Journal of Public Administration

Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015

JOPA JOURNAL OF PUBLIC ADMINISTRATION South Africa Tel: +27 12 382 9769/ 9255 Fax: +27 12 382 9042

EDITORIAL COMMITTEE Chief Editor and Chairperson Prof M H Maserumule, Tshwane University of Technology Deputy Editor Prof K Phago, University of Book Review Editor Dr O Nzewi, Policy Review Editor Prof F M Lucky Mathebula, South African Association of Public Administration and Management Copy Editor Lynne Southey Executive Director Prof T Khalo, South African Association of Public Administration and Management MEMBERS Prof B C Mubangizi, University of Kwa-Zulu-Natal Prof M J D Matshabaphala, University of Witwatersrand Prof D M Mello, North-West University Prof K J Maphunye, University of South Africa Prof Z Mpehle, University of Limpopo Prof M Ndletyana, University of Johannesburg Prof M J Mafunisa, Prof C Hofisi, Vaal University of Technology Dr L Ntonzima, Cape Peninsula University of Technology Dr V Naidoo, EDITORIAL BOARD Prof S Vil-Nkomo, Prof K Kondlo, University of Johannesburg Prof S R Malefane, University of South Africa Prof D Rich, University of Delaware Prof M Aristigueta, University of Delaware Prof B Basheka, Uganda Technology & Management University Prof L Mollo, Department of International Relations and Cooperation Dr Pan S Kim of Korea, Yonsei University, Kangwon-Korea Dr I Kabumba, African Association for Public Administration and Management Prof E O C Ijeoma, School of Public Management and Development, University of Fort Hare Prof K B Moeti, Tshwane University of Technology Prof T Potgieter, National School of Government Prof P FritzGerald, University of Witwatersrand Prof B Hanyane, North-West University Prof M H Kanyane, Human Sciences Research Council Prof S Binza, Cape Peninsula University of Technology Prof Y Penceliah, University of Kwazulu-Natal Prof N Nkuna, University of Limpopo Dr K I Theletsane, University of Stellenbosch Prof G Zhou, University of Zimbabwe Prof P Haruna, Texas A & M International University

©2015, SAAPAM Copyright of this journal as a whole is vested in the South African Association for Public Administration and Management, and no part may be reproduced in whole or in part without-the-express permission, in writing, of SAAPAM. It should be noted that any opinions expressed are the responsibility of the individual authors and not of the chief editor, editorial committee, editorial board, or any of SAAPAM’s funders or sponsors. ISSN: 0036-0767

The Journal of Public Administration is accredited with the South African Department of Higher Education and Training, and International Bibliography of the Social Sciences. Contents

420 Editorial Building a Humanitarian Public Service Imbued with Strong Ethics and Values: In Honour of Great Leaders of Our Time Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo

423 Exemplar Profile In Conversation with Professor Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo: Recipient of the South African Association of Public Administration and Management's Highest Honour Mashupye H Maserumule and FM Lucky Mathebula

439 Science of Public Administration: Critiquing the Past, Recognising the Present and Imagining the Future Mashupye H Maserumule and Sibusiso Vil-Nkomo

466 Indigenous Africa’s Governance Architecture: A Need for African Public Administration Theory? Benon C Basheka

485 Meaning and Significance of Conscience and Consciousness in Public Leadership in the Post-1994 South Africa Kwandiwe Kondlo

496 Leadership and Good Governance in the Public Service: Lessons from African Philosophy Manamela DJ Matshabaphala

505 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

522 The Transformation of Violence to Peace: Sketches of Leadership Skills That Matter Berhanu Mengistu and Stephanie J Menefee

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 532 World Affairs and South Africa: Country Rankings Jonathan Story

549 Class Dynamics and State Transformation in South Africa Joel Netshitenzhe

562 State Attributes: South Africa as a Declaratory Developmental State Through Diktat? Chris Landsberg

578 Public Service By, Of and For the Public Barry Gilder

589 Administrative Culture of the South African Public Service: A Finity of Transformation William Gumede

600 Defining, Designing and Delivering Induction Training in the South African Public Service Thean Potgieter and Fran Greyling

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal

Leland Ware University of Delaware

Abstract of worship. In the northern states, many restaurants, theatres and hotels would not The civil rights and anti- move­ serve black patrons. Segregated neighbour- ments produced two iconic leaders, Nelson hoods were perpetuated­ by the real estate Mandela and Martin Luther King. Both lead- industry. Blacks were confined to occupa- ers confronted white supremacist regimes tions such as maids, cooks, chauffeurs, por- with no resources beyond the volunteers ters and labourers. who participated in organised protests. They ultimately prevailed against tremendous This article examines the ways in which odds. Segregation and apartheid shared a segregation and apartheid were fought with common purpose. They rigidly controlled marches, boycotts and demonstrations and, each country's black population. Laws and in the case of South Africa, armed resistance. practices determined where blacks could King and Mandela took courageous stands reside, where they could work and where against unjust laws. Mandela was banned by they could attend schools. Under apartheid, the South African government and subse- every South African was classified into one quently imprisoned for 27 years. King gave of three racial groups: white, coloured and his life to the struggle when he was assas- black. Blacks could not own property in 80 sinated in 1968. Despite the many obstacles, percent of South Africa's land area. Racial both leaders were able to lead the decades- segregation was enforced in all public long struggle to end segregation and apart- areas including buildings, services and heid. The Civil Rights Movement in America transportation. culminated with the federal legislation of the 1960s. South African apartheid lasted for a In America's southern states, schools, restau- generation longer, ending in 1994 with the rants, hotels, theatres, public transportation­ election of Nelson Mandela as president. In and waiting rooms were seg­regated, as were both countries, justice eventually prevailed. elevators, parks, public restrooms, hospi- `"[T]he arc of the moral universe is long, but tals, drinking fountains, prisons and places it bends toward justice".

505 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

Introduction elevators, parks, public restrooms, hospitals, drinking fountains, prisons and places of The civil rights and anti-apartheid move­ worship. In the northern states, many restau- ments produced two iconic leaders, Nelson rants, theatres and hotels would not serve Mandela and Martin Luther King. Both lead- black patrons. Segregated neighbourhoods ers confronted white supremacist regimes were perpetuated by the real estate industry. with virtually no resources beyond the Blacks were confined to occupations such volunteers who participated in organised as maids, cooks, chauffeurs, porters and protests. They ultimately prevailed against labourers. As was the case in South Africa, tremendous odds. From 1910, when the blacks were expected to be deferential and Union of South Africa was established, until subservient. An obsequious "yes sir" or "no 1994, black South Africans endured a system ma'am" were the ways blacks were required of racial exclusion and oppression. The con- to address whites in the American South; straints were tightened in the 1940s and `"yes baas" was the South African equivalent.

`'50s when the South African government implemented apartheid. In America, from Under apartheid, every South African was 1896 until 1968, blacks experienced simi- classified into one of three racial groups: lar forms of discrimination under laws and white, coloured and black. Blacks could practices that enforced racial segregation. not own property in 80 percent of South Africa's land area. Apartheid was enforced Segregation and apartheid shared a common in all public areas including buildings, ser- purpose. They rigidly controlled each coun- vices and transportation. Urban communi- try's black population. Laws and practices ties were divided into "group areas" in which determined where blacks could reside, residence was restricted to designated racial where they could work and where they could groups. South African blacks were prohib- attend schools. Parks, restaurants, hotels, ited from working in any occupation except public buildings and transportation were those designated for blacks. Laws enforced divided by race. In South Africa, the intent racially separated schools. A law created was to have a large supply of cheap labour ten black "homelands" as independent residing near the gold and diamond mines. states. The citizenship of millions of black South African blacks could also serve as South Africans was revoked and they were maids, cooks, drivers and in other low-level required to carry passbooks to enter white occupations. Apartheid envisioned a servile areas. The system was all-encompassing. black population that would be dependent on whites for all of its needs. This article compares segregation in Amer- ica to apartheid in South Africa. It examines In America's southern states, schools, restau- the ways in which segregation and apartheid rants, hotels, theatres, public transportation were fought with marches, boycotts and and waiting rooms were segregated, as were demonstrations and, in the case of South

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 506 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

Africa, armed resistance. Martin Luther King segregation did not violate the Constitution and Nelson Mandela took courageous stands if the separate facilities provided for blacks against unjust laws. Mandela was "banned" were equal to those reserved for whites. by the South African government and was After Plessy, a regime of white supremacy subsequently imprisoned for 27 years. King was imposed. The Fourteenth and Fifteenth gave his life to the struggle when he was Amendments3 of the United States Constitu- assassinated in 1968. Despite formidable tion were essentially nullified in the South. obstacles, both leaders were able to lead the African Americans were disenfranchised, struggle to end segregation and apartheid. confined to substandard housing in segre- The Civil Rights Movement in America culmi- gated neighbourhoods and excluded from nated with the anti-discrimination legislation all but the lowest paying, least desirable of the 1960s. South African apartheid lasted occupations. They were always separate, for a generation longer, ending in 1994 with but never equal.4 the election of Nelson Mandela as president.

`"[T]he arc of the moral universe is long, but Whites and blacks were born in separate it bends toward justice."1 hospitals, educated in separate schools and buried in segregated graveyards. Segrega- Segregation in America tion was codified in state and local laws and enforced by intimidation and violence. There Martin Luther King, Jr was born on 15 were, in effect, two criminal justice systems: January 1929, in Atlanta, Georgia. In 1944, one for whites and another for blacks. When King graduated from Booker T. Washington the colour line was breached, violence was High School and was admitted to Morehouse unleashed against offenders by the Ku Klux College at the age of 15. After graduating Klan and local whites, often in concert with from college, he entered Crozer Theological local law enforcement officials. Lynching Seminary in Upland, Pennsylvania. King was and other forms of racial violence and intimi- ordained as a Baptist minister on 25 Feb- dation were routine.5 ruary 1948, when he was 19 years old. In 1951, King entered Boston University. He In the North many theatres, restaurants, received a PhD in Theology from that institu- places of entertainment and public accom- tion on 5 June 1955. King married Coretta modations barred black patrons. Segregated Scott and settled in Montgomery, Alabama, neighbourhoods were enforced by racially where he became the pastor of the Dexter restrictive covenants. The covenants were Avenue Baptist Church. clauses in deeds that prevented property owners and subsequent purchasers from In the 1950s, segregation was a deeply selling their homes to racial and religious entrenched American institution. The system minorities. When northern cities began to was officially sanctioned by the 1896 deci- industrialise at the beginning of the twenti- sion, Plessy v. Ferguson 2, which held that eth century, thousands of African-American

507 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

families migrated from the rural South to federal government required racially restric- cities in the Northeast and Midwest. Local tive covenants on loans it insured. This ordinances were enacted that prohibited barred African Americans from suburban African Americans from occupying proper- communities in which most of the homes ties except in black neighbourhoods. were purchased with federally-insured mortgages.9 The ordinances were challenged and declared unconstitutional in a 1917 deci- The American Civil Rights sion, Buchanan v. Warley.6 After Buchanan, Movement the real estate industry resorted to racially restrictive covenants. The Supreme Court Martin Luther King's career as a civil rights implicitly endorsed the covenants in a 1926 leader began in 1955 and ended thirteen decision, Corrigan v. Buckley.7 The Four- years later with his assassination in 1968. teenth Amendment applies only to "state During this relatively short period of time, action", which consists of actions taken by America underwent a profound change. the state and local governments. The cov- Beginning in the mid-1930s, the National enants, however, were private agreements. Association for the Advancement of Col- oured People (NAACP) challenged segrega- During the post-World War II era of the tion with court cases that culminated with 1940s and '50s, suburban communities Brown v. Board of Education in 1954.10 That were developed in areas adjacent to cities. case effectively reversed Plessy and held For most Americans, home ownership was that racial segregation in public schools made possible for the first time by the intro- violated the Fourteenth Amendment of the duction of fixed-rate, 30-year mortgages US Constitution. insured by the Veterans Administration and Federal Housing Authority. The Home After Brown, the Civil Rights Movement Owners' Loan Corporation (HOLC), a fed- went from the courts to the streets. On eral agency established during the 1930s 1 December 1955, Rosa Parks was arrested depression, fostered discriminatory prac- after refusing to yield her seat to a white pas- tices through "redlining".8 senger.11 A few days later, the Montgomery Improvement Association was organised by The HOLC rated every neighbourhood in local black leaders. Martin Luther King, who America "A", "B", "C" or "D", using colour was just 26 years old at the time, was elected coded maps. The lowest quality rating, "D", president. After a tense year, in which car- was coloured red. Neighbourhoods rated pools were organised and weekly prayer

`"A" had to be homogenous and occupied meetings held, in November of 1956 the US by whites. Neighbourhoods in which blacks Supreme Court ruled that segregation on resided were rated "D". The neighbourhood's public transportation was unconstitutional, boundaries were marked by a red line. The ensuring victory for the bus boycott.12

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 508 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

In 1960, lunch counter sit-ins began in audience and the nation with his "I have a Greensboro, North Carolina, and rapidly dream" speech in which he articulated his spread across the South. In Atlanta, King was vision of a just and egalitarian society.16 arrested during a sit-in, as he waited to be The speech catapulted him to international served at a segregated restaurant. He was acclaim. On 3 January 1964, King's image sentenced to four months in jail, but after appeared on the cover of Time magazine as intervention by John Kennedy and Robert its "Man of the Year". On 10 December, King Kennedy, he was released. was awarded the Nobel Peace Prize, which made him, at the age of 35, the youngest In 1963, King launched the Birmingham cam- person to be awarded the honour. paign.13 The effort started with a boycott and switched to nonviolent marches and sit-ins. In the summer of that year, the Civil Rights Eugene "Bull" Connor, Birmingham's Com- Act of 1964 was enacted.17 The major provi- missioner of Public Safety, ordered police sions of this landmark legislation are: Title officers to use high-pressure water hoses, II, which outlawed discrimination in hotels, police dogs and tear gas to control protesters, motels, restaurants, theatres, and other many of whom were children. The extreme public accommodations; Title VI, which brutality inflicted on protestors was featured authorised the withdrawal of federal funds on nightly newscasts that shocked the nation. from programmes, including public schools, King was arrested. During his incarceration which practised discrimination; and Title VII, he wrote the Letter from Birmingham Jail which prohibits discrimination in employ- in which he argued that individuals have ment and created the Equal Employment

`"a moral responsibility to disobey unjust Opportunity Commission to review and laws."14 After weeks of tense negotiations, investigate complaints.18 an agreement was reached that provided for the desegregation of Birmingham's stores, This was a major accomplishment that met restaurants and schools. several of the legislative goals of the Civil Rights Movement. The denial of access to The historic March on Washington was held places of public accommodation stigma- on 28 August 1963.15 It was the result of tised and demeaned African Americans. The the collective efforts of several civil rights threat of the loss of federal funding made groups. The march was the largest civil discrimination in schools, colleges and rights demonstration in American history. universities too costly to continue. This dra- It received international attention. Approxi- matically expanded the educational oppor- mately 250 000 people gathered peacefully tunities available to blacks. Discrimination on the Mall in Washington, DC. King was in employment relegated African Ameri- an inspirational speaker. He used the black cans to the lowest paying, least desirable preachers' "call-and-response style" driven occupations. The law forbade employment by rhythmic cadences. King captivated the discrimination.

509 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

The 1964 Civil Rights Act did not address were killed and 1 500 injured. The riots voting rights. The Fifteenth Amendment of reflected the anger and frustration that had the Constitution guaranteed African Ameri- been building for decades. Northern ghet- cans the right to vote. However, by the end toes had long been tinderboxes waiting to of the 19th century, almost all of the south- explode. ern states had enacted laws that disenfran- chised African Americans. The Selma, Ala- In 1967, Dr King announced his intent to bama, voting rights demonstrations were organise a Poor People's Campaign that publicised in January of 1965, when Martin would focus on unemployment and poverty. Luther King addressed a mass meeting in As plans were being finalised, King travelled that city. Members of a civil rights group, the to Memphis, Tennessee, to support striking Student Nonviolent Coordinating Committee, sanitation workers. In March of 1968, King had been attempting to register voters in led a demonstration in Memphis that went Selma for several weeks.19 out of control and turned violent. Disap- pointed but undeterred, King returned to During their first march, the protestors were Memphis. On 3 April, he delivered a pow- stopped by police officers who savagely erful, and what would be his final, speech. attacked them with billy clubs and tear gas. Appearing to anticipate his death, King said: After a second march was aborted, King led a group of demonstrators on a journey from I got into Memphis. And some began to Selma to Montgomery. They set out on 21 say the threats, or talk about the threats March with approximately 3 000 demon- that were out… But it really doesn't strators. Four days later they reached Mont- matter with me now, because I've been gomery with 25 000 marchers. This effort to the mountaintop. And I don't mind. spurred Congress to enact the Voting Rights Like anybody, I would like to live a long Act, which President Lyndon Johnson signed life. Longevity has its place. But I'm not into law on 6 August 1965.20 The Act pro- concerned about that now. I just want to hibits states from imposing any requirement do God's will. And He's allowed me to that would deny the right of any citizen to go up to the mountain. And I've looked vote on account of race. This was another over. And I've seen the Promised Land. significant accomplishment of the Civil I may not get there with you. But I want Rights Movement. you to know tonight, that we, as a people, will get to the Promised Land!22 In 1967, African Americans' frustrations and impatience erupted in 159 race riots in cities On 4 April, King was fatally shot by an across the United States.21 The first occurred assassin while standing on a balcony of the in Cleveland, Ohio. The most destructive Lorraine Motel in Memphis. Riots erupted violence took place in Newark, New Jersey, in 130 American cities; 20 000 people and Detroit, Michigan. In Newark, 26 people were arrested. Washington, Baltimore and

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 510 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

Chicago were the heaviest hit among the of the Xhosa nation, and counsellor to the cities that experienced unrest following monarch. When Nelson Mandela's father King's assassination.23 While many of the died in 1930, the paramount chief, Jongin- nation's cities were still smouldering from taba Dalindyebo, became his guardian. the riots, the Fair Housing Act of 1968 was Mandela grew up with his two sisters in enacted.24 This law forbade discrimination in the village of Qunu. He attended Clarke- the sale and rental of housing and allowed bury Missionary school and graduated from blacks to move away from the ghettoes to Healdtown Methodist school. The name which they had been confined. With the Nelson was given to him by a school teacher passage of the Fair Housing Act, the Civil when he was seven years old.25 Rights Movement's legislative agenda was achieved. By the time of his death, King had In 1938, Mandela enrolled at the University become an international Civil Rights icon. In of Fort Hare, South Africa's first university 1983, a law was enacted that made his birth- for black Africans. At Fort Hare Mandela met day a federal holiday. "The Stone of Hope" Oliver Tambo, who would become his close memorial, featuring a statue of King, was friend and law partner. Mandela and Tambo opened to the public in Washington DC, on were expelled from Fort Hare in 1940 for 22 August 2011. leading a student protest. Mandela subse- quently moved to Johannesburg to avoid South African Apartheid being forced into an arranged marriage. He found work as a night-watchman at a gold The careers of Martin Luther King and Nelson mine.26 Mandela bear a striking resemblance. Both men were internationally renowned lead- In Johannesburg, Mandela met Walter ers in the struggle against black oppression. Sisulu, who became his close friend. He Mandela organised rallies and protests in began to work as a clerk in a law firm. In the 1950s. He was sentenced to life impris- 1941, Mandela completed the work for his onment in 1964. He was imprisoned until bachelor's degree and began to study law 1990. After his release, he was elected the at the University of the Witwatersrand in first black president of South Africa in 1994. Johannesburg. In 1944, Mandela married Over the course of these years, South Africa Evelyn Ntoko Mase, Walter Sisulu's cousin. transitioned from a white ruled oligarchy to The marriage produced four children. Over an egalitarian democracy. time, however, Mandela's frequent absences and heavy involvement in protest activities On 18 July 1918, Rolihlahla Mandela was strained their relationship to breaking point. born in Mvezo, a small village in the Transkei, The couple divorced in 1958.27 a former British protectorate in the South. His father, Gadla Henry Mphakanyiswa, was Nelson Mandela was born into a society a chief of the Thembu people, a subdivision in which black Africans were severely

511 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

oppressed.28 Apartheid in South Africa Over the following decades a series of apart- was, in some ways, even harsher than seg- heid laws were enacted. Black citizenship regation in America.29 In 1910, the Union was revoked. Education, residential areas, of South Africa was established by former medical care and common areas, public British colonies of the Cape and Natal and transportation, beaches and other ameni- the Boer republics of Transvaal and Orange ties were segregated.31 Free State. The 1911 Mines and Works Act, and its 1926 successor reserved skilled The Prohibition of Mixed Marriages Act jobs in the mining and railway industries of 1949 forbade interracial marriages. for white workers. In 1913, the Land Act The Immorality Amendment Act of 1950 was adopted to prevent blacks, except those forbade extramarital sex among people of living in the Cape Province, from buying different races. The Population Registra- land outside of designated areas. The law tion Act enacted in 1950 required every effectively limited black land ownership to South African to be classified into one of 8 percent of South Africa's land area. three racial groups: white, coloured (mixed race or Asian) and Bantu or native (African/ The Natives Act of 1923 regulated blacks black). In 1950, the Group Areas Act segre- residing in urban areas. It gave local author- gated blacks and whites. Urban areas were ities the power to establish separate black divided into "group areas" in which resi- areas on the outskirts of urban and indus- dence was restricted to designated racial trial areas. Local authorities were expected groups. to provide housing for Africans or to require employers to provide housing for The 1951 Bantu Building Workers Act pre- their workers. In 1934, South Africa's par- vented black South Africans from perform- liament enacted the Status of the Union Act, ing skilled work in any occupation except which ended its colonial ties with England those designated for blacks. In 1952, the and established South Africa as a sovereign Abolition of Passes and Co-ordination of nation.30 Documents Act required black South Afri- cans to carry identification that included In 1948, the formal policy of apartheid was a photograph, place of origin, employment adopted after the National Party prevailed record, tax payments and any arrest records. in the elections. The National Party was The 1953 Bantu Education Act established founded in 1915 and was South Africa's a black Education Department. This law governing party from 1948 until 1994. enforced racially separated educational The Party's supporters included most of the facilities. A curriculum was developed that Dutch-descended Afrikaners and many Eng- was designed to prevent blacks from receiv- lish-speaking whites. This ultra-right wing ing higher levels of instruction. A 1959 law party rose to power on a platform of "apart- prohibited black students from attending heid" which is Afrikaans for "separateness". white universities. The 1953 Reservation

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 512 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

of Separate Amenities Act imposed racial In December 1952, Mandela and Oliver segregation in all public areas including Tambo opened South Africa's first black law buildings, services and transportation. firm in Johannesburg. That same year, the ANC commenced its "Defiance Campaign". The 1951 Bantu Authorities Act created The nonviolent tactics employed were simi- ten black "homelands" as independent lar to those Martin Luther King would use states. It provided the legal basis for the in the United States. The Defiance Campaign deportation of blacks into designated was the largest nonviolent protest in South homeland reserve areas and established Africa's history. It was the first demonstra- tribal, regional and territorial authorities. tion that included all racial groups under the The 1970 Bantu Homelands Citizens Act leadership of the ANC and the South African revoked black South Africans' citizenship Indian Congress. On 26 June 1952, a group and required them to become citizens of a of volunteers led by Mandela and Sisulu homeland designated for each individual's openly defied South Africa's apartheid laws ethnic group, even if they didn't actually in Johannesburg and other cities. A national live in their designated homeland. The pur- action committee was formed by Sisulu and pose of the law was to ensure that white Ismail "Maulvi" Cachalia. Mandela was the South Africans constituted the majority of leader of the effort. the South African electorate. During the many protest demonstrations, The ANC Youth League and participants sang freedom songs and gave the Defiance Campaign the ANC's thumbs-up sign as a symbol of unity. They shouted Mayibuye i Afrika (come Nelson Mandela was an engaging speaker back, Africa) and were greeted with cheers and a charismatic leader. He was tall and from onlookers. A total of 52 Africans and imposing, but he was always humble and Indians, including Walter Sisulu, Nelson modest. He gave credit to others and readily Mandela and Ismail Cachalia, marched into acknowledged their contributions. In 1944, Boksburg, a location near Johannesburg, Mandela, Oliver Tambo and Walter Sisulu without permits. All of the demonstrators founded the Youth League of the African were arrested, except Mandela and Cachalia National Congress (ANC). The ANC had who attended as observers, having planned been established in 1912 to bring Africans to avoid arrest. together to defend their rights and freedoms. Leaders of the youth league felt the ANC's In Port Elizabeth, 30 people entered a rail- cautious approach moved too slowly. They way station through the "Europeans Only" decided to take a more active approach. In entrance and were arrested. Others were 1948, Mandela became national secretary arrested for entering the European sections of the ANC's Youth League. In 1950, he was of post offices, sitting on benches reserved elected president of the Youth League. for whites or violating other apartheid

513 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

regulations. The campaign spread from Port approximately 3 000 delegates at the Con- Elizabeth to smaller towns in the Eastern gress of the People in Kliptown, near Johan- Cape Province and from Johannesburg to nesburg, on 26 June 1955. Cape Town, to Bloemfontein and Durban. The Charter was the product of more than a The government reacted by arresting the year of meetings and discussions that were leaders of the protests. A number of them convened with groups across South Africa. It were charged with violating the Suppres- envisioned an egalitarian society that would sion of Communism Act for promoting replace the apartheid regime. In a reformed communism. The trial began in November South Africa, the wealth of the country would and, on 2 December 1952, all of the 20 per- be shared and adequate housing, education sons charged were found guilty of "statu- and healthcare would be provided for all tory communism" and sentenced to nine South Africans. The Freedom Charter states months imprisonment. The sentences were that "South Africa belongs to all who live suspended for two years. in it" and that "all shall be equal before the law". It promised to continue the struggle Mandela was banned under the Suppres- against apartheid until it was replaced by a sion of Communism Act. Banning in South democratic order.32 Africa was an administrative action in which individuals could be subjected to severe On 6 December 1956, Mandela was arrested restrictions on their travel, associations and and charged with treason, along with 156 speech. A person deemed to be a commu- other political leaders. The arrests included nist, a terrorist or a threat to the security most of the executives of the ANC, as well and public order of the state could be con- as representatives of the Congress of Demo- fined to the individual's home or immediate crats, South African Indian Congress, Col- surroundings. oured People's Congress and South African Congress of Trade Unions. The persons At a 1955 meeting of the Congress of the arrested were charged with "high treason People, the Freedom Charter was adopted. and a countrywide conspiracy to use vio- The government's ban on Mandela pre- lence to overthrow the present government vented him from attending. The initiative and replace it with a communist state". for the Freedom Charter was developed While the charges were pending, Mandela by a multi-racial coalition of organisations, met and married a social worker, Winnie including the ANC, the Congress of Demo- Nomzamo Madikizela, in 1958. Their mar- crats, the Indian National Congress and riage produced two daughters. the South African Coloured People's Con- gress. The Freedom Charter was intended to On 29 March 1961, Mandela and his co- facilitate a united, anti-apartheid movement defendants were acquitted after a four-year with a common vision. It was adopted by trial. However, in 1960, the Sharpeville

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 514 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

demonstrations were organised to protest as "The Black Pimpernel" based on his ability laws that required black South Africans to to avoid the police, using several disguises, carry passbooks with them whenever they including a favourite that involved posing travelled out of their home areas. The ANC as a chauffeur.34 planned an anti-pass campaign that would have commenced on 31 March 1960. The Mandela travelled to Addis Abba, Ethiopia, Pan Africanist Congress, a younger and to attend a conference of African national- more militant group that broke away from ist leaders. From there, he went to Algeria the ANC, organised a campaign that was to receive guerrilla training. Afterwards, he scheduled to start 10 days before the ANC's went to London to meet with Oliver Tambo, demonstration. who was heading the ANC in exile. During this period, Mandela established the ANC's On 21 March, a demonstration involving military wing, Umkhonto we Sizwe (abbrevi- 5 000 to 7 000 people convened in Sharpe­ ated as "MK" and translated as "Spear of the ville. The protesters went to the local police Nation") and became its first leader. Mandela station where they demanded to be arrested viewed nonviolent protest as a tactic to be for not carrying passes. Police reinforce- used only as long as it was effective. The ments arrived during the incident. In the circumstances had changed. Violence had afternoon, scuffles broke out and some of to be met with violence. Mandela became a the demonstrators began throwing rocks freedom fighter. at the police. As the crowd moved forward, the police began to fire live rounds into the MK engaged in acts of sabotage including crowd. A total of 69 people were killed, 180 bombing military installations, power plants, were injured. The "Sharpeville Massacre", as telephone lines and transportation links the incident became known, sparked pro- at night, when civilians were not present. tests and riots among black South Africans Mandela said they chose sabotage, because throughout the country. On 30 March, the it was the least harmful action and it did not South African government declared a state involve loss of life. MK set off 57 bombings of emergency. Thousands of blacks were on 16 December, 1961. Additional attacks arrested. The African National Congress and were launched on 31 December. MK did not the Pan Africanist Congress were banned.33 suspend its armed struggle until Mandela was unconditionally released from prison Freedom Fighter and the ANC was unbanned.

After the ANC was outlawed, Mandela On 5 August 1962, Mandela was arrested decided to go underground to carry on the after returning to South Africa. After a trial, organisation's activities clandestinely. For 17 Mandela was convicted of leaving the coun- months, he was a fugitive. During this period, try illegally and incitement to strike. He was the South African press referred to Mandela sentenced to five years in prison. On 11 July

515 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

1963, while Mandela was in prison, the police It is an ideal which I hope to live for and raided the ANC's secret headquarters at a to achieve. But if needs be, it is an ideal farmhouse in Rivonia, a suburb of Johannes- for which I am prepared to die. burg. They found documents that outlined

`"Operation Mayibuye", which was a plan On 12 June 1964, Mandela, Sisulu and six for a possible commencement of guerilla other ANC leaders were convicted, sen- operations stating how they might provoke tenced to life imprisonment and taken to a mass armed uprising against the South Robben Island prison.35 African government. Operation Mayibuye was drafted by members of the National The Soweto Uprising and the "Free High Command. Mandela was imprisoned Mandela" Campaign at the time and did not participate in draft- ing the document. He later described Opera- On 16 June 1976, thousands of school tion Mayibuye as a "draft document" that he students marched through the streets of considered "entirely unrealistic in its goals Soweto, an area in the city of Johannes- and plans". burg, to oppose a law requiring the use of Afrikaans as the language of instruction in Mandela and other ANC leaders were black schools. The South African govern- charg­ed with recruiting persons for train- ment decided to enforce a law requiring ing in the use of explosives and in guerrilla secondary education to be conducted in warfare for the purpose of violent revolution Afrikaans, rather than in English. This was and committing acts of sabotage; conspiring bitterly resented by teachers and students. to commit those acts and to aid foreign mili- A protest march was organised in the Soweto tary units when they invaded the Republic; township on 16 June 1976. Over 20 000 acting in these ways to further the objects students turned out for the march. There of communism and soliciting and receiving was a heavy police presence. money from sympathisers outside South Africa. The bloodshed began when police set off tear gas and fired guns into the crowds. Students At the conclusion of the trial, Mandela said: of all ages were attacked without warning. Many young, defenceless children were During my lifetime I have dedicated killed including 13-year-old Hector Pieter- myself to this struggle of the African son. The students used sticks, rocks, bricks people. I have fought against white and schoolbags to attack the police. Heavily domination, and I have fought against outnumbered, and unable to protect them- black domination. I have cherished the selves from the students, the police fled to ideal of a democratic and free society regroup. When the police retreated, students in which all persons live together in began destroying government property. The harmony and with equal opportunities. students set up barricades to make sure that

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 516 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

the police could not return. The riots spread banks and other British companies to sell to other South African townships. their South African subsidiaries and led a national boycott of South African imports.38 The government reacted with force. Anti- riot units and armed vehicles were sent to In the late 1970s and early 1980s, the Anti- Soweto and other townships. Government Apartheid Movement spread to America.39 officials restricted the activities of anti- Supporters urged institutional investors apartheid groups. Meetings were stopped to withdraw their investments from South and activists were harassed. After Soweto, African-based companies. Institutional inves- however, an uprising or march would take tors, such as public pension funds, were the place almost every day, often completely most susceptible to these types of lobbying spontaneously. Young blacks expressed efforts. The anti-apartheid disinvestment their anger by marching, rioting and setting campaign moved to Michigan State Univer- fire to government property. In the end, over sity and Stanford University in 1977. The 360 blacks were killed in the Soweto riots movement spread to campuses across the of 1976. The government's heavy-handed nation. Students organised and demanded tactics ignited a fire that would burn until that their universities stop investing in com- the end of the apartheid regime.36 panies that traded with or had operations in South Africa. In the late 1960s, the ANC launched an international anti-apartheid campaign. On 21 November 1984, Randall Robinson, Nelson Mandela became the personifica- the founder of TransAfrica,40 District of tion of this effort. His photograph, with the Columbia Congressman, Walter Fauntroy, caption "Free Mandela", appeared on flyers and Professor and Civil Rights activist, Mary and literature that were widely distributed.37 Frances Berry, were arrested at a sit-in at In the United Kingdom, the Anti-Apartheid the South African embassy. This high profile Movement was established in 1959. The event elevated the Anti-apartheid Movement organisation led one of Britain's most suc- to the national stage and ignited the Anti- cessful social campaigns. The organisation apartheid Movement in the United States. started as the "Boycott Movement". In 1960, Within a few days, sit-ins and other demon- it was re-named the Anti-Apartheid Move- strations against the South Africa govern- ment (AAM). The organisation sought an end ment were held in cities across America.41 By to apartheid in South Africa. It demanded 1985, more than 3 000 people were arrested sanctions and the economic isolation of during anti-apartheid demonstrations. South Africa. For more than three decades, hundreds of thousands of people in Britain The Congressional Black Caucus developed joined AAM campaigns. During that time, a legislative strategy that led to the en­act­ the Movement campaigned for the release of ment of the Comprehensive Anti-Apartheid people detained without trial. It encouraged Act of 1986.42 This law imposed sanctions

517 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

against South Africa and stated a number of On 20 December 1991, negotiations comm­ preconditions for lifting the sanctions. The enced to prepare an interim constitution legislation banned all US trade and invest- based on political equality for all South Afri- ment in South Africa. Direct flights to South cans.45 There were tense intervals during Africa were banned. The act also required the negotiations. In the late 1980s and early various federal departments and agencies 1990s, ANC supporters and the Inkatha Free- to withhold funds and other assistance to dom Party were involved in several bloody the South African government. The Bill was clashes. The Inkatha Party was founded in passed in August of 1986. President Ronald 1975 by Mangosuthu Gatsha Buthelezi, a Reagan vetoed the legislation on 26 Septem- Zulu chief and minister of the KwaZulu home- ber. Congress overrode Reagan's veto on land. Under Buthelezi's leadership, Inkatha 2 October.43 indicated that it was willing to accept power- sharing arrangements that would fall short The international sanctions imposed signifi- of majority rule in a post-apartheid South cant pressure on South Africa's economy. Africa. In 1991, the South African govern- The government finally recognised that ment admitted that it had secretly subsidised some actions were needed to address the Inkatha's conflicts with the ANC.46 situation. On 31 January 1985, South Afri- ca's President P.W. Botha offered to pardon On 15 October 1993, Mandela and De Klerk Mandela if the ANC renounced violence. were awarded the Nobel Peace Prize for Mandela declined saying South Africa's gov- working to end apartheid and putting South ernment needed to dismantle apartheid and Africa on a path to democracy. On 27 April grant full political rights to blacks. In July 1994, the apartheid regime formally ended of 1989, President Botha invited Mandela when the ANC won a majority of the vote to his official Cape Town residence for a and elected Mandela as president. 45-minute talk. Mandela's comments on his conversation with Botha were broadcast on A Truth and Reconciliation Commission was government radio and television stations.44 established after the elimination of apart- heid. Witnesses who were victims of human On 15 October 1989, Walter Sisulu and four rights violations presented testimony about other ANC prisoners were freed by F.W. de their experiences.47 Police officers and other Klerk, who had replaced Botha as president in perpetrators of violence testified about their August. On 2 February 1990, De Klerk lifted crimes and could request amnesty from civil the bans on the ANC and 60 other organi- and criminal prosecution. The Commission sations that were outlawed. He promised to was viewed by many as an important aspect free all political prisoners, end restrictions on of the transition to democracy in South Africa. 374 individuals and to impose a moratorium In 1996, Nelson divorced Winnie Mandela. In on executions. On 11 February 1990, Nelson 1998, on his 80th birthday, he married Graça Mandela was released. He was 71 years old. Machel. In May of 1999, Mandela stepped

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 518 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

down as President after choosing not to run eight years. They are now seen as the driving for re-election. On 5 December 2013, Nelson force behind the country's economic growth. Mandela died in his home at the age of 95, While the African government still has major surrounded by his family. challenges to overcome in its efforts to improve the lives of the nation's impover- Conclusion ished families, millions of black South Afri- cans have advanced into the middle class In the decades that followed the enactment since apartheid ended in 1994. Recently of the American Civil Rights laws of the released studies by the University of Cape 1960s, the black middle-class has grown Town's Unilever Institute of Strategic Mar- exponentially. Levels of educational attain- keting found that the black middle-class ment are higher. Employment opportuni- population had grown to 4.2 million.49 This ties are greater. Family incomes are higher. increased from 1.7 million in 2004. The election of Barack Obama as President, in 2008, represented an unprecedented There are still many challenges. The poor­ advance in race relations in America. "How- est 10 percent of South Africans receive ever, an examination of the current status of less than 1 percent of the national income. African "American" families reveals a mixed The richest 10 percent get 57 percent. In picture". For those in a position to take South Africa, 67 percent of black children advantage of the opportunities created by live below the poverty line compared to the Civil Rights revolution, the gains since 2 percent of white children. The overall the 1960s have been remarkable. For the poverty rate is 23 percent.50 However, the 28.1 percent of the African-American popu- African National Congress has made sig- lation residing in the nation's impoverished nificant strides since the end of apartheid. communities, the obstacles to advancement The economy has expanded for nearly two can be as formidable today as they were a decades. Literacy and access to electricity generation ago.48 We have not, as a people, have advanced considerably. An affordable made it to the Promised Land, but some of housing programme and welfare payments us are close. to low income groups have elevated nearly all South Africans out of abject poverty. The The number of families in South Africa's nation is rapidly moving forward. Americans growing, black middle class has surpassed and South Africans owe a debt of gratitude that of their white counterparts over the past to Nelson Mandela and Martin Luther King.

Leland Ware is Interim Director of the School of Public Policy & Administration; Louis L. Redding Chair and Professor for the Study of Law & Public Policy at the University of Delaware in the United States of America. He has been a Visiting Professor at Ruhr University, Bochum-Germany and Boston College of Law School. He is the author and editor of many books and journal articles.

519 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

References and Notes

1 Martin Luther King. 1965. Our God to justice: The life and works of University Press; Nancy L. Clark is marching on! Montgomery, Fred Gray. Montgomery: New and William H. Worger. 2011. South Alabama. 25 March 1965 (During South Books. Africa: The rise and fall of apartheid the march from Selma to Mont­ 13 Pillar of fire, supra. (2011). New York: Longman; Mark gomery) http://mlk-kpp01.stanford. 14 Letter From Birmingham Jail, Mathabane. 1998.– Kaffir boy: An edu/index.php/kingpapers/article/ April 16, 1963 http://mlk kpp01. autobiography–The true story of our_god_is_marching_on/ stanford.edu/index.php/resources/ a black youth’s coming of age in 2 163 U.S. 537 (1896). article/annotated_letter_from_ apartheid South Africa. London: 3 The Thirteenth Amendment birmingham/ Macmillan. abolished slavery. The Fourteenth 15 Pillar of fire, supra. 29 For a comprehensive compilation Amendment requires equal pro­ 16 Martin Luther King’s Speech: of South Africa’s apartheid laws tection of the laws regardless of ‘I Have a Dream’ – The full text see, Apartheid Legislation 1850s- race. The Fifteenth Amendment is available at http://abcnews. 1970s, http://www.sahistory.org.za/ gave blacks the right to vote. go.com/Politics/martin-luther- politics-and-society/apart­heidlegis 4 Gunnar Myrdal. 1996. An American kings-speech-dream-full- lation-1850s-1970s. dilemma: The Negro problem and text/story?id=14358231#. 30 Thompson, A history of South modern democracy. New York: UYBZ58qG5Mg. Africa, supra, 154-187. Harper Brothers. 17 P.L. 88-352, 78 Stat. 241, enacted 31 Id. 187-220. 5 Leon Litwack. 1998. Trouble in July 2, 1964. 32 http://www.anc.org.za/show. mind: Black Southerners in the Age 18 Robert D. Loevy. 1997. The Civil php?id=72 of Jim Crow. New York: Alfred A. Rights Act of 1964: The passage 33 The Sharpeville massacre, March Knopf. of the law that ended racial segreg­ 21, 1960, http://www.sahistory.org. 6 245 U.S. 60 (1917). ation. New York: Suny Press. za/topic/sharpeville-massacre-21- 7 271 U.S. 323 (1926). 19 John Lewis. 1998. Walking with the march-1960. 8 Douglas S. Massey and Nancy A. wind: A memoir of the movement. 34 Long walk to freedom, supra, 263- Denton. 1993. American apartheid: New York: Simon & Schuster; 308. The Scarlet Pimpernel was a Segregation and the making of the Taylor Branch. 2006. At Canaan’s popular novel featuring an English underclass. Cambridge: Harvard edge, supra, 45-108. aristocrat who rescued individuals University Press. 20 42 U.S.C. § 1973aa. from the guillotine during the French 9 Kenneth T. Jackson. 1985. Crabgrass 21 Susan Olzak, Suzanne Shanahan Revolution using clever disguises. Frontier: The suburbanization of and Elizabeth H. McEneaney. 1996. After each rescue, he taunted his the United States. Oxford: Oxford Poverty, segregation, and race riots: enemies by leaving a calling card University Press. 1960 to 1993. American Socio­ displaying a small flower; a scarlet 10 347 U.S. 483 (1954). logical Review, 61(4). pimpernel. Baroness Emmuska 11 Taylor Branch. 1998. Parting the 22 "I’ve been to the mountaintop" Orczy, The Scarlet Pimpernel Waters: America in the King Years, Memphis, Tennessee, April 3, 1968, (1905). 1954-63. United Staes of America: Martin Luther King, Jr. http://www. 35 Kenneth S. Broun. 2012. Saving Simon & Schuster; Taylor Branch. speeches-usa.com/Transcripts/023_ Nelson Mandela: The Rivonia trial 1998. Pillar of fire: America in the king.html. and the fate of South Africa. Oxford: King Years, 1963-65. United States 23 Clay Risen. 2009. A Nation on fire: Oxford University Press. of America: Simon & Schuster; America in the wake of the King 36 Sifiso Ndlovu. 2007. The Soweto Taylor Branch. 2006. At Canaan’s assassination. New Jersey: Wiley, Uprising. In Sifiso Ndlovu (ed.)The edge: America in the King Years, John & Sons. road to democracy in South Africa. 1965-68. United States of America: 24 42 U.S.C. § 3601 et seq. Vol. 2 (1970-1980); Lucille Davie, Simon & Schuster; David Garrow. 25 Nelson Mandela. 1995. Long walk The day Hector Pieterson died, 1986. Bearing the cross: Martin to freedom: The autobiography of http://www.southafrica.info/about/ Luther King, Jr., and the Southern Nelson Mandela. Boston: Little history/hector-pieterson.htm#.U Christian Leadership Conference. Brown and Company. xXXToWwUlQ#ixzz2v07uK3UX. New York: William Morrow & 26 Id. 1-60. 37 http://www.pinterest.com/gosforth Company. 27 Id. 61-92. art/hero-nelson-mandela/. 12 Browder v. Gayle, 352 U.S. 903 28 Leonard Thompson. 2001. A history 38 Action for South Africa, http://www. (1956); Fred Gray. 1995. Bus ride of South Africa. Connecticut: Yale actsa.org/page-1438-AAM.html.

Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015 520 Martin and Mandela: Two Leaders, Two Continents and a Singular Goal Leland Ware

39 William Minter and Sylvia Hill. 2008. 1984, http://www.csmonitor.com/ 45 Ib. 241-264. Anti-apartheid solidarity in United 1984/1204/120417.html; Mark 46 Inkatha Freedom Party South Afri­ States – South Africa relations: A. Stein, Anti-Apartheid Protests can History Online, http://www. From the margins to the mainstream. Spread Across the US. Los Angeles sahistory.org.za/topic/inkatha- In Sifiso Ndlovu (ed.) The road to Times, April 25, 1985 http://articles. freedom-party-ifp. democracy in South Africa, Vol. latimes.com/1985-04-25/news/mn- 47 http://www.justice.gov.za/Trc/. 3, International Solidarity, Part II: 12143_1_protests-spread. 48 Leland Ware and Theodore Davis. pp.795-819 (2007), www.sadocc.at/ 42 http://thomas.loc.gov/cgi-bin/ 2012. Ordinary people in an extra­ forschung/sadet_booklet_web.pdf. bdquery/z?d099:H.R.4868: ordinary time: The black middle- 40 A foreign policy organization that 43 Andrew Glass. 1986. House over- class in the age of Obama, 55 How. was one of the leaders in the rides Reagan apartheid veto. 29 L.J. 533. American efforts to win Mandela’s September 1986 http://www. 49 http://www.sagoodnews.co.za/ release, http://transafrica.org/. politico.com/news/stories/0910 economy/south_africas_black_ 41 Lucia Mouat, Anti-apartheid protests /42839.html#ixzz2v0SwEbUj. middle_class_on_the_rise.html. spread to cities across US. Christian 44 Thompson, A history of South 50 The World Bank, http://data.world Science Monitor, December 4, Africa, supra, 187-220. bank.org/country/south-africa.

521 Journal of Public Administration • Volume 50 • Number 3 • September 2015