Hunnic federation could not stand still: military success and booty were regular Loss of the west requirements, and any interruption created tensions within the international In 395 the young Honorius succeeded conglomeration. Attila's attacks on the west Theodosius, but the west was controlled by produced only limited success, and this jolt Stilicho, a general of Vandal descent. Stilicho was compounded by his death: his sons claimed that the dying Theodosius had also fought over the succession, and subordinate instructed him to protect the eastern emperor tribes rebelled: in 454 the Gepids and then Arcadius, and that two Balkan provinces the future Ostrogoths, Lombards, Heruls plus should be transferred to western authority. others emerged from the shadow of Hunnic This rivalry drew Stilicho into Balkan affairs, control to confront the Romans along the where imperial competition permitted the Danube frontier. For the next generation the Goths (who had been weakened bv casualties Essential Histories • Rome at War

Edict of Arcadius and Honorius addressed to the provincials (February 406) pleads for more recruits (Theodosian Code 7.3.17). 'On account of our pressing necessities, by this edict we summon to military service all men who are aroused by the innate spirit of freedom. Freeborn persons, therefore, who take arms under the auspices of the country shall know that they will receive 10 solidi each from our imperial treasury when affairs have been adjusted.'

(who had abandoned Milan for the greater security of Ravenna), established his own emperor, and on 24 August 410 captured Rome. This brief sack of Rome was of symbolic significance; of greater importance were Honorius' imperial rivals in Gaul and Spain whose ambitions permitted the invading tribes to exploit Roman divisions. Honorius had already demonstrated his inability to protect his subjects in his desperate military legislation of the previous decade. Inevitably local protectors appeared who had to exploit the available military manpower, which was often roaming tribal bands: incompatible Ivory plaque depicting Stilicho as defender of the state. objectives emerged, with the policy of (Ancient Art and Architecture) crushing invaders at odds with a desire to preserve their manpower for future use. in Theodosius' service) to demand a better Alaric died while trying to reach Africa, deal. Alaric, a Gothic commander under and his followers, whom it is now convenient Theodosius, emerged as leader of a force to call Visigoths (west Goths), moved to capable of withstanding an imperial army, but Spain where they helped to subdue the he still struggled to secure lasting benefits: Sueves and Vandals. In 418 they eventually success only came after other tribal groups settled in the Garonne valley in south-west breached the western frontiers. Gaul, where Honorius granted them estates On 31 December, 406 Vandals, Alans and with their revenues; in return they were to Sueves swarmed across the Rhine, triggering campaign for Honorius, who sent them back the proclamation of local commanders as to Spain. Theoderic (417-51) gave essential emperors. Stilicho's authority crumbled, and stability: he challenged the Romans in his family - which had been trying to marry southern Gaul whenever they seemed weak, into the imperial house - was eliminated; and expanded his power in Spain by building with it disappeared the main Roman army in links with the Sueves, while appearing northern Italy, since many of Stilicho's co-operative when it suited his interests. Gothic troops chose to join Alaric. Alaric One consequence of Visigothic failed to obtain concessions from Honorius involvement in Spain was the Vandal crossing The fighting 49 to Africa, although the precise cause was, daughter (Galla Placidia - the widow of naturally, internal Roman conflict: Boniface, Athaulf), but died in 421. At Honorius' death governor of Africa, invited the Vandals to help in 423, Constantius' widow appealed to him to resist pressure from rivals at Ravenna. Constantinople on behalf of her infant son, The Vandals' arrival in 429 condemned the Valentinian while a usurper at Ravenna western Empire: within a decade they had sought help from the Huns. Valentinian III taken over the north African provinces, was installed in 425, but the dispute brought captured Carthage (in 439) and withstood the Huns into western empire affairs. eastern empire attempts to repulse them. North Aetius emerged as the new patrician. His Africa was the most prosperous part of the greatest achievements were in Gaul, where west, and its wealth had escaped the impact of he contained the Visigoths - often with help tribal invasion; its loss decisively reduced the from the Huns whom he also used to crush resources on which emperors at Ravenna could the Burgundians. Aetius had been a hostage call and, to compound the problem, the with the Huns and so was well connected, Vandals used Roman ships at Carthage to but the culmination of his successes was the dominate Sicily and Sardinia and to ravage repulse of Attila's invasion in 451 at the Italy; they sacked Rome in 455, a much more battle of the Catalaunian plains, with the destructive event than Alaric's entry in 410. help of an improbable coalition of Franks, From the Roman perspective the priorities Burgundians and Visigoths (whose king were to restore battered imperial authority, Theoderic died heroically). When Attila stabilise the tribal groups, and then gradually turned to northern Italy in 452, Aetius could weaken their independence. In the latter part not prevent the loss of northern cities of his reign Honorius relied on the general including Aquileia. He could harass the Huns Constantius, who was granted the title of but without bringing the Visigoths across the patrician, which thereafter became the he dared not attack directly - instead designation for the senior western commander. Constantius married Honorius' The King of the Visigoths marries a captured imperial princess in 414 in a The Gallic chronicler Hydatius describes the ceremony intended to signal a loss of Spain (Chronicle, 17). rapprochement between Romans and Goths 'When the province of Spain had been (Olympiodorus, 24). laid waste by the destructive progress of 'Athaulf married Placidia at the disasters just described, the Lord in his beginning of January in the city of compassion turned the barbarians to the Narbo at the house of , one of establishment of peace. They then the leading locals. There Placidia, dressed apportioned to themselves by lot areas of in royal raiment, sat in a hall decorated the provinces for settlements: the Vandals in Roman fashion, and Athaulf sat by took possession of Gallaecia and the her side, wearing a Roman general's Sueves that part of Gallaecia which is cloak and other Roman clothing. Amidst situated on the very western edge of the the celebrations, along with other Ocean. The Alans were allotted the wedding gifts Athaulf gave Placidia 50 provinces of Lusitania and handsome young men dressed in silk Carthaginiensis, and the Siling Vandals clothes... Then nuptial hymns were Baetica. The Spaniards in the cities and sung, first by Attalus, then by Rusticius forts who survived the disasters and Phoebadius. Then the ceremonies surrendered themselves to servitude under were completed amidst rejoicings and the barbarians, who held sway celebrations by both the barbarians and throughout the provinces.' the Romans amongst them.'

The fighting 5 I

Pope Leo was deployed to encourage Attila Mosaic in S. Apollinare Nuovo. Ravenna, depicting the to leave. palace of Theoderic. (Ancient Art and Architecture) Like Stilicho and Constantius before him, Aetius schemed to link his family to the emperor by marriage, but this contributed to An appreciative assessment by a Latin his downfall. In September 454 Valentinian author of Theoderic the Ostrogoth's regime personally assassinated Aetius, only for in Italy (Anonymus Valesianus 59-60). Aetius' bodyguards to take revenge in March 'Theoderic was a man of great 455. For the next two decades control was distinction and of good-will towards all contested between the different power blocks men, and he ruled for 33 years. Italy for with interests in the western state: the 30 years enjoyed such good fortune that Visigoths, Vandals, the eastern Empire and his successors inherited peace, for the Italian army under the patrician Ricimer, whatever he did was good. He so backed a rapid succession of rulers. The governed two races, Romans and Goths, problems are illustrated by the reign of that although he was an Arian, he Majorian (457-61), Ricimer's appointee, who nevertheless did not attack the Catholic curbed Vandal raiding in central Italy and religion; he gave games in the circus and reasserted Roman authority in Gaul and amphitheatre, so that even by Romans Spain; he appears to have been too successful he was called Trajan or Valentinian, for when an attack on Africa was foiled, whose times he took as a model; and by Ricimer had him executed. the Goths, because of his edict in which One final attempt to crush the Vandals he established justice, he was judged in and restore western resources was made in all respects to be their best king.' 468 when a massive naval expedition was 52 Essential Histories • Rome at War sent from Constantinople, but this was various fortresses and finally, after a fierce thwarted by Vandal fireships. Failure was siege, Amida. The origins of the outbreak lay ruinous for the eastern state - which spent much further east in Persian dealings with 64,000 pounds of gold (more than a year's the Hephthalites of central Asia, who had revenue) - and fatal for the western state: in helped Kavadh regain his throne; they were 476, after a rapid turnover of rulers, the now demanding subsidies and Kavadh asked army of Italy under Odoacer deposed the the Romans for financial help but the young Romulus, who was derisively eastern emperor Anastasius refused, perhaps nicknamed Augustulus ('little Augustus'), reviving the issue of Persian control of and returned the imperial insignia to Nisibis or perhaps just reluctant to build up Constantinople. Odoacer controlled Italy Persian strength. until Theoderic the Amal took Ravenna in The Roman response was slow since 491 and established the 'Ostrogothic' (east Bulgar Huns were ravaging the Balkans in Goth) kingdom. Theoderic in his long 502, but the position slowly stabilised, in reign (491-526) created a successful spite of dissension between Roman Romano-Gothic realm during which commanders; by 505 Kavadh was distracted Italy prospered and a ruler at Ravenna by another Hephthalite invasion and secured considerable power in southern agreed a truce for seven years. Anastasius Gaul and Spain and intermittent influence interrogated his generals about their in Vandal Africa. problems, and the lack of a secure base near the frontier was identified as a key. Therefore a site was chosen at Dara and construction Sixth-century wars of a massive new fortress was undertaken; financial responsibility was entrusted to While the western Empire floundered Bishop Thomas of Amida. By 507 he had towards disintegration, the eastern Empire raised the walls to a sufficient height to prospered, in spite of repeated destruction in disregard Persian protests that the Romans the Balkans, since the eastern frontier was had breached the agreement to ban new quiet and the rich provinces of Asia Minor, frontier fortifications. Syria and Egypt generated surpluses. Eastern In spite of this tension the truce persisted rulers attempted to help the west, especially for a further 20 years, although competition in the struggle against the Vandals, whose maritime raiding threatened to affect the eastern Mediterranean, but to no avail. The southern watergate at Dara showing the full height of the wall (the upper half has now fallen), part of a Conflict resumed with Persia in 502 when tower and the arches of a bridge over the stream. King Kavadh invaded Armenia, capturing (The Bell Collection, University of Newcastle.) The fighting 53

between the two superpowers of the ancient The southern Watergate at Dara. from inside the city, world continued on the fringes of their showing the two stages of the construction of the spheres of influence, in sub-Caucasia and circuit wall. The first stage. 30 feet (10 m) high, was constructed by Anastasius, while the thinner arcaded Arabia where religious factors exacerbated superstructure is Justinianic. (The Bell Collection, tensions. But the occasion for renewed University of Newcastle.) conflict in 527 came from an incident which reflected the continuing strength of the fifth- century traditions of peaceful co-operation: the elderly Kavadh asked Emperor Justin to An example of the international links adopt his son Khusro and so guarantee his constructed by Theoderic, who here writes succession in a mirror image of Arcadius' to the Burgundian king to accompany the appeal to Yazdgard over a century before; gift of a clock and urge the benefits of Justin was persuaded that full adoption 'civilisation'. (Cassiodorus, Variae 1.46) might compromise the Roman succession 'Therefore I greet you with my usual and so offered Khusro a lesser form of friendship, and have decided to send adoption. you by the bearers of this letter the The war began badly for the Romans with time-pieces with their operators, to reverses in Armenia and upper Mesopotamia, give pleasure to your intelligence ... but Justinian, who succeeded his uncle in Possess in your native country what autumn 527, reorganised eastern defences by you once saw in Rome. It is proper that creating a new military command for your friendship should enjoy my gifts, Armenia, initiating major defensive works at since it is also joined to me by ties of key sites, and appointed a new general for the kinship. Under your rule let Burgundy eastern command, Belisarius. (Procopius, the learn to scrutinise devices of highest main historian for Justinian's wars, joined ingenuity and to praise the inventions Belisarius' staff). In 530 the Persians were of the ancients. Through you it lays defeated in Armenia and Belisarius overcame aside its tribal way of life and, in its the Persian army outside his base of Dara, but regard for the wisdom of its king, it these victories were offset in 531 when properly covets the achievements of Belisarius was defeated at Callinicum on the the sages.' Euphrates. Justinian's main concern 54 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Eastern campaigns in the sixth century and Heraclius' campaigns against the Persians

throughout had been to stabilise the situation The Vandals came first: they were the on the eastern frontier, and negotiations were more obnoxious to eastern Christians now pursued to achieve the Endless Peace to because some mutilated refugees from their which the new Persian king Khusro agreed in intermittent persecutions had reached 532: Justinian paid 11,000 pounds of gold, Constantinople. There had been two eastern and agreed to withdraw the Roman expeditions against them during the fifth commander and his troops from Dara. century, and the prospects for diplomacy From the start of his uncle's reign in 518 were better in Ostrogothic Italy. In 533 an Justinian had been interested in western expedition sailed in 500 transports escorted affairs and had rapidly rebuilt links between by 92 warships and comprised 15,000 the Eastern Church and the at Rome. Roman soldiers, 1,000 foreign allies and This caused strain in Ostrogothic Italy where Belisarius' retainers, his bucellarii. The the Goths, in spite of their heretical status, Vandal king, Gelimer, was distracted by had sustained good relations with the papacy rebellion on Sardinia whereas Belisarius because of tensions between Rome and received help with supplies from the Constantinople. The death of Theoderic the Ostrogoths in Sicily, and the Romans landed Amal in 526 and the struggle of his daughter without encountering the Vandal fleet. Amalasuintha to retain the throne for her Belisarius advanced on Carthage, defeated a son Athalaric upset the international scratch army raised by Gelimer, and captured balances which had developed in the west the city; later that year, when their troops during the previous generation. Peace with had returned from Sardinia, the Vandals Persia provided Justinian with the attempted to recapture Carthage but they opportunity to advance his grand idea. were heavily defeated just outside the walls. The fighting 55

Justinianic defences at Martyropolis (modern Silvan, Vitigis, who moved to besiege Rome in Turkey) built when the city became the base for the February 537; in spite of shortages of troops new general of Armenia. (Author's collection) and supplies Belisarius defended the massive circuit, and gradually harried the besiegers so Justinian reorganised the province, restoring that they were suffering as much as the urban fortifications which the Vandals had defenders when the siege was ended in slighted, reconstituted frontier defences, and winter 537/8. The arrival of reinforcements returned property to the Catholic Church. permitted Belisarius to take the offensive and Belisarius sailed to Constantinople with he secured Liguria, Milan and Rimini, but several thousand Vandal captives, who were disagreements between Roman commanders, enrolled in the eastern armies, and was especially those involving Narses, who did permitted to celebrate a triumph, the first not recognise Belisarius' seniority, led to non-imperial triumph for over 500 years. disaster when an invading army of An opportunity now presented itself in Burgundians sacked Milan; allegedly Italy where Athalaric had died and 300,000 of its male inhabitants were Amalasuintha, imprisoned by her cousin massacred. Narses was recalled to Theodahad, was killed. Justinian protested, Constantinople, and in 539 Belisarius drove and sent expeditions to Dalmatia and Sicily. the Goths out of all Italy south of the Po Negotiations with Theodahad about valley and began to close on Ravenna, accepting Roman suzerainty broke down, whose surrender was negotiated in 540. and Belisarius was ordered to invade Italy, So far the reconquest had been a even though he had been sent to Sicily with spectacular success since with limited forces only 7,000 Roman soldiers, 500 allies and his the eastern Romans had eliminated two bucellarii: he captured Naples by siege - powerful western kingdoms, in spite of the although some inhabitants supported the distraction of regular incursions into the Goths - and then marched into Rome from Balkans by Bulgars and Slavs, and of which the garrison had withdrawn. problems with mutinies and raiding Moors Theodahad had now been replaced by in Africa. The key was peace in the east, but 56 Essential Histories • Rome at War

The walls at Edessa (Urfa.Turkey) which withstood in defended cities until mobile units were three Persian sieges during the sixth century. sent from Constantinople. (Author's collection) In 541 Khusro switched his attention to Lazica in the north, while Belisarius, who in 539 this was breaking down at the time had been recalled from Italy to handle the Khusro, perhaps already jealous of Justinian's situation, raided into upper Mesopotamia. In western victories, received an embassy from 542 Khusro intended to move on , Vitigis urging him to act before Justinian but was dissuaded by improvements in became too powerful. A quarrel over grazing Belisarius' army. Another factor may have rights between allied Arabs gave Khusro an been bubonic plague, which was raging in excuse to attack, and in 540 he marched up the Roman Empire. In 543 plague halted the Euphrates to seek booty or protection Persian moves in the north, but in 544 money: cities on his route were stormed or Khusro returned to Mesopotamia with the intimidated into buying protection, and specific target of Edessa. Religion appears to Antioch was captured after a fierce siege; it have been the main cause, because Edessa was systematically ransacked to the extent was believed to have received a guarantee of that marbles and mosaics were transported protection from Christ in the form of a letter to Persia, while the surviving inhabitants which was engraved over the city gates. were marched off to found a city of New Khusro therefore deployed all the resources Antioch near Ctesiphon. During his return of Persian siege technology, only to be to Persia more cities were pillaged or coerced thwarted, and the story emerged that his into buying safety. Khusro's successes are great siege mound had been destroyed often cited as proof that Justinian neglected through the intervention of a miraculous military matters, but the truth is that, icon of Christ - the start of the fame of the although Roman defences were in a Mandylion of Edessa, the future Shroud of reasonable state, scattered garrisons had no Turin. In 545 Khusro agreed a truce for five chance of opposing a Persian royal army; years, in return for 5,000 pounds of gold and there was little to be done except to hold out the provision that operations could continue The fighting 57

The Greek historian Menander records the agreements had been entered in ratification of peace with Persia in 561/2 the records they were compared to (fr.6.1.304-19). establish the identity of their contents 'When these and other matters had and wording. been thoroughly debated, the 50-year The first clause was written that treaty was recorded in Persian and in through the pass at the place called Tzon Greek, and the Greek was translated into and the Caspian Gates the Persians Persian speech and the Persian into should not admit either Huns or Alans Greek. Those of the Romans who ratified or other barbarians to gain access to the the concordats were Peter the Master of Roman realm, and that the Romans Offices and Eusebius and others, while of should not in that region or in other the Persians Yazdgusnasp the Zikh and parts of the Median frontier send an Surenas and others. When each side's army against the Persians.' in Lazica; the truce was extended in 551 and they chose a new leader. Totila proved to again in 557 before a peace agreement for be a dynamic commander: Roman forces 50 years was signed in 561/2. The treaty initially outnumbered him, but these were contained very detailed provisions about dispersed and their individual commanders frontier relations, as well as a guarantee from failed to co-ordinate their actions. As a Khusro that he would not persecute his result Totila recovered much of southern Christian subjects. Italy in 542 and starved Naples into In Italy the Roman position soon submission in 543. Belisarius returned in deteriorated. The Goths believed that

Belisarius had tricked them into surrender Mosaic of Justinian accompanied by Bishop Maximian, by appearing to agree to become their ruler civilian dignitaries and bodyguards. From S.Vitale. and so, although they had lost Ravenna, Ravenna. (Ancient Art and Architecture) 58 Essential Histories • Rome at War

544 to confront the crisis, with 4,000 new One criticism of Justinian's grand recruits but little money, but he was unable reconquest is that it overstretched east Roman to engage the Goths. Totila captured Rome resources, so that his successors struggled to in 546 and, though Belisarius recaptured it cope with the various challenges of the late the next year, his lack of resources led him sixth century. If hindsight makes this to request a recall. When Totila regained apparent, the contemporary perspective needs Rome in 550 and threatened Sicily, to be remembered: Justinian pacified the east Justinian was eventually prompted to act. to the best of his ability before embarking on Narses was sent to end the war, having his western ambitions and, even though demanded the resources which he deemed Khusro broke the peace agreement, the necessary. In 552 and 553 he twice defeated frontier was again stabilised after the losses of the Goths; he then had to deal with a 540; bubonic plague exacerbated Roman horde of Franks and Alamanni who had problems, but the prosperity of Africa in the taken the opportunity to invade Italy, but late sixth century illustrates that peace could in 554 peninsular Italy was firmly under have brought long-term dividends. Roman control and at peace. Narses was left in charge of the reorganisation of the Fortifications at Dara showing main horseshoe towers country with combined civilian and and smaller intermediate square towers.The citadel is military authority. visible in the middle distance. (Author's collection) The fighting 59

Invasion of the Balkans in the sixth century

Justinian's successors about Roman dignity: he dismissed Avar requests for subsidies and then provoked war Unfortunately a new threat emerged in the with Persia. His bellicose behaviour was not late 550s, when Avar envoys contacted the complete folly, since he believed that the Roman commander in the Caucasus. Like the Turks in central Asia would co-operate by Huns, the Avars were the former elite of a attacking the Persians on their north-eastern central Asian federation who had been forced frontier, and a revolt of the Christian to flee westwards, and they shared the Huns' aristocracy of Persian Armenia suggested that grand ambitions and ruthless purpose. Once Khusro had further distractions: Justin they occupied the Hungarian plain the asserted that he could not abandon his Balkans, a military backwater under Justinian, co-believers and refused to make the annual became a serious problem again; the threat of payments agreed under the 50-year peace. Avar domination prompted the Lombards to Justin's ambitions were not matched by migrate to Italy where they overran Roman action and in 573 the Persians captured Dara positions in the Po valley. Justin II, who had after a six-month siege: the shock sent Justin succeeded his uncle in 565, had grand ideas mad, and the Romans were compelled to 60 Essential Histories • Rome at War

seek a truce. In 576 Khusro campaigned into homeland on the Hungarian plains. But Armenia, but failed to take any cities and constant fighting gradually took its toll, and was outmanoeuvred in the mountains; the in 602 the army, already discontented over royal baggage was captured and many changes to military pay (which reduced the Persians were drowned when escaping across cost of equipment and horses) mutinied the Euphrates. Thereafter the Romans when it was ordered to stay north of the generally contained Persian attacks while Danube for winter campaigning. A march on ravaging their territories so that Khusro and Constantinople toppled Maurice and his successor Hormizd (578-90) were installed the officer Phocas in his place. prompted to pursue negotiations. These, Phocas' accession would inevitably have however, foundered on the Roman insistence reduced the intensity of Roman activity in on recovering Dara and peace was only the Balkans, but it had more serious restored in 591: Hormizd was overthrown consequences: Khusro II seized the excuse following disagreements with his leading provided by the overthrow of his protector, general Vahram, and his son Khusro II fled Maurice, to attack the Romans in order to to the Romans when Vahram approached recover the possessions and prestige he had Ctesiphon to beg for help. The Romans lost in 591. During Phocas' reign (602-10) restored him to power, in return for the Persians gradually captured the Roman concessions in the sub-Caucasian positions east of the Euphrates, often after principalities and the restoration of Dara and prolonged sieges. In 609/10 Heraclius, the other places captured in the war. son of the governor of Africa, revolted Eastern campaigns traditionally took against Phocas, whose regime in precedence over other theatres for the Constantinople had become increasingly Romans, and during the 570s and 580s the unpopular and violent; the distraction of Balkans and Italy were neglected: the main civil war once more proved the Romans' impediment to Lombard progress were their undoing. Heraclius captured Constantinople own disputes, while in the Balkans Tiberius in 610, but was not fully in control of the had few troops with which to repel the Avars east until 611/12, by which time the Persians when they turned their attentions south in had pushed on to Antioch and Caesarea 579. For the next decade the Romans had to () in . rely on increased peace payments and urban Heraclius was no more successful than defences, which the Avars - like the Huns Phocas in stemming their advance: in 614 before - captured. In the early 580s Slav Jerusalem fell to a Persian siege, its bands pushed south - partly in conjunction inhabitants and the relics of Christ's passion with the Avars and partly to escape their being taken into Babylonian captivity; Egypt domination - ravaging Athens and Corinth, was invaded in 616 and captured completely approaching the Long Walls of in 619, depriving Constantinople of its food Constantinople in 584, and attacking supply and the Empire of its richest Thessalonica in 586. province. In 622 Heraclius in desperation Maurice, who succeeded Tiberius in 582, 'borrowed' the wealth of the could do little until the eastern peace Constantinopolitan Church and embarked permitted him to transfer troops. Thereafter on a series of campaigns which assumed the he embarked on an energetic series of aspect of a crusade: Khusro II, who had campaigns which gradually stabilised the flirted with conversion to Christianity in Danube frontier from the Delta to 590/1, now showed himself to be an Singidunum (Belgrade) and permitted the intelligent enemy of the orthodox, since he Romans to reassert their authority in the favoured the Jews and tolerated heretical and interior. The war was carried north of the dissident Christian groups. At least Heraclius river, first in attacks on the Slavs across the could legitimately present himself as lower Danube and then into the Avar defender of the faith. Heraclius abandoned The fighting 61 attempts to defend Roman territory and instead took the war into Persia, basing This message from Heraclius announcing himself in Armenia and the sub-Caucasian the overthrow of Khusro II was read out in principalities, ravaging Azerbaijan, and the Church of S. Sophia at Constantinople avoiding the Persian armies which attempted (Chronicon Pashale p.728). to trap him. 'Let all the earth raise a cry to God; War in the east had again led to neglect of serve the Lord in gladness, enter into the Balkans, and in the first quarter of the his presence in exultation, and seventh century Slavs and Avars took control recognise that God is Lord indeed. It is of much of the north and the centre. he who has made us and not we Heraclius had no troops to oppose their ourselves. We are his people and sheep advance, and he had come close to capture of his pasture. himself in 623 when organising a diplomatic And let all we Christians, praising reception for the Avar Chagan near the Sea and glorifying, give thanks to the one of Marmara: apparently Heraclius was forced God, rejoicing with great joy in his holy to scamper back to Constantinople with his name. For fallen is the arrogant crown under his arm. Escalating peace Chosroes, opponent of God. He is fallen payments were the only solution, but these and cast down to the depths of the did not work in the face of growing Roman earth, and his memory is utterly weakness. In 626 the Avars besieged exterminated from earth; he who was Thessalonica and then turned their attention exalted and spoke injustice in arrogance to Constantinople, which was subjected to and contempt against our Lord Jesus fierce bombardment by massed siege engines Christ the true God and his undefiled and waves of Slav attackers. A Persian army Mother, our blessed Lady, Mother of encamped on the Bosporus liaised with the God and ever-Virgin Mary, perished is Chagan, and an attempt was made to ferry the profaner with a resounding noise.' Persian soldiers to reinforce the assault, but their crossing was disrupted by the . Roman ships were also instrumental in central Persia led to a palace coup against breaking up a Slav attack across the Golden Khusro, with his son agreeing to peace with Horn, and the Avar Chagan was forced to Heraclius in return for support. This ushered withdraw with his prestige badly dented; in a period of extreme instability at the stories soon emerged about the divine Persian court with a succession of short-lived protection which the Virgin Mary gave the rulers, including a Christian general in city which housed several of her relics. Khusro's service. From this chaos Heraclius Heraclius had declined to return to extracted the return of Roman territories and protect his capital, and his decision to focus the spoils taken from Jerusalem, including on the eastern war was justified. First, with the relic of the Holy Cross, which Heraclius the assistance of Turkish allies he ravaged reinstalled in its rightful place in a grand Persian territory extensively and then, after ceremony at Easter 630. The Roman world the Turks withdrew beyond the Caucasus, he appeared to have been put to rights and a defeated the Persians in battle outside period of consolidation and recovery could Nineveh in December 627. The threat to begin. Portraits of soldiers Brothers in arms

Abbinaeus, commander of Alaric, Roman officer and tribal provincial garrison warlord

Flavius Abbinaeus joined the army in Alaric was born in about 370 into the Balthi, a 304/5 and served for 33 years in the leading family among the Gothic Tervingi. As a contingent of 'Parthian Archers' based in youth he probably participated in the Danube middle Egypt; this was a mounted unit crossing of 376 and observed the subsequent whose name indicates that it was originally encounters with imperial forces; at some stage raised for service on the eastern frontier, or he became an Arian Christian, the standard from captives taken on that frontier, but creed among the Goths. By the early 390s he which was later recruited in the normal way had emerged as leader of a warband in the from Roman provincials. In 337/8 Balkans who opposed Emperor Theodosius, but Abbinaeus, now a non-commissioned in 394 he commanded tribal allies in officer, escorted an embassy of Blemmyes Theodosius' expedition against the western (tribesmen from the southern Egyptian usurper Eugenius. Disenchanted by inadequate border) to Constantinople, where he was recompense for his contribution to victory at promoted to protector by Constantius, a the Frigidus River and the heavy casualties step which included the honour of being suffered by his followers, he proceeded to allowed to kiss the purple imperial robe. ravage the central and southern Balkans, Protectors operated as a group of junior staff taking advantage of tensions between Rome officers who undertook a variety of imperial and Constantinople. By 399 he had secured business, and Abbinaeus was detailed to one major wish, the senior Roman command escort the embassy home; after three years of General of IHyricum, which provided him among the Blemmyes, Abbinaeus returned with salaries and provisions for his followers. to Constantius, who was then in Syria, In 401 he invaded Italy and besieged the and received promotion to command the western emperor Honorius in Milan, but was cavalry squadron at Dionysias. defeated by the western generalissimo Stilicho; Back in Egypt Abbinaeus faced he was forced to withdraw to the Balkans as his competition for this position since others men suffered from heat and poor food. He also had secured letters of appointment remained in the north-eastern Balkans, through patronage. Abbinaeus appealed to attempting to secure a permanent territory, Constantius and had his post confirmed, until 407 when he was appointed general by but in 344 he was dismissed by the local Honorius as part of a western attempt to annex Count; his position was ratified on appeal. the Balkans. The planned campaign was He then remained in office until after 351. cancelled, relations between Alaric and The desirability of Abbinaeus' command is Honorius deteriorated, and Alaric invaded Italy revealed by a collection of papyri which again to secure payment for his contracted illustrate the vicissitudes of his career, the services. While negotiating with Honorius at interaction of his troops with the local Ravenna about territory, alliance, and population, and his soldiers' close payments of gold and corn, Alaric besieged involvement in the maintenance of law Rome. Honorius procrastinated, but in 409 the and order and the extraction of imperial threat of starvation forced the senate at Rome revenues from their district. to agree terms; Alaric had the senator Attalus Portraits of soldiers 63 proclaimed emperor and Attalus appointed the Visigothic kingdom was established in Alaric as senior Roman general. Aquitania. Tensions between Attalus and Alaric, plus further unsuccessful negotiations with Honorius, resulted in Alaric returning to Theoderic, Ostrogothic king Rome, which was easily captured on 24 August 410. Occupation of the city for three days may Theoderic was born in the mid-fifth century have relieved Alaric's frustrations, but did not into the Amal family which led one of the satisfy his followers' needs for territory. Gothic groups in the northern Balkans. In Thereafter he led his forces south, with North 461/2 he was sent as hostage to Africa as his probable goal, but was thwarted Constantinople, where he remained for while trying to cross to Sicily; as he withdrew 10 years, receiving his education. After northwards he became ill and died. His succeeding his father in 474, he spent brother-in-law Athaulf took over the army, 15 years attempting to establish a base for which he led into southern Gaul in 412 where his people in the Balkans, either through negotiation with or intimidation of the eastern emperor Zeno. Theoderic's successes Theodoric's mausoleum at Ravenna. Constructed from Istrian marble, with the dome formed from a single block were marked by appointments as Roman weighing 300 tons, this projected Theoderic's ambition to general in 476/8 and again 483-87, when create a lasting regime. (Ancient Art and Architecture) Zeno employed him against other tribesmen 64 Essential Histories • Rome at War

in the Balkans as well as Isaurian rebels in Theoderic's 33-year reign (493-526) came the east. Rebuffs resulted in the sacking of to be regarded as a golden age in Italy, cities, such as Stobi in 479, or the ravaging especially in contrast to the fighting of the of provinces, for example Macedonia and , and his first two decades were highly Thessaly in 482. successful. Marital diplomacy built links with the main tribal groups in the west, and from 507 brought the Visigothic kingdom in Spain Theoderic writes to Emperor Anastasius under his control. The senate and Pope at protesting his loyalty; the letter illustrates a Rome were courted by special treatment and tribal warlord's attachment to the ideal of the carefully crafted Roman image of the Rome (Cassiodorus, Variae 1.1). new regime; religious divisions between 'Our royalty is an imitation of yours, Rome and Constantinople facilitated this modelled on your good purpose, a copy rapprochement. For Goths Theoderic of the only Empire; and in so far as we remained the war leader, but this was now follow you do we excel all other nations. only one facet of his complex public image. Often you have exhorted me to love the Theoderic's last decade was less rosy. The senate, to accept cordially the laws of absence of a son, and the early death of his past emperors, to join together in one son-in-law raised the issue of succession, all the members of Italy. How can you while Anastasius' death in 518 brought separate from your august alliance one religious reconciliation between Rome and whose character you thus try to make Constantinople and so made Theoderic more conformable to your own? There is suspicious of leading Romans. Theoderic's moreover that noble sentiment, love for death in 526 rapidly brought to the surface the city of Rome, from which two the tensions within his kingdom, which princes, both of whom govern in her Belisarius' invasion was to exploit. name, should never be disjoined.' Narses, imperial eunuch and The death of his main Gothic rival, trusted general Theoderic Strabo, in 481 allowed Theoderic to unite most Balkan Goths under Amal The eunuch Narses originated from the Persian leadership, but he was still unable to achieve part of Armenia but was brought up in the his main goal of acquiring a secure and palace at Constantinople in the late fifth productive territory. In 488 Zeno agreed that century. He advanced through the grades of Theoderic should move to Italy to attack servants of the Bedchamber, reaching the Odoacer (who had ruled since deposing the position of treasurer and senior official in last western emperor in 476): if successful, 530/1; in this capacity he provided money to Theoderic could rule on behalf of Zeno. Persarmenian deserters, and travelled to the Theoderic forced Odoacer back into east to secure valuable booty. In 531/2 he Ravenna; after three years of blockade the became imperial sword-bearer, and on rivals agreed to share power, but Theoderic 18 January 532 his distribution of bribes was soon accused Odoacer of treachery and had crucial in undermining the cohesion of rioters him killed. Zeno's death in 491 complicated in Constantinople whose violence was Theoderic's position, but in 497 Emperor threatening to topple Emperor Justinian. In Anastasius recognised him as ruler of Italy; 535 he undertook another delicate mission, to his Gothic followers Theoderic was king, this time for Empress Theodora, to reinstate even sometimes Augustus (emperor), the Bishop Theodosius at Alexandria and exile his status to which he clearly aspired, although opponents; for over a year Xarses remained in he was careful to protest his subservience in Alexandria, conducting a virtual civil war dealings with Constantinople. against Theodosius' opponents. Portraits of soldiers 65

The Barberini ivory probably showing Emperor Justinian. reinforcements to Belisarius in Italy. Narses Above Christ blesses the emperor who is honoured by a criticised Belisarius' conduct, and their victory to his left while a defeated easterner stands behind his spear and other easterners offer gifts below. rivalry led to the loss of Milan. Narses was To one side a general offers a statue of victory and recalled to Constantinople, to be followed by Earth displays her bounty beneath the horse's hooves. the allied contingent of Heruls, who refused (AKG London/Erich Lessing) to remain without him. In 541/2 Narses was again employed on sensitive business, first to In 538, at nearly 60 years old, Narses spy on an alleged plot that involved embarked on what was to prove a highly Justinian's senior financial minister and then successful military career by leading to investigate unrest in Constantinople. In 66 Essential Histories • Rome at War

545 his contacts among the Heruls were Shahvaraz, Persian general exploited to persuade their leaders to enrol and usurper for service in Italy. Narses' big chance came in 551, after Farrukhan was a Persian Christian, nicknamed Belisarius had failed to stabilise the military Shahvaraz, 'wild boar', by King Khusro II for position in Italy and Justinian's first choice as his energy in attacking the Romans. In 614 he replacement (his nephew Germanus) had died. overran Palestine and captured Jerusalem after Narses was now appointed supreme a bloody siege; he dispatched the surviving commander in Italy, a post he accepted on Christian population into captivity in condition that he was provided with the men Babylonia, along with the relic of the True and money needed to finish the war. Assembly Cross, although other lesser relics such as the of troops and other preparations detained Holy Sponge and Lance were presented to Narses in the Balkans, and he did not arrive in Emperor Heraclius. Over the next three years Ravenna until 6 June 552 after outmanoeuvring he organised the capture of Egypt, and then Gothic contingents blocking the main routes. from 622 campaigned in Asia Minor as Later that month Narses marched against the Heraclius marshalled the Roman counter- Goths' leader Totila, whose various attempts at offensive. Heraclius had the better of their deception he outwitted and whom he then manoeuvring and engagements, but in 626 crushed in battle through intelligent tactics. In Shahvaraz advanced to the Bosporus where he July Narses rapidly recaptured Rome before attempted to assist the Avars' attack on confronting the Goths near Naples. Clever Constantinople. Roman naval power planning again secured victory, although prevented him from crossing to Europe, but contemporaries also gave credit to Narses' after the Avar withdrawal he remained at devotion to the Virgin Mary. Chalcedon. Apparently Khusro tried to have For the next decade Narses was occupied in him assassinated at this time, but the plan was reducing Gothic strongholds in central and uncovered (allegedly with Heraclius' help) and northern Italy and defeating Frankish Shahvaraz refused to commit his army against invasions. Meanwhile he was entrusted by the Romans. Justinian with the massive task of returning In 628 Shahvaraz's sons supported the Italy to civilian rule, as well as ensuring overthrow of Khusro, but in 630 he secured adherence to the emperor's preferred religious Heraclius' support for a coup against the doctrines. By 559 he had received the title of young Ardashir. Shahvaraz, whose army was patrician, the Empire's highest honour, and by still occupying the eastern provinces, agreed 565 he had also become honorary consul, a to withdraw from Roman territory and demonstration of his place in the traditional return the relic of the Holy Cross. Shahvaraz Roman hierarchy. Justinian's death in 565 only survived for two months as king before complicated Narses' last decade, as his being murdered. His son Nicetas, whose relations with Justin II were naturally less close. name suggests an attachment to the family The migration of Lombards into the Po valley of Heraclius, commanded Roman troops from 568 posed new military challenges, against the Arabs in Syria in the 630s, but but he remained in post until his death in was executed by the caliph Umar in 641 after 573/4, at the age of almost 95. offering to subdue Persia for the Arabs. The world around war Impact of conflict

Administration and then Constantine's three sons, needed their own officials, with the result that the Prolonged warfare was not a novelty for the praetorian prefecture split into regional Romans; indeed during their expansion they units. had almost prided themselves on the Administrative units were also divided regularity of their involvement. But repeated because of pressure from below. In the third campaigning inside the Roman Empire, century the financial problems caused by with the consequent ravaging of estates, repeated invasion and rapid imperial turnover destruction of cities, and death or capture of meant that new ways had to be devised to civilians was unusual: before the frontier pay and supply the armies. As the value and problems of the mid-third century, the regularity of traditional sources of tax revenue civil wars of AD 69-70 and 193-97 had declined, so it seems that armies were been the only serious instances; Hannibal's increasingly encouraged to take affairs into invasion of Italy in the late third century BC their own hands and secure necessary is the nearest parallel for such damage supplies and other resources: instead of being inflicted by a foreigner. The new monetary taxation being extracted from situation affected the Empire's organisation, provinces and delivered to the legions, who economic and social structures, and systems would then return much of it to the of belief. provinces through purchase of commodities, Military need prompted a fundamental the armies short-circuited the process by change in government, from a single taking what they needed in kind while emperor to the collegiate rule which leaving provincials to offset this against tax emerged under Diocletian. Subsequent liabilities. Under Diocletian the state caught emperors who had the opportunity to up with this process and acted to rule alone, for example Constantius II institutionalise it. and Valentinian I, chose to appoint a There had also been a long-term colleague to share the burden of command: tendency for legions to be divided into regional armies and provincial populations smaller operational units whose separate had greater confidence when an emperor existence gradually solidified as they was on hand. However, having multiple became accustomed to campaigning and rulers could create tensions, as happened being quartered away from their parent between Constans and Constantius II or legions. Dispersal of concentrations of Arcadius and Honorius; the most serious legions and the attachment of units to case of full-blown conflict between provincial cities also facilitated problems accepted colleagues, after Julian's of supply, while this distribution of troops proclamation in 360, was averted by also offered wider security when frontier Constantius' death. Even in the fifth defences no longer excluded invaders. century, when the greater problems and These developments meant that soldiers clearer separation of the two halves might had closer and more regular interaction have reduced co-operation, the east sent with civilians, while the logistics of the tax help to the west when possible. Imperial system became more cumbersome as proliferation had administrative agricultural produce had to be gathered consequences: Diocletian's three colleagues, and stored. Essential Histories • Rome at War

for local aristocrats further undermined the A law of the early 370s illustrating some of latter's authority and contributed to the the problems in accounting for official cycle of decline mentioned above. supplies (Theodosian Code 7.4.16). Provincial cities - one of the glories of 'If the military accountants should the early Roman Empire whose extensive not deliver at once at the end of a remains still dominate our perception of the period of 30 days their original classical Mediterranean world - came under requisitions, they shall be compelled to increasing threat as their governing class restore from their own property, either became less interested in exercising local to the soldiers themselves or to the fiscal control. Leading locals could secure more storehouses the supplies which they power for themselves by entering the central failed to withdraw from the fiscal stores administration, whose expansion at all levels or which they omitted to issue to the from the provinces to the imperial courts service units whose accounts they kept.' required more educated participants. Instead of competition for municipal office, service to individual cities often became a chore for The traditional system of provincial local aristocrats whose performance was government, which relied heavily on the bolstered by frequent imperial legislation; participation of local urban elites, could not where this failed, tasks had to be overseen by cope. This was partly because of the appointees of the provincial governor, a complexity of the changes, but more further extension of central power and importantly the position of local elites was erosion of local pride. Ironically one factor being undermined by the economic and which contributed to the continued military developments which surrounded importance of cities was military insecurity, them. Inflation and the decline in value of since urban defences provided refuge for the coinage meant that they had less wealth to inhabitants of the surrounding countryside, spend in their cities, while invasion and civil but this offered only a partial balance. If the war might destroy the agricultural prosperity threat became too intense or persisted too on which aristocrats and cities alike long, the cities would be in danger of depended; in the worst cases even fortified succumbing and the local population, cities might be sacked. The vitality of cities inevitably led by their richest, and hence declined and their elites, who remained most mobile members, contemplated flight. wealthy through possession of land, might The desertion of parts of the Empire decide that it was better to withdraw to their emerged as a problem during the third estates rather than spend limited resources century when repeated invasions on sustaining an urban lifestyle. There was depopulated considerable regions along the an interlocking cycle of urban Rhine and Danube frontiers. The more impoverishment and decay, so that it was fortunate inhabitants would have slipped harder for cities to play their expected part away southwards, thereby contributing to in imperial government at the very moment the increased prosperity in late antiquity of when administrative demands were south-western Gaul and the southern becoming greater. Balkans, but the majority either perished or One result was an increase, approximately were captured. These developments twofold under Diocletian, in the number of contributed to the Empire's tax problems, provinces: if provincial elites could not since certain areas produced little or perform their traditional functions, it was nothing, while it took time to recognise the necessary for governors to be more closely increased potential of other areas. In theory, involved in supervising tax collection and the process of regular censuses to update tax local justice. This encroachment of imperial registers instituted by Diocletian should have governors on customary spheres of operation coped with such movements, but the The world around war 69

occupations, and in the countryside agricultural tenants were repeatedly decreed to be tied to their estates, although the frequent need for legislation suggests that the process was not all that easy.

Warlords

However complex the economic and administrative problems which protracted warfare caused, the Empire managed to survive the crisis of the third century to flourish for much of the fourth century. In the east this prosperity continued into the sixth century, but the western Empire relapsed into a cycle - ultimately fatal - of shrinking revenues and declining power during the fifth Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum showing the office of century. Invaders ravaged and depopulated the Count of the Sacred Largesses, displaying, in addition large areas, but this time the damage to the standard letter of appointment, different forms extended much deeper into the Empire. The of wealth for distribution. (MS Canon Misc. 378, f. I42v, Bodleian Library) inability of the imperial government to repel groups such as the Visigoths led to their settlement, with official agreement, in thorough reassessment of even one province productive provinces: south-western Gaul, was such a major undertaking that the much of Spain and finally, and most crucially, crucial lists could not remain accurate. In North Africa, passed out of Roman control. practice the easiest way to make up for In some cases, such as the allocation of shortages in revenue was to squeeze south-west Gaul to the Visigoths, the Empire accessible producers harder, both through in theory gained a powerful contingent of increasing the standard tax demand and by soldiers; in practice this resource could only imposing supplementary superindictions. be used when it suited the Visigoths In some parts of the Empire the tax themselves, as for example in a series of burden at times was probably excessive, campaigns into Spain which ultimately which encouraged people to try to evade benefited the Visigoths, and on other their dues. The richest and most powerful occasions emperors had to act against their could ignore demands, while waiting for an nominal allies. emperor to announce one of the periodic One important consequence of reductions cancellations of arrears. The poor and weak in imperial power, perceived as well as real, did so either by placing themselves under was the emergence of local warlords who the protection of a rich neighbour who would control and defend particular areas might (in return for payment or service of against external pressures, both central and some sort) exercise his powers of foreign. On occasions this happened with obstruction for these new clients, or by imperial consent: in the fifth century western moving to a new region to escape official emperors relaxed legislation against the notice. These developments prompted carrying of arms by private individuals, an imperial legislation that attempted to tie admission that taxation no longer bought people to their places of work: thus many safety. The Roman 'withdrawal' from the types of urban craftsmen and shopkeepers British Isles in 410 was probably such an became, in legal theory, hereditary incident, with the removal of the last official 70 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Roman troops being accompanied by an exhortation to the Romano-British provincials Charietto came to prominence in the to attend to their own defence. More often early 350s as a tribal supporter of the such developments occurred despite imperial western usurper Magnentius, but after wishes. At worst a powerful provincial warlord the latter's defeat and death he had to might come to be regarded as emperor, as was sustain himself as a brigand. In 355 the case with Odaenathus of Palmyra, the Julian, the newly appointed western separate Gallic emperors of the later third Caesar, decided it was best to reach an century, and Carausius in Britain; from the accommodation with him. Charietto perspective of the imperial centre, these men became a feared defender of the Rhine were usurpers who had to be crushed when frontier, surviving Julian's departure to conditions permitted. When Roman rule was the east to die in action against invading disintegrating similar rulers, such as Syagrius Alamanni in 365, by which time he held in northern Gaul in the 460s, could be seen as the rank of count. resolute champions of Roman authority. Most warlords were less powerful and more local than such grand figures. They provide strength in attempts to discipline them. one plausible way of understanding the Many of the most important figures in the phenomenon of bacaudae, peasant brigands, Empire had their personal retinues of who are said to have dominated parts of Gaul supporters, most visibly in the form of the and Spain for limited periods between the bucellarii who surrounded leading generals, third and fifth centuries. Rather than being but also in the monks or other ecclesiastical class warriors keen to overthrow their attendants in the entourage of major bishops landlords and the Roman state, they were and the lance-wielding guards for Anatolian probably an alliance of different inhabitants estate owners whose misdeeds Justinian tried of a particular region ranging from poor to regulate. These developments entailed tenants to local aristocrats, with the latter that emperors did not have a monopoly of providing leadership. Such groups could easily violence: a bishop of Alexandria could move in and out of formal attachment to the intimidate a general church council and Empire, as illustrated by the Isaurians, prevent imperial officers from achieving inhabitants of the mountains of southern their wishes, while at home his supporters Turkey. In the fourth century they revolted might dismember a rival bishop and overawe intermittently, probably when the ties imperial troops attempting to restore order. binding local Isaurian leaders to the cities of Legislation was meant to restrict such neighbouring regions broke down. In the fifth behaviour, but compromise was often easier; century Isaurians came to be recognised as a we find estates in Egypt which maintained precious military resource, being recruited their own groups of bucellarii and had private into imperial service by Zeno, an Isaurian gaols. It was cheaper to uphold imperial who became consul, senior general and authority in collaboration with such people, patrician. In the next generation, through even if this effectively reduced the overall their domination of the imperial bodyguard, supremacy of the individual emperor. their leader, another Zeno, became son-in-law The leaders of tribal groups who of Emperor Leo and eventually his successor. Their fall from favour after Emperor Zeno's established themselves in Roman provinces death in 491 prompted a return to regional could be placed in this category of warlords, revolt, with even an attempt to proclaim a effective military protectors whose authority rival emperor. gradually came to be accepted by remaining Roman inhabitants, even aristocrats, as well Emperors had to strike a balance between as their tribal followers. Visigothic and tolerating the existence of such powerful Ostrogothic kings had to maintain two local barons and dissipating their own contrasting images, as civilised dispensers of The world around war 71

allegiance and discipline of the armies, as In response to the Vandal conquest of Africa, illustrated by the calendar of religious Valentinian relaxed the ban on private sacrifices from Dura Europus (the Roman individuals carrying weapons (June 440) outpost on the Euphrates): the life of military (Valentinian III, Novel 6.2.3). units was organised around a series of 'As often as the public welfare sacrifices, in which commemoration of demands we consider that the solicitude important imperial anniversaries was of all must be summoned in aid ... we prominent, while images of the current admonish each and all by this edict emperor or emperors were placed between the that, with confidence in Roman legionary standards so that they shared the strength, if the occasion should so fierce loyalty which the eagles attracted. The demand, they shall use those arms major persecutions of Christians in the third which they can, but they shall preserve century were triggered by imperial demands the public discipline and the to sacrifice for the safety of the Empire. moderation of free birth unimpaired.' The religious world changed, at least in outward appearance, when Constantine adopted the Christian God as his divine laws whose ability to uphold local peace companion and granter of victory, a move justified their appropriation of properties justified by successes at the Milvian Bridge which had once been Roman and of tax and then over Licinius. Thereafter the revenues, and as effective war leaders who Christian God assisted his servants, whether could still circulate gifts to their entourages. in civil war as at Mursa in 351 when Latin rhetoric, as seen through the writings Constantius' victory was signalled by the of Cassiodorus, and Roman law as in the appearance of a cross in the sky at Jerusalem, Code of Euric underpinned the former or in foreign adventures as in Justinian's aspect. On the other hand, the continuing reconquest of Africa, which was guaranteed importance of military prowess contributed by a bishop's dream and Christian omens. to a militarisation of the Roman elements in Emperors might consult prominent their kingdoms: in Merovingian France and Christians about future campaigns, as when Visigothic Spain in the sixth century the Zeno visited Daniel the Stylite, who had surviving Roman cities maintained their own taken up residence on a column near the militias which could be quite effective, if Bosporus, to ask his advice about an small, military units. expedition to fight the Vandals. The Church became involved in victory celebrations to the extent that the victorious entry of Christianity Justinian to Constantinople in 559 culminated in prayers at the altar of S. Sophia. Imperial warfare might even take on War fundamentally affected the Empire in a crusading overtones: Constantine's final variety of ways, but perhaps the campaign against Persia was accompanied by development of greatest long-term propaganda about the liberation of significance was its impact on religious Christians in Mesopotamia, and in the 620s beliefs; war and victory underpinned the Heraclius mobilised the rump of his Empire explosion of Christianity as the Empire's to ward off Persians and Avars by presenting dominant religion. In the third century the the Romans as the beleaguered children of traditional Graeco-Roman gods oversaw the Israel with a mission to crush the heathen salvation of the Empire, aided in accordance and recover the relic of the Holy Cross from with individual preference by a variety of Babylon. other local or imported deities such as Mithras or the Unconquered Sun. Worship In contrast to such successes, non- was an important factor in ensuring the Christians were spectacularly unsuccessful: 72 Essential Histories • Rome at War

Ankara citadel. (Authors collection) command than the secular fields in which they usually operated. Within months of his Julian the apostate led a massive army to victory at the Milvian Bridge, Constantine disaster in Persia, while his own death in a was invited to adjudicate in the Donatist skirmish was attributed by some to the dispute - which originated in challenges to miraculous intervention of St Mercurius; the the legitimacy of North African clergy who pagan usurper Eugenius was overwhelmed by had not stood up to persecution in the third the orthodox Theodosius at the Frigidus century - and a year after defeating Licinius River; and Constantinople was delivered and acquiring the eastern Empire he presided from the threat of an alleged Gothic plot by at the universal council of Nicaea, which the intervention of an angel. Heretical attempted to resolve the Arian dispute about Christians might be as unsuccessful: Emperor the relationship of God the Father and Valens, an opponent of Nicene Christianity, Christ the Son. In each case the dispute was died after the catastrophe of Adrianople. still unresolved a century later. Everything conspired to demonstrate the Emperors used their full military might power of the true Christian God and the and political power to uphold their authority importance of correct worship, an issue over the Church, but it was difficult to which had already exercised Constantine: he achieve the intended results. Justinian had urged the importance of Christian unity to brought to Constantinople and achieve efficacious supplications to God and then forcibly wrenched from the altar where provided support for clergy attached to the he had taken refuge to attend a church correct, orthodox, group. As a result, council in 553, but the Emperor's doctrinal emperors became closely involved in the statement which resulted was not widely agreement and enforcement of what was accepted in the west for over 50 years. In doctrinally right, and in ecclesiastical Constantinople occasional tensions between discipline, although these areas of belief emperor and bishop exacerbated the proved much more resistant to Imperial perennial problems of maintaining order in The world around war 73 major conurbations: when Arcadius had to settle in the city and removed the keys Bishop John Chrysostom arrested in 404, from the imperial prefect to entrust them to the attendant rioting resulted in the burning the bishop; in 594 the bishop of Asemus of S. Sophia and the Senate; Bishop near the Danube prevented the local Chrysostom died in exile in 407, but a militia from being conscripted into the generation later he was accepted as one of mobile army commanded by Emperor the pillars of the Greek Church. Maurice's brother. Alexandria was even more out of control, Communities might come to look to since the city's bishops financed an living saints or relics as well as bishops to enormous clerical establishment, including protect them in the absence of imperial hundreds of monks in the nearby desert who help. In the fragmenting western Empire of could be brought into the city and mobilised the fifth century, St Genevieve was credited as needed. Emperors did not regularly keep with saving Paris from Attila, while at enough troops in Egypt to confront this Clermont Ferrand in the 470s Bishop potent combination of force, bribery and Sidonius introduced new devotions to patronage, and it was easier to come to an sustain local morale during a protracted accommodation with the preferred leader of blockade. The development of the story of the Egyptian Church. Even when emperors Christ's protection for Edessa in resolved to intervene, the authority of their Mesopotamia has already been noted (see ecclesiastical nominees rarely extended page 56). Thessalonica is another place beyond the city of Alexandria, and their where one can see the local church opponents were always awaiting the developing its supernatural assistants when opportunity to strike back: Proterius was imperial protection was lacking. In the early sustained as bishop with Emperor Marcian's seventh century the city's bishop produced a backing, but on Marcian's death he was collection of miracles performed by the dragged from the baptistery of his church city's patron saint Demetrius, which and publicly dismembered by supporters of particularly stressed his ability to save his his rival, Timothy the Cat. city from capture by Avars and Slavs; the Although Christianity often confirmed collection was designed for public recitation imperial prestige, the Church could not fail during a renewed bout of Avar pressure. to be involved also in the fragmentation of Later in the century, when the city was authority in the Empire. This was partly virtually cut off from Constantinople and because of the power of the bishop in local imperial support, the collection was society. The bishop of Alexandria was expanded with further examples of exceptional in absolute terms, but in most Demetrius' miraculous intervention in sieges of the Empire's cities the local bishop was a and blockades. Demetrius was capable of leading property owner and patron, as well humbling imperial prefects who did not as a person of education. As such they were recognise his superior authority or attend to often trusted to represent their cities: in 481 the interests of his city, and of challenging the bishop of Heraclea in Macedonia saved the emperor by redirecting food supplies his people by providing food for Theoderic's bound for Constantinople. Goths; during Khusro I's invasion of Syria in As long as the Empire flourished the close 540 bishops attempted to negotiate limits to connection of Christianity and war Persian depredations; and requests to an strengthened imperial authority, and even emperor for tax remission after a natural the occasions of tension when secular power disaster might well be articulated by the was fragmenting reflected rather than bishop. This authority, however, could also caused imperial decline. There are, however, threaten imperial interests: at Thessalonica ways in which the Church has been in 481, the inhabitants rioted at a rumour criticised for contributing to the Empire's that Emperor Zeno intended to allow Goths collapse, through the appropriation of 74 Essential Histories • Rome at War

The walls of Nicaea, (modern Iznik,Turkey); the precious resources and the inculcation of an column bases and other reused material at the bases unwarlike or defeatist spirit. of the towers reflects their rapid construction. The Church did require the service of (Author's collection) numerous clergy, and the growing monastic The world around war 75

The importance of the secular role of bishops is illustrated in the explanation for the choice of a new bishop at Antioch in 527, shortly after the city had been struck by a massive earthquake (Evagrius, Ecclesiastical History 4.6). 'At the very moment of despair God raised up Ephrem, the Count of the east, to assume every care that the city of Antioch should not lack any necessities. As a consequence the Antiochenes, in admiration, elected him as their priest and he obtained the apostolic see as a reward for his especial support.'

importantly, as a recipient of benefactions individual churches accumulated massive wealth in precious metal. How far these developments drained secular resources depends in part on the costs of religious activities in the period before the triumph of Christianity, but there is likely to have been an increase. In a crisis monks and clergy might be made liable to conscription, and ecclesiastical treasures were often deployed to ransom captives or save cities from being sacked; in the 620s Heraclius financed his campaigns through a compulsory loan of the wealth of the church at Constantinople. This might suggest that these resources were not completely alienated from secular use, but the question must remain as to whether they might have been employed more effectively if they had been available to finance regular military expenditure. With regard to attitudes towards war it is essential not to impose modern views: for us Christianity might be a religion of peace, but Constantine had chosen the Christians' deity as an Old Testament God of Battles. There was, however, a negative side to Christianity's ability to sustain Roman morale, since the belief that God rewarded his virtuous servants with victory also movement in the fifth century removed provided an explanation for defeat in terms many more from secular activities. As a of sin or incorrect worship. In the eastern massive property owner, the Church reduced empire during the sixth century a the area liable to taxation and, more long-running dispute about the composition 76 Essential Histories • Rome at War

of Christ, how the divine and human Walls of Thessalonica, the fourth-century defences of elements were fused within his single being Galenus' capital. (Author's collection) without undermining the integrity of either element, resulted in the alienation from more complex in the 630s when Heraclius Constantinople of many of the inhabitants attempted to impose a doctrinal compromise of the eastern provinces. Emperors were which most Christians found unacceptable: regarded as heretical, and attempts to coerce the emperor's descent into heresy provided unity as persecution. As a result imperial the perfect explanation for the contemporary misfortune came to be expected, or at successes of the Arabs. Nothing was likely to least accepted by the populations of Syria, be achieved until the emperor turned back to Egypt and Armenia who did not share the God and worshipped correctly, so nothing emperor's views. The situation became even should be done. Portraits of civilians Notable individuals

Ambrose, Bishop of Milan sermons gained a following among educated imperial officials, people of similar background Ambrose (bishop 374-97), son of a praetorian to him. His secular career gave him the skills prefect, pursued an official career and became to manipulate councils into supporting his governor of the province of Aemilia in 372/3, views, and the experience to stand up to with his seat at Milan, the western imperial emperors, first Valentinian II, who demanded capital. The Church at Milan was dominated a church for Arian worship, then, twice, by Arians with imperial support when Theodosius over his attempt to punish zealous Ambrose got involved, somewhat improperly, Christians in Syria who had destroyed a in the election of a new bishop for the synagogue and his massacre of civilians in supporters of the Council of Nicaea. Ambrose Thessalonica; on the last occasion the emperor was chosen, though he was not yet baptised, performed public penance. Ambrose, however, so that he progressed to the bishopric one also used Christianity to uphold imperial week after formally joining the Church. power, being responsible for linking the legend Ambrose energetically promoted his brand of the discovery of the True Cross to of Christianity, building churches and Constantine's mother, Helena: Ambrose discovering relics to underpin their sanctity, promoting female piety, encouraging hymn Stylised woodcut showing a scene from the life of singing and patronising scholarship. He was Ambrose, Bishop of Milan. (Ancient Art and an accomplished orator, whose intellectual Architecture) 78 Essential Histories • Rome at War proposed that the incorporation of nails from the Cross into the imperial helmet and bridle The historian Evagrius records an occasion symbolised Christianity's support for enduring in the 580s when the senior general in the secular military authority. After his death in east asked to use Symeon's relics (1.13). 397, Ambrose's reputation was rapidly 'I saw his holy head when Philippicus consolidated through a biography by his requested that precious relics be sent for secretary, but the bishopric of Milan lost its the protection of the eastern armies. special importance when the court moved to And the extraordinary thing was that the greater safety of Ravenna. the hairs which lay upon his head had not been corrupted, but are preserved as if he were alive again. And the skin on Symeon, ascetic and saint his forehead was wrinkled and withered, but still it is intact, as are the majority Symeon Stylites (390-459) was one of the most of his teeth, except for those forcibly influential of eastern holy men. After a decade removed by the hands of devout men.' in various Syrian monasteries where his fierce asceticism provoked unease, Symeon moved to a hillside near Telneshin where he lived in a 295 feet (90m) from north to south, and the small hut; fame brought pilgrims whose site remained a popular focus for pilgrimage. attentions prompted Symeon to transfer first to one column, and then to a taller one of about 60 feet (20.4m) where he remained for the last John the Lydian, eastern 30 years of his life. The power of his prayers civil servant and curses was famous and attracted visitors from the west and beyond the Empire's John was born in 490 at Philadelphia in borders. Symeon berated Emperor Asia Minor, from where he moved to Theodosius II for legislating to protect law- Constantinople to find a post in the palace abiding pagans and Jews, and Emperor Leo secretariat. While awaiting an opening he consulted him in 457 about sensitive studied philosophy, but then jumped at the ecclesiastical issues. opportunity provided by the elevation of a Symeon's death on 2 September 459 fellow-townsman to the praetorian prefecture provoked competition for his body and relics: in 511. He was allocated a senior position with his companions feared that local villagers or a substantial income from semi-official fees, nomadic Arabs might steal his corpse for their and rewarded for a panegyric of his patron with own benefit. Martyrius, , one gold coin per line. John had an excellent and Ardabur, the senior general in the east, knowledge of Latin, which was being used less came to the column with Gothic soldiers who commonly in the eastern Empire, even though escorted the corpse to Antioch, where the it was the language of law, and for a time he inhabitants wanted it as a talisman against was very busy preparing legal materials in the earthquakes; Symeon, too, looked after himself prefecture while also maintaining an alternative by freezing Martyrius' hand when the latter career path by working in the palace. After his attempted to remove a hair from his beard. patron left office, John's career reverted to a Symeon's dirty leather loincloth was offered to more normal trajectory whereby length of Emperor Leo, but ended up in the possession service determined promotion. of Symeon's spiritual son, the stylite Daniel, John's literary talents continued to attract who took up his station on the Bosporus. attention, and he was asked by Justinian to During the 480s a massive monastic complex present a panegyric in front of aristocrats from was constructed at Qalat Seman around Rome and then to compose a history of the Symeon's empty column, the main church Persian campaigns including the Roman victory being 328 feet (100m) from east to west and at Dara in 530. He secured one of the public Portraits of civilians 79 professorships in Constantinople, probably in patriciate in the 530s; even after the start of the 540s, and combined this with work in the the Justinianic reconquest he continued to prefecture until his retirement after 40 years serve as praetorian prefect, organising supplies and four months of service in 551/2. He is best for Ostrogothic forces. With the collapse of the known for his work 'On Magistracies', which Ostrogothic regime he embraced the religious included a study of the praetorian prefecture life, and was in Constantinople in 550, that aired his own jaundiced views on probably as a refugee from the war-torn chaos administrative innovations and the declining of Italy. In the mid-550s he returned to found importance of traditional qualities, such as a monastery at Squillace in his native Calabria, literary ability and skill at Latin. where he lived until his death in about 580. He was a prolific writer. Apart from the 12 volumes of letters which underpin our Cassiodorus, Roman in knowledge of the Ostrogothic kingdom, he Ostrogothic service composed panegyrics on King Theoderic and his son-in-law, accepted a royal request to write Three generations of Cassiodori had been a history of the Goths which proclaimed the important public officials in Italy for Roman antiquity of the Gothic race and the ruling and tribal rulers when the young Flavius Amal family, and produced several Magnus Aurelius Cassiodorus Senator was philosophical and religious works. At his selected by his father, the praetorian prefect, as monastery he hoped that secular learning advisor in 503-07. Thereafter he regularly could be sustained as an aid to religious served the Ostrogoths at Ravenna as legal understanding; to this end he compiled two expert and composer of official correspondence books of 'Divine and Human Institutes', works in elegant Latin, along the way securing the on grammar, etymology and figures of speech, honours of a consulship in 514 and the which were intended to assist his monks in their role as scribes, and commentaries on the

Folio from the Notitia Dignitatum showing the office of Psalms and other books of the Bible. In the praetorian prefect with ceremonial four-horse carriage, addition he commissioned other works, such ink stand, candlesticks, and imperial letter of appointment. as a Latin translation of the main Greek church (MS Canon Misc. 378, f. 90, Bodleian Library) historians of the fourth and fifth centuries. His monastery scarcely survived his death, but his writings had a profound influence on the direction of western monasticism and its role in the preservation of classical learning.

Antonina, wife of general Belisarius

Antonina was born probably about 484, into a family of entertainers, her father being a charioteer in Constantinople and her mother an actress. She had at least one husband before marrying Belisarius, sometime in the early 520s when he was bodyguard for the future Emperor Justinian; if one believes the historian Procopius (who disliked Antonina) she had previously had several lovers and betrayed Belisarius by pursuing an affair with his godson. Essential Histories • Rome at War

Promotion for Belisarius and friendship preferences. When Belisarius was disgraced in with Justinian's wife, Empress Theodora - 542/3 Antonina worked to recover imperial another product of the entertainment world - favour, and then accompanied him on his brought Antonina considerable influence; at reappointment to Italy in 544. She returned to some point she was granted the exalted Constantinople to plead for reinforcements, patrician rank. She accompanied Belisarius on but the death of Theodora in 548 persuaded his western campaigns, helping to improve the her to press instead for Belisarius' recall; she expedition's water supply on the voyage to also terminated the marriage of her daughter Africa in 533, organising a fleet and supplies to Theodora's grandson to prevent the for Belisarius during the siege of Rome in 537, imperial house from acquiring the family's and allegedly dominating her husband. On wealth. She may have outlived Belisarius, who behalf of Theodora she helped to oust Pope died in 565. Silverius in 537, secure the downfall of Justinian's former financial officer John the Ravenna mosaic of Theodora, wife of , with her Cappadocian in 541, and persuade Pope entourage. Mosaic from the Basilica of S.Vitale. Ravenna. Vigilius to espouse Theodora's theological (Ancient Art and Architecture) How the war ended Making new boundaries

Disintegration of the Empire the River Yarmuk. Roman resistance was broken and over the next few years the A period of war lasting four centuries and major cities of Palestine and Syria involving several different regional conflicts surrendered, while in 640 the Arabs took is unlikely to have a clear end, but three over Roman Mesopotamia and campaigned major developments can legitimately be into Armenia, and Anatolia. In 639 considered to signal the conclusion of the attacks on Egypt began and by 642 this campaigns of the late Roman period: in the province too was captured; in less than a eastern empire and North Africa the decade all the richest areas of the Roman sweeping victories of Islamic Arabs; in the Empire had fallen under Arab control. Balkans the progressive occupation of What is most striking about this territory by Slav tribes, who eventually achievement - apart from its speed and generated identifiable governing elites; and complete surprise - is that at the same time in the west the consolidation of tribal Arab armies were dismantling the Persian kingdoms in spite of Justinian's massive Empire. Admittedly the Sassanid dynasty had effort at reconquest. been in turmoil since Khusro II's overthrow In the east while Heraclius had been in 628, but the accession of Khusro's locked in his desperate struggle with the grandson Yazdgard III in 632 had brought Persians, events of enormous importance some stability; however, Persian armies were were unfolding in the Arabian peninsula. At unable to withstand this new challenge. By Mecca a 40-year-old trader received a divine the early 640s Yazdgard had been forced to message from the angel Gabriel. For the next abandon all the royal cities in lower dozen years or so Muhammad stayed in Mesopotamia and seek refuge in north- Mecca, receiving more messages, and eastern ; in 651 Yazdgard was under gradually built up a following, although this pressure even there when his assassination success increased tensions with the terminated the Sassanid dynasty and polytheists who remained the majority confirmed Muslim rule over the whole of community. In 622 Muhammad and his the Middle East. followers moved north to Yathrib (Medina), By 700 the Arabs had wrested all North an event (the hijra) which marked the start Africa from Roman control, and had started of the Islamic era. to conquer the Visigoths in Spain. The one By Muhammad's death in 632 he had direction in which they failed to make asserted his control over Mecca as well as lasting progress was in Anatolia, where much of the northern part of the Arabian Roman resistance gradually hardened. After peninsula, and under his successors the capturing Alexandria the Arabs developed a Arabs pushed into Palestine and Syria. In 633 powerful navy, which brought control of and 634 there was a series of limited Cyprus and endangered the southern victories, which permitted the Arabs to coastline of Asia Minor and the Aegean enter Damascus. In 636 a major Roman islands. On land, repeated raiding counter-offensive, commanded by the impoverished vast tracts of inland Asia Emperor Heraclius' brother Theodore who Minor, and resulted in the destruction or had assembled most of the military resources desertion of many of the major cities: of the eastern provinces, ended in disaster at refugees streamed away from the invaders in

Essential Histories • Rome at War search of safety in the mountains, while in the east. We have no detailed knowledge repeated disaster challenged the stability of of the sequence of events after Maurice's religious convictions. At Constantinople, death in 602, when Roman authority had however, in the 670s, the Arabs eventually been superficially restored over much of the stumbled decisively: the capital's substantial peninsula. Phocas and Heraclius both gave walls and the Roman navy (with its secret precedence to eastern campaigns; troops weapon of Greek fire) were underpinned by were progressively removed from the the city's divine defenders, among whom the Balkans, which permitted Slav groups to Virgin was prominent through the relics of move unhindered across the countryside. her robe and girdle, and the Arabs were The Avars occasionally invaded to extend compelled to retreat. their authority over the Slavs and surviving Over the next generation a new order was Romans, but even their humiliation outside created in Roman territory: the old social Constantinople in 626 brought no lasting system based on the grand provincial cities respite. As the Avar federation disintegrated, had been swept away so that villages and smaller tribal groups emerged to dominate rural markets came to the fore, while particular areas, the Bulgars in the administrative organisation was directed north-east, and Croats and Serbs in the towards sustaining the military units north-west. By the latter part of the seventh responsible for frontier defence. Only century only the hinterland of Constantinople survived as a recognisable Constantinople and isolated enclaves at city, and even its population had probably Thessalonica, Athens, Corinth and other shrunk to a tenth of what it had once been. places accessible by sea remained under Continued failure to reverse Arab successes Roman authority. contributed to religious upheaval: for much In the western state, the deposition of the of the eighth century the rump of the last Roman emperor in 476 had brought one eastern Empire was riven by disputes about sort of end, with Vandals in control of the validity of images in Christian worship, Africa, Visigoths in Spain and southern Gaul, with iconoclast emperors supporting the Merovingian Franks in northern Gaul and Muslim view that images were idolatrous. the Ostrogoths soon to arrive in Italy. In the Balkans the Romans experienced Justinian's reconquest threatened to turn losses which, if less spectacular in terms of back the clock, but in the later sixth century military action, were almost as complete as it was the Romans who were being squeezed by the arrival of the Lombards in Italy and the reassertion of Visigothic power in Spain. At Pergamum in 716 the defenders resorted The west was even lower down the list of to desperate measures, intended to avert an imperial priorities than the Balkans, and apocalyptic scourge (Theophanes, little could be done to influence events: in Chronographica p.390). 578 Emperor Tiberius had recognised this 'Maslamah ben Abd al-Malik came to when he returned the gold which the Roman Pergamum, which he besieged and senate had sent as a gift for his accession captured by God's dispensation, through with the advice that they should use this to the Devil's machinations. For at a purchase allies among the newly arrived magician's instigation the city's Lombards. By the 590s Roman rule in Italy inhabitants procured a pregnant woman was confined to Ravenna in the north, and cut her up; after removing the infant which was precariously joined to another and cooking it in a pot, all those about to area around Rome, and from there to larger fight dipped the sleeves of their right arm enclaves of the extreme south and Sicily. In in the loathsome sacrifice. Accordingly the seventh century even the visit to Rome they were delivered to the enemy.' of Emperor Constans II did not conclusively re-establish Roman authority. Eventually a How the war ended 85

from the south. These victories were accompanied by the conversion of their King Clovis, significantly to Catholic Christianity rather than the Arian beliefs which other Germanic tribes espoused; but partitive inheritance between competing branches of the family then disrupted the kingdom's unity. During the sixth century Clovis' successors had on various occasions intervened in Italy, on both sides of the Roman reconquest, contemplated a grand alliance of tribes to challenge Constantinople, resisted Avar encroachments in southern Germany, and weathered attempts from Constantinople to destabilise the dynastic balance between different parts of the kingdom.

A graffito scratched by one of the defenders of during its three-year siege by the Avars in 579-82. 'Lord Christ, help the city and smite Dome of the Rock, Jerusalem a symbol of Islamic the Avars and watch over Romania and power at the centre of Christian and Jewish faiths. the writer. Amen.' (Ancient Art and Architecture) combination of religious hostility to After the 630s Merovingian rulers wielded iconoclast developments in the east, lack of little real power, which increasingly slipped respect for the absent and unsuccessful into the hands of the royal stewards, the emperors, and resistance to tax demands most powerful being the family of Pippin. By terminated east Roman control over Rome the late seventh century the Pippinids had and Ravenna; the Roman Empire survived in effectively displaced the Merovingians and it Sicily and parts of the south, but had ceased was the Pippinid Charles Martel who rolled to be a significant element in Italian affairs. back the Islamic invaders at I'oitiers in 732. The most important events for the future Thereafter his grandson Charles 'the Great' - of the west occurred in France. By the early Charlemagne - reunited Frankish Gaul and sixth century this had been largely united conquered the Lombards in Italy. under the Merovingian Frankish dynasty Charlemagne's visit to Rome in 800 and his which had first suppressed Roman warlords coronation in St Peter's sealed the creation in the north and then driven the Visigoths of the Holy Roman Empire. Conclusions and consequences Roman legacies

The four centuries of war during which the Rhomaioi. This beleaguered state, which saw Roman Empire was torn apart provided the itself as the guardian of the Roman political, basis for a new political map of Europe, the religious and cultural inheritance, found the Middle East and North Africa. Instead of a resources to survive the intense Arab pressure collection of provinces whose different of the late seventh and early eighth centuries peoples, cultures and traditions were and then to embark on substantial gradually transformed through contact with reconquests in the Balkans and Asia Minor in Roman power so that acceptance of a central the tenth. Although the arrival of the Seljuk authority was accompanied by a display of Turks in the eleventh century curtailed its some common features, a fragmented world resources and power again, the fabled wealth emerged; in different areas diverse elites of the east attracted Viking mercenaries to came to the fore, a process whose results still travel south through Russia, and then the dominate the modern map. treacherous Fourth Crusade sacked The Roman Empire did not end, since the Constantinople in 1204. But a Roman state rump of the eastern provinces continued to survived on the Bosporus until Ottoman be ruled from Constantinople by emperors artillery blasted its way through the Roman who regarded themselves and their people as walls of Constantinople in 1453. In the Middle East, however, a The walls of Ankara showing the pentagonal tower. millennium of control by Greeks and (Ancient Art and Architecture) Romans terminated and the region changed Conclusions and consequences 87

to leadership by a Semitic race. A visible sign Trapian silver in unreconstructed state. was the reversion of many cities to their pre- (National Museum of Scotland) Hellenistic local names - Urfa for Edessa, Membij for Hierapolis, Baalbek for In north-western Europe Roman control Heliopolis, Amman for Philadelphia - the ebbed most quickly and decisively. In the survival of Alexandria and Antioch (Antakya) British Isles the Saxons gradually pushed the were exceptional. The centre of gravity of the Romano-British into the far west and new power was also significant. For centuries established their own competing kingdoms the Romans had faced an eastern rival whose in much of England; the process contributed capitals lay in lower Mesopotamia and the to the creation of popular stories of Arthur Iranian plateau, whereas the new Arab and strengthened ties between Cornwall and Empire was usually based much closer to the Brittany, but otherwise helped to confirm Mediterranean world: in Syria under the that Britain would develop separately from Ummayads and Egypt under the Fatimids. the continent. In France the consolidation of Rome's Parthian and Sassanid enemies had Pippinid or Carolingian control created the rarely had access to the Mediterranean, first post-Roman supranational political whereas the Arabs occupied a number of entity, the Holy Roman Empire, an major ports and rapidly developed a institution which could challenge eastern powerful navy. The Mediterranean ceased to Rome in terms of religious authority by be our sea, mare nostrum, and became an area manipulating the papacy and as true heirs to of conflict and threat. imperial Rome by the use of Latin and Arab control of North Africa extended cultivation of Roman practices. this threat west, and initiated a structural One area for competition between Holy divide between the northern and southern Rome and eastern Rome was the Balkans, shores of the Mediterranean: whereas which long remained the most chaotic part and Africa had been tied of former Roman territory. Much had been closely into the Empire - socially, as the overrun by groups of Slavs, but these had location of lucrative estates for the been slow to generate their own ruling elites. senatorial elite, and economically, as the As Constantinople's power gradually revived major food providers for Rome and in the eighth century, it proved possible to Constantinople - the Barbary Coast was a expand its authority in peninsular piratical scourge for Christian Europe. In and the south-eastern Balkans from the Spain the Arabs remained the most powerful islands and coastal enclaves still in its political force for 500 years, an object for possession, but large parts of the northern crusade by the northern Christian enclaves and north-western interior were ruled by but also a stimulus for intellectual and whatever tribal group had managed to cultural fertilisation. dominate the local Slavs and any survivors Essential Histories • Rome at War

of the Roman population. The most The struggle to define orthodoxy generated important units to emerge were the Bulgar important excluded groups. In the fourth kingdom in the north-east, and the Serb and century Christians loosely associated with the Croat kingdoms in the north-west. In each views of Arius (that the Son was subordinate case the ruling elite developed a complex to the Father) had converted Germanic tribes relationship with Constantinople, eager for north of the Danube. These tribes had the benefits (cultural as well as economic) of remained unaffected by the final triumph Roman recognition, but also wary of too within the Empire of Nicene over Arian close a dependence upon a potential Christianity in the 380s; as a result the imperial master. Constantinople's authority successor kingdoms of Visigoths, Vandals and waxed and waned, and the best Ostrogoths all subscribed to Arian views and characterisation of the region is as a were regarded as heretical by Catholics. commonwealth: its members acknowledged In the east the identification in the 420s of strong ties, but there were also rivalries the Nestorian heresy, over the status of the between potential rulers and the ruled, while Virgin Mary and the place of the divine in the existence of alternative sources of Christ, had led to a rift: expulsion of Nestorians support such as Holy Rome ensured that from the Empire had helped them to tensions thrived. consolidate their domination in Sassanid Persia, where they became accepted as the national Church with their own spiritual Slavs attempt to encourage the Avars to leader, catholicus, whose appointment usually assist in an assault on Thessalonka required royal sanction. Nestorian missionaries (Miracles of St Demetrius §197). exploited Sassanid diplomatic and trading 'They said that all the cities and networks to make converts in India, central regions in its vicinity had been Asia and China. An inter-related dispute about depopulated by them, and that it alone Christ's nature generated the Monophysite held out in their midst, while it had schism in the eastern Empire from the mid- received all the refugees from the fifth century. Attempts at reconciliation failed, Danubian regions, and Pannonia, Dacia, partly because doctrinal concessions to eastern Dardania and the remaining provinces Monophysites provoked disagreements with and cities.' Rome and the western Church, partly because intermittent coercion served to harden attitudes; the textual bases for the arguments became swamped by propaganda, and their Religious divisions precise distinctions vanished because of the difficulty of translating complex arguments Competition for religious allegiance was one accurately between the languages involved - of the disrupting factors in the Balkans as Latin, Greek, Coptic, Syriac, Armenian. In the Rome and Constantinople vied to convert mid-sixth century a separate Monophysite different groups, and systems of belief are hierarchy of bishops emerged to control much one of our major inheritances from the of Egypt, Syria and Armenia. After the Arab period of late-Roman warfare. The emergence conquests a new division of Christianity crys- of Christianity as a world faith was the first talised, with the orthodox or Chalcedonians and most obvious, since it was through dominant within the Roman Empire, while warfare that Christianity triumphed within Nestorians and Monophysites were the main the Empire. But the Roman Empire also groups in areas ruled by Arabs, where the shaped the nature of Christianity's limited numbers of Chalcedonians came to be development and helped to ensure that this known as Melkites, or emperors' men. universal religion existed in a variety of Inside the Empire Rome and Constantinople competing guises. emerged as the two centres of religious power. Conclusions and consequences

Doctrinal dissension almost generated civil war the Christian message stimulated purists to in the 340s, over the exile of Bishop Athanasius seek a more authentic response to the Gospel: of Alexandria, and eastern attempts to resolve in different parts of the Empire individuals the Monophysite issue produced schisms in the attempted to pursue a more rigorous regime, late fifth, the mid-sixth, and for much of the and some of these ascetics, or 'trainees', came to seventh century. Successive emperors believed be organised into groups of monks. During the that they had the right to determine what was fourth century rules of conduct were developed correct doctrine, and then the duty to see this in Egypt, Syria and Asia Minor and these soon accepted throughout their realm. , whose spread west, so that by the time the Empire in independence was encouraged by Rome's the west was faltering in the mid-fifth century decline as an imperial capital, saw themselves monasteries were sufficiently established to as the true guardians of Christian belief and transmit Roman religious and cultural traditions. relished occasions when eastern bishops Jews, however, were a victim of Christian appealed to the west for decisions. Emperors zeal. In the pre-Christian Empire, Jews had were prepared to use force to secure papal usually been tolerated as an eccentric but obedience, but this could only work if Rome acceptable group whose religious commitment itself was safely under eastern control. The was hallowed by antiquity, whereas for basis for a split between Greek and Latin Christians they were the murderers of Christ. Christianity was established in late antiquity. In the third-century persecutions, emperors had respected Jewish beliefs and not required sacrifice. In theory Jews continued to be The church historian Evagrius laments the protected by imperial legislation, but in narrow disagreement between practice this could not be upheld against Chalcedonians ('in two natures') and enthusiastic Christian mobs: synagogues were Monopyhsites ('from two') which bitterly destroyed, graveyards ransacked and divided the Church (2.5). congregations even forcibly converted. Such 'The envious and God-hating Devil pressures produced a backlash and on occasions thus wickedly devised and misinterpreted Jews sided with the Empire's enemies, most a change of a single letter, so that, whereas notoriously after the Persian siege of Jerusalem the utterance of one of these absolutely in 614. Suspicions against Jews increased and thereby introduces the other, by most popular anti-Semitism came to be reinforced people the difference is considered to be by official tolerance and legislation. great and their meanings to be in outright The other great religious change, generated antithetical opposition and to be exclusive by the wars of late antiquity, was Islam, which of each other. For he who confesses Christ spread over the Near East and North Africa in two natures openly declares Him to be through armed conquest. Holy war, jihad, from two, in that by confessing Christ spurred expansion, while the privileged position jointly in Divinity and humanity he of warriors in the early conquest communities declares in confessing that He is composed in Iraq, Syria and Egypt, coupled with extra tax from Divinity and humanity.' burdens on unbelievers, encouraged conversion. The Arab capture of Jerusalem and the Holy- Land placed the sacred places of both Christians Christianity's triumph eliminated pagan and Jews under alien authority and created a beliefs at a formal level, but numerous desire for retaliation. The east-west political pre-Christian practices were subsumed into rivalry of Sassanids and Romans had now been the new religion in the process in spite of some complicated by a potent religious factor. condemnation. Christianity's secular power Such far-reaching political and religious also caused contamination as episcopal office developments were accompanied by in the right city became a desirable route to significant social and cultural changes. The power and wealth. The consequent dilution of corner-stone of the Roman Empire had been 90 Essential Histories • Rome at War

S. Sophia (Hagia Sophia), Istanbul, Turkey. (Ancient Art centuries. Population centres naturally suffered and Architecture) severely, since plague-bearing fleas needed a reasonable density of hosts in order to the city, which functioned as the centre for flourish; cities were particularly hard hit, but diffusing government, the religious focus for so were armies, and even rural areas such as an area, and the social magnet for the local Palestine (which supported a dense network of elite. In the same way as the growth of villages). For the rich, also, the obligations of imperial prosperity was followed by the urban life had already begun to outweigh the spread of urban institutions, so the retreat of benefits. As a result cities became depopulated. Empire was accompanied by their shrinkage In some areas, such as the north Balkans, there or disappearance. During the fourth and fifth was a vertical move away from exposed centuries rural wealth and urban vitality had lowland sites to the fortified hill-tops used by contracted away from the northern and the pre-Roman inhabitants. Elsewhere the western provinces, so that by the sixth remnants of urban populations clustered century the most thriving cities were located around a place of refuge, perhaps a church or in Asia Minor and Syria. The Arab conquests monastery, or a fortification built out of undermined urban institutions in those areas one of the massive remains of a Roman city which remained under Roman control. such as a theatre or amphitheatre. Paradoxically perhaps, cities continued to flourish under Arab authority as diverse, commercial social, and intellectual Cultural changes communities. By contrast, in the surviving Empire and the post-Roman west there had These shrunken settlements were now been a substantial fall in population levels, dominated by their clergy, and perhaps a few due to a combination of warfare, general powerful local families, but it was the Church, insecurity, and disease. Bubonic plague had above all, which gave stability to these struck the Mediterranean in the 540s, and societies and determined their priorities. This then returned with regularity for two is particularly evident in the case of education, Conclusions and consequences 91

which had been an important unifying badge important principles of Roman law were trans- for the elite of the Roman world. In the west mitted to medieval western kingdoms, and hence monasteries became the guardians of knowledge to serve as the base for much European law. as other sources of learning faded away, while Diplomacy was another area of continuing in the east the clerical establishment in development, driven by practical concerns. In Constantinople provided the best opportunities the early Roman Empire there had been no for advanced study within the Empire. tradition of systematic acquisition and As a result the balance of what was known compilation of information about neighbours inevitably shifted, with the priorities of the and possible threats, but this had begun to Church dominating: some aspects of the change as the Empire came under increasing standard classical education in grammar and pressure. In the fifth century, when Attila's rhetoric survived, since clerics still had to Huns were threatening the eastern Empire, participate in debates on doctrine and Constantinople developed a system for discipline, but the broad knowledge of the regulating relations with Sassanid Persia in an classical literary tradition possessed by leading effort to ensure stability, and also appreciated the writers in the fourth century had slipped, and advantages of detailed knowledge about other the intellectual speculation encouraged by neighbours. In the sixth century these practices philosophical study also ceased. Of practical continued, so that eastern rulers were presented import was the decline in knowledge of with information about the rulers of Axum in languages, which meant that very few in the Ethiopia and the Turks in central Asia, all as part west outside Byzantine Italy could understand of Roman competition with Persia. The ability Greek and there were shortages of Latin to play off possible enemies against each other speakers in the east. The intellectual centre of became a hallmark of 'Byzantine' diplomacy, as the Mediterranean world transferred to the the progressively weaker Empire relied more on lands conquered by Arabs: they ruled non-military means to secure its survival. Alexandria, the most important university city of the Roman world, there was sufficient Emperor Theodosius as a lawgiver. Frontispiece from wealth in other cities to encourage families to Visigoth recension of the Codex of Theodosianus. finance the expense of higher education, and (Ancient Art and Architecture) there was a curiosity to unlock the secrets of Hellenistic learning. Greek texts, especially of medicine, logic and philosophy, were translated into Arabic and studied, and in some cases it was the Islamic schools in Spain which acted as the conduit for the western rediscovery of this knowledge - Latin translations were made of Arabic versions of the Greek originals. One aspect of ancient learning that continued to develop was law. In the 430s Theodosius II had presided over a major compilation of imperial law, and a century later Justinian had overhauled the law code and texts for legal education. Organised laws could contribute to the more effective exercise of power, and even the publication of a code bolstered authority. It is noticeable that rulers of post-Roman states in the West saw the advantages in publishing their own codes which combined Roman and Germanic law in differing proportions; this ensured that Further readin*

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Figures in bold refer to illustrations Code of Euric 71 Cologne 21 Abbinaeus, Flavius 62 Colonia Agrippina 12 Administration 67-69 Comitatus 21, 25, 36 Adrianople, battle of 42, 43, 44. 72 Concordia Augustorum 31 28 Constans 1, Emperor 37, 41 Aemilia 77 Constans II, Emperor 84 Aethius 49, 51 Constantina 35 Africa 49 Constantine I, Emperor 8, 8, 16, 22, 33, 35, 36, 37, 71, 72, 75 Alamannis 28, 41, 58, 70 Constantine II, Emperor 37. 44 Alaric 48, 62-63 Constantinople 21, 25, 26, 36, 45, 47, 52, 54, 55, 56, 60, 61, 64, Alexander Severus, Emperor 12, 27, 29 65, 71, 72, 75, 76, 78, 79, 84, 86, 87, 88, 91 Alexandria 64, 73, 91 Constantinople, Long Walls of 60 Amalasuintha 54, 55 Constantius 1, Emperor 34, 35, 49, 62, 71 Amal and Amals 25, \ 79 Constantius II, Emperor 37, 41, 67 Ambrose. Bishop of Milan 77-78, 77 Corinth 60 Amida 37, 39, 52 Count of the Sacred Largesses 69 Ammianus 41, 44 Ctesiphon 27, 60 Anastasius, Emperor 52, 53, 64 Anatolia 81 Daniel the Stylite 71 Ankara 86 Danube river l3, 25, 28, 44. 47, 60 Ankara citadel 72 Dara 52, 52, 53, 54, 58, 59, 60, 78 Antioch 27, 56, 60, 75 Decius, Emperor 28, 32, 33 Antonina 79-80 Denarius 18. 31 Arabs 66, 76, 84, 87, 89, 90, 91 Dio, Cassius 18 Arcadius. Emperor 40, 44, 47, 48, 73 Diocletia 34, 35 Ardashir Sassanid 27, 66 Diocletian, Emperor 22, 33, 34, 35, 67, 68 Argentoratum, battle of 13, 42 Diocletianoplis 45 Armenia 22, 24, 39, 52, 53, 60, 61, 76 Dome of the Rock 85 Arsacids 24 Domitian, Emperor 12 Asemus, Bishop 73 Dura 27, 28 Asia Minor 22, 28, 52, 90 Athalaric 54, 55 Eastern campaigns 54 Athanasius, Bishop of Alexandria 89 Eastern frontier 39 Athaulf 63 Edessa 28, 56, 73 Athens 60 Edict on Maximum Prices 34, 35 Attalus 62, 63 Egypt 18, 52, 60, 62, 66, 70, 73, 76 Attila 25, 45, 47, 49, 51 Endless Peace 54 Augustine 8 Eugenius. Emperor 62, 72 Augustus, Emperor 13 Euphrates river 27, 28, 56 Aurelian's wall 30 Evagrius 78 Aurelian, Emperor 30, 31, 32, 33, 33, 34 Avar and Avars 25, 26, 59, 60, 61, 66, 84, 85, 88 Farrukhan 66 Franks 29, 47, 58 Bacaudae 70 Frigidus river 44, 62 Bagratuni, Smbat 24 Balkans 21, 28, 47, 52, 59, 62, 63, 66, 84, 87, 88, 90 Galerius, arch of 38 Balkans invasions 59 Galerius, Emperor 34 Barberini ivory 65 Gallienus, Salonim 31, 31, 32 Belisarius General 53, 54, 55, 57, 58, 65, 66, 79, 80 Gallus 37 Bezabde 37 Gaul 21, 30, 48, 49, 51, 52, 69, 70 Black Sea 28, 42, 47 Gelimer, King of Vandals 54 Bleda 45 Gibbon, Edward 8 Boniface, Governor 49 Golden Horn 61 Bosporus 26, 36, 61, 66 Gordian 27 Britain 29, 29, 69-70, 87 Goths 26, 28, 42, 44, 47, 49, 55, 57, 58, 62, 73, 79 Bubonic plague 57, 58, 90 see also Ostrogoths, Visigoths Bucellarii 21, 55, 70 Government 68 Burgundians 55 Gratian 42, 44 Byzantines 91 Hadrian's Wall 15, 16 Caesarea 60 Hannibal 67 Callinicum 53 Helena 78 Carausius 70 Hephthalites 52 Carcacalla, Emperor 18 Heraclea, Bishop of 73 Carpi 25 Heraclius, Emperor 54, 60, 61, 66, 71, 75, 76, 84 Carrhae 13 Herodian 27 Carthage 49, 54 Heruls 65, 66 Carus, Emperor 30 Hippodrome at Constaninople 7 Cassiodorus 71, 79 Honoria 45 Caucasus 59. 61 Honorius, Emperor 44, 47, 48, 49, 62, 63 Chagan, Avar 61 Hormizd 60 Chalcedon 66 Huns 25, 42, 44, 45, 46, 47, 49, 52 Charietto 70 Hydatius 49 Charlemagne 85 Christianity 71-76. 88, 89 lllyria 41 Chrysostom, Bishop John 73 Isaurians 70 City of God 8 Islamic Arabs 81 Clibanarii 21 Islamic conquests 82 Clovis, King 85 Istria 28 Index 95

Italy 21, 28, 55, 62, 66 Priscus 45 Probus, Emperor 30 Jerusalem 60, 66, 71, 89 Procopius 21, 41, S3, 79 Jews 89 Proterius, Bishop 73 John the Cappadocian 80 John the Lydian 78-79 Quadi 28, 41, 42 Jovian 39, 41 Julian, Emperor 8, 25, 37, 38, 41, 70 Ravenna 48, 49, 52, 55, 57, 62, 63, 63, 64, 66, 78, 79, 84 Julian the apostate 72 Rhine river 12, 13, 28, 48, 70 Justin II, Emperor 59, 60, 66 Rhomaioi 86 Justin I, Emperor 53 Ricimer 51 Justinian, Emperor 53, 54, 55, 56, 57, 58, 59, 64, 65, 65, 66, 71, Roman Provinces 14 72, 79, 80, 81, 84 Rome 60, 61, 64 Romulus 52 Kavadh, King 52 Rua 45 Khusro I, King 41, 53, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 73 Khusro II, King 24, 60, 61, 66, 81 Sarmatians 41 Sassanids 24, 81, 88 Lactantius 36 Saxons 29, 29, 87 Language 91 Septimus Severus, Emperor 15, 18 Lazica 56, 57 Shahvaraz 66 Leo, Emperor 70, 78 Shapur I 27 Leo, Pope 51 Shapur II 37, 38 Licinius 36 Silvanus, General 41 Limitanei 21 Silverius, Pope 80 Lombards 25, 59, 60, 66, 84 Singara 37, 39 Lucius Verus, Emperor 15, 34 Slav raiders 25 Slavs 60, 61, 84, 87, 88 Macedonia 73 Sol Invictus 33 Magister equitum 36 Solidi 37 Magister peditum 36 Spain 17, 18, 48, 49, 51, 52, 69, 70, 87 Magnentius 41, 70 Squillace 79 Majorian 51 S. Sophia 71, 90 Mandylion of Edessa 56 Stilicho, General 47, 48, 62 Marcellinus, Ammianus 37 Strasburg 25 Marcian, Emperor 73 Syagrius 70 Marcomanni 28 Symeon Stylites 78 Marcus Aurelius, Emperor 12 Syria 76, 78, 81, 90 Marmara, Sea of 47, 61 Martyrius 78 Taxation 16-7, 18, 31, 68, 69 Martyropolis 55 Telneshin 78 Master of Offices 23 Tervingi 41, 44 Maurice, Emperor 41, 60, 73, 84 Theodahad 55 Maxentius 35 Theoderic Strabo 47, 64 Maximian, Bishop 34, 57 Theoderic the Amal (also Ostrogoth) 9, 47, 48, 49, 51, 51, 52, 54, Maximinus the Thracia 29 63-64, 63, 73, 79 Mecca 81 Theodora, Empress 64, 80, 80 Mediterranean Sea 87 Theodore 81 Menander 57 Theodosian code 68 Merovingian Franks 84, 85 Theodosius, Bishop 64 Mesopotamia 24, 30, 36, 53, 56 Theodosius I, Emperor 7, 8, 44, 47, 48, 62, 72, 77 Milan 55, 62, 65, 77, 78 Theodosius II, Emperor 78, 91, 91 Milvian Bridge 35, 71, 72 Theophylact 24 Moguntiacum 12 Thessalonica 60, 61, 73, 76, 88 Monophysites 88, 89 Third-century Crisis 27 Muhammad 81 Thirteenth Sibylline Oracle 30 Mursa 71 Thomas, Bishop of Amida 52 Thos 66 Naples 57, 66 Thrace 44 Narses 55, 58, 64-66 Tiberius, Emperor 60, 84 Nestorians 88 Timothy the Cat 73 Nicaea 74 Totila 57, 58, 66 Nicetas 66 Trade 17 Nineveh 61 Trajan, Emperor 13 Nisibis 37, 39, 40, 52 Trapian silver 87 North Sea 29, 29 Notitia Dignitatum 23, 69, 79 Uldin 44 Umar, caliph 66 Odaenathus of Palmyra 28, 30, 70 Odoacer 52, 64 Vahram, General 60 On Magistracies 79 Valens, Emperor 8, 41, 44, 72 Ostrogoths 25, 54, 70, 79 see also Goths, Visigoths Valentinian I, Emperor 41, 42, 67, 71 Ottomans 86 Valentinian II, Emperor 42, 77 Valentinian III, Emperor 49, 51 Palestine 81, 90 Valerian Wall at Athens 28 Palmyra 17, 17, 33 Valerian, Emperor 28, 33 Pannonians 32 Vandals 28, 47, 48, 49, 51, 52, 54, 55, 71 Parade helmet 22 Verus. Lucius 18 Pax romana 16 Vigilius, Pope 72, 80 Pergamum 84 Vindolanda writing tablets 17 Peroz, King 24 Visigoths 48, 49, 51, 69, 70 see also Goths, Ostrogoths Persia and Persians 28, 47, 52, 54, 56, 57, 59, 60, 61, 66 Vitigis 55, 56 Persian armies 24-25, 26 Petra 17 Warlord 69-71 Philip the Arab 27 West's disintegration 50 Phocas, Emperor 60, 84 Pippinids 85, 87 Yarmuk, River 81 Placidia 49 Yazdgard 40 Po valley 59, 66 Yazdgard III, King 81 Porchester Castle 29 Post Roman West 83 Zeno, Emperor 47, 63, 64, 70, 71, 73 Postumus 30 Zenobia 30 In the early third century AD the Roman Empire was a force to be reckoned with, controlling vast territories and wielding enormous political

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