Queen City Heritage

Madison Avenue & Pike St., Covington, Ky.

Sudduth was born in Covington, Kentucky on August 8, 1888, the second child of Charles and Mattie Sudduth. Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!' We Must Not Fail!!!"*: Horace Sudduth; Queen City Entrepreneur

Stephen Middleton 1957), poses a similar challenge. I first heard about Sudduth in the fall of 1985. At the House of Style barbershop on University Avenue, two "During the past thirty years or so," writes John blocks north of the University of , middle-aged men Hope Franklin, "there has been a veritable explosion of the bragged about the Manse, a hotel allegedly founded by an field of Afro-American History."1 Although African American African American. I paid little attention at first, thinking that history has exploded since the publication of pioneering this was only "barbershop gossip." On subsequent visits, works by William Wells Brown, House of Style patrons inevitably drifted to Black History, and Williams, and Carter G. Woodson, "the father of Black to Sudduth and the Manse. Their discussions were intense. History,"2 scholars have been fascinated mainly with national Jacob Elder, the proprietor, frequently talked until sweat topics and persons who were well-known among the movers dripped from his brow. He proclaimed Sudduth's significance and shakers of their generation. More is known about African in Cincinnati history.6 Americans who were prominent as national leaders — Ida B. This oral history intrigued me, and I launched Wells-Barnett, Booker T. Washington, and W.E.B. DuBois, an investigation, not fully convinced about the legacy of but studies about blacks and their leadership in state and local Horace Sudduth. I soon discovered that his contemporaries communities remain relatively scant. remembered him fondly, and his name is listed in the card In Cincinnati, for example, until the publica- catalogue at the Cincinnati Historical Society. These sources tion of Franklin's recent biography, nothing had been written enabled me to create his biographical sketch. about George Washington Williams. In 1879 Williams became Sudduth made constructive contributions in the first black man elected to the Ohio legislature and one Cincinnati and the nation before the Civil Rights Revolution. of the first northern blacks to be elected to a political office. Born in poverty to mulatto parents during the late nineteenth But if scholars have neglected to write about local black century, and a prisoner of a system that limited his potential, politicians and men of letters (Williams was both), less prominent black Cincinnatians have been almost forgotten. There have been no scholarly studies on Cincinnatian Peter Clark, who worked tirelessly as an abolitionist, editor, and educator to improve life for black people, and in 1845 helped organize the Cincinnati Colored Orphan Asylum.3 Wendell Phillips Dabney, an Oberlin-educated journalist and founder of the Union, Cincinnati's first black- owned newspaper, has also escaped scholarly investigation. Nor have scholars analyzed the political career of Theodore Berry, the first black elected mayor in the Queen City.4 Most of these leaders, whose combined careers spanned more than a century, did not recognize their importance to American history. They rarely left papers and were even less noticed by the larger culture. Possibly scholars have been discouraged because so few records are available. Franklin admits that in preparing his biography of Williams, he "stalked" him for over forty years.5 Cincinnati entrepreneur, Horace Sudduth (1888-

Stephen Middleton, an assis- Horace Sudduth, an entrepre- tant professor of history at neur, owned a real estate North Carolina State Univer- business, started a savings sity, is the author of Ohio and and loan, and was the city's the Antislavery Activities of first black hotel builder and Salmon P. Chase and is cur- restaurateur. rently doing research on the Black Laws of Ohio. Queen City Heritage School in Covington, named for state Representative William Grant, who had deeded property in 1880 to the Covington Board of Education to fulfill a promise he had made to .8 Kentucky, a border state during the Civil War, usually marched ahead of states in the deep South on racial matters.9 Blacks there were enfranchised after the war, and in 1875 Grant promised to build a "colored school," if black voters helped him win the election. He kept his promise, and the segregated school survived until the onset of integration in 1965.10 Horace was a dedicated pupil and his high school education was all the formal training he received. But he obtained the skills and confidence needed to pursue a career in business. Horace did not remain in Covington, where opportunities for blacks were limited. After graduating from Lincoln-Grant about 1906,11 he obtained employment with the Pullman Company, one of the largest companies to employ blacks. There Horace mingled with college-educated blacks he succeeded against the odds. Undeterred by segregation, who often could not find work elsewhere. Pullman porters Sudduth, a tireless worker and risk taker, was willing to served railroad travelers, and Horace, obviously adaptable, sacrifice his life for his dreams: the belief that history and the tolerated the servant's role for a few years.12 As a porter he forces of the universe will produce fruits for a committed traveled widely, ultimately as far west as Oklahoma. There he person. Emboldened by civil rights litigation of the NAACP realized that in this formerly unorganized Indian Territory, during the early twentieth century, he anticipated the collapse blacks had greater opportunities than they did in other areas of segregation and urged black businessmen to expand to and states. Moreover, in Oklahoma, a freshly minted state, nontraditional markets. Horace envisioned a boom in the real estate industry.13 It is important to commemorate his achieve- Although he was not aware of it then, streams ments. An unsung entrepreneur, Sudduth not only survived of African Americans had migrated to Oklahoma since the late as a realtor in Cincinnati, but also became the city's first black 1870's, motivated by the collapse of Reconstruction. Southern hotel-builder and restaurateur. He served as president of the blacks had lived through an era of political involvement in the prestigious National Negro Business League (NNBL), where South. They had been elected to Congress, state legislatures, he inaugurated an agenda that survived for decades after his and to a few judicial posts.14 But Reconstruction ended in 1877 death. Until this study, Horace Sudduth has been a "lost man" when President Hayes withdrew troops from the South. A in American history. "reign of terror" followed and large numbers of blacks Horace Sudduth's life began in Covington, hurriedly migrated to escape the wrath of the white South.15 Kentucky, on August 8,1888, the second child of Charles and Anti-lynching crusader Ida B. Wells-Barnett Mattie Sudduth. Charles eked out a living as a general laborer, had urged blacks in Tennessee to migrate to Oklahoma to and Mattie worked as a domestic. Barely literate themselves, escape racial violence in Memphis. She anticipated greater they stressed the importance of education to their children. security and opportunity for blacks among Native Americans. From them Horace learned to be diligent, especially in matters Oklahoma retained this appeal for black nationalists, who vital to his economic welfare. Their instructions took root. wanted to form an independent black state there well into the When Charles suffered a crippling paralysis in 1896, Horace, twentieth century. So Sudduth, "a man with native business age nine, took on a part-time job to supplement the family sense, instinctively envisioned greater opportunities for income.7 He might have withdrawn from school but for the himself in Oklahoma."16 The real estate industry intrigued values imparted by his parents. These were difficult years for him. Consequently, he resigned from the Pullman Company young Horace, who suffered because of limited opportunities in 1908 to launch a career in real estate. available to blacks and the blight of poverty. Horace soon faced difficult choices, especially Sudduth attended the William Grant High because of matters of the heart. He had strong ties to

The school Sudduth attended changed its name frequently. Its names included William Grant High School, Lincoln- Grant High, and Covington High. Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!' Covington — his high school sweetheart and fiancee — a segregated school.19 Very probably the first black full-service Melvina Jones. Horace returned to Covington about 1909, realtor in Cincinnati, Sudduth quickly won the confidence of planning to marry Melvina and return to Oklahoma. But black property owners. He emphasized service, not profits. He Melvina, an independent woman, did not want to move so advised his staff that financial success would come if they far away from home. Although supportive of Horace, she matched a buyer with the right property. He also advised his obviously lacked his adventurous spirit. Horace could not clients that purchasing a home should be seen as an leave behind the woman he loved so he cancelled his plans investment: "You do not buy a home like you buy a hat."20 and married Melvina.17 Sensing that there might be more In the Union, a black-owned newspaper founded by Wendell opportunities in Cincinnati than Covington, they moved P. Dabney, Sudduth consistently placed his favorite ad, across the to the Queen City. Apparently, Sudduth "Sudduth still sells."21 He was most proud of the Wheatley never regretted his decision, especially after the birth of their Flat Building, a twenty-two room complex on Lincoln children, Horvina, named in honor of her father Horace; and Avenue, sold to the Progressive Benefit Society for Old Melace, named in honor of her mother Melvina. They were Women, one of several self-help organizations founded by proud parents who found creative names for their children.18 blacks. He was also pleased to place Emma L. Davis, a Sudduth's fascination with real estate cosmetologist, in an eleven-room building on Kemper continued in Cincinnati. He had already saved enough money Avenue. As William Stanton, an employee of Sudduth, noted, during his brief stay in Oklahoma to start a family. Next, he "Horace Sudduth was a salesman."22 In 1950, Time Magazine opened the Creative Realty Company office in 1910. Located reported that Sudduth, after forty years in real estate, had built downtown on West Fifth Street, Sudduth launched a full- a half-million dollar fortune.23 service enterprise. He sold residential property and offered Sudduth might have made millions had he been investment counseling. This twenty-two-year-old businessman only concerned with his prosperity. But he had other concerns: launched his career on a high school education obtained in the welfare of African Americans, who, during the first half of this century, did not fare well in Cincinnati, a northern city with longtime ties to the South. As a free state on the fringe of slavery before emancipation, Ohio produced Black Laws, statutes that subjugated African Americans. Like most northern states, Ohio had practiced segregation before the HOUSES FOR SALE! policy was formally adopted by southern legislatures.24 Ohio's intolerance for blacks permeated every city in the state, ESTABLISHED 1910 especially Cincinnati, separated from slavery by only the Ohio JF YOU ARE_ LOOKING FOR A HOME River. OR AN INVESTMENT, IN ANY LOCATION, IT WILL Life for Cincinnati blacks grew desperate. In PAY YOU TO CONSULT ME 1918, for example, Viola Pennie complained that two ESTABLISHED 1910. Cincinnati police officers insulted her at a grocery store. The 1 have sold more than 250 houses in tlio past nine years. Not on "two policemen entered the store," watched her, and then person that purchased their prop- ended their conversation on "getting a nigger."25 Blacks were city from me fallrd. So then, don'l you think it would pay you to con- also denied "good jobs." World War I created many jobs but sult me when you are ready to buy 26 a homo or make an investment? Cincinnati blacks obtained few of them. Having faced HOttACk SIDUUTH, oppression for so long, many became discouraged. Even .".^7 W. .".lh St. I'hoilC Main -04 > eiNviNN.vrr.s COLOHHD Carter G. Woodson had been pessimistic about the condition KKAL, KSTATK ACJKNT of northern blacks. "He discoursed upon the moral LOANS NEGOTIATED degeneracy of the Negroes in Cincinnati, where vice, prostitution, and crime flourished."27 The oppression of blacks in the Queen City troubled Sudduth, especially when Horace Sudduth 28 local banks denied them mortgage loans. REALXSTATE AGENT 527 WES1 FIIIH STREET Phone, Main 2648 A less energetic young man might have determined to do nothing, but not Sudduth. Although no black had ever gotten anywhere in the banking industry in

In 1910 Sudduth began sel- ling real estate and offering investment counseling. Queen City Heritage Cincinnati, he started the Industrial Federal Savings and Loan tried to apply them to his business endeavors. At the Association. Founded in 1919, the thrift survived until 1970 incorporation meeting of the NNBL in Boston in 1900, when it merged with the East End Investment Company, Washington had declared that wherever he had "seen a black another black-owned corporation, founded by Major Lee man who was succeeding in business, who was a taxpayer, and Zeigler in 1921. The merger produced the Major Industrial who possessed intelligence and character, that individual was Federal Savings and Loan Association which was bought by treated with the highest respect by members of the white Charter Oaks Bank, a Cincinnati-based corporation, in 1987, race."32 It is doubtful that Washington expected a racial almost two decades later.29 Utopia. Certainly he believed that blacks could become more self reliant, thereby weakening their victim psychosis. Self help produced economic success for some African Americans and Sudduth probably made special note of their achievements. Will L. Abernathy, who did not know Washington, his contemporary, applied self reliance in Alabama. While most blacks had little property, he accumulated approximately 500 acres of land. He created a family that was as self sufficient as possible. "To get ahead ... he ... worked as hard as he possibly could; [and] led a severely disciplined and sober life."33 Jake Simmons, Jr., a "Washington man" and Tuskegee graduate, experienced greater success. A fearless fighter, he exclaimed to his sons: "How the hell can a black man stay in bed in the morning when the white men ruled the world?"34 Simmons went on to make a fortune in the oil business. So blacks, wittingly and unwittingly, applied the doctrine of self help. Booker T. Washington brought this philosophy into prominence; and Horace Sudduth embraced it. Essentially, Washington and Sudduth believed that material progress would weaken the sting of racial prejudice. They endeavored to empower their generation by the doctrine of self help. Historians have described Washington's ideas as "accommodationist." They argue that he urged African Black leaders who had gained national Americans to pursue a conciliatory agenda. Undoubtedly prominence also affected Sudduth. Booker T. Washington accommodationism has brought notoriety to Booker T. probably influenced his outlook on financial matters more Washington, but some believe that Washington has been than anyone else. Washington, the "Wizard of Tuskegee," had misunderstood. His public statements were addressed to come "up from slavery" to teach blacks habits for their target audiences: white liberals in the North and white economic survival. In 1900 he founded the National Negro conservatives in the South. He had the uncanny ability to Business League (NNBL) to encourage business development disarm both. If the audiences assumed that he did not among blacks.30 Sudduth met Washington in 1913. Although anticipate a society that offered full equality, he did not correct he did not know Washington intimately, Sudduth studied them. Covertly, however, Washington financed civil rights Washington's economic philosophy. Washington's death in litigation and he anticipated a society where blacks could enjoy 1915 ended any possibility of a stronger relationship between full civil rights. Indeed, Washington was a conservative the two men. Nevertheless, Sudduth admitted that thinker. But he did not desert his race.35 Washington had a profound effect on him.31 It is not If Washington had lived longer, some whites surprising that in 1948 Sudduth was elected president of the probably would have been threatened by his leadership. At National Negro Business League. least he alarmed Thomas Dixon, Jr., author of The Clansman, During his term as president, 1948-1957, who alleged that Washington, the pre-eminent diplomat, Sudduth carefully studied the teachings of Washington and conspired either to integrate the races or build a separate black

Wendell P. Dabney owned the Union newspaper in which Sudduth ran his advertisement. Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!" nation on American soil.36 Dixon feared that Washington pools."38 Thus, Sudduth removed them from a practice he might produce in blacks the value that they live by liberty and found humiliating. Benjamin Mays, his contemporary, did a prosperity. This idea would have brought blacks into direct similar thing. When ordered to enter a house that belonged competition with whites. Dixon thought that it would have to a white through its rear door, he refused. So did Jake been impossible for such a people (blacks) to acquiesce under Simmons, Jr., a machinist in a Detroit factory, who invented segregation. a defroster. When his white superiors refused to inspect it, Sudduth embraced Washington's values and, Simmons quit the job to become his own boss. These men learned much more from Washington than the gospel of kept their dignity in spite of racial prejudice.39 Sudduth, as wealth. He had faith in the ability of blacks to compete in the much as possible, did not submit to the indignities of American capitalist system. He believed that the accumulation segregation. of real and personal property was a weapon that the weak Primarily an entrepreneur, Sudduth was not a could use. By engaging in manufacturing, marketing, and civil rights leader per se. Nonetheless, he developed a program achieving financial success, Sudduth believed that blacks for race progress. He read widely, especially in history and could do a great deal to achieve civil rights. He also engaged philosophy. He interpreted the "race problem" historically, in a one-man crusade against segregation. He rejected social concluding that racial separation was the primary problem mores that debased blacks. Unable to topple segregation, he which had confronted blacks since their arrival in America in refused to cooperate with unjust laws.37 1619. He viewed the struggle of African Americans as one to Horvina Sudduth remembers well how her gain inclusion in mainstream American life.40 After Brown 41 father handled segregation in Cincinnati. only he predicted that there would be greater opportunities for permitted blacks to swim in city pools at the end of the week, blacks, especially entrepreneurs. "America offers every man when the water was dirty and ready to be changed. "Dad," the opportunity ... to exercise freely whatever ability he may she said, "forbade Melace and me from swimming in public possess." Certainly this was an optimistic appraisal of

As president of the National cinnati leaders and Negro Business League, Sud- businessmen. duth urged other black busi- nessmen to join the league. Pictured are Sudduth, fifth from the left, and other Cin- Queen City Heritage American society, but Sudduth, who died in 1957, did not have elements from Washington's self help program and ideas from the benefit of hindsight. From his vantage point he the U.S. Chamber of Commerce, especially its emphasis on encouraged black businessmen to "give a lift to society," information, training, and lobbying. Headquartered in the thinking that society would open up to people who nation's capital, the U.S. Chamber of Commerce lobbied for contributed to its development.42 policies favorable to its members and advised them of current Sudduth was not alone in this opinion. Queen policies and regulations. Sudduth wanted the NNBL to City entrepreneurs had shared his optimism since the 1920's. provide similar services.47 Confident that blacks could win the patronage of white Sudduth also recognized the advantages of consumers, Dabney wrote an editorial in the Union advising having the organization headquartered in Washington, D.C., black businessmen to compete for white customers. "There and of employing a few salaried workers. With key full-time is enough room for us all," he wrote. Although optimistic, personnel, they could provide educational services and resume Dabney was not naive. He recognized that the primary market publication ofthe Journal of Negro Business. He also proposed for black businesses was blacks and he urged the community to form regional league offices throughout the nation. He to patronize them.43 But as a businessman he felt that a firm considered these proposals vital. "The league's program is should appeal to all nationalities and races. It is reasonable designed to unify our thinking — crystalize leadership — and to conclude that Sudduth and his colleagues thought that if concentrate our energies to a singleness of aim and purpose." they held to their values, an oppressive system would have little Sudduth urged his colleagues to move away from the fringe power over them. into the center of American life. It was no longer possible for As president of the NNBL, Sudduth ex- blacks "to sit idly by ... and expect social organizations and pounded this theory to black entrepreneurs. He told them that the federal and state governments to do the job for us."48 material gains were vital to progress in civil rights. He warned "These are the major steps ... [which will] qualify the Negro that race progress could never be achieved by acquiring for integration into the full economic life of this nation."49 political and social rights alone. Material progress "is the only A delegate to the NNBL Convention in Tuskegee, Alabama, thing remaining here on earth that we can get for ourselves echoed these remarks, concluding "The day of philanthropy and our children — social justice — complete civil rights — is behind us. We must be on our own . . . ."50 44 and equal employment opportunities." In the tradition of Horace Sudduth had faith in capitalism and the Booker T. Washington, he urged blacks to adopt a new value opportunities promised in the American system. He looked system. Economic success required "a vigorously pursued self for possibilities when others focused on obstacles. In 1951 he help program [which] will chart a pathway that will lead us exclaimed, "economic freedom is the greatest cause before the to the achievements of those rights, recognition, and American Negro today." He understood well that African 45 privileges that undeniably belong to all American citizens." Americans faced many hurdles due to racial prejudice. But he Sudduth embraced this belief throughout his life. Sudduth did not inaugurate the self help agenda of the NNBL. Washington had insisted on self reliance since the beginning of the organization in 1900. Initially, self help meant that blacks should be inspired to enter into business. Sudduth labeled this era as phase one for the NNBL. Under this program, large numbers of African Americans had started businesses. He considered his presidency the time for expansion. "We do not need an inspirational program to encourage us to enter business. Those days are gone forever!!!"46 Believing that black businesses needed technical assistance, such as demographic and market research studies, and educational support and counseling, Sudduth proposed to restructure the league, so that it could better offer these services. In 1948 at the Atlantic City meeting, Sudduth inaugurated its restructuring. The new program combined

The Ninth Street Branch of the Y.M.C.A., under the lea- dership of Horace Sudduth, sponsored a number of programs on safeguarding one's health during National Negro Health Week in April 1925. Summer 1991 'We Must Not Fail!!!' believed they could grow stronger if predisposed that struggle poured into Cincinnati, commending Sudduth for his efforts. was necessary. He conceived their struggle in economic terms: As Dr. Jesse E. Moorland, secretary of the YMCA in the viable black-owned businesses, and full participation in nation's capital and trustee of Howard University, put it: "You business life were prerequisites for addressing "all of the other have had a fine constructive program these years."57 just complaints that we have as American citizens."51 He considered a well-organized business league vital to their success. Soon after the 1948 meeting, the league launched its capital campaign, to raise $50,000 to cover current expenses, salaries, and office space. After a successful fund- raising drive, the NNBL opened its headquarters in the nation's capital. Sudduth's leadership brought praise from black entrepreneurs throughout the nation. The National Negro Business League Board of Directors hailed his administration as "the dawn of a new day."52 Emmett Scott, formerly Washington's per- sonal secretary and past secretary of the NNBL, applauded Sudduth's efforts. "You are about to realize the dreams we had [thirty] years ago." A national headquarters and the creation of regional offices will "make the National Business Sudduth's interest in social problems also League a powerful instrument of service in developing Negro carried him to leadership in the New Orphan Asylum for business in America."53 Accolades came from others, most Colored Youth, chartered in 1845. Prominent Cincinnatians notably Louis C. Blount, General Manager of the Great Lakes helped to establish the organization including white Mutual Insurance Company, who identified two epochs in the abolitionists Salmon P. Chase and Christian Donaldson and league's history: "First, when Booker T. Washington founded progressive blacks, including John Liverpool, John Woodson, it; second, when Horace Sudduth was elected president."54 and Richard Phillips. Inspiration for the program came from Sudduth did not believe in chance, so he , the "city of brotherly love." Lydia P. Mott, a worked diligently to arouse interest in the league. He mingled Quaker-reformer in Philadelphia, understood the plight of with prominent black leaders, hoping to attract others to join. blacks in Ohio better than its residents. The Black Laws denied In addition to Scott, whom he admired, his circle of influence African Americans benefit of the state's welfare program. included Charles Spaulding, founder of the North Carolina Mott recommended that concerned residents create local Mutual Insurance Company, and Moses McKissick, architect. organizations, funded by philanthropies, to protect indigent According to David Rice, Executive Vice President of the black children.58 Horace Sudduth joined the Asylum in 1924, NNBL, Sudduth established the national agenda for the as a member of the Board of Trustees; they later elected him organization.55 president. His administration faced at least one hurdle. A Sudduth put his zeal to good use locally as well, rumor surfaced that a rival organization would absorb the and made vital contributions to civic affairs in Cincinnati. He Asylum. Sudduth calmed his colleagues, assuring them that was a catalyst in the construction of a segregated YMCA in the organization had prepared for expanded service. He downtown Cincinnati. millionaire Julius Rosenwald broadened the Asylum's support to include Cincinnati-based initiated the project when he offered to donate $25,000 to any Lady-Managers, who organized an auxiliary to assist the male- city that raised matching funds to create a YMCA for blacks. dominated staff of the Asylum. This was not unusual. The Sudduth organized black leaders and local politicians to NNBL, for example, had Lady-Managers. Separated because accept the challenge. They launched a capital campaign which of gender, these associations illustrate society's treatment of raised more than $100,000 to finance the project.36 women during the 1950's. Although Sudduth was not a They erected the building downtown on Ninth reformer in the women's movement, he lent support to their 59 Street in 1916. Sudduth chaired the YMCA Management causes by serving on their boards and committees. Committee for the next twenty-five years. When the Ninth Initially, the Asylum provided shelter, food, Street YMCA celebrated its fiftieth anniversary in 1931, letters and apprenticeships for needy children. Under Sudduth's

Peter Clark worked as an abo- litionist editor and educator to improve life for black people and in 1845 helped organize the Cincinnati Colored Orphan Asylum. 10 Queen City Heritage leadership it added subsidies for students going to secondary A visionary who wanted a great deal out of life, schools and segregated colleges. Since the 1970's it has Sudduth used Cincinnati as a laboratory to test his ideas. By retooled to provide scholarships for students going to major 1940 he had achieved success in real estate and banking. American universities. According to Matthew Fairfax, However, his most daring initiative was achieved in 1950 with president of the Asylum Scholarship Fund, several of their the creation of the Manse Hotel. Segregated accommodations students have graduated from schools in a number of fields for African Americans were not new in Cincinnati. Before including law and medicine.60 emancipation, slaveholders had traveled to Cincinnati Sudduth's civic service also included the care routinely, frequently bringing slaves. Their "chattels" needed of seniors. Philanthropist John Crawford made this possible. somewhere to stay. Black entrepreneurs met this need when Crawford, a white Civil War veteran, had grown bitter they established the Old Dumas House in downtown because of American neglect of aged blacks, especially elderly Cincinnati. In addition to being the first segregated hotel in men. He had observed their contributions to the Union with the Queen City, it holds the distinction as "The first colored their blood. Yet, the federal government ignored their general hotel in the ."62 It was the most successful black- welfare. Crawford remembered them in his will and owned establishment in ante-bellum Cincinnati. bequeathed his College Hill estate to their care. Adminis- Segregated accommodations and housing trators named the facility in his honor, Crawford's Old Men's continued to arouse the sympathy of white philanthropists and 61 Home. produce business opportunities for black entrepreneurs into

In 1924 Sudduth became a trustee of the New Orphan Asylum for Colored Youth and later served as president of the board. "We Must Not Fail!!!" 11 Terry, its proprietor, maintained the facility as a boarding house. It was not officially a hotel, at least in the modern sense of the word. Well constructed from brick and concrete, Hotel Terry was a multi-family facility. Sudduth made a few improvements initially. He changed its name to Hotel Manse and advertised it as a hotel. A few years later he purchased a nearby building and annexed it to Hotel Manse. But he still attempted only modest improvements.65

= FOUNDED 1844 INCORPORATED 1845 =

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NEW ORPHAN ASYLUM the twentieth century. The Cincinnati Model Homes 1 FOR COLORED CHILDREN OF S Company dominated the black real estate market during the first few decades of this century. Founded in 1914 by Jacob CINCINNATI, OHIO G. Schmidlapp, a German millionaire philanthropist, the FOR FISCAL YEAR ENDING MAY 31, 1943 = CMHC constructed million dollar projects in Walnut Hills. The building of spacious houses and apartments and well- constructed efficiencies, earned the Cincinnati Model Homes H Rev. Counclll IW. Harris, Supt. Mrs. T. L. Harris, Matron || Company a "reputation as a leader in housing reform and community development."63 Some of these buildings remain = COR. VAN BUREN AND MELISH AVENUES - - AVONDALE = in use today. Schmidlapp provided a different role model for Horace Sudduth. Concerned that hotel accommodations were unavailable to blacks, Schmidlapp established the Gordon Hotel in 1917. Obviously, rooms could be found for transients but rarely could traveling blacks find adequate accommoda- tions. This situation brought shame to black residents who At mid-century, Sudduth put his resources into asked Schmidlapp to construct a hotel. The Gordon was the a massive renovation project to upgrade Hotel Manse to a first twentieth century hotel to cater to blacks. Schmidlapp first-rate facility. More than a half-million dollars went into considered this venture a major success.64 the project. The construction produced 108 bedrooms, private In real estate and accommodations, Sudduth baths and showers, and circulating ice water in each room. joined concerned residents who wanted to offer adequate In addition to guest quarters, thirteen efficiency apartments accommodations for black residents and travelers. He began were added along with the Sweetbriar, an air-conditioned to invest in accommodations for transients in 1931 when he dining room, modern music boxes, and an ultra-modern purchased the Hotel Terry located in Walnut Hills. Mozella coffee shop opened twenty-four hours a day. Finally, he

As president of the Asylum, Sudduth (center of first row) worked with other trustees to expand its services and its support through the inclusion of a board of Lady-Managers. 12 Queen City Heritage constructed a huge ballroom, capable of accommodating American citizen. You saw what could be done and did it." more than 400 guests.66. His words emboldened Sudduth who stated the Manse Hotel Sudduth, who had high standards and impec- "is definitely in direct competition with the larger downtown cable taste, intended to make the establishment comparable hotels." Certainly he meant white hotels; but he did not view to other hotels. "The entrance is across the center of a long entrepreneurship in that way and he seldom described himself solarium extending the width of the building's front, and as a black businessman. He always accentuated the positive, serving as an adjunct to the handsomely appointed lobby claiming the Manse provided "every imaginable service," within."67 The lighting division of the Cincinnati Gas and including suites, dining, room service, parking, and a coffee Electric Company planned its "soft and brilliant" lights, shop.70 Feeling he had done the right thing, Sudduth adding special fixtures and placements to achieve a subdued, anticipated success. yet sharp illumination. Sudduth wanted the hotel to express Sudduth had traveled widely, and he decided 68 elegance. As William Stanton put it: "Horace was class." against a "soul food" menu, typical for African American After nearly a year of renovations, on Easter restaurants during this period. He liked the word "Sweet- Sunday 1950, when blacks looked their best in spite of their briar," and called his restaurant by that name. He convinced impoverishment, Sudduth staged a grand opening. Along Fred Good, a chef who enjoyed a city-wide reputation, to with structural changes came a new name: The Manse Hotel. manage the food service at the Manse. Good, who had worked More than 6,000 guests strolled through the building that at the Broadway Hotel for over twenty years, joined the staff Easter. Uniformed hosts and hostesses greeted guests. in 1950. There is a second reason why Sudduth lured Good Gourmet dishes were served on elegant china. It was a most from the white-owned establishment downtown. He auspicious occasion for African Americans. Reporters came considered Good to be among the best in his profession. And too. A reporter for the Enquirer gave the hotel high marks. he believed it prudent to have him work in a first-rate, black- "The Manse Hotel on Chapel Street is the finest hotel in the owned establishment.71 United States owned and operated by Negroes. It is a credit It is not surprising that Sudduth enticed Good to the city and to the man whose enterprise, energy and money to join his staff. In light of the historic experience of African made it possible. The Manse is as finely equipped and Americans, it was Sudduth's practice to provide employment 69 beautifully furnished as any of our downtown establishments." opportunities for blacks. And he assigned Good the Frank L. Williams, Sudduth's high school responsibilities he probably would not have obtained at the principal, praised his former pupil. Williams, at age ninety and Broadway Hotel. This thinking enabled William Stanton to in poor health, declined his invitation as a guest of honor. But work with Sudduth, who contracted with Stanton to install he seized the moment to confirm instructions he had given and maintain commercial radios in guest rooms. As an to Sudduth and Lincoln-Grant students. "You are a typical employee of the National Refrigeration Company, Stanton 13

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His civic service also included Page; "Editor" W.P. Dabney, The Old Dumas House, known Cincinnati Model Homes service on the board of "Politician" Bill Copeland, as the "first colored hotel in Company, under the leader- Crawford's Old Men's Home Sudduth, and Pee Wee the United States," was ship of Jacob G. Schmidlapp, in College Hill. Pictured are Wilkins. located on McAllister Street in constructed housing for other trustees in 1932; from downtown Cincinnati. blacks in the early twentieth left to right "Snake" century. Jameson, "Orator" Wilber 14 Queen City Heritage

In 1917 Schmidlapp estab- lished the Gordon Hotel which offered accommodations for blacks traveling to the city. The Gordon was the first twentieth century hotel to cater to blacks. Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!"

also sold appliances for the kitchen to Sudduth. Another many visiting entertainers who didn't stay at the Manse.74 young black, Sammy Whiteman, who was a prominent Segregation was obviously the biggest factor behind the salesman, sold Sudduth furniture and interior decorations for Manse's success. But it had acquired a larger appeal, especially the Manse.72 among middle-class African Americans. The Manse Hotel enjoyed a monopoly at first, For mature blacks, the Manse offered an as segregation barred blacks and their associations from opportunity to dress in formal attire: the women in full length downtown hotels. Sudduth, an eminent salesman, immedi- gowns, the men in tuxedos. Allen Howard, a Cincinnati ately attracted conventions. The National Union of Red Caps, Enquirer editor, explains their excitement: to "glide down the the Atlanta Life Insurance Company, the Negro Life hallway on plush wall-to-wall carpet in the ballroom; to be Insurance Company, and the NNBL are among a dozen served a well-prepared dinner on expensive chinaware from businesses that held their annual meetings at the Manse Hotel. silver trays; to light a cigarette, reach out, and let it dangle Naturally, this pleased city leaders who enjoyed economic from a silver ash tray on the table; this was part of the very benefits from these conventions.73 finest of black social life in Cincinnati."75 The Manse attracted prominent African Although he had overcome a lot, Sudduth did Americans visiting Cincinnati. Athletes, including Joe Louis, not win the approval of all white Cincinnatians. But this had stayed there, as did musicians Tina Bradshaw, Lula Reed, and to do more with racism than with his character. Born to Lionel Hampton. Sammy Davis, Jr. was another prominent impoverished parents, and unable to go to college, he never guest to lodge at the Manse Hotel. Glen Alexander, hotel forgot his limited options. He had wanted to study law, and manager, and Jacob Elder, bellhop, doubted that there were said that he had enrolled at Howard University. The university

In 1950 Sudduth completed a major renovation of the Manse Hotel and on Easter Sunday held a grand opening which attracted some 6,000 guests to view the newly completed project. The new Manse Hotel boasted Organizations and churches an ultra-modern coffee shop such as the Mt. Zion Metho- opened round-the-clock. dist Church in Walnut Hills held dinners and banquets at the Manse Hotel. (Picture courtesy of Martin Clinton) Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!" 17

has no record of him.76 Nevertheless, it was possible that he By any standards, the career of Horace Sudduth sat through a course during his employment with the Pullman was remarkable. In less than fifty years, he had made a fortune Company. He obviously valued formal education and insisted in real estate. He had provided decent housing for black that his children apply themselves. A vigorous organizer, residents. Undeterred by white controlled mortgage Sudduth read widely and developed a lucid writing style. He companies which sometimes denied loans to blacks, he worked his way to success. founded a savings and loan company. He served on the board But he could not overcome institutional racism. of several civil organizations and spearheaded the construc- In 1954 the Cincinnati police ordered his arrest on a charge tion of a segregated YMCA. He served as president of at least fabricated by twisting a property ordinance. They claimed that two organizations. Along the way Sudduth made time to Sudduth was not maintaining some property to standards and experiment with hotel management.79 The Manse Hotel sent out a paddy wagon to haul him to jail. At breakfast when experienced success until the mid-1960's. It employed more the officers arrived, Sudduth told the men to go to his office than thirty people, with an annual payroll of over $85,000. where he conducted business. The police crashed through the During its heyday, it consistently grossed over $200,000 door, handcuffed him, and hauled him off to jail. Glen annually. Sudduth and his wife Melvina enjoyed these boom Alexander, his son-in-law, arranged for his release hours later, years. In addition to helping with the business, Melvina and the charges were ultimately dropped. There is no official supported civic causes and held membership in the City record of his arrest. Horvina Sudduth admitted that her father Federation of Colored Women's Club. She died in 1956. had maintained some property poorly but doubted that this Sudduth, in poor health, died one year later.80 warranted his arrest.77 It is reasonable to assume that property Showdown came for Sudduth's enterprises standards had little to do with his arrest. Racist elements in during the onset of desegregation in the 1960's. Although he the city probably wanted to teach Sudduth a lesson. had little to do with desegregation, it has a great deal to do He had experienced humiliation before. His with his legacy. He favored a common American culture, work as a porter had made him uncomfortable. Porters were especially in education, politics, and business. However, he expected to be yielding to white passengers. As president of did not anticipate the appeal of desegregated facilities to the NNBL Sudduth could not find adequate lodging in African Americans, and the possibility that they might desert Washington, D.C., the corporation's headquarters. These him as soon as downtown hotels welcomed them. experiences developed in him an urgency to create "something Sudduth represented a generation of entrepre- nice" for African Americans which explains his dedication to neurs who developed an economic solution to the race the Manse Hotel, and why he poured most of his resources problem. He believed the American system offered huge into the project. "Sudduth made millions," said Stanton, "and benefits for persons who had capital, and he committed his he spent millions."78 life to the capitalist system. He doubted that a person who

Sudduth (center) hired Glen Alexander (left) as manager of the Manse Hotel and bought furniture and interior decora- ting for his hotel from Sammy Whiteman (right), a prominent salesman. 18 Queen City Heritage had no capital could ever expect much from America. To him, the Manse in a black section of town. This would have been such a person could not even hope for a decent job. Sudduth reasonable had he not expected to achieve cross-over status. expected little from desegregation until African Americans He did; and he gave whites too much credit during gained economic parity. And to gain parity, black entrepre- segregation. They never patronized the Manse. Secondly, neurs had to succeed in banking, industry, and commerce. Sudduth did not educate his patrons well. He assumed that Only this approach could create jobs and earn for them dignity they would appreciate the contributions his enterprises made: in a society that had oppressed them. jobs, ownership, and dignity. But they never learned the The majority of African Americans in Cincin- importance of supporting ethnic-based businesses. Sudduth's nati and the nation had other goals, however. They assumed vision of the American dream created the illusion that black integration would automatically produce parity. They paid less businesses would survive without special effort. This decision attention to creating viable black institutions than they did to proved costly. Although a major force in the business life of seeking admission and service in white-controlled organiza- Cincinnati, Sudduth's enterprises barely survived his death. tions. Their preoccupation with integration created an The Manse Hotel sputtered along during the illusion. Consequently, when integration came to Cincinnati, mid-sixties, then disappeared by the end of the decade. After African Americans deserted the Manse Hotel. Visitors, its demise it was transformed into the Walnut Hills including national organizations, looked for lodging and Apartments. The Walnut Hills Redevelopment Corporation convention halls downtown. purchased the building in 1979 to provide low income Sudduth was not so naive. Yet, he contributed housing.81 The Manse Hotel remains only a memory now; a to this unthinking decision among blacks. Sudduth opened ghost in the minds of barbershop gurus.

Horace Sudduth died in 1957, one year after the death of his wife Melvina. Summer 1991 "We Must Not Fail!!!" 19

*Taken from a speech made by Sudduth at the Fifty-first Annual 20. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9, 1988. Convention of the National Negro Business League, October 10-12, 1951. 21. The Union, July 9, September 17,1921; April 22,1922. 1. John Hope Franklin, "Afro-American History: State of the Art," Journal 22. Interview, William Stanton, March 22, 1988. of American History, 75 (1988), p. 162. 23. Time Magazine, September 11,1950. 2. See for example William Wells Brown, The Black Man: His Antecedents, 24. Stephen Middleton, Ohio and the Antislavery Activities of Attorney Salmon His Genius, and His Achievements (New York, 1863); George Washington Portland Chase (Garland, 1990), pp. 73-76; Frank U. Quillon, The Colored Williams, A History of the Negro Race in America From 1619-1880 (New York, Line in Ohio: A History of Race and Prejudice in a Typical Northern State (Ann 1883); Carter G. Woodson, The Negro in Our History (Washington, D.C., Arbor, Michigan, 1913); David A. Gerber, Black Ohio and the Color Line, 1922); See also Earl E. Thorpe, Black Historians: A Critique (New York, 1860-1915 (Urbana, Illinois, 1976). 1971). 25. The Union, October 12,1918. 3. John Hope Franklin, George Washington Williams: A Biography (Chicago, 26. Ibid., October 5, 1918. 1985). For a discussion of Peter Clark see pp. 44-47,90-91. See also Minutes, 27. Lorenzo J. Green, Working With Carter G. Woodson, the Father of Black New Orphans Asylum for Colore Youth, (1845); Samuel Matthews, "John Ison History: A Diary, 1928-1930 (Baton Rouge, Louisiana, 1989), p. 280. Gaines: The Architect of Black Public Education," Queen City Heritage, 45 28. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9,1988. (1987), pp. 44-45. 29. Brochure, "The Industrial Savings and Loan Association," Charter Oaks 4. For a discussion of Cincinnati politics see Wendell P. Dabney, Cincinnati's Bank, Gilbert Avenue, Cincinnati: Williams Cincinnati Directory (1926- Colored Citizens: Historical, Sociological and Biographical (Cincinnati, 1926). 1960); Cincinnati Post, March 20, 1957; Interview, Jacob Elder, June 22, 5. Franklin, George Washington Williams, pp. xv-xxiv. 1987; Conversation with Theodore Barry, December 27, 1988. 6. Jacob Elder, owner of House of Style, University Avenue, Cincinnati, 30. For a discussion of Washington see Louis Harlan, Booker T. Washington: Ohio, September 17, 1985. Mr. Elder led regular informal conversations The Wizard ofTuskegee, 1901-1905 (New York, 1983); see also Greenberg, into Cincinnati history during the months of September-November 1985. Staking A Claim, Chapter 3. These discussions whetted my appetite to pursue this biographical sketch. 31. 56th Annual Convention of the National Negro Business League, 7. Dabney, Cincinnati's Colored Citizens, p. 237. Interview with Horvina Masonic Temple, Washington, D.C., Address by Horace Sudduth, October Sudduth Alexander, Cincinnati, Ohio, March 9, 1988. 24, 1956. 8. Kentucky Post (Covington), August 2, 1982. 32. Proceedings of the National Negro Business League, Boston, Massachusetts, 9. Alfred H. Kelly, et al, The American Constitution: It's Origins and August 23 24, 1900. Quoted in Ronald W. Bailey, ed., Black Business Development, (New York, 1983), pp. 610-612. Enterprise: Historical and Contemporary Perspectives (New York, 1971), p. 74. 10. Kentucky Post, February 22,1987 and January 18,1988. 33. Ralph David Abernathy, And the Walls Came Tumbling Down: An 11. The school changed its name frequently during this period. Its names Autobiography, (New York, 1989), p. 4. included William Grant High School, Lincoln-Grant High, and Covington 34. Greenberg, Staking A Claim, p. 127. High. Cyndy McQuillan, Secretary, Holmes High School to Stephen 35. Louis Harlan, "Booker T. Washington and the Politics of Middleton, January 17,1988, author's file. Accommodation," in Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, eds. John Hope 12. William H. Harris, Keeping the Faith: A. Philip Randolph, Milton P. Franklin and August Meier, pp. 2-3. Webster, and the Brotherhood of Sleeping Car Porters, 1925-1937 (Chicago, 36. John White, Black Leadership in America, 1895-1968, (New York, 1985), 1977), pp. 2, 14-15, 17; Benjamin E. Mays, Born to Rebel: An Autobiography p. 158; Thomas Dixon, Jr., The Clansman: An Historical Romance of the Ku (New York, 1971), pp. 61-63. KluxKlan, (New York, 1905); E.L. Thornbrough, "Booker T. Washington 13. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9, 1988. Oklahoma was as See by His White Contemporaries," Journal of Negro History, 53 (1968), admitted as a state on November 16,1907. For a discussion of its relevance p. 180. to African American history see Jonathan Greenberg, Staking a Claim: Jake 37. For a general discussion of these ideas by black entrepreneurs see Simmons, Jr. and the Making of an African-American Oil Dynasty (New York, William J. Kennedy, The North Carolina Mutual Story: A Symbol of Progress, 1990); Kaye M. Teall, ed., Black History in Oklahoma: A Resource Book 1898-1970 (Durham, North Carolina, 1970); Jesse E. Gloster, North Carolina (Oklahoma City, 1971). Mutual Life Insurance Company: Its Historical Development (NewYork, 1976). 14. John Hope Franklin, From Slavery to Freedom: A History of Negro 38. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9, 1988. Americans (New York, 1988), pp. 216-223. 39. Mays, Born to Rebel, pp. 46-47, 111, 113; Greenberg, Staking A Claim, 15. John M. Blum, et al, The National Experience: A History of the United pp. 5,85,91-92. States Since 1865, vol. 2 (New York, 1979), pp. 445-446, 575; Greenberg, 40. 56th Annual Convention of the National Negro Business League, Staking A Claim, p. 59. See also Herbert Shapiro, White Violence and Black Masonic Temple, Washington, D.C., Address by Sudduth, October 24, Response: From Reconstruction to Montgomery (Amherst, Massachusetts, 1956. 1988). 41. Brown v. Board of Education, 349 U.S. 294 (1954). The Supreme Court 16. Thomas C. Holt, "The Lonely Warrior: Ida B. Wells-Barnett and the ruled racial separation unconstitutional in the school segregation cases. Struggle for Black Leadership," in Black Leaders of the Twentieth Century, Sudduth envisioned that this opinion would apply to other institutions. eds., John Hope Franklin and August Meier (Chicago, 1982), p. 45; Neil 42. 56th Annual Convention, Address, October 24, 1956. Irvin Painter, Exodusters: Black Migration to Kansas after Reconstruction (New 43. The Union, July 9,1921. York, 1976). Greenberg, Staking A Claim, p. 59; Interview, William Stanton, 44. President's Report to Mid-year Meeting, National Negro Business March 22, 1988. Stanton, a Sudduth protege, later organized his own League, Manse Hotel, May 11-12, 1953. business: Stanton Furniture. 45. Annual Address of Horace Sudduth, Eighth President of the National 17. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9,1988. Negro Business League, Detroit, Michigan, August 24, 1949. 18. Interview with Glen Alexander, the son-in-law of Sudduth, March 9, 46. President's Address, Fifty-first Annual Convention of the National 1988. Negro Business League, Washington, D.C., October 10-12, 1951; Time 19. Interview with Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9, 1988; Williams Magazine, September 11,1950. Cincinnati Business Directory (Cincinnati, 1939), p. 1112; The Union 47. 56th Annual Convention, Address, October 24, 1956; Sudduth to (Cincinnati), September 17, 1921; Cincinnati Post, March 20,1957. Emmett Scott, February 7, 1949, Emmett Scott Papers, Series 2, 20 Queen City Heritage

Miscellaneous, Box 92, Folder 4, Morgan State University Library, Company Papers, Box 1, Folder 1, Cincinnati Historical Society Library. Baltimore, Maryland. 64. Ibid. 48. Time Magazine, September 11,1950. 65. Williams Directory (1920-1930), p. 890, pp. 689, 819 (1935), p. 808. 49. 56th Annual Convention, Address, October 24, 1956. 66. Times-Star (Cincinnati), March 4, 1950; Cincinnati Enquirer, April 1, 50. Time Magazine, September 11, 1950. 1950. 51 56th Annual Convention, Address, October 24, 1956. 67. Cincinnati Enquirer, April 1,1950. 52. "The Dawn of A New Day," p. 3; Rosa Bracy to Sudduth, March 10, 68. Interview, Ralph Boyd, Senior Representative for Commercial and 1949, Scott Papers. Residential Services, Cincinnati Gas and Electric Company, March 3,1988; 53. Scott to Sudduth, March 5,1949, Scott Papers. Cincinnati Enquirer, April 1, 1950; Interview, William Stanton, March 22, 54. Louis C. Blount to Sudduth, February 4, 1949; RE. Clay to Sudduth, 1988. February 5, 1949; George W. Powell to Sudduth, February 9, 1949; J.B. 69. Cincinnati Enquirer, April 16, 1950; Interview, Horvina Sudduth Blayton, Sr. to [Sudduth], February 17,1949; Frank S. Home to Sudduth, Alexander, March 9, 1988; Interview, Glen Alexander, March 9,1988. March 8,1949, Scott Papers. 70. Cincinnati Post, April 15, 1950; Cincinnati Enquirer, April 16, 1950; 55. Sudduth to Scott, October 19,1951, Scott Papers; Interview, David Rice, Hotels and Motels Scrapbook, Cincinnati Historical Society Library. Executive Vice President, National Business League, Washington, D.C., 71. Cincinnati Enquirer, April 16, 1950; Interview Glen Alexander, March March 12,1988; Kennedy, "The North Carolina Mutual Story," pp. 32,60. 9, 1988. 56. Harry L. Senger, The Story of the YMCA of Cincinnati and Hamilton 72. Interview, Glen Alexander, March 9,1988; Interview, William Stanton, County (Cincinnati, 1953), pp. 89-90. March 22, 1988. 57. Jesse E. Moorland to Sudduth, March 10,1931; B.W. Overton to Jesse 73. Ibid.; Hotel and Motel Scrapbook; Cincinnati Enquirer, April 16,1950; E. Moorland, March 2, 6,1931, Jesse E. Moorland Papers: 126-122, Folder NNBL, Report to Mid-Year Meeting, Manse Hotel, May 11-12,1953. 306, Moorland-Spingarn Library, Howard University, Washington, D.C. 74. Interview, Glen Alexander, March 9, 1988; Interview, Jacob Elder, 58. Minutes, New Orphan Asylum for Colored Touth, 1845-1894, p. 2; February 7, 1986; September 9, 1988. Christian Donaldson, Princeton Files, vol. 47, Cincinnati Historical Society 75. Cincinnati Enquirer, June 2, 1969. Library. 76. Interview, Horvina Sudduth Alexander, March 9, 1988; Telephone 59. Orphan Asylum, 1917-1936, pp. 167-168; April 25,1936; March 26,1936; interview, Student Records, Howard University College of Law, June 7, May 28,1936; September 25, 1936; May 3, 1937. 1988. 60. Interview, Matthew Fairfax, March 31, 1988; Orphan Asylum, May 2, 77. Interview Horvina Sudduth Alexander and Glen Alexander, March 9, 1927. 1988. There are no police records of this arrest. Lt. Robert Hungler, 61. Dabney, Cincinnati's Colored Citizens, p. 95; Williams Directory, (1940), Cincinnati Police to Stephen Middleton, April 20,1988, author's file. p. 251. 78. Interview, Glen Alexander, March 9,1988; Interview, William Stanton, 62. Biographical Sketch, Wendell Dabney Papers, November 3,1949, Folder March 22,1988; Mays, Born to Rebel; Harris, Keeping the Faith. 1, item 3, Cincinnati Historical Society Library; Dabney, Cincinnati's 79. Cincinnati Post, March 20,1957. Colored Citizens, p. 130. 80. Interview, Glen Alexander, March 9,1988; Cincinnati Enquirer, January 63. Douglas Knerr, "Housing Reform and Benevolent Capitalism: Jacob 5, 1956; Cincinnati Post, March 20,1957. G. Schmidlapp and the Cincinnati Model Homes Company, 1911-1920," 81. Horace Sudduth, Hamilton County Administration Building, Auditor's Queen City Heritage, 23 (1985), pp. 27, 31, 36; Cincinnati Model Homes Office, Cincinnati, Ohio; Cincinnati Enquirer, June 2, 1969.