Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41774-7 — the Making of the Indo-Islamic World André Wink Index More Information

Cambridge University Press 978-1-108-41774-7 — The Making of the Indo-Islamic World André Wink Index More Information

Index

Note: Page numbers in italics refer to figures. Abbasid agricultural subregions, 17 Caliphate, 72, 219 agriculture and settled society, expansion capital of Baghdad, 78 of, 30–38 dynasty, 69 Agung, Sultan, 244 Abdali, Ahmad Shah, 15, 201, 212 ahl al‐Hind, 77 Abdali Afghans, 212 Ahmadabad, 228 aboriginal hunting‐and‐gathering, 34 Ain‐i‐Akbari, 189, 190, 191 absolute civility, 193 Ajñapatra, 189 Abyssinians, 84 Akbar, 131, 135, 145, 181 Aceh war, 242 administration, 190–200 Achaemenid emperor Darius, 57 annexation of Kabul, 149 Acquaviva, Rudolpho, 169 artillery shooting, 163 adat, 7 cash nexus, 182 Adil Shahis of Bijapur, 88 cavalry warfare, 166 Adirampatanam, 112 degree of systematization, 182 adultery, 196 disciplinary drive and institution Aˉ f aˉ q ıˉ s ( G h a r ıˉ b aˉ n ) , 8 8 building efforts, 190 Afghans, 3, 4, 64, 73, 78, 84, 124, dispensation of Mughal succession, 147 134, 135 dominion in Hindustan, 146 caravans, 127 imperialism, 163 dynasty, 83 information gathering, 199 in Hind, 124–36 monetization of economy, 182 migration, 128 Mughal administration, 190 military ascendancy in Delhi, 82 in Mughal warfare, 166 patrimonial sharing of revenue Rana’s citadel of Chitor, to conquer, 173 rights, 183 record keeping, 199 tribes, 125, 128 Alamgir, 149, 153, 174, 201 warlords, 82 Alavi, Seema, 250 Afghans, Yusufzai, 129 al‐Biruni, Abu Rayhan, 72 Agra, 23, 176, 177 Alexander of Macedonia, 15 agrarian economy, 39 al‐Hind (India), 10, 72, 112. See also India agricultural colonization, 34 Ali, Hyder, 209, 234 of river deltas, 35 Ali, Muhammad Athar, 186 agricultural development, 30 Al‐Idrisi, Muhammad, 217 Caulukyas of Anahilvada, 32 alla ripa del Mare Indico, 108–23 agricultural economy of monsoon alluvial plain of Ganges, 33 Asia, 38 alluvial soils, 30 agricultural expansion, 24 Al‐Masޏudi, 217 agricultural productivity, 34 al‐Mulk, Burhan, 205 agricultural settlement, 44 Al‐Qaida, 108

284

Index 285

al‐qarāʾūna, 81 Asirgarh, 163 Amangkurat I, 246 assimilated Muslim Chinese, 225 Amangkurat II, 246 Aurangzeb, 151, 152, 153, 165 Ambar, Malik, 192 authority structure, 84 Amir‐al‐Hind, 208 autocratic centralism, 156 Amirzadas, 142 Awadh, 82 Anatolia, 96 Ayudhya, 17, 109, 119 Persian‐Zoroastrian identity, 98 Ayyubids, 219 Turkish conquest of, 97 Anavil Brahmans, 42 Babur, 15, 20, 84, 94, 104, 143, 168, 185 ancient cities, 15–19 career of conquest, 144 Ancient Indian Buddhism, 28 on fragility of cities, 20 Angkor, 23 invaded Hindustan, 124 agriculture, 37 Timurid ‘kingdom’ of Fergana, 143 Wat temple, 45 Baburnama, 94 Anglo‐French rivalry, 209 bad Muslims, 126 Anglo‐Mughal phase in Bengal, 206 Bahadur Shah of Gujarat, 228 animism, 95 Bahmani, Ahmad Shah, 89 Ansari, Bayazid, 135 Bahmani, ޏA l aˉ ގ ad‐Din Mujahid, 88 anti‐brahmanical religion of Bahmani, Firuz Shah, 88, 89 Buddhism, 39 Bahmani Deccan, 87 anti‐Hindu rhetoric, 195 Bahmani dynasty of Deccan, 87 anti‐Mughal insurrection, 135 Bahr al‐Hind (Indian Sea), 67 Aq‐quyunlu, 220 Bahr al‐Kabir (Great Sea), 67 Arab Caliphate, 1, 3 B a h r a l - M u h ıˉ t (Encompassing Sea), 67 a r a b ıˉ , 112 Bakhsh, Murad, 151 Arabia, 89 Bakhtyar, Muhammad bin, 80 Arabian cavalry, 89 Baliem valley, 37 Arab‐Islamic civilization, 11 Baluchi hills, 30 Arabs Baluchistan, 10, 31, 55 conquerors, 62 Banda Api volcano, 240 economic exchange network, 71 Bara Sona mosque, 85 ‘frontier of al‐Hind’, conquered, 72 Barbosa, Duarte, 217 gold and silver, exploitation of sources Barfield, Thomas, 60 of, 71 Barid Shahis of Bidar, 88 of Khurasan, 73 Barisan Mountains, 19 missionaries, 218 barley, 33 to mobilize men and goods, 71 Bartold, Vasilii, 161 arbitration of justice, 6 Baruas (Malay peninsula), 19 Arghuns, 87, 104 Basham, A. L., 25 dynasty, 104 Batak, 36 of Sind, 162 Battle of Dharmatpur, 165 arid Makran coast, 10 Battle of Machiwara, 165 arid zone, 53, 63 battle of Manzikert (1071), 97 inhabitants of, 56 Battle of Panipat, 165 livestock, raising of, 56 Bayly, Chris, 200 aristocracies, 168 Beas, 30 Aristotle, 11 Bedouin of the Arabian Peninsula, 59 a r ‐ R uˉ r , 1 3 Begum Sahib, 177 Arthashastra, 29 Bengal, 34, 116, 117 Aru, 119, 120, 121 delta, 34 Aryavarta, 27 ports in, 17 Asaf Jah, Nizam al‐Mulk, 204 Bengali footmen and eunuchs, 86 Ashoka (Mauryan emperor), 22, 25, 26, 33 Bengali Muslim society, 85 Buddhist, 26 Bernier, François, 184

286 Index

bhakti caste‐like classification, 50 devotional religion, 44, 200, 201 cavalry warfare, 166 reformers, 200 Chaghatay dynasty, 141 textual production, 200 Chaghatay Khans, 140 Bharmal Kachwaha, 172 Chandragiri, 237 Bhattacharya, 44 Chao Phraya, Thailand, 19, 36 Bhonsle, Shivaji, 174 Charsadda, 22 Bhonsle dynasty, 207 Chaudhuri, K. N., 217 Bijapur, 65, 237 Chenab River, 13, 30 Binban, 100–1 Chin dynasty, 221 Bindusara, 25 China’s Southern Ocean, 221–25 Black Death, 38 Chinese copper coins (picis), 109 blasphemy, 196 Chinese maritime sovereignty, 222 Bodh Gaya, 33 Chinese trade, 223–24 Bolan Pass, 10 Chinese‐Mongol, 109 Brahman dynasty, 209 Chingisid dynasty, 140 braˉhman raˉjya, 207 Chitor, 163 Brahmanical Hinduism, 51 Chittagong port, 18 Brahmanism, 93 chivalry, 168–81, 201 Brahmans (priestly/upper caste), 39–48, 194 culture of, 244 flee from Kashmir or suicide, 86 Mughal culture of, 170–71 persecution of, 86 cholera, 37 Brahmaputra, 34 Chota Nagpur plateau, 33 Brantas basin, 36 Christian religion, 193 Braudel, Fernand, 217 Chwang Ho, 222, 223 British East India Company, 206, 212, Cipolla, Carlo, 225 226, 228 city sites of Gangetic basin, 22 British‐Indian revenue authorities, 191 civilization bubonic plague, 37 concept of, 11 Buchan, John, 251 of conquest, 71 Buddha, 48 coast of Saurashtra, 228 Buddhism, 25, 40, 66 coastal Muslims Buddhist India, 27 communities, 114 Buddhist monarchies, 43 East Africa, 113 Buddhist Sri Lanka, 50 Cochin, 211, 227 Burma (Myanmar), 10 coins (sikka), 214 Burmans of the Irrawaddy plain Cola dynasty, 39, 41, 219 in Myanmar, 39 Colamandalam, 236 Burton, Richard, 16 Cold War engagements, 248 Butshikan, Sikandar, 86, 108 Colombo, 227 Byzantines, 158 communalism, 6 Christians, 96 Compagnie Française pour le Commerce Byzantium, 71 des Indes Orientales, 226–27 consumption of pork, 196 Cahamanas of Rajasthan, 40 conversion to Islam, 91–94 caityas (sacred spots), 22 Chinese, 223 Calicut, 234 ‘Hindu infidels,’ 92 houses of, 23 Hindu Women, 92 Caliph of Baghdad, 76 individual conversions, 92 Cambodia, 10, 23, 35 of Indus borderlands, 107 Candaˉlas, 50 mass conversion, 93 Candellas of Jejabhukti (Bundelkhand), 41 military conversion, 91 carnivorous brigands, 172 missionary efforts by charismatic cartaz system, 221 saints, 91 cash nexus, 182 sedentarization theory, 96

Index 287

Coromandel, 236–39 East India Companies, 1, 6 coast, 43 Eaton, Richard M., 93 plain, 34 Eden, Emily, 178 cowardice, 181 egalitarian lineage systems, 60 Curzon, George Nathaniel, 248 Egyptian‐Mamluk‐Gujarati fleet off customary law codes, 6 Diu, 226 cyclical regularity, 52 Egypt’s Old Kingdom, 11 elite mobility, 21 Dailamis, 73 elite slave soldiers (mamluks), 73 Dakkanis, 88 Empire of Nabucudonosor, 171 dakshinapatha, 33 escheat, 185 Dalacha, 103 Estado da India, 6, 223, 226, 227 daˉmaras, 32 Ethiopians, 84 Damghanis, 78 frontier, 85 Das Gupta, Ashin, 227, 229 eunuch grandees, 81, 86, 176, 177, Dasht‐i‐Qipchaq, 79 178, 186 Daulatabad, 21 European colonialism, 4–5, 7, 21, 168 de Thévenot, Jean, 124, 177, 181 European mercantile expansion, 227 Debal, seaport of, 13 Deccan plateau, 18 Farrah, 80 Delhi, capital of India, 21, 65, 74 fasting, 196 Delhi Sultanate, 92, 102 Fazl, Abul, 135, 173, 179, 189, 199 Devagiri, 65 fertile volcanic plateaus of western Bukit devaraˉja, 47 Barisan range, 36 devotionalism and capitalism, 200 field artillery, 164 dharma, 26, 47 first Islamic world, 2 Dharmashastra (Hindu law code), 196, fishing societies, 34 197, 245 fitna (rebellion, sedition), 76, 157, 180 Dharmasvamin, 33 flintlock muskets, 165 Dharmavamsa in Java, 20 ‘flowing water’ (aˉ b - i - r a v aˉ n ), 176 dharmic protectors, 47 foreign Muslims, 89 dhow, sailing boat of the Indian Ocean, forty Turkish slaves (chihil bandaʾ turk), 67, 68 79 Dieng plateau, 42 French East India Company, 226 dome‐shaped ‘shrines’ of Buddhists, 22 frontier, 2 dress code violation, 196 of al-Hind, 72 drunkenness, 196 Ethiopians, 85 dual citizenship, 78 of kingdom, 53 Durrani Afghans, 230 maritime, 65–70 Durrani dynasty of Afghanistan, 15, 135 nomadic, 2, 53–65, 111, 125, 221 Durrani expansion in India, 214, 215 Durr‐i‐Durraˉnıˉ, 213 Gahadavalas of Varanasi and Kanauj, 41 Dutch East India Company, 224, 225, Gama, Vasco da, 109 226, 227, 237 Gandhara, 10, 95 to Chinsura, 236 Ganges, plain, 31–33 Dutch War, 242 Ganges-Brahmaputra delta, 17–18 Dvarasamudram, 65 Ganges-Brahmaputra river system, 34 dynamism in land‐based society, 3 Gaur, 86 dynasty of Ghaznavids, 64 Ghazna, 14, 73, 80 dynasty of Shansabani Tajik Ghurids, Ghaznavids, 15, 72, 74, 78–79 100 army, 72–73 dynasty of Tughluqs, 81. See also specific dynasty, 98 entries invaded India, 72 dynasty of Turks, 82. See also specific Ghaznavid‐Turkish invasions, 73 entries Ghilzai Afghans, 15, 80, 83

288 Index

Ghur, 104 Himalayan valleys, 10 Ghurids, 64, 78 Hindu Kush, 57, 58, 101, 125, 127 dynasty, 98 Hindu(s) global jihadism, 248 caste ideology, 49–50 global warming, 59–60 caste system, 194 Goa, 226 devotionalism, 90 Godavari river, 18 dynasties, 32, 88, 89–91 Golden Horde, 161 empire of Vijayanagara, 90 Golkonda, 53, 65, 237 Javanese state, 121 good Muslims, 126 kingdom of Mysore, 209 governorships, 201 law, 66 Great Khan Möngke, 103 Majapahit, 109, 246 Greek city-states, 29 of Malabar, 66 Greenmantle, 251 orthodoxy, 44 Guhilots of the Panjab, 40 pantheon, 44 Gujara‐Pratiharas, 34, 39, 42 Rajput kings, 172 overlordship, 41 temples, destruction of, 74–76, 78 Gujaras of Gujarat, 40 Keshava Rai temple of Mathura, 195 Gujarat, 19 Vishwanath temple at Varanasi, 195 Gujars, 32 zamindari, 202 Gulbarga, 87 Zamorins of Calicut, 231 Gulf of Kambaya, 228 historical development of India gunpowder, 161–62 agriculture and settled civilization, empire, 162 52–53 weapons, 161 maritime frontier, 65–70 Gupta, Candra, 26 nomadic frontier, 2, 53–65, 111, 125, Gupta, Samudra, 27 221 Gupta empire, 26–27, 30 Hodgson, Marshall G. S., 161 Gupta II, Candra, 33 Hormuz, 113, 226 Güyüg, Khan, 138 horse(s), 161 Guzz Turks, 73, 78, 81 archers, 161 bred in India, 160 Habshis (Abyssinians), 79, 84–85, 87–88 breeding, 64 slaves, 86 Central‐Asian horses, 167 Hadramaut, Wadi, 111 horse‐mounted nobilities, 168 Haihayas of Awadh, 41 horse‐riding nobility, 4 Hakim, Mirza Muhammad, 146, 147–48, horse‐riding warrior elites, 175 149 supply of, 160 Halmahera, 37 warfare, 161 Hamid I, Abdul, 210 hot and humid alluvial plains, 2 haram, 107 Hoysalas of Dvarasamudram, 89 Harappa, 11–13, 31 Hülegü, 97 Hasan, Sultan, 86 humanitarianism, 25 Hastinapura, 17 Humayun (Babur’s son), 16, 131, Hazara district, 103 144–45, 165 Hazara Mongols, 104 Husaynabad, 15 Hazarajaˉt, 104 Hyder, Ghazi ad‐Din, 205 Hephthalites (White Huns), 32, 40, 58, hydraulic works and rice fields, 23 61, 62, 65 hydrological instability, 19 invaders, 80 Herat, 80, 168 Iberian Peninsula, 71 hereditary jagirs, 188 Ibn Battuta, 21, 77, 217, 223 hereditary rights, 6 Ilappai, 112 Hess, Andrew, 161 Ilyas Shahi dynasty, 85 Himalayan mountain range, 16 Imad Shahis of Berar, 88

Index 289

India, 8 Indus River, 13 British‐French contest, 227 valley of Kashmir, 31 Major, 8 Indus’ tributary rivers in the Panjab, 16 Ming China and, 223 Indus valley civilization, 12, 22, 24 Minor, 8 infantry armies, 161 second urbanization, 22 Infidel War, 242 trade with China, 222 information gathering, 199 Indian agriculture, 20 institutionalized dissidence, 180 expansion, 24 i q l ıˉ m - i - b aˉ l aˉ , 81 settlement, 2 Iraq, 86, 89 Indian convert dynasty of Raja Ganesh, Irian Jaya, 36, 37 85 Irrawaddy, 19 Indian converts to Islam, 84 Irrawaddy plain of Myanmar, 35, 42 Indian demographic growth, 38 irrigation, 30 Indian grasslands, 64 ޏI s aˉ m ıˉ , 1 0 0 Indian k u f f aˉ r , 114 ISIS, 108, 248 Indian mansabdars, 188 Islam, medieval India and rise of, 71–72 Indian monumental architecture, 28 alla ripa del Mare Indico, 108–23 Indian Muslims, 79 aspirations to supersede everything, 71 Indian Ocean (Mare Indicum), 2, 8, 69 Hindu temples, destruction of, 74 dhow, 67 Indians converted to, 73 trade, 6 Indo-Islamic dynasties, 84–89 trade and navigation, 217 religious conversion, 91–94 Indian Rebellion (Mutiny) of 1857–1858, Islamic corporate military slavery, 185 251 Islamic currency system, 71 Indian Reformation, 200 Islamic dominion, 72 Indian river plains, 1 Islamic iconoclasm, 194 Indian slaves, 92 Islamic law, 7, 196 Indo‐Afghan empire, 7, 83, 124 Islamic prayer, 76 Lodis, 124 Islamic Revolution, 248 Surs, 84, 124 Islamic scriptural ideals, 5 Indo‐Aryan expansion, 34 Islamization, 95. See also conversion to Indo‐Greeks, 13 Islam Indo-Islamic dynasties, 78, 84–89 Ismaޏili Muslim communities Indo‐Islamic successor dynasties, 76 of Bohras, 114 Indo‐Islamic trade, 6 Isthmus of Kra, 221 Indonesia, 20, 38 Indonesian archipelago, 20, 36, 119 jagirs (revenue assignment), 183, 186 Indo‐Scythians, 40, 57 Jahangir, 135, 149, 169, 183 Indo‐Turanian caravan trade, 167 nephews to convert to Christianity, 193 Indus borderlands, 2, 30, 37, 65, 73 Jalal ad‐Din, 80 Afghan tribal areas and Kabul, 94 Jalalabad, 80 arid zone, 53 Jang, Safdar, 205 Baluchistan, 94 jauhar, 175 inhabitants, conversion to Islam, 107 Java, 245 Islam, rise of, 94–108 Javanese kings, 43 Kafiristan, 94 Javanese Muslims, 122 Kashmir valley, 94 Javanese pasisir, 7 Multan, 13 Jean‐Baptiste Colbert, 184 Sind, 94 Jharejahs, 41 urbanism of, 11, 12 Jhelum River, 30, 31 urbanization, 95 Jiddah, 110 western Panjab, 94 jihad (Islamic holy war), 74, 213 Indus cities, 12 raids, 73 Indus delta, Pakistan, 14 against Sikhs, 108

290 Index

jiziya poll tax, 195 Khan, Ibrahim, 235 John, Prester, 109, 110 Khan, Jafar, 176 Juan‐juan, 61 Khan, Khizr, 82–83 Jumla, Mir, 186 Khan, Kublai, 70, 120 J u r m aˉ ʾıˉs, 75, 101 Khan, Murshid Quli, 192, 206, 236 Khan, Qalij, 79 Kabir, 200 Khan, Saadatullah, 208 Kabul, 14, 15, 58, 80, 95 Khan, Sadat Ali, 205 River basin, 128 Khan, Zafar, 87 River valley, 10, 95 khanazads, 187 Kabuli, Ulugh Beg, 128 Khandesh, 87 Kachchapaghatas of Rajasthan, 41 Khans, Chaghatay, 102 Kachwahas of Amber, 172 k h a r aˉ j g u z aˉ r , 78 Kafiristan, 95, 99, 107 Kharvis, 66 Kakatiyas of Warangal, 89 Kharwas, 66 Kalimantan, 36, 37 Khatris, 182 wet rice, 36 Khmer capital of Angkor, 19 Kammas, 41 Khmer kingdom of Angkor, 35 Kampili successors, 90 Khmer of Cambodia, 39 Kanauj (Kanyakubja), 42 Khurasan, 86, 101 Kandahar, 14, 15, 80, 145 Khurasanians, 81, 85, 88 Kanishka, 29 immigrant nobility, 81 Karakorum valleys of Gilgit and Khurram, 235 Baltistan, 10 Khusrau, Amir, 98, 99, 100 Karkota dynasty, 41 khutba (Islamic Friday prayer), 214 Karkotas of Kashmir, 39 Kilakarai, 112 Kartasura, 247 kiln‐fired brickwork, 22 Kashmir, 86 King of Islam, 210 King Ramadeva, 103 king of kings Mithradates, 57 looted by Mongol nomads, 103 King Ramadeva, 103 Marco Polo invasion, 103 kingdom and seignory of Ormuz, 113 massacring by Dalacha, 103 kingdom of Kambaya, 69 penetration by Turko-Mongol kings of Pagan Burma, 43 nomads, 102 Kinra, Rajeev, 193 valley of, 31 K i t aˉ b a l - H i n d (Book of India), 72 Kathiawar, 32 Koh‐i‐Jud, 100–1 Kaushambi, 22 Kolis, 66 Kautilıˉya Arthashaˉstra, 25, 29 Konkan, 19 Kaveri, 18 Koshala, 22 Kayalpatanam, 112 Krakatoa, 20 Keshava Rai temple of Mathura, 195 kraton (court), 121, 223, 244 Khajuraho temple, Madhya Pradesh, 45 Krishna, 18 Khalaj Turks, 63, 78–79 Krishna River, 53, 89 Khalaji, ޏA l aˉ ʾ ad‐Din, 77, 80–81, 89 Krishna‐Godavari delta, 237 Khalaji, Firuz, 80 kshatriyas (Hindu warrior caste), 39, 47, 207 Khalaji, Jalal ad‐Din, 77, 81 kshatriyas of Bengal, 41 Khalaji empire of Delhi, 74, 79–81, 87 k uˉ c h ıˉ or powinda, 125 Khalaji tribesmen, 80 Kumpeni, 247 khalsa (crown land), 188 Kunjali Marakkars, 232 Khan, Ahmad, 212 Kurat dynasty, 103 Khan, Amir Abdur Rahman, 107 Kurats of Herat, 100 Khan, Chingiz, 5, 80, 89, 97, 100, Kushanas, 58, 61, 62, 65, 80 137–39, 143, 156–59, 182 code of, 139, 148 Labbai, 112 system of, 165 Laden, Osama bin, 108, 248, 249 Khan, Dost Ali, 208 Laghman, 95

Index 291

Lahore, 31 Mamluk cavalry, 162 land of coasts (s a w aˉ h i l ), 113 Mamluk Sultans of Egypt, 110 land revenue, 74 Manchu legalization of overseas trade, 224 mobilization, 24 Manchus, 224 Langsa, 119 Mangelas, 66 Law de Lauriston, 203 Mangkubumi, Sultan, 247 Lieberman, Victor, 56 mansab (ranking system), 84 Lodi, Bahlul, 83, 131 mansabdar nobility, 189 Lodi, Ibrahim, 84, 131 mansabdars, 183 defeat, 128 Mansuˉra, 13, 31 Lodi, Sikandar, 83 Muslim inhabitants, 98 Lodi Afghans, 74, 83, 87 Manucci, Niccolao, 157, 169, 176 Lodi Sahukhail, 84 Mappillas, 232 Lodis, 83. See also specific entries Marathas, 88 Lombard, Denys, 224 Marathas of Deccan, 154 Lord Jim, 250 Marco Polo, 68, 217 Louis XIV, King, 184 maritime boundaries of India, 10 low castes, 50 maritime empires, 4 Lower Karnataka (Payanghat), 208 maritime frontier, 3, 6, 221 closing of, 225–47 M aˉ w a r aˉ ގ an-nahr, 72, 79, 86, 89, 101, maritime trading networks, 69 139–40, 193 Martanda, 96 Machhis, 66 Masson, Charles, 80 Machuas, 66 Mataram, kingdom of, 6, 244–46 Madhyadesha, 42, 43 Maurice of Constantinople, 172 Madrasa (Islamic school, seminary), Maurya, Candra Gupta, 24–25 76 Mauryan empire, 24, 26 Magadha kingdom, 33 Mauryans, 13 Mahabharata, 29, 39 McNeill, William H., 161 Mahal, Mumtaz, 151 medieval Gaur, 23 Mahdawiyya movement, 158 medieval Indo‐Islamic rulers, 77 Mahdi, 135 medieval Indo‐Islamic world, 3 Majapahit, 120–21 medieval land clearance movement, 37 kings, 47 Megasthenes, 25 maritime hegemony, 120 Mekong, 19 Majid, Ibn, 217 Mekong delta, 35 Makassar, 6 Melaka (Malacca), 19, 118, 226–27 Mal, Raja Todar (Akbar’s finance Meridional India, 8 minister), 182, 192 Mesopotamia‐Persia, 37 Malabar coast, 6, 114, 230, 231, 232 Mesopotamia’s Sumeria, 11 Malabari Muslims, 231 migrations, 30, 71 Malay Peninsula, 120 of Jat pastoralists, 31 Malay‐Buddhist civilization of Shrivijaya, migratory movements, 97 36 Mihirakula of Hephthalites, 61 Malay-Indonesian archipelago, 6, 10, militarization and disruption, 76 67, 70, 108, 112, 120, 220, 224, military converts to Islam, 4, 73, 75 239, 245 Minangkabau, 36 Malay‐Indonesian legal arrangements, Ming China, 223 246 Ming dynasty, collapse of, 224 Malik, Ghazi, 101 Ming loyalists, 224 Malik, Khusrau, 73 Mıˉr- i -Afaˉghina, 212 Mallampalli, Chandra, 250 Mirabilia Indiae, 25 Maluku islands, 122, 223 Mirza, Abu Sayyid, 104 mamluk (slave soldier or officer), 73, 78, Mirza, Husayn, 15 81, 87, 89 Mirza, Husayn Bayqara, 104

292 Index

Mirzas, 142 merchants of Malabar, 234 mlecchas, 65 nobility, 5, 172 Mogul Empire, 181 noblewomen, 178 Mohenjodaro, 12–13, 31 shrines, 105–6 Mommsen, Theodor, 159 traders, 119 Möngke, Khan, 139 trading community, 233 Mongol bowmen (mughal-i-tıˉraˉndaˉz), 89 trading networks, 223 Mongol Empire, 138 muwahhidaˉn, 195 Mongol imperialism, 62 Muzaffarid dynasty, 87 Mongol invaders, 99 Mysore, 7 Mongol invasions, 105 plateau, 210 Mongol menace (tashwıˉsh-i-mughal), 102 rulers, 210 Mongol nökärdin, 144 Mongols, 3, 54, 59, 64, 84 Nagarakertagama, 50 Mongols of Ruˉm, 81 Naipaul, V. S., 249 Mongol‐Timurid conquests, 128 Nangarhar, 95 monkhood, 44 Napoleon, 227 monsoon and India, 20 nautical mob, 110 monsoon-dependent cultivation, 33 Nawab (governor), 204–5 monumental Hindu temples, 2, 44 Nawabi of Arcot, 202, 208 mosques, 76 Nawabis, 208 Mount Abu in Rajasthan, 40 Nawabs of Awadh, 205 Mouros da Meca, 114 Nayaka dynasty of Trichy, 208 Mughal dynasty, 135 new great game, 248 artillery and gunpowder weapons, 4 new Muslims, 4, 73, 75, 76, 79, 80, Babur to Alamgir, 143–56 87–88, 101 bureaucracy, 191 Mongol recruits, 80, 89 Chingiz Khan and, 156–59 Nikitin, 217 cities, 21 Nizam Shahis of Ahmadnagar, 88 dispensation, 7 Nögödaris, 75, 101, 104 imperialism, 159 Nökör (retainer), 134, 145, 166 and Indo‐Islamic culture, 4 nomad Scythians, 57 mansab system, 186 nomadic Afghan tribesmen, 83 medieval nomadic heritage, 5 nomadic encampments, 140 nobility, 170, 175, 185–86 nomadic frontier, 52, 53–65, 111, origins of, 136–43 125, 221 politics of sedition, 159 nomadic Hephthalites, 58 reconquest, 131 nomadic Kushanas, 13 revenue extraction, 202 nomadic Mongol conquerors, 107 succession politics, 235 nomadic Nögödari, 104 towns and cities, 6 nomadism, 3 transformation during, 4 nonconverted brahman population of Mughalistan, 101, 139, 140 Kashmir, 87 Muhammad, Mirza Pir, 104 nonconverted Indians, 84. See also Mukkuvan fishermen, 66 Rajputs Mukkuvar, 66 northern mountain zone, 16 Muktapida, Lalitaditya, 43 Noyan (Mongol military commander), Multan, 31, 96, 99, 100 99–100, 103 Muqim, Muhammad, 104 Nubian Desert, 85 Muslim(s) Nushirvan, 172 of Calicut, 116 foreigners, 88 Okeanos, 67 invaders, 249 Opak basin, 20 of Malabar, 114–16 Orang Laut (People of the Sea), 70, 117, Mataram, 246 118, 217, 219–20, 241, 242

Index 293

Oriental despotism, 184 Polonnaruva, 48 outcastes, 50 polygamy among Hindus, 179 paddy rice, 33 in Islam, 179 Padshah (emperor), 205, 210 polytheism, 95, 200 Pagan, 23, 35 port monarchies of Malabar, 69 Pakistan, 94, 252 portfolio capitalists, 238 Pakpattan, 31 Portuguese (Firangis) Pala dynasty, 34, 43 arrival of, 217 Palas of Bengal, 39 fortresses and factories, 226 Palembang, 19, 120 gunpowder armament, 226 Palibothra (Pataliputra), 25 in Indian Ocean, 225 palm-leaf huts, 23 jihad against, 231–32 Pañcaladesha (Uttar Pradesh), 43 on Malabar coast, 230, 234 Pandyas of the Tamil country, 89 post-nomadic conquest nobility, 199 Panikkar, K. M., 217 post‐nomadic states, 3 Panjab (five river land), 16, 30 powindas, Afghan nomads, 125 blocks of cultivation, 31 Prabodhacandrodaya, 66 tributaries, 13 Praga basin, 20 Paradeshis (Foreigners), 114 Prambanan temple, Indonesia, 46 Paramaras of Malwa, 40 Prasii, 25 Pareto, Vilfredo, 185 prehistoric Indus valley civilization, 30 Parshaˉwar, 15 pre-Islamic heritage of India, 1 Pashtu, 80 princely feuding, 5 Pashtuns, 125 Prophet Muhammad, 111 Pashtunwali (customary/tribal law of proselytization, 71 the Pashtuns/Afghans), 125, protected rim lands, 56 172 Protestant Reformation, 201 pasisir, 7, 67, 69 Protestantism, 199 pastoral nomadic frontier, 2, 111 proto‐Rajput dynasties, 34 pastoral nomadism, 4, 53, 60, 64, 68 Ptolemy, 57 pastoralism, 31, 53 Ptolemy’s Geographicae Enarrationis, 9 pastoral‐nomadic economy, 35 Puranas, 29, 44 Pataliputra, 33 Purbiya dynasty, 86 Pathans, 125 Purda (female seclusion), 178 paved roads, 23 among Hindus, 179 Pearson, Michael, 217 Purushapura, 58 Periplus Maris Erythraei, 57 Pushpabhuti king Harsha, 42 Perlak, 119, 121 Pushti Marg hagiographies, 200 Persepolis, 26 Persia, walled metropoles of, 13 Qaghan, 62 Persian Q a r aˉ ʾuˉnas, 75, 86, 101 plateau, 98 Qarlugh Turkmans, 73 sense of cultural superiority, 170 qazis (Islamic judges), 197 wheel, 31 Qizilbash Turkish tribesmen, 142 Persian Gulf, 110, 111 Qurʾaˉn, 92 Peshawar, 14, 15 Qutb Shahis of Golkonda, 88 Peshwas, 201 Phnom Penh, 69 R aˉ ıˉ k i n g s , 4 1 Pidie (Sigli), 119 rainfall‐and‐inundation agricultural Pires, Tomé, 217 regime, 33 P ıˉ r - i - R o s h aˉ n , 135 Rajasthan, 31 pirs (saints), 105–8 Rajasthan and Kathiawar, 40 plateau of Kabul, 63 Raˉjataranginıˉ, 32 political elites, 21 Rajgir, 22, 33

294 Index

Rajputs, 34, 40, 84, 87, 174 Safawid Shah of Persia, 227 of Chitor, 80 Saharasia, 2 fortress of Chitor, 173 Saharasian arid zone, 53 houses of Rajasthan, 187 inhabitants of, 56 lineages, 4 livestock, raising of, 56 Ramayana, 29, 39 Sakastana, 57 Rana of Mewar, 172 Salim (Akbar’s son), 149–50 Rann of Kachchh, 32, 87 Salmon, Claudine, 224 Ranthambor, 163 Samalangan, 119 Rashtrakuta dynasty, 41 Samani dynasty, 72 Rashtrakutas of western India, 39 Samarkand, 168 Rasulids of Aden, 219 Sammas, 41 Rathors of Marwar, 172 Samudra‐Pasai, 119, 121 Ravi River, 13, 30 Samudri Arabs (Ocean Arabs), 111 Rayalsima, 53 Sangha, 27 record keeping, 199 Sanghars, 66 Red Sea, ports of, 69 Sanskrit, 46–48 Reddys, 41 Sarwani, Abbas Khan, 131 religion and politics, 193–201 Sarwani, Dattu, 130 religion of the plough, 93 Satgaon port, 17 religious architecture, 22 sati (sahagamana), 50, 180 religious civilization, 3, 71 Saul, King, 126 religious clergy, 76 Sawah agriculture, 36 religious conversion, 91–94 Sayyid dynasty, 74, 82 religious transformation. See conversion Schrieke, Bernard, 246 to Islam Scott, James, 220 revenue assignments, 184 Scythia, 57 Riau Daratan, 118 Scythian kingdoms, 61 Riau-Lingga archipelago, 118 sea nomads, 69 rice cultivation, 24 second Islamic world, 2 rice economy, 35 sedentarization, 94 ritual sovereignty, 26 sedentarization theory of Islamic Rivers conversion, 96 Chenab, 13, 30 sedition (fitna), 5, 157, 180 Godavari, 18 Seljuq Turks, 78 instability, 16 semi‐arid Deccan plateau, 35 Jhelum, 30, 31 Sena dynasty, 34 Kaveri, 18 Sepoy Mutiny, 205 Krishna, 18, 53 Seths, Jagat, 206 Ravi, 13, 30 settled society, expansion, 49–51 sedimentation, 19 Shah, Ahmad, 213–14 silt deposition, 18 Shah, Alam II, 201 Tamraparni, 18 Shah, Alamgir II, 201 Tjimanoek, 122 Shah, Bahadur, 149, 154, 201 trade, 235 Shah, Islam, 131, 133, 145 Tungabhadra, 53, 88 Shah, Khwarazm, 99–100 Rohillas, 125 Shah, Muhammad Iskandar, 86, 118, settlements, 214 154, 201 Roshaˉnıˉya movement, 135 Shah, Nadir, 15, 201, 212 royal dynasty in Madurai, 41 Shah, Safawid, 195 royal residences, 22 Shah, Sayyid Ahmad, 108 rulers of Badakhshan, 147 Shah, Timur, 215 rurban centers, 26 death, 215 Shah, Zaman, 210 Sabuktigin, Nasir ad‐Daula, 72 Shah Jahan, 149, 151, 183, 195 Safawid dynasty in Persia, 170, 212, 229 Shah Mirs, 86

Index 295

Shah Rukh, 82, 168 Sodhas, 40 Shah Shujaޏ, 178 Soghdians, 62 Shahi, Husayn, 86 soil erosion, 16 Shahi, Nizam, 192 Sonargaon port, 17 Shahjahannama, 175, 195 South Asia, map, 203 Shailendra dynasty, 42 southern Kaveri delta, 237 Shailendras of Java, 39 Southern Ocean trade, 222 Shaka‐Parthian satrapies, 57 Soviet invasion of Afghanistan, 248 Shakas, 57, 61, 65, 80 spice islands, 37, 70 Shankaracharya, 44 spice orgy, 120 Shansabanis of Ghur or ‘Ghurids,’ 74 Sravasti, 22 Sharia (Islamic law), 5, 77, 196–97 Srirangapattana (Seringapatam), 209 Sharif (magistrate, religious leader), 106, steppe humanist, 144 111, 113 stone bastion, 162 Sharqi Sultanate, 82, 84 strait of Melaka, 35 collapse of, 86 stupa, (Buddhist shrine), 254 of Jaunpur, 84 subadar (provincial governor), 235 Sharqis or ‘Easterners,’ 82 subject tribes, 62 shaykh (Islamic scholar, theologian), 76 suboceanic tectonic plate movements, 16 Sher Shah, 178 Sufi taʾifas, 111 Shiޏa dynasty of Safawids of Persia, 170 Sufis (members of religious/mystical Shiޏa Islam, 170 orders of Islam), 105, 122, 158, Shiޏism, 195 209, 210 Shikarpuri financial agents, 214 Suha, 86 Shiva, 47 Sukhothai, 23 Shiva‐Buddha, 120 and Chiangmai, 36 Shivaji, 192, 207 Sulawesi, 36 Shrine of Bibi Jaiwandi, 106 Sulayman, Ottoman Sultan, 162–63 Shrivijaya, 19, 69, 219, 221 Sulayman mountains, 82, 125 Shrivijayan hegemony, 219 Sultan Hasan, 86 shudras (peasant caste), 41, 207 Sultanate of Hindustan, 214 Shuja ad‐Daula, 205 Sultans of Delhi, 74 Shuja, Muhammad Shah, 151 Sumatra, 19, 36, 37, 110 Shukoh, Dara, 151, 165, 195 Sumbawa, 109 Shukoh, Sipihr, 151 Sumras, 109 Sialkot, 31 Sunda platform, 19 siege technology, 163 Sundanese, 243 Sikandar, Sultan, 86 Sunni Islam, 195 silk route, 221 Sunni Islamic culture, 194 Sind, 16 Sunni Muslims, 251 houses in, 22 Sur, Sher Shah, 131, 132 marshes and reeds, 31 Surabaya, 244 Singh, Man, 179 Surat Sinhalese Buddhist society, 43 decline of, 229–30 Sirhindi, Shaykh Ahmad, 193 houses of, 23 Sirr‐i‐Akbar, 195 merchants, 229 Sisodia Rajputs, 174 Sutlej, 30 Sisodias of Mewar, 172 Swahili, 113 Siwaliks, 16 Slave Kings, 74, 79 Tai‐Ahoms, 34 Slave market in Aceh, Sumatra, 243 taʾifas, (Sufi) order, 111 slave raiding, 220 Taj Mahal, Agra, 152 slavery, 92 Tajiks, 78 “slaves” and “black men,” 170 Taliban, 248 smallpox, 37 tamaˉm Hind, 83 socket bayonets, 165 taˉmasika, 66

296 Index

Tambora, 20 Turkish dynasty, 219 Tamil Hinduism, 112 Turkish elite slaves (mamluˉ ks), 78 Tamil migrants to Sri Lanka, 50 Turkish jihad, 251 Tamil Muslims, 112 Turkish rule, 79 Tamil plain, 24, 35 Turkistan, 88, 101 Tamraparni, 18 Turko‐Mongol armies, 161 Tanzania, 85 Turko‐Mongol clan, 5 Taprobane (Sri Lanka), 8 Turko‐Mongol customary law, 5 T aˉ ʾrıˉkh-i- Sher Shaˉhıˉ, 131 Turko‐Mongol dynasties, 84, 87, 136 Tarkhans, 87, 105 Turko‐Mongol expansion, 124 Tarmashirin, Chaghatay Khan, 102, 139 Turko‐Mongol militaries, 74 Taxila, 22 Turko‐Mongol nomads, 65, 102 Telangana Plateau, 53 early penetration, 102 Telugu nayakas, 156 Turko‐Mongol Qara‐quyunlu, 220 Telugu warriors of upland Andhra, 90 Turko‐Mongol tribesmen, 136 terrorism, 248 Turks, 3, 58, 60–62, 64, 84 Thailand, 10, 35 across Hindu Kush, 62 Thakurs, 40 Turk‐Shahi rulers of Kabul, 63 thalassophobia, 66 Turner, Frederick Jackson, 93 Thatta, 13 Tu r t i, 99 Themistocles, 110 “Turushka” oppression, 86 Theravada Buddhism, 47, 51 Tu r ushkas [ Tu rks], 86 Tien Shan mountains, 61 Timariots, 184 Uch, 31 timber fortress in Cochin, 226 Ujjayn, 22 Timur, 5, 21, 64, 83, 143 ulamaˉ, 76 Timur, Amir, 103 Ulus Chaghatay, 141 Timur, dynasty of, 201 Umayyad Caliphates, 72, 219 Timurid dynasty, 168, 172, 187 Umayyads, 69 Timurid‐Mughal dynasty, 193, 195 Undang, 246 Tipu Sultan, 202, 210, 234 untouchables, 50 brahman killer and despoiler of urban settlement, 12 temples, 210 urbanism of Indus borderlands, 12 Tjimanoek River, 122 ޏurs festivals, 107 Tomaras of Delhi, 40 uttarapatha, 33 Tondaimandalam, 237 Uzbeks, 172 Tonle Sap alluvial plain, 19 Törü, Tora, 62, 139 trace italienne, 162 Vallabha Raja, 41 Travancore, 7, 202, 210 Varanasi, 17, 22 tribal factionalism, 134 Varma, Martanda, 211, 233 tripartite India, 8 Varma, Rama, 233 Tughluq, Firuz Shah, 77, 82, 87, 92 varna of kshatriyas, 39 Tughluq, Ghiyath ad‐Din, 81 Vedas (earliest literature in Sanskrit), 49 Tughluq, Muhammad bin, 21, 77, 81, 92 Vedic Aryans, 24, 30 Tughluq dynasty of Delhi, 101 Vellalas, 41 Tughluqs, 74. See also specific entries Vereenigde Oost‐Indische tumans under Dalacha (Diljuˉ), 103 Compagnie, 226 tumuli, 57 Vijayanagara, 65, 87, 88, 237 Tungabhadra River, 53, 88 Virupaksha temple in Hampi, 90 Turan (Central Asia), 83, 147 Vishnu (God), 47, 120 Turk Qaghanate, 62 Vishwanath temple at Varanasi, 195 “Turki” warhorses, 165 volcanic eruptions, 20 Turkish, Qarlugh, 100 volcanoes, 16 Turkish conquest of India, 63 Vryonis, Speros Jr., 96

Index 297

Wagenburg tactics, 165 Yeh‐chih of Kansu, 57 Wakhi, 55 Yuan dynasty, 222 Walahjah, Anwar ad‐Din, 209 Yuan‐Mongol emperor of China, 109 Walahjah, Muhammad Ali, 209 Waqwaq, 219 Warangal, 65 Zabaj islands, 218 watan jagirs, 188 Zabul, 10 water management, 16, 19 Zabulistan, 40, 58, 147 Wayang, 67 zamindaris, 189, 198 Weber, Max, 201 zamindars, 156, 187, 188–90 wet rice cultivation, 34, 35–36 Zamindawar, 10, 40, 58, 78, 104 wet rice economy, 35 Zamorin of Calicut, 232 wheat, 33 Zanj “Africans,” 218 White Huns, 58 Zanjis, 85 widow Zanzibar, 85 remarriage, 180 ziyarats, 105–6 self‐immolation among Hindus, 180 Zoroastrian trading, Persia, 32 William, Friar, 65 Zoroastrians in Kabul, 107 zulm‐parast, ‘adorers of tyranny,’ 189 Yadavas of Deogir, 89 Zun Zun Misri, 104 Yadgar, Ahmad, 130 Zunbils of Zabulistan, 63 Yaˉvadvıˉpa, 42 Zurmat, 80