Conservation Science in Developing Countries: an Inside Perspective on the Struggles in Sea Turtle Research and Conservation in Venezuela

ENVSCI-630; No of Pages 17

environmental science & policy xxx (2008) xxx–xxx

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Review Conservation science in developing countries: an inside perspective on the struggles in sea turtle research and conservation in Venezuela

Joaquıń Buitrago a,*, Hedelvy J. Guada b, Emma Doyle c a Estacioń de Investigaciones Marinas de Margarita, Fundacioń La Salle de Ciencias Naturales, Apartado 144, Porlamar, Isla Margarita, Venezuela b Centro de Investigacioń y Conservacioń de Tortugas Marinas CICTMAR, Red de Conservacioń de Tortugas Marinas en el Gran Caribe, WIDECAST, Apdo. 50.789, Caracas 1050-A, Venezuela c 5 Woodvale Close, St. Ives, N.S.W. 2075, Australia article info abstract

Keywords: Human exploitation of sea turtles in Venezuela dates back at least 800 years and continues Sea turtles to the present day. The ﬁrst concerns about the status of sea turtle populations arose in the Venezuela 1970s, and the projects from this early era were a tagging program, beach evaluation and in Research and conservation situ nest protection. Since then, efforts to develop a sea turtle research and conservation Developing countries sector in Venezuela have resulted in a number of successes and rather more failures. Among the achievements is a course ‘‘Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation Techniques’’, which has now been run for 15 years and has educated several hundred participants and enabled the establishment of a valuable professional network, and the publication of the Venezuelan ‘‘Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan’’ in 2000. But Venezuela shares with other developing countries some crucial shortcomings which have restricted the success of conservation and research efforts. Whilst regulations relating to protected areas and natural resource use have proliferated, enforcement is weak. Community-based projects and environmental education programs exist, but levels of participation are low. A large number of conservation approaches have been applied, including head-starting and nest translocation to hatcheries, but their value as conservation tools remains unproven. Research has increased, but its impact on decision-making is not signiﬁcant. Taking an insider’s perspective on the challenges to date in sea turtle research and conservation in Venezuela reveals much about the reality facing conservation scientists in developing countries and the forces that shape and can potentially derail research and conservation efforts. # 2008 Elsevier Ltd. All rights reserved.

1. Introduction coriacea) are listed as critically endangered by the World Conservation Union (IUCN), and green (Chelonia mydas) and Five species of sea turtle are found in Venezuela. Hawksbill loggerhead turtles (Caretta caretta) are listed by the IUCN as (Eretmochelys imbricata) and leatherback turtles (Dermochelys endangered. These four species nest in the country. The olive

Please cite this article in press as: Buitrago, J. et al., Conservation science in developing countries: an inside perspective on the struggles in sea turtle research and conservation in Venezuela, Environ. Sci. Policy (2008), doi:10.1016/j.envsci.2008.03.002 ENVSCI-630; No of Pages 17

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ridley turtle (Lepidochelys olivacea) has been observed in (Roze, 1955,1956; Donoso-Barros, 1964a; Flores and Hoit, 1965; foraging grounds but is not known to nest in the country. Flores, 1969). A report of Lepidochelys kempii in Venezuelan Documented exploitation of turtles in Venezuela dates waters (Donoso-Barros, 1964b; Flores, 1966) was later corrected back to the 18th century and continues to the present day, as corresponding to L. olivacea (Pritchard, 1982). The 1950s and with a resulting reduction in turtle populations (Antczak and 1960s were years of intense economic development and Antczak, 1988; Guada and Sole´, 2000; Antczak et al., 2007). resource utilization in Venezuela, and this is reflected in Venezuela has ratified international treaties and created laws fisheries data. The earliest information on turtle captures lists to protect sea turtles and their habitats, including the 10 tons of unspecified species landings in 1952, mainly from Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Margarita Island, increasing to 38 tons in 1966 (Republica de Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Inter-American Convention Venezuela, 1953, 1965, 1966, 1975, 1979). Captures in Los for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, the Roques Archipelago alone were estimated at 56 tons between Protocol Concerning Specially Protected Areas and Wildlife 1968 and 1973 (Buitrago, 1980). Tortoiseshell exports were to the Convention for the Protection and Development of the included in commodities statistics and ranged from 453 kg in Marine Environment of the Wider Caribbean Region (SPAW 1957 to 2447 kg in 1959 (Groombridge and Luxmoore, 1989). Sea Protocol), and the National Biodiversity Plan. Contrary to these turtle literature during this period was essentially descriptive commitments, sea turtles are still captured while nesting and and lacked any analysis of data or trends, with no apparent in the open sea, their eggs are poached and their habitats concern for the conservation status of sea turtles. degraded by pollution and insensitive coastal development (Guada and Sole´, 2000). As in other developing countries, conservation efforts 3. Early research began when reports of an already critical situation surfaced (in this case in the 1970s), years before actual scientific research Sea turtle research during the early days in Venezuela was into distribution or population status commenced. In Vene- characterized by a lack of agreed priorities and defined goals, zuela, the transition from simple resource consumption to with the result that directions in research were driven purely concerns about resource abundance and awareness of the by individual interests. The earliest sea turtle research project need for regulation occurred only very recently. Interest in the was the green turtle tagging programme at Aves Island in the concept of sustainable development arose (Allen, 1980), and early 1970s, carried out by the Island Resources Foundation sustainability has driven the design, execution and evaluation and Fundacio´ n La Salle de Ciencias Naturales (Rainey and of much conservation and development during the last two Pritchard, 1972; Brownell and Guzman, 1974; Brownell, 1974; decades (Frazier, 1997). Sustainable use is considered indica- Ralston, 1974). Several hundred females were tagged during tive of a shift in policy away from exclusionary practices that brief and irregular periods over the course of three nesting restrict access to natural resources towards more inclusive seasons, producing the first remigration data (Rainey, 1977). practices of resource use (Campbell, 2002). In a marine Also in the 1970s, nesting beach evaluation and in situ nest context, however, it is generally recognized that sustainability protection began in the Los Roques Archipelago (Buitrago, criteria have failed (Pritcher and Pauly, 1998). Recently this 1980, 1987a). Simultaneously with the Aves Island tagging ambiguous concept is being replaced by the more straightfor- programme, small numbers of green and hawksbill turtles ward concept of ecosystem services (Montes, 2007). were head-started for a year in Los Roques and later tagged Certainly there is evidence that current conservation and released (Gines, 1982). This program included moving a measures are not adequate for the recovery of some sea small number of green turtle nests from Aves Island to be turtle populations. Marine attributes of scale, dynamics and incubated and hatched in Los Roques, a practice that connectivity, as well as scientific and cultural uncertainty, continued until 1979 (Buitrago, 1987b). A subsequent project weaken maritime application of the wilderness notion (Sloan, based on partial incubation of egg clutches in styrofoam-boxes 2002). The development of endangered species research and, and head-starting of hatchlings began in 1978 in Los Roques specifically, of sea turtle research and conservation may be (Buitrago, 1981, 1987b). Later, on a lesser scale, a similar project different for each country, but some aspects of the reality are was started at Mochima National Park but this was short-lived shared by developing countries, making it useful to review the (Cervigo´ n, 1983; Manrique, 1986). experience so far and to evaluate lessons learned. Subsequently, Aves Island and Los Roques were the sites of projects by the Fundacio´ n para la Defensa de la Naturaleza (FUDENA) and the Fundacio´ n Cientı´fica Los Roques (FCLR), 2. A chronology of Venezuelan sea turtle including further nesting beach evaluation and in situ nest research and conservation protection in Los Roques (Buitrago, 1980, 1987a). Saturation tagging and full coverage of the nesting season were aims of A timeline of the major milestones in sea turtle research and local research but this was not achieved at the important site conservation is shown in Fig. 1, with the main localities of Aves Island (Laíz, 1979; Go´mez, 1980; Gremone and Go´ mez, mentioned marked in Fig. 2. The timeline commences with the 1984). The first understanding of the status of sea turtle first recorded observations of sea turtles by Venezuelan nesting in Venezuela thus came from a data set that was researchers in the 1950s. This coincided with the founding limited in terms of geographical coverage and in terms of years of the major local scientific institutions, when publica- species coverage, relating mainly to hawksbill and green tions in new national academic journals reported on the turtles with partial information on loggerhead turtles. None- presence of sea turtles, their uses and economic importance theless, it was this early research that yielded the first data on

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Fig. 1 – Chronology of the major milestones in Venezuelan sea turtle research and conservation.

subjects such as nesting seasonality, remigration, species the American Eminent Ecologist Archie Carr. In 1987 a second abundance, hatchling success, female beach preferences and set of sea turtle meetings was held in response to the need for threats to nests. new data on potential nesting beaches (Pritchard, 1982; Pritchard and Trebbau, 1984), particularly for inclusion in the national report to the first West Atlantic Turtle Sympo- 4. The institutional context sium (known as STAO-WATS I) in 1983 (Ortega, 1984). This led to new coastal exploration and the production of the first joint In 1979 FUDENA and FCLR established the first small and document from concerned NGO’s in 1987 (Medina et al., 1987). temporary sea turtle working group in relation to the visit of New geographic areas were subsequently opened to sea turtle

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Fig. 2 – Map of Venezuelan coastline and offshore islands showing main localities mentioned in text.

research: Los Testigos Archipelago (Menzies, 1989), the Gulf of instructors, from a wide variety of countries (Guada and Vera, Venezuela (Acun˜ a et al., 1989) and the Paria Peninsula (Guada 2001; Guada et al., 2003). The 2003 course was held in Colombia et al., 1989). A shift to more active participation by official at Tayrona National Park with joint Venezuelan and Colom- institutions, predominantly the National Parks Institute and bian organization. The second milestone was the publication the Ministry of Environment’s Wildlife Department, charac- of the first Sea Turtle Recovery Action Plan (STRAP) in 2000 terized the next stage of sea turtle research in Venezuela (Sole´, 1993). The Wider Caribbean Sea Turtle Conservation (Guada and Vernet, 1991, 1992, 1992a,b; Acun˜ a and Toledo, Network (WIDECAST) played an important role in the 1994). The number of actors in sea turtle conservation has production of this conservation plan (Guada and Sole´, 2000), increased with private sector involvement in sustainable and has been a key partner in research, training and development in Venezuela (Guada et al., 1993), and with new awareness activities in Venezuela. STRAPs have been pro- NGOs taking part in surveys of different geographical areas moted in the Caribbean by CEP-UNEP through WIDECAST (Guada et al., 1996a,b). (Sybesma, 1992). Widespread consultation about the STRAP Venezuela’s position as an oil-rich country makes for an strengthened the Sea Turtle Working Group (known as the interesting, if ironic, context for research and conservation. GTTM for its abbreviated name in Spanish), an ad hoc team The country’s wealth has in fact acted as a handicap on sea devoted to discussing sea turtle issues and to reaching turtle research and conservation, inhibiting foreign aid consensus on the way forward (Sole´, 1993). The effort to because it is perceived by donors as not required. A weak maintain contact among sea turtle researchers led to the entry private sector encouraged a perception that natural resources of Venezuelan sea turtle research and conservation to the management, including conservation, was an issue that only World Wide Web (Vera, 2002) via an electronic discussion list concerned government agencies. This view is largely still held. and ‘‘Tortuga News’’, an online newsletter compiling Vene- Accordingly, the bulk of economic resources potentially zuelan sea turtle-related activities (Guada et al., 1998) that available for conservation have rested with the government. thrived until 2003 when a lack of resources brought a halt to its Since the start of the 21st century the Ministry of the publication. Environment has started to run conservation projects on Aves Island and the Paria Peninsula, but prior to that most sea turtle research and conservation efforts were undertaken by 5. The current situation NGOs (Buitrago and Guada, 2002). In somewhat of a vicious cycle, NGOs have typically lacked adequate fundraising skills The 1990s saw growing interest in leatherback turtle nesting to achieve their research and conservation goals. on the Paria Peninsula (Guada et al., 1994) and this led to a new On a more positive note, two milestones were reached in tagging and multi-year monitoring project at Cipara and sea turtle conservation efforts in the 1990s: the first was the nearby Querepare beach which still flourishes today (Rondon, design of a course on Sea Turtle Biology and Conservation 2006). Also currently underway are tagging programmes on Techniques (Guada and Vernet, 1994). This training program Margarita Island (Vernet et al., 2005), a new program on the has continued successfully for over a decade, with 15 courses southeast of the Paria Peninsula (Quijada and Balladares, and more than 200 participants, including students and 2004), and the re-initiated Aves Island project. After 19 years of

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Table 1 – Achievement of sea turtle recovery action plan (STRAP) goals for Venezuela STRAP goal Indicator Achievements Shortcomings

Manage and protect habitat Habitat protection Protected areas (PAs) Marine Protected Areas (MPAs) cover 15% of Venezuela. cover only 4% of the system. No new MPAs created since 1987. Less than 10% of MPAs are no-take areas. Aves island C. mydas nesting The 3 main D. coriacea nesting beach protected by law since areas are outside MPAs and 1972 and effectively only 28 of 105 nesting sites protected since 1978. for E. imbricata are inside MPAs. Not all PAs have management plans. Authority responsible for MPAs is under-funded and under-staffed. Manage and protect all Regulations and law Conservation policies Non-implementation, life stages enforcement were established during non-enforcement and violations the 1970s. Basic of conservation laws common. environmental laws have been adopted and administrative structures created. Venezuela is a member Illegal capture and illegal trade of most international in sea turtles continues. Incidental conservation-related captures in shrimp trawlers are agreements. important in some regions. Venezuela is not signatory to Bonn Convention.

Encourage and support Research and training Literature related to Herpetological courses are scarce and international legislation Venezuelan sea turtles universities do not offer sea turtle has grown. Recent biology as a research topic. analysis of threats and review of status has been made. Course on Sea Turtle Most scientific production Biology and Conservation is gray literature. has been run for 15 years. Workshops and symposia held to strengthen technical and scientific skills and promote diversification of research portfolio. Sub-utilization of data gathered, lack of analytical inferences on nesting population levels. No fine-tuning of techniques between or within projects. Technical results are widely unknown, with low scientific production and little impact of research. Evaluations of project success are lacking. Management efforts Volunteer sea turtle alert Management is not well network established on understood by fisheries or Margarita Island. environmental officials. Workshop on ecotourism Management tools applied and sea turtles held in without evidence of their value, 2006 in Paria. e.g. head-starting. No formal ecotourism projects based on sea turtles exist.

Develop public education Environmental education Several excellent Environmental education in programs and resources awareness-raising formal schooling is poor and programs have been run teachers lack conservation training. based on posters, festivals and art shows. A sea turtle guide for The teachers’ sea turtle guide teachers has been has not been validated. developed.

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Table 1 (Continued ) STRAP goal Indicator Achievements Shortcomings

Conservation groups Environmental education work with school children for ﬁshermen is lacking. and communities adjacent to nesting beaches. Some long-term projects are starting to evaluate changes in stakeholder perception.

Increase information exchange Information exchange and WIDECAST plays an Changing balance between international cooperation important role as partner local and multinational in research, training organizations and the public and awareness-raising sector. Concentration of activities. The funding in hands of large Venezuelan Sea Turtle international conservation Working Group has tried groups might jeopardize to promote dialogue efforts by small, hands-on between parties to public NGOs and endanger the awareness and continuation of fieldwork. understanding. An email discussion Unpredictable outcome from list exists. independent efforts without standardized methods, professional assistance or official permits, and often failing to publish results. gathering data, FUDENA’s Aves Island project had been ing based on sound science can help ensure the choice of interrupted in 1997 (Gonzalez and Guada, 1989; Sole´ and optimum management options. Third is the effort invested to Medina, 1989; Narciso and Sole´, 1999) and this only recently re- gain scientific understanding of the various forces affecting started in 2005 (Vera, 2003). the species in question. The latest data shows that there are important foraging These elements are incorporated into the STRAPs for the grounds in Venezuela for green turtles (Medina et al., 1987; Caribbean, which provide a series of goals and objectives to Parra, 2002; Barrios-Garrido and Montiel-Villalobos, 2003; guide in-country research and conservation programs and Troe¨ng et al., 2005) and hawksbill turtles (Buitrago and Guada, propose how threats to sea turtles can be addressed. Six key 2002). Nesting information indicates an important green turtle areas of focus are included in STRAPs: habitat protection, rookery in the Aves Island Wildlife Refuge, albeit with an regulations and law enforcement, research and technical estimated decline of between 83 and 94% in the last three capacity building, management, environmental education, generations (Seminoff, 2004). Aves Island still receives and information exchange and international cooperation. between 300 and 700 females per year, and the population Guada and Vera (in press) recently reviewed the extent to has been stable during the last two decades (Sole´ and Medina, which these goals have been achieved and a brief summary of 1989; Pen˜ aloza, 2000; Vera, 2003). Some 200–300 female this analysis is presented in Table 1. leatherback turtles nest in northeastern Venezuela each year (Guada, 2004; Hernańdez et al., 2004; Guada et al., 2007). There are around 250 hawksbill turtle nests each year, mainly found 7. Habitat protection in the Los Roques Archipelago and on the Paria Peninsula (De los Llanos, 2002; Buitrago and Guada, 2002). Venezuela’s first protected area was Henri Pittier National Park, created in 1937 and designed to protect cloud forest in the central part of the coastal ranges. During the following 32 6. A critical view of research and conservation years another ten protected areas, covering 3.5 million accomplishments hectares (Fig. 3a), were declared covering 3.5 million hectares (Fig. 3a) with the aim of preserving the country’s water supply Taking a broad perspective on conservation, there are three and protecting some remarkable scenic sites. The 1970s key elements that can aid the achievement of conservation marked the creation of the first marine protected areas goals. The first is the participation of local people, their (MPAs). Venezuela is a maritime country in which coastal empowerment to influence decision-making and the extent to areas have been important since colonial times and are now which they have a common vision and shared principles. This heavily populated and subject to intense pressure from is of importance since public participation in conservation fisheries, commerce, industrial development (including oil projects better enables critical habitat protection and law industry activity) and tourism (Penchaszadeh et al., 2000). enforcement. Second is the weight given to research results in However, MPAs cover just 5500 km2 or 4% of the system the environmental decision-making process. Decision-mak- (Miloslavich et al., 2003).

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thousands of kilometres of coastline, heavily used by tourism and ﬁsheries, and with protracted nesting seasons may be an impossible task (Buitrago, 1985). This situation emphasizes the ‘‘few turtles many problems’’ paradox (Guada and Vera, 1998). On a more positive note, some of the MPAs in Venezuela cover important foraging grounds for green, hawksbill and loggerhead turtles, such as Morrocoy, Mochima and Los Roques National Parks. Interestingly, some MPAs in Venezuela are in remarkably pristine condition, particularly those located offshore where their good condition may be attributed to their isolation. Other similarly isolated but unprotected areas, such as military zones, are in equally well-conserved condition. Whilst a reasonably large proportion of the country may appear to be legally protected, this perception in fact raises false hope for conservation since most of the population does not genuinely support, nor understand protection measures (Huber, 2001). Further, not all protected areas have management plans, and the national authority responsible for their protection is hopelessly under-funded and under-staffed. The outlook for Venezuelan marine parks is not optimistic, as illustrated by recurring environmental crises in coastal parks like Morrocoy, which is an important foraging ground for hawksbill and green turtles (Miloslavich et al., 2003).

8. Regulations and law enforcement

Fig. 3 – (a) Establishment of protected areas in Venezuela The second strategy in the STRAP to reduce threats to sea since creation of first national park in 1937. Light grey turtles is the management and the protection of all life stages. represents terrestrial protected areas, stripes represent This goal is expected to be achieved through nine different coastal protected areas and dark gray represents marine types of actions, five of which involve improving laws and protected areas. Based on data from INPARQUES (1982, regulations and their enforcement. 2004) and Miloslavich et al. (2003). (b) Accumulated Basic environmental laws and related administrative number of environmental laws and regulations in structures were created in the 1970s in Venezuela, and more Venezuela. Based on data from MARN (2001, 2003) and recently, existing regulations and ordinances were adapted to Babarro (2004). the 1999 National Constitution (Fig. 3b). Despite the existence of these laws and regulations, incidental and intentional captures of sea turtles has continued (Guada and Sole´, 2000; Buitrago and Guada, 2002; As in most developing countries, MPAs suffer intense Brautigam and Eckert, 2006). Few statistics exist on the pressure from fisheries (Mora et al., 2006). Management plans number of sea turtles illegally taken in Venezuela, but the focus mainly on achieving sustainable fisheries yields for consumption of sea turtle meat and eggs, use of tortoiseshell individual species and on realizing tourism potential, and fail to for decoration, and the production and consumption of other take an ecosystem approach. In Venezuela ‘‘integral protection products derived from sea turtles are a deeply rooted tradition zones’’ and ‘‘wilderness areas’’ are the only management in most coastal communities of the country. Parra (2002) and categories where fishing or resource extraction are forbidden, Barrios-Garrido et al. (2003) reported intense exploitation by and these cover less than 10% of the total area of the country’s indigenous Wayu´ u in the Guajira region near the Venezuela– MPAs. Additionally, such areas suffer attrition in terms of loss of Colombia border. Other areas where there is intentional illegal area, habitats, and species (Sinclair et al., 2000; Mora et al., 2006). take and trade in sea turtles are the Paraguana´ Peninsula, the Sea turtle nesting habitats fall into a range of categories: eastern coast of Falco´ n, Margarita Island and the Paria Aves Island, the second most important green turtle rookery in Peninsula (Medina et al., 1987; Guada and Sole´, 2000). Spurs the Caribbean, has effectively been protected since 1978. But of for use in cock-fighting are made of juvenile hawksbill some 202 reported sea turtle nesting sites (Guada and Sole´, tortoiseshell and are highly valued and in widespread use in 2000), only 39 are located inside an MPA. In the case of the two most Latin American countries. Customs data makes occa- critically endangered species, of 105 confirmed and referenced sional mention of sea turtle products, such as one ton of nesting sites for E. imbricata, only 28 are located inside an MPA tortoiseshell exported to The Netherlands in 1976 (Groom- (Buitrago and Guada, 2002) and none of the three index beaches bridge and Luxmoore, 1989), the same year that the national for D. coriacea in Venezuela are inside an MPA. Outside of the Organic Environmental Law was approved and just a year high activity nesting beaches like Aves Island, Los Roques and before Venezuela ratified CITES (MARN, 2001). Tortoiseshell the Paria Peninsula, protecting other beaches spread over jewellery products are commonly sold in art and craft

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markets. As recently as 2005–2006, a large amount of tortoiseshell jewellery was on sale at the Cuban stand in a Venezuelan government-sponsored art and craft bazaar in Caracas. These same pieces could also be found, at higher prices, in upscale shopping malls. It is clear that the continued illegal exploitation of sea turtles points to major shortcomings in the enforcement of laws. Unless they are implemented, environmental laws are not worth the paper they are written on. Yet in the great majority of nations the failure to implement laws, the lack of enforcement of regulations and violations of conservation laws are so common that they are the norm rather than exception (Latin, 1994). Venezuela is no exception to this. In relation to fishing and incidental captures, under Venezuelan regulations the use of Turtle Exclusion Devices (TEDs) is compulsory. But the incidental capture of sea turtles by shrimp trawlers remains an important cause of mortality in some regions (Guada and Sole´, 2000). Based on fisheries data in Altuve et al. (1999), Buitrago and Guada (2002) estimated that without TEDs more than 2000 sea turtles are captured incidentally by shrimp trawlers annually. The country has suffered US shrimp embargoes as a consequence of poor TED compliance and inspectors frequently find TEDs to have been sewn closed on trawlers. Such attitudes towards TED regulations in developing countries highlight the importance of ensuring that conservation-based discussions take place Fig. 4 – (a) Historic production of Venezuelan sea turtle (Frazier and Bache, 2002). The attitude towards TEDs also literature. Data includes books and articles published in demonstrates the role of punitive measures in conservation. scientific and public interest magazines, unpublished Years of efforts to encourage the voluntary use of TEDs in the reports, symposia and congress abstracts. (b) USA failed miserably (Crouse, 1999), and the same will most Classification of Venezuelan sea turtle literature by likely happen in Venezuela and other developing countries. In subject. such cases the stick rather than the carrot must drive conservation, even though most Venezuelans, or indeed other South Americans or Central Americans, do not like to see such measures being called for. First world policies like embargoes, leads in the production of Venezuelan sea turtle literature. along with consumer preferences for organic and fair-trade Paria Peninsula, Margarita Island, Gulf of Venezuela and the products, will hopefully bear in future. central coast have more recently come to prominence in the National and international agreements are the only way to literature. Published reports on Venezuelan sea turtles cover a cope with the multiple processes interacting with endangered wide range of subjects (Fig. 4b), but observations from nesting species. Babarro (2004) points out that the extensive body of beaches dominate the literature. Few, and mainly incidental legislation related to sea turtles indicates the government’s reports cover topics such as habitat utilization (Sole´, 1997) and commitment to their protection. Indeed, with the exception of foraging areas (Martıńez et al., 2002; Valeris et al., 2003). the Bonn Convention on Migratory Species, Venezuela is Fisheries interactions with sea turtles are subject to some signatory to most international agreements related to sea limited evaluations (Marcano and Alio´ , 1992, 2000; Altuve turtles and has approved the corresponding national laws. et al., 1999; Marcano et al., 2000). Environmental education However, for legislation to be effective there must be an receives some mention in the literature (Carrillo et al., 2002). accompanying capacity to finance compliance with the law Two topics with limited information are disease incidence and the necessary institutional structures to support this. As (Guada et al., 1991; Sole´ and Azara, 1995; Cheng and Penoth, in many neighbouring countries, the Venezuelan Ministry of 1999; Echeto and Bracho, 2000) and illegal trade (Lira et al., the Environment is heavily burdened with basic infrastructure 1996; Gomez and Lira, 2002). problems and will possibly never have the resources needed In the STRAP, research is a secondary recommendation to for enforcement of sea turtle laws. the improvement and enforcement of laws, reflecting the finding that despite the volume of academic literature that exists world wide, there is little evidence of the real effect this 9. Research and technical capacity building work has had on endangered species recovery (Stinchcombe et al., 2002). In Venezuela, whilst there has been fast growth in The publication of Venezuelan sea turtle-related documents academic research, most production is still grey literature. have increased sharply in number in the last years, as shown And as in most developing countries, results from local in Fig. 4a. Aves Island and Los Roques Archipelago were research often are not transferred to those who may be able to pioneer locations for formal research, and Aves Island still apply them (Zilinskas, 1993). STRAP recommendations on

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monitoring of reproductive populations emphasize the need goals or strategic future planning. This is particularly critical for long-term evaluations and the importance of statistical in the case of the head-starting project in Los Roques having accuracy in evaluating trends and judging the performance of continued for decades without an evaluation of results (De los management programs (Guada and Sole´, 2000). When the Aves Llanos, 2002), despite the fact that evaluation criteria were Island tagging project was called off in 1997, after 19 years of established at the start of the project (Buitrago, 1981). In a nesting season coverage, there was no outpouring of concern similar vein, another acknowledged weakness in Venezuela as might have been expected for the country’s flagship sea has been the lack of fine-tuning of techniques over the years, turtle program, located in the second largest green turtle both between and within projects. As a consequence of these rookery in the Caribbean. Furthermore, despite having official various shortcomings, there has been low scientific produc- support, re-starting the project was a difficult, practically tion, technical results are widely unknown and research has single-handed endeavour (Vera, 2003, 2004), until finally the had little impact on the strategies contained in the country’s nesting season was again completely covered in 2005. Only in STRAP. recent years have summaries of population status and threats Recognition of the ‘‘few turtles, many problems’’ handicap been produced in different regions such as Paria (Guada and took years (Guada and Vera, 1998) and the need to promote Buitrago, 2001), the Gulf of Venezuela (Parra, 2002; Barrios- research and conservation projects of varying scopes and Garrido and Montiel-Villalobos, 2003), the central coast emphases is clear. In response to the need for a more (Garcıá, 2002; Barreto-Betancur, 2004; Gallardo, 2007), and diversified research portfolio, courses and symposia on sea Los Roques (De los Llanos, 2002). Only a few papers evaluating turtle biology and conservation techniques are now focusing the achievements of projects have been published (Guada on lesser known areas such as foraging grounds, necropsy et al., 2002; Martıńez, 2001). General status reviews are almost techniques and management of strandings. But in under- absent (Buitrago and Guada, 2002). Also meagre are analyses of staffed NGOs fund-raising is always the main concern and nesting populations and trends (Pen˜ aloza, 2000; Stecocni and typically becomes the most time consuming activity. This is to Barreto, 2003; Hernańdez et al., 2004, 2007; Seminoff, 2004; the serious detriment of the publication of results. Mendoza et al., in press), indicating critical sub-utilization of Perhaps the most remarkable achievement from the years the information that has so far been gathered. of research and conservation in Venezuela are the dozens of In the face of a situation where the balance between efforts volunteers who have been trained in sea turtle research and and results is so uneven, some members of the GTTM initiated conservation. This achievement and the investment it has a series of workshops to strengthen local scientific skills and to involved to date make the country deserving of a future with homogenize the great variety of definitions and techniques in better funded and better structured projects. use. A lack of expertise and training in basic topics like experimental design, statistical analysis and writing skills are limiting factors in scientific production in developing coun- 10. Management of conservation tries (Monge-Najera, 2002). Workshops and symposia will not solve such deep-rooted scientific deficiencies, but it is hoped Integrated management strategies based on the recommen- that reaching consensus on terms and techniques, data dations of the Marine Turtle Specialist Group (MTSG, 1995) gathering, processing and analysis could increase the useful- were adapted to Venezuelan conditions by Guada and Sole´ ness of sea turtle fieldwork. In this way, the efforts of countless (2000). These include the steps needed to effectively manage field heroes will not end up forgotten in a desk drawer. marine and coastal habitats. But with the exception of some Research impact depends on many factors, not all locally successful schemes (Guada et al., 1993, 2003b), nation connected to the concept of sound science. Robertson and wide conservation actions have lacked the necessary level Hull (2001) argue that the success of conservation research of consensus and public participation to have a real impact should be evaluated according to its ability to influence on sea turtle habitat conservation (Babarro, 2004). Further- conservation decisions, and that in addition to scientific more, as in other developing countries, for most environ- attributes such as validity and precision, conservation knowl- mental officials the concept of management remains little edge must also possess qualities that make it effective in the understood. political arena of decision-making. Unfortunately, much of the Until the 1960s, wildlife management implied hunting current university training still teaches conventional concepts regulations (Hidalgo, 2001) and alternatives like no-action or and techniques (Clark et al., 2001). To maximize its usefulness full protection were hardly considered an option. As far as wild in conservation decision-making, research has to produce species are concerned, and especially in marine environ- visible, timely, widely recognized results across a range of ments, management has generally been equated with exploi- conservation attributes. This is only possible with a strong tation according to established quotas (Carrillo et al., 1999). conservation science sector, and this is not the case in Sea turtle conservation does not escape more general issues Venezuela where most national universities do not include sea such as the dichotomous characterization of perspectives as turtle biology as a research topic, even in the only one focused anthropocentric versus biocentric or eco-centric (Flores and on marine biology. Clark, 2001; Shanker, 2002; Kinne, 2004). Hardcore protec- The evaluation of conservation programs is essential to tionist conservation of marine resources has always been ensure that scarce funds go as far as possible towards inconspicuous in Venezuela. achieving conservation outcomes (Ferraro and Pattanayak, As in many developing countries, sustainable development 2006). Yet some projects have been in operation for decades has recently become a high profile goal, although no one without any in-depth evaluation of achievements, review of seems to be sure how to achieve it. Sustainable development,

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usually by single species management, is the goal inside most 1998) are not uppermost in the minds of national resource MPAs in Venezuela. However, some authors, such as Pritcher managers. An ecosystem approach with marine ecosystem and Pauly (1998), argue that environmental authorities must restoration and true MPAs will mark the beginning of a accept that for marine environments sustainability is a different relationship between society and sea (Pritcher and deceptive goal. Pauly, 1998). Such an approach protects healthy natural Practical management tools that have so far been applied to environments and assures the continuity of ecosystem sea turtle conservation in Venezuela have included head- functions and enduring environmental services to society. starting and nest translocation. These are not without their This may seem to be an idealistic view for impoverished flaws, however. There is a growing body of evidence that regions, but steps are slowly being taken in this direction—for aquaculture, in the form of head-starting, ranching or even example, the main subject at the 2005 Venezuelan Ecology farming, cannot be justified on conservation grounds (Dodd, Congress was ‘‘Ecological Restoration and Decision-Making’’. 1982; Ross, 1999). Particularly in the case of late-maturing An increasingly appealing management option derives species such as sea turtles, an increase in juvenile cohort size from the use concept. Use of sea turtles, both consumptive and does not necessarily increase population size (Heppell and non-consumptive, exists worldwide. Non-consumptive use Crowder, 1998). At a time when most head-starting projects includes ecotourism as a means to afford ongoing protection around the world have been ended for this reason, head- to populations of nesting sea turtles (Godfrey et al., 2003). starting continues to the present day in Los Roques. Tagging of Ecotourism development based on watching nesting turtles or sea turtles and nest translocation are also taking place at activities like diving can quickly bring benefits to a region from various locations in Venezuela. But when conservation groups having a well-conserved natural environment. Internation- are starved of resources and facing funding shortages we ally, ecotourism is seen as becoming a good choice (Troe¨ng should question whether all this activity is justified, or and Drews, 2004), but no formal ecotourism projects based on whether it would be better in some rookeries to take daytime sea turtles exist in Venezuela. On the Paria Peninsula a start nest censuses and protect nests in situ. has been made to develop ecotourism based on leatherback Incidental captures of sea turtles appear in the statistics as nesting with technical advice from experts from Trinidad. a small fraction of the total fish and shellfish catch by trawlers, There is also an interesting initiative on Margarita Island including trash, but they in fact represent a large number of where a local NGO (GTTM-NE) has developed a fast response sea turtles in relation to turtle populations in fishing areas network to report turtle sightings, dead or alive, nesting or in- (Buitrago and Guada, 2002). The impact of small-scale fisheries water, using volunteer input which can include tourists. on sea turtles is generally underestimated, but existing data However, the real value of sea turtles and their real use to indicates that gill nets and long-lines are probably the main humans derives from their contribution to ecosystem func- cause of human-induced mortality of adult and large juvenile tions. For future management approaches to fully acknowl- sea turtles (Buitrago, 1987c; Guada, 2000; Fallabrino et al., 2002; edge this require a radical change in perspective. Traditionally Barrios-Garrido et al., 2003; Guada et al., 2003a; Montiel- the management of natural resources has been focused on the Villalobos and Barrios-Garrido, 2003). Given this information, adaptation of nature to human needs, mostly through the we should question whether it would be more appropriate to application of technology. In contrast, the future may well see direct effort and resources towards fisheries interactions and a change to the management of human behaviour and foraging habitat utilization than to other management tools. activities in order to better adapt them to the realities of It is worth mentioning here the resource use conflicts nature (Franklin, 1997). between traditional fisheries and shrimp trawlers which are often cited as an example of good environmental management. In fact, these conflicts can be better characterized as 11. Environmental education social problems related to the distribution of power than as environmental problems. In terms of environmental impact, The involvement of local people in conservation has to be seen some small-scale fisheries techniques, such as beach seines, in the light of the links between global discourse on sustainable are as destructive to habitats as trawling. To assign an area to development, social processes and economic relations (Nygren, exclusive small-scale fisheries use does not necessarily ensure 1998). In Venezuela, the implementation of environmental a better environmental future or a better quality of life for a education efforts related to sea turtles has been patchy, and region’s people. This example demonstrates the political awareness-raising efforts have centered on the same geogra- dynamics surrounding material and discursive struggles over phical areas where research takes place. The target audiences the environment in the third world (Bryant, 1998). covered in environmental education efforts have included the Choi (2004) suggests taking a large-scale, landscape or communities living on and adjacent to nesting beaches, the ecosystem approach to management based on ecological general public in regional coastal towns, the military involved in restoration. Such ecosystem approaches represent a more coast guard activities, school students at elementary level, holistic approach to management and incorporate multi- school teachers, tour industry operators and to a lesser extent species interactions and the influence of the physical tourists, and fishermen. A multiplier effect has been sought environment (Botsford et al., 1997). While these are perhaps through training of school teachers and the military. appropriate for conservation, they can seem far removed from Targeted educational materials have been developed or the reality in many developing countries. Concerns about the adapted to Venezuela to support environmental education progressive simplification of ecosystems and the idea that efforts. For example, various posters, fliers and brochures have rebuilding ecosystems should be the goal (Pritcher and Pauly, been developed and distributed in the country. Of six posters

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printed to date (Guada and Sole´,2000), four have achieved broad Venezuela. The ultimate purpose of conservation science is to in-country distribution and one was produced in the indigenous inform and influence conservation policy (Robertson and Hull, Wayuu´ language. NGOs have had a leading role in the 2001). It is generally accepted that for any conservation production of awareness-raising posters, with only one of the scheme to be successful, it has to be based on the best posters so far produced by environmental authorities. available scientific information. However, this is not always A training manual about sea turtles has been developed for the case and in the developing world the impact of research on elementary school teachers and this has been directed at the conservation policies is very limited. In one of many main- north-eastern region of Venezuela (Marichal and Guada, 2005). stream science accounts, papers by authors from developing Lectures have been addressed to varied audiences, including countries were found to account for only 11% of single- teachers, children, indigenous people and authorities near authored papers and less than 10% of multi-authored papers nesting beaches (Barrios-Garrido et al., 2004; Guada and Sole´, (Wishart and Davies, 1998). Even at the local level decision- 2000). As in other developing countries, the military plays an making is often based on educated guesses rather than sound important role in coastal protection and the National Guard has science. In developing countries there are almost no baseline significant responsibility for the protection of biodiversity. On studies, so decision-making is an even more difficult task. the Paria Peninsula, for example, targeted workshops have been Monitoring of exploitative activities in marine environments directed at the Navy and National Guard to educate them about is sometimes neglected in developing countries, be it for a lack sea turtles and the relevant environmental laws and regula- of trained personnel, shortages of equipment or lack of tions. These authorities have also proven to be important allies political will. Ecological damage is both difficult to observe and for sea turtle researchers operating in remote locations, and difficult to record in a scientific way (Latin, 1994). In the patrolling beaches at night, where personal security can be an absence of specific quantitative data, a more general quali- issue of concern as in many developing countries. tative notion of biodiversity predominates (Gartlan, 1998). An important sector of the population which should have a Sea turtles are global resources with habitats stretching continuous awareness-raising and environmental education across thousands of kilometres. In their migratory routes program is fishermen. Shrimp fishermen receive occasional between foraging and nesting areas, Venezuelan sea turtles information about sea turtles in relation to the shrimp come and go to other countries or territories in the Wider embargo and the mandatory TEDs, but small-scale fishermen Caribbean region and the Atlantic, as demonstrated by in- receive information only through occasional lectures. Due in country and foreign tagging projects. No local effort can parts to a lack of industry organization, fishermen have proved succeed if it is not accompanied by regional support. a difficult public to reach with environmental education. Only Developed nations usually understand this fact and accept one of the posters produced in Venezuela has been directed at it as a reminder that they must be involved in conservation fishermen, and this was adapted from material originally issues in developing countries. Although it is also understood produced by Projeto Tamar of Brazil. by developing countries, the limits of responsibility have to be Awareness-raising among the general public has been clear. Resource managers in Venezuela and in other develop- attempted through such activities as sea turtle-themed festivals ing countries very often relegate their duties to richer nations, and art exhibitions held in coastal regional centres. These alleging that they have a greater responsibility for environ- activities are, however, small in number and very local in focus. mental problems. Some well-established projects, such as on the Paria The negotiation process for the Inter-American Convention Peninsula, are beginning to evaluate whether any transforma- for the Protection and Conservation of Sea Turtles, which tion is taking place in stakeholder perception of sea turtles entered into force in 2001 (Bache, 2005; Frazier, 2002), (Rondon, 2006). In stark contrast to the sophistication of represented an ideal opportunity for the promotion of the biological analyses related to sea turtles, in most conservation best sea turtle research and conservation efforts in Venezuela. projects such stakeholder analyses are largely neglected Becoming party to the convention stimulated government (Ferraro, 2005). involvement in a monitoring project for hawksbill turtles in a There is scope to improve public awareness of sea turtles key nesting area (Quijada and Balladares, 2004) and prompted through more lectures and more innovative educational Venezuela to host COP II of the convention in 2004. It also materials. If it is included as a subject in formal education motivated the publication of a book summarizing some of the then environmental education stands a better chance of most important research efforts in the country (Babarro et al., changing society’s attitudes towards nature, and accordingly 2004). One of the most important challenges for the imple- greater efforts must be made to train teachers as multipliers to mentation of the Inter-American Convention in Venezuela is bring about a better future for sea turtles and their coastal and to improve knowledge of the interactions between sea turtles marine habitats. That this has not yet been achieved is not for and fisheries and to promote public awareness to guarantee want of proposals for environmental education work, rather a protection of sea turtles and their coastal and marine habitats. scarcity of funding has limited this work. On the global level, another issue that is shaping the future of conservation efforts in Venezuela and many developing countries is the growing influence of international non- 12. Information exchange and international governmental organizations (INGOs) which are increasingly cooperation setting the global conservation agenda (Rodrı´guez et al., 2007). The balance between local NGOs and INGOs is changing, and Information exchange and international efforts towards sea the involvement of INGOs in conservation in developing turtle conservation are another key aspect of the STRAP for countries has brought a good deal of controversy. In the

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context of scarce funding, local NGO projects are no match for paper shows, by periodically evaluating results and reviewing INGOs with well designed and more professionally marketed challenges, future directions can be shaped and we hope that programs. Competition between small local NGOs and INGOs conservation sectors in other developing countries can benefit for large donations from multinational corporations seems from the lessons learned in Venezuela. unbalanced. INGOs raise funds directly at the corporate source and later distribute it among developing country projects through local subsidiaries. But large-scale international Acknowledgments development initiatives designed centrally and from the top-down, have rarely met expectations (Rodrı´guez et al., Authors thanks to L. Sarti, M. Rondo´ n and R. Hernandez for the 2007). This has raised concerns that the economic power and help in implementing workshops. P. Carstairs made a valuable political influence of INGOs might marginalize local commu- contribution to an early version of the paper. Two anonymous nities, representing another form of neo-colonial domination. reviewers helped to clarify the paper. Contribution No. 360 Small local organizations working on the front lines of from Estacio´ n de Investigaciones Marinas de Margarita. biodiversity loss are often the most effective (Rodrı´guez Fundacio´ n La Salle de Ciencias Naturales. et al., 2007), but the concentration of funds for conservation in the purses of INGOs may jeopardize the survival of local references hands-on NGOs and thus endanger the continuity of field data gathering at the local level. The effort to conserve biological diversity should not become dependent on large-scale organizations (Orr, 2004). Institutional diversity may be as Acun˜ a, A.J., Toledo, J.R., 1994. Rare records of Dermochelys in the important as biological diversity for our long-term survival Gulf of Venezuela. Marine Turtle Newsletter 64, 10. (Ostrom et al., 1999). Acun˜ a, A., Gonzalez. L., Guerrero, M., Molero, H., Pirela, D.J., Sideregts, L., 1989. Preliminary report on the status of sea On the other hand, the increase in small groups and turtles on the Western Coast of Golfo de Venezuela, Zulia volunteer associations implementing research and conserva- State (pp. 301–302). Proceedings of the Second Western tion activities without adequate professional assistance, Atlantic Turtle Symposium. NOAA Technical Memorandum sometimes lacking official permits, and failing to publish NMFS-SEFC-226, 401 pp. results, can have unpredictable outcomes. Conservationists Allen, R., 1980. How to Save the World. Barnes and Noble, require a set of concepts, theories and working methods to Totowa, NJ. Altuve, D.E., Marcano, L.A., Alio´ , J.A., Go´ mez, G., Guzmań, R., Gil, permit them to grasp the socio-political as well as the H., Marcano, R., Urbaneja, A., 1999. Influencia del ecological dimensions of the problems they face (Clark dispositivo de exclusio´ n de tortugas marinas (TED) sobre los et al., 2001). Cooperation between scientists and small rendimientos de la flota industrial de arrastre que opera en amateur conservation groups is essential. Promising strate- el Golfo de Paria y margen Atlańtico de Venezuela. In: gies for addressing these problems include dialogue among Proceedings 29na, Reunio´ n Asociacio´ n Laboratorios interested parties, including officials and scientists, and Marinos del Caribe, p. 72. maintaining the participation of a mix of institutional types Antczak, Ma.M., Antczak, A., 1988. El ‘botuto’ y las tortugas marinas en la prehistoria de las Islas Venezolanas. A´ mbito 3 (Dietz et al., 2003). 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