In this issue ... AustralianJournal of ,Vb The community: central to emergency risk management 2 Emerg&$g $24 by Geoff Boughton 1 /% Community involvement in environmental management: Management B24 thoughts for emergency management 6 by Stephen Dovers The Australian Journal of Emergency Management is published by the Aus- ,vh Effective community collaboration in emergency management 12 DQO tralian Emergency Management Insti- PAP by Mark Hennessy tute. Mt ace don, victoria, Australia. Funding for publication is provided by /% Dealing with hazards and disasters: risk perception Emergency Management Australia. The DaO VAV and community participation in management journal's circulation is 4.900 copies, d~stnbutec~tnoUt charge to s-bscnben by Elspeth Young thro*pnodt Australla. It IS also sent to /Vb Out of the ashes, a community responds: people throughout the worid B2DQ the Dandenong Ranges bushfires, January 1997 The journal endeavours to provide an information-sharingforum for all those by Helen Wositzhy involved in emergency management. /Vb Recovery: a Local Government response Contributions relating to Australian and DQa international emergency activities, ~AV by Lyn Hayes articles identifying and discussing issues, policies, planning or procedural con- The Victorian Council of Churches: its role 6Z"a cerns, research reports and any other ~AVin community support and development information relevant to the emergency1 by Sydney Smale disaster management community are welcome. The aim of this publication is Ivn Wth no recognition of the event, how do you DO0 the exchange of information and views PAV plan a community development program? across the Australian emergency by Rosemary White management community, therefore, the views expressed in this journal should /Vb Spiritual issues and recovery management not be taken to be the views of Emergency Management Australia. G2DQ by Peter Crawford Material submitted for publication / Vb Supporting the entire person should be on disk and reach the Editor by the following dates: Summer - $24 by Phillip Buckle, Jan Bmwn and Michael Diclunson October 15th; Autumn - Janualy 15th; Port Arthur: lessons for early disaster management Winter - April 15th: Spring - July 15th. 0% VAV The editorial committee reserves the by Ian Sale and Peter Hessman right to determine the suitability of all ln Flood management in The Netherlands material submitted and where necessaly Pa4 to edit submissions. qAv by M.J. Beruyen, M.J. van Duin and W.J.A. Leenders Articles for publication may be / Vb Balancing international approaches to disaster: fo~rdedto: $24 rethinking prevention instead of relief Rob Fleming Australian Emergency by David McEntire Management Institute l% Urban flood damage under greenhouse conditions: Main Road DQO Mt. Macedon. Victoria. 3441 PAV What does it mean for policy? Tel (03) 5421 5100 by 0.1. Smith Fax (03) 5421 5273 Email: [email protected] /n Environmental scanning and emergency management DQO VAV Design and production by by Mumy Gillett Colin Wilson, Plus Publishing Innovations ... RSD 813 Spring Hill. Conference and event announcements via Kyneton. Victoria, 3444 Tel (03) 5424 8339 New publications Fax (03) 5424 8262 Email: [email protected] Disaster events calendar 64 Subscrlptlons EMA Update Centre pages If you wish to be placed on our mailing list please contact Rob Fleming, Australian Emergency Management Cover: The Saguenay Rood, Canada 1996. These pictures are used with permission from the Saguenay RWd CD-ROM (1997),containing satellite and aimme images and ISSN 1324 1540 photographs acquired during and after the flood. The Canadian Centre for Remote Sensing is on the world-wide web at http:/lw.ccn.nrcan.gc.can Recovery management

his edition of the Journal is the Recovery Management tailor their activities to support such a first of a number, that will Given this context it is timely to reflect community, from the frenetic activity of Tfeature articles on recovery on the evolution of recovery manage- the event and the immediate aftermath, management. ment over the last decade and consider through the ongoing needs for many A selection of papers from the some important issues that need to be months and years to follow. Key consid- Emergency Recovery Forum, held in addressed as we approach the new erations include: Victoria during November 1997, appear millennium. continuing privatisation of services in this edition. The Spring 1998 edition The Principles of Recovery Manage- more sophisticated assessment of will include a number of papers on ment were drafted in the late 1980s. need through development of vul- recovery issues from the Port Arthur They detail the fundamentals of recov- nerability and resilience measures shootings. These papers were presented ery management and are featured in the development of performance criteria at the Australian Association of Social Australian Emergency Manual (AEM) to measure the success of recovery Workers Conference, held in Canberra -Disaster Recovery. programs in September 1997. Finally, the Summer Underpinning these principles is the continued integration with other 1998 edition will include a selection of concept that individuals and commu- aspects of emergency management. papers presented in a session on recovery nities should be supported in the The risk management methodology management in Australia, to be held as management of their own recovery. It is needs to encompass these issues. part of the Disaster Research Commit- interesting to note the developing Australian Emergency Manual tee of the International Sociological importance of this concept of individual Disaster Recovery Association Conference, Montreal, July and community empowerment in other - Disaster Recovery Coordinators from 1998. areas of emergency management. A each State and Territory and EMA prime example of this is the very Emergency Recovery Forum continue to work towards refining and successful Community Fireguard strat- Two of the papers from the Victorian updating recovery management strategy egy of the Victorian Country Fire Emergency Recovery Forum provide and service delivery. The AEM-Disas- Authority, which is also built on indiv- perspectives on the recovery process ter Recovery is to be reviewed in the idual and community self reliance, following fires in the Dandenong second half of 1998. Events such as the supported by education and infor- Ranges, Xctoria, in January 1997. These Port Arthur shootings, Thredbo Land- mation. papers highlight the approach taken to slide and Katherine Floods have taken After more than a decade, the Prin- recovery management at the local level place since the original draft of the ciples of Recovery Management con- featuring the work of: manual. No doubt the lessons from tinue to provide the cornerstone of Lyn Hayes as a recovery manager these and other events will enhance the recovery management in Australia. with local government revised manual. However, while the theory may remain Helen Wositzky as a community intact, its application is continually being National Studies Program development officer. developed. EMA's National Studies Program has In the third paper from the forum, also provided a significant opportunity Syd Smale provides a history of the role Risk Management to address specific issues in recovery of the Church in providing support The relationship between recovery and management. Guidelines for the delivery services during and after disasters. This a risk management framework for of community and personal support is coupled with reflections on the emergency management is currently services were developed during a work- Church's role in the aftermath of the beingdebated. While it would be simple shop at AEMI, where practitioners with Dandenong Ranges fires, written by one to label recovery as 'just another treat- experience in a range of disasters pooled of the convenors of the local outreach ment option', it is worth considering the their knowledge of issues facing workers program, Peter Crawford. length and complexity of the recovery responsible for the delivery of these While the background and approach process following a disaster. services. These guidelines will be of each of these people and the organisa- As identified in the Principles, published shortly. The process was tions they represent may differ, their recovery begins as an event unfolds and funded under the National Studies papers provide avaluable insight into the continues almost indefinitely, as affected Program. importance of community involvement communities come to terms with indiv- A similar workshop on the delivery and leadership during the recovery idual and shared experiences. As I write of psychological services in the disaster process. this editorial, this week's newspapers context is scheduled for March 1999. In the fourth article from the forum. (29th April) include a number of reports Through activities such as these Rosemary White provides furthe; on the second anniversary of the Port ' recovery management continues to fulfil insight into community involvement Arthur shootings. What better reminder its fundamental and indispensable role through discussion of her role as a of the duration and complexity of the in emergency management. community development officer in a recovery process than such an event? community affected by an outbreak of The challenge for recovery managers Andrew Coghlan, National Training anthrax. and practitioners remains how best to Consultant, Disaster Recovery.

Winter 1998 The community: central to I emergency risk management I I by Associate Professor Geoff Boughton, School of Civil Engineering, Curtin University of Technology, Perth, Western Australia I

Introduction Presented at the Developing Strategies and hazard are all ways of defining Emrreencv manaeement can be defined Partnerships Workshop, Australian Emer- different erou~inesof individuals u, - .,, I in many ways, but ultimately it means gemy Management Institute, Mt Macedon, based on commonalities other than 1 I that some .people . are makinF: and November, lgg7 location. I I I implementine- decisions that im&t on Community can be defined in other 1 community or public safety. As a ways including rector-bared groups. general management practice management activity, it can draw on It is also possible to define commu- risk management as presented in AS accepted management principles and nity in terms of all three-'farmers 4360 practices and apply them in an emer- in the Little Desert area in the age Emergency Risk Management as gency management context. group 50 to 60 years'. defined in the guidelines. There are many books and courses 'Community' can be used to refer to This paper addresses the role of run on management, and they tend to groupings that are both affected by and community in satisfactorily implement- share a common theme for the process, can assist in the mitigation of hazards. ing emergency risk management. summarised in Lble I. Recently there The reason for the existence of emer- has been a steady increase in interest in Community gency management is to minimise the a particular management tool known as Community is a term that can have a adverse effects of hazards on the com- risk management, and it seems at first wide range of meanings. Nearly all of munity. sight to be appropriate for those who them are applicable in the emergency deal with emergency management. This management context. Risk generic risk management process is A community is a group that has a Risk is a concept. It is quite intangible, widely used in industry to minimise number of things in common, generally yet it is something that most people works exposure to risk of injury, defined by location, but which may understand intuitively Risk couples a accident or breakdown, and also in the include such things as shared experience consequence or an outcome that we may financial institutions to minimise or functions. be able to imagine, with a set of circum- exposure to financial loss. Standards This general definition of commu- stances that may assist in the develop- Australia has published a standard on nity means that it may be applied to a ment of the consequence. Risk Management that details a number wide number of groupings in which For example, most people acknow- of significant steps in the process. people may need to interact with ledge that there is a risk associated with However, the concept of risk adop- emergency management. flying in an aircraft. The consequence is ted by the financial sector and that Community can be defined geo- death because of a crash, and the hazard adopted by the heavy industry sector is graphically. Households, neighbour- may be a set of circumstances that give a little different to that readily under- hoods, suburbs or towns, local rise to the crash. These may include pilot stood in the area of public safety and government areas, metropolitan error, mechanical malfunction, traffic emergency management. A series of areas, regions, states, and the nation control error, extreme weather condit- guidelines for the use of Emergency are all ways of defining ever-increas- ions, terrorist activity, administrative Risk Management is currently being ing communities based on location. errors e.g. asking for the wrong quantity prepared that will enable uniform Community can also be defined by or type of fuel etc. application of the generic principles of shared experience. Particular-interest The risk of dying in a 'plane crash is risk management to the emergency groups, ethnic groups, professional remarkably low, but the risk gives management sector. Zble I compares groups, language groups, age group- meaning to the likelihood that the the terms used in: ings, those exposed to a particular dreaded consequence will happen.

Generic management term Risk management term Emergency risk management term (from AS43601 (from Guidelines) ~ ~ - - Problem definition Establish context Establish emergency risk management context. ------. ------~ - .~~ Analysis Identify risks Characterise hazards, community and environment. Determine evaluation criteria. ~~ ~ . - ~ ~ ~ Decision making Analyse risks Analyse risk. Evaluate risks Evaluate and rank risks. ~- - - -~ - -~ ------Implementation Treat risks Identify, evaluate and implement inte~entions. I I Table 1: Management and risk management terms

2 Australian Journal of Emergency Management I Risk is a concept used to describe the Emergency risk management enables implemented will inevitably affect the Iikelihood of a consequence arising from emergency managers to: life and function of the community in a set of circumstances. make predictions about the like- some way. Many interventions will This concept is central to emergency lihood of disruption or damage in a require the community to implement risk management. In applying emer- community the plan. gency risk management, we are trying rank outcomes from emergencies in In establishing the emergency risk to change our environment to reduce the terms of likelihood, management context, the community likelihood of an undesirable conse- try various intervention strategies to should have been identified, invited to quence for a community. determine effectiveness, participate, and had some input to the Risk then represents an interaction monitor the effectiveness of emer- structure in which a solution will be between a hazard that has the potential gency plans as circumstances change. sought. (It is their problem-the emer- to do some damage, a community that gency risk management process is may be damaged and an environment 'Establish the emergency risk assisting them to solve it!) that may make the hazard more serious, management context' or in other circumstances, less serious The problem is defined including the 'Chancterise hazards, community, in order to produce a given consequence. detail of the scope and constraints. The and environment' Figure I illustrates the elements. Emergency RiskManagement structure While the previous step defined the is defined-the operating rules and boundaries and the nature of the prob- Risk policies in which the solution will be lem, this step focuses on the main sought. The stakeholders will be iden- elements of the risk analysis itself: tified and invited to participate. hazard Hazard Community The outcome of this process will be community and the potential con- a clearly defined brief for the Emergency sequences RiskManagement Model. It will list the environment. boundaries, note and describe the The outcome of this process will be constraints and give detail on the clear definitions of the hazards used in environment in which the Emergency the risk analysis process and the antici- Risk Management model will have to pated consequences. The affected Environment operate. community will have been defined and This is the first stage of the process the environment in which the conse- u and in the identification of the stake- quence may arise is also defined and holders, the community will have been described. Figure 1: Elements of risk involved. The community has stake in A hazard is any situation, condition Emergency risk management the solution, as the possible consequen- or thing that has the potential to disrupt, The emergency risk management pro- ces involves the community as potential damag~or bring loss to things that cess is illustrated in Figure 2. victims. As well, any intervention to be peopl~value. This is a very wide definition of hazard and includes: Community Establish emergency risk natural hazards - bushfire, storm, participation rmanagement - context flood, cyclone, earthquake etc. and L I technological hazards - dam failure, consultation systems failure, food contamination, industrial accidents, transportation accidents etc. biological hazards - spread of community, environment evaluation criteria disease among plants, animals, people etc. civil and political hazards including war, terrorism, sabotage. Analyse risk The community has already been defined earlier in this article. The environment comprises condit- 1/ ions or influences that surround or interact with a community, including Evaluate and rank risks social, physical (natural) and built elements. This definition includes much more -7- than just the natural environment. built envirovment - buildings, Identify, evaluate, infrastructure, systems for trans- implement interventions porting people, goods and services natural environment - topograph- ical features, ecosystems,vegetation, Figure 2: Emergency risk management pmcess climate, water

Winter 1998 -

social environment - politics, eco- In modelling the whole of the the community had identified as nomics, commerce, culture. process (fromhazard which may consist acceptable, then the problem is more Funding cuts can dramatically in- of a number of different situations that serious than in cases where the dis- fluence a community's ability to prepare interact with a complex environment) a crepancy between risk and the criteria for and cope with apotential hazard. The fiumber of steps must be taken: was small. economic environment can have a * the likelihood of the hazards arising This gives the community a basis for significant influence on the risk that must be assessed ranking their risks. As the concept of communities have to bear.This environ- the likelihood of the hazards occur- risk is associated with perception of ment can change rapidly and somewhat ring simultaneously with the envir- exposure, the ranking process must arbitrarily. It needs particularly careful onment that will cause it to become involve the stakeholders. monitoring. a serious situation must then be Only the affected parties can really The community will have a strong found rank the risks, as so much of risk is involvement in this step as well. It is finally, the processes that will lead to associated with perceptions, dread and their perception of the hazard that is the consequences must be modelled worry. It is often hard to describe what important. The community is uniquely to derive the likelihood of the worries us and why It is nearly impos- pobirioned to assist in characterisation consequences arising. sible to describe what worries someone of the environment. The modelling steps used in the else. Let the community rank its own It is the community's environment, analysis require expertise, which in some risks. and the people in it often understand it cases must be brought in from external 'Identify, evaluate and implement and the processes very well. The range sources. In many cases the expertise, interventions' of expertise in the community can often experience of similar situations in the make a useful contribution to the past and the intuitive understanding of Figure 1 showed that risk is a function of the properties of the hazard and the characterisation of hazards, community the processes can be found in the and the environment. community If nothing else, the com- way they interact with the community It can be modified by varying the munity will have the experience to 'Determine risk evaluation criteria' properties of the hazard, or in some The risk evaluation criteria is a measure calibrate any model used and hence validate the analysis step. cases, the characteristics of the com- of the risk that could be accepted by the munity. These changes in the basic community. It is impossible to envisage 'Evaluate and rank risk' elements of risk are known as inter- performing this step without the assis- After the risk has been determined, it ventions. However the most common tance of the affected community must be compared with the evaluation intervention is the modification of the Perceptions of acceptable losses criteria previously identified by the environment to reduce the impact of a change with time. They are complex community. hazard on the community. Figure 3 functions of legal, technical, economic, Where the risk is within the evalua- illustrates the concept of using inter- social and humanitarian issues. tion criteria, then clearly the community vention to change the environment and It is vital that the risk evaluation is prepared to accept its current risks, reduce the risk. criteria are those that are put forward and no further action is required. Intervention is a systematic change by the community If the community do Where the risk exceeds the evalua- with the potential to reduce risk. The not own the criteria against which a tion criteria, then the model indicates process of identifying and refining inter- solution is found to be good, then they that the performance is not satisfactory ventions is one that draws on experience, will not own the solution either. and some changes will have to be made. creativity and understanding of the The extent of the problem that must 'Analyse risk' principles underpinning the problem. It Analysis of risk is the step of modelling be addressed is given by the shortfall presents great opportunities for inno- the linkage between a hazard and between the risk obtained in theanalysis vation, and for community involvement. and the level that was the basis of the consequence. It can be done using many In this step evaluation criteria. In cases where the different types of modelling: Interventions that have the potential risk is much higher than the risk that physical model - a scaled replica is to reduce the risk are identified. used for prediction mathematical model- a mathemat- Risk ical relationship between cause and Risk effect is used intuitive modelling - an intuitive Hazard Community understanding of the behaviour is Hazard Community used. The modelling processes is used wherever we make predictions. It does not have to be mathematically based, in fact we most often use an intuitive modelling of the problems we solve. Environment Environment Risk analysis can produce: quantitative results - the answer will B be a number or probability L -1 I qrralitative results - the answer will Figure 3: Intervention to reduce risk be relative e.g. low or high. A: large ri* before intervention 8: smaller risk with changed environment. I

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Potential interventions are evaluated Finally interventions are adopted and An under-pinning principle of emer- for their effectiveness in reducing the implemented. gency risk management is that the risk.The easiest way of achieving this Because the environment and the solution to a problem that affects a is to run the risk analysis again, but community are continually changing, community will be found with their this time with the changed condit- the Emergency Risk Management active participation at all stages of the ions that represent the intervention. process should be repeated to ensure process. Communities should be Interventions may have to be refined. that the current interventions are still involved in: This involves tailoring the inter- relevant and effective in producing the establishment of the scope of the vention to fit the particular problem acceptable risks for the community. problem being addressed. Any solution In this step, community involvement the characterisation of hazards, should be robust. Small changes in will assist in the development of inter- community and particularly environ- the environment should not make ventions that are specifically directed to ment radical changes to the effectiveness local circumstances. The community the analysis of the processes that of the intervention. This part of the that develops their own solutions will cause the consequences refinement of the intervention is also have ownership of the solutions and the ranking of the risks that affect known as a sensitivity analysis. In be very supportive in their imple- themselves this, random changes in some aspect mentation. The interventions that are the identification and refinement of of theenvironment are made, and the put together by the people who are most interventions risk analysis with the intervention is affected by the problem will be the ones the implementation of the selected run again. Where the random chan- that will be most fiercely defended and interventions. ges to the environment have little vigorously implemented. Not only does this participation effect on the risk, then the inter- make the solution one that the com- vention is robust. Where the inter- Conclusions munity will own, but they will also own vention is only successful under very Emergency risk management is apower- and defend the process by which the particular combinations of environ- ful tool for reducing risk. It uses well- decision was made. As well, theexpertise mental factors, then the intervention established generic management proces- and experience of the community has is unacceptably sensitive to the ses, that have been incorporated in the been harnessed to find the solution, and environment and will need further Australian Risk Management Standard, this has the potential to make the refinement. and interpreted in an emergency risk solutions better than those selected by Interventions are put forward for management context in the Emergency individuals or organisations acting in funding and adoption. Risk Management Guidelines. isolation. Emergency Expo '98 Werribee Racecourse, Victoria, October 2nd-3rd, 1998 'Bigger and better in '98'

Emergency Expo '98 will be held on Friday 2nd and The two-day event commences with a 'trade day' on Saturday 3rd of October 1998 at the Werribee Racecourse, the Friday, followed by a 'family day' on Saturday. Both Victoria. days will feature continual displays, a carnival and an array Organisers say the event promises to be the 'biggest, of interactive activities. best and most comprehensive trade and emergency services For exhibitor or emergency service information contact expo ever held in Australasia'. the expo organisers: It is expected that over 150 trade exhibitors will be Hoppers Crossing Fire Brigade attending, displaying and demonstrating some of the latest Tel (03) 9748 0829 equipment for emergency service operations. Fax (03) 9748 8341. An extensive range of workplace safety equipment, fire E-mail: hcrossing.fsQcfa.vic.gov.au protection and suppression equipment will also be Further information can be accessed on the displayed. In addition, emergency services and others Emergency Expo '98 web page: incorporated under the Victorian Emergency Management uww.vicnet.net/-hxfb Plan will participating. The defence forces will also be Correspondence can be made to PO Box 1126, Hoppers attending. Crossing, Victoria, 3029, Australia. Community involvement in environmental management: thoughts for emergency management by Dr Stephen Dovers, Research Fellow, Centre for Resource and Environmental Management, Australian National Universit)

n recent years, there has been a Presented at a workshop 'Putting the countries via the UN Conference on startling increase in community Community into Emergency Risk Manage- Environment and Development, and involvement in environmental ment', Australian Emergency Management both call for the involvement of local I 18-19 management. (For the purposes of this Institute, November 1997 communities in achieving sustainable article, environmental management development. Australia's response to the includes natural resource management, difficult scales of space and time global sustainable development agenda, and the broader notion of sustainable irreversible impacts on natural and the 1992 National Strategy for Ecolog- development.) This field of policy ically Sustainable Development (ESD), human systems includes traditional concerns of environ- advances community involvement as a cumulative effects over time mental protection and nature conserva- guiding principle, as do the numerous occasionally urgent imperatives tion, larger problems such a greenhouse, national and state-territory policies and high levels of complexity within and biological diversity and land degrad- programs adhering, at least rhetorically, connection between problems ation, and the integration of these with to the principles of ESD. pervasive risk and uncertainty social and economic policy (it is this Actual policies and programs in 'systemic' problem causes (rooted in integration-or rather the aim for it- resource and environmental manage- patterns of production, consump- that defines sustainable development). ment are reflecting this call, with a tion, settlement and governance) The aim of this article is to draw some number of broad kinds of participation increasing demands for and expec- lessons from environmental manage- discernible (generally, see State of tations of greater community partici- ment that may be of use to emergency Environment Advisory Council 1996): pation, both in policy formulation management, although I suspect the Statutory rights to comment on or and in actual management. reverse might be easier. In such a short object to policies or development So environmental and emergency space, the treatment will clearly be a approvals, codified in planning, managers not only must deal with each slight commentary rather than a sus- development and heritage law since other in a practical sense, they have tained analysis. the 1970s (Robinson 1993). common cause in that they deal with, While lessons can often be profitably Involvement in policy formulation at on behalf of society, a suite of problems drawn from one policy area to another, a more general level, an outcome of requiring particular and often not well- I believe that with environmental the 'consensus-corporatist' mode of developed methods of policy analysis management and emergency manage- recent federal and state Labor gov- and management prescription. Standard ment the case for doing so is stronger. ernments, as well as of a realisation approaches to public policy and admip- The two can be viewed as closely related that there are inherent advantages to istration, usually drawn from experience policy fields. The first and most obvious wider involvement in policy formu- in fiscal policy or service delivery, may reason is that environmental and emer- lation targeting new or difficult not be too relevant. Environmental and gency managers cross paths often, as problems. (The current federal emergency managers should develop they operate in common substantive government seems less enamoured closer linkages. situations-fire, flood, sharp pollution of this approach, with an apparent episodes, and so on-although often Trends in participation in return to the in-house, green or with perhaps quite different agendas, environmental management white paper mode of policy develop- goals and even cultures. The second Public participation in environmental ment. However. I susDect that reason is more important from a policy management has both the status of an stakeholder consultation on broad perspective. Emergency and environ- officially stated goal of current policp policy is a trend that will not dimin- mental management face policy and and a longer history than many realise. ish over time.) Major national (i.e. management problems displaying a Recent policy (and in some cases even not just Commonwealth) policy number of difficult attributes found less law) arising in the post-1987 era of emerging in recent years has been commonly, and less commonly in sustainable development issues a clear constructed in a reasonably inclusive combination, than in most other fields call for great participation.The 1992 Rio manner, and this is mirrored in state of public policy, including (Dovers Declaration and related plan of action, and local jurisdictions. Although 1997a): 'Agenda 21', were accepted by 179 slower, often more costly, and

Australian Journal of Emergency Management 8 usually somewhat bland in a lowest environmental management and resource management in Australia (does common denominator sense, these monitoring. Hundreds of groups emergency management share a similar policies stand a greater chance of across the country are engaged in history?). In NSW! Pasture Protection surviving over time given the invest- environmental monitoring activities Boards addressed issues such as feral ment in them by major players. (Alexander et al. 1996). More than pests and weeds from 1912, and River Examples include the National 3000 district-scale Landcare groups Improvement Trusts were active from Strategy for the Conservation of are engaged in education, investi- 1948. While these government-enabled Australia's Biological Diversity and gation and demonstration activities. but community-run bodies, at times, did the (draft) National Rangelands In addition, numerous other 'care' things we would now frown upon (like Strategy. In some cases, the joint and 'watch' programs and move- channelising rivers), they were con- actions of non-government players ments have been established, focus- cerned with resource management as provide the impetus for public policy ing on coasts, fish, soils, water defined by their times, and enjoyed action, with governments then quality, frogs, dunes and so on. greater statutory and administrative in an inclusive fashion Broadly, such groups attract govern- support and a longer expected lifespan (e.g. the NFF-ACF's successful push ment support on a short-term basis, than many modern equivalents. Such resulting in national support for mostly to cover administrative costs, arrangements we might call 'firm'. There Landcare; see below). In other cases employ facilitators or to fund dem- is a salutary general reminder in this encouraging moves forward have onstration projects. The routing of history, but there may also be real been made in the absence, or even in some Telstra privatisation moneys lessons in apolicy and institutional sense spite, of government, such as with through the Natural Heritage Trust (Dovers 1996). There is a tendency to the (now-threatened) Cape York guarantees that some such programs write off previous approaches in the Heads of Agreement. will continue to be reasonably well- fervour of new programs; witness Regional planning and development lubricated for a few more years at Landcare, where proponents claim the activities, that are growing apace. least (the longer-term prospects are 'old' extension approach to soil conser- While initially focusing on economic less clear). In terms of leading edge vation failed, and that we need some- development, a number of regional examples in environmental policy thing wholly new, ignoring that that the planning initiatives now grapple with and management, such local-scale 'old' approach achieved a good deal and the integration of environment, Australian programs are being close- that what we do now relies enormously social and economic aspects in the ly examined internationally. on past efforts. Building better policy longer term (the prime aim of Another relevant trend, although not and management capacities over time sustainable development). Some of strictly community involvement, is the requires a constancy of attention and these are 'bottom-up' initiatives, growing attention paid by private firms preparedness to learn and evolve ('adap- borne of local concern, whereas and industry sectors to environmental tive' approaches) not often enough others are government sponsored, management, both as required by found in recent environmental policy, and many a combination of both. legislation and under the growing move where 'ad hocery' and short-term policy In some cases, inclusion of stake- to self-regulation. The relevance lies in fashion have dominated (see Dovers and holders in formalised management the fact that the bulk of workers are Mobbs 1997). arrangements, regionally or sector- employed in the private sector, and this Kinds and levels of participation ally. Examples include the Great trend is seeing many more of them With such a wide array of more partici- Barrier Reef Marine Park Authority engaged in environmental management pative arrangements emerging, it is and the arrangements overseen by as part of theirworking lives. As in most useful to consider the different forms the Australian Fisheries Manage- things, the division between work and that participation might take, and how ment Authority. In Victoria, the 'not work' (including the voluntary this matches with the purpose at hand. Land Conservation Council from sphere where community engagement is Arnstein's (1969, p. 217) well-known 1970 has operated a moderately usually seen as residing) should not be 'ladder' of citizen participation (see inclusive approach to regional and seen as absolute. (One must askwhether Table I) can serve as a basis. sectoral inquiry in environmental the most famous 'community-based' This is a useful enough schema to management, with a deal of success program, Landcare, is in fact more a categorise what is happening. If we draw relative to other jurisdictions, al- 'private-sector' program, given that a continuum in environment manage- though recent changes diminish both small firms (i.e. family farms) dominate.) ment between being told after the fact the scope of participation and the With the increased attention to safety I agency's autonomy and riskissues in the workplace, this link - .. . . Integrated, whole or total catchment also exists in emergency management. Citizen control (Degrees management arrangements, varying While the range and amount of Delegated power of citizen from informal linking mechanisms community involvement in resource and Partnership power)

A to formal trusts with statutory environmental management has increas- .~ ~ ~ ~. . .. - backing. The degree of community ed and appears to still be increasing, it is Placation (Degrees involvement varies, with some dom- a mistake to believe that such arrange- Consultation of inated by government agencies and ments are new or novel. Statutory rights Informing tokenism) - .. others by community groups (the to be notified of and object to develop- ~... ~ ~ 'representativeness' of the latter can ment on environmental grounds date to Therapy (Non- be debated in some cases). decades-old planning law in most states. Manipulation participation)

Last, but most apparent, involve- More strategic and substantive involve- . . ~ ~ . ~... - ~ ment in local scale, on-ground ment has a long history in non-urban Table 1: Ladder of citizen participation

Winter 1998 . at one end and fully delegated manage- tion of allowing people to exercise public agency seeking community ment responsibilities at the other, most this choice in an informed manner, involvement or a community deman- current public participation and com- recommending open, transparent ding involvement. First, what com- munity engagement would fall toward processes with good information prises a 'representative' group or the 'lower' end of this scale. Would a provision. (There are cases, though, body? This is an area where different similar result be obtained in emergency where one might suggest coercion groups within society have different management? Very often, however, such rather than choice to participate, expectations and understandings, a ladder is used to argue the case for the such as with disease control or and where agencies may find them- 'higher' levels of participation as being national security.) selves, perhaps unwittingly, engaged preferable at all times. However, while There is the issue of cost, in terms in misrepresenting a community. one might agree with such a general of time and human and economic Second, what degree or kind of proposition as a political ideal (as I do), resources. Real participation does not representation is optimal, in terms of the strictures of public policy and come cheaply, for either the com- effectiveness of policy or manage- administration, and sometimes the munity or public agencies. A recent ment processes, in the context of a nature of the problem being dealt with, comparative policy study covering particular situation? This will vary suggest a more differentiated view. In both environmental and emergency enormously. brief, the following considerations are management found that less top- It would seem that shared concerns relevant, and enable a more detailed (and down, more collaborative policies or causes are, if not necessary, then thus more bothersome and complicated) raised additional difficulties in highly important to purposeful view of the issue. implementation (May etal. 1996). If community engagement. Tuan At times, 'lower' or more limited such matters are not attended to in a (1979) described common threats as forms of participation are inevitable timely fashion, participatory pro- crucial to community cohesiveness and even preferable. An obvious cesses may disintegrate needlessly. throughout human history, be these example is emergency manage- The different propensities and threats from nature or other people. ment-when a fire front or flood abilities of groups within society to For instance, there is presently great peak is closing fast there are strong participate, whatever their desire to hope that the enormous success with arguments for what Arnstein terms do so, should be kept in mind. Landcare (at least in terms of number 'manipulation'. This recommends, of Arnstein (1969, p. 217) put it that of groups) can be transferred to course, that community partici- 'each group encompasses a host of other sectors and problems. Yet it is pation should not be left too late. divergent points of view, significant not clear how this will proceed- 1 Clarity about the 'stage' or nature of cleavages, competing vested inter- Landcare operates at a very human I the problem is needed-that is, are ests, and splintered subgroups'. This (rural district) scale and in a sector we dealing with policy formulation, invites sensitivity to differing cultur- with a common cause (land degrada- ongoing monitoring, demonstration, al preferences, literacy standards, and tion) and where the family farm is preparedness, management or urgent so on. It also requires recognition the ovenvhelmingly common unit of response, or a combination thereof? that community-based groups are management. How this can translate Consitutional and legal constraints not singularly concerned with envir- to, for example, publicly-owned may limit the application of higher onmental management narrowly forests, sparsely-peopled rangelands, levels of participation in some cases, defined, but with a range of social or dense, diverse urban settings is not at least if we accept or must operate and economic issues. Landcare at all clear. This is an issue given within the existing political system. groups address problems of salinity, much attention in the intellectual Agencies legally responsible for erosion and so on, but also form as a fields of risk perception and risk management tasks may find that result of population and economic communication, although to what they must balance statutory respon- decline in rural areas, and a perceived practical effect in emergency man- sibility and accountability with the deterioration of cultural and social agement I will not venture to judge. desire or need to include more institutions and cohesiveness (Carr Different levels of participation may people in decision making or plan- 1997). Community involvement be appropriate for different pur- ning (this also supports earlier rather needs to be viewed as not only poses. This not only applies across than later inclusion in a process). addressing tangible needs of environ- problems, but also within the context There is a tension between represen- mental protection or resource man- of a specific problem or process- tative parliamentary democracy and agement, but also intangible 'univer- people will want and need to move the delegation of greater power to sal human health needs' such as social up and down the ladder, so to speak. local communities. This of course and emotional support networks, For example, an individual or group raises the matter of political change, opportunities and incentives for may wish to be closely involved in to create systems whereby higher learning and creative behaviour, monitoring aspects of environmental forms of participation are possible short-term goal achievement cycles management, but less so in later (e.g. community resource manage- and aspirations of a kind likely to be management. Orsomeone's interest ment forums with real powers), fulfilled, and an environment and could be served by inclusion in which I will not explore here. lifestyle conducive to a senses of general policy formulation, but not There is the issue of choice-some belonging, involvement, achieve- in implementation, orviceversa. This people may not wish to be engaged, ment and challenge (Boyden 1987). requires detailed understanding and either through trust in the process, Allied to this is the issue of represen- wide discussion of the problem being lethargy, disinterest, or whatever. tativeness, that begs two considera- addressed, the community involved, This however leaves open the ques- tions relevant here, whether it is a and the process of participation.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Finally, there are limits to voluntar- A genuine move, where it is possible, behind which governments reduce ism. It needs to be remembered that toward a more participatory form of other programs or diminish their it is not only in the field of environ- democracy, entailing a greater level own responsibilities (for a general mental management (or emergency of civil debate between communities, argument, see Dovers and Linden- management) where people are governments, firms and professional mayer 1997). This suggests that, in alternatively being asked to be groups. terms of positive environmental involved or are asking for involve- A realisation that policies and man- change, the result might be zero sum ment-there is the whole voluntary agement strategies will be more rathcr than consolidation and ad- sector (rather large already in Aus- effective if they are well understood vance. A discussion of Landcare in tralia) comprising neighbourhood by affected communities who, through this light is provided by Martin and security, schools, sporting associ- involvement in their formulation and Woodhill (1995). ations, service clubs, children and implementation, enjoy some sense of I would suggest that none of these youth activities, charities and so on. ongoing ownership and control. reasons dominate, but operate together There are only so many hours left in Relatedly, a valuing of the contribu- in a sometimes bewildering and complex a week after work, household activ- tion of local knowledge and expertise fashion-hence the tendency for a mix ities, raising children and leisure! in policy and management, particu- of optimism and scepticism on the part This raises the matter of the prior- larly in terms of adapting general of many observers. The challenge is to ities of individuals, communities, goals to local contexts, and ensuring sort through the good and less good governments and society as a whole, appropriate flexibity in implemen- factors, and through the many and and the issue of the kind and degree tation. varied possible contexts, so as to arrive of coordination across community- Community involvement is one at a more differentiated and thus based programs, and of public sector product of an ongoing search for effective understanding of, and approach support required for these. new and novel approaches to an to, the issue. All this suggests that identifying emerging and difficult area of policy It would be comforting to believe different modes of participation and and management, with the aim of that the better reasons dominate, and we matching these to as comprehensive as building a more comprehensive can analyse what is going on through possible an understanding of the detail toolkit of approaches and policy seeking evidence that this is the case or of policy and management processes, instruments. This is confirmed by not. To do this, we need to interrogate and of the affected or interested popu- the continuing exploration of other, existing orproposed schemes forpublic lation, is of great importance. In the less traditional approaches in envir- participation and seek to ascertain simply utilitarian terms of policy onmental management such as inter- whether they seem to be: instrument choice, community partici- disciplinary and cross-sectoral re- designed for permanence pation is often painted as a singular search and communication, property designed carefully for a given specific policy instrument, whereas it clearly is rights, economic instruments, indus- context deeply diverse, and this should be try self-regulation, and negotiative constructed to extend and improve reflected in the approach to defining, mechanisms. existing approaches allowing, encouraging and using it. On the other hand, there are some supported with financial, infor- Similarly required is a matching level of less good factors that may be operating. mational and institutional resources detail and comprehensiveness in delin- The search for new approaches sufficient for the tasks they are being eating the particular sub-sets of environ- might be viewed as desperation on expected to undertake. mental management (and emergency the part of governments who have That is, is community involvement management) to which public partici- found that attending environmental apparently becoming an accepted part pation-as-policy instrument should or issues is difficult, particularly with- of the landscape of public policy and might be applied. One size will not fit out attending the systemic links administration, or not? In environ- all-a message as valid to those promot- between these problems and under- mental management, the answer is ing community involvement as it is to lying causes in patterns of produc- mixed-some good things seem to be those blindly advocating market mech- tion, consumption and governance. happening, but on the other hand there anisms or blanket regulation (Dovers Then there is the constant problem is a reliance on annual funding rounds, 1995). of shifting policy fashion, where little in the way of coordination across particular approaches become 'all the the emerging array of programs, and Discussion rage' for a period of time, diverting expectations are often far larger than the To consider these issues a little further, attention from the failure or dis- commitment of resources. We might call we can ask what lies behind the recent appointment of previously fashion- such arrangements 'flaky'. What is the increase in community participation in able approaches, but themselves are case for emergency management? environmental managerient. what does not persisted with for long before the Public participation in resource and it mean, and what are the prospects? next fashion is adopted. environmental management is at the First, there are the 'good' reasons. Abrogation of political responsib- point where, although great advances Community demand for a 'say' in ility in an era of reduction of the have been made, these need to be matters affecting them has been state, with community-based initia- consolidated if they are going to last, let recognised, and is progressively tives replacing, rather than extending alone be built upon. Participation needs becoming an accepted part of the or consolidating, previous, more to be 'institutionalised'-not in a formal, practice of public policy and admin- 'top-down' approaches. 'Commun- top-down manner, but in an enabling istration, and of resource and envir- ity involvement'can be (and in some sense of providing the wherewithal. onmental management. case has been, I would argue) a veil Without such underpinnings, there is

Winter 1998 great potential for public participation it is timidly shrinking? (Generally, see than arguing whether we want our to become a source of cynicism and Self 1995; specifically, see Dovers participation firm or flaky, we might disappointment-another short-lived 1997b). There are, of course, both pros seek to make the firm a little flakier and policy fashion tried but not persisted and cons. For example, marketisation of the flaky a little firmer, the best of both with, part of a longer history of policy the water sector offers managerial worlds. 'ad hocery' and policy amnesia. efficiencies and prices better reflecting Two important obstacles to fuller the value of the natural resource. References community involvement stand out and However, other aspects may not fare as Alexander J., Haffenden S. and White T. apply equally, I suspect, to both emer- well under corporatised management 1996, Listening to the Land: A Directoly gency and to environmental manage- arrangements, such as community of Community Environme~~talMonitor- ment. The first is that community involvement, cross-catchment integ- ing Groups in Australia, Australian involvement, if undertaken in a genuine ration and (relevantly for emergency Conservation Foundation, Melbourne. and non-cynical fashion, challenges management) flooding. The marketising Arnstein S. 1969, 'A ladder of citizen professions and disciplines to accept that of policy and management arrangements participation', journal of the American their own work and prescriptions should where contingencies are crucial will Institute of Planners, Vol. 35, pp. 216 be subject to a 'dernocratised' peer always be problematic, but precious little 224. community, including both other prof- discussion has taken place on this. Boyden S. 1987, Western Civilisation essions and disciplines and the broader in Biological Perspective: Patterns in community, and to profit from this. Conclusion: Biohistory, Clarendon Press, Oxford. Obvious examples of different under- participation firm or flaky? Carr A. 1997, Innovation ofDiffus- standing would be the debate over actual The concluding message is straight- imz: Information Exchange and Land- versus perceived risk in emergency forward enough: community involve- holder Groups, Resource and Environ- management, or the often very different ment in environmental management is mental Study 3, Centre for Resource and prioritisation of environmental manage- far from simple, or even unequivocally Environmental Studies, Australian ment problems between 'experts' and a good thing at all times. Thus there is a National University, Canberra. laypersons (and, indeed, within any need to be careful and clear, matching Dovers S. 1995, 'Information, particular community). Community the detail of degree and kind of partici- sustainability and policy', Australian involvement represents not only a pation in the light of detail of the journal of Environmental Management, challenge to government and the public, context, the community and the prob- Vol. 2, pp. 142-156. but to the 'epistemic' (knowledge- lem. We have yet to find the balance Dovers S. 1996, 'On the contribution based) communities such as ecologists, between 'firm' arrangements (i.e. fire of environmental history to current environmental risk assessment practit- brigades, pasture protection boards, debate and policy', paper presented to ioners, or emergency management etc.) and 'flaky' ones (unsupported in the International Environmental His- professionals. We are some way from the longer term). Both of these have tory Workshop, University of Natal, working out how thevarious players can their advantages-the firm arrange- Pietermaritzburg, July. most productively work together. ments are more purposeful and long- Dovers S. 19973, 'Sustainability: Moreover, there is a largely unexplored lived, but the flaky often more pro- demands on policy', journal of Public tension between the move to broader gressive and inclusive. The rational Policy, Vol. 16, pp. 303-318. participation on the one hand, and the administrative mind prefers the firm, the Dovers S. 1997b, 'ESD and NCP: increasing use of what can be rather progressive political mind prefers the parity or primacy?', in Public Interest in arcane and inaccessible information flaky. It seems to me that emergency National Competition Policy, Cater M. technologies and decision support management has more of the former, (ed.), Public Sector Research Centre, systems on the other (Healy and Ascher environmental management moreof the University of NSW, Sydney. 1995; Wong 1997). This tension should latter, and certainly both policy sectors Dovers S. and Lindenmayer D. 1997, be solvable, but will take considerable could learn much from each other (and 'Managing the environment: rhetoric, time, forethought and cooperation. not only regarding participation). policy and reality',Australian Joun~alof The second obstacle is that both Over the next few years, in a number Public Administration, Vol. 56, pp 65- environmental and emergency manage- of policy fields, the tension between 80. ment operate in the face of rising these two general styles of public Dovers S. and Mobbs C. 1997, 'An demands and escalating problems, but participation will be explored further. alluring prospect? Ecology, and the from a base in a public sector that is at Can communities take on more tasks requirements of adaptive management', best static, or more often shrinking. and power in a manner consistent with in Frontiers in Ecology, Klomp N. and Marketisation, downsizing, privatis- the accountabilities and controlling Lunt I. (eds), Elsevier, London. ation, outsourcing, corporatisation and instincts of the administrative state?. Healy R. and AscherW 1995, 'Know- withdrawal of the state are the common The benefits of both-genuine, con- ledge in the policy process: incorpora- manifestations. While this trend is venient or disingenuous-will doubtless ting new environmental information in generic, the case can be put that for be advanced in an adversarial manner. natural resource policy making', Policy environmental and emergency manage- Hopefully we can move beyond that to Sciences, Vol. 28, pp. 1-19. ment it is particularly difficult, given that a situation where we build broader and Martin P. and Woodhill J. 1995, they are long-term, collective public genuinely empowering involvement, but 'Landcare in the balance: government projects complicated by poorly assigned sensitively differentiated according to roles and policy issues in sustaining rural rights and responsibilities, pervasive problems and the needs of communities, environments', Australian journal of uncertainty, and great complexity. How and supported by sincere informational Environmental Management, Vol. 2, pp. does the state handle such issues when and institutional infrastructure. Rather 173-183.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management May P., Burby R., Ericksen N., Self I? 1995, 'The consequences of Pantheon, New York. Handmer J., Dixon J., Michaels S. and reorganising government on market Wong F. 1997, 'Decision support Smith D. 1996, Environmentalmanage- lines', Australian /ournu1 of Public systems for integrated environmental ment arzdgovmance: intergovemmrntal Administration, Vol. 54, pp. 339-345. management: anticipatingandinterroga- approaches to hazards and rustainability, State of Environment Advisory ting bias', paper presented to the Routledge, London. Council 1996, State ofthe Environment: International Congress on Modelling Robinson D. 1993, 'Public participa- Australia 1996, CSIRO, Melbourne. and Simulation, Hobart, December. tion in environmental decision making', Tuan Y-F 1979, Landscapes of Fear, Environmental and Planning Law/our- nu/, Vol. 10, pp. 320-340. Rescue team receives awards Queensland Rescue is part of the Department of Emergency Services in Queensland. The service operates three Bell 412 helicopters covering the entire Queensland coastal region from the Gold Coast to Thursday Island. The helicopters are based in Brisbane, Townsville and Cairns and perform search and rescue, medical operations, bushfire suppression and assist communities affected by disaster such as cyclones through evacuation, re- supply and medical retrieval. Each helicopter carries a crew of three, consisting of the pilot, and air crew officer responsible for winch operations and assisting with navigation and communications, and a rescue officer, who performs down-the-wire rescue duties. The rescue officer is also responsible for passenger safety and is usually a trained ambulance officer or paramedic. On March 9 1997, the service performed the rescue of two Canadian sailors, Robin and Maggi Ansell, from their foundering yacht, the Orca, in near cyclonic conditions off Townsville. Caught up in Tropical Cyclone Justin, the Ansells were rescued from a rubber dinghy after rescue from the deck was impossible .- due to the violent pitching of the yacht. Angus McDonell (left) and Ian Callaghan (picture courtesy of th The yacht was located using an EPIRB, a locating device that Townsville Bulletin) homes in on a radio distress signal, and through a flashing strobe on the deck of the yacht. What made the rescue more notable was the distance from shore for a helicopter-about 165 nautical miles-and the narrow windowavailable for the rescue at the site-about twenty minutes due to fuel limitations. On reaching the area, the helicopter located the stricken yacht within three minutes and in another sixteen minutes of often precarious work took the couple on board. The rescue was also fortunate in that the helicopter and crew had only just returned from flood operations at Mt. Isa, in Queensland's interior, that afternoon. Team members Peter Hope (pilot), Ian Callaghan (air crew officer) and Angus McDonell (rescue officer) were awarded the Eurocopter Golden Hour Award by the US-based Helicopter Association International. Angus was also awarded the Australian Bravery Medal by the Australian Government for his part as the rescue crewman, while Peter and Ian were given a Commendation for Brave Conduct for their role. The awards were made by the Governor-General. For information about Queensland Rescue's operations, contact Wayne Ripper, Acting Director of Aviation Services, GPO Box 1425, Brisbane, Queensland, 4001, tel: (07) 3247 4137, fax (07) 3247 4207. QueenslandRescue's Bell 412 demonmates a sea rescue

Winter 1998 Effective community collaboration in emergency management

by Mark Hennessy, Hennessy Services Pty Ltd. Public Health and Safety Consultants

Why are emergency management Presented at a workshop: 'Putting the The effect of environmental change organisations and professionals Community into Emergency Risk Manage- will be cumulative over time. seeking information about effective ment', Australian Emergency Management The difference between community collaboration? Institute. 18-19 November 1997. 'community participation' and Community collaboration has found its 'community involvement' way onto the strategic planning agenda Hume City Council is located on the 'Community participation' is generally of emergency managers over the past north-west fringe of Melbourne, be- taken to mean that the community take couple of years. But why? Emergency tween the Hume and Calder Highways responsibility for all stages of th services are already well-loved and and bounded by the Western Ring Road program including planning and imple respected by their local communities. to the south and the Shire of Macedon mentation. 'Community involvement' i They also have the ear of the local press, Ranges to the north. Hume has been used to refer to a less-ideal situation il and generally receive very positive and selected as the case study because the which the communitv is asked tl3 prominent treatment by the press. author has been closely involved with participate in a program that has already So, is there aproblem? Are thereoppor- the Safe Living Program since its been designed by someone else, without tunities to gain benefits from greater inception in 1990 in the former Shire of consultation, and usually on the terms collaboration with local communities? Bulla (now subsumed into Hume). of (and possibly in the interests of) the To help emergency managers to deal outside designer rather than on the with these questions-which they have The Swedish experience community's terms and in the commun- set for themselves-they have turned to Hume's Safe Living Program was based ity's best interests. the field of community-based injury on the program in the Swedish rural prevention that has acquired almost a community of Falkoping, which attrac- Program planning decade of practical experience in Aus- ted the attention of the international The Safe Living Program is managed by tralia, and nearly two decades of experi- injury prevention community by reduc- an inter-sectoral committee with com- ence internationally. This article draws ing injuries at home, in the workplace munity representatives, and has working out some of the lessons from that field, and in traffic by about 27% in the three groups in priority areas such as chil- illustrated with practical examples and years from 1980 to 1982. Monash dren's safety, seniors safety and traffic anecdotes. The aim is not to present a University Accident Research Centre safety. Planning of the program is blueprint for emergency services, but approached the (then) Shire of Bulla, characterised by the following features: rather to dissect and distill some of the and a three-year program was funded by the program is planned strategically wisdom that has accumulated in the VicHealth, VicRoads and the Shire of and works systematically, but is also injury prevention field. It is left to the Bulla. The program is now operated by ready to seize opportunities and run reader to extend andapply the principles Hume City Council as part of its core with them as they arise and practical lessons to the emergency business, and the overall coordination priorities are set according to the field, partly because the author has and many elements of the program have frequency, severity and prevent- limited practical experience of commun- been included in service contracts under ability of injuries ity based approaches in that field, and compulsory competitive tendering multi-faceted approaches are pre- partly so as not to impose too narrow (CCT). ferred, using several approaches boundaries on what emergency manage- simultaneously and in a coordinated Principles of community-based ment professionals might usefully make way to deal with particular problems. injury prevention of the information. The program seeks intersectoral The Safe Living Program is community cooperation, involving different Case study: Hume City Council's based and targets all injuries to people levels of government, community 'Safe Living Program' of all ages in all settings. It is based on organisations and agencies. Many Hume City Council is accredited by the the principles that: interventions require the coopera- World Health Organisation as a member Community ownership of, partici- tion of organisations outside the of its prestigious International Network pation in and responsibility for the health sector. of Safe Communities. The WHO net- program will lead to progressive work has about twenty members world commitment to injury reduction. Examples of interventions wide, including five Australian com- The synergistic effect of many The Safe Living Program implemented munities: Illawarra, Hume, Noarlunga, interventions will be greater than the about one hundred different inter- La Trobe and Parkes. sum of isolated interventions. ventions during its first three years

1 Australian Journal of Emergency Management (1991 to 1993). These included: Forming partnerships Management', with a wide range of Collaborating with a local builder to Some points to consider when forming duties including strategic planning and design and build a safe display home. strategic intersectoral partnerships are: coordinating intersectoral collaboration. The home was inspected by about on whose terms are we forming the Other agencies 20,000 people in a year and received partnership? In Victoria, for example, there is a range prominent live national television whose interests are we sewing? of organisations that are already collab- coverage and good print press cover- what does our organisation want to orating in emergency management, age. The home won the HIA award achieve? including Police Community Consul- for best display home under 16 what are we prepared to give? tative Councils (PCCCs), Community squares, proving that safety is com- what is our common ground? Road Safety Councils (for example, patible with an attractive marketable who is in charge? 'operation coffee break'), other emer- home. This was achieved at no cost document the understanding (e.g. gency response agencies, other agencies to the Safe Living Program. minutes, a short letter, joint media (post, telecommunications, etc.), work- Preparing an 8-page Family Safety release) places, other community groups, and Guide and delivering it to all homes Achieve consensus, avoid fights (no local community leaders ('movers and in the municipality, at a net unit cost one wins.) shakers'). of 54 cents for production and Opportunities for delivery (assisted by major spon- Community Safety Week community collaboration sorship and by a massive volunteer 6-12 September 1998 Community collaboration has the effort to envelope and deliver it). Following its successful introduction in to strengthen the efforts of Legalising footpath cycling through- 1997, Community Safety Week will emergency services at all stages of out the municipality (except for again be celebrated in Victoria from disaster management planning and designated 'no cycling' areas in 6-12 September 1998. The theme is implementation, as set out in Table 1. shopping centres and outside LocalAction fora Safer Community, and schools). When collaboration can help the aim is to promote collaboration at Conducting safety audits of arterial local community level right across roads, footpaths, school playgrounds Before Prevention, preparation Victoria.The weekoffers a rallyingpoint and other public places. for all stakeholders in the community Training peer educators to conduct During Smooth cooperation safety field. The fire services were children's safety training for parents Compliant community prominent participants last year. The and carers in the community. central contact is the Victorian Com- Provision of short (3-6 hour) After Recovery, rehabilitation munity Council Against Violence courses in emergency first aid for and healing (telephone 03 9655 5220). children, including cardiopulmonary Table 1: Benefits ofcollaboration Conclusion resuscitation (CPR). We are beginning to see some resources Role of schools and pre-schools committed towards a more concerted Working with the community Schools and pre-schools have been one approach to community collaboration in Several lessons were learned from of the cornerstones of the Hume City emergency management. The ground is working alongside the community. Council Safe Living Program. There are Some people participate in activities fertile, but it is important that we several quite different ways in which properly train and resource the people in several different settings, such as schools can collaborate for emergency who are beginning to work in this area. safety in sports, in schools, on the management, including: It is also important that a strong culture farm and at work. student education of collaboration at all levels and right Different people prefer to participate community education across the emergency services and in different stages of injury preven- networking community safety field be fostered and tion. Some like planning and decision preparing their own emergency projected to the community, who are, making, others hate meetings and management plans. after all, our sole client and the object prefer to pitch in when 'arms and of all our work. legs' are needed. Role of Local Government It is important to work with people Local government has a range of differ- and organisations on their terms. ent potential roles and can bring to bear About the author Don't try to impose your needs or a wide range of resources to contribute Mark Hennessy is a practitioner and agendas onto them, if you want to local responses to emergency manage- evaluator in publichealthand community strong and lasting collaboration. ment, including the following examples: safety, working in all sectors (public and Form partnerships to prevent in- emergency response and disaster private), with substatial experience in local juries, based on mutual respect and planning government and in planning, imple- trust. strategic planning menting and evaluating community- Seek to empower the community at infrastructure design and provision based programs for public health and every opportunity. Provide training civic leadership community safety. and information to enable and Victorian Safer Cities and Shires Contact details: encourage others to take on injury Program. Tel: (03) 1428 3840 prevention roles. Sharing the power The Shire of Yarra Ranges in Victoria Fax: (03) 1428 3841 can harness enormous community has shown leadership by recently app- E-mail: markhennessy @bigpond.com energy. ointing a 'Team Leader Emergency Postal: PO Box 199, Gisborne, 3437

Winter 1998 S: risk perception and community participation in management - by Elspeth Young, National Centre for Development Studies, Australian National University. - Introduction Presented at a workshop: 'Putting the impact assessment-social as wl ell as Natural hazards, such as flood and Community into Emergency Risk Manage- environmental, and socio-politiscal as drought, and their likelihood of causing ment', Australian Emergency Management well as technical or quantitativt disasters that lead to extreme human Institute. 18-19 November 1997. planning-an adaptive prctcess suffering, do not stem only from events (people-oriented) in which the beyond our control. As Blaikie et al. experience gained in taking part (the (1994, p.3) point out ' ... (disasters) are These definitions indicate the impor- process itself) is the goal rather than also a product of the social, political, and tance not only of recognising that risk a prescriptive process in whicl1 the economic environment (as distinct from occurs but also of being able to measure plan itself is the goal. the natural environment) because of the its level e.g. severe, moderate, minor. Social constructs of risk and sc me way it structures the lives of different Vulnerability implications for vulnerability groups of people'. . Vulnerability is the susceptibility to The following important human attri- It therefore follows that risk should harm of those at risk. butes (some quantifiable and some non- not be defined solely by pre-determined, Vulnerability is the coping capacity quantifiable) affect how different p,eople supposedly objective criteria that enable of those at risk (Handmer, 1995). assess risk, and howvulnerable the:yare. its various levels to be gauged through Vulnerability is the degree of suscep- Socio-economic characteristics quantification. It is also a social con- tibility and resilience of the com- (% age, gender, ethnicity, incl>me, struct, interpreted differently by all of munity and environment to hazards education, employment, hea11th). us. Some find certainevents or situations (EMA, 1995). Older people and children m: ~y be unacceptably risky and will do their Vulnerability depends on the charac- much more vulnerable than active utmost to avoid being involved, while teristics of a person or group in terms adults. Poorer people, with f ewer to others the same events may offer of capacity to anticipate, cope with, capital resources, are likely to s uffer exhilaration and thrills that stimulate resist and recover from the impact far more from the effects of ha:zards their whole purpose in living. There may of a hazard (Blaikie et al. 1994). such as flood invasion of their even be others to whom the particular Risk can only be managed if those homes. Some specific ethnic gr 'OUPS event is a non-issue, something to be who are vulnerable are identified. As (e.g. Aborigines, people for rrrhom totally ignored. These differences in Salter (1995) comments, risk and English is a second language) m ay he perception and response, coupled with vulnerability are inextricably linked and much less able to take advanta ge of differences in people's socio-economic therefore vulnerabiity must be under- the assistance offered becau se of characteristics and circumstances, result stood if risk is to be managed. in a wide range of vulnerability in any communication problems andI cul- community. Social aspects of risk Contemporary approaches to risk tural differences. interpretation must be recognised if risk and vulnerability assessment Peoplei knowledge oftheenviroli 'mmt is to be effectively managed, and In general earlier approaches to risk and of the hazards that environ ment community participation in the practical assessment, which were primarily Doses to them ex. traditional ecol- management of the problem faced is a quantitative and favoured technical bgical knowledge (TEK). TEK may vital component of this approach. solutions, have been replaced by more be effectively used to cope with a holistic approaches which recognise not situation that outsiders perceive to Risk and vulnerability: only the need for technical assessment be threatening, and generally pro- some definitions of risk but also the interlinkages of vides much more detailed under- Risk technical elements with socio-economic standing of local environments. It Risk includes two elements - the and political factors. Social scientific can be valuable in predicting the likelihood of something happening approaches, including the recognition threats posed by hazards (e.g. when and the consequences if it happens that risk is interpreted as a social significant floods are actually likely), (Beer and Ziolkowski, 1995). construct, now play a vital role in the and can also provide people with Risk occurs where factors and pro- assessment of risk and vulnerability alternative food supplies. cesses are sufficiently measurable for (Salter, 1995). This fundamental change Their ignorance (where even the believable probability distributions parallels changes in related philosophies direction of change or broad nature to be assigned to the range of and processes such as: of outcomes are unclear, and where possible outcomes (Dovers, 1995). development-people-centred and threshold effects, surprise and even Risk is the perceived likelihood of sustainable rather than solely eco- chaotic processes may operate (Do- given levels of harm (EMA, 1995). nomic) vers, 1995). For example, people who

Australian Journal of Emergency Management have newly moved into a vulnerable that would assist them in predicting drought stem not only from the impact area often lack knowledge of the flood onset. of a particularly strong El Nino event, actual threats posed by hazards such Aboriginal planning for the longer- but also from rapid population growth as severe bushfires, and fail to take term consequences of flooding is (the population has roughly doubled suggested precautions seriously. probably less adequate than formerly. since 1972, another severe drought Their ability to cope with those hazards They have become more dependent year), continued dependence on subsis- (risks) through technology, financial on external sustenance and tech- tence farming, and increased demand for attributes, education, political power nology (e.g. purchased foods, tele- material wealth gained through and having a voice. Knowledge, high phones and vehicles) and when these participation in the cash economy. levels of education and high incomes elements of their lifestyle are no For rural families (still around 83% generally give people more confi- longer available they may be in dire of the population), cash-cropping dence in articulating their feelings need of assistance. Non-Aboriginal remains the principal avenue to a cash and needs and hence they may beable people probably plan far more income. Thus pressure to increase the to cope better with adversity. effectively for the longer-term amount of land under cash crops is Their ability to access help from effects of flooding, because their relentless. Some people have virtually outside. Having confidence (see access to relevant technical infor- become landless, while others are above) makes asking for assistance mation is much better. embroiled in conflicts over access to much easier. Despite recognition of flood threat, land and resources. These problems are Attributes such as these highlight many Aboriginal people prefer to use compounded by a limited and often some key points: river beds for habitation and more defective transport and communication Other things being equal, it is temporary camping, both because network. Apart from food and water generally those living at the margins the environment is more attractive shortages in many parts of the country, who are most vulnerable to risk and and water is available. Often, spirit- the effects of the drought have included uncertainty. Marginality in this ual attachment to sites associated rural-urban population movement and context is defined in two main ways: with water is also very high. This the closure of schools and health centres. - socio-economic-people who, for cultural factor may take priority over Donor agencies that provided assis- social or economic reasons, are all other factors and may make tance for drought- and frost-affected outside the mainstream people physically vulnerable. areas in Papua New Guinea included the - geographic- people who live in Issues such as these are vital in flood PNG government, the Australian gov- very isolated locations and who management. While many of the Abor- ernment (through AusAID) and a wide as a result are often socio-eco- iginal-non-Aboriginal conflicts that range of NGOs, many of which worked nomically marginalised. have arisen over flood management in in conjunction with government donors. The better the understanding of Alice Springs may have been inevitable, Their prime task was to improve food these factors, the more effective are closer community participation, involv- and water supplies to those in need-an the coping mechanisms. ing all groups, could well have led to estimated 500 000 people in October workable compromise solutions. 1997 (compared to 150 000 who received Coping with risk food aid in 1972). The key to coping with risk is being Example B: dealing with the Identification of the most severely sensitive to differences in people's effects of drought and frost affected areas and establishing smooth xrceptions of the problem and hence in Papua New Guinea distributional mechanisms were major mderstanding their levels of vulner- Periodic food shortages caused by challenges. Researchers at the Australian ibility. Working with communities at drought and frost in Papua New Guin- National University, along with teams .isk is essential if these ideas are to be ea's highlands-referred to as 'taim of PNG fieldworkers, conducted a wide- ncorporated into risk management. In hangri-are well documented, both in ranging survey in September-October :his approach technical knowledge, oral and written history. As subsistence 1997, and their findings, which mapped :ssential for dealingwith many elements farmers in a cashless society, people areas of the country in terms of >f disaster mitigation, is combined with formerly dealt with these problems by immediacy of relief requirements, ocal knowledge, and the administration using local knowledge (famine food), provided the framework for allocation ~f risk management plans becomes a and by moving to other areas where food of aid (Allen and Bourke, 1997). ihared responsibility, integrated with was still available. If everything failed But provision of aid and identifi- ocal institutional structures and tapping vulnerable members of a group died (old cation of areas in immediate need is only nto external forms of support. people, children etc). In the contempor- one aspect required. Others include: >ample A: managing floods in ary era they have had other alternatives: understanding of local perception of tustralia's rangelands gaining external help, both from their the problem and of how to deal with it 'eriodic local flooding occurs frequently own government authorities or from understanding of the intricacies of I n Central Australian river svstems. external donors, and, if they haye access subsistence farming systems and Aboriginal and non-Aboriginal res- to cash, buying food to tide them how these integrate aspects of the ponses to such flooding differ. through. Papua New Guinea's recent whole cycle of food production Aboriginal people's TEK helps them (1997-98) drought and frost event has understanding of local institutional to predict when flooding will occur been the most severe in three decades structures dealing with adminis- and hence to plan for it in the short- and has highlighted some important tration, distribution etc. term (e.g. move camps). Non- issues concerning the management of realisation that long term planning, Aboriginal people often lack the this recurring natural hazard. rather than short-term food pro- detailed environmental knowledge The severe effects of the 1997-98 vision, is required

Winter 1998 15 as far as possible, involving local is here that community participation can Port Moresby, PNG. communities in delivering food aid. have a lasting impact. Risk management Beer T. and Ziolkowski F. 1995: Involving communities in is a two-way process that must take into Environmental Risk Assessment: an the management of risk account, on theone hand, the hazard and Australian Perspective, Report to Envir- its impact on people, and, on the other, onment Protection Agency (EPA), Practical approaches in risk manage- the people's responses to the situation. AGPS, Canberra. ment should build on both the technical Key approaches to risk management are Blaikie I?, Cannon T., Davis I. and knowhow of professionally-trained therefore enhancing coping capacity and Wisner B. 1994, At Risk: Natural Haz- people and the knowledge and percep- reducing susceptibility to harm. ards, People? Vulnerability and Disasters, tions of those at risk. Instituting risk Vital elements in these are: Routledge, London. management plans that ignore local Flexibility-recognising social and Dovers S. 1995, 'Risk, uncertainty knowledge, local political structures and cultural differences in population and ignorance: policy process and local priorities will not be effective. groups and working within frame- institutional issues', background paper, Neither will plans built largely on local works that allow the impact of such Fenner Conference on the Environ- knowledge without external technical differences to be taken into account. ment: Risk and Uncertainty in Environ- input where relevant. Information on how to cope- ensur- mental Management, Canberra. A compromise is needed. This ing that people potentially affected Emergency Management Australia means formulating risk management are fully informed on all aspects of 1995, National Emvrgency Management plans into which the community has the hazard which threatens them. Competency Standards, EMA, Canberra. input and which local people help to Public and particularly community Handmer J. 1995, 'Issues Emerging implement. Consultation, discussion participation in risk management, and from Natural Hazard Research and and negotiation are vital aspects of such especially in planning. Emergency Management', background an approach. In emergency situations, .paper, . Fenner Conference on the Envir- where speed is essential to save human References onment: Risk and Uncertainty in Envir- lives, this might initially have to be very Allen B. and Bourke M. 1997, Rrport of onnlental Management, Canberra. superficial. But immediate action is only an Assessment ofthe Impacts ofFrostand Salter J. 1995, 'Towards a Better part of the management process. Lon- Drought in Papm New Guinea, unpub- Disaster Management Methodology', ger-term ~lannin~,to make people less lished report for Australian Agency for Australian Journal of Emergency Man- vulnerable next time, is also vital and it International Development (AusAID), agement, vol. 10, N~.4, pp. 8-16. New publications

Disaster mitigation Economic assessment of disaster Discusses mitigation of natural disas- mitigation: an Australian guide, Mitigating the millennium: ters in health facilities in Latin Am- community participation and Handmer, John W. and Thompson, erica and the Caribbean. When a Paul, Middlesex University, Flood impact measurement in disaster natural disaster strikes, health facil- Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex, ities are oftenamong its victims. Much preparedness and mitigation UK, F programmes 1996, 363.347 ECO damage can be prevented beforehand. Scobie, Jane (ed.) Major investments to reduce the risk of Retrofitting of existing facilities and Intermediate Technology loss from natural hazards in Australia, vulnerability assessment are major Rugby, UK, 1997 as in other countries, nre in part justified aspects of mitigation. F 363.347 MIT by assessing the likely economic bene- Disaster preparedness Practitioners working on disaster fits compared with the costs. However, management issues in both relief and in assessing the losses from natural Escape to safety: the evacuation long-term development programs disasters-which form the benefits of of a health care facility examined ways to promote local mitigation measures-there is a lack of Health Dept. of Western Australia, participation in mitigation. guidance on what precisely may be East Perth, 1991, Video no. 269 counted. The Australian IDNDR Com- Topics include: encouraging com- The management body of a health care mittee has recognised the need for munity participation in practice, facility is responsible for the safety of improved and more consistent econom- defining a participative approach, its patients and residents as well as its ic assessment methods to be applied to evaluating and measuring the impact staff, trades people and visitors. disaster mitigation, and has funded this of mitigation projects, prioritising Evacuation policies and procedures study (91 pages). mitigation, undertaking emergency must cater for all concerned. This preparedness in cyclone areas in Mitigation of disasters video depicts the basic measures Madagascar, improving practice, in health facilities necessary to fulfil the important getting donors involved in disaster O'Connor Bill, Wilson Wendy and responsibility of getting all those mitigation, and recommending init- Brennan, Bryna affected by an emergency to a place of iatives to reduce hazards through the Pan American Health Organisation1 relative safety. Intended as a training promotion of community-based World Health Organisation, aid only, produced to initiate dis- disaster mitigation programs at all Washington DC, 1996 cussion on the emergency policies and levels of government. (74 pages). Video no. 335 procedures of individual facilities.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Out of the ashes, a community responds: the Dandenong Ranges Bushfires, January 1997

by Helen Wositzky, Community Development Officer, Shire of Yarra Ranges

he Dandenong Ranges, situated Presented at the Emergency Recovery residents were extensive, however it is 50 kilometres to the east of Forum, Darebin, November 27 1997 the initiatives and support that came TMelbourne in Kctoria, is recog- from within the community and the nised as an area of high fire risk, rating Community Recovery Projects that this among the top five in the world. term resident involved in fire prevention article will focus upon. Much of the range is forested with for many years, as 'a lack of collective Immediately following the bushfires, small communities nestled along the memory'. the community response was spon- main ridge. On the morning of January The community, agencies and local taneous--existing networks and neigh- 21s 1997, a hot day with high north- government were quick to respond. bourhoods rallied together to provide westerly winds, five fires were deliber- Within days a recovery committee was support and assistance. The extent of ately lit along the base of the western established (see Figure I) that involved voluntary support has been overwhelm- face of the Ranges. Positioned where all those responsible for the various ing and exemplifies the renowned gullies faced a northerly direction, the aspects of the recovery process. Com- community spirit of the Dandenongs. steepness of terrain and the forest munity sub-committees (to deal with Over 150 community volunteers were environment resulted in the fires quickly material and financial aid, physical clean so committed to assisting those directly sweeping up to the residential-forest up and rebuilding and personal support) affected that their support has continued interface. were formed under the umbrella of the for a full year after the event. With fires burning in other areas of recovery committee and a Community Within a week of the fires a core of the state, firefighting resources were Development Officer appointed. locals in both Upwey and Ferny Creek stretched to the limit. To fight the The structure developed to manage planned and publicised a public meeting Dandenong Ranges fires, the Country the recovery provided an integrated, for those wishing to assist. The impetus Fire Brigade, Metropolitan Fire Brigade coordinated approach, had clear lines of from within these communities came and the Department of Conservation communication, involved a dynamic primarily from the primary school in and Natural Resources had some 280 process of monitoring and reassessing Ferny Creek and the Anglican Church firetrucks and over 1000 firefighters on needs and services, and involved the in Upwey. Due to the response of the ground, with three helicopters and community. approximately 100 community members two Canadair Super scoopers tackling The resources employed by govern- attending, it was evident a framework the fires from above. ment and agencies to assist the affected was necessary that would ensure As the residents returned in the drizzle of early dawn the following day, the extent of damage and loss to the communities was realised. Forty-one houses were destroyed, 3 lives tragically lost, dozens of houses partially damaged, 179 private gardens burnt and 400 hectares of National and State Park UpwerFemtree Gully burnt. Community On the historical scale of bushfires Reewery Camminee Femy Creek Community these fires could be considered small, Recovery Comminee however the impact locally to the I "membm 1 Affected residents I I Shire Remwy I-/ communities was anything but small. Kaloama community and community Sub-Committee Although the Dandenongs are no t .\ \ stranger to bushfires, it was thirty years ago in 1968 that these particular ridge communities were affected by a serious bushfire. Apart from long-term resi- dents, many had never experienced such an event and despite local CFA educa- tion campaigns many were unprepared for the risk and thus vulnerable. This has been described by John Schauble, a long- Fguure 1: Recovery Committee structure

Winter 1998 1 volunteer efforts were coordinated, primary school and pre-school. The The clean up of building debris was communication was quick and effective, impact of the bushfires was less in terms offered to residents freeof charge by the the needs of the community were of houses destroyed, and those who lost Shire of Yarra Ranges and for safety sensitively met and privacy of those their homes did not have young children reasons did not involve volunteers. affected was taken into account. The and thus school links or links to com- However the Shire's service of supplying volunteer framework was thus devel- munity groups. Kalorama residents arborists to assess burnt trees and crews oped by myself in my role as Commun- appear to be more independent and have felling or trimming dangerous trees was ity Development Officer (see Zble I). fewer socialising opportunities to complimented by a mammoth effort by Those that had indicated an interest consolidate the community. Each com- volunteers helping to split and clear in playing an ongoing and organisational munity being individual has its own way away the felled timber blocks. role were invited to a further meeting at of approaching their response to an Due to the amount of work reauired which they nominated to take on event and its recovery, the informal to tackle the wood and burnt vegetation coordinating roles. It was through this response suited the Kalorama commun- of the typically large gardens, many of process that the coordinators formed ity and the needs of those directly some hectares, a Community Gardening the Ferny Creek and Upwey Commun- affected were met. Sub-committee was formed that includ- ity Recovery Committees. As Community Development Offic- ed the gardening coordinators and Volunteers were registered on a er, my role included informing the community members from all of the database according to the type of affected residents of the types of affected areas. assistance they offered, and coordina- assistance available to them and how to This committee planned and coor- tors were provided with the appropriate access this assistance. Many residents dinated the garden cleanup across the list to call on volunteers as required. had difficulty in coming to terms with whole ridge, shared resources and ideas, About 200 volunteers became involved. being in the position of needing to and motivated groups such as the accept donated goods and volunteer MasonicTaskforce, Greencorp, Rovers, Individuals and groups offering help. During the first month following Guides and Apex to become involved. assistance (sorted via databank the fires I visited all those who had lost A fair estimation would be over one into areas of interest) homes and spent time on the affected hundred garden working bees held with In Kalorama the community approached streets making contact with those who up to twenty volunteers attending each the recoveryprocess in a more informal had partially-damaged houses and burnt one. This gives an indication of the way. Two key community members and gardens. Particularly for those who did commitment of the community to neighbours organised help as needed not previously know the coordinators organise and help itself in the recovery without being 'registered volunteers' as or myself, this personal approach process. part of a formalised structure. contributed to allaying shyness or A wonderful initiative that came This informal response could be due embarrassment. Once help from volun- from the Community Gardening Com- to a number of factors. With fewer teers was accepted, an easy comfortable mittee was the organisation of a 'Plant community groups such as the CFA and relationship developed that kept the Day'. Wholesale nurseries throughout tennis club, existing networks were not volunteersvery busy and at times unable Victoria were approached for plant as developed and largely focused on the to keep up with requests. donations, all the affected streets were

requests assistance .- - . - . . . . - - request assistance from coordinaton

I I I L Health Gardens Photography

Massage Provision of Professional Replacing Respite meals, cakes advice volunteer school and advice organise childcare etc. for affectec -Propagating kinder photos Luxury treats families -Growing Replacing Time out for Catering for Cleaning up tempomry dissemination family photos services clothes adults volumeen - -Clearing Documenting Counselling wofiing bees the fire and sewices - goods and activities - Planting Community Plant donations Professional recovery appliances. Social activities seMces - volunteen electrical, .Wood removal plumbing electrical. production plumbing Cleaning damaged houses TranspoR.

Table 1: Volunteer framework

18 Australian Journal of Emergency Management doorknocked to determine damaged The Community recovery projects Establishment of the Community gardens and vouchers to attend the Plant thus aimed to engage imaginatively with Working Party Day were distributed. the whole community and not only On a Friday in early May nursery those directly affected who had lost trucks rolled into the Ferny Creek homes, gardens and loved ones. Determining the needs of community Recreation Reserve. The plants were in recovery through liaison and Process of developing sorted into species and size, and counted consultation recovery projects to determine how many plants each The involvement of the community in property could take.The grand total was developing recovery projects was essen- 10,000 plants (ranging from small Determining the criteria and desired tial, and was based on the premise that cottage plants to established trees seven outcomes of recovery projects the Recovery Committee, local govern- metres high) and 20,000 bulbs! ment and the CDO should play a On Saturday the reserve was a mass facilitative and guiding role but the drive Liaison and consultation with community of plants and smiling faces. The morale and control of the recovery projects network and groups for project ideas boost the Plant Day gave to the 130 should rest within the community property owners who collected plants The first step of this process was to was obvious and overwhelming. Com- establish a community working party ldeas for recovery projects put forward munity volunteers were on hand provid- including community members and ing advice on plant selection, carting representation from the Shire of Yarra plants in Utes and trailers for those Ranges Leisure, Aged, Community, and without suitable vehicles to transport ldeas assessed according to criteria, Youth Services. Figure 2 illustrates the them home, and feedingall the workers. outcomes, financial cost process undertaken by this working Another community initiative was party. organised by the Dandenong Ranges The criteria the community working ldeas prioritised and Music Council, who commissioned two party felt needed to be met by proposed recommendations put forward to composers to work with the children of recovery projects individually or collec- Ferny Creek Primary School. Through tively was to: workshops, the children explored their bring together and encompass all the emotions and experiences both verbally communities affected by the bush- Projects approved by and through the creation of sounds. The Recovery Committee fires I I song 'Island in thesky'was thus created. provide opportunities for all ages to The value of this project and its process Figuure 2: Recovely pmject development process participate in the healing of the community cannot engage imaginatively with the com- The bushfire event itself, although a be under-estimated, both for the chil- munity part of these projects, was not the main dren involved and the wider Dandenong provide a vehicle and a therapeutic theme. Rather the projects focused on Ranges community who witnessed the outlet for the expression of emotions the positive process of recovery the moving and powerful performance of allow for a full range of expression, forest and community was experienc- Island in the Sky both abstract and recognisable ing-the regeneration of the natural and encompass a variety of expressive human environment, the community Community recovery projects mediums strength and spirit of care, love, and In April the Department of Human integrate social opportunities and hope that was illuminated in the actions Services and the Shire of Yarra Ranges community events of neighbourhoods following the fires. committed funding to the development provide opportunities for those not of Community Recovery Projects. Phoenix art project actively 'creating' to participate in Recovery projects should aim to This was named after the mythical events provide the community with oppor- Phoenix, who every 500 years builds a incorporate a commemorative pro- tunities to come to terms with the pyre of the sweetest spices on which it ject to the event, loss and recovery experience, to express emotions related reinforce and express the strengths sits and sings a song of rare beauty to to their personal and collective experi- the sun to restore its youth and vigour. of the community ence and to assist the community in The sun shakes his locks and from his focus on elements of community linking the past event to a changed golden head, shoots one bright beam, recovery, natural regeneration and environment and a new future. which smites with vital fire, ignites the rebuilding of the human environ- An essential part of any healing nest and the Phoenix is consumed to ment process in that they provide an impor- ashes, a new Phoenix rises rejuvenated contribute to a sense of a positive tant alternative and addition to the and pulsating with new life. Gathering future for individuals and the com- traditional counselling and personal the ashes of its parent, it flies to the munity. support services available to those Temple of the Sun where it buries the affected by a traumatic event. The recovery projects ashes with great ceremony. Implicit in the development of the Five Dandenong Ranges community The Phoenix Art Project invited the Dandenong Ranges Community Recov- recovery projects were designed. These Dandenong Ranges Community to ery Projects was the recognition and projects were a bid to draw out the create artworks with the theme of acknowledgment the wider community strengths, experiences, humour and recovery, regeneration, rebuilding and had been affected, and had needs to be hope of a community rebuilding its community spirit. All mediums were met in the recovery process. environments following the crisis. invited, including collage, photography,

Winter 1998 sculpture, painting and textiles and 16C time and skills. Each project had a core The community recovery projects artworks were exhibited locally for three of community members, and many did stimulate an outpouring of emotion, days. From this exhibition, judges other people helped as the need arose. with many in the community being selected 2 1 entries to illustrate a calendar Graphic artists designed flyers, surprised by their emotional reaction at for 1998. In addition one entry was volunteers distributed them around local the community events associated with selected for the cover of the 'Rising from shops, a local restaurant donated their these projects. Through feedback from the Ashes' CD and one for the cover of venue for the art shov.: judges for the those who have purchased the recovery 'Out of the Fire' stories and poems. projects gave their time, a recording items, the value and personal importance studio was donated, as was the time and of the communal sharing of feelings and Rising from the Ashes music project skills of sound engineers and a producer, experiences was evident. Entries of original compositions and ceramic artists designed the pathways were invited for inclusion in a recovery The community supporting and assisted with facilitating workshops CD. A panel of community judges were each other and sortingout the fired tiles, local estate given the difficult task of selecting The community also recognised the agents erected signs for events, a twenty compositions to be recorded for need to support each other in an emo- cinemaphotographer, and script writer the CD. A wonderful medley of all tional sense, by holding social activities are volunteers on the video project and musical styles the CD was launched at to simply get together, have a good time the local cinema has been donated for the beginning of December. This music and reaffirm the support and friendship its launch. will also form the score for the Video of the community. Documentary. Community participation Only one week after the fires, large gatherings were seen at Ferny Creek Out of the Ashes writing project Phoenix Art Show Reserve and Kalorama Oval. Thousands Stories and poems of personal experi- One thousand primary and second- of the community came together, ences of living through fires were ary students participated from five listened to music, talked (and talked and invited. Older residents who had lived local schools. Each school chose 15 talked!) and expressed their thanks to through cycles of fires and recovery entries to enter into the Phoenix Art were encouraged. Thirty-four entries Show. the CFA, DCNR, SES and all those involved in fighting the fires and, in their were selected by a panel of judges for One hundred residents created art own words, 'saving our mountain'. publication in book form. Quotes from for the show. In the middle of winter an event was some of these entries were included as Six hundred residents attended the text in the Phoenix art calendar. show over three days. organised that had many of us wonder- ing if the community had 'lost its Rising from the Ashes Commemorative Pathways project marbles-a 'Beach Party'. Industrial Thirty-five entries of original songs A series of four community commem- heaters were brought into the Ferny orative paths were designed for sites at and compositions were received. Creek Hall, the floor covered with sand, FernTree Gully, Ferny Creek, Sassafras Entries chosen for the CD have appropriate decorations of beach balls and Kalorama. involved 120 musicians and singers, and colourful bathing boxes added. The Pavers were bought in an unfired including children from two local result was a night of great fun and state and community workshops were primary schools singing. dancing, the community attending in Three hundred residents attended held to decorate individual pavers by shorts, bathers and sarongs. carving, engraving and painting either an the CDlaunch. It has been a real pleasure to work as image or message. Ceramic artists Out of the Ashes a Community Development Officer. designed and painted a series of large Ninety entries received from resi- The Dandenong Ranges communities picture medallions along the paths. dents. have shown that a traumatic event can Students from two local secondary strengthen a community, that recovery Video documentary and a future is possible, and that such The production of a documentary to schools participated and 15 entries an event need noOt result in a 'disaster'. show the journey of a community from each school were chosen by recovering, community generated initia- teachers. The author tives and the extent of collaboration Commemorative Pathways Helen has been a long time resident of between the community, organisations Six hundred residents attended the Sassafras. She trained as a teacher and and government has been commis- workshops to decorate a tile. worked in the Adult Migrant Education sioned. It will be a social document in Five hundred students from four section. She has extensive links and hope, love and strength of a collabora- local schools decorated tiles as part networks with both the older com- tive imagination, of a community of art classes. munity and newcomers to the area. This healing itself, of how disaster can often Three hundred and fifty people have has been developed through involve- lead to unexpected joys and the dis- attended the pathway openings. ment in a wide range of school, sporting covery of hidden strengths. The projects were designed to include groups and community projects in the It would probably be an under- community events that gave everyone local area. At the time of the January statement to say that these five recovery an opportunity to come together. For bushfire she was at home with young projects were ambitious. With a budget those not actively creating, these events children. However, in her role of of $25,000 and one CDOas coordinator, and the end products-book, artshow, Community Development Officer she these projects would not have been calendar and CD-provided an oppor- was able to draw upon her personal possible without the tremendous sup- tunity to partake in the projects as organisational skills, local knowledge port the community gave in an organ- viewers, listeners and readers as part of and networks in responding to the needs isational sense and by donating their their personal recovery. of the local residents.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management United Nations 1998 World Disaster Reduction Campaign

Natuml Disaster Prevention and the Media he United Nations World which will allow for economic growth the United Nations. The Sasakawa Disaster Reduction Campaigns, and national development. Disaster Prevention Award (created to organised by the IDNDR Sec- Over recent years, countries and promote humanitarian efforts to assist retariat, are designed to make people communities over the world have those affected by natural disasters) will aware, world-wide and across all profes- repeatedly been reminded of the devas- be handed to the 1998 winner. There will sional and social sectors, of what they tating force of natural disasters. All also be an international press confer- can do to protect their countries and sectors of society have noted with ence. A list of relevant activities which communities from natural hazards. concern the growing vulnerability of are part of the final phase of IDNDR The campaigns are based on a diff- humankind and their poverty to natural (1998-1999) for background infor- erent theme each year, and various and environmental hazards. At least mation and discussion will be mailed to activities are organised as part of them. three million people have lost their lives you separately. Campaign events are designed to build in disasters during the last 30 years and All countries are encouraged to local capacity and system-wide commit- hundreds of nlillion people have been undertake similar activities at the ment (locally, nationally, regionally and affected. The recorded economic losses national and local level. internationally) to reducing the impact amount to more than US$240 billion in Activities organised by other UN of natural disasters. 1995-1996 alone. In some disaster- agencies and partners Each campaign culminates on Uni- prone countries, natural disasters can The UN World Disaster Reduction ted Nations World Disaster Reduction reduce the GDP by up to ten per cent. Campaigns are led by the IDNDR Day, which is celebrated on the second More importantly, disasters result in Secretariat. Many United Nations Wednesday of October. societal disturbances that are becoming agencies host and programme activities This year, the United Nations World more and more unbearable to affected to celebrate the Day. In 1998, prelim- Disaster Reduction Day will be cele- populations. Disasters do not destroy inary discussions for closer collab- brated world-wide on 14 October 1998. homes and physical property only: they oration on the campaign have been held affect livelihood. with WMO and UNESCO. tion and the Media' and its slogan is Further participating partners in- 'Prevention begins with Information'. How will the 1998 United Nations clude UN Resident Coordinators, World Disaster Reduction IDNDR National Committees, inter- Why focus on information Campaign be celebrated? national and regional organisations, and the media? Activities organised by the IDNDR scientific associations, universities, The aim of the 1998 United Nations Secretariat companies, and NGOs which have World Disaster Reduction Campaign is sustained contact with the IDNDR to enlist the media as working partners Virtual conference on the Internet Secretariat. These partners adapt the in promoting natural disaster prevention The IDNDR Secretariat will hold its global campaign locally, nationally or measures. third Internet Conference on the theme regionally according to the major natural The well functioning of modern of 'Natural Disaster Prevention and the threats, the existing socio-economic society is based on the good and fast Media'. Information on how to join and vulnerabilities and resources. circulation of information. This is even details of the agenda will follow shortly. more relevant in the case of a society Photo contest Local activities guidelines vulnerable to natural hazards. Their The IDNDR Secretariat is organising a accurate information and its regular Btrildpartnerships with national and worldwide photo contest. Send your delivery is of importance in all sectors local media best photos of natural disasters, natural of decision-making as people's lives and Contact your local and national printed, disaster prevention measures and illus- assets are at stake. audio and audio-visual media. Send them trations of media and communications' The ability to reduce social and information (use the support material related issues to the Secretariat by 15 economic risks from natural hazards listed below) on natural disaster pre- September 1998. The IDNDR Secre- requires the adoption of a global culture vention. In conjunction with the media tariat will use the material for an exhibit of prevention based on information and bodies in question, work out the main in Geneva, and the winners will have its widespread communication. areas at stake in the role of the media their works published by Stop Disasters Information (collection, production versus the issue of natural disaster magazine. The top three entries will and dissemination) and communication prevention in your country, what the receive prizes from the IDNDR Secre- media are therefore a crucial link in the problems have been in the past and what tariat. chain of sound natural disaster preven- solutions might be appropriate for the tion measures and awareness building. International activities on future. Compile this information and Only then can a society vulnerable to 14 October 1998 send it to the IDNDR Secretariat by 15 natural hazards implement healthy On World Disaster Reduction Day, September 1998. Your research will be sustainable development measures important celebrations will take place in continued page 34

Winter 1998 21 Recovery: a Local Government response

by Lyn Hayes, Manager Human Selvices, Shire of Yarra Ranges

he Shire of Yarra Ranges was Presented at the Emergency Recovery this became a critical link in the estab- proclaimed in December 1994 Forum, Darebin, Melbourne November 27, lishment and maintaining of the evac- Tfrom the amalgamation of the 1997 uation centres. There was urgent need previous shires of Healesville, Lillydale, for water, food, medical support, staff, Sherbrooke and Upper Yarra. It covers in place for some 18 months following information, transport, animal care, some 2700 sq. km and has a population amalgamation of the previous shires and hygiene requirements and more at the of 137 000. The shire encompasses both had been tested through minor flooding evacuation centre, and this committee urban and rural communities and in- at Healesville and through desktop was pivotal in actioning these requests cludes the Yarra Valley and Dandenong exercises. and alerting me to issues arising. Rosters Ranges. At the time of the fire the Shire As Recovery Manager I went to the of staff were prepared for the evacuation was managed by four Commissioners, Emergency Co-ordination Centre at centres. with elections for Council due in March Upwey Secondary College. The Deputy We estimated that we hadabout 2500 1997. Recovery Manager and other rtaff went residents in the evacuation centres, with At the time of the fire my role was to Montrose to set up the first many more sheltering in refuges in the that of Manager Human Services which evacuation centre. By this time there hills or self-evacuating to safer places. also encompassed that of Recovery were four fires in the Dandenongs, with As the night progressed the extent Manager. the most serious being in Ferny Creek of the damage became evident. At final January 2Isr 1997 was hot with a and the Ferntree Gully National Park. count 42 homes were razed, 17 homes gusty north wind. In the Shire of Yarra Traffic on the road to the Co-ordination were partially damaged, many gardens Ranges offices at Lilydale, we gazed out Centre was chaotic. The air was thick and outbuildings were destroyed, sig- of the windows, constantly surveying with smoke and the site and sound of nificant parts of the forest were burnt the Dandenong Ranges. The first puff the fires was truly terrifying. and then there was the finding of three of smoke was visible at around 11.00 My daughters attempted to evacuate bodies in Ferny Creek. The community a.m. and came from the Montrose area. around noon, managing to get to at Ferny Creek also experienced the A second column of smoke appeared Sassafras township, but were unsure of greatest property loss and damage and relatively quickly and appeared to be in the safety of the roads off the nioun- the greatest dislocation of residents. the foothill near Kilsyth and The Basin. rain, as by this stage major roads were One of those killed in the fire, along My concerns were twofold. As closed and minor roads were through with her husband and neighbour, was a Recovery Manager it meant putting forests. They decided to go back home family day carer for the Shire. This had planning into practice and hoping that and await further information from me, an enormous impact on staff, and meant the preparations had been sufficient. and eventually evacuated around that the recovery process needed to There was also anxiety on a personal 7.00p.m as the fire neared our home. focus internally within the organisation level. My home is in Ferny Creek. At As the afternoon progressed and the as well as externally to the community. home that day were my two daughters fire situation worsened, the Shire It also meant that some staff availability and my 8-week-old grandson. established six evacuation centres. This and capacity to participate in the By 11.30 a.m. phones at the Shire required a significant deployment of recovery process was affected. were running hot. Staff who may have staff and many experienced difficulties Around 11.00 p.m, as the danger been in the fire areas were alerted and in getting to the centres. Again, as major started to recede, planning commenced emergency plans were put into action. roads were closed, staff and the street for the recovery process. Family Day carers and the child care directory were tested to find access centre started to call parents to collect roads that were open. Local knowledge Principles of recovery children, maternal and child health was a valuable commodity. As our The principles of recovery we applied nurses checked on the well-being of resources became stretched our colleag- were: their clients, home carers and meals on ues in the City of Knox opened an Immediate response - it was recog- wheels volunteers were traced through evacuation centre at Ferntree Gully. The nised that residents would require rosters, as were a myriad of other Shire management of the evacuation centres support and assistance straight away. staff who may have been working in the went reasonably smoothly. Our contact To facilitate this, two recovery mountains. Customer services staff were list was up-to-date, but with school centres, one at Upwey and the other also alerted as calls came in seeking holidays and changes in management at Montrose, were open for business information about road closures, welfare committee structures, a number of the by 10.00 a.m. on January 22. of residents, location of the fires and a people we needed to contact were not Qualitative response- in all the tasks range of other services. available. and actions we undertook we wanted The Shire's Emergency Management I established a co-ordination com- to demonstrate care, recognition of Plan was activated. The plan had been mittee at theshire offices in Lilydaleand the needs and emotions of affected

22 Australian Journal of Emergency Management residents, and respect for their relating to financial aid and grants, The Recovery Conlmittee had three dignity and privacy. We focused on housing and accommodation, personal sub committees - Material Aid, how things were to be done as well support, debriefing and counselling, Counselling and Support and Shire as what was to be done. assessment of property damage, disposal Services. The Material Aid committee Coordinated response -we wanted of food, safety of water supplies, animal was chaired by a Shire Commissioner all actions undertaken by the Shire care etc. The centres were open from and had the task of developingprinciples and by other agencies to be organ- 6.00 a.m. to around 10.00 p.m. seven anda formula for the timely distribution ised, co-ordinated and integrated days a week. of appeals money (from three different under the auspice of the Shire's The Montrose centre was open for a appeal sources) and material aid. We Recovery Committee weekand Upwey for nearly three weeks. wanted the appeal money to be dis- Ownership by the community - we This directly reflected the level of tributed as quickly as possible and to go strongly believed that the com- damage within both communities. to those most in need. A matrix was munity should own the recovery The Upwey centre immediately developed to define loss and need that process and should be involved in all became the focal point for many affected was reflected in a point score. It is decisions affecting their community. residents and offered them a chance to interesting to note that a number of Initially the Shire took the lead but, meet and exchange experiences as well affected residents declined financial as the communities galvanised into as to seek and offer support to each support on the basis that others were action, they took over responsibility other. The Salvation Army kept up the more needy. Of significance were those for their recovery. tea, coffee and food supplies that offered residents that were uninsured or under- Participation - we knew the recov- a welcome respite to many. insured for house and property damage. ery process would be a long and There were two major difficulties The Counselling and Personal arduous one that would require the with the recovery centres. One related Support Sub-committee was shared by participation of a number of key to the intrusion of the press into the a staff member from the Department of agencies. Strong partnership arrange- centres, which was seen as impacting on Human Services and had the task of co- ments emerged between the affected the right to privacy and dignity of the ordinating all agencies that may have communities, the key agencies affected residents. The other involved been involved in supporting affected (Department of Human Services, material aid coming to the centre. The residents. It provided a single point of Salvation Army and the Shire) and generosity of businesses, the commun- contact (i.e. a 1800 number) from where the broader community. ity and individuals cannot be under- residents could be 'triaged' to the most Transparentprocesses -the Shire was stated or underestimated. Unfortunately appropriate agency. This eliminated determined that all its actions would we did not have the space to accom- duplication of resources and allowed for be open to scrutiny and would he modate all of the goods donated and the best response to residents. This accountable and transparent. storage became a major issue. There group also co-ordinated the debriefing Managed information -information were mixed feelings amongst residents for professionals involved in the recov- needed to be timely, accurate and about having material aid so visible and ery and provided information on how available through a variety of medi- ideally it should have been separate but the community was responding and ums. The Shire activated a media adjacent to the recovery centre. where the flashpoints might be. liaison person who was responsible The internal Shire Committee was for coordinating responses to the Shire Recovery Committee formed to co-ordinate all of the Shire's mediaand to control the information This was set up the day after the fires activity. Shire personnel were at that flow. In terms of contacting resi- and had membership from the conibat- time located in six offices and three dents, the role of community net- ing agencies and agencies represented in customer service centres, so effective works, local post offices and general the recovery centres. As the recovery communication and information ex- stores was extremely successful. process progressed, membership chang- change was paramount. This coordina- Timely outreach - we anticipated ed to include community representa- tion meant that information about that not all affected residents would tives, school personnel, counselling properties and requirements of residents access the recovery centres so a agencies and psychiatric services. Rob could be shared and eliminated the planned, timely outreach strategy Gordon acted as a consultant to the number of contacts that residents was formed to reflect community committee and his advice was invaluable. needed to make to the Shire. requirements The committee membership was fluid The Recovery Con~mitteeat first and changed as the recovery progressed. met daily and also at different periods Recovery centres The role of the Recovery Committee during the recovery process. The recovery centres were designed as was to control, implement and monitor 'one-stop shops' that would offer a range the recovery process. It was a forum to Community Recovery Committees of financial, insurance and legal advice, discuss issues and appropriate responses, Ferny Creek residents formed and personal support and material aid. They to gather and share information with the activated a recovery committee immed- were staffed by the Department of community representatives and between iately. The Shire, through its Com- Human Services, Salvation Army, De- agencies, to highlight possible areas of munity Development Officer, activated partment of Social Security, Insurance conflict or dispute and to devise ways recovery committees for Upwey and Council, Law Institute and the Council of preventing or defusing then], to share Kalorama-Montrose. of Churches. Shire personnel, including experiences and to give support and The role of these committees invol- youth services, rangers, health officers acknowledgment and to ensure that the ved volunteer co-ordination, accom- and building inspectors, were based at principles of recovery were being modation of affected residents (many of the centres and provided services followed. whom wanted to stay local so that children could attend schools etc.), food progressed to leaflet drops, information CFA and Shire in organising neigh- and meal preparation, practical assis- in the local newspapers and the com- bourhood meetings and other prep- tance and social activities. Tasks such as mencement of a Shire community aration and prevention strategies has cleaning and furnishing houses, clearing newsletter. There were a number of resulted in a growth in knowledge blocks, removal of rubbish, restoring editions of this newsletter that went out and confidence of residents. gardens, setting up food banks as well on a fortnightly basis and contained Concerns in the community about as providing personal support were factually correct and current informa- the difference between a refuge and undertaken with great success. Social tion about the recovery process. an evacuation centre. Many residents activities brought together residents in An information kit was prepared self-evacuated to refuges throughout a united and positive way. containing contact numbers for a range the hills, some being there for The Shire's Community Develop- of services, information about the fires, considerable periods of time without ment Officer, funded by a DHS grant, the recovery process and how to access water and food. This issue was supported these committees and acted support and advice. This was distributed addressed through a range of forums as an advocate and facilitator in meeting to around 2000 households through a (meetings, media, leaflets etc.). the needs of affected residents. major doorknock campaign, organised Preparing individual evacuation plans The Ferny Creek Committee was through the Council of Churches, to support the elderly, infirm, dis- and continues to be particularly active. abled and other vulnerable groups on days of high fire danger. Unfortun- Community participation ately some people believed that the In identifying affected conlmunities it There was complete Shire or some other agency would was necessary to think very broadly. shire involvement and come to collect them as the danger Thoseaffected by the bushfires were not commitment to the approached. Again much work has just those people with homes destroyed recovery process. been done to address this concern. or damaged, but also included evacuees, The role of Local Government in previous victims of bushfires, those who Activities undertaken emergency management (preven- thought it could have been them, included rubbish removal tion, response and recovery). relatives and friends of all the above, (fire generates a lot of The role of respective agencies in participants in the responseand recovery rubbish), health issues, responding to emergency situations. stages and so on. The affect, and there- planning, building inspec- Dealing with trauma (included fore the response, differed in relation to information nights at schools and all these groups but it was important to tions, road maintenance pre-schools for parents and families include them all. Outreach and news- and reconstruction, customer services, youth with affected children). letters went to all residents, activities To rebuild or to not rebuild. A were widely promoted and participation services, tree assessment, number of the houses destroyed was actively encouraged. block clearing, public were adiacent to the forest and will Key community groups, networks relations, stock and animal always be at risk. Much discussion I and agencies such as schools and pre- schools, services clubs, sporting groups control and the role of occurred about the advisability of 1 rebuilding and the types of houses and youth groups all supported families community services and and gardens to better suit the envir- and individuals, whilst horticultural other direct service staff onment. Rob Gordon prepared an groups offered practical advice about who listened to the stories article about this, which featured in plant and tree damage. The local his- of their clients. the community newsletter. At this torical society undertook the recording stage-some twelve months after the of the stages of the bushfire and the fire-there are a number of families recovery. that have not and will not rebuild. As the fire occurred just before the Department of Human Services and the Others have rebuilt houses markedly commencement of a new school year, Shire. Volunteers were marshalled and different from the original. schools played an integral part of the briefed as to their roles, areas were Re-establishment of gardens. Gar- recovery process. Uniforms and books gridded to ensure no households were dens and horticulture are very dear were replaced, special programs were overlooked. A green dot on the letter- to residents and much work and implemented for those youngsters about box signified that the house had been effort was placed by volunteers in to start primaryor secondaryschool for visited. Volunteers were debriefed on clearing damaged gardens and restor- the first time so that school could their return and reports were compiled ing and replanting them, culminating become an island of normality for the indicating whether further visits were in a huge 'plant-fest' where affected children affected by the fire. required, any issues the householders residents where able to access trees, The range of community activities may have raised and general opinions on shrubs and bulbs that had been included the Ferny Creek picnic day, the the well being of the community. donated. This included trees, that great billy cart race at Ferny Creek Community education required a crane to move them. Primary School, art show, calendar, CD, This was a major focus of the recovery Need for time-out and the impor- and workshops culminating in memorial process and still continues. It included: tance of leisure and recreation pathways at a number of sites. Fire prevention strategies - how to activities. There were a number of Outreach prepare properties and houses, when social and fun activities organised This process began with press advertise- to evacuate, developing individual throughout the recovery process. ments about the recovery centres and emergency plans. The role of the Many affected residents made use of

24 Australian Journal of Emergency Management accommodation options donated to pation in every aspect of the recovery Relationships with the media devel- the appeal to gain some much needed process resulted in better outcomes for oped into a positive experience, and in time out. residents and reinforced the Shire's future planning there is a need to have The importance of a return to normal credibility closer liaison with the media earlier so business for agencies, the commun- It was also important to support that all needs are met i.e. the media for ities and individuals. Shire staff. Many were involved in the stories, agencies for accurate infor- Compulsory Competitive Tendering mation dissemination, residents to Shire involvement: process, staffing levels were down due receive appropriate coverage and assis- a total response to holidays, and their was a need to tance. There was complete Shire involvement juggle the normal commitment to and commitment to the recovery pro- What I learnt keeping Shire services operational and cess. Activities undertaken included There was a depth of feelings generated to being part of the recovery process. rubbish removal (fire generates a lot of in others and myself. Emotions were All staff were offered group and indiv- rubbish), health issues, planning, build- heightened and needed to be recognised idual debriefing, counselling and support ing inspections, road maintenance and and validated. I don't think it is an through the DHS and the Shire's reconstruction, customer services, overstatement to say some of us had our Employee Assistance Program. youth services, tree assessment, block lives changed through our involvement clearing, public relations, stock and in the recovery process. Issues animal control and the role of commun- There was an overwhelming generos- There were a number of conflicting ity services and other direct service staff ity. People donated wedding rings to interests and issues to resolve. The who listened to the stories of their replace those lost, children with new Dandenong Ranges is a major tourist clients. Christmas toys gave them to children destination and many businesses and The Shire undertook to expedite the who had lost theirs. Expressions of love, residents rely on the tourist trade. rebuilding process and organised the sympathy understanding and support, Residents affected by the fires were clearing of blocks and the fast tracking and memories of these people and their angry with sightseers, erecting signs of building permits. There were co- contributions will stay with me forever. saying tourists go home. As a result the ordinated visits of health officers, There was power and strength in the tourist numbers were down. Shire building inspectors and insurance agents community, individuals and agency Commissioners addressed the reduction to minimise the intrusion for residents networks. in tourist numbers through the media and to streamline the responses. The first signs of regeneration in the and encouraged visitors to come to the An unexpected outcome was the forest were a cause of great jubilation. hills. Those areas affected by the fires volume and nature of calls experienced It emphasised the cycle of life, growth had road closure signs and barricades put by the customer services and adminis- and rebirth. Although the forest, in place and a satisfactory compromise tration staff. Some of these may have individuals and the community will grow was reached. started as a simple inquiry about dog and continue, they have changed forever. A number of Shire staff were signifi- registration and then progressed to how Our challenge is to grow through it. cantly affected by their involvement in the caller had lost their pet in the fire the fires. These changes caused some and the subsequent trauma they had tension between them and those staff experienced. Many staff found it diffi- At the time of the fire Lyn was Manager who hadn't had the same experiences. cult to reconcile the mundane and Human Services at the Shire of Yarra Another source of conflict was the routine requirements of their jobs with Ranges, with responsibility for Recovery need or desire to remove trees and clear Management. these sorts of calls. They impacted on properties while acknowledging that staff and their ability to cope and should Lyn has lived at Ferny Creek for 14 years conservation of the environment was a be a major consideration in preparing for and as a result has personal and profes- factor in why many residents choose to future emergency situations. sional experience of the bushfires in the live in the hills. A solution was found area. Surviving by using arborists to assess any vege- Lyn has a background in teaching and social There were a number of keys to sur- tation residents desired to remove for wo*, as a primary teacher and as a social viving the aftermath of the fire. The potential safety or fire risk. worker in the School Support Service. major one was to manage the process. There was a need for scapegoats. Following this she moved to Local Govern- This involved identifying possible points People were angry that the fires occurred ment, where she was Manager Community of contention before they happened or and need to find someone to blame. The Services for the Shire of Healesville before early on, so those cleavages could be Shire received negative publicity for her position at the Shire of Yarm Ranges avoided or diffused. Some potential being behind in its grass-slashing following amalgamation. cleavages were around unity and equity program, which took focus off the main She has a strong commitment to community between recovery committees, com- game. The fact that the fires were development and empowerment, and munity membership of the material aid deliberately lit increased the anger. believes that any involvement with the committee and in delineating the role of Managing the volume of material aid community or individuals must be holistic, agencies. donated and ensuring that goods were systemic, co-ordinated and integrated. The importance of information fairly and equitably donated caused It is important to note that her involvement management and exchange cannot be headaches. The Salvation Army was in the recovery process as Recovery underestimated. superb in the way they responded and Manager ceased on March 23 1997 when The use of transparent processes, many volunteers and members of service she left the Shire to take up a position with accountability to the community and the groups rallied round to sort and store the Department of Human Services in commitment to community partici- the goods. Traralgon.

Winter 1998 25

Churches is 'to provide support, coun- was confined to a relatively small selling continues through the work of selling, information to affectedpersons and geographical area, the emotional impact the various churches locatcd in the communities'. of the fires embraced a much wider area. Dandenongs and in any other part of During the past two years church Many people living in the destruction Victoria and beyond where people hurt members have: had vivid memories of the fires of and the proccss of recovery continues. staffed emergency centres and 'one AshWednesday and some parents of Given that community recovery is a stop shops' young children were interpreting their long-term process the church, as an provided support and counselling own experiences of Ash Wednesday important part of any community can personnel at evacuation centres when they were children 14 years and does play averysignificant role. For provided teams of trained outreach previously. it is a resource offered not for its own visitors for a needs analysis of people The first meeting of the Recovery sake but for the sake of all the com- affected by the event Committee decided that homes well munity. left helpful information and correc- beyond the impact areaneeded to be vis- Reference ted disinformation ited to assess needs and to leave helpful Keating T 1996, 'The October Floods The churches have also provided: information. Within 48 hours of being 1993: Lessons for the Management of qualified counsellors for the recovery notified, regional coordinators across Community Recovery', The Australian process Melbourne activated 135 people who, [ournal of Emergency Management, Vol. services of worship along with local government and Human l I, No. 2, pp. 36-40. symbols of hope in times of grief and Services staff, visited over 1700 homes despair, such as the services after the over the next 3 days. From the infor- The Reverent Sydney Smale is a Minister of Port Arthur massacre and on the first mation gathered, a number of people the Uniting Church and seconded to the anniversary of that terrible event. and families were identified as requiring Victorian Council of Churches to worlc as the However, its major task has been to follow up visits and counselling. The State Central Coordinator, Disaster Ministry. get information and to give information church was able to provide a number of He has wide experience, including 5 years immediately after an event such as the clergy and lay people who were as a parish minister at Warrandyte, a hi@- risk fire area in Victoria. He also lectured bushfires in Victoria's Dandenong themselves practising psychiatrists or for 12 years in the faculty of Social Sciences Ranges on February 11, 1997. had been trained in clinical pastoral care. at the Royal Melbourne Institute of The fires destroyed 41 homes and Church services and longer-term Technology. His main task now is training damaged 45, of which 11 were subse- pastoral care were also provided by the teams of outreach visitors and coor- quently pulled down. Three lives were churches situated in the Dandenongs. dinating follow-up counselling by clergy in lost. While that damage and destruction This work of caring support and coun- the event of disasters and critical incidents.

International Sociological Association Research Committee on Disasters Samuel Henry Prince Award The Research Committee on Disaster committee. The committee will explain supervised by a member of the (ISA Research Committee 39) has the merits of successful dissertations in committee, a replacement acting established the Samuel Henry Prince an official announcement at each ISAI member will be engaged to consider Award to encourage and promote RCD World Congress of Sociology. the merits of the dissertation. standards of excellence in disaster There will be no publicity of disser- Committee members are: scholarship. This committee is tasked tations that are submitted, and no Neil Brittnn to honour new scholars who, through explanation of why submissions have Emergency Management Unit, dissertation research endeavours, not been successful. Dept of Internal Affairs make a distinguished contribution to Copies of the dissertation and a Wellington, New Zealand the field of disaster research. nominating letter from either someone E-mail: [email protected] who is familiar with the dissertation's Procedure contribution to disaster research, or a Kenneth Hewitt Awards will be made to individuals letter of endorsement from the super- Dept of Geography who, in the opinion of the committee, visor of the dissertation, should be sent Wilfred Laurier University have made an outstanding contri- to each committee member. In both Ontario, Canada bution in their doctoral dissertation cases, the letter should indicate consent E-mail: [email protected] to the field of disaster research. of the scholar in question and provide Peter May Dissertations from any discipline are an address to which the committee can Dept of Political Science eligible for consideration. There will address further correspondence. The University of Seattle be no restrictions on the number of letter should also provide the title, date Washington, USA awards made within a particular and discipline of the dissertation. E-mail: [email protected] period. The committee chair will acknow- Samuel Henry Prince was a Canadian Awards may be made up to five ledge receipt of the submission by return scholar whose 1920 doctoral disser- years from the time of a successful correspondence, and will outline the tation, Catastrophe and Social Change, defence. The definition of 'outstand- procedures thecommittee will follow. In is recognised as the first scholarly study ing' will be the prerogative of the the event that a submission has been of disaster.

Winter 1998 With no recognition of the event, how do you plan a community development program?

by Rosemary White, Community Development Officer, City of Greater Shepparton, Victoria.

nthrax is a word loaded with Presented at the Emergency Recovery farmers cannot take any preventative negative images and percep- Forum, Darebin, November 27 1997. measures prior to this time. A tions. Although mostly known It is important to make this distinc- as a disease affecting animals, Saddam fact that it was anthrax, was also keen tion, and understand that there is no Hussein ensured that we understand to disassociate itself from the anthrax relationship between poor farm manage- only too well the possible threat it poses hysteria to further avert the spotlight. ment and the onset of the anthrax. to human beings. For good reason it That doesn't mean there were no remains a notifiable disease, with the ongoing problems, it just means that for Some background Department of Human Services ranking a number of very valid reasons the Dr Terry Thomas, Principal Veterinary it with rabies, typhoid, cholera and polio community wanted anthrax to go away, Officer with the Department of Natuml and classifying it as a disease outside our In this instance at every stage there was Resources and Environment, has stated 'normal' experience. I say this is not to a delicate balance or trade-off between that the 1997 anthrax outbreak in the focus on the unpalatable nature of the public and private consequences. Goulburn Valley constituted 'the largest anthrax nor to underestimate its serious- This had important consequences response to an emergency animal disease ness, but to highlight the problems in my role as Community Development outbreak in Australia's history'. It was associated with dealing with an outbreak Officer, and may have similar conse- centred around the towns of Tatura and of a disease that conjures up such quences in other disasters where the Stanhope, and formed a corridor run- powerful, predominantly negative and event does not 'fit' a typical or antici- ning in a south-west to north-easterly frightening images. pated disaster situation, i.e. how can you direction, 10 km wide and 20 km long. As a news story, the anthrax out- implement a community development After official confirmation of the first break revolved as much around issues of program when there is no ongoing outbreak on January 26th, a total of 210 public health and safety as it did around recognition of the event from within the cattle and 4 sheep deaths were recorded total numbers of stock lost and the trade affected community or beyond it? on 84 properties, with 79,000 cattle and ramifications. Certainly the one con- I don't profess to know the answer 2,600 sheep vaccinated on 596 proper- firmed case of human infection under- to this question, and the comments here ties. The Agriculture and Resources lined the risks involved in the manage- are based solely on my experiences Minister, Pat McNamara, declared the ment of the disease, but also contributed during 1997. However what I witnessed outbreak officially over on March 26th, to even higher levels of public appre- does suggest that in this case the subject to property owners adhering to hension and misinformation. community reacted differently to what conditions for quarantine release. Dealingwith the technical side of the might normally be expected after a disas- These conditions formed the basis of anthrax outbreak was one thing ... ter event. To some extent after a bushfire a legal agreement between the property dealing with the human issues was an- or flood a loose bond exists between owner and the Department, to provide other. This then, is the primary focus of those affected by the disaster, generally quality assurance by ensuring that my article-the effects of anthrax from the community rallies and there may be vaccination coverage of stock took place a community, or people, perspective. an underlying sense of common purpose and also that the required withholding The topic 'With no recognition of in response to the disaster situation. period after vaccination was adhered to. the event, how do you plan acommunity This was less evident with anthmx, Briefly the 596 properties fell into development program?' was a quote where the insidious, unpredictable three categories: taken from a discussion I had with nature of the disease created a different infected properties where stock was Phillip Buckle and Michael Dickinson, set of responses, characterised largely by lost from the Department of Human Ser- uncertainty, suspicion and fear. properties less than 1 km from an vices Disaster Support and Recovery infected property Unit, regarding the post-anthrax com- Anthrax: an environmental problem properties at a distance greater than munity development process. From the outset I think it is important 1 km from an infected property. The point I was making was that to point out and clarify that anthrax is Varying criteria applied in each once the early sensationalism associated the result of the bacterium Bacillus category in relation to quarantine with the anthrax outbreak subsided, anthracis, which can survive in the release, and also determined whether little interest or recognition remained environment for decades through soil property owners were required to regarding how or what that particular contamination. As such it is not a disease vaccinate for the minimum period of one community had suffered due to anthrax. that can be managed or controlled until year, or the maximum period of three The community itself, by virtue of the such time as there is an outbreak- years.

6 Australian Journal of Emergency Management The magnitude and duration of this to establish credibility both per- state government, welfare agencies and outbreak, together with the insidious sonally and professionally. departments, to veterinarians, milk nature of the disease, certainly contribu- The reference group consisted of factory representatives, field officers, ted to an unprecedented disaster event. seven people, drawn from around the industry networks and associations. Although anthrax occurs worldwide, it local community, who together incor- Others indirectly affected, or secondary is generally in more isolated situations porated a range of agricultural and sources including livestock carriers, than the large-scale outbreak experi- business interests, as well as being stock and station agents, agricultural and enced in the Goulburn Valley. geographically representative. This last machinery suppliers and local small A further anomaly related to the fact point is worth mentioning given the business people, were also sought out. that in Victoria cattle were predomin- wide area under quarantine and also All this input proved invaluable and antly affected, whereas in New South given that some issues were more enabled more than one hundred people Wales most cases occurred in sheep. localised and hence more 'topical' over to participate in this process, which I the duration of the outbreak. Anthrax believe also provided a broad cultural The CDO position was the overwhelming consideration but and geographic cross-section of the The position of Community Develop- specific issues were relevant at different Tatura-Stanhope communities. ment Officer was provided by the City times and venues throughout the area. of Greater Shepparton, funded by the The confidential nature of the data- Anthrax: what did it mean? Department of Human Services for a base of affected property owners meant What did it actually mean to have three-month period from April 1st to that the reference group also served as anthrax reported on a property? June 27th. It acknowledged the need to an essential bridge to the affected Anthrax is a bacteria and cattle are provide support to farmers and others community. It was impossible to access infected by eating soil containing the in the community affected by anthrax. peopleaffected by this outbreak through dormant bacterial spore. These spores In accordance with the principles of the normal channels of outreach pro- first enter the soil when infected animals community development, particularly as grams or visitation, so introduction or die and are left to decompose. The they relate to support and recovery, the personal meetings could only be arrang- spores are very resistant to the envir- emphasis was on facilitating the recovery ed or co-ordinated through a third party. onment and it may take decades before process through: they infect another animal. It is not the gathering and dissemination of In this way members of the reference group were instrumental in my being known why the spores suddenly become information able to access those in the community infective to stock. Climatic conditions the provision of advice to affected who had been directly affected by the probably play an important part and individuals and families anthrax outbreak. most outbreaks worldwide occur during encouraging the participation of Members of the Goulburn Valley hot, dry weather followed by rainfall. those affected in local support Regional Recovery and Municipal The onset of the disease is sudden services, as well as ensuring the co- Recovery Committees were also impor- and dramatic. Once infected, stock ordination of these services tant contacts for the same reason, deteriorate and die within a few hours. facilitating liaison between services, especially the Rural Financial Coun- Antibiotics are effective only when ad- government and voluntary agencies sellor and the Uniting Church minister. ministered in the early stages, but identifyingand involving any special Initial discussions with the reference symptoms may not then be apparent. needs groups group and others revealed that the time The incubation period is approximately ensuring advocacy, counselling or for practical assistance measures nor- ten days, and immunity after vaccination pastoral support was available and mally within the role of a CDO had, by may take up to fourteen days. accessible for those in need. this point, almost passed. Most people In the days and weeks that followed While each of these objectives is had moved beyond that stage and in the official confirmation of anthrax, a highly desirable in any community many instances were indicating that they nerve-racking waiting game was played development process, flexibility and were now more ready to talk about their out, as further cases were reported. Like responsiveness to the affected commun- experiences. Perhaps this would have a bushfire, there was no obvious rhyme ity remains paramount. Initially I was been less likely in the early stages when or reason to the pattern of infected unsure whether, as a non-local female, I emotions were still running high. properties, no way of knowing when or would be at a disadvantage, however the What followed was largely a consul- where it would strike next. real issue, and probably the only prereq- tative process that allowed people to give Even after vaccination there were uisite, was a genuine empathy for the voice to their stories and experiences, so long days of checking herds and count- people and community who had been that key issues could be identified from ing stock every few hours to determine affected. a community point of view. To that end if any animals had gone down. This has Developing contacts I saw my role, and to some extent my been variously described as being similar The establishment of a local reference responsibility, as ensuring that those to a 'game of Russian Roulette' or 'like group emerged as a priority for several issues, from a 'people perspective', were having a gun held to your head'. The reasons, in particular recognised and fairly represented. emotional toll cannot be underestim- to offer local knowledge, expertise Someone suggested that my role was 'to ated. As each new case was reported and information recognise and value the things that people's confidence and optimism was to provide vital links within the individuals and the community identify hammered, to be replaced with a grow- community as concerns and bring them to the ing sense of frustration and vulnerability. to formulate an appropriate action attention of the relevant bodies'. At the same time, other practical and plan given the time limitations of the Contact was made with as many key financial considerations came into play appointment stakeholders as possible, from local and with the quarantine requirements. A

Winter 1998 total of 596 properties were vaccinated. evident in rumour, misinformation and Lack of recognition Those properties represent a large even stigmatising. In part this can be The fact that anthrax was not a com- number of individuals and families who attributed to the insidious nature of pensatable disease under the Cattle were suddenly confronted with a disease anthrax and a need to understand and Compensation Act was the cause of that impacted on their farm businesses, make sense of such an unpredictable some angst among farmers who sus- as well as other secondary sources who occurrence. tained cattle losses. Although the list of werc also affected when stock could not However I believe the apportioning compensatable diseases is subject to be moved or sold. of blame and culpability are not consis- much debate, had compensation been And finally, there was the fact that tent with victims of other disaster available from this fund assistance would anthrax was not really a 'socially accept- situations where generally a sense of have been appropriate, equitable and able' kind of disaster. Those powerful, community spirit, goodwill and com- immediate. negative images I described contributed mon purpose prevail. Here in some This lack of financial compensation to an atmosphere of uncertainty, sus- cases, affected property owners were (as distinct from the Rural Finance picion and fear. labelled and, even worse, ostracised from Corporation low interest loans), com- What were the key issues, concerns their neighbours and local community. bined with limited public recognition, or lessons that might be gleaned from The media were also responsible for created a deep cynicism within this rural this experience? promoting sensationalist and emotive community. Individuals noted that few views, unaware of or ambivalent to the people (including politicians) seemed Observations about people local ramifications. This remained a responsive to their situation and felt that The delay in appointment of a Com- constant theme in views expressed by little acknowledgment of their plight munity Development Officer resulted members of the affected community. confirmed that 'no-one cared'. in feelings of frustration and isolation, Where recognition was given, it especially for some of those affected in Information tended to focus on the total numbers of the early stages of the outbreak. At that The need for relevant, timely infor- stock lost as a total measurement of the point, by necessity, the emphasis was on mation in all stages of disaster response overall impact of the outbreak. Regular technical information and the need to and recovery has been well documented. updates and media releases concentrated control the further spread of anthrax. At a local level this necessitates infor- on confirmed deaths as a means of However, as a result, it seems women in mation being available and accessible. quantifying the disaster. There can be no particular, were left to deal with the This was confirmed in the anthrax argument with the legitimacy of these emotional stress and uncertainty of the outbreak where the need for clear, figures, however the broader assump- disease, personal health issues, the accurate information and conimuni- tion that financial losses were only constant media presence, as well as cation was identified by property owners incurred by property owners with coping with the normal daily events of as the highest priority. In the early stages reported stock deaths, minimises the family and farm life. Consequently some felt there was a communication scope of this disaster. As already many felt there was a sense that 'people void at a time when factual details were indicated, loss of income as a direct got lost in the process'. crucial to the planning and management result of anthrax and the stringent Whilst the appointment of a CDO of the outbreak. Perceptions were still quarantine requirements was experi- was viewed in some cases as 'too little limited by a lack of knowledge and enced by a range of secondary sources, too late', at the same time it didacknow- personal experience of anthrax resulting who all felt the cumulative effects of ledge the significant impact anthrax had in misinformation and rumour. anthrax on their cashflows. on the local community, The comment Affected property owners gained It is a narrow view for another that 'at least someone was doing some- information primarily from direct reason, as it concentrates on an eco- thing' (even where people were not clear contact with DNRE staff, local vets and nomic scale or bottom line rather than on what that something was) was taken field officers. However, with limited from a wider social perspective. As as endorsement of the CDO role. resources as the outbreak escalated, it Blong (1996) has noted 'disaster size is 'Anthrax fatigue' was increasingly difficult to keep the too often measured in lives lost or Related to the lag time in appointment community informed. Information fact millions of dollars damace,- rather than was 'anthrax fatigue', which was appar- sheets delivered by tanker drop were an in societal consequences'. Whilst there were very real financial costs associated ent from commencement. Local people important part of the communication were 'anthraxed' out, initially reluctant process. Community meetings con- with anthrax, the ongoing social and to talk and generally tired of the ongoing vened at different locations around the emotional implications for the com- munitv should not be overlooked. Thr speculation associated with anthrax. area also allowed people the opportunity I This reaction was understandable given to gain first hand knowledge of anthrax reputations of individuals and theTatura that continued publicity focused from senior DNRE officers. and Stanhope communities, as well as attention on anthrax and the Goulburn Sources used for distribution of the wider Goulburn Valley, all suffered Valley with further negative implications information are central to issues of acc- indirectly as a result. for industry, in particular Australia's essibility. In this instance the dairy major export markets. industry, with support from milk fac- Observations about the process tories and established contacts via As I have already stated, anthrax differs Public concerns industry associations (i.e. the United in a number of key areas to the range of The unprecedented nature of the out- Dairy Farmers of Victoria) were much natural disasters that emergency man- break prompted widespread public better served than the beef sector, who agement more commonly deal with.The concern and apprehension, with the were disadvantaged by a lack of existing fact that it went on over an extended resulting lack of accurate information social or political networks. period of time, accelerated after the

Australian Journal of Emergency Management initial first few weeks instead of de- with decision-making by those not on anthrax. Although her official celerated and the affect this had on directly affected by the disaster. permission has been given, names and people psychologically as time went on, Recovery strategies and activities several other details have been changed must be considered. need to be flexible and responsive to to protect their identity. The entry However there are number of points the culture of the affected commun- (below) comes from February 14th regarding the recovery process that ity Rural communities, as distinct 1997. could be relevant to another time or from urban communities, are trad- Rosemary White holds a Bachelor Degree another disaster event. itionally self-reliant and generally in Social Science with majors in It is important to develop protocols reject a welfare ethos. As a result Communication and Social Research dealing with disasters outside 'nor- farmers are more reluctant to ask for Methods. Over the past thee years she has mal' emergency management recov- assistance and tend to carry on been involved in project management and ery situations, particularly in the independently has undertaken a numbers of projects in event of disasters that proceed along the health and community development Conclusion an open-ended timeframe. Lack of areas. Slhe is currently employed by GV Throughout this paper I have tried to precedent, combined with the dura- Agcare Inc. in Kyabram, a country town in convey the fact that anthrax was about Victoria. tion and magnitude of the anthrax real people and real situations, not just outbreak, possibly hindered the early Rosemary is undertaking a pilot project a disease that resulted in statistics about activation of recovery strategies. designed to improve access to information stock losses. In closing I would like to Clear guidelines are needed for the and services for people living in rural share with you the thoughts and feelings declaration of a disaster situation. communities. The project is one of six of someone who offered me her diary Ownership and responsibility for funded by the Commonwealth Department as a personal record of events. She too of Primary Industries and Energy throughout recovery must be clearly defined for understood the need to put a human face Australia. all local and state government depart- ments and agencies involved in the process. This is especially true where 7.00 &.W. the disaster crosses existing local and NO. 70 (~tembp)decd.vettmkblobdr+tn w~w&a-rU~.~owilL state boundaries, as well as a number mt$v DNRf of government departments. The 9.00 &.W. issue of 'who owns the problem' No. 36 hk6 strarrge, umyfmmwb, &&fe rtyjwy. pkone vet. needs to be clearly addressed. Recovery strategies need to take advantage of the commitment and intent of all individuals and agencies 9.30 &.m. involved in the early stages of Vet cur-, t& bbod r+, jinx 2~djwua.hbut koMd nn kdpefDI ly*k$wm WE response and recovery. Interest, &vet to ckeck wbfDI ayprribk. ?yu'ofy&mlt. wwkat hap& tuk. We motivation and priorities wane as ~IkruprribhadvetpuhhMckofi&3-+ wwr~nf25d~.Hey& events move away from impact. 011~)m'U do &odrerr. He ray ay wstr inuured &b&pdfDI by & DNRE. Where the position of Community 70.30 &.w. Development Officer is deemed No. 36dead. VetwilLwe DNRE

appropriate, appointment should 77.00 &.W. take place as soon as possible after ftempenrullwb bob%wm, I haki. & bo& ad ndhprot& y.jtem kands me the disaster event. In order to &udadbloo~yr~oadjoerh,opert&j&. ~o.zsdoernnt&tz bew@eAin maximise benefit and identify local &uurk, ro IwmfDIwd,opert&wuk.j&, rtadbackto &kerpasr, rhan hflufiom needs, the CDO should develop a y+adwt..vqd&~otected,pk.p.&a-+yr'"4~~.z profile within the affected commun- ruy+ryk.deeplyadr&nykeadirtdirb+f ~ring&doctor - 'wmedoum ity early in the recovery process. MMZA&+I: ~xaapated,~jo oftn &doctor, hclucka&md,jinxme&~ Information,practicalassistance and ndhirt & r-, a. double wureqpemdin. qm!~~ad orders me back every two referral are required at this point. +m~hor~wlkag~c~~t~pcct&md~ayry~~m/echdlt.~whrf& Ongoing support and debriefing is nijktmaro!~'mjlad&kid.rcueatrckoo~. ~owtheretoru&wrtkeiruunand also essential and I am grateful for Uareirt.tlt~7~w$wr~em'm~werkad~hlockurokardad~. I the advice I received from the tkduyht &;fear ad dread qbeinj rwlfech.d. d&a olt oruprop~wdddt be Department of Human Services, in uuuhmrretkarract+ beinj +. Howwroy rw.Jtemad~&tearr$ particular through David Robinson dirbel~$ rkockandhrwe$&wr (htnour ynnrm&wfbkir bacterh) trudgedolt, in Shepparton. My thanks go also to o~e@t@ &odrer,~mmtkeuo &kerd3 or 4 timca, rwdf&mil.f".L. members of the reference group for their invaluable assistance. Local recovery committees provide an excellent opportunity for people in the affected community to be represented and included in the recovery process. Membership should be extended to include the range of stakeholders involved and also to avoid criticism associated

Winter 1998 31 Spiritual issues and recovery management

The Reverend Dr. Peter Crawford, Regional Coordinator, Victorian Council of Churches.

Towards a holistic approach of human evil such as Port Arthur, that the things they have centred the There is a significant need for a holistic Dunblane, Queen or Hoddle Street. lives on have been less significant th: approach that doesn't segment person- This question is primarily a theological they had thought. So it is important hood and eliminate the spiritual elements question. That is why it hasn't been well recovery to consider what are tl that frequently surface in disasters. In handled in recovery management over answers to these ultimate issues. Son Australia we have tended to concentrate the years. Unresolved issues can hamper key elements that need to be tackled a only on physical and now emotional full recovery for individuals and com- What happens after death? aspects of recovery. Sometimes this has munities. Our thesis is that with under- When people have been killed, been to theextent that thecommunity's standing comes acceptance and peace, there any hope for those who are le or individual's ability to regain indepen- and therefore there needs to be a behind of meeting them again, or dence is hampered because we have theological presentation soon after the it absolutely the end? overlooked other dimensions of the disaster, and indeed for some lengthy One of the factors that helps peop recovery process. Recovery is often period after that. recover and recover well from disast incomplete if the spiritual dimensions Some ways to press towards under- is hope, not only the security of knoi are overlooked. standing would include the concepts ing that it won't happen to them agai In unsourced work done by Phillip that the world we live in is not para- but the ability to view their future in Morris at the Repatriation Hospital in dise-it's a fallen or damaged or frac- positive way and with significant lev6 Melbourne, it has been shown that tured world and therefore we are not of hope. Interestingly, one of the mc intervention can make a significant shocked when disasters happen. We see affected groups in my experience a difference in the first two years in them as being a normal part of living in those who have been most independe overcoming post traumatic stress dis- a damaged world. prior to the disaster, and masters of tht order, but that after that period there is Wealso understand that there is such own destiny (including male farmer little difference in response between a thing as human evil and sin and that and when that independence was threa those who have been counselled and this accounts for a great number of ened they suffered significantly. those who haven't. In other words disasters. There is also natural evil where These ultimate issues are spiritu people can re-experience the initial stress there are disasters like Tsunami, or questions addressed by most religior and suffer consequent identity distur- earthquakes, or bushfires caused by However I believe that Christianity bance if they haven't recovered in a lightning, and we see that this is not a unique at this point and can help peoF holistic way. direct action of God but rather just a deal practically with grief and shock. For example in the 1997 Dandenong part of being in a damaged world. Once Guilt Ranges fires we found that many people we understand the causes and we source Guilt can only be overcome by forgiv'e- who had experienced the Ash Wednes- those causes either in nature or in ness. Guilt is frequently experienced I day fires but weren't directly threatened mankind, rather than in God, we can 'Y people after a disaster. Survivors, ev,en at all by the 1997 fires nevertheless went understand that God is nor our enemy. those whose properties have surviv,ed through a re-experience of post trau- We are better able to recover when we often feel an unreasonable sense of gui It. matic stress disorder. They avoided any see that God is on our side. Recon- In order for someone to overcome gu ilt experience themselves of the new fires ciliation is another vital concept that we whether it is an objectively real guilt or and indeed exhibited a number of will tackle in due course. only an irrational felt guilt, they need to numbing signs. A parallel is found in Ultimate issues feel forgiveness. Forgiveness needs to be research into what enables people to The more significant the disaster the declared, and needs to be declared I survive the troubled teenage years. JY more sharply ultimate questions are someone who has the authority to Research by Eckersley (1987, 1988, raised about the meaning of life, what forgive. The person who can forgive is 1992, 1993) and Resnick (1988) has happens after death, and questions about the one who has been wronged, or their shown that the three factors that good and evil. Has evil triumphed? Is delegate. However forgiveness is not a underpin a teenager's successful tran- there no justice? Is God acting in normal reaction, and is rarely expressed sition to adulthood are stable family judgement on us all (perhaps in a in clear language. relationships, supportive school rela- capricious way)? Is there a God at all? Indeed some of the people we have tionships and a faith framework. When there has been a loss of life as counselled have felt that what has Why did it happen? well as property, people begin to face up happened has been a form of punish- This question can haunt people who to these questions. When these ultimate ment. They have linked their sense ol have been through a significant disaster, issues are no longer camouflaged by guilt to the disaster and so become both especially when the disaster is the result material distractions people may realise victim and cause.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Winter 1998

Produced by EmergencyMonagementAustraliathroughthe Australian EmergencyMonogemenrlnstitute Main Road.Mount Macedon.Victoria3441

Edited by RobFleming

PNG Tsunami Review of volunteer legislation EMA was heavily involved in coordinating Common- EMA recently released the final report on the Review wealth Government support in the wake of the of Volunteer Legislation undertaken by Dr lmtiaz Tsunami that devastated villages in the Sandaun Omar from the University of New England in 1997. Province of Papua New Guinea on 17 July. Copies of the report have been sent to the Executive AUSASSISTPLAN, the Australian Government Overseas Officers of State and Territory Emergency Manage- Disaster Assistance Plan, was activated on 18 July ment Committees for distribution to agencies that once news of the disaster reached Australia. On employ volunteers. Further information and copies behalf of the Australian Agency for lnternational of the report can be obtained from Rod McKinnon Development (AusAIO), EMA quickly arranged on (02) 6266 5328, e-mail [email protected] transport and medical assistance from the Australian Defence Force (ADF). EMA continued to work with Ausconplan Spred the ADF and AusAlD during the response and EMA recently released a revised edition of the recovery phases of the disaster. Offers of assistance Australian Contingency Plan for Space Re-entry provided by States and Territories were much Debris (AUSCONPLAN SPRED). The plan addresses appreciated. coordination of the activities of Commonwealth Further information can be obtained from Rod agencies in support of operations by States and McKinnon on (02) 6266 5328 or e-mail: rmckinnonm Territories to recover and neutralise radiological ema.gov.au hazards arising from the re-entry of radioactive space debris over Australia and its territories. Following PNG drought release of the plan, a seminar attended by Common- wealth and State and Territory representatives was EMA's seven month involvement in drought relief operations in PNG officially ended in mid-April. During held at the Australian Emergency Management this period, the Australian Government Overseas Institute to ensure that the plan was understood by all likely to be involved in its implementation. Further Disaster Assistance Plan, AUSASSISTPLAN, remained activated as EMA worked with the Australian Agency information can be obtained from Don Patterson at for lnternational Development (AusAID) and other EMA on (02) 6266 5165, e-mail dpatterson@ema. gov.au Commonwealth agencies in Australia and PNG and the PNG Government in bringing relief to PNG citizens Review all disaster management in drought affected areas accessible only by air. in the South Pacific Further information on EMA's involvement can be obtained from Phil Stenchion at EMA on (02) 6266 The Australian Agency for lnternational Development 5441, e-mail: [email protected] (AusAID) recently commissioned a Review of Disaster Management in the South Pacific.The purpose of the ASEAN Regional Forum review was to assess the impact of AusAlD funded In February, EMA's Director of Policy Planning and disaster management activities in the Region, to Coordination, Rod McKinnon, attended the second identify priorities for future Australian assistance and meeting of the ASEAN Regional Forum (ARF) meeting to recommend a structure which will ensure that the on Disaster Relief. The meeting was attended by program is appropriate for the Region's needs and is representatives from 20 ARF countries, UN agencies, well coordinated.The outcome of-the~review-isstill the Red Cross, World Health Organisation, and the awaited. Further information'& bebthained fiom European Union. The meeting reached broad Phil Stenchion at EMA on/,(02).. 6266 consensus on the need for training and technical [email protected] \,! cooperation to further develop national disaster management capabilities, the development of early warning systems and the development of a regional disaster relief capabilities disaster database. These matters will be further addressed by an 'experts group' which is to meet in Bangkok later in 1998. Further Information can be obtained from Rod McKinnon at EMA on (02) 6266 5328, e-mail: [email protected]

EMA UPDATE 1 Australian Disaster Conference 1999 Standard Emergency Warning Signal Planning is underway for a major lnternational Decade As part of a coordinated national emergency plan, for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) conference to an audio signal (based on the existing Cyclone be held at the National Convention Centre in Warning Signal) is proposed for adoption in all States Canberra from 1-3 November 1999.The conference and Territories to alert the community to an urgent will be known as the "Australian Disaster Conference safety message relating to an identified emergency 1999"and the theme is to be'Disaster Prevention for such as a flood, fire, or earthquake aftershocks. the 21" Century: If you would like more information A pilot study has been underway in NSW in concerning this conference please contact anticipation that a National launch will be possible in Conference Logistics, PO Box 505, CURTIN, ACT 2605, late 1998. Tel: 02 6281 6624, Fax: 02 6285 1336, e-mail: The signal sounds like a wailing siren. You can hear [email protected] the signal by dialling 1800 24 SEWS (1800 24 7397). IDNDR Day 1998: For further information contact Malcolm Houston on 'Disaster Prevention and the Media' (02) 6266 5309 or e-mail: [email protected] The Decade 1990-2000 has been designated by the ABC TV Educational Emergency United Nations General Assembly as the lnternational Management Personal Skills Series Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR).Within each year of the Decade, the second Wednesday in The ABC and EMA (in partnership) are producing five October is designated as World Disaster Reduction half hour adult education emergency management Day.This is marked by special activities appropriate skills programs. The programs will be based on to each participating country.The Australian IDNDR specific natural hazards targeted to adults, but also Program coordinates an annual seminar or workshop suitable for students from upper primary and as a major activity each year, and StateITerritory secondary, with the aim of developing personal Emergency Services are encouraged to undertake emergency management skills.TheTV series will seek activities particular to their area to promote the Day. to motivate and encourage personal preparedness The World Disaster Reduction theme for 1998 is in individuals and help to develop a culture of 'Disaster Prevention and the Media'and NSW State prevention. Production will be completed by Emergency Management Committee has offered to October 1998. host a one-day workshop which will focus on For further information contact Pip Marks on (02) 6266 cooperation with the media as a way to achieve 5408, e-mail: [email protected] IDNDR goals, in particular in relation to disaster prevention.The date of the workshop has yet to be 1998 Australian Science Festival decided. (National Convention Centre, Canberra) Emergency Management Australia (EMA) once again RADIUS Risk Assessment tools - provided a display booth at the annual Australian for Diagnosis of Urban areas against Science Festival in Canberra, which was attended by Seismic disaster tens of thousands of members of the public as well To realise the concept of the IDNDR and "Yokohama as many local, interstate and several international Strategy and Plan of Actionythe IDNDR Secretariat in school groups. At the 1998 Festival (2-6 May), EMA's Geneva, with overall guidance by the IDNDR Disaster Awareness and lnternational Decade for Scientific and Technical Committee and in Natural Disaster Reduction (IDNDR) Programs consultation with some leading institutions, launched provided informative, colourful, static and video the RADIUS project in 1996 with assistance of the material on Australia's natural and technological Government of Japan. It aims to promote worldwide hazards including school and community education activities for reduction of siesmic disasters in urban projects. Our lnternet site was available for viewing areas, particularly in developing countries.The IDNDR and prizes awarded for winners of an Australian Secretariat has selected nine earthquake-prone cities hazards quiz. Our range of awareness publications where case studies will be carried out. were made available and all visiting-teachers were provided with free disaster educafjon resource kits. The two Australia cities (Cairns and Newcastle) /. nominated as RADIUS Associate Cities have received For further information coyact PIPMarks on (02) 6266 5408 or e-mail: [email protected] official recognition. As Associate Cities, Cairns and / Newcastle will be able to share their experiences with other earthquake-prone cities in the world and, at the same time, they will be able to gain useful information from the interaction under RADIUS. Further details are available on the lnternet: http:l/ pangea.stanford.edu/-tucker/Radius/RADIUS.html

2IEMA UPDATE NEMEG meeting whether a series of modules within the national emergency management curriculum should be The first 1998 meeting of the National Emergency developed and delivered by AEMl as a 'core' set Management Executive Group (NEMEG), attended by of learning products the Executive Officers of the State and Territory Emergency Management Committees, was held in whether other learning products, which are Canberra on 11 March. Members considered a broad loosely aligned with the national emergency range of issues reaching agreement on the management curriculum modules, are required publishing of Multi-agency Incident Management as part of a 'core' set to be developed and Guidelines. Commonwealth funding arrangements delivered by AEMl and performance indicators under the State Support the sequence in which the 'core' set of products Package, future directions for Urban Search and should be delivered Rescue, and the National launch of the Standard pre-requisite knowledge for students to attend Emergency Warning SignaLThe NEMEG also agreed the 'core' set that EMA should further develop a formal approach whether a credential should be issued by AEMl to requesting disaster assistance from one state to for the successful completion of the 'core' set of another. A briefing by the Bureau of Air Safety learning products and what such a credential Investigation's (BAS!) Manager, Major Investigations should be. and Quality Assurance, Mr Lindsay Naylor, advised members of the likely magnitude of a response to a With respect to resources required for education and major aircraft accident within Australia and began to training development and delivery: identify issues which need to be addressed.The next what resources are required to develop the'core' meeting of the NEMEG will be held in early August. set of learning products Further information can be obtained from Shelley what is the most appropriate method or com- Webb on (02) 6266 5339, e-mail: [email protected] bination of methods for delivering the 'core' set of products (e.g. residential courses, extension Major study on the activities, distance education, on-line access). role of AEMl commences If AEMl is only to deliver a tore'set of products, what: A consultancy has been let to examine the future role partnership or other arrangements between AEMl of AEMl in emergency management education and and appropriate institutions to facilitate develop- training. Called the 'Education and Training 2000' ment and delivery of the national emergency study, the consultants have been tasked with management curriculum modules that are not examining the role of AEMl in: included in the 'core' set of products should be learning policy direction developed development of learning standards and bench- - arrangements should be made for the under- marking writing of the diploma and advanced diploma if provision of strategic advice AEMl and other institutions enter into partnership creating and exercises (e.g. for agencies, groups for delivery of the curriculum modules. within the community or strata across a com- The consultants who have been engaged to do the munity) first part of the study are Mr Joe Griffin and Mr Allan learning evaluation and brokerage Cooper (they have been briefed on the scope of the study by the Director of AEMI). It is recognised that provision of technical advice on emergency the key to this study will be consultation with all of management education and training issues AEMl's clients and stakeholders.The need for this evaluation of program performance and com- consultation has been emphasised in the project pliance brief and the consultants will contact statelterritory undertaking or monitoring research emergency management organisation executive development and/or delivery of emergency officers who will form the first point of contact. Focus yagementeducation and training. groups with representatives from all interested parties will be held in each state and territory. The study,wdl also consider the management of Submissions from all interested parties are also markets (e.g~localgovernment, industry) that AEMl welcome and may be faxed to Mr Griffin on (03) 981 7 should servichand how should those markets be 1692. a third party, through direct This study will chart the direction for AEMl in the future. All of the Institute's clients and stakeholders and training products are encouraged to take a close interest in the study following additional and to contribute to it fully. issues: \

EMA UPDATE13 The Public Safety 'training package: The draft endorsed components of the Public Safety Package (particularly the competency standards, assessment guidelines and qualifications framework) went through a nationally-conducted validation process in April.The consequential changes have been checked by the training package steering committee and the components were submitted to the Australian National Training Authority in May for endorsement. The validation process has seen the revised emergency management competencies nested within the training package.The development of non- endorsed components (including professional development materials and assessment tools) were put out to open tender in May, with the expectation of product delivery before January 99. The Emergency Risk Management guidelines The draft Emergency Risk Management guidelines have been put out for comment through the executive officers of each StateiTerritory emergency management committee. Feedback on changes to be incorporated was requested by mid-June, after which the guidelines (incorporating amendments) were put to the National Emergency Management Executive Group.

Forthcoming Workshops Planning for Ecological Disasters Workshop 7- 1 1 September 1998 The aim of the workshop is to review and improve capacities for planning, identifying and responding to ecological disasters. In doing this the workshop will consider approaches for dealing with inherent uncertainties including the role of risk assessment in managing ecological disasters and identify needed attributes and expertise. Emergency Animal Disease Preparedness and the Needs of the Non-Veterinary Agencies

5-9 October 1998 Thisaim ofthis workshop is to ascertain the awareness, training and briefing needs of industry and non- veterinary agencies involved in the conduct of emergency animal disease control operations. A set of guidelines will be developed during this workshop that will form the basis for training modules.

4 EMA UPDATE When we consider guilt we see that example in the 1997 fires the Victorian There is a sense of continuity- there the churches have a role to play because Council of Churches, together with the is a long-term commitment. After guilt, especially irrational guilt, is best Department of Human Services, organ- the Ash Wednesday fires the last group overcome by assuring people they've ised outreach visiting very quickly to still working were the churches, and done nothing for which they ought to some 1700 affected homes. they are still there working. feel guilty. There is no one, including We ought not to overlook the role . The churches are not motivated by God, who would hold them guilty. The of prayer. At the time of writing we are greed or wanting to build empires. assurance that God does forgive is a facing one of the worst bushfire seasons They are there to help the local tremendous release to people, and in living memory and prayer services community. becomes even more powerful when it is were held before the beginning of the Their resources are mobile and fast based on the fact that God has person- fire season asking God to protect lives to react. For example, in the 1997 ally paid the price to procure forgive- and property through the Dandenongs. fires one of the first agencies to be ness. This can bring a sense of cleansing It will be very interesting to see the ready to provide evacuation centres, and restoration and lead to harmonious effect after the fire season has passed. meals and so on, were the churches. relationships in a unique way. Some reasons why churches are The churches are significant because Individual guilt can damage relation- among the most strategic groups to be they have a natural infrastructure ships. It can bring about lines of division used in emergency recovery are: that will help in the follow-up in a community and even corporate guilt process. can be a significant element. There is a There are also international links, need to allow survivors to celebrate their that provide not just prayer support survival without any sense of guilt. Being Churches are local groups. but inspiration and advice and able to say, 'it is good that we have They are a natural part of the financial support. Those same inter- survived, it is good that our properties affected community national links mean that even local have survived', and for the rest of the an integral part with local people involved in the churches have - a world view that helps underpin community to support them and agree sensitivity. Because of their that this is worth celebrating. their lives in times of stress by giving local presence they are hope and meaning and joy. Out of Some practical issues usually ready to serve their that robust worldview comes the Here we consider the role of clergy and neighbours. They are rich in ability to survive, and that ability to of the churches. The churches can play human resources. Their survive can be contagious in an a significant role in helpinga community people are available in larger affected community There is a national network behind to prepare for disaster. For example, in numbers than most other the Dandenongs, the churches work the churches so that they are not alongside the other emergency services. community groups, and they standing by themselves but are By working together on committees are ready to work 24 hours a backed by resources from right they help build bonds of community day, 7 days a week.' around the country That certainly that will enable the community to cope shone out during Ash Wednesday. with a disaster. The churches are practical. They can These bonds can also help preclude do things that almost noother group later divisions especially when it is seen They are local groups. They are a can. For example, in the Ash Wed- that the churches are one group who natural part of the affected com- nesday and 1997 fires, we did things aren't in it to promote their own cause munity-an integral part with local like providing childcare and creches, but are there as the glue between the sensitivity. Because of their local transport where it was needed, meals, other different groups. The churches presence they are usually ready to overnight accommodation, long- also havea rolein providing the lubricant serve their neighbours. term accommodation, counselling, for networking, which is mutual care, They are rich in human resources. pet care, family reunions and the and also providing an understanding of Their people are available in larger distribution of free plants, so that how communities can work together numbers than most other commun- there was a sense of life and ongoing- and bridge natural divisions whether ity groups, and they are ready to ness in the recovery they are racial or sub-cultural. work 24 hours a day, 7 days a week. The churches have large buildings Also in the Dandenongs we have That was certainly our experience and appropriate facilities for recov- regular church services where all the after the Ash Wednesday fires. For ery work. As we face this fire season different emergency services are invited perhaps two months we had some- our properties are listed for a refuge and a leading public figure is there to one virtually working around the centre, an evacuation centre and a honour them and acknowledge their clock insuring that the recovery recovery centre. work. In this way morale is lifted and process moved forward. Most peopleaccept the help of clergy there is a sense of community bonding. There is a low financial cost in and of the trained volunteers from In the event of an emergency the churches, unlike other recovery the churches because they are seen churches play a very significant role. groups. as being neutral and trustworthy They are able to assist in grief, by Those who are there are volunteers The churches are experienced in conducting major events like funerals and are motivated by love and by a organising and running large-scale and annual memorial services and so on. sense of self-sacrifice and are trained public events. This was true in the There is also the role, especially in to care. This is fundamental to their aftermath of Port Arthur. Victoria, of outreach visiting. For philosophy of life. The churches are able to address not

Winter 1998 33 just physical but also emotional, social, Australia, The Australian Co~nmission ofAdolescent Health Care, Vol. 9 (suppl. spiritual and economic needs. This for the Future, Melbourne. 6), S. 27-32. includes playing the role of advocate. Eckersley R. 1992, 'Failing a genera- Resnick M.D., Chambliss S. and After Ash Wednesday there were some tion: the impact of culture on the health Blum R. W. 1993, 'Health and risk communities who had fine human and well-being of youth', paper present- behaviors of urban adolescent males resources and were able to take advan- ed to Australian Rotary Health Research involved in pregnancy', Families in tage of the aid that was being offered. Fund Fifth International Conference, Society, Vol. 74, No. 6, pp. 366-374. Other communities were poor, and had Adolescent Health Behavior: Identibing Resnick M.D. and Hutton L. 1987, little in the way of human resources. Vulnerability and Resilience, Canberra, 'Resiliency among physically disabled They found that it was the churches that pp.11-14. adolescents', PsychiatricAnnual, Vol. 17, stepped in to argue their case in ternis Eckersley R. 1993, Submission to pp.796-800. of fair aid distribution. National Health and Medical Research Reverend Dr. Peter Crawford has been the In terms of multi-culturalism the Councilinquiry into Suicide Prevention. senior pastor of St. Maws Anglican Church churches are committed to bridging Resnick M.D. 1988, 'Systems App- in Emerald. Victoria since 1981. Cockatoo, divides in the community and this can roach to Policy and Planning for Child a township within the parish was devastated aid recovery at a community level. Health Care', in Tonkin R.S. and Wright by the Ash Wednesday bushfires in 1983.

J. R. (eds), Redesigning Relationships in Peter's~ ~~ book 'Beautv from Ashes' (Acorn References Child Health Care, Vol. 1 I, British Press) tells a part of the story of that town's Eckersley R. 1987, Australian Attitudes Columbia's Children's Hospital, recovery from the disaster. As a regional to Scienceand Technology and the Future, Vancouver, pp.123-133 coordinator for recovery work under the The Australian Commission for the Resnick M.D. and Hibbard R. 1988, Victorian Council of Churches and the State Future, Melbourne. Government Department of Human 'Chronic Physical and Social Conditions Eckersley R. 1988, Casualties of Sewices, Peter was deeply involved in the of Youth; Study Group Report', Journal Change: the Predicament of Youth in 1997 Dandenong Ranges bushfires.

United Nations 1998 World Disaster Reduction Campaign Prevention beans with information (cont.) published in the 1998 campaign report professionals to your partners in the Nino' (under 18 December 1997) at and will be used as part of the substance media so that they have sources of http://www.reliefweb.int/. for discussion in the 1998 Internet information on natural disaster manage- Support materials conference. ment issues. A series of support materials and Compile information kits Involve pupils and guidelines for activities are proposed by and success stories communication students the IDNDR Secretariat to help you Compile the information collected on Encourage pupils and comn~unicarion celebrate the campaign theme. the most important hazards in your students in your country to report on These include: country and the potential solutions in natural hazards, disasters and natural 2 posters the form of printed, audio, or audio- disaster prevention measures in your l press kit visual information kits and send it to the country. Send the material to the 1 video IDNDR Secretariat in Geneva by 15 IDNDR Secretariat by 15 September stickers September 1998. The material will be 1998. The material will be published and 2 information leaflets on IDNDR published in our 1998 campaign report the winner will receive a small grant to The IDNDR Secretariat looks for- which will go to all our partners world- further his or her work in disaster ward to your feedback on the above wide and to the international press. prevention issues. mentionedactivities andencourages you and your organisation to write back with Hold a round table on natural disaster Links to other sources of proposals for further activities and prevention and the media information information on potentially related Focus on the most important issues, The IDNDR Secretariat has produced events. problems and solutions in your country an extensive list of further contacts in with regards to the finding, production For more information, please contact: the field of natural disaster management. and dissemination of information in the The list is in the form of websites and Mrs. Madeleine Moulin-Acmedo realm of disaster prevention, discuss it can be viewed under the 'links to further Head, Promotion and Public with the officials, the professionals and contacts' section of the following Awareness Unit the concerned population. Send your website: http://ww~.~uip~.net:l997/ International Decade for Natural recommendations to the Secretariat by and http://www.reliefweb.int/. Disaster Reduction (IDNDR 15 September. The results will be For more information on the Secretariat) published in the 1998 campaign report. IDNDRRADlUS initiative, pleasevisit Palais des Nations Make a list of usefd contacts the RADIUS home page: http:// 121 1 Geneva 10, Switzerland Make a list of relevant persons tocontact ww~.~eohaz.or~/radius; for Tel: (41 22) 798 68 94 with reference to natural disaster information on the UN Task Force on Fax: (41 22) 733 86 95 management in your country. Give the El Nirio, coordinated by the IDNDR E-mail: madeleine.moulin- list of natural disaster management Secretariat, please click on 'latest on El [email protected]

$ Australian Journal of Emergency Management Supporting the entire person A comprehensive approach to supporting people affected by emergencies and disasters - - by Phillip Buckle, Jan Brown, and Michael Dickinson

Introduction of most emergency managers. This differed too much between hazards to We want to briefly indicate some of the includes those concerned with providing allow us to comfortably or convincingly issues confronting us as recovery personal support to affected individuals group them. management co-ordinators, particularly and groups. This leads to an emphasis Now, however, we have a method of in the area of psychosocial responses to on activities to contain the hazard, classification that is useful and can be disasters. Our conclusions are derived suppons a philosophy that favours short- applied, that is, the consequences of a from the experience of ourselves and term activities (those necessary until the disaster. We now understand that there other professionals as managers and threat was removed) and encourages a are common outcomes that are useful service providers who have worked in a focus on the dramatic and threatening in analysing the event and which help diverse range of events. aspects of disasters to the exclusion of us in developing management and However, we acknowledge that our other less spectacular effects. service delivery strategies. All disasters conclusions need to be tested before This can perhaps be seen most clearly affect people, all cause disruption and significant weight can be put on them. with the Sydney bushfires of January stress, all generate uncertainty. Without We also believe that similarly rigorous 1994. By their nature bushfires are these outcomes an event is not adisaster. testing needs to be applied to many of spectacular events. These bushfires were Of course, there will be some differ- the other views, opinions, conclusions, close to Sydney, the country's largest ent impacts. Criminal events may not treatment regimes, diagnostic practices city and easily accessible to the media. destroy residences as bushfires do. But and strategies applied in the field of They therefore captured the attention both will cause personal stress and supporting people affected by d'lsasters of the country in a way in which, for community disruption. and emergencies. Much planning and example, the much more extensive and practice, it seems to us, is based upon more damaging Victorian floods of Disaster effects unsupported subjective experience and October 1993 did not. It can be argued We have made considerable progress in anecdote. While subjective assessment that decision-makers and the public recent years in anticipating and iden- is often a valid tool it needs to be were influenced to assess the signifi- tifying outcomes for individuals, groups sustained by a body of observation and cance of the events by the media and communities of the impact of be publicly defensible. portrayal of the drama and not by the emergencies and disasters. This in Our interest lies in opening up the type, level or severity of the impacts. especially so in the area of psychosocial debate, in challenging some strongly Largely as a result of the efforts of consequences. held views, in seeking more direct human service agencies, this standard is But despite this progress, and while evidence that trauma is widespread after being challenged. Increasingly we see we now acknowledge impacts on people disasters and in asking directly whether disasters and emergencies in terms of as the proper focus of emergency we spend too little time dealing with the their effects on people and communities management, we do not fully under- majority of people whose responses to rather than the atmospheric or geo- stand all those impacts. This is particu- disaster are less than traumatic. physical agent causing the damage. larly the case in their secondary and We are also interested in developing This makes sound management tertiary effects and how different the theory of personal support and sense. After all emergencies are about impacts interact. So, for example, we therapeutic intervention so that it can people, their social lives and their understand how the loss of income be couched in operational and manage- communities. earning assets affects lifestyle, but we do ment terms and so provide practical This new approach also assists us not understand full range of psycho- assistance in emergency management. with the classification of disasters and, social impacts of income loss, or how As a colleague suggested, the analogy by extension, with criteria for deciding trauma resulting from a life threatening for much personal support after emer- on appropriate assistance measures. situation, income loss and the stress gencies and disasters is that of a bus Fitting events such as shootings, bush- generated by income loss may interact. crash involving many people. Too often fires and toxic chemical spills into the We do not completely understand we provide intensive surgical support to one category of 'disasters' was almost the incidence and distribution of psy- the few people with multiple major impossible given the disparate nature of cho-social impacts. What causes trauma, injuries hut ignore the other survivors. these events, and required us to either what causes stress and what is simply engage in mental contortions or to annoying, disruptive and inconvenient? Background: ignore the problem. We usually did the Rob Gordon, in a paper on Port the nature of disasters latter. The causes, modes of transrnis- Arthur, speaks of some major irritants The classification of disasters by the sion, frequency, spatial distribution, to the survivors that included being nature of the hazard agent (fire, flood, warning time and all the other attributes asked to pay for their bandages. He etc.) continues to dominate the thinking typically assigned to hazard agents states the symbolic effect of this was

Winter 1998 35 highly significant for the emotional state communities affected by bushfires, While formal research investigations of the victims-an apparently trivial floods, storms, toxic chemical contam- have not been undertaken (and this is issue had a very considerable and unin- ination, transport accidents, criminal an issue in itself) there is no indication tended outcome. shootings, hostage situations, failed from our program staff, our community Nor do we understand what people financial institutions and sudden-impact development officers, the staff of local (or classes of people) are vulnerable to community economic dislocation. government or the staff of non-govern- particular impacts. Of course we have Our involvement has been over a ment organisaiions that traumaafter any general views about how the young, the wide scale of events, ranging from of these events is frequent and wide- aged and the socially marginalised may incidents that have involved only a few spread. Its incidence in any given react, but these arevague, often untested number of people to the floods of 1993 affected appears to be low. generalisations. These impressions may that rank as perhaps the fourth-largest be useful in developing strategies-or natural disaster in this country (in terms Personal support strategies better still in developing research of principal residences affected). Some Given an initial assessment of an event hypotheses-but of less use in develop- of these events have been stressful and based on our experience of previous ing specific services. potentially traumatising for the people events and the professional skills of our Also we focus on those who have involved. Some have been violently managers and service providers, we are suffered loss, trauma and bereavement destructive of homes and other property generally confident that the majority of and who apparently cannot cope with people affected will be able to manage day-to-day life and work towards their their own personal response to the own recovery. We do not focus on those event. people who display resilience (strength, 'We do not focus on those Our first action after an event is to fortitude, courage, stoicism, hope, faith people who display resili- assess likely impacts: numbers of people and so on). As a consequence we do not ence (strength, fortitude, affected, the nature of the impacts, types learn from these people-we put people of people have been affected, what local back together again but we do not try courage, stoicism, hope, or other support networks and services to develop preventative programs. We faith and so on). As a are available. assume that people will fail, not that they consequence we do not At the same time we will make will succeed. We are interested in learn from these people available in the affected area information collapse, not in growth. We favour the -we put people back on the range of possible psycho-social study of vulnerability over the study of together again but we do effects of the event and coping strat- resilience. egies. We will also provide skilled In other areas of recovery manage- not try to develop consultants to advise our managers and ment, particularly infrastructure repair, preventative programs. service providers on the event and its we are increasingly turning our attention We assume that people likely repercussions for the community to the developmental opportunities will fail, not that As far as possible we will refer people provided by a disaster, looking for ways they will succeed. to established networks and, unless there to improve the situation of the affected We are interested in is evidence of greater need, retire to a conimunity. And we increasingly ack- consultancy role provided only on nowledge that recovery is concerned collapse, not in growth. demand. with moving forward and is not about We favour the study of For large-scale events, we will parallel returning to the past. vulnerability over the the provision of information with an But when it comes to dealing with study of resilience.' outreach program, typically conducted what goes on inside people's heads we by churches and other non-government are concerned to patch up the damage, organisations supported by local govern- to restore the loss, to minimise harm ment and the Department of Human rather than to foster growth, indepen- Services. This activity arranges for a dence, confidence and resilience. Some have affected only a few people skilled volunteer or para-professional to We have indicated here some signifi- and localised communities, while others visit each affected household. The cant problems. The positive side of this have had an impact across a wide area. purpose of this visit is to confirm the is that 10 years ago--even 5 years ago- In all of them, we have encountered damage to the site, provide information we were not even aware of these issues, people who have suffered greatly and to household members and to make an let alone concerned to tackle them. whose capacity to manage their own informed initial assessment of how well affairs and to manage their own recovery people are coping. Victorian involvement in is greatly impaired. We have encountered Where more intensive support is disaster management some people who have required inten- required, group debriefing processes, in The recognition that disasters are sive assistance to overcome the impact. conjunction with local support net- defined by their consequences rather However, these people are a very small works, may be set up in the first weeks than their causes has lead Victorian proportion of the affected population. after the event. The purpose of these recovery arrangements to embrace a Equally, we have met relatively few sessions is to put the event into context range of events beyond the traditional people who have been so traumatised and to provide the affected population body of natural disasters (bushfires, that they have been psychologically with a greater range of self-applying floods and windstorms). disabled or deeply affected that they support skills and to further link people Over the past decade we have pro- have not been able to contribute to their into formal support networks. vided recovery services to people and own recovery. A next step may be to provide

36 Australian Journal of Emergency Management counselling services to people. Our own services, the logistical and day-to-day to restore a physical function but to staff,.social workers, counsellors from support, essential to maintaining a improve the body's capacity to with- the National Association for Loss and normal lifestyle and to achieving recov- stand injury.The aim is recovery but also Grief and other agencies may all provide ery, is equally important. improvement. individual or group services for the The para-professionals or adminis- Psychosocial workers can learn from affected population. trators providing these services are often this and should aim not to just minimise Where affected people show a clear the people to whom the affected people the damage and restore equilibrium but incapacity to maintain a reasonably turn first for support, sympathy, advice to encourage growth and resilience. normal life and to manage their own and resources. They are the people who recovery then referral to a clinical provide the context and resources in A compilation of case studies from psychologist or psychiatrist may occur. which recovery proceeds. Victoria's recent experiences The support these professionals provide Now, this program of providing Port Arthur shootings may continue for an extended period. personal support may be compared to In the days and weeks following this The important elements of this the process of surgery. We can identify tragedy, the Department of Human approach are: the critical role of the surgeon in the Services advertised a central contact we do assume that most people, with medical process, but their position makes number for any survivors requiring access to information and advice no sense unless we place it in the context assistance. From this central point, calls about possible coping strategies, will were diverted to each regional office. be able to manage their own affairs Calls were taken by each Regional no assumptions are made about the Debriefing Coordinator, who then extent or intensity of the impact on For many the only help arranged visits by clinicians, debriefers any individual needed was information and trained counsellors from agencies, information on possible affects and ... most contacts required for example the Victorian Council of appropriate coping strategies are Churches. For many the only help made available only one visit, but they were supplied information needed was information. Callers were initial assessment of impacts is given verbal advice or sent packaged accompanied by constant monitor- of where to go should they information. Most contacts required ing of personal and community need further assistance ... only one visit, but they were supplied responses We found that the type of information of where to go should they trauma is not assumed to be an assistance needed by need further assistance. inevitable outcome of the event We found that the type of assistance support is provided in a graduated many of the survivors had little to do with clinical needed by many of the survivors had and co-ordinated manner little to do with clinical services. They debriefing and counselling services services. They asked for asked for many things, such as assistance are always available if necessary but many things, such as with accounts, questions about appeal are provided only after assessment. assistance with accounts, funds, conversions of bathroom fittings, questions about appeal transport to appointments, or someone Organisation of personal support funds, conversions of to be with them when interviewed by An important element in service pro- the Homicide Squad. vision has been identified and deserves bathroom fittings, description as a significant approach. transport to Dandenong Ranges bushfire Throughout this process support appointments etc.' A similar strategy was used in our from a para-professional or caring response. The recovery of the fire- administrator is always available. For affected community was enhanced by affected people these staff are conduits the early supply of personal support for information, providers of logistical of the operating theatre with a nurse, responses. Information was sent out support and access points for a wide assistant surgeon and anaesthetist. through informal and formal channels, range of services. Further, the surgery cannot be including an outreach walkabout, but also through other systems across the This service continues throughout understood-nor would it be successful the recovery process and underpins and without the involvement of the general Ranges. For example council tree supplements all other services, especially practitioner who first identified a loppers were supplied with information clinical support. problem, the nurse who provides day- in case community members asked them It has been observed that clinicians to-day care, the physiotherapist who for information, (apart from charging for their services ensures rehabilitation and the love and Mitcham siege which may restrict availability for comfort of relatives and friends. This was another example where the affected people) see their clients gener- In our experience the clinician and early supply of personal support was ally for short periods at defined times, the treatment of trauma stands in the successful. Eight employees were held and they are not readily available outside same relation to other recovery workers by a gunman for over 5 hours. Personal these pre-determined appointments. as the surgeon does to the other medical support was offered to families of the This applies even where an immediate staff. victims as they waited at the police and unexpected need may occur. This analogy may be taken a little barricades. Police information was given Now, while the more profound or further. Medical and paramedical staff, as often as possible. Some relatives traumatic aspects of the impact may particularly physiotherapists, are con- found the loan of a mobile phone the need to be addressed by clinician cerned not just to repair the damage or most helpful personal support assis-

Winter 1998 37 tance. (This event happened in the people lived within the affected area. threat to life and a horror as central middle of the day and one Melbourne As well as municipal and state elements-may be more likely to gener- radio station broadcast continuously personal support co-ordinators, the ate trauma. from the site.) Department of Human Services funded 4. A range of psycho-social respon- After each witness had given their a Community Development Officer at ses require an equal array of services to police interview, personal support staff the Shire of Yarra Ranges for 12 months meet those needs and those services were in attendance at the police station. after the fires. Other agencies, such as need to be structured and ordered in the Although there have been affected the Victorian Council of Churches, have way in which they are provided. people from these events who have been instrumental in providing support 5. Developing successful coping sought clinical services, there are many through outreach services and visitation strategies will require a better under- who have required other support. programs. Local community commit- standing of resilience and will necessitate When some survivors are having a tees have been set up as self-help groups. putting proportionately less emphasis 'down day', they will phone asking More so than in most previous on negative responses. perhaps for information about accounts events, local people have taken respon- 6.The support of affected people and etc., but where time permits and a visit sibility for their own recovery and have communities requires an approach that can be arranged, it is clear that while the rallied to provide an extensive range of integrates clinical services with all other contact was initially about information, support services to each other. services and which places the individual, they are actually seeking something else. These have included temporary rather than the professional practice, at This 'something else' is not about accommodarion, food supply services, the centre of the management strategy. therapy or counselling, it has its own clean-up and debris removal, informa- This may be termed 'addressing all life quality. Perhaps it is the survivor tion services, tree removal, commemora- issues that are relevant to the affected knowing that there is someone who can tive services, fund-raising services, and persona and not just the manifestations respond in a multitude of ways and that ceremonial and symbolic services. of extreme psychological reactions'. while others are expecting them to 'get The incidence of trauma following The area we are exploring at the on with life', he or she knows that there this event appears to be relatively low. moment concerns setting conceptual is still someone looking out for their In fact, referral and access to local health boundaries to events. It seems from whole-of-life recovery. services declined very significantly after some recent events, such as the Port In Victoria, those who are involved the first few months. This incidence of Arthur shootings and the outbreak of in personal support services following disabling stress and trauma is, on the face anthrax at Tatura, that negative personal emergencies have 24-hour access to the of it, lower than in previous bushfires. and community reactions are more Clinical Director Rob Gordon. Rob is Primafacie we attribute this to the likely where thecause of the event is not contracted to the Department of Hu- comprehensive and well-organised range explainable (even as an 'act of God') and man Services to provide consultancy and of personal support services offered by where there is a moral dimension to the advice to debriefers involved in this State and municipal government and by event. work. the affected community itself. People need to understand the cause The Victorian response to the trag- People were able to easily obtain of an event and to understand and accept edy of Port Arthur has been to make information about possible personal why it happened. For events such as available to affected people a continuous responses and about useful strategies for floods and bushfires this is easily done. range of support services, ranging from dealing with these, and for working Floods by and large occur on flood practical transport services to logistical towards recovery. plains and after heavy rain. Bushfires support to clinical treatment. This is not to say that some people happen in areas prone to fire and a source This is a typical array of services after were not significantly affected or of ignition is usually evident. emergencies, but in this case we have traumatised, and there is an indication However, other events particularly found a greater-than-usual reliance on from the slow progress of rebuilding criminal events directed by malice or the support provided by non-clinical that the bushfires had a profound effect some other mental state, are less easily providers. In some cases this is because on some people. explained and rationalised. It seems that injuries and wounds have required But it suggests to us that the role of in these cases people have difficulty greater physical assistance. Overall it personal support and local community accepting their losses and often have seems that people are generally able- programs may be instrumental in allevi- difficulty working with their commun- or at least willing-to try to manage ating some traumatic responses. ity to overcome the impact. Where they their own recovery, but require infor- are isolated they in turn lack many of mation and day-to-day support in Conclusions the usual support networks. practical matters to achieve this. 1. The Victorian experience is that The novelty of our approach is that This support includes transport trauma is not an inevitable outcome of we acknowledge the partnership of services, information, advisor). services, disasters and that where it does occur it services and professional service prov- service co-ordination, liaison and is unlikely to be widespread. iders. We do not accord greater standing advocacy, referral and general discussion 2. Assumptions of psychopathology or status to any particular group of sessions with recovery workers (often may be inappropriate in the context of workers (community development an affirmation process for the affected disasters that typically impact on other- officers, psychiatrists, therapists and so person). wise mentally healthy people. on), and we understand that only This situation also applied after the 3. We acknowledge that some groups integrated and collaborative service Dandenong Ranges bushfires. Three of people may be more susceptible to provision will provide an effective range people were killed, 44 houses were trauma and severe stress and that some of services to support people in achiev- destroyed and many thousands of events-particularly those that have ing their own recovery.

# Australian Journal of Emergency Management Port Arthur - lessons for early disaster management

by Ian Sale and Peter Hessman. Hobart, Tasmania

Introduction develop PTSD will improve over a The Port Arthur Incident There has been a considerable body of period of several months, chronic On Sunday 28th April 1996 a lone research over recent years demonstrat- symptoms are common, although many gunman visited the Tasman Peninsula ing that in addition to any loss of life will learn to live with them. area and in a few hours killed 35 persons and injury, destruction of infrastructure For some, PTSD can be a chronic and wounded several others. The gun- and economic disruption, disasters also disabling disorder. McFarlane (1986) has man then retreated to the nearby cause significant rates of psychological reported on the longitudinal course of Seascape guesthouse and it was some morbidity in both survivors and emer- PTSD in a groupof South Australian fire considerable time later, after a 20-hour gency personnel (Raphael et al, 1987). fighters exposed to the Ash Wednesday seige, that an arrest was made. A study into the consequences of the bushfires. He found that the level of The day in question was the last day Newcastle earthquake (Carr etal, 1995) morbidity at 4 months of the disaster of school holidays and there was a large identified two broad factors responsible remained substantially unchanged at 29 crowd of around 600 at the Port Arthur for psychological injury, namely: months, at which time more than one- Historic Site, as well as 30 individuals threat, arising from exposure to fifth of the firefighters were continuing working in various capacities such injury or possibility of injury to experience symptoms. guides and restaurant workers. disruption, a measure of issues such A wide variety of treatment meas- Most of the shootings occurred as property damage and displace- ures and other interventions have been during a brief period in and around a ment. attempted with post-traumatic stress restaurant, and along the exit road. While both factors were significant disorder. There seems to be no con- Those in and near the restaurant were predictors of morbidity, higher expos- exposed to a very high degree of threat, ure or threat was associated with a and many of those who have gone on to greater use of support services, higher suffer severe and persistent psychol- perceived stressfulness of the situation, ogical symptoms were amongst this and more severe psychological morbid- Post-traumatic stress group. The majority of visitors to the ity. Of those who were exposed to high disorder can be considered site were initially unaware of what had levels of threat, 18.3% were regarded as as a severe and sometimes occurred, and some initially moved 'at risk' for the development of post- towards the restaurant, believing that traumatic stress disorder. persistent form of anxiety there was some form of historical re- Post-traumatic stress disorder disorder, accompanied by enactment. (MSD) (Tiller et al, 1996) is one of the intrusive and distressing Initial first aid measures were admin- more common of psychological reac- memories, and generally istered by some of the site workers and tions to a disaster. First described in also associated with visitors. After about 30 minutes local combat veterans, it is now recognised avoidance behaviours. volunteer services (ambulance, doctors that similar difficulties arise in individ- and SES) started to arrive. Later, uals who have been victims of disasters helicopters despatched from Hobart or accidents, or subject to a criminal carried police and paramedics. victimisation. It seems likely that the The major focus of police operations condition has always been with us, but sensus as to the best form of treatment, however was some distance to the north prior to recent times has received other and considerable debate as to what at Seascape, where two police officers names, consistent with beliefs concern- preventative value, if any, measures such were pinned down in a ditch by gunfire. ing causation. For example, in the 19th as critical incident stress debriefing, The siege caused the main road to be century a pattern of symptoms were might have (Raphael and Meldrum, blocked, traffic toand from Port Arthur identified following railway accidents. 1995; Deahl et al, 1994; Kenardy eta[, having to take a circuitous back route, This was attributed to 'spinal shock'. 1996). In view of this, there is a strong significantly increasing the travel time More recently, during the second World case for improving preventative possib- from Hobart (generally 90 minutes). War, combatants were said to have ilities. In a disaster, this would require The forward command post developed 'shell shock'. examination of the means by which was established at Taranna to the north, Post-traumatic stress disorder can be individuals are exposed to threat, or rather than the historic site. Telephone considered as a severe and sometimes suffer subsequent dislocation. services were limited and overwhelmed, persistent form of anxiety disorder, The aim of this paper is to explore and the terrain disrupted radio commun- accomoanied bv intrusive and distres- some of these possibilities for preven- ications. Thus, for a variety of geograph- 1 sing Aemorids, and generally also tion, by examining some of the events ical and logistic reasons, the police ' associated with avoidance behaviours. occurring during the aftermath to the presence at the historic site remained While the majority of individuals who Port Arthur shootings. relatively modest, and communications

Winter 1998 31 expose themselves unnecessarily to Discussion extremely distressing scenes. It can be seen that events and conditions The first counsellors arrived during conspired to cause the numbers of the evening, transported to Port Arthur persons exposed to frightening circum- in a bus accompanied by armed police, stances to be greatly expanded beyond at a time when information about the those who had the misfortune to be in incident was very incomplete, and even or near the restaurant andadjacent areas, police had concerns whether the offen- and thus increase the numbers at risk of der was adequately contained at Sea- psychological morbidity. scape. It is doubtful whether the coun- The events during those first few sellors themselves felt particularly secure hours after the shootings illustrate how or whether they had any notion of the any distinction between 'response' and circumstances they would encounter. 'recovery' is a blurred one. Angry scenes occurred later in the This account of these events is not evening when police insisted that intended to be critical of the police visitors and site workers should attend response. The situation faced that night counselling at a centre established at the was unprecedented, and the response Police Academy (on the outskirts of was rendered difficult due to the remote- Fgure 1: Tasrnan Peninsula Hobart). Site workers in particular were ness of the area, the terrain and the in and out of the site were difficult. reluctant, preferring to stay with their communication problems. With the These had important consequences for colleagues, or return home to their benefit of hindsight it will almost always later developments at the site. be possible to argue that some things As evening fell, the majority of might have been different. However visitors and workers were still at the site, there are lessons to be learnt that may have their numbers now swelled by various It is also clear that it was a relevance to future disaster responses. emergency personnel and volunteers, lack of information that It now seems obvious that con- and other site workers who had arrived provided a fertile substrate ditions at the site would have benefited to assist. The majority congregated in from a more conspicuous police pres- various site buildings or in the motel. for the development of ence, headed by senior personnel. This Their knowledge of what had occurred rumour. That rumour and may have prevented or reduced the later remained patchy. panic might spread through rumour andalarm. It may also have been Perhaps inevitably rumours started such a large group of possible to more effectively secure the to spring up. There were concerns that frightened and bewildered crime scenes in this location. there may have been more than one individuals was probably It is also clear that it was a lack of gunman, perhaps even a terrorist group, information that provided a fertile or that the gunman at Seascape might predictable had it been substrate for the development of rum- escape through the police cordon. considered. our. That rumour and panic might Inevitably in this collectively anxious, spread through such a large group of vigilant and bewildered atmosphere frightened and bewildered individuals someone heard, or thought they heard, was probably predictable had it been gunshots. families. A compromise was reached considered. However, emergency ser- It is easy to imagine what happened when counsellors conducted a CISD vices were focussed on the evacuation next. A wave of panic swept through the session at a hostel at Port Arthur. of the wounded and the siege. site. Darkness was falling, adding to the Even then, some declined to attend. It has also become apparent that sense of vulnerability. The majority Police recorded the names and there was considerable fear and bewilder- locked themselves into buildings, drew addresses of those who were potential ment in the surrounding community. curtains and lay on the floor, and went witnesses. However, many were not Their information was largely confined through a lengthy period of extreme recorded. Unfortunately, no case regis- to that available through the mass media. fear. Many were to say later that this tration was set up until three days later. Information released,to the media was period was even more terrifying than the The exact number of persons who were in part dictated by operational con- time of the shootings. It was well into present at the site, or who arrived later, siderations. that is, the belief that the the evening before there was a signifi- remains unknown. offender would also have access to cant and conspicuous police presence. Overnight, the police were held at television and radio.There may not have Other than adding to the feelings of bay at Seascape. Many of the Peninsula been an appreciation of the continuing insecurity, the limited police presence residents remained terrified that the apprehension amongst those who lived during the afternoon and early evening offender would evade police and con- in the area. Inevitably,,. this also allowed contributed to difficulties in adequately tinue his rampage. One elderly couple rumour to flourish. securing the several crime scenes, reported that they had sat up all night, Finally, the role of counsellors must particularly the restaurant. Fortunately in darkness, listening for sounds of be considered. Undoubtedly police and this had no impact upon the subsequent intruders and nursing a loaded rifle. other personnel needed assistance in prosecution. However many individuals, They were probably not alone in main- coping with the large numbers of emergency personnel and civilians were taining such vigilance until the news distressed visitors. General support, able to enter these areas without having broke in the morning that the offender reassurance, information and practical legitimate cause to be there, and thus had been taken into custody. help were all called for, and in general

Australian Journal of Emergency Management were given. However, there seems to addressed, and that they have some idea disaster: Implications for disaster have been an expectation that the of what has happened and what will planners and emergency services', counsellors would 'counsel' and, in happen. Medical Journal of Australia, Vol. 145, particular, that they would conduct Responding to those in distress is an 11-12, Dec 1, pp. 561-563. group debriefing. intuitive human response. Rigid adher- Raphael B. and Middleton W 1987, There appears to be an assumption ence to an institutionalised form of 'Mental health responses in a decade of that counselling will be required for comforting in the form of psychological disasters: Australia, 1974-1983', Hospit- those exposed to a disaster, but whether debriefing may inhibit more natural and al and Communiry Prychiany, Vol. 38, this assumption is based on research, or common-sense expressions of care. No. 12, Dec, pp. 1331-1337. some intuitive belief that it must be Raphael B. and Meldrum L. 1995, helpful to get matters aired, is unclear. References 'Does debriefing after psychological And, even if it is assumed that debriefing Bennett B. 1997, ThePoflArthurPapers, trauma work?', British MedicalJournal, is helpful, is it reasonable for it to be Emergency Management Australia. Vol. 310,6993, Jun 10, pp. 1479-1480. compulsory (as for emergency person- Carr VJ., Lewin T.J., Webster R.A., Tiller I., Kyrios M. and Bennett I! nel) or assertively encouraged (as for the Hazell P.L., Kenardy J.A. and Carter 1996, 'Post traumatic stress disorder', civilians)? G.L. 1995, 'Psychosocial sequelae of the Australian Family Physician, Vol. 25, No. A specific difficulty when a disaster 1989 Newcastle earthquake', I Psycho1 10, Oct, pp. 1569-1573. arises as a result of criminal activity is Med, Vol. 25, No. 3, May, pp. 539-55. that processes such as CISD may Deahl M.P., Gillham A.B., Thomas Ian Sale is a Tasmanian doctor and complicate the tasks of the investigators J., Searle M.M. and Srinivasan M. 1994, psychiatrist. He has worked in private in gathering evidence. It is not unreason- 'Psychological sequelae following the practice in Hobart since 1988, mainly in able to fear that an individual's recall of Gulf War: Factors associated with the forensic field, and is a senior clinical an incident may be contaminated by subsequent morbidity and the effective- lecturer with the University of Tasmania. hearing others give their versions. This ness of psychological debriefing', British He has worked from time to time with problem arose following the Port Arthur Journal of Psychiatry, Vol. 165, No. 2, Tasmania Police, particularly with their incident and was of concern to police July, pp. 60-65. Negotiators' Unit. (Bennett, 1997). Kenardy J.A., Webster R.A., Lewin Peter Hessman is a Detective Constable, During these early hours after a T.J., Carr VJ., Hazell PL. and Carter joining Tasmania Police in 1974. He has disaster it is probably more important G.L. 1996, 'Stress debriefing and pat- been sewing with the CIB for 8 years and that the survivors feel safe (which in this terns of recovery following a natural is a Specialist Detective. He was one of instance was doubtful), that they are disaster', Journal of Trauma and Stress, the first police ofticers to reach the Port aware that their friends and family know Vol. 9, No. I, Jan, pp. 3749. Arthur Historic Site on the day of the them to be safe (also doubtful), that McFarlane A.C. 1986, 'Long-term massacre, and for the first few hours was their physical needs and comfort are psychiatric morbidity after a natural in charge of that crime scene.

New UN DiierManagement Glossary The United Nations Centre for Human Settlements (Habitat) in Kenya, along with the Disaster and Emergency Reference Centre in The Netherlands, has developed a first-draft Disaster Management Glossaty. Disaster reduction is gaining recognition as an important aspect of development planning. Information material and training programs in prevention and disaster management have increased in scope and number. The language of disaster management from various disciplines is for many planners still unfamilar, and the glossary hopes to fill that gap and clarify terms used. The list is multi-disciplinary, and most entries are coded according to the specific sector of disaster management from which the term comes. These include general disaster management (DM), technological disasters (TD), human settlement (HS), natural disasters (ND), emergency response (ER) and wildfire (WR. The publication can be obtained for llS$10 by contacting: Disaster and Emergency Reference Centre (DERC) Postbox 338 2600 AH, Delft, The Netherlands Tel: (+31842) 11 6973 Fax: (+3115) 278 4408 E-mail: [email protected]

Winter 1998 Two-State Emergency Services and Industry Training: a big success

by Brian O'Connor, Chairman of the Canberra and Regions Oil Industry Emergency

lbury was the scene on March even be made to leak at certain points, Vehicle salvage was also an area in 5-6 for a series of unique joint adding to the realism of the training. which some points were highlighted. .emergency service and industry Participants attended from a number Petroleum product tankers are specialist training sessions for emergency res- of emergency services, government vehicles and unsafe vehicle salvage ponders from both Victoria and NSW agencies, local governments, oil industry methods can create very real hazards. Specialists from the oil industryconduc- distributors, tanker drivers and depot The fact that 600 people attended red sessions showing how to safely staffs. Training included how road was a tremendous response, and was handle tanker rollovers. tankers are constructed, the various indicative of the interest in learning When a petroleum product incident valving configurations, venting, hatches more from industryexperts on how best occurs, it is essential that correct and practical methods to stop leaks. to respond to tanker incidents. Many operating procedures are followed. On Product recovery from tanker inci- compliments were passed about the high rural roads, first responders are often the dents is another area where specialised standard of the training. Not only have local bushfire brigade or police. They knowledge is essential. The sessions the sessions been very successful in may have no real knowledge of the demonstrated how to cut into tankers getting people from across borders to working of a road tanker or how to to enable safe and prompt product train together but also the 'side-by-side' handle the specialised equipment on recovery, the separation distances to be training of industry and emergency these vehicles. observed from ignition sources and what services puts in place a platform for The training sessions were conduc- equipment and protective clothing to future co-operation. ted using a specially modified 'rollover' use in the product recovery operation For more information about future tanker that can be laid on its side to At the end of each session a foam cover cross-State rollover training, contact simulate an actual incident. This enables was put down, an essential part of the Brian O'Connor, telephone 02 6226 emergency responders to be trained in initial emergency response in supp- 1752 fax: 02 6226 1643 or e-mail: 'real-life' conditions. The tanker unit can ressing product vapours. [email protected].

Australian Journal of Emergency Management in The Netherlands

by M. J. Bezuyen, MPA, M.J. van Duin, PhD, Crisis Onderzoek Team, Rijks Universiteit LeideniErasmus Universiteit Rotterdam. and F!H.J.A. Leenders, ing. Fire Chief, Nijmegen

Introduction ' Reprinted with permission from Flood This conceptualisation of disaster ref- In December 1993, continuous and Warning: issues and Practice in Total System lects the prevailing principles of disaster heavy rainfalls in France and Belgium Design, John Handmer (ed.), Flood Hazard management in the Netherlands. A very caused a flood in the province of Research Centre, Middlesex UnivOrsity, general notion of the social and eco- 1997 Limburg, situated in the southern part nomic disruption of the community is of The Netherlands. Thirteen months combined with an explicit demand for later, in January and February 1995, tion in Nijmegen region during 1995 will governmental activity and for coordina- flooding struck the province again. This be examined by the fire chief in charge tion between governmental agencies. flood covered more territory, and rescue of the operations. Finally, flood manage- The Dutch emergency management operations had to be undertaken in six ment during the ~eriodof high water structure is characterised by different provinces. There was also a difference will be reconstructed on the basis of two levels of government being involved i.e. between the threat to the province of themes: warninr: and evacuation. central government, twelve provinces Limburg and the threat to the other provinces in the Nether- --- ities (see Figure I). lands. While Limburg actually Minister Policy dimtlonr Local and regional fire brig- flooded, the risk of dikes - ades are the most important Centre mformation obligation operational services involved in breaking in other provinces led ...... to nearly 250,000 people being emergency planning. As the evacuated from their homes. Disaster Act dictates, the local @~~e~~o~Provincial Coordination Not only the basins of the L I . . , . . . . , . . fire chief has the primary res- large rivers in Western Europe I Centre ponsibility for on-site coordin- were flooded. Regions in Sou- ation of local disaster respon- thern Europe were also affec- ses. Generally, local emergency Mayor ted, such as Valencia, Athens Local Coordination ...... : management coordination cen- and, very recently, Sicily. I Centre tres and operational centres are established. In addition to these The floods are ..L~artlva centres, so called 'action-cen- result of human behaviour. Retationsk~nSrate,province~s1andmunicipatitiesincaseofadisasten Because of an increasing popu- (where municipal boundaries are transcended1 tres' become active. Here teams -- ~ lation, pressure in already composed of members of spec- densely populated areas, resi- ific divisions perform tasks in dential zones and industrial Mayor Management team fields such as public relations, sites is becoming greater in Operational leader (fire chief) civil services, public works, and areas that are already facing a and other policy advisors environmental services. In flood risk. Floodplains are now recent years, some executive being used for housing and Operational team agencies crucial to disaster agriculture. Furthermore, diff- Operational leader (fire chiefl management, such as the fire erent measures have been un- Heads of operational services brigade and the police, have dertaken to canalise the rivers. switched nationwide from a The surplus of water cannot be local to a regional mode of stored temporarily in natural L organisation-with the precise floodplains and instead runs me organisation of emergency management at iocai level boundaries of the regions dif- fering markedly across organ- directly to the sea, leading Figure 1: Organisationat Structure of Emergency Mgt in me Netherlands situations where the water isations. In doing so, an extra rises more quickly in downstream areas Disaster management than in the past. in the Netherlands Notes This article deals with several aspects In 1985, the Dutch parliament passed a 1. Part of this paper is based on comparative new Disaster Act, which defines a research (on assignment of the European of the floods that occurred in 1993 and Commission) that studies the 1993 and 1995 1995. A brief outline is given of the disaster as an event endangering life and flood from the perspectives of France, Germany, formal system of disaster management health of a large number of people, or Belgjum and heNetherlands. mecrisis Research causing severe harm to material inter- Center has also been asked by the Ministry of the in the Netherlands. An overview is Interior to study the consequences of the provided of the events that took place ests, and which requires coordinated evacuation of the 1995 flood. The goal of this during both floods. The specific situa- efforts from various fields of expertise. study is to draw lessons for the future.

Winter 1998 level in the formal emergency nianage- surprised by the speed and magnitude as the Rhine and the Waal were also ment organisation was created. of the flood. During Tuesday other rising. This meant that other provinces In the preparedness phase of emer- villages along the Meuse were flooded. would be in trouble as well. The situa- gency management, local authorities are The situation deteriorated further on tion in the province of Gelderland often the key actors, which shows the Wednesday 22 December. seemed especially alarming. This arca, essentially decentralised approach The water left a trail of destruction. called the 'river-area', is situated between envisaged in the Act. However, when the Infrastructure utilities started to fail, the rivers Rhine, Meuse, Waal, Lek and situation becomes more serious or farmers saw their cattle drown and some Ncder-Rhine. The bad state of some of transcends the boundaries of one businesses feared bankruptcy. Ten the dikes in this region led to the danger municipality, provincial or even national thousand people had been evacuated and of them breaking through. If the dikes authorities (especially the Ministry of thousands of hectares had been flooded. burst, some of the polder-land wouldbe Home Affairs) may decide to coordinate The hard-hit area was officially declared flooded with water within a few hours. or otherwise intervene. More specific- a national disaster on Christmas day. In contrast with the province of Lim- ally, under the circumstances that OnTuesday 28 December, the water- burg, this could lead to a life-threatening mayors at the regional level do not level of the Meuse finally started to situation for the inhabitants of this area. succeed in their joint efforts or their decline. The province began with an On Saturday 28 January, the polder- decision-making is contrary to supra- audit of the damage. Registration forms boards, responsible for the maintenance municipal interests, the provincial could be collected from the province. of the dikes, declared that the situation governor may give indications for From Wednesday 29 December, enier- in the 'river-area' was alarming. They administrative action. A similar situation gency services started to reduce their thought that the prognosis of RWS was may occur between provincial governors staff levels. The total amount of damage too optimistic and piesumed that the and the minister of the Interior when a was over 100 million ECU. situation would deteriorate during the disaster transcends boundaries of one weekend. They based their opinion on province 2. The 1995 flood the situation in German): where heavy The Directorate-General of Public Heavy rainfalls in France and the rainfalls and snowmelt caused the water Works and Water Management, part of Ardennes gave rise to anxiety in the level of the Rhine to rise further. In the the mini st^ of Transport and Public province of Limburg. Although RWS evening, RWS gave a new prognosis Works, is responsible for communi- declared that the water Ievcl was not which confirmed the opinion of the cations about the water-level of the going to reach the height of 1993, people polder-boards. Dutch rivers. The Directorate-General were not willing to take any risks. On In the meanwhile, preparations in the of Public Works and Water Management Monday 23 January, villages along the 'river-area' were being made in case an (RWS) has a dccentralised structure. Meuse were taking necessary measures evacuation was necessary. The next day, Every region has its own section. RWS to prepare themselves for a new flood. Sunday 30 January, a crisis meeting was operates in close cooperation with the On the Tuesday the water-level was held in Arnhen between the provincial Institute for Inland, Water Management still under the 1993 height. Nevertheless, governor and the three coordinating and Waste Water Treatment (RIZA)'. crisis centres were being set up in case a mayors within the provinces of Gelder- Conimunication about water-levels is new flood might occur. On Wednesday land, Nijmegen, Arnhen and Tiel. done through the Regional Coordina- 25 January RWS made an alarming During this meeting, it was discussed tion Centres. prognosis for the coming days. It seemed whether an evacuation of the first part the water level would now exceed that of the region (Ooijpolder and Land van The 1993 and 1995 floods of 1993. This was the definitive sign for Maas en Waal located in the area of The 1993 flood action. The mayor of Maastricht advised Nijmegen) would be necessary. A Before a more thorough overview of the the inhabitants of Itteren, Borgharen and representative of the polder-board, in events in 1995 is given, a brief insight another part of Maastricht to evacuate. which this area was situated, stated that into the flood of 1993 is valuable. These calls for evacuation seemed to be from Tuesday they would not take any During that period, nearly one-fifth of ignored by most of them. Ministers and responsibility for the safety of the dikes. the province of Limburg was flooded by members of parliament visited the The participants all agreed that an the river Meuse. province and showed their sympathy evacuation was unavoidable. The final The water level of the river Meuse with the population. decision would be made in the regional started to rise on Saturday 18 December Over the week, the situation deter- coordination centre of Nijmegen in 1993. The rising water was caused by iorated quickly. Inhabitants of Limburg which all mayors, who are primarily continuing rainfalls in the northern part were trying to save their belongings from responsible for public safety and order of France and the Belgian Ardennes. On the rising water. Every village along the in their municipality, were represented. Monday 20 December it became clear Meuse had set up its own crisis centre. On Monday 31 January, the regional that the water level of the Meuse was In several villages, a'state of emergency' management team in Nijmegen decided reaching a threatening height. Emer- was declared. This gave the mayor the to evacuate part of the region. When thc gency services were warned in several authority to force the inhabitants to parts of the province of Limburg. leave their homes. On Friday 27 January, Notes Shortly after the alarm had been given, the provincial coordination centre 2. Commission Boertien, December 1994 several parts of the villages of Borgharen reported that about 2,630 people had p. 2-1. and Itteren, situated on the Dutch- been evacuated so far. More than 13,000 3. The Institute for Inland Water Management anc houses were flooded by the water. Waste Watw Treatment (RIZA) is the research ant Belgian border very near to Maastricht, advisory institute of the RWS for fresh water ir were invaded by the incoming water. Not only the river Mcuse gave the Netherlands and a national knowledge centre Emergency services and citizens were problems, but water levels of rivers such for integrated water management.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management provincial governor advised people to only take a few hours before the popu- The question that had to beanswered leave their homes, most of them were lation could enter the evacuated areas in the plan was 'would there be enough already on their way. The warning again. Nevertheless, the decision was time for evacuation in the case of a dike signals from mayors, representatives of postponed until Saturday. A conflict breach, and in what order should polder-boards and the provincial gover- arose about the timing of the message measures be taken?' nor had resulted in the voluntary for the people to return. The provincial Eventually, there should be a plan for evacuation of a great part of the popu- governor wanted to communicate the each polder. In every polder, there is lation in this region. From Tuesday message as soon as the decision had been more than one municipality, which 9.00 a.m. onwards, nobody was allowed taken, while the coordination centre in means there could also be a co-ordina- to enter or leave the evacuated area. Nijmegen insisted on waiting until the tion problem. In the Netherlands, the Until that moment, everyone had the population could actually return. This mayor is responsible for disaster man- chance to move their belongings to safer would prevent chaos on the roads. In the agement. If more than one municipality places. Farmers were able to evacuate end, it was decided that the people would is hit, and more than one mayor is their cattle until Tuesday 9.00 am. be told the moment it was actually involved, there could be aproblem. This Hospitals and old people's homes were possible. was solved by introducing a co-ordina- evacuated on Monday. Assistance was In a press conference on Saturday ting mayor, the 'super-mayor'. In this provided from all over the country. Over morning, the minister stated that the region, this was the mayor of Nijmegen. the following days, the provincial people could return to their houses. This His task is to achieve consensus of coordination centre decided to evacuate started on Saturday 4 and Sunday 5 opinion between all the mayors con- other areas as well. In some cases, an Februaty. Just as with theevacuation, the cerned. emergency evacuation had to take place, return went well. The expected water-level and the because a sudden problem in the dike safety of the dikes are important factors A case-study: made a breach possible. Eventually, underlying organisational preparedness. the region of Nijmegen nearly 250,000 people had to leave their To prepare the organisation for full In the region of Nijmegen, a well- homes. emergency response, four stages were prepared disaster relief and evacuation Problems occurred regarding far- distinguished. plan combined with good coordination mers, commerce and industry. Special 1. Technical measures must be taken. between authorities, made for an effic- plans were not available and it seemed 2. The local disaster staff must be ient and smooth evacuation of thous- that the lead time for these groups to operational. ands of people and cattle. An advantage, evacuate needed to be much longer. For 3. The regional disaster staff will be however, was that the Dutch authorities example, for one corporation it would operational including all elevated could anticipate the problems and take about fifty days to move their stock services. At this stage tbere could be prepare well in advance of the possible to another place. Other examples the danger of breaching the dikes. All high water levels. In Southern Europe, showed that farmers and directors were measures must he taken and respon- floods are more of a sudden nature and reluctant to leave their business. They sibilities according to the Disaster effective emergency plans are necessary declared that they would take the risk. Act are now in operation. for the safety of human beings. The economic damage would be too 4. A dike breach occurs and an urgent high for them. Despite these problems, The disaster relief plan evacuation must take place. the evacuation went well. The region of Nijmegen is bound by the In the disaster planning, all services The situation remained critical, river Waal, which is on the north side, related to this kind of disaster are although the water level did not rise any and the Meuse, which is on the south involved. Special issues dealt with by further. The length of time during which side. These are the natural borders of the this plan, which was accepted in the water level was high, meant that region. On the east side, there is the December 1994, were: dikes were saturated. Therefore, the risk German border. There is a difference inundation scenarios of a breach of a dike was still possible. between floods in polders and in the evacuation planning for persons However, people were getting anxious areas without dikes, for example along evacuation planning for animals to go back to their homes. The prov- the river Meuse in the province of communication plan incial governor and the Minister of Limburg. In areas without dikes, there information for the population. Home Affairs stated that this would not will be instant flooding by the rising of Inundation scenarios be allowed. the waterlevel in the river. However, During the recent floods large areas had OnThursday 2 February, there were there will be no flooding in areas with to be evacuated, which has shown that rumours that people might be allowed dikes (mostly polders) unless the dikes large-scale evacuation is an essential part to go back the next weekend. The are broken or the waterlevel in the river of scenarios that had to be considered. decision for this return would be made is higher than the top of the dikes 4. Besides the evacuation, experience has within a few days. From that moment Because of the possibility of floods shown that the flood causes enormous on the Minister of Home Affairs had and the threat of adike breach, a disaster social disturbance. Not only do people decided to use his authority to intervene plan was drafted for the region of Nij- in the decision-making process. Every megen in the early 1980s. After the flood decision concerning the return of the of 1993 from the river Meuse and the Notes people should be discussed with him fact that there appeared to be real threat 4. The situation in the Netherlands differs from first. of weakening and breaching of the dikes that ofGermany, because the so-called bath-tube OnFriday the third of February, the along the river Waal, the board of mayors effect of the Dutch polders is more severe than those in Germany. The water level in a flooding water-level of the rivers dropped rapidly. from the region decided to update the polder can reach a depth of47 metres. The risk The general opinion was that it would plan. for the population and the canle is great.

Winter 1998 experience great mental pressure, cattle suffer as well. Furthermore, economic Proposed Pilot Project 3. Disaster mitigation-disaster consequences are tremendous, not only On the basis of a prototype model management, risk reduction and the cost of the operation, the care for developed for the Ministry of Public relief can be supported by research refugees and loss of income, but also loss Works and Water Management in and evaluation studies carried out of production and damage to means of 1992, it is possible to improve policy for other crisis management cir- production, cattle, agriculture and assessments. As neither geographical cumstances, e.g. industrial and horticulture. nor population data have been stored other public emergency situations. All this is sufficient reason to into that prototype model, it is not The development of the SDSS will consider decisions about an evacuation ready for practical use yet. In order to be reached by: extremely carefully This is made more develop the model into a fully usable 1. Spatial descriptions of polder and difficult by the shortage of key data. program, it is necessary to store data adjacent areas, with maps, statistics This data, on which decision-making can in cooperation with an actual region and data listings ready to support be based, concerns the range of areas to (the region Nijmegen together with decision makers with highly need- be evacuated and the times when evacu- the Kreis Kleve will be that region). ed information. ation should take place. Previous to, during and after an 2. Knowledge concerning the follow- During the recent floods, only expected disaster caused by inun- ing relevant process: water behav- cursory means of support were available, dations consequent to a breach of the iour and flooding, start and pro- namely the criteria and inundation scen- polder dikes, operational insights and gress of connected disasters, relief, arios that the emergency management information are built up around evacuation and opportunities for team had drawn up. The inundation processes that will appear in polder fast physical repairs of protecting scenarios are based on assumed water areas. This will be based on a spatial- devices such as water barriers and heights (based on probability calcu- (physical) and attributes-related dikes. lations) and provide an insight for a (socio-economic etc.) description. 3. The simulation of processes and limited number of periods only (the Those operational insights and consequent effects are 'managed' time-bar, moreover, is rather extensive, information are supported by know- by parameters. One example is the viz. 24,75 or 175 hours). Further, details ledge concerning: average costs for one evacuating of the time-bar as well as adjustment to 1. Hydraulics-new knowledge and inhabitant. Another concerns the present water levels could already experiences acquired during the acceptable minimum time span provide a much clearer picture. recent evacuation and disaster between the start of the evacuation If there is more insight into how an management activities in the Nij- and the moment of estimated dike inundation takes place in relation to the megen region and other polder breach. A reduction of this time time needed for the evacuation of the areas. span causes extra risks and an area, it is not only possible to define 2. Applzedspatialinfomzattcs-spatial extension may cause serious finan- more accurately the moment of evacu- decision support system (SDSS) cial consequences. ation and the range of the area to be approaches in case of disasters, as 4. Knowledge about organisational evacuated, but it may be possible to currently described for both nat- issues: available personnel to guide render preventive evacuations com- ural and human caused disasters, the evacuation, available materials pletely unnecessary This fact is also especially with the aid of geog- for transport, available reception relevant if strengthening of the dikes in raphical information system tools centres, food, communication the polder has taken place. The increased integrated in such SDSS. between crisis centres. quality of the dikes will expel potential dangers similar to those at the beginning of 1995. A dike breach, however small ended, it was possible to put the plans involved. They could not in any way take the chance may be, will remain a pos- into practice in a short period of time. this responsibility. How could they sibility (although a remote one). The mayors of all the cities involved justify any decision of passivity should That is the reason that the region of were informed about the main issues of a burst ever occur? Eventually, this led Nijmegen together with the region of the plans. This made discussions about to the decision to evacuate all the people , (Kreis) Kleve and the Road and Hy- the process much easier. The necessary in the threatened areas (30January). draulic Engineering Division from the decisions could take place more easily, Fortunately, it was foreseen that this Dutch Ministry of Public Works and because everyone knew the conse- could happen. Therefore, the evacuation Water Management have proposed a quences and the next steps to he taken. plan for the areas involved was already pilot project to the Commission of the While the water level was still rising, prepared. When the board of mayors European Union for an 'SDSS for the 'water authorities' brought attention took the decision to evacuate, all the evacuation of inhabitants and cattle out to the possibility of a breach of the planning had occurred and the total of a flooding polder' (for the proposal dikes. At a certain moment, there was a amount of required personnel and see box above). point of no return when the water materials were ready authorities no longer accepted any Because the region of Nijmegen was The flooding of 1995 responsibility in our region for the the first to decide to evacuate in the Only a few weeks after the latest plans safety of the dikes along the river Waal. province (together with German neigh- were accepted a new flood took place At this point the responsibility for bours from the Kleve region), this on 25 January 1995. While our region the safety of the whole population and worked as a snowball for the rest of the was the only one with new plans and the cattle in the polders of Ooy en Maas en province. It was acknowledged that after discussion about the contents had just Waal was in the hands of the mayors the decision, other regions would soon

Australian Journal of Emergency Management follow. So, the Gelderland Province and Flood management: was insufficient to combat the flood. the Home Secretary were informed. A warning and evacuation The difference between the high damage great part of the population (90%) In regard to the warning process, the in 1993 and the comparably low damage decided to evacuate voluntarily using difference between the 1993 and 1995 in 1995 can almost be totally explained their own means and staying with family floods was remarkable, with some major by this lack of preparedness. or friends elsewhere in the country. The consequences for the response. The other regions in Limburg, and evacuation of cattle however was more other parts of the Netherlands, had more difficult. Apart from the great trans- Warning: a comparison of time to prepare for and inform the public portation problem, housing and feed 1993 and 1995 about the coming threat. Due to the were difficult. In 1993, southern Limburg was taken slow onset, the water took three to five After the evacuation had taken place, by surprise by the sudden increase in the days to rise in these areas. Therefore, the area was abandoned and had to be influx of water. Different aspects can there were no particular problems guarded by the police and the fire- explain a late and incoherent reaction. concerning the warning of flooding. The brigade. However, there was continuous Firstly, the authorities and inhab- information was nevertheless very pressure by farmers and industries to itants had not considered a situation like important for the next stage in the temporarily return to their property to this ('it cannot happen here'). In earlier process, the evacuation. reduce damage and to maintain their years high water had occurred frequent- Evacuation equipment. This was a difficult problem ly (the last time was at the beginning of One of the central issues of the 1995 for the authorities and not every 1993!) and the problems were always flood was the massive but smooth authority acted in the way that they had minor. But even though the situation evacuation of nearly 250,000 people. been agreed in the board of mayors. was different this time, authorities and With respect to this evacuation two Following its natural course, the inhabitants did not expect the flood to questions could be posed. First of all, water level began to fall. After some become a major threat. the decision to evacuate a large number time, the 'water authorities' could Secondly, the 1993 situation high- of people put a burden on the respon- guarantee safety again. Everybody could lighted the lack of communication sible decisionmakers. The first question return to their properties. After the between the Belgian, French and Dutch deals with the reasons for evacuating this return of the population, all kinds of instrumentalities involved (water boards part of the Netherlands. Secondly, many technical measures had to be taken, for and local authorities). Since there was people wondered what made the evacu- example electricity, gas and telephones no contact between the Dutch and ation such a successful operation. had to be restored. Belgian authorities, South Limburg was An extra effort to guard the area was warned at a relatively late stage. A The reasons for evacuation necessatyand only the people who lived researcher in Delft stated this quite A life-threatening situation. In a way there could return. This operation was firmly: 'For the Netherlands the Meuse this question about the reasons for successful because a 'Plan for Return (and measurement of high water) evacuation looks superfluous. People after the High Water' was drawn up. This started at the frontier 5. Due to this lack were evacuated because it was life- plan contained, besides some state- of communication, authorities and threatening. Of course, this is the main ments, the measures for guarding the public were surprised by the sudden and to a large degree the only reason- area, rules for accessing the area, high water situation.' able answer. Both the authorities and the transportation for people and cattle, Thirdly, in 1993 the preparations and people directly involved were convinced public utilities and information. The planning for high water were not that there was a high-risk situation. return of the population was very impressive. When the situation became Large sections of different dikes were successful. Nevertheless, in the evalu- critical the operational services started 'old fashioned' and in bad shape. For a ation afterwards, some lessons were to look for things like boats, sandbags number of reasons the safety of the river drawn (see box below). and pumps. The degree of preparedness dikes had been a non-issue during the last few decades. Although plans for maintenance Lessons drawn were ready, the lack of priority gave no urgency to implement them. When it study is necessary to determine Theevacuation of cattle should be A rained for days in the river basin of the the consequences of constructing more clearly described for a more Rhine and the water level rose, the old compartments in the polder. practical execution. dikes became a problem, because the A spatial decision support system Before a new decision about sliding or collapse of a dike can endanger (SDSS) is needed for operational evacuation is taken, more needs to large numbers of people. management of civil protection by be known about the economic No guarantee. Although the situa- polder evacuation and disaster issues regarding the farmers, the tion was more severe than in other years, mitigation in case of flood. trade and the industry. there had been similar situations in the The rules for entrance to the there should be clarity about the past (1988, 1993). This time the water abandoned area have to be settled, damage payment from the gov- rose higher and this time the polder- despite the needs of individual ernment. Everyone should know boards, responsible for the maintenance municipalities, in a way that is what they can expect in future of the dikes could no longer guarantee realistic for the police, who have cases. that the dikes would keep the water out. to enforce them. This also applies The information to the popu- for the people who stay home. lation can be improved. Notes 5. De Volkskmnt, 30 January 1995.

Winter 1998 This was a new experience for the sent to other regions in the province. leave their houses. Although flooding responsible authorities (mayors), who Although the other regions had not took place, a life-threatening situation subsequently became responsible for the formally accepted this plan before the did not occur. This was also the main safety of their inhabitants. There was no 1995 flood occurred, most of the regions reason that mayors decided not to force other solution than to evacuate, after the could use it as a guideline for their people out of their houses. experts withdrew their guarantees. response to the flood. Slow onset. Urgency is one of the For the 'water authorities'the evacu- As soon as the flood occurred, common features in crises. The amount ation of such a massive number of people preparations were undertaken in Nij- of time and the presence of urgency do was, in a way, a blessing in disguise. It megen. Two days before the decision to not only influence decisionmakers, but was a great opportunity to improve the evacuate, a special team of police in also affect people involved. Lack of time, quality of the dikes. After the evacua- charge of the evacuation was formed to and more importantly the feeling that tion, everyone was aware of the deplor- develop, on the basis of the emergency there is a lack of time, is a key factor in able state of the dikes and a consensus plan, a more specific evacuation plan. the possible presence of panic-like existed for the need for rapid repairs. Some days later, these preparations were behaviour". An ongoingprocess. Scanlon argued useful during the evacuation. The people in the province of Gel- that the 1979 evacuation of Mississauga It could be argued that it was rather derland had enough time to prepare was a process with some psychological fortunate that the region that was best themselves for the flood. Measures were aspects6. The evacuation started close to prepared for a flood was also first hits. taken to protect their belongings in case the affected area, but in the hours and The successful evacuation of Nijmegen a flood occurred. Furniture was moved days that followed, broader circles (about 60,000 people) must have given and kitchens were disassembled. As around the disaster were evacuated. The confidence to the other regions that an soon as these measures were completed, evacuations continued not only because evacuation of a large number of people there was no reason for them to stay any of the increased risk, but also because was possible. Also, a positive side-effect longer. In addition, the large number of the initial evacuations were so success- of the first evacuation was that people policemen which were present in the ful. There was no reason for the police in other areas were convinced there was area gave them the idea that everything to stop, they just continued their job. an actual danger for the population in was well protected. The long lead time In the balance between staying and evac- the province. This gave them a good was an extra reason for the people to uating, the latter became more popular. example ('they were evacuated yester- react calmly to the message to evacuate. To some degree there was a similar day, we may he evacuated tomorrow'). A 'three-stage rocket'. Authorities pattern in the 1995 flood evacuation. A real threat. The appearance and communicated to the public about the The successful evacuation in the Nij- severity of the threat were clearly visible. evacuation in three different stages. This megen area made the decisions of the The slowly-developing threat gave the started with information about the water authorities and the public author- responsible authorities enough time to coming threat, which made the people ities further down the river much easier. convince the population of the danger. conscious about a possible flood. Then, The riskand uncertainty of a flood were, It started with the 'wet-feet situation' a governmental three-stage 'evacuation after the first successful evacuation, in the southern part of the Netherlands. rocket' was launched. The first stage was greater than the problems and risks from After that, pictures were shown of the the advice to the public to prepare for an evacuation. In other words, this situation in Koln and Koblenz (with an evacuation. The second was the ur- process made it difficult for authorities large parts of the cities under water). gent message to evacuate before a certain to decide not to evacuate. Eventually, people saw the high water- time, and the third and final stage was level in their own region. These pictures the deadline posed by the local govern- The success of the evacuation seemed to have a major impression on ment. This communication strategy Despite some minor problems during the perceptions of the population. It did Notes the actual evacuation, everyone agreed not take too much effort for the author- 6. See Scanlon T.J. 1989. 'Toxic chemicals and that the operation was a success. The ities to convince the people that there emergency management: the evacuation of population was praised for their discip- was a threatening situation. Probably, MiSSiSsauga. Ontario, Canada', in U. Rosenthai. lined behaviour. But was this behaviour this was the most fundamental explan- M. T. Chaoes and I? 't Han (eds), Coping with the only reason for this outcome? There ation of the success of the whole Crisis: The Management of Disasten. Riots and Terrorism, Charles C. Thomas, Springfield, pp. are other reasons that can explain the evacuationg. Most of the people of the 303-322. success of the evacuation. evacuated areas were convinced of the 7. This is based on interviews done by the Crisis Preparation. Most of the people threat of the situation. The visibility of Research Center in relation to the study that is involved believe that preparation helped people leaving made others evacuate. currently been done. a lot and made the evacuation process A survey conducted by the Crisis 8. Of course, this is not a coincidence. Due to smoother'. After the high water in 1993, Research Center confirmed that a the fact that the Nijmegen area was threatened most in 1993 and the area with the highest risk. the province of Gelderland and espec- majority of the people evacuated far in the first preparatory measures were undertaken ially the region of Nijmegen were advance of the official dead-line. Results in this area (see also end of this paper). convinced that the development of a of the survey also show that nearly 90% 9. mis confirms the results from studies done in special emergency 'high water' plan in thought that the evacuation was justified the field of disaster-sociology. case of a flood was necessary. The first and about 80% would evacuate again 10. This survey was set up to study the reactions efforts for such a plan were undertaken next year if a similar threat occurred'o. ofthe population to the recent events. About 500 in the beginning of 1994 by the region This argument gains strength when persons in the province of Gelderland were questioned by the Crisis Research Center. of Nijmegen. This plan served as a model the situation in southern Limburg is 11. Panic is one of the myths: evelyone would for other regions in the province. At the considered and how it differed com- expect panic, but research has shown that this is end of 1994 this model was accepted and pletely. Here people were reluctant to hardly ever the case. I 48 Australian Journal of Emergency Management appeared to be successful. This method article. For that reason, a number of exemplary function of decisions and was only possible because of the long interesting aspects have been left out or preparations. When a director of an old lead time available. This is again con- only dealt with briefly. This is the reason people's home, hospital or prison firmed by the survey. It showed that this article ends with 'concluding re- decides to prepare for an evacuation, this about 75% evacuated 24 hours or more marks' instead of 'conclusions'. These immediately has effect on the behaviour before it was obliged'?. remarks focus on the subjects that were of the population in the neighbourhood. Self-regulatingbehaviou,: After the amongst some of the most interesting The same goes for the police or fire- flood was over, the authorities andchiefs issues of the 1995 flood. fighters who start to move belongings to a saferplace, while neighbours are still of operational services were positively Authorities and responsibilities surprised by the co-operation of the ignorant about the coming events. This article started with an introduction Another example is the differences people. Nearly all evacuees left and to legislation of emergency planning in returned to their homes without any in return. Some people had to wait one the Netherlands. During and after the support. The authorities planned for or two days, while others were already 1995 flood, on-going discussions have almost 25% of the people needing to be returning to their homes. These sorts of been held about the subject of auth- transported by public means (ambu- phenomena were visible during the orities and responsibilities. evacuation process in 1995. This led to lances, buses). During the evacuation, Central questions were: Why did the only 3% had to use these means of foreseen and unforeseen processes such Minister of the Interior intervene in the as a snowballing effect. In some cases, it transportation. The same goes for decision-process? What was the role of temporary accommodation-expected took authorities quite some time to the provincial governors and what is inform the people of the decisions that usagewas lo%, the effective use was less their relation with the so-called 'super- than 3%. were taken. mayors'? Are municipalities the right There are some explanations for this level to combat a flood or take decision Broader lessons discrepancy. The authorities over- like an evacuation? From what level What can be learned from this successful estimated the numbers and were not should operations be coordinated? operation? Most people, including us, aware of the results of international To answer these questions would are reluctant to translate the success of research in this field. Secondly, due to take another twenty pages. Still, we want this operation to future occasions. Each the amount of time, almost 10% of the to make some statements about these crisis and disaster has typical, but also people who had no means of transpor- issues. It is interesting to note that there a-typical features. It is, in this respect, tation were picked up by relatives or is a discrepancy between the way dangerous to translate these experiences friends. Finally, there were no special authorities work together and their too easily to other situations with problems that authorities had to deal reaction afterwards. The authorities perhaps other features (less warning with. The composition of the population worked well during the critical situation, time, other organisations involved and was rather homogeneous. No attention but conflicts occurred when respon- another agent, for instance chlorine had to be paid to special groups like for sibilities were discussed in the after- instead of water). instance immigrants. math. One of our respondents stated: On the other hand, some general Co-operation from the media. lfrom the moment the water-level was lessons from the disaster literature have Afterwards, authorities showed their decreasing, there war an increase in been confirmed during the flooding. The surprise at the massive presence and role conflicts about responsibilities'. The self-regulating behaviourof people is the of the media. For days, the town of tendency towards centralisation during most important aspect. In a sense, the Nijmegen was besieged by foreign the decision-making has been discussed success of the operation can for a great reporters. The flood was an important thoroughly. Certainly, there are various part be ascribed to the behaviour of the news item for almost ten days. It is reasons for such centralisation of people in the Netherlands. certainly interesting to see that the local decision-making. Decisions about and regional broadcast organisations evacuation and return of people over a played a central role during the flood. large area always supersede the level of Notes Before the evacuation in Gelderland the evacuated areas. However, people go 12. See note 7. took place, information was obtained outside the area, so other areas become 13. See note 7. from regional and local radio stations. involved. Afterwards, the survey showed that the Another interesting subject con- Further explanation of term 'Polder' people were of the opinion that the cerns the role of the so-called 'super- Polders and Polder-lands are areas that have been regional radio station was the most mayor'. There is still discussion about reclaimed from the sea, surrounded by dykes. popular and trustworthyl'. This conclu- the position of this person. The dis- Polder-boards are regional water authorities, Nn sion also applies for some municipalities by elected bodies, with responsibility for flood crepancy with the formal system of in Limburg. In Venlo for example, the safely. A polder-board may also be called a water emergency planning (there is no formal board, because they do not only exist in polders. local radio station was the primary status for this person) was also an When the Dutch started manipulating water source for the local people. systems, a need arose for some collective action important stimulus for the discussion To conclude, it can be stated con- to protect land and propeflya@inst flooding. This about the structure of Dutch govern- fidently that the whole evacuation was institutional~sedin the 12" or 13" century ment (the scale and number of provinces in the form of water boards. There are about 120 process went well. or a fourth layer of government). polder boards and their responsibilities also include water-qualily management. The focus of Concluding remarks If ... then tensions the boards is now less on hard engineering solutions, and more on 'WoIkingMth nature'. mey It is impossible to present a complete One of the interesting and frequently are the 'practitioners' at a local or sub-regional picture of the floods of 1993 and 1995 mentioned issues about the information, level and fairly independent from national. and the warning process in such a short warning and evacuation process is the provincial or local governments.

Winter 1998 49 Balancing international approaches to disaster: rethinking prevention instead of relief -- by David A. McEntire, Graduate School of International Studies, University of Denver

Introduction 1985). After being notified about this been suggested that the IRU did make That there has been a change of focus in calamity King George 11 of England symbolic strides in helping governments disaster research and its application requested that Parliament quickly send recognise the 'need for collaboration in hardly needs reiteration. In the last two sufficient and suitable relief to meet the matters of humanitarian assistance decades scholars and practitioners have needs of victims in such an emergency. through international organisation' increasingly shifted interest from the Three years latter, Emmerich de Vattel (Macalister-Smith 1985, p. 21). provision of relief to an emphasis on declared in The Law of Nations (pub- Upon the breakup of the Lcague of prevention. Mitigation and development lished 1916) that all governments with Nations and the founding of the United are the rallying calls of the day. an abundance of provisions should come Nations in 1945 there was no immediate While no one can doubt the value to the assistance of those countries attempt to create a new international that these strategies have on reducing which have been smitten by disaster. He disaster relief organisation. With the the devastating impacts of catastrophe, asserted further that no civilised nation passing of time, however, political there is reason to believe that thecurrent could fail to respond in such an extrem- leaders again began to see the urgency movement-at least at it relates to the ity. In living up to Vattel's assertion for expanded and enhanced efforts in developing world-has gone, or may be about international responsibility, many international disaster response. Besides going, too far. My opinion on the matter governments have established relief the constant demand for assistance by is that we are ignoring some of the agencies -particularly during the latter those nations affected by catastrophic drawbacks and challenges of solely half of the present century - with the events, a major reason for this shift in implementing the prevention route in task of providing unilateral aid to victims thinking was due to the burgeoning Third World countries. What I am of calamities in other countries. The appearance of other international actors suggesting, then, is a more balanced United States Office of Foreign Disaster involved in delivering humanitarian aid. international approach to natural and Assistance (a branch of the Agency for Some of these new players included the man-made calamities-me that recog- International Developnlent in the State World Food Program, World Health nises the necessity for both prevention Department) is only one example of this Organisation and the Pan-American and relief. In order to facilitate my type of organisation which could be Health Organisation that emanated discussion I will examine where we as a mentioned. Counterparts are manifest from the United Nations itself. But the disaster interested community have in Australia, Canada and England, as vast majority of these new actors were been, where we are now, and where we well as in other developed countries voluntary humanitarian agencies (VOL should be headed in the future. throughout the world. AGS) or private voluntary organisations In addition to individual nation- (PVOS) who also felt a similar sense of Where have we been? states, international governmental duty to supply relief to disaster victims Practitioners and scholars have tradit- organisations have also been concerned in foreign territories. ionally focused their attention on the with assisting nations that are affected The International Red Cross, con- response phase of disasters. On the one by disaster. The first multi-lateral relief sidered to be the most renown of the hand, providers of humanitarian aid have institution, the International Relief humanitarian agencies, is an excellent always felt a moral obligation to care for Union (IRU), was founded in Italy in example of the case in point. Macalister- needy victims in calamity-stricken areas. 1921 and was later integrated into the Smith reiterates the fact that the 'resolu- Governments, international govern- politically-established League of Na- tions of the first Geneva International mental organisations, and private volun- tions. According to the Preamble of the Conference of 1863 demonstrate clearly tary agencies have also sought ways to Convention for Establishing the Inter- that the founders of ... [this organ- facilitate the coordination of their relief national Relief Union, the member isation] envisaged a ... development of efforts. On the other hand, students of states of the organisation were to 'render peacetime relief activities' (1985, p. 17). disasters and policy analysts have aid to each other in disasters, to en- Henry Dunant himself advocated that critically evaluated relief operations. courageinternational relief by amethod- the victims of physical calamities were Their goal has been to offer suggestions ical co-ordination of available resources, equally deserving of aid as those of man- as to how the distribution of aid can be and to further the progress of inter- made disasters such as war. This belief more effective and efficient. national law in this field'. Although the subsequently led to the first large scale Practitioners and disaster relief IRU was ultimately unsuccessful at international disaster relief operation One of the first recorded instances of ensuring mutual support in the event of conducted by the Red Cross as the 19th international humanitarianism took disaster (due to the inherent weaknesses century came to a close. place after an earthquake devastated of the League of Nations and lack of Besides the Red Cross, other VOL- Lisbon in 1755 (Macalister-Smith, political by the United States), it has AGS representing a wide array of

50 Australian Journal of Emergency Management religious-ideological, interest and means of providing disaster assistance. organisations have in distinguishing professional groups became involved in Several savants, namely McLuckie disaster related issues from the chronic humanitarian service at the international (1970), Brown et. a]., (1976) and Brown problems facing Third World countries, level. A few of these PVOS include the (1979), described the difficulties, or and indicated their desire to prevent a Salvation Army, Oxfam, Catholic Relief were highly critical of the low degree of duplication of efforts and the waste of Services, CARE, Church World Ser- coordination among humanitarian resources by calling for inter-agency vices, World Vision, and Medecins Sans organisations. Additional students of cooperation. Fontieres. The growth of such partici- disasters lamented the inexperience of As can be seen, practitioners have pants was particularly evident as World volunteer and paid personnel in inter- historically felt a responsibility to care War 11 came to a close. national relief operations (see Wauty et. for the unfortunate victims of natural Aware of these more numerous and al., 1977; Brown, 1977). And, many disasters. Their collective organisational diverse actors that were providing relief academics pointed to the political interaction and individual mission to victims of disasters, governments problems of providing relief. Taylor statements revealed a desire to improve became concerned with how to properly (1979), for instance, noted the exaggera- international relief operations. With manage and perhaps incorporate PVOS tion of disaster effects by relief agencies similar zeal, students and policy analysts into their relief activities. For this reason for the purpose of acquiring more examined humanitarian actions in order the United Nations Disaster Relief resources. Similarly, Green (1977) to understand what takes place in the Organisation (UNDRO) was created in pointed out the unwillingness of disaster response phase of disasters and to 1971 (Kent, 1987, p. 54). Resolution stricken governments to seek aid in recommend how the provision of aid 2816 specified that UNDRO was to order to save face, the favoritism could be improved in foreign territories. mobilise and direct the relief operations displayed by donor nations, and the In sum, the prestige of the relief within the United Nations system and inequitabledistribution of relief supplies approach to calamities has traditionally among relevant VOLAGS. Most assess- by those who wield power (see also been towering. ments of UNDRO reveal that it was Marshall, 1979). Where are we now? never able to live up to this expectation Studies exhibited a diversity of other In the late 1970s and early 80s the reli- (Borton, 1993, p. 196). But the advent themes as well. McLuckie (1970) and ance on relief as a solution to disaster of this international organisation under- Dynes (1972) assessed the lack of trust was coming under attack. By the 1990s scored once more the importance that or presence of conflict among relief a new approach which stressed disaster relief had in the hearts of practitioners. workers and disaster victims. Green prevention began to gain hegemony. The (1977) highlighted the significant role predominance of mitigation and devel- Scholars and disaster relief that the media plays in generating funds opment over relief is now readily seen Beyond those who served in a humani- while Spencer et. al. (1977) indicated in both disaster policy and scholarship. tarian fashion, students of disasters have how news-worthy rumors could get out also been intrigued with relief opera- of hand. Brown (1977) addressed the The shift in emphasis tions. The academic investigation of difficulty of assessing relief needs or Many of the previous mentioned schol- various aspects of international disaster obtaining response related information ars and policy think tanks that were response was clearly made manifest in as McLuckie (1977) probed the impact concerned with disaster relief helped to the 1970s. One of the major issues that governmental organisation has on generate interest in prevention strat- addressed by scholars during this period disaster response. Finally, Kates (1977) egies. Some cited the need for Third dealt with nature of aid itself. Some and Bolin and Trainer (1978) looked ar World preparedness as a means of scholars including Brown (1977) asser- what impact traditional family relation- supplementing the relief efforts of ted that the quantity of aid is often ships could have on the provision of aid. international donors and providers. inadequate as a result of insufficient The two major policy studies under- Green, to illustrate, called for ways to funding. In contrast, Davis (1977) taken during this period-the UNA 'improve uniformly the administrative declared that there was at times an USA Policy Studies Panel on Inter- and logistic capacities of natiovl overabundance of aid as was the case national Disaster (1977) and the Nation- governments and relief organisations in with emergency shelters in a Nicaraguan al Academy of Sciences' Committee on disaster prone countries' (1977, p. 51). operation. Furthermore, Shaw (1979) International Disaster Assistance (1979)- The UNA USA analogously recommen- illustrated in his study of immunisations likewise revealed and added credence to ded that developing nations acquire the in Guam that international aid is often many of the above academic findings. necessary modern communication and not requested nor required for the These analyses also provided new transportation equipment 'to deal disaster situation. Others yet argued that insights on, and policy recommenda- effectively with a major disaster' (1977, relief was frequently unusable because tions for disaster relief as well. For p. 33). Conversely, others began to see of cultural or practical reasons (Olson example, the former group underscored relief operations as inadequate responses and Olson, 1977). For example, Mitchell the necessity of adjusting relief res- to calamities and therefore desired to (1977) elucidated the fact that certain ponses as each disaster is unique and find ways to avert them altogether. foods or styles of clothing were rejected takes place within a distinct social, Brown was among the first to argue that by the Islamic members of society in political, and economic context. The greater attention should be paid to Turkey, and De Ville de Goyet et. al. UNA USA also stressed the value of prevention as disasters recur and are (1976) showed that medicines could not promoting a mutual understanding of becoming more severe in developing be administered to disaster victims in governmental and non-governmental countries (1979, p. 104). CIDA, in Guatemala as they were expired. roles in order to facilitate relief coordin- tandem, pushed for measures to be i Another significant topic researched ation. The latter council attempted to undertaken to alleviate the endemic by scholars regarded the method and highlight the difficulty that relief problems of developing nations in order

Winter 1998 to address thevarious causes of disasters either helpless or blameless. Accord- and Woodrow, 1991; Tidemann, 1992) (1979, p. 12; see also p. 93). Thus, the ingly, Hewitt avowed that it is everyday Funding is equally oriented to th( students and policy analysts who had activities which increases vulnerability prevention approach. One only neec generally focused on relief activities and also acknowledged that something look at the list of grants in Natura were partially responsible for pointing had to be done to help the destitute of Hazards Observer (published by thc out the merit of disaster preparation and the world. Unlike Cuny, however, Natural Hazards Research and Applica. prevention. Hewitt was more pessimistic about the tions Center at the University o' Nevertheless, the works of other- immediate prospects for improving the Colorado at Boulder) for confirmation particularly later-scholars had a more lot of the needy. He therefore saw the The majority of moneys that are avail. significant impact on disaster policies. need for a complete restructuring of able for research are related to sustain. Foremost among these were Burton, values, or even of the entire social- able development or mitigation tactic! Kates and White's The Environtnent as political-economic system itself. Thus, which include disaster prediction, earl) Hazard (1979), Cuny's Disasters and regardless of their views on disasters and warning technologies, and structura Development (1983), and Hewitt's subsequent differences in policy pres- engineering techniques. Scholars anc edited volume entitled Interpretations of criptions, Burton et. al., Cuny and their supporting institutions also appeal Calamity (1983). Each of these books Hewitt agreed that relief was only a to indicate a prevailing bias fo~ were critical of the relief approach, short term response measure; some- prevention. although to varying degrees. Burton et. thing had to be done in the way of With the discrediting of relief as ar al. affirmed that the effects of relief are prevention. The books by these scholars approach to disasters, prevention ha! 'largely palliative' (1979, p. 186). Cuny have had tremendous impact upon emerged as the strategy in the 1980s an( asserted that disaster relief 'maintained present disaster ,policy and current 1990s. International policies now con- the status quo' (1983, p. 115). And, academic trends. centrate on how the transfer of know. Hewitt and his entourage declared that ledge, the analysis of vulnerability, anc Prevention in policy relief actually 'makes matters worse' as the application of scientific break. In the policy arena, the shift to a it fosters dependency (1983, p. 123). throughs may decrease or eliminate prevention strategy is visible in the goals Therefore, it was widely held that apost- disasters. Students of disasters an of the United Nations International disaster response alone was ineffective equally caught up in the trend o Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction. or even detrimental. Moreover, every examining the virtue of mitigation an( The purpose of having governments one of these scholars noted that eco- development. In short, preventiol unite to concentrate on disaster issues nomic status was related to disaster seems to be gaining (or has) the samc during the 1990s is to spread scientific vulnerability. Burton, Kates and White status that relief had 20 years earlier. knowledge in order to foster prediction, illustrated that, in spite of immanent and also to facilitate mitigation through Where should we go from here? danger, the less fortunate tend to live in risk assessment and the application of Just as the sole reliance on relief cam areas that are risk prone. Cuny observed early warning technologies and im- under attack in the latter 1970s and earl: that calamities occur most frequently proved structural engineering (see 1980s, the strict emphasis on preventiol among the developing countries of the Lechat, 1990). Little, if anything, was may now be questionable in the ]at8 world; he stated that the root cause of mentioned about the importance of 1990s. The strategies of mitigation an1 disasters was poverty (1983, p. 11). relief or the imperative for improving development, in some instances, ma: Finally, Hewitt concurred that the plight the delivery of aid. The prevention neither be completely desirable o of the poor was the central contributing approach has in fact gained so much immediately feasible in theThird World factor for disaster vulnerability. credence now that the value of the What we need therefore is research an( Consequently, these authors pro- United Nations Department of Hu- policy that accepts as important disaste vided, again with somewhat different manitarian Affairs (DHA), UNDRO's prevention as well as relief. connotations, arguments in favor of successor, has recently been questioned. ptevention strategies. Burton et. al. The desirability of prevention While the DHA is still intact, it is not advocated global monitoring of hazard, A prevention-alone approach may no clear if it will remain so in the future. and the transfer and application of be advantageous for nations in tht Today relief seems to be a lesser com- technology for early warning systems. developing world. This fact may be dut ponent of international disaster policy. Cuny saw economic development as a to several reasons. First, at the nlos solution to the disaster problem He Prevention in academia fundamental level and regardless o thought improvements in structural In the academic world, a great amount attention given to prevention, disaster engineering would reduce the adverse of attention is also being placed on will always occur.The United States an( effects of calamities as well. Hewitt and prevention strategies. A quick review of Japan have probably spent the mos his followers were very skeptical of the subject matter of current scholarly money on disaster prevention, and ye Burton's et. al. 'technocratic approach'. work provides a flavor of this move- these countries were still negativel: They asserted that 'the enormous ment. The titles of papers presented at affected by earthquakes in Northridg comnlitment to geophysical monitoring conferences and of published books and and Kobe. While specific social, politica and prediction deals with a peripheral articles include: 'Disaster Resistant and economic policies geared toward rather than a central ingredient of Communities' (Russell, 1997; see also mitigation will undoubtedly reduce th, disaster' (Hewitt 1983, p. 28). What is Tucker, 1997), Disasters, Development adverse effects of disasters, no societ: more, the contributors to Intprpretations and Environment (Varley, 1994; see also or nation can be completely assured tha of Calamity illustrated that disasters are Sinha, 1992; Anderson and Woodrow they are exempt from the overwhelnl not just 'unexpected' or 'unexplained' 1989), and 'From Relief to Develop- ingly destructive and tragic forces o geo-physical events in which humans are ment' (Hyder, 1996; see also Anderson nature. Second, and closely related to th

Australian Journal of Emergency Managemen previous point, a policy over-empha- may even be more so as development Asian Tigers have been nothing less than sising prevention may eclipse and takes place. In addition, focusing only impressive. Nonetheless, Hong Kong, subsequently diminish the likelihood of on prevention could be pernicious as it Singapore, South Korea and Taiwan necessary preparation for relief. The may preclude relief from being provided developed in unusual circumstances- earthquake in Kobe is again supportive in complex emergencies and may also circumstances that are not likely to recur of this proposition. The means available discourage much needed research from in the future. These countries received and steps undertaken to deal with this being conducted on issues pertinent to massive amounts of aid from the West event were seen as deficient by some disaster response. due to its fear of communism, they did citizens living in the area (Heath, 1995). not suffer from the problems of debt, Therefore, resource allocation for The attainability of prevention and, with the exception of Hong Kong, response activities, disaster planning and The prevention of disasters may not also did not practice complete laissez faire preparation, and implementation of be easily attained owing to various economics. Even though the NICS are emergency management procedures are persistent and prospective challenges of now placing a great deal of emphasis on too important to be neglected. Third, achieving development. First, preven- disaster prevention, this has only the mitigation of disasters is often a tion strategies might require large occurred after or in conjunction with function of, or is possible only to the amounts of resources generated through economic development. Part of the extent to which there is development; economic development. But such a level reason for the prominence of this yet development may in turn lead to of progress has not been achieved by strategy may be due to the massive increased vulnerability Although 'eco- most countries. Isbister (1993) is only investment from multi-national cor- nomic progress' may facilitate the one of many scholars who argues that porations (MNCS) that exists in these acquisition of early warning systems and lesser-developed nations of the past are nations. promote improved structural engin- generally the lesser-developed nations of By now it should be evident that, at eering, it may also escalate the dangers the present (see also Kennedy, 1993). In the international level, the pendulum has of environmental degradation (Quaran- spite of modest and dispersed successes swung too far in the direction of telli, 19933; Guarnizo, 1993), urban the track record of development is not prevention. Academics have carried out demographic mismanagement (Quaran- overly encouraging; there is no reason research and practitioners have pursued telli, 1993a; Cuny, 1983, p. 16), depen- to believe that this tendency will be policies in the prevention vein without dencies on outside assistance (Campbell, altered in the near future. Second, it is recognising what implications their 1990),and technological hazards (Quar- increasingly unlikely that Third World activities might have on developing antelli, 1997; Quarantelli, 1993b). Thus, nations will receive the amount of nations or the provision of relief. development can make nations more international developmental aid that Prevention alone may not be void of disaster prone; it may prove detrimental they received during the Cold War. With disadvantages, mitigation and develop- if not carefully pursued. Fourth, the sole the fall of communism there is simply ment may not be as easy to implement reliance on prevention ignores the fact less reason for the United States and as we would prefer to believe. Because the many of the current disasters in the others in the West to fund development prevention may not be totally desirable Third World are not amenable to a as has been done in the past. Further- or freely attainable, relief will remain a 'technological solution'. In recent years more, the nations that now make up the necessary ingredient for the reduction the major catastrophes that the inter- former Soviet Union are in no position of the adverse effects of calamities. national community has responded to to provide aid and virtually all other Finding the proper balance among these are political in nature. Civil wars and governments in industrialised countries alternatives or examining ways to other internal conflicts are difficult to have turned inward to solve their own integrate them are the greatest chal- foresee and resolve, and will always specific domestic problems.Third, with lenges facing the international human- mounting debt and more strings being itarian community in the future. attached to foreign loans, developing Finally, the close academic attention nations will be less capable to obtain or Conclusions directed towards prevention strategies less willing to seek help in this direction. It is possible that the argument presen- may overshadow the need to conduct International banks may refuse to issue ted in this essay will not be popular. My research on the response phase of further credit in order to minimise their assertion goes against the grain of disasters. For instance, more studies losses if default should occur. Also, conventional wisdom, policy trends, and must be conducted on: how developing Third World nations may not be willing funding for scholars and practitioners. nations cope with disasters, how inter- to follow austerity programs, laissez Let me reiterate, therefore, that I am not national humanitarian organisations can faire economics and environmental suggesting a return to a relief strategy better assist and be integrated into protection programs which have been alone. This mistake was obviously made indigenous relief capabilities and actions, suggested by the IMF, World Bank, and up to the 1980s, and there is no reason the purported need for and benefits of other international institutions. Thus, to rely on such a lop-sided approach restructuring the United Nations relief pursuing a strategy of prevention now. Likewise, I am not necessarily organisations, and the relationship through mitigation and development advocating that developed countries between communications technology could conceivably be even more difficult rethink their domestic disaster policies and improved relief coordination (see in today's world context than it was in or re-appropriate relevant resources and McEntire, 1997). Focusing on preven- the past. revenues. For a variety of reasons, tion alone would leave many of these Some may point to the newly indus- industrial nations are clearly in a position crucial investigative stones unturned. trialised countries (NICS) as a counter to pursue and rely upon prevention Taken together, these points reiterate the argument to the above claims. Without more than relief. Furthermore, I am not fact that relief will always be needed and a doubt, the 'economic miracles' of the denying that many forms of inrer- I Winter 1998 53 national disaster prevention are facilely 1979, The Environment as Hazard, The Haas, R.W. Kates, and M.J. Bowden obtained and fairly effective. Infor- Guilford Press, New York. (eds.), The MIT Press, Cambridge, pp. mation gleaned from early warning Campbell J.R. 1990, 'Disaster and 261-293. systems, for example, can be shared and Development in Historical Context: Kennedy I? 1993, 'Preparing for the used with little or no cost. Tropical Cyclone Responses in the 21st Century: Winners and Losers', New What I have tried to convey is that Banks Islands, Northern Vanuatu', York Review of Books, 11 Februlry, in the Third World-where the reduc- International Journal of Mass Emergen- Arco Press, New York, pp. 3241. tion of disasters is most needed-the ciesandDisarters, Vol. 8, No. 3, pp. 401- Kent R.C. 1987,Anatomy ofDisaster sole reliance on a policy of prevention 424. Relief, Pinter Publishers, New York. may not, however ironically, be totally Committee on International Disas- Lechat M.F. 1990, 'The International advantageous. Scholars and practitioners ter Assistance 1979, Assessing Interna- Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction: would be well advised to recall that what tional Disaster Needs, National Academy Background and Objectives', Disasters, works and is possible in industrial of Sciences, Washington, DC. Vol. 14, No. I, pp. 1-6. countries might not be appropriate or Cuny F. 1983, DisastersandDeuelop- Macalister-Smith P 1985, Internat- applicable in developing nations. ment, Oxford University Press, NY ional Humanitarian Assistance: Disaster In the mean time, then, while we wait Davis I. 1977, 'Emergency Shelter', Relief Actions in International Law and for and hopefully encourage and facili- Disasters, Vol. 1, No. 1, pp. 23-40. Organisation, Martinus Nijhoff Pub- tate prevention through mitigation and De Vattel E. 1916, Les Droit des lishers, Boston. development in poorer nations, let us Gens; ou Principles de la Loi Naturelle, Marshall M. 1979, 'Natural and approach catastrophes in a more bal- Appliques a la Conduite et aux Affaires Unnatural Disaster in the Mortlock anced fashion. After all, if our goal is to des Nations et des Souverains, Carnegie Islands of Micronesia', Human Organ- counter the devastating outcomes of Institution of Washington, Washington. isation, Vol. 38, Fall, pp. 265-272. disaster, prevention and relief are clearly De Ville de Goyet C., del Cid E., McEntire D.A. 1997, 'Reflecting on two important sides of the same coin. Romero A., Jeannee E. and Lechat M. the Weaknesses of the International Applying these dual responses appro- 1976, 'Earthquake in Guatemala: Epi- Community During the IDNDR: Some Opriately to calamities is the major demiologic Evaluation of the Relief Implications for Research and its opportunity before us as we wind down Effort', Bulletin of the Pan American Application', Disaster Prevention and the United Nations International Health Organisation, Vol. 10, No. 2, pp. Management,Vol. 6, No. 4, pp. 221-233. Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction 95-109. McLuckie B.F. 1977, Italy,Japan, and and prepare for the coming century Dynes R.R. 1972, 'Cross Cultural the United States: Effects of Centralisation Studies of Disaster', in Proceedings ofthe on Disaster Responses 1964-1969, The References Japan-United States Disaster Research Disaster Research Center Historical and Anderson M. B. and Woodrow PJ. 1991, Seminar: Organisationaland Commun- Comparative Disasters Series, No. 1, 'Reducing Vulnerability to Drought and ity Responses to Disasters, Disaster Disaster Research Center, Ohio State Famine: Developmental Approaches to Research Center, Ohio State University, University, Columbus. Relief Disasters', Disasters, Vol. 15, No. Columbus, pp. 235-256. McLuckie B.F. 1970, A Study of 1, pp. 43-54. Green S. 1977, IntemationalDisaster Functional Response to Stress in Three Anderson M. B. and Woodrow PJ. Relief: Towards a Responsive Systenz, Societies, Dissertation, Ohio State 1989, Risingfrom the Ashes: Development McGraw-Hill Company, New York. University, Columbus. Strategies in Kmes ofDisasters, Westview Guarnizo C.C. 1993, 'Integrating Mitchell WA. 1977, 'Partial Recov- Press, Boulder. Disaster and Development Assistance er/ and Reconstruction after Disaster: Bolin R.C. and Trainer PC. 1978, After Natural Disasters: NGO Res- The Lice Case', Mass Emergencies, Vol. 'Modes of Family Recovery Following ponse in the Third World', International 2, No. 4, pp. 233-247. Disaster: A Cross-National Study', in Journal ofMass Emergencies and Disas- Olson R. and Olson R.S. 1977, 'The Disasters: Theory and Research, E. L. ters, Vo1. ll, NO. I, pp. 273-87. Guatemala Earthquake of 4 February Quarantelli (ed.), Sage, Beverly Hills, Heath R. 1995, 'The Kobe Earth- 1976: Social Science Observations and pp. 233-247. quake: Some Realities of Strategic Research Suggestions', Mass Emergen-

Borton J. 1993, 'Recent Trends in the Management of Crises and Disasters', cies, Vol. 2, No. 2, pp. 69-81. ! International Relief System', Disasters, Disaster Prevention and Management, Quarantelli E. L. 1997, 'Problem- I Vol. 17, No. 3, pp. 188-201. Vol. 4, No. 5, pp. 11-24. atical Aspects of the Information/ I Brown B.J. 1979, Disaster Prepared- Hewitt K. (ed.) 1983, Interpretations communication Revolution for Disaster ness and the United Nations: Advanced of Calamity, Allen & Unwin Inc., Planning and Research: Ten Non- Planning for Disaster Relief, Pergamon Boston. technical Issues and Questions', Disaster Press, New York. Hyder M. 1996, 'From Relief to Prevention and Management, Vol. 6,No. Brown B.J. 1977, 'The United Development: Food for Work in Bangla- 2, pp. 94-106. Nations and Disaster Relief in the Sahel, desh', Disasters, Vol. 20, No. 1, pp. 21- Quarantelli E. L. 1993a, 'The Envir- 1973-75', Disasters, Vol. 1, No. 2, pp. 33. onmental Disasters of the Future Will 145-150. Isbister J. 1993, Promises Not Kept: Be More and Worse but the Prospect is BrownB.J.,Tuthill J.C. and Rowe E.T. The Betrayal of Social Change in the Not Hopeless', Disaster Prevention and 1976, International Disaster Response: Third World, Kumarin Press, West Management, Vol. 2, No. 1. The Sahelian Experience, Graduate Hartford. Quarantelli E. L. 1993b, 'Converting School of International Studies, Univer- Kates R.W 1977, 'Major Insights: A Disaster Scholarship into Effective sity of Denver, Denver. Summary and Recommendations', in Disaster Planning and Management: Burton I., Kates R.W and White G.F. Reconstruction Following Disaster, J. E. Possibilities and Limitations', Inter-

Australian Journal of Emergency Management nationaljournal ofMass Emergencies and Spencer H.C., Romero A,, Feldman 22nd Annual Hazards Research and Disasters, Vol. l I, No. 1, pp. 15-39. R.A, Campbell C.C., Zeinssig O., Applications Workshop, Denver, Color- Russell J. 1997, 'Disaster Resistant Boostrom E.R. and Long E.C. 1977, ado, 15 July. Communities: Common Denominators 'Disease Surveillance and Decision- UNA-USA Policy Studies Panel on and Uncommon Benefits', paper presen- Making after the 1976 Guatemala Earth- International Disaster 1977, Acts of ted at the 22nd Annual Hazards Re- quake', The Lancet,July 23, pp. 181-184. Nature, Acts of Man: The Global Res- search and Applications Workshop, Taylor A.J. 1979, 'Assessment of ponse to Natural Disasters, S.D. Scott Denver, Colorado, 14 July. Victim Needs', Disasters, Vol. 3, No. 1, Printing Co., New York. Shaw R. 1979, 'Health Services in pp. 24-31. Varley A. 1994, Disasters, Develop- Disaster: Lessons from the 1975 Viet- Tidemann H. 1992, 'Disaster Preven- ment and Environment, John Wiley & namese Evacuation', Military Medicine, tion and Mitigation: Some Prerequis- Sons, New York. Vol. 144, No. 5, pp. 307-311. ites', Disaster Prmention and Manage- Wauty E., de Ville de Goyet C. and Sinha D.K. 1992, Natural Disaster ment, Vol. 1, No. 1. Chaze S. 1977, 'Social Integration Reduction for the Nineties: Perspectives, Tucker C. 1997, 'international Per- Among Disaster Relief Volunteers: A Aspects, and Strategies, International spectives on Hazards, Disasters and Survey', Mass Emewncies, Vol. 2, No. Journal Services, Calcutta. Sustainability', paper presented at the

New publications

Aviation an effective plan of action in the event case studies and a national workshop of a disaster. Large businesses recognise to trial the revised methodology. Working safely with aircraft: for these reasons and employ risk manage- Detailed outcomes of the project and emergency services personnel ment personnel or engage outside case studies are available on the Dept of Natural Resources and professional consultants. Smaller organ- accompanying CD-ROM. A separate Environment, Melbourne, Victoria, isations have difficulty with the financial report on the national workshop has 1997, Video no. 275 requirements of a professional dedicated also been produced (75 pages). Every day throughout Australia, staff and outside consultants. emergency services personnel work This publication will greatly aid the Australian coastal vulnerability with aircraft, conducting a variety of business executive to either develop a assessment workshop report roles bothairborne and on the ground. Business Continuation Plan or under- Waterman, Peter This video provides instructions in stand and enhance the plan that has Dept. of the Environment, Sport and how to safely work in the aircraft already been developed for the business Territories, Canberra, 1996 environment, enter and depart heli- (79 pages). 333.91714 AUS copters and fixed wing aircraft, load The Intergovernmental Panel on personnel and equipment aboard Coastal Zone Management Climate Change (1PCC)has identified aircraft, operate emergency equipment Australian coastal vulnerability climate change as likely to have and respond to emergency procedures, assessment project report significant adverse impacts on the protect yourself if caught in a fire- Waterman. Peter economic, cultural and natural values bombing drop zone, marshall heli- Department of the Environment, of the coastal zone in many nations. copters and assist with sling load Sport and Territories. Canberra, 1996 Trials of the (IPCC) Common Meth- operations, assist with aircraft re- 333.91714 AUS odology for Vulnerability Assessment fuelling operations and load fixed wing The Intergovernmental Panel on Cli- in Western Australia, Cocos islands firebombing aircraft. mate Change (1PCC)has identified and Kiribati as well as case studies of Business Recovery climate change as likely to have signifi- other nations have identified major cant adverse impacts on the economic, weaknesses in the methodology. Is your business ready for the cultural and natural values of the coastal In 1993 Australia presented a next disaster? zone in many nations. Trials of the revised methodology to the World Henderson, Douglas M (IPCC) Common Methodology for Coast Conference held in the Nether- Dorrance Publishing Co., Pittsburgh, Vulnerability Assessment in Western lands which attempted to address these Pa.. 1996, 658.477 ISY Australia, Cocos islands and Kiribati as weaknesses. This report summarises a There are sound business reasons for well as case studies of other nations have national workshop supported by the developing a Business Continuation identified major weaknesses in the Commonwealth Government as part Plan. Financial reasons include the methodology In 1993 Australia pre- of its Climate Change and Coastal more rapid restoration of business sented a revised methodology to the Action Programs to trial the revised activities and the mitigation of dam- World Coast Conference held in the methodology. age.Thesafetyof employees and other Netherlands which attempted to address A separate project report is avail- individuals is important. Negligence in these weaknesses. This report summar- able and detailed outcomes of the this latter area can result in litigation ises a project in which, as part of its project and case studies are available with direct financial consequences to Climate Change and Coastal Action on a CD ROM produced in con- the business. There are other moral Programs, the Commonwealth Govern- junction with the project report (51 and sometimes legal reasons for having ment supported a series of nation-wide ~"4.

Winter 1998 5 Urban flood damage greenhouse conditions: what does it mean for policy

by D. I. Smith, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies. Australian National University

Introduction Presented at the Conference on Climate Commonwealth Department of Envir- There is little doubt that the study of Change and Water Resources, Asia-Pacific onment, Sport and Territories, as greenhouse-induced climates has con- '97, November 1&19. background against which to comment centrated upon the modelling of atmos- on the policy implications of potential phere-land-ocean interactions in order changes to urban flooding under green- The problem is similar at inter- to improve our understanding of what house climate induced scenarios. Neith- national level. The IPCC has only is still a very uncertain hydrological er the modelling of the flood hydrology recently produced a background volume future. The last few years have seen the nor their conversion to urban flood devoted to 'the economic and social first tentative steps to use these scien- damages under greenhouse conditions dimensions ofclimate change'(Bruce et al. tific scenarios to assess the socio- will be discussed in detail in this account, 1996), this covers both costs of abate- economic impacts on communities.The other than to report that the hydrology ment as well as impacts. As we shall see, proceedings of the two organised combined the use of conceptual rain/ the volume has relatively little to say symposia, held in 1987 and 1994 (Pear- runoff model (IHACRES) with a about greenhouse climate impacts on man, 1988 and Bouma et al. 1996), rank stochastic weather generator and that specific facets of the socio-economic highly as early studies of this kind. the flood damages were assessed using world. In addition, the IPCC has However, even these seminal publics- an established computer package published a technical report of climate tions tend to address the topic in a (ANUFLOOD). The technical aspects change and adaptations which provides manner that is heavy on science and light and detail of the results are described in 'pidelines for assessing climate change on policy. There are many reasons why Smith et al. (1997). Immodestly, the impacts and adaptations'(Carter et al. greenhouse climate scenarios have yet authors of the report consider that the 1994). This is useful in giving an outline to receive any rigorous link to policy methodologies used are the equal of any to possible methodologies but lacks Three major handicaps are: elsewhere! That the scenarios are surrounded by specific illustrative examples. The account that follows is limited uncertainty and focus on what Bacuround to methodology to a consideration of the possible effects happens under double C02 con- The climate scenarios employed were and possible policy responses to the ditions, the date for which is also those given in CIG (1996) which are most recent lPCC (1996) climate uncertain but for convenience in this based on IPCC (1996) but modified for change scenarios for urban flood losses account will be taken as about 2070. application in Australia. The modelling in Australia. This, it can he correctly This is a long time horizon when was undertaken for three catchments argued, is a narrow topic but it does compared to that usually considered that contain existing flood prone urban provide an example of the complex by decision-makers charged with communities. The case study urban nature of policy responses to greenhouse policy formulation locations were for Queanbeyan and climate impacts. It is also of interest The implementation of cnviron- Canberra (essentially in the same because the effects of climate change on mental policies formulated by Com- catchment), for the Hawkesbury- extreme meteorological-linked natural monwealth and State governments Nepean corridor (that includes Penrith, hazards have been highlighted, mainly falls upon local government author- Richmond and Windsor) and for the by GCM modellers, as of special ities, their resource base (technical highly urbanised Upper Parramatta concern. A useful background to this and financial) is often inadequate to River catchment. It is pertinent to note subject is given in Climate change and meet such demands. that all these fall within a region for extreme events - altered risk, socio- Even if the scenarios had less uncer- which the CIG (1996) climate scenarios economic impacts andpolicy response by tainty the socio-economic impacts are identical. The modelling concen- Downing et al. (1996). However, with haveacomplexity that is just as great trated upon 'the most wet' and 'most minor exceptions, that study is lacking as that facing climate modellers. dry' extremes for the year 2070, assumed in detailed case studies of the impact of However, the research funds avail- to be close to double present CO, extreme events that can form asolid base able to assess the socio-economic concentrations. on which to consider policy responses impacts are paltry in comparison. The estimation of direct flood other than in the most general way Australia has no greenhouse research damage (resulting from the impact of institutions for such studies with a Greenhouse urban flooding: flood waters, sediment etc) was under- funding base comparable to that Australian case studies taken using widely accepted techniques. available to, say, CSIRO and the This account uses the results of a recent It gained from the availability of pre- Bureau of Meteorology research project, funded by the existing data bases that contained

56 Australian Journal of Emergency Management information on every individual building in the urban areas at risk. The data bases were unusual in that they extended well beyond the level of the probable maxi- mum flood (the theoretical worst case) under current climates. The analysis of damage also allowed for building failure from extreme flood events when the combination of velocity of depth of the flood waters exceeded the critical limits d I for lightweight structures. The databases Z I I I for Queanbeyan, Canberra and the 10 1m laa ium Return p~rlcdin years IMIJ Hawkesbury-Nepean were collected in the late 1980s to assist with the estima- Figure 1: Number of residential buildings in Figure 2: Direct flood damage to commercial tion of upstream dam failure. As a minor Queanbeyan at risk from over-floor inundation, buildings h the Hawkesbury-Nepean corridor. point, the data bases for these locations underpresent and for most wet 2070greenhouse under present conditions and for the mosf wet were not updated but all damage esti- climate scenario 2070 greenhouse climate scenario. mates are expressed in terms of mid- 1996prices. Unfortunately it has not yet proved possible to provide comparable damage estimates for the Upper Parra- matta, although the hydrological model- ling is complete and the changes under greenhouse scenarios have been estimated. The results The simplest single statistic to demon- strate the impact of greenhouse change is that for average annual damage (AAD). This integrates losses and probability of flood occurrence across Figure 3: Direct flood damage to residential Fieure- 4: Residential buildines- at risk from failure the whole range of flood frequencies. It buildings in Queanbeyan, under present con- in the Hawkesbury-Nepeanmnidor, underpresent can be equated with annual flood ditions and for the mosf wet 2070 greenhouse wnditions and for the most wet 2070~i~nhwse- insurance premium that would charged climate scenario climate scenario to provide flood cover for all buildings and contents (without allowance for although direct damages values are not similar graphs that can be presented for administrative charges, profit etc). It is yet available. the case studies. They show the effect pertinent to note that members of the The significance of Table 1 is that that double C02has, for floods of Insurance Council of Australia have even for locations within the same differing recurrence interval, on the never offered flood cover for dwellings regional greenhouse climate scenario the numbers of buildings at risk, for direct or small businesses. The results for the adverse effects are markedly different. damage and the implications for building case study locations are presented in This reflects both the different hydro- failure under extreme flood conditions. Table I, the losses are restricted to those logical responses for the catchments and For each locality comparable graphs can for direct damage i.e. due to the contact the type and height distribution of be produced for the residential, commer- of flood waters with building fabric and buildings. cial and industrial sectors; for ease of contents. For flood prone Toongabbie Figures 1 to 4 compare, in graphical presentation the latter two have been in the Upper Parramatta River catch- form, other aspects of the most wet combined. The flood damages presented ment, current losses would increase, double CO, climate scenario for 2070 are restricted to those for direct flood under worst case greenhouse 2070 with those for present flood hydrology. damage i.e. contact of flood waters and scenario, by a factor of about 2.5 These are selected on from a range of their contents to building fabric and

Average annual direct flood damage

Present conditions Worst case double CO,

Canberra 0.007 1 7 I 0.001 I 0.07 1 : I Hawkesbury-Nepean I <:/ 2.34 14.29 8.91 All figures in $rn at rnid-1996 values Table 1: Average annual direct flood damage hr Queanbeyan, Canberra and the ~~~~~~~~~~Nepean mnidor under present day and mosf wet double CO, (2070) climates

Winter 1998 57 contents. In Figure 1 the number of year flood event would likely cause the require an understanding of current buildings illustrated are those that would failure of about 70 such dwellings in the policy. A recent detailed review for experience over-floor inundation, Hawkesbury-Nepean corridor. For the Australia is available in Smith et al. although the direct damage data incor- equivalent worst case 2070 flood, this (1996) and an extensive international porates the losses from over-ground increases to about 1200. It is not comparison of policy style in May et al. flooding i.e. limited to building grounds. suggested that this result should be (1996). For Australia the starting point To obtain estimates of total urban extrapolated to other flood prone urban is that water resources, including flood damage it is necessary to add in- areas, chis is because the flood height floodplain management, are constitu- direct and intangible flood losses to range for the Hawkesbury-Nepean is tionally the responsibility of the States. direct flood damage. Indirect losses are exceptionally high. The increase in flood Although each State government takes essentially due to disruption and would height from the 1-in-20 to the 1-in-100 a different stance to floodplain manage- include the costs of alternative resi- year at Windsor is in excess of 10 metres ment, the role of local government dential accommodation and loss of with a comparable rise between the 1- authorities (LGAs) in all States is of profit for the commercial-industrial in-100 and the probable maximum flood. major importance. There are about 900 sector. These are not specifically consid- It does, however, represent a significant LGAs in Australia and likely about half ered in this account since the normal factor for urban floodplain and emer- of these would have an urban flood manner to estimate indirect losses is as gency management under both current problem of some kind. It could be a proportion of direct losses. Intangible and greenhouse flood regimes. Quean- argued therefore, that there are several losses (not easily or sensibly expressed beyan exhibits similar, but less dramatic, hundred different versions of floodplain in monetary terms) are an additional loss changes in the potential for building management and policy in the Corn- and in cost benefit analysis are usually collapse. In contrast, many inland monwealth, each of which has an unique expressed qualitatively. One category of locations in both New South Wales and blend of flood hydrology and damage intangible flood losses is the stress- Queensland experience flood height profiles! related effects on health, another is the ranges of only a metre or so and green- Discussion can, however, gain by potential for fatalities associated with house change would have insignificant focussing on New South Wales and building collapse under extreme flood effects on failure potential. Queensland, if only because those two conditions. States have approximately equal shares The socio-economic Notwithstanding the unique features in the 85% or so of existing flood prone scenarios and response of each and every urban flood prone buildings in Australia, the national The uncertainty of the scenarios and the location, the salient feature of the situation is reviewed in Smith (1996). hydrological modelling apart, the infor- illustrative material is that there is a This review serves to highlight the policy mation given in Table 1 and Figurer I to sharp increase in number of flood prone differences between States. New South 4 provides a basis on which to consider buildings (and therefore in flood dam- Wales has State guidelines for urban how urban floodplain managers and ages) at around the level of the I-in-I00 floodplain management that match policy makers may respond. These can year ARI flood under present condit- world best practice, it has steadfastly be considered as socio-economic impact ions. This has a form similar to that of a promoted these policies for some scenarios comp&able to the climate step function. Any increase in flood twenty years. There are incentives for scenarios of GCM modellers. In sum- frequency therefore, causes develop- LGAs to prepare and implement locally- mary the scenario for impacts is: ments positioned just above the level of there are differences in the estimates based floodplain management usually the current 1-in-100 year flood line to incorporated into local $arming con- of future flood loss even between become exposed to significantly greater trols, invariably based on the 1-in-100 catchments in the same greenhouse risk. For the case study areas, this l-in- year designated flood. In addition, flood climate region 100 year'step'corresponds to the annual mitigation measures have often been under worst case 2070 conditions recurrence interval level used as 'the introduced at LGA level to reduce flood there are major increases in the designated flood line'. The designated losses to existing flood prone develop- numbers of buildings at risk and flood line is the level at which land use ments. However, the attainment of this therefore in damage controls are placed on new devel- high standard of urban floodplain under the most dry option all forms opments. This is the case for New South management has required the provision of flood damage would be similar to, Wales and the Australian Capital Terri- of considerable financial and technical or slightly less than, those ex- tory, in which the case studies are resources and, at times, prompted fierce perienced with present day flood located. The 1-in-100 year designated political confrontation between State frequencies flood line is also commonly used government and LGAs. It is often said for some existing flood prone urban worldwide as the designated flood line, that there are no votes in the intro- developments the risk of building albeit often without any sound hydro- duction of locally-based planning failure under the most wet scenarios logical or reasoning. controls to limit flood-prone develop- is unacceptable Figure 4, which shows changes to the hydrological analysis suggest that ment. residential building failures for the In contrast, Queensland has no State even under the worst case the major Hawkesbury-Nepean corridor, requires policy or guidelines for urban floodplain changes are likely to occur after the some additional explanation. The major- management. It is solely a matter for year 2030 i.e. before 2070. ity of the potential failures are to single individual LGAs, some have excellent storey, detached, weatherboard dwel- Current Australian urban floodplain locally-based manacement- but the lings that are a relatively common house management and policy majority have only the most skeletal I type in older urban areas in Australia. The policy response to socio-economic framework. This leads ro an escalating Under present conditions a 1-in-100 scenarios for greenhouse urban flooding problem in vulnerability and damage

Australian Journal of Emergency Management potential. For instance, the Gold Coast out of 671 responses were in the categ- both to strategies to reduce emissions has several thousand dwellings at risk, ory of 'actual policy change'. Intuitively, and how to cope with potential impacts. virtually all of which have been built it is unlikely that these responses have Bruce et al. (1996) contains simple since the major flood of 1974, for which changed much since the early 1990s. definitions: good quality maps of the limits of The survey suggested that most res- the 'no regrets option can be regar- inundation are available. pondents considered that the federal ded as 'measures worth doing Thus, theoretically NSW could government should take the respon- anyway' (p. 15) modify its State policy guidelines to take sibility for greenhouse policy planning. the 'precautionary principle' 'can be account of greenhouse effects and Understandable though this may be, the stated as a means 'to invest more than encourage LGAs to incorporate such responsibility for implementing policy would otherwise have been invested' future change into their local controls. would remain with the LGAs. in order to '... enhance the econ- In Queensland this is still a matter for Scientific and media reporting of omy's ability to adapt shouldclimate LGAs, most of which see the imposition potential greenhouse effects continues change damages occur'(p.26). of floodplain management controls as a without any sign of diminishing. How- These two policy approaches to barrier to local development. It is ever, the scientific community should possible greenhouse changes to urban possible that Queensland may introduce understand that the frequency with flood damage provide more scope that state guidelines and policy, if this were which the climate scenarios change does the pessimistic background to response the case consideration might be given to not instil confidence or act as a spur to outlined above. The precautionary including potential greenhouse effects. action at LGA level. To take a simple principle accords with Australia's over- Even if there were much improved illustration: the CIG (1992) range in arching environment policy of 'eco- certainty of change to the designated 1- winter rainfall change for 2070 is given logically sustainable development'. This in-100 year flood line under greenhouse is -20 to +20% of present, CIG (1996) is a policy accepted by all tiers of conditions, the response is not a simple gives this as -10 to +lo%, the corres- government i.e. at Commonwealth, matter of 'changing the line'. Designated pondingsummer changes are 0 to +40% State and local government levels. flood lines were the result of major and (1992) to -10 to +lo% (1996). These As postulated, the general approach fierce argument and, having agreed to a illustrations all refer to the region in of LGAs to planning for the future of line, any further change would cause which the case studies are located. The flood prone urban developments is not major distortions to the prevailing 1987 scenario (used in Pearman, 1988) one of enthusiasm for change.Thereare property market. Certainly the present suggested 'higher spring, summer and however, exceptions and these are often degree of uncertainty makes any such autumn rainfalls by up to 50% in those where the professional staff are con- response most unlikely. It is the LGAs regions deriving such rain from southern cerned over duty of care and persuade that need to be persuaded of the need penetration of tropic-subtropical air the elected representatives that this a for change, although in NSW the State during the Australian monsoon season' shared responsibility. For such LGAs government has some leverage in part and 'winters will he generally 20% drier'. future adverse greenhouse effects due to its willingness to assist with the LGAs have many urgent priorities provide additional information to funding of flood studies and mitigation that clamour for their attention. For implement changes that represent sound measures for the LGAs that adopted those who practice sound floodplain and effective floodplain management State guidelines for sound floodplain management, modifications to match under present climate conditions, the management. These are described in the the continually changing greenhouse effects on uncertain greenhouse futures NSW Floodplain Development Manual science scenarios targets are under- would be a bonus. (1986). standably accorded a low priority. Those The most likely response is to LGAs with only minimal regulations improve the current flood warning Local Government response under current conditions are even more system in order to lessen the effects of The only detailed survey of which I am unlikely to change their practices in the floods on the community at risk. This aware that considers the response of light of current greenhouse scenarios. has the advantage that it is likely to have LGAs for planning and greenhouse is by Undoubtedly the translation of a favourahle cost-benefit ratio regardless Zehner (1991). In 1990, he conducted a greenhouse climate to socio-economic of the inclusion of greenhouse effects. postal questionnaire survey (addressed scenarios should be supported by federal This however, is not an easy task as a to the 'Chief Town Planner') of all LGAs agencies but, even with increased 'flood warning system'includes not only in Australia (some 900) and obtained a certainty of possible adverse effects, the hardware and forecast of flood response rate of about 75%. The two policy change at LGA level is difficult heights but requires improvements in most important environmental issues to implement. It should be remembered community awareness and response. for LGAs, regardless of any greenhouse that probably half of all LGAs in Such improvements to flood warning change, were 'drainagelwater runoff' Australia are lucky to have a single systems are a prime example of the no I and 'flooding', mentioned by 75% and professional on their council staff - regrets policy style, they would he 62% of respondents respectively. App- invariably a harassed engineer who advantageous to all the case studies roximately half of the responses indi- doubles as the 'planner'. described. cated thatgreenhouse climate effects are The potential for building failure expected in Australia. However, 50% of 'No regrets' and the with its associated risk to life, clearly LGAs had no interest in 'long term 'Precautionary Principle' demonstrated for the Hawkesbury- changes in climate', 39% had 'some 'No regrets' and the 'Precautionary Nepean, requires a different policy interest' and only 1 I% had taken action Principle' are two policy stances that response. In the author's opinion, the to provide discussion papers, to propose have emerged as key words in the risk of such failure under extreme or implement policy changes. Only 15 greenhouse policy literature. They apply current conditions is unacceptable, it is I Winter 1998 59 a question not of if such failure will consider separately the most wet and Carter T.R., Parry M.L., Harasawa occur but when. If it were to be tomor- most dry cases. H. and Nishioka S. 1996, The IPCC row, there is no question that much Despite differences in the climate Technical Guidelines for Assessing Cli- more severe building regulations would scenarios used, all these earlier studies mate Change Impacts and Adaptations, be immediately implemented, in the indicate that urban flood losses are likely University College London and Centre worst event from the Coroner's Court. to increase under greenhouse climates. for Global Environmental Research, The worst-case failure with the 2070 London. greenhouse scenario is completely Conclusions and recommendations Climatic Impact Group 1992, Cli- unacceptable. In this case, judicious use The methodology to investigate the mate Change Scenarios for the Australian of the 'precautionary principle' repre- impact of future greenhouse climate Region, CIG, CSIRO Division of sents the favoured path, this could take change on urban flood damages outlined Atmospheric Research, Melbourne. the form of changes to building regu- in Section 1 is put forward as the best Climatic Impact Group 1996, Cli- lations in flood prone areas. currently available. However, the uncer- mate Change Scenarios for the Australian tainties and lack of local detail in the Region, CIG, CSIRO Division ol Greenhouse flooding studies: greenhouse scenarios and the problems Atmospheric Research, Melbourne. the literature of estimating the frequency of extreme Downing T.E., Olsthoorn A.A. and There are very few accounts in the events, question whether the figures for Tol R.S.J. (eds) 1996, Climatic Change literature that provide hydrological and changes in flood loss are adequate to and Extreme Events: Altered Risk, Socio- socio-economic information on urban form a basis for future policy change. economic Impacts and Poliq Responses, flooding under greenhouse conditions Even discounting these formidable Vrije Universiteit, Amsterdam. that can be compared to those described limitations, any modification to current Fowler A.M. and Hennessy K.J, here. The IPCC study on economic and urban floodplain management and 1995, 'Potential impact of global warm- social dimensions succinctly comments policy is likely to be incremental. Policy ing on the frequency and magnitude ol (Bruce et al., p. 202, 1996) that: changes based on the no regrets and heavy precipitation', Natural Hazards, '... little information is currently precautionary principle are therefore, l I, pp.283-303. available regarding the socioeconomic recommended. These are also the most IPCC 1992, Climate Change 1992: impact change in the frequency and likely to be undertaken. the Supplementary Repon to the IPCC intensity of river floods' (see Arnell and The good news at national level is Scientif;cAssessment, Working Group I: Dubourg, 1994). that even the worst case scenarios Houghton J.T., Callender B.A. and A study based on similar procedures represent only a tiny fraction of gross Varney S.K. (eds), Cambridge Univer- to those described here, for Limburg on national product although there may be sity Press, Cambridge. the River Meuse in the southern Nether- much trauma at local level for those IPCC 1996, Climate Change 1991: lands, is reported by Penning-Rowsell et directly affected by future adverse the Science of Climate Change, Working al. (1996). The changes to urban flood changes to river flooding. The bad news Group I, Intergovernmental Panel on damages by the year 2070 are estimated is that this study has been confined to Climate Change, Houghton J.T., Mein to be 2.2 larger than under present the changes in flood frequency to rivers Filho L.G., Callender B.A., Harris N. conditions. The Dutch study however, and possible effects on damage to urban Kattenberg A. and Maskell N. (eds), does not give the range for 'most dry' buildings and their contents: adverse Cambridge University Press, Cam. and 'most wet' climate scenarios. changes to flood frequencies have much bridge. Robinson (1988) used earlier, and wider implications. These range from May PJ., Burby R.J., Ericksen N.J. 'wetter scenarios' than used in this problems for urban drainage surcharge Handmer J.W, Dixon J.E., Michaels S report, to indicate the potential for major to the question of safety for hazardous and Smith D.I. 1996, Environments, changes to flood frequency for a variety dams. Management and Governance: Inter. of Australian catchments. These were Acknowledgements governmental Approaches to Hazards ana not directly converted to flood damage. This study is based upon research Sustainability, Routledge, London. Smith (1993) outlined methodologies to funded by the Atmospheric Protection Minnery J.R. and Smith D.I. 1996 assess urban flood damage but declined Program of the Commonwealth Depart- 'Climatic Change, Flooding and Urban to provide quantitative estimates as the ment of Environment, Sport and Terri- Infrastructure', in Greenhouse: Coping scenarios at that time were inadequate tories. This assistance is gratefully with Climate Change, Bouma WJ., Pear- for such prognostications. That method- acknowledged. The author has also man G.I. and Manning M.R. (eds) ology was used in Minnery and Smith drawn upon the results of his colleagues CSIRO Publishing, Melbourne, pp (1995) and forms the basis for the results work reported in that study 235-247. presented in this account. NSW 1996, Floodplain Dwelopmeni Minnery and Smith based their References Manual, report prepared by Public tentative assessment of greenhouse Bouma WJ., Pearman G.I. and Manning, Works Department of New South Wales changes to urban flood loss on the M.R. (eds) 1996, Greenhouse: Coping PWD Report No. 86010, Public Work! scenarios for changes to rainfall intens- with Climate Change, CSIRO Publish- Department, Sydney ity reported in Fowler and Hennessy ing, Melbourne. Pearman G. I. (ed) 1988, Greenhouse. (1995). The hydrological analysis used Bruce J.P, Lee H. and Haites E.F. Planning for Climate Change, CSIRC by Minnery and Smith is inferior to 1996, Climatic Change 1991: Economic Division of Atmospheric Research those reported here. The changes, based and Social Dimensions to Climatic Melbourne. on rainfall scenarios for the year 2070 Change, Working Group 111, Second Penning-Rowsell E. C., Handmer J resulted in a four-fold regional increase Assessment Report of IPCC, Cam- and Tapsell S. 1996, 'Extreme events anc in AAD; there was no attempt to bridge University Press, Cambridge. climate change: floods'in D0wningT.E.

Australian Journal of Emergency Management Olsthoorn A.A. and Tol R.S.J. (eds), implications', Climate Change, Vol. 25, J.M., Switzer M.A.D. and Williams B.J. Climate Change and Extreme Events: pp. 319-333. 1996, lssues in Floodplain Management: Altered Risk, Socio-economic Impacts and Smith D. I. 1996, 'Flooding in a Discussion Paper, National Landcare Policy Responses, Vrije Universiteit, Australia: Progress to the Present and Program, Department of Primary Indus- Amsterdam, pp. 97-127. Possibilities for the Future', in Heath- tries and Energy, Canberra, 2 vols. Robinson D. K. 1988, 'Greenhouse- cote, R.L., Cuttler C. and Koetz J. (eds), Smith D.I., Schreider S.Y, Jakeman its impact on Australian hydrology: Proceedings ofthe Conference on Natural A.J., Zerger A,, Bates, B.C. and Charles possible changes to flooding regimes', Diaster Reduction 1996, Surfers Paradise, S.I? 1997,Urban Flooding and Green- in Pearman G.I. (ed), Greenhouse 29 Sept-2 Oct, pp. 11-22. house-induced Impacts: Methodology and Planningfor Climatic Change, Division Smith D.I. 1996, National and State Case Studies, Report to DEST, Canberra. of Atmospheric Research, CSIRO, Residential Flood DamagesforAustralia, Zehner R.B. 1991, 'Environmental Melbourne, pp. 261-272. prepared for Insurance Council of priorities and the greenhouse: planning Smith D. I. 1993, 'Greenhouse Australia. at the local government level',Australian climatic change and flood damages-the Smith D.I., Handmer J.W, McKay Planner, Vol. 29, No. 1, pp. 33-38.

Flood Warning: Issues and Practice in Total System Design John Handmer (ed), Flood Hazard Research Centre, Middlesex University, 1997. By Dingle Smith, Centre for Resource and Environmental Studies Australian National University, Canberra The hazard of flood and the estab- Handmer and published by the Flood given the information that they would lishment of effective warning systems Hazard Research Centre at Middlesex then respond in an appropriate manner. are key concerns to emergency managers University in 1997 continues the theme Thus, if the extent of flood-prone worldwide. The search for an optimal initiated at Mt Macedon but within an lands were defined and forecasts of river solution is one of the many 'golden international context. It is based upon a height and time were available that the fleeces' of emergency management. An Workshop held in September 1995 and battle for effective emergency manage- unending quest for the system attended by some twenty flood warning ment was virtually over. That this is false is renewed with vigour after the occur- experts drawn from six countries. The is clear to anyone involved in emergency rence after each major devastating flood publication includes 16 papers presented management. Once the basic, and clearly event. In September 1990, AEMI spon- by those present and gives a background important, scientific information is sored a workshop at Mt Macedon to yet to flood warning systems from a variety available the problem really starts! No again consider the problem. This work- of countries. The Workshop used as its longer can those involved at the sharp shop assembled a wide range of stake- centre piece the EMA flood warning end of the process shelter behind the holders drawn from all three levels of guide, with major contributions from shield of 'we don't have the infor- government, from a range of govern- John Handmer, Jim Elliott and Chas mation', the task has becomes how can mental agencies and with a sprinkling of Keys who were members of the com- the information best be used? The researchers from academia. The meeting mittee that wrote and edited the EMA Australian guide stresses these aspects was seminal to the formation of a publication. Thus Australian emergency and classifies the steps into translation committee charged with producing a management and EMA can be justifiably of the technical forecast into terms that publication to promote better flood proud of the role they played in for- are appropriate for those at risk, fol- warning procedures in Australia. The warding the adoption of better flood lowed by how to efficiently disseminate outcome was the publication, in 1995, warning systems. the warning to those at risk, and then to of Flood Warnings: an Australia Guide. It is critical to understand that to give guidance as to what the appropriate (This publication can be obtained from attain effective flood warnings for response should be. These issues form the Information Centre at the Australian communities, that the provision of the the core of the Australian guide and were Emergency Management Institute, it is forecast is only the first step in a long the starting point for the international 3 free publication). chain of actions and feedback loops that meeting at Middlesex University. Thus for the first time there was a comprise the 'system'. Technological Several of the papers describe flood dear national statement of the path to expertise based on the sciences of warning practice in the United Kingdom be followed. As with all the golden meteorology and hydrology are neces- while others outline practice in other fleeces that together form the totality sary but could, in my opinion, be countries. I have sympathy for the 3f emergency management, it does not regarded as the easy part of the system. authors of these papers, as in each case sive all the answers and it is certain that Such expertise exists, the barrier is the it is necessary to describe the institu- the management of future flood events provision of resources (human and tional arrangements in which the flood will be far from perfect and EMA will financial) to install, maintain and warning system operates. This does not :onvene meetings to see where the flood interpret the information. Indeed, this make for easy reading, it is difficult warning systems went wrong. However, technocratic bias has for too long been enough to try and comprehend the t is an invaluable guide to the overall regarded as the cutting edge of emer- multi-organisational arrangements that xinciples that should be followed. gency management. For decades the operate in Australia. The overall im- Flood warn in^:- Issues and Practice in assumption, from the scientists in- pression is that the Australian pattern is Total System Design, edited by John volved, was that if the community were comparable to those elsewhere and

Winter 1998 better than many. For Australian readers challenge as '... to develop effective responsibilities of those involved in the account by Jim Elliott of the flood criteria for defining, designing and making the decisions to move such large warning arrangements in Australia assessing the performance of flood numbers of people. This paper is re- provides an excellent summary. There is forecasting and warning systems in printed, in full, in this journal. a strong impression that the situation is terms of warning and response'. Despite Flood Warnrng is available in the the United Kingdom is still strong on the problems involved, such evaluation AEMI library and provides a useful science and technology but that the presents the next stage of analysis of overview of the issues involved in aspects of dissemination and response, flood warning systems in Australia. designing and implementing a flood the core of emergency management, The problem with collections of warning system-that is the need tc leave much room for improvement. papers of this kind, and with Flood build on the technical flood forecasts ir Comparison of flood warning sys- Warnings: An Australian Guide, is that order to fully capture full benefits tha~ tems between nations will always be the overall approach to effective flood theoretically can accrue. It is good tosee handicapped by the problems of scale warning systems is described but the 'how others do it?' and to bask in the and of socioeconomic development. For limitation of space preclude the pro- reflected glory that the British work- the former, the sheer size of the problem vision of local examples of how specific shop, on which the publication was in China is breath-taking. The seven communities have managed to improve based, gained from the EMA publication major rivers that flow across the lowland dissemination or response. For the and the presence of Australian prac- heart of China have a flood-prone emergency management practitioner titioners in emergency management. We population that numbers several hun- such examples of good, or even bad, would do well to remember however dred million-with annual average practice would be invaluable in enhanced that our problem is small compared tc damage of many billions of dollars. The the effectiveness of flood warnings for Chinaor Bangladesh. There is still room account by Tong and Xiaogan is, there- their community. There is also a ten- for improvement in Australia in order fore, salutary for Australia readers where dency, especially in international forums, to move towards the golden fleece ol the population at direct risk from not to comment in any detail on what optimum and successful flood warnings flooding is less than a million! The went wrong so that we can all learn from for all communities at risk. We will never account of flooding in Bangladesh and the mistakes. The paper by Bezuyen et achieve a perfect solution but we can say Malaysia give indications of the prob- al. on flood management in the Nether- with honesty and pride that it is better lems, due to lower socioeconomic lands, and especially of the massive now than ever before! status, faced by developing nations. The evacuation undertaken in early 1995, is account for Malaysia, by Chan, is of of particular interest. The evacuation The publication is available from the: interest for the statistics it provides on involved the movement of 250,000 Flood Hazard Research Centre the proportion of households who were people from their homes. Technically Middlesex University warned of impending floods, further this was a successful operation the Queenmay, Enbeld EN3 4S< UK classified into who were actually flood- account however, gives a graphic des- Fax: f44 181 362 1403 ed, those were not etc. Sime sees the next cription of the problem of the roles and Cost: f2O Sterling

Expression of interest: rescue footage BBC Television's '999' program is appealing to rescue The theme of the new series is rescues of practically services throughout the world for help with a new anything-a burning building , confined space, car series called '999 International Rescue'. crash, sewer, flood, dangerous animals, people trapped Presented by well-known journalist Michael Buerk, in a subway and so on. The BBC would like to hear the emphasis in the show will be to use real actuality from any of the rescue services with video material footage of dramatic incidents and rescues, and combine which they think may be of interest, even if the footage that with specially shot interviews with survivors and has already been seen on television. rescuers. Apparently a fee will be paid for footage used in According to producer Martin O'Collins, UK fire the series. The BBC claims that the material will be and other rescue services have worked in the past with handled sensitively and shown only with the per- '999' to produce responsible programs that combine mission of those involved. dramatic footage of rescues (often shot by the rescue services themselves) with important safety infor- For details contact: mation. Martin O'Collins The BBC would like to establish a similar 999 International Rescue relationship with rescue services around the world. BBC TV Many services keepavideolibraryof material that they Whiteladies Road, Bristol BS8 ZLR, UK havc shot themselves, and many also keep recordings Tel: 44(0)1179732211 ext 47410 of dramatic rescues shot by local newsmen and in some Fax: 44(0) 1 179706036 cases bystanders. e-mail: [email protected]

Australian Journal of Emergency Management emergency management

by Murray Gillett, Senior Constable, New South Wales Police Service

ntroduction information gathered during the infor- such as the new development of resi- :nvironmental scanning is not new , mation collection phase. dential housing in east Albury. owever it is aprocess that is veryuseful The Southern Rivers Police Region The Hume Weir is undergoing $40 1 assisting emergency management covers 195,712 km2, from Goulburn to million in repairs to the wall after a crack olicy makers to make well-informed Alburyand Wentworth to Kiandra, with appeared. If the wall were to fail, the loss ritical decisions related to law a population of 358,060. The area is of life and damage to the local economy nforcement and emergency manage- largely rural with some large country would be devastating. lent issues across Australia. towns, including Wagga Wagga (pop. So what does it all mean? Environmental scanning is not only 52,197). The area is growingat 1.4% per The use of environmental scanning n analysis of our environment (water, annum. The local economy is booming revealed certain concerns, such as by the ir and land), but complex analysis of in Wagga Wagga, with a new industrial EPA in Albury, that if a bypass was ur working environment. Environ- estate going ahead at Bomen. constructed close to the township heavy iental Scanning makes predictions as to Eight major highways traverse the vehicles carrying chemicals and other .hat may or may not occur in the future. area, including the busy Hume and dangerous goods would be travelling at Environmental scanning within a law Newell highways, carrying cars, buses IOOkmh rather than the current 60kmh. nforcement environment is defined as: and heavy vehicles between Brisbane, If a heavy vehicle was to crash and spill Environmental scanning involves an Sydney and Melbourne. These roads its load the effects could be catastrophic. rumination offactors with the potential have accounted for many fatalities over The scan echoed the sentiments of 1 impact on the organisation's environ- the years, however both are continually emergency managers in Albury that a rnitat various levelsand may takea short being improved. Every 24 hour period, very real danger exists with the wall of r long timeframe, usually 3-1 years. It 5932 vehicles travel the Hume Highway. the Hume Weir. rvolves scanning, monitorins forecasting With the transportation of chemi- vdassessment ofthe organisation's envir- cals, fuels and other dangerous goods, Conclusion nment. Scanning is most usually des- there is a major disaster potential. Many 'To achieve your objective in this fast ibed as the process of sifring through potential disasters have been averted by paced, multi-national, information grious types of information and other a quick, professional emergency man- driven world, you need to know as much nclassijied information, from the mass agement response. as possible about what's going on, and ledia, opened source information and All towns on the Hume Highway what's likely to go on, throughout the !her unclassified information available will be bypassed in the near future. total environment in which you are I the general public. Currently there are two options available operating'. (Adopted from Herbert Scanningplaces emphasis on potential to bypass Albury. Meyer, Real World Intelligence.) rther than its source. Breadth ofcoverage The Murray, Murrumbidgee, Dar- The unique characteristic of environ- a criticalissue, withall levels ofmaterial ling, Lachlan and Edwards Rivers flow mental scanning is that, when properly msidered. Environmental analysis through the area, playing an important carried out, it can effectively pinpoint wvider a glimpse of 'the real world'and role by supplying water to the irrigation emergency management concerns so lggests the future. (Adapted from the channels that service a multi-million that they can be prevented. Emergency efinition provided by Melinda Tynan dollar rice industry. management agencies can gauge the the Australian Bureau of Criminal The Murray River supplies water to magnitude, scope and potential threats. ~telligenceDigest, January 1996.) three states and over 1.25 million people This knowledge helps to plan the most living in the supply area. There are effective counter-measures. Environmental scanning: a partner- various weirs and 13 navigation locks on Environmental scanning can reveal ship between law enforcement and the river. There are three main dams in information from varying sources that emergency management the region: Burrinjuck (1,026,000 may otherwise been overlooked or may During 1997 the Southern Rivers Police megalitres), Blowering (1,631,390 not have even'been obtained. It may Region Commander, Chief Superinten- megalitres) and the large Hume Weir substantiate or refute a course of action dent Gollan commissioned an environ- (3,038,000 megalitres), with its 1.6 being taken by emergency management. mental scan of his region to assist him kilometre wide, 39 metre high concrete to prepare for impending change to the spillway. Incorporated in the structure References New South Wales Police Service in the is a 50 megawatt hydro-electric power Gillett M. J., Rochester M. and Jackson wake of the Wood Royal Commission. station.The rateand direction of run off S. 1997, Southern Rivers Region, Envir- The following information was from the weir will be determined by the onmental Scan. gathered from opened source material ever changing factors of the Albury- Australian Bureau of Criminal Intel- and is just a small example of the Wodonga economy and infrastructure, ligence Digest, January 1996.

Winter 1998 6. Diister events calendar

1998 Annual Conference Australasian The 7th Australian Earthquake Disaster Exercises: Planning and Fire Authorities Council Engineering Society Seminar Running an Effective Drill Hobart, Tasmania The Unlverslly of Western Australia, Edmonton, Alberta, Canada Contact: Perth Designed to improve emergency exercise Mr Rod Cuthbert or Mrs Margaret Kean, Theme: Meckering, 30 years on-how leadership skills through an in-depth Organising Committee, AFAC 1998 would we cope today? presentation of the planning process Conference, Tasmania Fire Service, Topics cover engineering, un-reinforced required to deliver effective mock disaster GPO Box 1526R, Hobart, Tasmania masonry, seismology hazards, disaster exercises. Covers table-top exercises, Tel: (03) 6230 8605, Fax: (03) 6230 8604 management and offshore earthquake command drills and full simulations. hazards (Tsunamis). Each participant will be given the hands-o opportunity to design their own exercise. Contact: 11th World Conference on Ctvil Mrs B. Butler Offered by: Protection, Beijing PO Box 829, Parkville, Vic 3052 Major Industrial Accidents Council of Canada (MIACC) Sponsor: Tel: (03) 9344 6712, Fax: (03) 9348 1524 or International Civil Defence Organization Peter Gregson, AGSO Mundaring Contact: Geophysical Observatory Linda Huskins, Manager of Events, Contact: Mundaring, WA 6073 MIACC, 265 Carling Avenue, Suite 600, ICDO, Chemin de Surville 10-12, e-mail: [email protected] Ottawa. Canada KIS 2E1 PO. Box 172. CH-1213 Petit-Lancv2. Tel: (613) 232 4435, Fax: (613) 232 4915 Geneva, Switzerland e-mail: [email protected] Tel: (44 22) 793 44 33 website: WWW: http://www.miacc.ca. Fax: (44 22) 793 44 28 Control of Communicable Diseases in Australia Conference Canberra, Australia 4th International Conference Marina Post-Disaster Management Under the auspices of the Communicable 98: Planning. Design and Operation in the Railway Industry Diseases Network Australia New Zealand Capelown, South AMca England (CDNANZ). Organised by: Contact: Contact: Sam Coghill or Denise Scholey Alison Milton, National Centre for Wessex Institute of Technology, A&M Transport Publishing Conferences Disease Control, MDP 6, Department of Southampton, UK. Alexandra House, 1-5 Alexandra Terrace Health and Family Services, Contact: Guildford. Surrey, GUI 3DA GPO Box 9848, Canberra, ACT 2601 Liz Kerr, Conference Secretariat, Tel: +44 (0) 1483 477417 Tel: (02) 6589 8245, Fax: (02) 6289 7791 Marina 98, Wessex Institute of Technolog Fax: +44 (0) 1483 533316 e-mail: [email protected] Ashurst Lodge, Ashurst, Southampton, e-mail: [email protected] SO40 7AA. UK Tel: +44(0) 1 703 293223 Fax: C44 (0) 1 703 292 853 The Role of Information Technology e-mail: [email protected] in Fire Management Australian Disaster Conference 1999: website: http://www.wessec.ac.uk 'Dlsaster Prevention in the 2ist San Dlego, California Century' Sponsor: Canberra, Australia University of California at Davis, with Sixth US-Japan Workshop on Contact: several federal and state agencies. Urban Earthquake Hazard Reduction Australian IDNDR Secretariat, Contact: PO Box 1020. Dickson ACT 2602 Mike McCoy Kobe, Japan Fax: (02) 6266 5029 Information Center on the Environment, Sponsors: email: [email protected] Department of Environmental Studies and Earthquake Engineering Research Institu Policy, University of California at Davis, (EERI) Committee on Urban Earthquakt Davis, CA 95616; (530) 754-9171. Hazard Reduction and the Japan lnstitutc of Social Safety Science Disaster Management: Crisis and Opportunity Contact: Susan Tubbesing, Executive Director, Calms, Australia Fire Australia 1998 'Caring for Our Community' EERI, 499 14th Street, Suite 320, Sponsor: Oakland, CA 94612.1934 Darling Harbour, Sydney, Australia Center for Disaster Studies, Tel: (510) 451 0905. Fax: (510) 451 541 1 James Cook University The theme focusses on protecting those e-mail: [email protected] Contact: who live and those who work in residential website: http://www.eeri.org. The Center for Disaster Studies, care and in hospitals from fire. PO. Box 681 I, James Cook University, Contact: Cairns, Queensland 4870, Australia Amy Hylands, Conference Secretariat, To have your event featured in this Tel: 07 4042 1215, Fax: 07 4042 1214 PO Box 1049, Box Hill, section, contact Rob Fleming by e-mail: [email protected] Victoria, 3128 Australia faxing (03) 5421 5273 or website: http://www.tesag.jcu.edu.au/cds/ Tel: (03) 9890 1544, Fax: (03) 9890 1577 e-mail: [email protected] cdsweb.htm. e-mail: [email protected]

64 Australian Joumal of Emergency Management