TR9700002 International Symposium and Field Seminar on Waters & Environmental Impacts

KARST SU KAYNAKLAR! XARST WATER RESOURCES

U K A M K A R S T ' 9 5

10-20 SEPTEMBER, 1995 BELDiBi - ANTALYA - International Symposium t Field Seminar on 'KarsI Waters I Environmental Impacts'. September 10-20, 1995 Antatya - TunXey

INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND FIELD SEMINAR ON KARST WATERS & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS

September 10-20,1995 Beldibi - Antalya, Turkey

ABSTRACTS

Compiled by:

Gultekin Gunay, Levent Tezcan, and A. Ozlem Atilla

Reviewed by Typed by Bakatowicz, M. Atilla, A. 0. Balderer, W. Qelik, H. Bayari, C. S. Demirci, N. Custodlo, E. Dogdu, M.?. Do§an, A. U. Eren, T. Ekmekci, M. Giiven, F. Ford, D. Meric, B.T. Gunay, G. Selquk, B. Johnson, A. 1. Tezcan, L. LaMoreaux, P. E. Sarin, A.

Tezcan, L. Yurtsever, Y Zojer, H.

Antalya, 1995

VOL M£WATfONALWMfHXfUh'A/Vl> ff£U> &MMAR'ON ftf&TWATe&fflt>eNmoNM£iJTALIMPACTS

September 10 - 20, 1995 Beldlbi - Antalya, Turkey

Organized bv;

Hacettepe University International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM)

Supported bv:

Hacettepe University International Association of Hydrogeologlsts International Association of Hydroiogical Sciences International Atomic Energy Agency Med-Campus Project 355 Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey Turkish Promotion Fund UNESCO, Division of Water Sciences UNESCO-IGCP Project-379 United Nations Development Program United Nations Environmental Program United Nations Natural Resources & Environmental Planning and Management Branch United States National Committee for Scientific Hydrology

International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resourcm (UKAM), Hacettepe University, 06532 Beytepe Ankara, Turkey • Phone +90 312 235 2543 • Fax +90 312 235 2862 • [email protected] International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

CONTENTS

KEYNOTE PAPER Legal aspects of karst areas and insurability P.E. LaMoreaux and H. LeGrand

COST ACTION 65 COST 65: Hydrogeological aspects of protection in karstic areas B. Biondic and A. Pulido-Bosch Karst groundwater protection: Hydrogeological criteria and recommended methodology M. Bakalowicz and F. Zwahlen

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS -1 Karst hydrogeology and environmental impacts of Pamukkale thermal springs 5 G. Giinay, §. §im§ek, N. Keloglu, M. Ekmekci, H. Elhatip, C. Ye$ertener, C. Dilsiz, and Z. Qetiner Al Mokattam city karst problems 6 /. M. EIRamly Main hydrogeological problems in the karstic of NE Bulgaria 6 M. Machkova, A. Pulido-Bosch, J.M. Calaforra, P. Penchev, M.L. Cab/ache, M. Lopez-Chicano, D. Dimitrov, andB. Velikov Environmental impacts of fly ash from coal fired power plants 7 A. U. Dogan, R. Rajagopal, and M. Dogan Environmental impact on the occurrence of groundwater in two different types of limestone terrains in Egypt 8 M. A. A. Sayed

ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF KARST The impact of karstic features on hydrology and groundwater resource for Precambrian limestone in India 9 P.K. Gupta and T.N, Singh Reservoirs in karst: Common watertightness problems 10 P. Milanovic Geotechnical constraints and remediation in karst terrane 10 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters

J. A. Fischer, J. J. Fischer, and R. Canace Estimation of large scale transmissivity and leakage of a reservoir through karstic terrain using piezometric data: A case in Northern 11 P. G. Marinos and M. Kavvadas Problems related to the regional water-level sinking in karstic aquifers caused by mining operations 12 /. Sarvary

RESEARCH METHODS Implications from results of continuous in-situ-measurements of dissolved carbon dioxide in karst aquifers 13 R. Benischke, T. Harum, W. Trettnak, and F. Reininger The use of well logging for the study of karstic water resources in Maharlu basin 13 A. Zamani and H. Rachi The application of geophysical methods for the analysis of subsurface karst structures 14 R. Muller

Groundwater - exchange in the unconfined karstified Floridan , a view from inside the aquifer with implications for groundwater protection 15 T. R. Kincaid Heat as a natural tracer: Characterization of a conduit network in a karst aquifer using temperature measurements of the water 17 M. Sauter and S. Renner The principles of search of karst, fracture and fracture-vein waters of the mountain folding zones 17 F. S. Aliev, I. f. Tagiev, and Y. D. Zamanov The resistivity method in karst media: Application to the Macic,o Calcario Estremenho (Portugal) 18 A. R. A. Afonso, F. A. M. Santos, andJ. A. Marques About construing data of seismic radioscopy between boreholes in karst rocks 18 S. I. Parfenov

Airborne remote sensing systems and usability at pollution research of karst water resources 19 M. Onder The study of engineering geophysics in karstic grounds and case studies 19 Z. Kamaci Monitoring of sea water intrusion zone along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey by means of geophysical techniques 20 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey

H. Elhatip Geoelectrical investigation of Beskonak head-reach tunnel 20 E. Barlas and M. Degirmenci Satellite image analysis of structural fabric controlling groundwater flow in Southwestern Taurus karst region 21 H. Koyuncu

TRACING TECHNIQUES The latest Paderborn tracing test (Northrhine Westphalia, FRG) 22 IV. Kitss and E.P. Lohnert 1 'racing techniques and hydrodynamique analysis in the karst 22 B.F. Mijatovic Stochastic modeling of single well tracer data in fractured rock . 23 W. Drost and L Kovac Guidelines for the quantity of dye needed for quantitative tracing to springs in carbonate rocks 24 S. R. H. Worthington, D. C. Ford, and C. C. Smart Interpretation of tracer experiments in the Danube-Aach system (Western Swabian Alb, Germany) with analytical models 24 A. Werner, H. Hotzland P. Maloszewski Karst aquifer regionalization in the Basque country (Northern Spain) 25 /. Antiguedad

HYDROCHEMISTRY Seasonal fluctuations and trends in the hydrochemical background of karst waters in some regions in Bulgaria 26 M. Machkova, D. Dimitrov, and B. Velikov The governing factors of the physical and hydrochemical characteristics of karst springs 26 E. Raeisi, F. Moore, and GH. Karami The influence of CO2-conversion on the dissolution kinetics of limestone and its consequences to the safety of sites 27 W. Dreybrodt

Hydrochemical assessment of Umm er Radhuma karstic aquifer in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia 28 Z §en

iii International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Kare( Wafers & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey

Hydrogeochemistry and karstification in the Cienaga de Zapata aquifer (Matanzas, Cuba) 28 J.R. Fagundo, I. Morell, J.E. Rodriguez Rubio, A. Pulido Bosch, M. Lopez Chicano, and M.L. Calvache The thermomineral springs blended to carbonate formations of Oran meseta (Algeria) 29 A. Issaadi and A. Haouchine The modern dynamics of the upper Ribeira karst, Southeastern Sao Paulo state, Brazil 29 /. Karmann and D. C. Ford Geochemistry of the from the Moneasa karst () 30 C. Marlin, L. Dever, P. Vachier, and L. Timofte Determination of CaO. MgO ratio from core drilling on karst water resources of Maharlu karst basin (SW Iran) 31 H. Kazemi Correspondence analysis for hydrochemical characteristics of karst water in Northern China 32 Y. Yuesuo and Y. Jiexin Study the migratory law and water bearing media characteristics of karst water by using mineral saturation index 32 W. Jintao Formation of sulfate-calcic waters in massif 32 K.A. Gorbunova, N.G. Maximovich

Forming of karst water composition by the technogenic factors 33 N. G. Maximovich, V. N. Kataev, S M. Blinov Algae: An important agent in of karstic : Observations on natural-bridge Yerkoprii travertines, Aladaglar, Eastern Taurids-Turkey 34 C.S. Bay an and T. Kurtta$ Hydrochemical characteristics of the karst groundwaters in Serbian Carpatho - Balkan ides 35 Z Stevanovic, V. Dragisic, and P. Papic

ENVIRONMENTAL ISOTOPES IN KARST Hydrodynamics of karst aquifer, island, Greece 36 M. Probst, H. Zojer, M. Knithakis, and W. Stickler Isotopic and hydrochemical significance of a karst aquifer within the semi-arid Datong coal mine area, China 37 / Zhitnuo, Z. Pingsheng, F. Rongan, F. Guangchan, and G. Weizu

IV International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karsl Waters & Environmental Impacts', September W - 20,1995 Antalya - Turkey

Environmental isotope study and 2-D modeling of cold and thermal karst within the Gemlik (Bursa) area of Northwestern Turkey 38 T. Eisenlohr, M. Pfister, and W. Balderer

Measurement of karst into the streamflow by means of natural oxygen-18 content: Case study of the Ermenek basin: Central Taurids-Turkey 38 C. Ye§ertener Regional of a Triassic artesian karst aquifer: mixing and age of spring waters in the Thuringian basin, Germany, estimated by isotope methods 39 P. G. Dietrich and D. Hebert Determination of the recharge area of springs in an Alpine region by applying a model using the altitude effects of specific discharge and oxygen-18-content 40 T. Harum and J. Fank Isotope hydrology study of the major areas of Paramithia and Koroni 41 /. L. Leontiadis, C. H. Smyrniotis, E. Nikolaou, and P. Georgiadis Environmental isotope study on karst water of a typical coal mine in North China 42 P. Shulan Stable isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in study of North Caucasus gypsum karst 43 Y.A. Federov Determination of karst groundwater flow systems of different origin by means of environmental isotope and hydrochemical data: The Lower Dalaman basin (Western Taurids-Turkey) 44 C. Ye§ertener Karst groundwater studies in Lamas region (Limonlu-Erdemli-Icel), Turkey 44 G. Yiice, N. Pelen, E. Onhon, M. Nazik, T. Karaogullanndan, and N. Baqaran

TRANSPORT PROCESSES Case studies of the subsurface pseudo-karst on preferential contaminant transport at the Savannah river site, South Carolina, USA 46 P. A. Thayer, M. K. Harris, and G. C. Blount Investigations of groundwater flow and solute transport in fractured rock at the Grimsel test site (Switzerland) 47 A. Keppler and W. Drost Bacterial and chemical contaminant transport tests in a c ^nfined karst aquifer (Danuba , Swabian Jura, Germany) 47 J. P. Orth, R. Netter, and G. Merkl Contaminant transport from leaky landfills in karst areas 48 M. Eiswirtn, H. Hotzl, C. Lazar, and G. P. Merkler Transport mechanism in the subcutaneous zone 50 International Symposium i Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey

H. Hotzl, B. Reichert and P. Trimborn

MODELING AND FLOW SYSTEMS Delineation of a carbonate-alluvial groundwater flow system using a mixing-cell model and the spatial distribution of deuterium 51 M. E. Campana and J. G. Roth Study on the pollution of fracture-karst water in Boshan district, Shandong province, China 51 X. Yu Zhu, N. Q. Zhou, and S. H. Xu Hydrology of Dreznicko in the karst () 52 O. Bonacci and K. Plantic Double continuum porous equivalent (DCPE) vs. discrete modelling in a karst terrane 53 G. Teutsch Hysteresis effect of karst vadose zone in Spring KR5, MT. Krauterin, Austria 53 D. Zhang, H. Fischer, B. Bauer, and C. E. Hamann On the karst spring discharge forecasting by the means of stochastic modelling 54 D. Dimitrov, M. Machkova, and G. Damyanov The karst springs in the Rhodopes mountain, Bulgaria 54 E. K. Bojilova Developments and achievements in the mathematical simulation of cave systems 54 L. F. M. Leon Computer simulation of the karst water table in the Transdanubian mountain ranges Hungary 55 A. Csepregi Modeling, exploration and development of deep water level confined karst water in Zhungeer coal district 56 L. Lian, B. Qingxiang, L. Wenbo, Y. Guijun, L Zengping, and Y. Jikun Determination of specific yield of a carbonate aquifer by analysis of discharge curves for wells and springs and laboratory tests 56 A. Kowalczyk and A. Witkowski Radial flow toward a karstic spring 57 Y.K. Birsoy Some important points in the evaluation of flow analyses in karst springs 57 S. Oran, O. Dumlu and A. Onak EBB and flow behavior of a karst spring, Kings national park, California 58 L. D. Urzendowski and J. W. Hess

VI International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20,199S Antalya - Turkey

KARST MORPHOLOGY AND PALEOENVIRONMENT Sannur Cave: A crescent shaped cave developed in Alabaster formation in Eastern Desert, Egypt 59 G. Giinay, F. El-Bedewy, M. Ekmekqi, S. Bayan and T. Kurtta§

Speleogenesis in the Miocene gypsum strata in the Western Ukraine as a governor of underground water exchange between aquifers in a storey artesian system 60 A. Klimchouk Paleoclimate and paleokarst in South Africa 61 A. Issar Environmental isotope uranium (U) in karst aquifer of Southwest Datong, China 61 G. Weizu, Z. Pingsheng, and C. Guangye Karst geomorphology and the exploitation of water resources in South China 62 S. Linhua

REGIONAL KARST SYSTEMS The origin of a high transmissivity zone in the Floridan aquifer system and its relevance to karst 63 A.F. Randazzo, G. Butler, C. Denizman, and R. Baker Peculiarities of karst water resources of the basin, their possible variability in future 64 V. S. Kovalevsky Hydrological balance in finding out the catchment area of major groundwater sources in the Donovaly area 65 P. Malik Groundwater velocities in low gradient, glaciated carbonate strata in Ontario, Canada 66 S. R. H. Worthing ton, D. C. Ford, andM. J. Buck Groundwater flow in a young karst terrane developed along a coastal setting, Northern Guam, Marina Islands 67 W. Barner Study the migration of pollutants in soil and groundwater 68 D. E. Legheraba, S. Belaadi, and M. Diboun Underground waters of carbonaceous rocks of the Great Caucasus and their hydrochemical peculiarities 69 E. M. Shekinski and A. B. Alekperov The hydrogeology of Upper Cretaceous limestone aquifer at Areif el-Naqa area, East Central Sinai-Egypt 70 E. A. Zaghloul, and M. S. Farid

vii International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey

Underground karst water circulation in Peloponnesus, Greece 70 C. Tavitian and L Tiniakos Hydrogeological investigation of Alashtar basin (West of Iran) 71 G. Giinay and M.R. Ahmadipour Comparing of hydraulic conductivity of carbonated rocks obtained by an empirical formula and field measurement 72 A. V. Aghassi and M. E. Saati Karst hydrogeology in Fengcong landscape of Xichou country, Southeastern Yunnan plateau 72 S. Linhua Thermal water in karst areas of China 73 W. Ji-Yang Karstic terrain and major karstic systems in Romania 73 /. Oraseanu, A. lurkiewicz Permeability and hydrodynamic behavior of a karstic environment 74 P. Y. Jeannin and A. Grasso Hydrogeological investigation of the karstic system within the tectonically complicated part of the Jura region of the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland 75 T. Herold, W. Balderer, and P. Jordan Determination of aquifer parameters by step pumping tests 75 Y. K. Birsoy and S. D. Qobanyildizi Karst hydrogeological investigation of the gypsum at near east of Sivas, Turkey 75 M. Degirmenci, F. Kaqaroglu, and O. Cerit Karstification around Bucak and surrounding area and problems arised 76 A. Bilgin, M. Ozkul, S. Ta§delen, and R. Karaguzel Indicator principal component kriging as a decision tool in assessing groundwater pollution 77 A. E. Tercan, C. Sarag, and D. Mamurekli Karst systems of Turkmenistan and karst hydrochemistry 77 B. Jumamuradov, S. Khasibulin, and T. Iskanderov

JAMES F. QUINLAN POLLUTION CONTROL AND KARST WATER PROTECTION SESSION Standard guide for the design of groundwater-monitoring systems in karst and fractured-rock aquifers: ASTM standard D 5717 78 J. F. Quinlan, M. R. McCann, and G. J. Davies

VIII International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters 4 Environmental Impacts; September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya - Turkey

Are deterministic numerical models helpful to delineate groundwater protection zones in karstic aquifers? 79 A. Dassargues and S. Brouyere

Factors controlling groundwater protection of the karst islands of Croatia 80 A. Sarin, V. Goatti, and D. Ivicic EPIK a methodology ror evaluating vulnerability of groundwater to contamination in karstic aquifer; its application on a test site in Swiss Jura 81 N. Doerfliger and F. Zwahlen Groundwater exploration in a confined karst aquifer of the Swabian Jura (Germany) 82 H. Behrens, W. Drost, W. Rauert, J. P. Orth, R. Netter, and G. Merkl

Synthesis of polymers for membrane preparation, polymer bulk modification for novel separations: Extraction of organics from waste aqueous solutions by pervaporation 83 Z. Bendjamaa, D. Legheraba, and R. Maachi Chemico-physical pollution in urban areas of groundwater flowing in a littoral carbonate aquifer 83 V. Cotecchia and M. Polemio Groundwater pollution in Iskenderun karst basin Southerstern Turkey 84 M. Ekmekgi, M. Degirmenci, B. Erduran, and O. F. Sevtik A Mechanism of reducing sulfur contents of coal by centrifugal-pneumatic communition 85 A.U. Dogan, P.B. Buter, andM. Dogan Complex refining of high mineral water and it's influence on the environment 86 B. Jumamuradov

An initial assessment of sanitary bacterial dynamics in the Castleton karst, Derbyshire, England 87 J. Tranter, J. Gunn, and C. Hunter The case for upland recharge area protection in the rocky mountain of the Western United States 88 P. W. Huntoon

ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS -11 The impacts of massive recent deforestation on the unconfmed karst aquifers of South China 90 P. W. Huntoon Discussion on geological-ecological environments and economic developmental ways -The karst regions in South China as the example- 90 L. Yaoru

IX International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

Importance of public awareness in improvement of effectiveness of karst groundwater protection studies 91 G. Giinay and M. Ekmekgi An example of regulation of karst aquifer 92 Z Stevanovic and V. Dragisk

A karst model ordinance 93 J. A. Fischer and D. Drewes Environmental impact on karstic aquifers in Istria in Western Croatia 94 K. Urumovic, T. Vazdar, D. Mayer, B. Hlevnjak, and I. Dragicevic Hydrogeological aspects of karstified aquifers and its environmental impacts in Eastern Desert-Egypt 94 J. Khalil and T. M. Hassan Investigations on the causes of salinity in karstic springs of Rahmat mountain, Zagros, Iran 95 M. Zare and H. Mohammadzadeh Karstic area in Iran 95 A. R. Ghaffari, A. A. Abbasi, and F. Iranmanesh The effect of salt domes on karst water 96 A. Sharafi, E. Raeisi. and G. Farhoudi Environmental impacts on the karst aquifer systems in Arab catchment area Jordan 96 M. Almomani Evolution of geoecological environments in some karst regions in China 97 L. Yaoru Pollution transport in the vadose zone: An example from Postojnska jama - 98 J. Kogovsek Environmental impacts on calcareous water-bearing formations in Tunisia 98 M. Hamza Ecology and pedogenesis of karstic lands in Turkey 99 / Atalay Determination of hard metals traces in groundwaters and influence of environment 100 T.A. Iskanderov and N.N. Chernova Environmental impacts of an allogenic surface water-groundwater system on the Floridan aquifer 101 D. P. Spongier and C. Denizman International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karat Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

HYDROLOGY Evapotranspiration from karstic mountain grassland 102 J. Porhemmat and E. Raeisi Stochastic response of karst aquifers to rainfall and evaporation, Maharlu basin, Iran 102 N. Samani and H. Sahraei-Parizi Base flow retention time determination of some karst springs in Slovenia 103 J. Urbane, J. Pezdic, and A. Juren Assesment of the karst spring contributions of Lamas basin modelled by exponential functions 104 A. Alkan, N. Keloglu, B. Kaya, 0. 0zi$, Y. Ansoy, and E. Benzeden

Flood peak reducing effects of karst 104 E. Benzeden, 0. 6zi?, A. Alkan, and S. (Okay) Tuncay

Snowmelt effects on flow in Upper Zamanti river basin of Turkiye 104 / GurerandO. M. Yavaf

Average base flow rates of karst spring effluents in Turkey 105 T. Baron, N. Harmancioglu, and U. 6zi$

How much precipitation on karst? 105 A.S. Wain

Determination of the surface flow component by seperation of ground water and interflow components using mathematical simulation models based on exponential discharge functions in river flows with significant karstic spring effluents 106 /. Ati§

XI International Symposium t Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters t Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turks/

KEYNOTE PAPER competitively the water supply in surrounding areas. Springs and well Legal aspects of karst areas and water are prone to contamination in insurability water-table karst areas. P.E. LaMorcaux and H. LeGrand The risks of lawsuits are high near P. E. LaMoreaux & Assoc. Inc., P.O. Box buildings and roads in -prone 2310, TuscaloosaAL 35403, USA areas, especially where water levels Sensitive environmental impacts in are lowered appreciably by pumping. karst settings are common and are Insurance policies against personal more distinctive than those in other and property damages as a result of rock terrains. Human changes in dynamic karst actions may be karst hydrology regimes can trigger restrictive because of uncertainties numerous legal activities where the resulting from human and natural effects, of changes go beyond actions related to water. Case property boundaries. Regulatory histories of karst environmental procedures that are applicable in problems need to be compiled and other rock terrains are not necessarily sorted so that probability assessments suitable for karst settings. of future damaging actions can be A predominant dependence on water considered an refined in a Bayesian from wells and springs in the framework. Skillful knowledge of numerous scattered karst regions of karst hydrogeology is needed for the world requires careful water and legal activities and for applicable waste management policies that are regulatory procedures. closely related to legal issues. In Various environmental regulations contrast to the widespread abundant that apply to all terrains are helpful in water supplies in the confined karst protecting acceptable karst settings; region of Florida and Georgia, USA, yet, local ordinances that are are the restricted and localized zones especially applicable to local and springs in the common mature conditions are proper. Some sensitive surface karst of many other regions. actions by humans in heavily Both types of karst regions have populated karst areas will continue to complex legal implications involving keep karst problems at a high level. hundreds of billions of dollars. Vulnerability and sensitivity maps Damages to karst water supplies can that express some cause and effect be permanent and costly. relations are needed for all karst Numerous lawsuits develop: (1) from settings. lowering of water levels beneath wide areas in permeable karst settings and (2) from selective flow paths of subsurface water that are not easy to determine. Excessive withdrawal of water for municipal and industrial use may readily affect International Symposium i Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

COST ACTION 65 where the present water quality and natural conditions guarantee the COST 65: Hydrogeological aspects feasibility to maintain such quality in of ground water protection in the future and to give high-quality karstic areas water supply to a large portion of the B. Biondic1 and A. Pulido-Bosch2 European population. Institute of Geology, Zagreb, Croatia Being conscious of that fact, the 'University of Granada, Spain researchers of European countries, The COST Action 65 "Hydro- where the karstic aquifers have a geological Aspects of Groundwater large share in total reserves of Protection in Karstic Areas" is a joint potable water, have associated to scientific research project of 16 solve the problem. They try, within European countries (Austria, the framework of the Commission of Belgium, Croatia, France, Germany, European Union, within its Hungary, Ireland, , Malta, Cooperation in Science and Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Technology Actions (COST Switzerland, Spain, Turkey and Actions), to help in solving possible United Kingdom) in the domain of problems. Within the COST Action karst aquifer protection. In spite of 65' during the last five years, they the fact that from karst aquifers have tried, through their individual emerge huge amounts of high-quality and joint research work, to evaluate, potable water except in some firstly, the present cognitions on karst European areas, mainly in aquifers. After that, they have tried to Mediterranean and Alpine countries, improve national and international the karst groundwater has not an approaches and measures to improve adequately significant role in public the protection of those so precious water supply. A frequent reason for resources for the present and future that phenomenon is a lower demand potable water supply. From the very of potable water in karstic areas in beginning of this research action, comparison with alluvial lowlands numerous research pilot areas have where most of big urban and been established in all participating industrial consumers are situated. countries and they represent various The extracted karst groundwater has types of karst aquifers. Initial and to be conveyed rather costly to annual national reports reveal the usually large distances. However, the problems of groundwater protection alluvial aquifers have become over and ways how particular countries more polluted, mainly because of an deal with them. intensive agriculture, but many urban During the research, ten joint and industrial sources of pollution working meetings were held, six of should not be neglected as well. The them were of a so-called regional actual interest of European countries type when the participating is directed to the water supply from researchers visited the research pilot karstic, mainly mountainous areas areas in eight countries (Croatia, International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

Ireland, Switzerland, Germany, water management experts of other Spain, France, Austria, Slovakia) and countries, those not included within they were acknowledged with various the COST Action 65, to solve the hydrogeological and groundwater discussed problems. protection conditions. The joint The results of the research within the research work was carried out within COST Action 65 will be presented in four working groups: an abridged form in the paper. I. Character of karstic groundwater systems, lead by M. Bakalowicz, Karst groundwater protection: France Hydrogeological criteria and recommended methodology II. Exploration methods, lead by F. 1 Zwahlen, Switzerland M. Bakalowicz and F. Zwahlen" III. Transport and processes, lead by B.R.G.M. Centre Thematique Eau, C. Almeida, Portugal Montpellier, France Centre d'Hydrogeologie tie I'Universite de IV. Regulations, lead by H. Hotzl, Neuchatel, Switzerland Germany Karst is first known as a landscape, The research results are presented in with specific landforms and features, a book divided in three parts: essentially developed in carbonate I. Recommendations for karst aquifer rocks. Karst areas are characterized protection by the absence of permanent surface II. Results of joint research activity flow and the presence of closed depressions, by the common III. National reports of 16 occurrence of and, more participating countries generally, of underground passages We do believe that the research where water flows or not, and by the results of European experts gathered occurrence of important springs. within the COST Action 65 will be Therefore, karst should be defined as valuable contribution for the a surface landscape, but also as an groundwater protection of karstic underground landscape and an terrains not only in Europe but also aquifer. in the other karstic areas. A particular Karst aquifers present i) in their value of this action is that a large saturated zone, drains, flow paths number of European hydrogeologists hierarchized in a way similar to and related experts are closely surface with high velocities associated within the COST and flow rates, where water residence organization and IAH. They are able time is short and waters do not mix to react jointly, if necessary, to solve very well; *\nd storage areas, the so- problems that may appear in karstic called a iex-to-drain systems, where areas as consequences of the present water flows very slowly because of urban, industrial, traffic, and bad hydraulic connections with agricultural development. They may drains and where water residence also help to the hydrogeologists and time is much longer; ii) in their International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey zone, a disseminated into account the whole specific infiltration all over the carbonate characters of karst aquifers. At first, outcrop, a concentrated infiltration because of widely opened voids, in a few sinking points collecting waters are not filtered. Secondly, the surface streams flowing on flow velocity is much faster in karst impermeable terrains and an aquifer (from ten to several hundred epikarstic zone, a locally saturated meters per hour) than in any porous zone near the surface. or fissured aquifer (commonly a few The final result of karst processes is meters per day in alluvium). At last, i) a hierarchization of flows and karst surface flow , which are voids, ii) a high time variability of direct access to drains, are points flow conditions and of water particularly sensitive to pollution. chemical contents. Consequently, it Then, self purification does not occur is not possible to define a kaist in karst and high velocity rates aquifer by any Representative rapidly induce a pollution spreading Elementary Volume (REV) like any far from the injection point. In karst, aquifer; but the only whole karst pollution may be attenuated only by a system takes into account the dilution effect. drainage structure. In return, the high flow velocities in Contrarily to porous and fissured the karst drainage structure are aquifers, karst aquifers show: responsible for a fast renewing of stored waters which efficiently - various infiltration conditions (fast removes the polluted waters. infiltration through streams into large Nevertheless, because of their joints, slow infiltration through two- structure and of their high phase flow into Fine cracks, local and permeability in large voids, karst temporary storage in the epikarstic aquifers seem to be especially zone), sensitive to permanent pollution, - an organized phreatic zone with from agriculture for example. These drains of high hydraulic conductivity characters should be taken into and large karstic cavities badly account for managing land surfaces, connected hydraulically to drains and for defining protection zones of karst strong hydraulic discontinuities. spring recharge areas. Then, a karst system should be Therefore, the recommended defined by its framework (geological methodology should be focused on conditions, boundaries), by its the determination of flow conditions structure of underground flows both inside the karstic aquifer and on the in infiltration and phreatic zones, by possible relations between land its functioning, which results on the surface and groundwater. Some of state of development and of past the methods commonly used in conditions and by its evolution. porous or fissured aquifer The exploitation and the protection hydrogeology are also useful in karst of karst water resources must take studies; but a great care must then be International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey taken. For instance, interpretation of Hacettepe University Beytepe, 06532, pumping tests, especially in Ankara, Turkey boreholes, may present some Pamukkale area is one of difficulties i) because the borehole the world's most important natural may be not connected to the drainage heritages located in the West structure (or its relative position is Anatolian geographical region of unknown), ii) mainly because the Turkey. It has partially overwhelmed basic assumptions of. pumping test the Roman City and the Necropolis modeling (e.g. Theis's assumptions) of Hierapolis. Pamukkale 'cotton are unrealistic in karst. Then, a new castle' is covered by the widespread way of interpreting pumping tests natural, white travertines which are must be followed, as for other acquired immediately on deposition methods, like tracing tests. from waters. A set of methods should be worked Karst hydrogeological and up for describing karst vulnerability. environmental studies of the Geological and geophysical methods Pamukkale thermal springs were are devoted to define the framework. carried out within the program of Geomorphology approach, like Development and Conservation and other direct Projects implemented by the Ministry approaches are involved in of Culture of Turkey. Definition of describing the (paleo) structure. the physico-chemical characteristics Hydrodynamics, water geochemistry of the hot waters, factors affecting and artificial tracing deal with system the travertine deposition, the sources functioning. Landscape analysis of pollution, delineation of protection gives information about karst areas and establishing the evolution. Finally, the whole conservation strategy were the main information should be synthesized by objectives of this project. Geological a vulnerability map, the final and hydrogeological mapping, document supporting the decisions hydrological analyses, hydrochemical for managing the karst land surface measurements and analyses, isotopic in order to protect the groundwater analyses and evaluations, dye tracing resources in quantity and in quality. and pumping test were carried out in achieving these objectives. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Based on the results obtained from AND LEGAL ASPECTS -1 these studies, a new concrete 'arst hydrogeology and system were constructed for hot environmental impacts of water distribution onto the travertine Pamukkale thermal springs area, and a conservation strategy was established. G. Giinay, §. §im§ek, N. Keloglu, M. Ekmekci, H. Elhatip, C. Ye$ertener, C. Dilsiz, and Z. Cetiner International Research and Application Center For Karst Water Resources (UKAM), International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

Al Mokattam city karst problems and heavy blocks falling during I. M. EIRamly October 1993 in Naser and Al- Senior Water Resources Consultant, P. O. Duweiqa squatter settlements and in Box 5118 Heliopolis West, Cairo, Egypt the nearby slum areas, caused a Al Mokattam City has started its sudden catastrophe to the inhabitants inauguration in the early sixties. The of these communities through the city is located on top of Al Mokattam destruction of their houses and Plateau which in turn bounds the establishments. eastern side of Cairo city including Simple improvements in local the suburbs of Nasr City, Al Maadi building design in this locality would and Helwan. The plateau is have prevented much of the damage comprised of highly dissected Middle and loss of life which did occur. and Upper Eocene formations including several rock units Main hydrogeological problems in composed of intercalations of the karstic aquifers of NE Bulgaria limestone, marl, and claystones. M. Machkova1, A. Pulido-Bosch2, J.M. 2 2 Tectonic and non-tectonic Calaforra , P. Penchev', M.L. Calvache , 2 1 displacements exist along the plateau M. Lopez-Chicano , D. Dimitrov , and B. and were mapped by several authors. Velikov1 Due to the successive tectonic events National Institute of Meteorology and that occurred in this locality, the Hydrology, Sofia 1784, Bulgaria limestone and marly layers were Dep. de Geodinamica, Universidad de affected by the network of fracture Granada 18071, Spain systems. The fracture systems aided The area of Bulgaria bordered by the in the development of the wide caves Rumania, the Black Sea, and Suha, and caverns, and the infiltration of and Batovo covers rainfall and leakage from the approximately 4600 km2. The area sewerage systems along the plateau has at least two main carbonated surface, penetrated deeply along the aquifers that can be distinguished. fractures, that widen them and aided The lower one is Valanginian in age in the separation of the limestone and has a maximum thickness of that blocks. 400 m, and upper one, Sarmatian Recent urbanization during the last (Serravallian) in age has a thickness 35 years contributed to the slumping ranging from 0 to 250 m. of the separated blocks that caused a The climate of the region is semi- lot of damage to the unplanned urban arid, with average annual rainfalls communities established along the ranging from 440 mm in the eastern slopes of the plateau. In addition to edge to 500 mm in the northwestern this, the earthquake which had sector. Tlu- average annual stricken Cairo on 12 October 1992 temperature ranges from 10 to 14 °C. caused the release of these blocks Both aquifers have an independent and to roll along the slopes of Al behavior because of the existence of Mokattam plateau. These enormous International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', TR9700009 a geometrically complex marly bed due to its deeper geological position. between them. The chemical The lower aquifer is tapped by a character of the groundwater from series of artesian wells with thermal the Valanginian aquifer varies and sulphidric water which are depending on the sector, but it is located all along the coastal fringe. always within the limits of potability. The discharge from these wells The thermal character of the represent a waste of groundwater as groundwater is well recorded in the they have no closing system. coastal fringe, where temperature is The study of these two aquifers is higher than 40 °C in some localities. being possible thanks to financial The groundwater from the support given by the European Union Serravallian carbonates characterized through the project Ecological mainly as calcic bicarbonated and Problems of Karst Water Caused by magnesic facies but in some localized Overexploitation and Contamination areas sodic bicarbonated and sodic (CIPA - CT93 - 0139). Preliminary chloride types occur. results of this research will be shown At the present, both system are in the proposed paper. exploited by several wells and derivations in the springs, the Environmental impacts of fly ash groundwater is uvd mainly for from coal fired power plants agriculture and urb;m supply. Locally A.U. Dogan1, R. Rajagopal2, and M. a slight depletion ci the Serravallian Dogan3 aquifer is noted because of the 'Department of Geological Engineering, concentration of exploitations. This Ankara University, Turkey 'Department of Geography, University of may be interpreted as a sign for the Iowa, U.S.A. potential overexploitation of aquifers 3Department of Geological Engineering, in the near future. Moreover, the risk Hacettepe University, Turkey of salt water intrusion is important if The incombustible residue of coal we take into account that in the called fly ash and constitutes around coastal area the main pumping 15-45 % of the coal. Ash handling stations are located, in some areas, and collection systems in power less than 1000 m from the coastline. plants may achieve collection In fact, the influence of salt water is efficiency of up to 99 %. evidenced in some coastal points by Uncollectable fly ash is discharged the existence of sodic chloride facies into the atmosphere as paniculate waters. emissions causing air pollution and Likewise, the intensive agricultural the collected fly ash and bottom ash activity in some areas is responsible may became hazardous waste. Karst for a noticeable increase in nitrate system with their huge capacity is content in groundwater (more than very attractive dump sites. However, 200 ppm determined in some wells). hydraulic aspects of this hazardous Evidences of this kind of pollution do waste deposition has to be evaluated not occur in the Vallanginian aquifer and the fly ash must be characterized Intemational Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karat Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey carefully before discharge of releasing these particulates to soil, particulates as waste material. Indian water, or karst system will coal has a very high ash content and contaminate the environment. If karst therefore represents an excellent case system is used as dump sites then to study the environmental impacts of ground water will be contaminated the fly ash. due to rapid water circulation and In this study particle morphology, inability of self purification capacity size distribution, and chemical of karst aquifer will create great risk composition of fly ash from India for the future and certainly degrade have been studied using scanning the environment. electron microscope, image analysis, Environmental impact on the x-ray fluorescense, x-ray diffraction, occurrence of groundwater in two x-ray microanalysis, and flame different types of limestone analysis techniques. Seven sets of fly terrains in Egypt ash samples from a power plant in India were obtained and studied M. A. A. Sayed under an electron microscope. Niost Desert Research Center, Al-Matariya 11753, of particles were observed to be Cairo, Egypt spherical, with few distortions in The need for more water than is large particles. A representative site supplied by the River Nile for the was selected and samples were agricultural expansion has led to analyzed for size distribution using evaluating the occurrence of semi-automatic digital image analysis groundwater in other non-traditional technique. The fly ash particles were sources such as the limestones analyzed and the size distribution in forming the Mediterranean rainy belt each sample set was compared by in the northwestern part of Egypt and plotting histograms. The mean the limestone plateau bordering the diameter of particles in each sample Nile Valley. was also calculated. Chemical Vertical Electrical Sounding has analysis showed thai the fly ash is been applied for this purpose to composed of mainly SiOj, AUOj, determine or evaluate the impact of ferrous oxide with some minor the physical characteristics of the components of CaO, MgO, K2O, limestone, structural and climatic Na2O, TiO2, and some trace elements impacts on the storage of water in the including As, Be, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, limestone. Mo, Ni, Zn. It is observed that the The results of this study rcveale4d that concentrations of (hese trace in the Mediterranean littoral zone, elements increase with decreasing where precipitation is available, the particle sizes. limestone is oolitic with primary Trace elements classified into three porosity of 25% and in the absence major groups and their enrichment of limiting geologic structure, mechanism is discussed. Most of groundwater with fair quality can be these trace elements are toxic and developed. However, the limestones International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey bordering the Nile Valley were span of geological periods, leading to determined to have no groundwater formation of karstic features. The that infiltrated from the Nile, karstic features are characterized although secondary porosity in the with occurrence of karren, form of fissures and caverns may be fluviokarst, sinkhole, spring, solution present. This is due to the compact cavity, underground drainage and nature of the limestone, presence of terra rossa among Vindhyan clay and shale intercalations, limestone of Rajusthan, Madhya presence of faults and absence of Pradesh, Bihar States. An attempt has precipitation. However, saline or been made in this paper to classify brackish water may be present in these karstic features into young and some localities. mature category through selected It is thus concluded that although the case histories. limestones surrounding the Nile The impact of young category • arstic Valley cover wide areas of the features are Banjari (Bihar) and country, they are unfortunately not Senadih (Madhya Pradesh) are orone considered to be a potential for the to mining hydrological hazards. groundwater development. The These sites are traversed by perennial oolitic limestone present along the rivers, besides the occurrence of Mediterranean coastal areas are sinkhole, solution cavity, spring, and considered, more adequate terra rossa. Both sites have cement groundwater source as long as grade limestone with varying degree withdrawal remains under accurate of mining from large to small scale control based on the aquifer activity. The mining of karstic characteristics. limestone exhibits hydrological problem due to high recharge ENGINEERING AND capacity of strata, scanty vegetation, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS good rainfall, variation in size and OF KARST location of solution cavity, overall fracture pattern. Banjari limestone The impact of karstic features on mining produces karstic discharge at mining hydrology and rate of 2200 kilo liter per hour since groundwater resource for its inception due to large scale Precambrian limestone in India operation. Senadih limestone mining P.K. Gupta and T.N. Singh has not faced such hazard due its Central Mining Research Institute, Barwa initial stage of mining under small Road Dhanbad 826001, India scale activity. Precflmbrian limestone is widely distributed in Indian subcontinent The impact of mature category belonging to Vindhyan system. These karstic features at Jedhpur (Rajsthan) limestone possess denudation due to and Rewa (Madhya Pradesh) have varied action of local drainage, large groundwater resources. These rainfall and groundwater ever large are associated with large cavern due to underground drainage, karren, and International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1935 Antalya • Turkey fluviokarst. They are very promising because of karst nature, the solutions confined aquifer with yield of 10 to are extremely complex. The hazard 1000 kilo liter per hour without any component can not be totally significant drawdown. eliminated even in the case of investigation program increasing. Reservoirs in karst: Common In this article a few examples are watertightness problems presented from different karst areas, P. Milanovic typical for watertightness problems Energoprojecl, Beograd, Yugoslavia of reservoirs situated in karstified In spite of serious investigations and rock mass. large scale sealing treatment, a very few dam sites and reservoirs in the Geotechnical constraints and karst operate without any leakage. remediation in karst terrane Some of reservoirs never been filled J. A. Fischer, J. J. Fischer, and R. Canace up (impounded). Some of them only Geoscience Sen'ices, 25 Claremont Road, partially filled by water, and some Bernardsville, New Jersey 07924, USA are dry and out of use. Significant portions of the eastern Number of examples confirm that United States are underlain by difficulties and failures commonly Paleozoic carbonate rocks. These occurs during the first filling of solution-prone rocks often lie in reservoir. Very rare if can happen scenic folded and faulted valleys, after many years of dam and once prime farmland, but now under reservoir operation. relentless development pressures. The problems posed by development The karst channels and open in these areas are both structural and (karstified) cracks are source of environmental in nature. As a esult, problems. Naturally that features are groundwater contamination ; s well plugged by clay and covered by as the provision of suitable support alluvium and terra rossa. Some of for structures of varying sizes and the them have been reactivated by water related infrastructure, are of pressure, suffusion and air pressure increased concern to owners, effect. In many cases, it occurs as purchasers, and the regulatory consequence of inadequate community in these areas. geological analysis and insufficient funds for investigations, but it is not Conventional soil mechanics and a rule. Quantity of leakage vary from foundation engineering investigation few hundreds of liters per second to techniques are not adequate to 25-30 mVs. develop a suitable understanding of a subsurface that contains, cavernous Practical solutions and rehabilitation rock, soil voids, eroding soils, soft treatment requires a lot of patience, and weak soils underlying firm soils, close collaboration between soft vuggy rocks, highly weathered experienced geologists and civil and open seams, the lack of filtering engineers, and adequate funds. But or absorption of contaminants

10 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey entering the subsurface; large, in- Estimation of large scale place boulders; and an incredibly transmissivity and leakage of a variable rock surface. reservoir through karstic terrain Planning an appropriate geotechnical using piezometric data: A case in investigation requires an Northern Greece understanding of both geology and P. G. Marinos and M. Kavvadas civil engineering concepts in addition National Technical University, Athens, to economic realities. Appropriate Greece investigative tools include; aerial The design of an earth dam in photographs; satellite imagery; Northern Greece required the geologic mapping; site investigation of the potential reconnaissance; rotary wash boring leakages of the reservoir water and drilling procedures; split, double through a portion of the slope tube coring devices; experienced covered by slightly karstified inspectors and drillers; the limestones. monitoring of drilling water loses; A part of the reservoir area consists and good fortune. of carbonate formations (limestones Foundation solutions available in the and marbles) which were originally USA include: the relocation of the thought to be inclusions inside the site or structure(s), piles or piers, otherwise watertight schists and preloading, reduced excavation, ophiolites forming the greater region. special design standards, dental The hydrogeological evaluation of concrete, and grouting. Grouting is the available data indicated that the often one of the most economical carbonate formations are not isolated concepts, but requires an experienced since (i) there are no springs at the field crew. Any foundation solution interface of the limestones with the must be predicated upon a full underlying schists inside the understanding of the geologic reservoir to discharge the rain water conditions at the site, the nature of collected in the carbonate formations the development planned and the and (ii) the piezometric levels in the nature of the possible effects upon limestones-marbles indicate a flow other activities in the site locale. towards an area about five kilometers Enlightened construction inspection away from the reservoir where is a necessity, with the ability to springs with an appreciable discharge quickly offer alternate solutions to exist. those originally planned. Despite the fact that the carbonate formations in the area are not isolated, it was considered necessary to estimate the amount of the potential leakage which might not be excessive since (i) the carbonate formations are only slightly karstified and (ii) the piezometric levels

11 international Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey measured in the limestones did not cones around the mines and caused appear to respond rapidly to the regional water-level sinking over vast annual variation from the wet to the areas. The affected karstic region is dry season, thus indicating a about 7000 km2, the average relatively slow discharge of the decreasing of the water table is 20-30 groundwater towards lower meters. elevations, probably due to the As a consequence a big number of geometrical features of the aquifer. local water supply networks were A computational model of the region damaged. Later they were substituted was analyzed in order to estimate the by regional systems based on the potential leakage of reservoir water concentrated water-intake facilities as a function of the water level in the belonging to the mines. Some great reservoir. The macroscopic thermal springs, well known for ages transmissivity of the limestones was and serving as balneological or estimated by analyzing the annual recreational centers, also dried up, change of the piezometric levels in causing heavy reactions in the public the limestones. opinion. It was concluded that although the At the end of the eighties several limestones and marbles are not mining sites were abandoned for watertight and some seepage of economic reasons. The karstic water- reservoir water should be anticipated, table began to rise again and by the the calculated amount of the leakage time the cavities of mining- was tolerable compared to the annual operations are flooded. It is a danger storage capacity of the reservoir. that the remaining pollution - originating from the human activity Problems related to the regional and from the altered minerals- will water-level sinking in karstic appear in the regional water-supply aquifers caused by mining systems. Methods to avoid this operations impending danger are treated. I. Sarvary VITUKI • Budapest, Hungary The bulk of the coal and bauxite bodies in the Transdanubian Range (Hungary) are laying on the Triassic karstic rocks or on fanglomerate-like permeable rock consisting of debris of dolomite. After the II. World War, the advance of mining production forced the operations to descend to a level deeply under the karstic water table. For security reasons, they had to dewater the surrounding rock masses, which created depression-

12 International Symposia S hieid ae/niiur on Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", S TR9700017 RESEARCH METHODS dioxide is somewhat tedious. But the question is arising whether the Implications from results of calculated parameters are reliable or continuous in-situ-measurements not. of dissolved carbon dioxide in Recently developed multiparameter karst aquifers field-devices, which measure R. Benischke', T. Harum', W. Trettnak2, continuously in situ temperature, pH and F. Reininger" and dissolved carbon dioxide, Institute of Hydrogeotogy and Geolhermics, combined with appropriate data Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria loggers, make it possible to compare "Institute for Chemical and Optical Sensors, the measured data with those of Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria manually taken water samples, field Carbonate hydrogeochemistry is seen measurements, and subsequent as a tool for selective laboratory analyses. characterization of karst aquifers. In The results derived from a case study hydrogeological investigations of show the sensitivity of the individual karst aquifers, for example, a number parameters on the accuracy and of hydrogeo-chemical methods offer precision of their measurement. In the opportunity to use carbonate and particular it is shown that carbon dioxide equilibria to interpretative implications on characterize hydrodynamic hydrogeochemical processes depend processes. The calculation of very closely on measurement saturation indices and solution methodology. equilibria with respect to predominant mineral phases (e.g., The use of well logging for the calcite, dolomite, gypsum) under study of karstic water resources in ambient temperature/pressure con- Maharlu basin ditions in natural waters of known A. Zamani and H. Rachi ionic strength is made very easy by Dept. of Geology, College of Sciences, Shiraz application of computer programs University, Shiraz, Iran such as WATEQ, PHREEQE, etc. Maharlu Karst Basin (MKB) is Generally the calculations are based located in central part of Fars on field-measurements of province, Iran (29°25'-29°55' N and temperature, pH (as a primary 52°08'-52°40' E). Shiraz city is variable), electrical conductivity and placed in the center of the basin and on laboratory analysis of the major the great part of people drinking constituents (calcium, magnesium, water obtained from 32 exploitation potassium, sodium, bicarbonate, wells that drilled in carbonaceous chloride, nitrate, and sulfate). It is formation around the city. normally calculated instead as carbon Tectonic activities, lithology, and dioxide partial pressure from given climate play important role in the equilibrium equations because direct formation and development of karstic measurement of dissolved carbon features. Different subsurface

13 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey geological techniques, particularly The application of geophysical Well Logging, are usually used to methods for the analysis of explore karstic water resources. In subsurface karst structures order to find out distribution of R. Miiller karstic zones, karstic water resources Joanneum Research, Dept. for Applied and study hydrogeological Geophysics, Leoben, Austria parameters in the carbonate rocks, The detection and analysis of more than 40 piezometer, exploration subsurface karst structures, wells and coring boreholes drilled in especially cavities, by exclusively this rocks (Asmari-Jahrum geophysical surface methods is quite formations). Various well logging a difficult problem, since usually methods include Electrical, Gamma, very few information about possible Neutron, Gamma Ray, Flowmetery, target depth, extension, and filling Fluid Resistivity, Temperature, and material is available. Caliper Loggings have been used to Repeated surficial collapses in a study the karstic water resources "rauhwacke" formation, a cellular within carbonate rocks of MKB. dolomite, in course of which there The results show that porosity, was also a fatal accident, were the density, resistivity, and lithology of occasion for systematical geophysical the rock formations in the Maharlu measurements in that karst region in basin changes with depth. These some part of Southern Austria. changes are prominent in the The actual aim was the evaluation of dolomitic sections. The distribution the optimal method or combination of permeable interval, inflow and of methods to get a maximum of outflow zones within water wells information about the karst features indicates that karstification in Ghasr- and least about the situation of e Ghomsheh, Kaftarak and Derak is possible subsidence zones. Therefore more extensive compared to the other geoelectrical profiling, self-potential parts of the basin. The water tables and mise-a-la-masse measurements, within the basin matches fairly well gravity and infrared - ground with the karstic zones. Existence of temperature measurements and semipermeable layers between electromagnetic methods in the low karstic sections in some parts of the (EM 31 and 34 at < 10 kHz) as well basin indicates early stage of tiered as high frequency range (ground cave formation. penetrating radar at 100 and 300 MHz) were applied on a 50 m x 100 m grid of a specific test area. As the results showed, the ground penetrating radar (GPR), the geoelectrical mise-a-la-masse and profiling methods were the most appropriate. The geoelectrical

14 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', i TR9700019 profiling at different spacings (on 2 aquifer represents a significant profiles) gave (pseudo) depth - component of the groundwater which profiles of the specific electrical discharges from the many springs in resistivity characterizing the water- region where the aquifer is dissected table as well as certain high- by surface streams. A three year resistivity regions up to a depth of ca. investigation of the Devil's Ear Cave 6m. These anomalies correlate well System, an extensive saturated cave with the anomalous structures in the system in the Floridan aquifer which radargrams and might be interpreted underlies a 1.5-km reach of the Santa as air-filled cavities. A maximum of Fe River in north-central Florida, information concerning the depth and revealed that there is an appreciable lateral position of anomalies was and rapid exchange of water between provided by the GPR. Based on those the river and the underlying aquifer. results a map of highly karstified Natural tracers Radon-222 (222Rn) zones of the test-area was drown. and 8'8O were used to quantify these Some problems encountered with the exchanges. was interpretation of the measured data employed to collect water samples will also be mentioned. They include which were analyzed for tracer the inherent ambiguity of the nature content and to observe water clarity of the anomalies, strong external and groundwater velocities within the influences (e.g. vegetation, topo- saturated karst conduits as far as 1.2- graphy) and the corresponding lack km upstream of Devil's Ear spring. of quantitative parameter The Santa Fe River drains the determination. Concerning the mise- Northern Highlands province of a-la-masse measurements a prospect north-central Florida where the on a corresponding research project Floridan aquifer is confined by the aiming at the quantification of mise- 25-m thick Hawthorne Formation, a-la-masse results for the presence of which precludes hydrogeological and environmental hydraulic connection between the topics will also be given. river and the aquifer. However, downstream in the lowland Groundwater - surface water provinces, the Hawthorne confining exchange in the unconfined layer is eroded so that the Ocala karstified Floridan aquifer, a view Limestone is exposed at the surface. from inside the aquifer with Here the Floridan aquifer is implications for groundwater unconfined leaving the river and the protection aquifer in excellent hydraulic T. R. Kincaid connection. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wyoming, P.O.Box 3086, The direction of flow between the Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA river and the aquifer is dependent Surface water that has intruded into primarily on where rainfall enters the the unconfined parts of the Floridan total system. If precipitation is concentrated in the uplands, the

15 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20. 1995 Antalya • Turkey water accumulates in the Santa Fe which water moves through this layer River as overland flow and the is dependent on the magnitude and pulse moves down the river onto the duration of the hydraulic head unconfined part of the aquifer. difference that develops between the Consequently, even a small increase river and the aquifer. Large in river stage, as little as 1 m, originating in the highlands of the produces a downward hydraulic upper Santa Fe River are responsible gradient causing large amounts of for observed surface water intrusion river water to infiltrate into the into the aquifer in periods of as little underlying karst. This tannin stained as one day, based on water clarity surface water quickly enters caves reductions in the cave. developed under and parallel to the The findings of this - study river resulting in dramatic water demonstrate the vulnerability of the clarity reductions in the caves, a unconfined sections of the Floridan serious problem confronting cave aquifer to contamination from divers. Under these conditions, as 3 surface streams. During and after much as 50% of the 8 m /s discharge flood events, wholesale from the Devil's Ear system can contamination of the major karstic consist of surface water lost from the conduits underlying the Santa Fe Santa Fe River. River can occur in as little as one Conversely, when precipitation is day. Given this sensitive, it is clear concentrated on the lowland regions that there is virtually no distinction where the Floridan aquifer is between groundwater and surface unconfined, the hydraulic head in the water in this hydrologic system. This aquifer increases above that of the conclusion, however, is contrary to river resulting in upward flow from the state regulations which the aquifer to the river. The water in segregate groundwater and surface the cave clears as the tannin surface water with regard to permissible water from the Santa Fe River is levels of contaminants. State flushed upward and out of the regulations allow higher levels of aquifer. certain contaminants such as nitrates A 30-m thick section of saturated, to be discharged to a river or karstified Ocala Limestone serves as than would be permissible in the the permeable layer separating the Floridan aquifer. Based on the Santa Fe River and the huge current distinction between ground conduits, up to 10-m in diameter, that and surface waters, state regulatory comprise the Devil's Ear Cave agencies permit the growing dairy System. Interconnected cavities and chicken farming industries to within this lay^r contain water in discharge large quantities of nitrate, storage that is displaced when either ammonia, and soluble organic a downward or upward gradient nitrogen species to surface streams. develops in response to the different Because the hydrologic connection types of recharge pulses. The rate at between the river and the aquifer has

16 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey not been acknowledged, the flow rapid enough in order to avoid regulations permitting these temperature equilibration with the discharges will directly contribute to surrounding rock. Analyzing the legally unacceptable groundwater spring water temperature time series contamination of the Floridan for the controlling processes and the aquifer. And in this light, similar comparison with analytical models problems will plaque similar allows the distinction between the hydrologic environments elsewhere influence of the epikarst and the in the state. unsaturated zone (cooling of the recharge water) and the phreatic zone Heat as a natural tracer: (heat convection and heat Characterization of a conduit conduction). Effective parameters network in a karst aquifer using and geometries could be estimated temperature measurements of the for the solution channels of the karst spring water unsaturated and saturated zone. The M. Sauter and S. Rentier results were comparable with values, Applied Geology, Geological Institute, obtained from other measurement Sigwarstr. 10, 72076 Tubingen, Germany methods. Temperature variations in spring water have been recorded over more The principles of search of karst, than six years with a resolution of fracture and fracture-vein waters 0.01 °C in the Gallusquelle karst of the mountain folding zones spring (deep karst, Swabian Alb, SW. F. S. Aliev, I. I. Tagiev, and Y. D. Germany). The temperature of the Zamanov spring water is highly controlled by The State Committee on Geology, Behram recharge events i.e., their intensities Agayev, 100/A, Baku, The Azerbaijan and magnitudes. Even during summer Republic events, the recorded variations In arid zones, there is critical demand display only negative deviations, in fresh, low mineralized (1-3 g/1), which are caused by the arrival of but also in mineral and a thermal recharge water at the water table, waters. In mountain folding zones are cooler than the groundwater itself. concentrated karst, fracture and The heat exchange with the rock in fracture vein waters with great the karstified unsaturated zone, exploitational reserves. As compared which is cooler than the phreatic with submontane plains hydrogeo- zone because of the upward directed logical conditions of mountain geothermal gradient, is responsible folding zones are poorly studied, for the temperature difference where conditions of underground between groundwater and recharge waters (UW) accumulation are water. In order to have any different. By search and prospecti in significant deviation between the of UW of the mountain folding zones temperature of recharge water and traditional methods have not been groundwater, recharge water has to used. For revealing water locations in karst, fractures, and vein of original

17 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts',. TR9700023 rocks in the mountain folding zones, The resistivity method in karst it is necessary to study the role of media: Application to the Macico tectonic fracturing and karst in Calcario Estremenho (Portugal) hydrogeo-logical processes and A. R. A. Afonso, F. A. M. Santos, and diversity of its display on various J.A. Marques levels of subsurface hydrosphere. Centro cle Geofisica da Universidade de One of modern hydrogeological Lisboa, Rua da Escola Polilecnica, 58, 1200 principle question is clearing up the Lisboa, Portugal role of fractures and karst in The resistivity method was used to formation and location of UW detect void and/or partially filled deposits. It is necessary to draw caves in karst media. The data were attention at following: achieved from field works in the /.Hydrogeological zonation of area "Macico Calcario Estremenho" and on the base of system analysis of from model simulations in an materials of geological corn-position, automated tank analog, using the aerial cosmic surveys, geo-physical pole - dipole and the dipole - dipole and hydrogeological investigations, arrays. The automatic inversion of reveal watery tectonic fractures and the data was performed considering karst locations. 2.Carrying out no the caves as empty bodies or bodies research methods in potentially UW with a resistivity greater at least two locations with various structural - orders of magnitude than the facies conditions, clearing up the surrounding geological formations. geotectonic peculiarity of deep fault The numerical results calculated with zones and karst locations, the the two physical approaches are character of water bearing rocks, UW almost coinciding and are also very circulation, hydrodynamic and well correlated to those obtained for physical - mechanical parameters. similar models both in the field or in J.The influence of hydrodynamic the tank analog. factors at the flooding of watery The resolution of the arrays was also locations (karst, fractures). analyzed in connection with the 4.Working out research criteria of depth and the diameter of the caves. flooding and valuation the The field data also provided the perspectivity of various fracture and geometry of the circulation of the karst types for prospecting and looking for UW. 5.Working out new underground waters close to the technologies of drilling and testing to "Almonda" cave. avoid the change for the worse water About construing data of seismic conductivity of tectonic fractures and radioscopy between boreholes in physical-chemical component of karst rocks UW. S. I. Parfenov Vsegingeo, Russia The usual interpretation of seismograms assumes the first entries 18 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey on them to be provoked by straight a) Depending on abroad, beams of seismic waves, ascertains, b) Difficulty of providing imagery by a delay of these beams, only the for requested time and area, presence of a big cavern between c) Taking long time to provide of boreholes and lessens its real size by existing imagery, many times. d)Highly influencing from Caves in karst rocks are local objects meteorological conditions, of a small density. Therefore, the first signs of waves on a seismogram e) Low level image resolution for are provoked by waves surrounding a some applications, cave. They come before the waves f) High cost. spreading through the cave. The Airborne Remote Sensing Systems calculation of this peculiarity and the are becoming more and more use of the Huygens principle permit important, because they eliminate to determine a place and sizes of a some of the above mentioned cave from a seismogram of problems and reduce the minimum radioscopy between boreholes by level some of the others. slanting beams. In this study, it is aimed to explain Airborne remote sensing systems technical features of airborne remote and usability at pollution research sensing systems, existing situation of of karst water resources project which was commenced by TUFUAB and usability of data from M. Onder concerning systems for researching General Command of Mapping, Ankara, Turkey of pollution of karst water resources. Remote Sensing studies have been The study of engineering going on by using both imagery geophysics in karstic grounds and obtained from sensor systems which case studies are located on satellite platform Z. Kamaci produced for that purpose and aerial Suleyman Demirel University, Engineering - photographs supporting them, widely Architectural Faculty Department of as an natural extension of existing Geophysical Engineering, Isparta, Turkey space and computer age. Mentioned The karstic cavities which effect generalization is not only valid for engineering structures in a large scale world perspective but also for our could give unimportant results and its country. influence can be negligible, but its It can be clearly seen that, these effect magnify by considering a studies have lots of deficiencies in smaller scale. The foundation of operational considerations, when it is , originally a karstic held by the point of view in near ground, made of travertines. future developments. These These travertines consist of solution deficiencies primarily in satellite cavities, caverns, joints, fractures, imagery can be listed as follows; and alteration zones. The

19 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey determination of hidden cavities and The carbonate aquifers are highly structural features and engineering effected by sea water intrusion cither properties of the rock mass in the by natural processes or travertine grounds particularly mismanagement of groundwater identified by the use state - of - the - resources. Therefore, determining the art geoelectrical and seismic from depth of fresh water - salt water geophysical exploration methods. interface toward the inland becomes Different case studies are given and major concern. Temporal changes of interpreted by using seismic and the position of this interface control geoelectrical methods, for the the amount of the groundwater that solution of foundation problems in could be taken from these aquifers. the Antalya city grounds which In this paper, the author discusses consist of travertines, permissible some of the typical sea water bearing capacity of the ground and intrusion cases and geophysical settlement of foundation and its methods applied to monitor and elastic parameters for burden determine the expected saline water removal and determination of ground encroachment zone and its behavior rippability. Also different case during groundwater exploitation of studies for features, which means coastal karst aquifers in Turkey. The fractures, faults and joints, solution present sea water intrusion problems cavities and caverns, alteration zones, take place in most of the provinces swelling clay fillings, the position of which are located along the groundwater. Mediterranean coast of Turkey.

Monitoring of sea water intrusion Geoelectrical investigation of zone along the Mediterranean Beskonak head-reach tunnel coast of Turkey by means of E. Barlas and M. Degirmenci geophysical techniques 'Gen. Directorate oftLBANK, Dept. of H. Elhatip , Geophysical Research International Research and Application Section, Ataturk Bulvari No:21, 06053 Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Ankara, Turkey Hacettepe'University, Beytepe 06532, Cumhuriyet University, Dept. of Geology, Ankara, Turkey Sivas, Turkey High population density along the In Turkey, one third of the surface is coastline creates problems related to covered by the carbonate rocks of the lack of reliable surface waters. karstic properties and these karstic The wide spread coastal aquifers are areas possess 50 % of the the main water resources to cover the hydroelectric energy potential of our demand in these areas. The coastal country. aquifers occur within highly Be§konak dam and hydroelectric karstified units and exhibit complex power station is planned in Kopriicay hydraulic systems. basin which is located in the Western Taurids karst system. Problems

20 lr:rm?!<-y™.< Sj/mposiun f, Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey pcciili;.ir lo k.irstic environments impouant role in the regional fluid observed in these dam and reservoir flow and, in this* case regional site made the project infeasible. direction of circulation. The most Alternative to this project, it is important and typical elements and planned to construct a dam on geomorphologic forms related to impervious units, to convey the water karst terranes, such as those of collected in the reservoir area by sinkholes, dry valleys, karst open and as a result to and springs are the results of produce energy by making use of the fracturing and faulting. natural flow of the water in a head- This paper focuses on the specific, reach tunnel. common practice of lineament Since the head-reach tunnel route has analysis in groundwater resource such a topography that makes it exploration, and illustrates some of impossible to apply investigation both the pitfalls and the power of drillings and unemployment of the remote sensing images for structural seismic refraction method because of analysis in karst. Lineament analysis the velocity problem. Vertical may focus attention on domain Electrical Sounding became the only boundaries or zones of weaKness, solution in the problem of separation systems of close faults with similar of conglomerate-flysch levels along strike, or large individual faults, the tunnel route. which, in return, control the so called "concentrated underground flows" in Along the tunnel route, at the end of karst terranes. Additionally, an making Vertical Electrical Soundings attempt was made to show probable at 55 points by using the hydraulic connections may exist Schlumberger Method, between the principal recharge, conglomerate-flysch levels were discharge, and transition areas based distinguished. on both analyses of lineaments and Satellite image analysis of thermal radiance band of Landsat structural fabric controlling Thematic Mapper. groundwater flow in Southwestern The results of this research may help Taurus karst region reveal regional hydrodynamic system H. Koyuncu and thus, pojlution sensitive areas, General Directorate of Mineral Research and where preventive, measures need to Exploration, Remote Sensing Center, Image be taken into consideration during Analysis and Geographic Information the development of projects and Systems Laboratory, Ankara, Turkey environmental planning. The digital Digital analysis of remotely sensed nature of the data will allow the imagery data can be used to help results to be used as ready data for interpret regional structure, to aid in hydrological modeling of karst locating buried structures, and to map systems. fractures. In regional syntheses, structural fabric of a terrane plays an

21 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

TRACING TECHNIQUES -Li can be used and analyzed without problems even in acid groundwaters The latest Paderborn tracing test and humic acid-rich groundwaters (Northrhine Westphalia, FRG) -Lithium ions are invisible 1 2 W. Kass and E.P. Lohnert -Lithium ions are proved to be MUhlematten 5, Umkirch 7801, Germany physiologically harmless even at "Angewandte Geologic Westfaliche such expected high concentrations Wilhelms- Universitat, Geologisch- Palaontologisches Institut, Correnstr. 24, -Lithium chloride is a rather cheap Miinster 48149, Germany tracer although only 16% of LiCl is Numerous tracing tests were to be analyzed as Li. performed in the Paderborn Transition curves of the both lithium Cretaceous karst aquifer system over and uranine are to be discussed along the past hundred years. with hydraulic data representing the Previous tests were restricted to the actual state of the system when the open karst system of the Paderborn test was conducted. High Plateau, with sinkholes within Tracing techniques and stream beds used as injection points hydrodynamique analysis in the and the Pader springs were sampled karst as discharge points to prove the tracer's re-appearance and to B.F. Mijatovic calculate travel times. Recently, the Geozavod University ofNovi Sad, P.O. Box 275, str. Koradjordjeva 48, Beograd 11000, confined system from which deep Serbia karst groundwater is being abstracted Recent developments in applying for drinking and industrial purposes, tracing techniques in different karstic was included in the testing activities. systems indicate that informations Results of the latest test in July 1994 obtained are of restricted value as far are presented. Chemical tracers, hydrodynamical transport models are namely lithium chloride (30 kg) were concerned. In the Dinaric and applied for the first time besides Carpathian-Balkan karsts was studied uranine. LiCl proved to be a very for two hydraulic flows by use of suitable tracer, especially within several tracers experiments. The groundwater protection areas where tracers used were injected dyes are to be avoided. instantaneously and simultaneously The following advantages are to be in the flowing channels which were emphasized: known up to this date. Their -analysis without interference with restitution was followed at the fluorescence dyes principal outlets of the karstic -because of the small lithium ion system. The interpretation of radius there are hardly any experimental results has allowed to interactions to be expected with the specify the mass transfer made in this aquifer karst. This is particularly true regarding stable hydrodynamical

22 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey regime (stationary) during the tracing units open to the well. The nuclear procedure which rarely may be tracer logs have been used at provided in field. However, it is different discharge and recharge important to note that careful conditions in open and cased investigation of the DTRT curve boreholes in the Swabian and (Distribution of Tracer Retaining Franconian Jura (Germany), where Time) may give certain very the measurements and their important characteristics of given interpretation were en-countered in HKS (Hydrogeological Karst problems of safe yield, delineation of System), particularly concerning it's protection zones and well transmissivity, and storage capacity construction. properties. This is of a high Stochastic modeling was applied in importance in hydrogeological order to assess the uniformity of studies of groundwater pollution. conditions of the localized data and Tracing techniques using artificial their correlation between holes over a tracers should be combined with large area of the generally natural tracers such as temperature, anisotropic fractured aquifers. The chemical properties of water, and statistical approach is analyzing the water mass flux, etc. Those natural localized hydraulic conductivities as tracers are complementary with a process by which the variance of tracing techniques using artificial the medium conductivity is produced tracers and may significantly improve mainly proportional to aquifers reliability in overall data dispersivity. The parameter to be interpretation. evaluated is the correlation scale between the localized conductivities Stochastic modeling of single well which can be estimated by variogram tracer data in fractured rock analysis. The analysis is made with a W. Drost' and L. Kovac2 computer code which lets variance lGSF-Institutefor Hydrology, D-85748 and correlation scale float and Oberschleissheim, Germany compares experimental with model 2KMT-Engineering, SK-81103 Bratislava, variograms. Slovakia The results of the stochastic analyses There are many downhole methods mirror the different types of porosity that provide excellent assessment of which may exist within the rock. In rock and fracture flow characteristics conditions of fracture flow where the immediately surrounding the well. interfracture spacings are small in Among them are single well tracer comparison with the scale of the techniques which employ the use of system and which may be treated as short-lived radionuclides for dilution, an equivalent porous media and direction and slug logging of natural described by Darcy's law under or artificially induced inhole flow certain conditions the stochastic which is related to the hydraulic approach produces aquifers conductivity of the water bearing dispersivity scale dependent and

23 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20. 1995 Antalya - Turkey reaching an asymptotic value of some determine if a statistically significant hundred meters. In conditions of flow equation could be determined. The within large cavernous systems tests included a wide range of spring which may be treated as pipe or open discharges (0.002-47 mVs), distances flow or by analytical models (30 m - 30 km) and mass of dye used such as flow between parallel plates (50 kg). Tests with slow apparently the computational velocities often have poor tracer efficiency does not enable to account recoveries, so the few tests with peak for errors in including elements of velocities <0.005 m/s or recoveries higher dimensions than the overall <25% were rejected. The pertinent model. variables that were tested were spring discharge, distance, velocity, mass of Guidelines for the quantity of dye dye injected, peak recovery, and time needed for quantitative tracing to from injection to peak recovery. springs in carbonate rocks 1 1 It was found that the most useful S. R. H. Worthington , D. C. Ford , and equation predicts peak dye concen- 2 C. C. Smart tration as a function of spring Dept. of Geography, Me Master University, discharge and distance traced. Use of Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada the equation gives a high probability Dept. of Geography, University of Western of successful sub-visual detection of Ontario, London, Ontario, N6A 5C2, Canada dye in water samples, and thus solves There have been various estimates of one of the major problems of tracer the quantity of dye needed for a testing. successful groundwater trace. However, rule of thumb methods Interpretation of tracer often prevail, and there is a common experiments in the Danube-Aach belief that the quantity of dye needed system (Western Swabian Alb, is not predictable. Germany) with analytical models Dye injected into wells or sinking A. Werner1, H. Hotzl1 and P. streams is subject to advection, Maloszewski dilution, dispersion and adsorption. Department of Applied Geology, University Advection, dilution and dispersion of Karlsruhe, Kaiserstr. 12. D-76128 are relatively straightforward to Karlsruhe, Germany quantify, while adsorption is the most GSF-lnstittile of Hydrology, Ingolstadter difficult parameter to predict. Landstr. /,' D-85764 Oberscleissheim, However, dye recoveries in Germany quantitative tracer tests are The karstified region of the Swabian commonly >25%. This suggests that Alb is located in South-West the quantity of dye needed in a trace Germany. The Upper Danube river should be able to be estimated within crosses this region from the west to an order of magnitude. the east. For about 150 days per year the river losts its water completely. Data from more than 100 quantitative About 12 km south of the main water tracer tests were examined to

24 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey loss the largest spring of Germany, Karst aquifer regionalization in the Aachspring, is located. Due of the Basque country (Northern this remarkability (the water loss of Spain) the Danube and the extremely large I. Antiguedad spring), the Danube - Aach - system Department ofGeodynamics, University of is a research area for a long time. Basque Country, 48940 Lenioa (Bizkaici) Since 1869, many tracer experiments Basque Country, Spain will be carried out there, the first Carbortct

25 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey decisive influence the local factors, significantly affected by geology related ones mainly, have in antropogenic factors and thus being the development of the karstic suitable for evaluating and analyzing drainage. the background parameters. Finally, the detailed analysis of the Conclusions derived, clarify the tracer breakthrough curves, hydrochemical characteristics of the combined with the geological, region investigated and give hydrogeological and hydrochemical information about the application of information, has provided a valid the method in solving other similar structural model (rapid circulation problems. subsystem and fissured subsystem) of The governing factors of the some aquifers. Lithium tracer shows physical and hydrochemical excellent recovery rates as opposed characteristics of karst springs to fluorescein and iodide which have offered less satisfactory results. E. Raeisi, F. Moore, and GH. Karami Department of Geology, College of Sciences, HYDROCHEMISTRY Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran The physico-chemical characteristics Seasonal fluctuations and trends in of karstic springs is not a sole the hydrochemical background of function of flow path in the karst waters in some regions in carbonate rock masses. A number of Bulgaria other parameters including the type M. Machkova , D. Dimitrov , and B. of precipitation, vegetation cover, Velikov2 morphology of the exposed area, and National Institute of Meteorology and hydrochemistry of the infiltrating Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria water into the karst system also have 2 " University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, their own contribution. Bulgaria In the present study, the Gar and the The present study aims to develop Barm Firuz Mountains are chosen to methodology and way of presentation determine the governing factors of of results in the evaluation of the physical and hydrochemical fluctuations of the main parameters characteristics of karst springs. of the hydrochemical background of Geological, hydrochemical and tracer karst waters using the Bistretz karst analysis data reveal that the drainage spring in the North-West Bulgaria as area of Sheshpeer aquifer comprises an example. Based on historical the whole of the Barm Firuz Mount hydrological and hydrochemical and the northern flank of the Gar information (monthly values for Mount. The following measurements eleven years period), a method for were carried out. evaluation and analysis of the 1. Variation of discharge as a seasonal fluctuations and trends are function of time. Temperature, outlined. The region investigated is electrical conductivity and pH of the chosen as a typical one in an area not inflow into six sinkholes

26 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

2. Electrical conductivity, pH and and W. Dreybrodt [3] also concluded temperature of water at the surface that karstification might endanger and 40 centimeters inside soil cover hydraulic structures. A critical 3. Major ions, temperature, electrical condition for the safety of a dam was 5 conductivity and pH of the formulated [3] by 2.6x10 > 3 precipitation, fresh and accumulated a -i-ct/k,-l, where a is the width of snow and the inflow of the sinkholes the fissure, / its length in cm and i the 2 4. Infiltration parameters of the soil hydraulic gradient, k (mole/(cm s)) and the carbonatic exposures by and c'eq (mole/cm) determine the doub'e ring method dissolution rate far from equilibrium, given by R = k (l-c/cei/). The value of 5. Discharge, major ions, temperature k, therefore, is of crucial importance. and electrical conductivity of the For natural conditions a ~102 cm, water was measured every twenty and dissolution proceeds in a system days for a period of three years. closed to CO2. In such cases D. The results indicate that the physico- Buhmann and W. Dreybrodt [4] have chemical characteristics of the inflow shown theoretically that the value of systems changes with time. In k is determined by the slow advanced karst systems where the + conversion of CO2 —>H +HCO 3 and dissolution channels are large and the depends on the ratio r = V/F; V is the flow is turbulent, the characteristics volume of the water and F the of the outflow system (springs) is surface of the dissolving limestone. influenced by the inflow one; while 1 To verify these predictions we have in undeve )ped karst systems where performed batch experiments to the type of flow is diffused, the measure k for r-values of 0.4 cm and hydrochemical properties of the 0.04 cm under chemical conditions discharging spring is mainly similar to nature. The results clearly controlled by the aquifer. demonstrate the influence of CO2" conversion, showing a significant The influence of CO2-conversion on the dissolution kinetics of decrease of k with decreasing r. The limestone and its consequences to k value for r = 0.01 cm corresponding to joint widths of the safety of dam sites 2x102 cm inferred from these data W. Dreybrodt yields k = 5x10"" mole/(cm2s) in Institute of Experimental Physics, University comparison to a value of 4x10 10 Bremen, 28334 Bremen, Germany suggested by James [1]. In In a recent book [1], A. N. James consequence of the safety criteria claims the possibility to predict above a dam site predicted to be safe endangerment of dam sites caused by with the higher k value of 4xlO"4 CO containing aggressive -water 2 could fail in nature. seeping through fissures in the underlying limestone and enlarging [1] Soluble Materials in Civil them by dissolution. A. N. Palmer [2] Engineering, Ellis Horwood, London,

27 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September W-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey

1992; 121 Assoc. of Groundwater The hydrochemical characteristics of scientists and engineers. Proceeding, the Umm Er Radhuma aquifer were 1988: [3|Appl. Hydrogeol. I, 20, 1992; investigated by the aforementioned [41Chem. Geol.,53, 109, 1985 new and classical techniques. The Hydrochemical assessment of results indicated that the major I mm er Radhuma karstic aquifer groundwater types are sodium in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia chloride and calcium sulfate. Umm Er Radhuma groundwater is saturated Z. §en with respect to calcite but Istanbul Technical University, Meteorology unsaturated for anhydrite in the Department, 80626 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey northern part of the study area. Hydrochemical behaviors of a karstic aquifer help to identify groundwater Hydrogeochemistry and quality types within the extensive karstification in the Cienaga de area of the reservoir. Classical , Zapata aquifer (Matanzas, Cuba) pie, trilinear, and Durov diagrams are J.R. Fagundo', I. Morell2, J.E. Rodriguez used extensively in the literature for Rubiol A. Pulido Bosch4, M. Lopez such a purpose. However, in this 4 4 research new techniques and Chicano , and M.L. Calvache 'CNIC, Cuba procedures such as area-concen- -> tration, frequency-concentration, ion- "University Jaume I, Spain concentration percentage-frequency yINGEO, Cuba relationships are developed in the University of Granada, Spain (2 & 4: form of various charts for the AMH92-02I1). Depl. ofGeodymimics, Faculty of Science, 18071, Graiuuhi, Spain identification of zonations and saturations of the groundwater in The area of La Cienaga de Zapata terms of various chemical and its surroundings occupy some 2 constituents. Furthermore, relative 4500 km , composed of gently tilting frequency-electrical conductivity and Miocene, Pliocene, and Quaternary total dissolved solid relationships are materials which are somewhat obtained based on whether the fractured and intensely karstified. In grow \ater is of sodium chloride, the recent geological history of the calcium chloride, calcium chloride or sector, the sea level has fluctuated, mixture of two types. Last but not the thereby strongly favoring the least, chemical equilibrium studies karstification processes. At the same led to ionic strength = total dissolved time, the central part of the marsh solids = electrical conductivity (Cienaga), depressed by tectonic relationships as well as the activity events and/or by karstification, coefficient charts for major ions and became the discharge point for local cations. All of these techniques can flow systems of the aquifer, be used in groundwater studies in any encouraging the accumulations of part of the world. peat exceeding 10 m in places. This accumulations of organic matter, nearly impervious, has in turn played

28 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmentai Impacts", I TR9700040 a major part in the karslification by carbonate rocks of Oran Mcseia are adding acidity to the environment examined. and increasing the partial pressure of The interpretation of both measured the CO:. At present, this physico-chemical values, analytical accumulation confines the carbonate results of chemical elements (majors aquifer. The hydrogeochemical and minors) and also isotopic processes brought about by this analysis and ^coihermometry allow situation, in addition to certain to state precisely the functioning human activities (intensive pumping mechanism of thermomineral water throughout the influx area), are t!u linked to this carbonate massif. object of detailed study. The most outstanding aspect is the extremely The modern dynamics of the upper horizontal contact between fresh and Ribeira karst, Southeastern Sao .aline water, apparently due to the Paulo state, Brazil high average permeability of the I. Karmann and D. C. Ford" materials. As a consequence of human activities, notable thicknesses Institute c\e Ceociencias, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil have been detected in the mixing 'McMastcr University, Hamilton, Canada zone. Despite the relatively The hydrology and hydrochemistry homogeneous karstification of the of the Perolas - Santana karst aquifer, the presence of certain drainage system has been monitored sectors of preferential flow can be deduced, evident in certain for one hydrological year in order to hydrochemical anomalies. estimate the chemical denudation rate of a subtropical humid karst system. Finally, a strategy for the exploitation The Perolas - Santana system belongs and management of this peculiar to a karst area in dolomitic and system is proposed, analyzing the calcitic metalimestones of the Middle positive and negative consequences Proterozoic Acungui Group in the such exploitation could have for the Upper Ribeira river valley, between aquifer and associated singular Apiai and Iporanga, southeastern Sao ecosystems. Paulo State, Brazil. The thermomineral springs The following hydrochemical facies blended to carbonate formations of have been defined: allogenic surface Oran meseta (Algeria) runoff, fluviokarstic runoff, vadose A. Issaadi and A. Haouchine autogenic fissure seepage, vadose Institul of Earth Sciences, University of autogenic conduit flow, deep phreatic Sciences and Technology, B.P 32 El Alia, conduit flow, and karst resurgence Bah Ezzoitar, Alger.s, Algeria flow. The hydrochemistry indicates The geomorpho'iOgical and litho- that the karstification is basically structural factors with govern the controlled by meteoric water infiltration and groundwater flow in enriched in carbonic acid. Minor dissolution of carbonate by sulfuric

29 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impac TR9700042 acid produced by oxidation of pyrite impermeable deposits of the lower disseminated in impure limestone is nappe. thought to occur in deep flow routes. Water is largely used for thermalism The modern erosive dynamics of the since about one hundred years. studied karst has been quantified Fourteen waters were sampled from according to the following natural emergences, pumped wells, parameters: saturation rate in calcite and runoff. The water temperatures and dolomite of allogenic rivers range between 7.7 to 32.8 °C while entering the limestone surface, the the electrical conductivities vary seasonality of the saturation index of between 20 to 520 |uS.cm"'. A large the main hydrochemica! facies and range of alkalinity is found (0.05 to the rate of limestone surface 6.30 meq.l') for a pH variation of lowering through dissolution. The 6.02 to 8.21. The high contents of calculated mean chemical denudation dissolved oxygen indicate a rate for the Perolas - Santana basin is groundwater circulation under 31.1 ±6 mm/ky, based on a one year oxidized conditions. water budget of the basin and water The good correlation between hardness variation with respect to the temperature and mineralization of the spring discharge. karst waters shows a binary mixing Geochemistry of the groundwaters between (1) cold, highly mineralized from the Moneasa karst (Romania) waters recharged in altitude through 1 2 the carbonated formations and (2) C. Marlin', L. Dever , P. Vachier , and L. slightly mineralized waters with 3 Timofte higher temperature indicating a deep Labomtoire d'Hydrologie el de Ceochimie circulation. For the latter, the low Isotopique, Universite Paris-Sud, France mineralization is due to a contact 'Laboratoire des Sols, INRA, Thivenal- with the silicated formations of the Grignon, France upper nappe basement. Inslitutul de Fizica Atomica, Bucarest, Romania The oxygen-18 and deuterium The karstic Moneasa region situated contents do not show large variations in the Apuseni mountains (Western as values range within -9.6 to -11.0 part of the Carpathians, Romania) is %o vs. SMOW and -69.9 to 76.7 %c known for its thermal waters where vs. SMOW respectively. All the temperatures reach 24 to 32.8°C. The waters of the karst, the runoff and the geological structure of the area is natural sources originated from characterized by the overthrust of oceanic air masses condensation as two nappes in relation with the alpine indicated in the deuterium vs. orogenesis. The karst is located in oxygen-18 diagram. However, the carbonates and black dolomites of deep waters sampled from the wells the Middle Triassic in the upper show (1) characteristics of both nappe nearby the contact with the Mediterranean and oceanic origin

30 International Symposium & Fieid Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey and (2) lower condensation 53,28 Eastern geographical temperatures than the other ones. longitudes and between 29,1 and 30,6 The Carbon-13 contents of the Total Northern geographical latitude. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (TDIC) The area of this basin is 4027 km2 vary between -13 to -10%c vs. PDB and carbonate rocks composes about and are. well cqrrelated with the 1600 km2 which include 40% from bicarbonates. Although the high the total of the whole area basin. altitude waters show the more I3 These carbonate formations are depleted 8 C values, all the waters belongs to Upper Campanian to are mineralized under an open system Maestrichtian age (Tarbur with respect to the biogenic soil CO2. Formation) and Eocene to Oligo- The radiocarbon activities present a Miocehe age (Jahrom-Asmari wide range, from 16 to 100 % of Formation). modern carbon. The relationship I4C Jahrom-Asmari Formation includes activities vs. temperature suggests a 97.5% of the carbonate rocks, that is mixing between cold recent and why we have drilled 8 core drilling warm old waters. The contribution of piezometers in Jahrom-Asmari sub-surface with respect to the deep Formation, it's worthy of mention water in the mixing increases with that, this formation provides 68% of the distance from the Moneasa fault drinking water supply from Shiraz which constitutes a drain of an city. For determination of CaO, MgO upwards circulation. ratio in this basin, about 328 samples Determination of CaO, MgO ratio from core drilling and from from core drilling on karst water geological profiles of this formation resources of Maharlu karst basin were collected and analyzed (289 (SW Iran) samples have sent for determination of CaO, MgO ratio and 39 samples H. Kazemi for micropaleontology studies). Karst Applied and Study Research Center, Accor-ding to the results CaO, MgO Ministry of Energy, Tehran, Iran contents were between 26 to 55 and 0 One of the best methods for facies to 20 percent, respectively. We have and lithological investigation of calculated effective porosity (8.1% to karstic resources is determination of 21.46%), permeability from pumping porosity ratio, permeability tests (4.1xlO2 m/day), permeability assessment, karstification ratio, from micropaleontology (8.3xl06 to assessment of tectonic role in 6.5x10') and minimum of karstification ratio, and correlation karstification ratio (zero to 68.8%). between core drilling piezometers by using the results from CaO, MgO ratio, and micropaleontology of core drilling samples. Maharlu Karst Basin is located in Fars Province between 52,12 and

31 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey

Correspondence analysis for Study the migratory law and water hydrochemical characteristics of bearing media characteristics of karst water in Northern China karst water by using mineral Y. Yuesuo and Y. Jiexin saturation index Depl. Hvdrogeology, Changchun University W. Jintao of Earth Sciences, Changchun (130026), Institute of Karst Geology, Ministry of Jilin. P. R. China Geology and Mineral Resources, Guilin, i With the development of industry China and agriculture, groundwater in karst This paper takes the karst water area has become an important supply system of Jixian, Tianjin City as an source in Northern China. Then, the example, make use of mineral approach on the hydrochemical saturation index to study corrosional characteristic of karst water and the capacity of varying water and flowed impacts of environment to karst direction of groundwatcr, solved water is an urgent need in the some disputed boundary properties development of karst water. and important hydrogeological This paper uses the correspondence problems; make use of interrelated analysis technique to carry out the analysis of dolomite saturation index research on the formulation and and CO2 partial pressure to distribution characteristics of karst distinguish conduit flow and crevice water in Qinhuangdao area, Northern diffuse flow, expounded the China. From the analysis of characteristics of water-bearing hydrodynamic and hydrochemical media of dolomite. field of karst water, the dominating factors and hydrochemical Formation of sulfate-calcic waters components of karst groundwater are in cave massif determined, which can provide a K.A. Gorbunova, N.G. Maximovich scientific basis for groundwater Geology ofTechnogenic Processes quality evaluation and management. Laboratory, Scientific Natural Institute, Perm University, Russia Through combination of Q and R factor analysis, the research result The caves present the objects suitable can be expressed in the same factor for investigating hydrochemical axes, and the interrelation between processes which take place in the variables and the samples of karst Earth's crust. Perm University water will be obtained. The approach together with Kungur Station of the can also combined explain the Ural Branch of RAS carry on special distribution law and different complex investigation of Kungur ice type of sample characteristics on cave. The cave of 5.6 km length was hydro-chemical components of karst formed in gypsum and anhydrite water. interbedded by thin limestone and dolomite of Lower Permian Kungur stage. It is one of the most visited tourist caves in Russia.

32 International Symposium S Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts". September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey

The chemical composition of water Forming of karst water in cave massif represents mainly a composition by the technogenic result of gypsum and anhydrite factors dissolution. The degree of water N. G. Maximovich, V. N. Kataev, S. M. metamorphization is indicated by its Blinov "sulfateness", that is by the ratio of Scientific Natural Institute, Perm University, sulfate ion content to hydrocarbonate 4 Gencel sir., Perm, 614600, Russia ion content (mg/1). Weakly Karst regions are the terrains of the mineralized water recharging the specific geostructural and hydro- cave massif features low sulfateness: geological conditions. Geological 0.5 - 1.6 snow, 0.5 river water. The environment of these regions is very sulfateness of atmospheric ice unstable. Assimilation of the karst crystals in the cave equals to 0.6 - regions is connected with dangerous 0.7. In spite of similar sulfate-calcic situations and unreversible changes composition and high mineralization of the natural conditions. Karst (1-2 g/1) water and ice in the cave process determines the equilibrium of differ on sulfateness index: 10-21 geological environment in the areas drops, 11-16 karst water, 3-9 which cover more than 180000 underground lakes and stream, 26-38 square kilometers of the Urals. old ice, 9-10 young ice. Drops and Chemical composition of the coal karst water formed in rock fractures mine water depends on contents of (i.e. in a closed system) show higher the sulfur, carbonated and diffused sulfateness compared to open elements in the coal formation. If the reservoir, in the latter case water contents of sulfur in coal is more interacts with bottomset beds. Old ice than 4% karst water acquired acid is notable for the highest sulfateness. reaction (pH=2-3) and sulfate Sulfateness is a genetic feature that composition. Sulfate - Iron points out the sources and the centres Aluminum - Natrium - Calcium water of karst water recharge, conditions of acquired mineralization 2.5-19 g/1. their formation. The influence of anthropogeneous factor causes the The sulfur contained minerals and increase of mineralization of the organic compounds yield sulfuric atmospheric precipitation of above acid by process biochemical cave area, the appearance of nitrites oxidation. During exploitation of the and nitrates in karst water. coal deposits, in connection with increase of the water influxes, air exchange and volumes of the rocks in geochemical process the mineralization can increase to 35 g/1. In the mine water as compared with natural karst water content of lead, copper, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt increased in several tens time.

33 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey

The rivers of the West Ural coal concentrated sulfate and polluted mine districts have hydrocarbonate- subsurface water on depth 30-50 m. calcium-natrium hydrochemical Hydrochemical hydrocarbonate facies with mineralization 90-150 calcium facies is changed under mg/1 before of the mine water source of pollution to sulfate - fall in water of this rivers hydrocarbonate - calcium (contain is fresh and ultrafresh, slightly acid sulfate achieved 300-350 mg/1 when (pH=5.8). After of the mine water mineralization is 700-760 mg/1). fall in water of the karst rivers acquired Sulfate-Iron-Aluminum Algae: An important agent in composition and mineralization from deposition of karstic travertines: 640 to 5000-6000 mg/1. Content Observations on natural-bridge sulfate is from 1000 to 3700 mg/1, Yerkoprii travertines, Aladaglar, iron from 160 to 900 mg/1, aluminum Eastern Taurids-Turkey from 11 to 160 mg/1 when pH=2.5- C.S. Bayan and T. Kurtta§ 2.9. International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Throw of the mine water has greatly Hacettepe University, Beytepe 06532, changed the natural regime of the Ankara, Turkey karst rivers. The iron contained Travertines are terrestrial, fresh deposits (with hematite about 46%) water carbonate deposits formed by partly or fully had filled karst cavities karstic springs and associated in excepted underground flow and streams which are supersaturated increased part of surface drainage. with respect to calcite. Field The of bottom have very observations from recently travertine intensive pollution too. The water depositing karstic springs in the extracts by pollution were changing Aladaglar, Eastern Taurids - Turkey from hydrocarbonate-calcium to indicate that the deposition process is sulfate-calcium. Contain of the accelerated considerably by the chemical salt increased from 300-350 physical and biochemical mg/1 to 9500-9700 mg/1. The reaction contribution of algae which are was changed from slightly acid (pH- mostly belong to classes of 5.5) to very acid (pH=2.5-4). The Cyanophyceae ( - green algae), sediments are sources of the Chlorophyceae (green algae), secondary pollution. Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), The underground karst water are Eugleno-phyceae and Xhantophyceae partly isolated from the surface stream and active pollution by Algae contributes physically to the naturally-technogenic reasons. deposition of travertine by means of Nevertheless, the pollution from the trapping of inorganically formed surface flows by filtration is existing calcite micro-crystals by algal and not only during the flood filaments and mucilagenous periods. Atmospheric water going secretions and by providing proper through the coal slag-heaps are 34 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impact TR9700049 nucleation sites for calcite water exchange and the rapid precipitation. Biochemical activity of filtration. They are weakly algae also forces the aquatic system mineralized waters with a prevailing to deposit travertine due to the content of HCO3 in the anion and of photosynthetic removal of free Ca in the cation composition. The carbon dioxide from the solution. average content of ion HCO, is 87 % Field observations indicate that the mval and of ion Ca it is 75 % mval, rate of physical and chemical therefore ions Mg, Na, K, SO4, C), contribution to the deposition NO3, etc. usually occur inferiorly. depends strongly on the hydraulic Ions of NH4, Fe, Mn, as well as conditions. Physical and biochemical microelements, are usually absent, roles becomes important in high and and if they do occur, it is always low velocity/energy streams, within the limits of the valid quality respectively. The effect of algal standards. association over the travertine deposition can be observed The pH values imply a generally apparently especially in streams alkaline, rarely a neutral character where the ratio of algal mass to the (mean value 7.6). With regard of the rate of stream flow is substantially hardness value, these waters cover all high. transitions from soft to very hard waters. Since the climatic conditions (air temperature and insolation) have The gas composition is dominated by strong influence upon the abundance N2 and O2. Very low values are of algae, the rate of travertine characteristic of U, Ra, and Rd deposited by algal contribution contents. All analyzed waters show a decreases during the winter months low mineralization rate of 0.2 - 0.4 when algal population decreases. g/1 (only 10 % samples below, and 6 Similarly, the biochemical % above these estimates), the total contribution shows a diurnal pattern average value being 0.28' g/1. with a maximum during mid day Chemical composition of these because of the higher uptake of waters usually does not substantially carbon dioxide via photosynthesis. changes throughout the year. The amplitude of changes concerning the Hydrochemical characteristics of mineralization values throughout the the karst groundwaters in Serbian year is only rarely higher than 0.1 g/1. Carpatho - Balkanides Chemical composition of these Z. Stevanovic, V. Dragisic, and P. Papic waters is usually pure in the sanitary Institute ofHydrogeology, School of Mining aspect, mostly for the catchment and Geology, University of Belgrade, Djusina areas on mountain massifs being 7, 11000 Belgrade, Yugoslavia unpopulated. Cavern and channel The chemical composition of these dimensions, high filtration rapidity, waters reflects entirely the conditions or the like, cause frequent of their formation, the intensive bacteriological pollutants, therefore

35 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', TR9700050 the entire catchment area of each plain of the Iraklion trench from the source should be proclaimed a wider karst massif of dolomitic limestones. zone of sanitary protection. Recent investigations were dealing The results of tracing experiments with the mechanism of salinity, with groundwaters indicate that calculations of the seasonal fresh under convenient conditions, the water components and its recharge pollution may migrate as far as 10 dynamics. Almyros spring reacts km of rectilinear distance as early as quickly, though sometimes with a 24 hours. Active hydraulic certain delay, to precipitation events. connections between the ground and Looking at the mean flow duration surface waters, where by the harmful curves for some investigated years components may be carried from one can see a very steep falling curve great distances including nonkarst representing the fact that a discharge terrains and infiltrated into the of 14 mVs was only reached or narrowest spring zone, have a exceeded for 30 days (<10%) in the particular significance in this regard. year. This is caused by high runoff periods during the winter time mostly ENVIRONMENTAL shown as direct runoff. ISOTOPES IN KARST Chloride content of spring water Hydrodynamics of Almyros karst usually decreases with increasing aquifer, Crete island, Greece discharge. The highest sea water M. Probst1, H. Zojer1, M. Knithakis2, and portion is calculated between 22 and W. Stichler1 23%. As the maximum permissible chloride content for drinking water is Institute of Hydrogeology and Geothermics, given at 200 mg/l the spring ought to Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria have drinking water quality with 'Institute for Geology and Mineral Exploration, Relhimnon/Crete, Greece respect to chloride at a discharge of at least 11.8 mVs. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria During the season 1985 and 1986 the The brackish karst spring of Almyros dynamic of the karst water body was is located about 8 km west of Irak I ion investigated by the correlation of one km inland from the coast. With spring discharge, chloride content its discharge between 3 and and concentration of oxygen-18. It is approximately 50 mVs, it is the evident that the peaks of spring largest spring on Crete Island. discharge are accompanied by an Because of its complicated increasing of fresh water portion. At underground drainage system a the same time the oxygen-18 content number of hydrogeologists have decreases since the fresh water

36 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", Se( TR9700051 from high altitudes is reaching the Stable isotopic data shows that the spring about two months after t..e 8D VS 5I8O of local precipitation increase of spring discharge. marches the world meteorological Finally the comparison of different line WML, but this relationship of methods leads to the conclusion of karst groundwater shows another different storage capacities in the picture. Two groups of karst water individual geological-tectonical from this aquifer could be units. distinguished. Data of the first group is situated near to the WML, it Isotopic and hydrochemical implies that this kind of karst water is significance of a karst aquifer mixed by recent precipitation which within the semi-arid Datong coal could be demonstrated by comparing mine area, China the annual variations of groundwater J. Zhiinuo', Z. Pingsheng , F. Rongan", F. level within boreholes with that of GuangcharT, and G. Wei/.u precipitation. Data of the second group has a 8D vs 5ISO paralleled to Datong Coal Mining Administration, PR. WML with a deuterium excess very China near to zero, it implies that this kind 'Coalfield Geology Administration, P.R. China of karst groundwater is originated Nanjing Institute of Hydrology and Water during ancient climate environment. Resources, P.R. China Two kinds of karst water show its Water resources become an urgent hydrochemical differences. The first problem for the semi-arid Datong group has a hydrochemical water 2 region, a main coal mine area of type of HCO37HCO,"-SO4 - but China. After decades of development second group is rich in Na+ but poor of pore water from Quaternary 2 in SO4 which seems to be formed aquifers, great attention has turned to within a relatively isolated the potential of the South- environment. Typical data of ions Kouquangully karst aquifer of and other indexes e.g., carbonate- Ordovician period extended about 2 saturation etc. of these two kinds of 710 km with depths 170 to 400 m. karst water are compared and listed, This aquifer is geologically formed and a piper diagram related to is on a large syncline. However, two shown. kinds of karst water within this large aquifer have been identified isotopically and hydrochemically. It is formed due to the distribution of local faults and igneous rocks. It reveals that two different hydrochemical environments accompanied with different recharge and discharge conditions are existed.

37 Internationa/ Symposium i Field S TR9700053 TR9700052 Environmental isotope study and US/cm) and hot, stagnant karstic 2-D modeling of cold and thermal water (40-50 °C, 300-400 |xS/cm). karst within the Getnlik (Bursa) Applying the FE-element code area of Northwestern Turkey FRACTure (Kohl et al., 1993) two- T. Eisenlohr, M. Pfister, and W. Balderer dimensional modeling of the coupled Geological and Geophysical Institutes, Swiss hydrothermal circulation pattern as Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, well as of the tritium transport Switzerland pattern were performed. Introducing The main topic of the 1-D linear elements the necessary interdisciplinary MARMARA- high groundwater velocities in karstic Project of the Swiss Federal Institute aquifers were achieved. The of Technology Zurich is the differentiation between hot, relationship between active crustal subthermal, and cold springs were movements, seismicity, heat flow, possible regarding the outflow and characteristics of deep temperatures as well as the tritium groundwater circulation in concentration of the different springs. northwestern Turkey. The Armutlu It turned out that the high water Peninsula, between Istanbul and velocities in the karstic systems in Bursa, is one of seven areas, where relation to the normal groundwater detailed hydrogeological inves- velocities of the country rock (not tigations were performed. The karstic underground) and also the peninsula is situated between two appearance of fracture zones are very branches of the North Anatolian responsible for this special situation Fault zone (NAF). In the of groundwater circulation. The southeastern part of the peninsula a results of the hydrogeologic metamorphic sequence, consisting of investigations were nicely confirmed greenschists, a marble unit and flysh- by these quantitative calculations. sediments, builds up a mountain region. Related to outcrops of the Measurement of karst effluents marbles seven big karstic springs into the streamflow by means of with discharges between 30 and 160 natural oxygen-18 content: Case 1/s, and temperatures between 13 °C study of the Ermenek basin: and 25 °C flow out at the slope of Central Taurids-Turkey mountains. In the plain of Gemlik C. Yejertener artesian thermal water (37 °C, 410 International Research and Application |j.S/cm) appears. Chemical analysis Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), showed that thermal water as well as Hacettepe University, Beytepe Campus spring waters have the same origin 06532, Ankara, Turkey and are controlled by solution of The precise measurement of karst calcite. The isotopic compositions groundwater contribution into the indicate a mixture between cold streamflow bears special importance karstic water (12-15 °C, 250-450 in reservoir tightness investigations that are carried out for the feasibility

38 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', Sep TR9700054 of planned water structures in karstic method (5.1 m3/s) and by the sudden areas. The interaction between the dump dye dilution technique (5.3 karst groundwater and the stream m3/s) was found to be quite flow through the planned reservoir consistent. area should be carefully determined to ensure reservoir tightness. Regional discharge of a Triassic Although, precise streamflow artesian karst aquifer: mixing and measurements are usually age of spring waters in the accomplished by using classical Thuringian basin, Germany, velocity-area methods, in some cases, estimated by isotope methods this approach can not be applied due P. G. Dietrich and D. Hebert to the difficulties (e.g., turbulent flow Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, conditions) arising at the Institute of Geology and Institute of Physics, measurement site. In such cases, the Germany use of tracer dilution techniques can The investigated karstic aquifer is a help to overcome the specific middle Triassic limestone problem existing at the desired (Muschelkalk), covered by measurement section. Artificial impermeable upper Triassic (Keuper) tracers, including fluorescent dyes, clayey marls and shales and situated isotopes, salt solutions etc., have in a comparatively small basin (about been widely used for determination 110 x 70 km) without important of stream flow rate. However the differences in the altitude of present study demonstrates that the infiltration areas. Stable isotopes like natural stable isotope (18O) contents 2H and 18O give therefore only a little of the stream flow and the karst possibility of genetic interpretation groundwater could also be used for for the discharge of karst waters, this purpose. The stable isotope concentrated in some places with contents of the karstic groundwater bigger karst springs. and the streamflow at the points Good results give the contents of located at the upstream and tritium (3H) and radiocarbon (I4C): in downstream of the contribution site the diagram of 3H versus 14C are and the rate of the streamflow at the visible areas of old, young, and downstream part are the prerequisites mixed karstic ground waters. It has of the proposed methods. been calculated mixing ratios and As verified by the dye dilution test, residence times of the mixing the present approach has been components for some of the karst successfully applied for the springs. determination of the karstic Geochemical indicators like the bulk groundwater contribution into the content of soluble matter, the Ermenek River located in the Central geochemical type of water, the Taurids. The rate of karst contents of O2, Si, and F support the groundwater contributions into the isotope results. streamflow as determined by this

39 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impact TR9700055

Determination of the recharge area used for the drinking water supply of of springs in an Alpine region by the small town Strobl. applying a model using the altitude The main directions of karsl water effects of specific discharge and flow were determined by means of oxygen-18-content combined tracing experiments which T. Haruin and J. Fank proved the existence of shallow Institute ofllvdrogeology and Geothennics, drainage channels with high flow loanneum Research, EHsabethstrassc 16/11, velocities in the Jurassic limestone, A-SOIOGra;, Austria but the tracer could not be detected in The area of investigation is situated the springs draining the dolomitic in the Northern Limestone Alps near aquifer as the Kaltwasserquelle. the lake Wolfgangsee (Salzburg, The investigation area was divided Austria). It consists primarily of into various orographic drainage Triassic dolomites with fine- basins with continuous recording and fractured joint networks and high partly periodic measurements of storage capacity and intensively discharge. The hydrological karstified Jurassic limestones. The catchment model is based on the area reaches altitudes up to more than following parameters, which were 2000 m asl the mean annual determined for the orographical precipitation being in the range of drainage basins: 1800-2200 mm. -surface A The intensive and progressive use of -mean altitude H the karstified region by tourism and r -mean annual precipitation P pasture represent important pollution depending on the altitude sources for the springs, most of them -mean annual evapotranspiration E, draining the karstified limestone are characterized by primarily depending on the altitude -theoretical mean annual specific bacteriological problems. Therefore 2 the main purpose of the discharge (l/s km ) from the water hydrogeological investigations was balance equation -mean annual discharge MQ (l/s) and the determination of the main 2 underground connections between specific discharge Mq (l/s km ) (for pollution sources and the springs, and catchments with only single of their recharge areas and of the measurements computed by residence time of karst water as an correlation with the data of the next important parameter for gauging station) bacteriological pollution risks. The The data from small local catchment investigations were especially aimed areas in less permeable rocks with at the main spring, the so called different mean altitudes were used Kaltwasserquelle ("Coldwater for the calibration of the model spring") with a mean annual showing similar theoretical and discharge of 174 l/s (fluctuations measured specific discharges. A between 91 and 333 l/s), which is significant linear relationship

40 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', S TR9700056 between mean altitude and mean investigations in alpine karr.tic specific discharge could be regions. developed thus indicating their The presented method gives the corresponding surfaces of the possibility to estimate the mean orographical catchments and the altitude and the surface of the underground drainage systems. recharge area of springs. Therefore, it Deviations from this calibration represents an important base for the equation can be quantified as deficits detection of pollution risks and for (recharge areas) and surplus the delimitation of protection areas. (discharge area) and therefore give informations about the main Isotope hydrology study of the underground drainage systems. major areas of Paramithia and The altitude effect of the stable Koroni isotope I8O was used for the I. L. Leontiadis , C. H. Smyrniotis", E. determination of the mean altitudes Nikolaou , and P. Georgiadis of the catchment areas of the springs. National Center for Scientific Research The isotope contents of the "DEMOKR1TOS", Aghia Paraskevi Attikis, catchments and springs used for the Greece calibration of the 'Institute of Geology and Mineral show a strong linear relationship with Exploration, Athens, Greece the mean altitudes giving a slope of ' Institute of Geology and Mineral the regression equation of 0.22 Exploration, Branch of , Preveza, Greece 5%r/100 m the isotope data of a Politechnic School of Athens, Athens, Greece neighboring precipitation station being on the same calibration line. The areas under investigation belong Based on this isotope model, it was to the water district of , in the possible to estimate the mean altitude northwestern part of Greece. of the recharge areas of karstic Limestones formations are the major springs. constituents of the highlands, while recent deposits cover the lowlands. Introducing this parameter into the The flow rates of the big karstic calibration equation of the springs suggest interrelations hydrological model, one can deduce between the aquifers formed in the the theoretical mean annual specific carbonic rocks of different ages, as discharge Mq and from the ratio well as between surface and MQ/Mq the surface of the ground waters. underground . The Sampling of springs at different effective porosity of the dolomites in elevations with well defined recharge the catchment of the areas established ihat the altitude Kaltwasserquelle could be estimated effect on the 818O value of on the basis of these parameters as p° groundwaters is uniform in the entire = 1.8%, a value which agrees well water district of Epirus, and namely - with the results fiom other 0.18%oper 100 m.

41 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Imp TR9700057

Based on the isotopic composition of the recharge of the aquifers formed in surface and groundwaters, the origin the nearby plains or to the feeding of and the dynamics of groundwaters very closely or at distances up to 30 and the interrelation of the major km located springs, directly or by aquifers between each others or replenishment of the respective between them and the surface waters aquifers. were determined. Concerning the system of Generally, the interrelation between Mountains, which present a front to aquifers formed in the carbonic rocks the sea, the entire dolomitic of different ages in the areas under formation of its isolated southern part investigation is confirmed. is recharging the saline spring of The karstic system of the mountains Ammoudia. The water of the swamp of Paramithia and is subdivided Kalodiki inflowing to the sinkhole at in three parts, each one forming its the borders of this part of Parga own aquifer. The northern one (mean Mountains seems to be feeding annual yield 6.6x106 nrr1) is feeding submarine springs. the spring of Kristalopigi. The Environmental isotope study on highlands of the central and main one karst water of a typical coal mine (mean annual yield more than in North China 186.6xlO6 m3) are recharging the river Acheron, mainly through the P. Shulan spring of Gliki. The regions of less Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, P. O. than 700 m of altitude at the borders Box 9825 Beijing 100029, PR. China of this part are mainly contributing to Groundwater gush in coal mine is the recharge of the aquifers of the frequent especially in north China it surrounding younger formations by is very large in amount, so that lateral intrusion. The southern part of economic loss, even life loss are the mountains Paramithia and Souli serious problem. We apply isotope is mainly contributing to the recharge techniques for identifying the origin of the plain in the site of the and the mechanism of the water gush, community of Narkissos. the research work focused to the Zhao coal mine which is one of the In the mountainous complex of most important coal mine in China Margariti two karstic systems are and the research work has important distinguished. The northern one is meaning in both application and feeding the spring Neraida to the science. north, while the southern one, where at least two aquifers are developed, is 33 water samples collected for recharging mainly the springs oxygen-18, deuterium, tritium, and Ampoula to the east and Koroni to chemical analysis. The research has the south. The waters inflowing to resulted in some important the sinkholes of the Margariti achievement, isotope and chemical mountainous complex contribute to data were used to divide groundwater system to trace the movement of

42 international Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impac TR9700058 groundwater to determine the mixing best to prevent karst water from ratios of various groundwater and its being recharged by pore water in recharge source. river Dashahe basin so as to decrease According to the isotope chemical the karst water recharge intensity. data and related six figures, it seams Stable isotopes of hydrogen and that there are three kinds of water; oxygen in study of North Caucasus the first one is precipitation, 5D = -71 18 gypsum karst %o, 5 O = -10.0 %0, the second is surface water, 5D = -40.9%e, 5I8O = - Y.A. Federov 3.64 %o, and the third is karst water Hydrochemical Institute of Roshydromel, Rostov-on-Don, Russia 5I8O = -8.50 %o, 8D = -62.0 %>. The stable isotope compositions of the The present study comprises hydrogen and oxygen isotopic three kinds of water have no change, composition of precipitation, surface so it can be concluded that it's and underground water and water of recharge is stable. It is recharged by gas-fluid inclusions in gypsum and local precipitation. 5I8O, 5D values halite. of the karst water are very close to that of pore water of river Dashahe It was established that all types of basin. The closeness indicates that natural waters take part in the they have same origin. It is the pore processes of gypsum cast formation, water of river Dashahe basin that while precipitation and surface recharge the karst water. The deep waters are predominant. The bulk karst water belong to the zone of points of isotopic composition of stagnation, replacement of karst streams and reservoirs waters is groundwater is rather slowly. along the GMWL. Some points of karst lakes are displaced to the right Karst water is the key point of and down and those of water of cave groundwater gush in research coal walls - upper and to the left of this mine, pore water in river Dashahe line. basin is the main recharge sources of karst water. Karst water in relic karst These could be explained by develop zone is filled with fractionation of isotopes as a result of Quaternary pore water from bottom condensation-distillation processes. to top. Karst water can be divided Another group of points locates to into deep and shallow parts. The the right and lower of the this line, shallow karst water has a relatively along the line of mixture of large removal range and strongly talassogenic and meteoric waters, replaces with pore water. In contrast, what is also confirmed by the data on the deep karst water has a small chemical composition. removal range and replacement with In the Mineral Waters area meteoric pore water is slow. There is no water reaches a depth over 1000 m. hydraulic contact between karst Interaction of meteoric fluids with water and surface water. Therefore, talassogenic waters, carbon dioxide in coal mine area we should do our and ionic-salt complexes of rocks 43 International Symposium & Field Semma, TR9700060 TR9700059 results in formation of unique environmental isotope data from 10 mineral waters. The results of karstic springs. 'isotopic and geochemical studies, The results of both environmental daia of drilling and logging testify isotope and hydrochemical data the development of karst processes at revealed that the regional karst much greater depths, then those groundwater system is rather achieved by speleologists. This is complex and comprises of three also confirmed by the results of study subsystems which can be described of isotopic composition of gas-fluid as (1) an upper karst groundwater inclusions in halite and gypsum and system, (2) a middle flow system anhydrite, serving as an indicator of exhibiting slight mixing with thermal meteoric fluids presence in groundwater, and (3) a lower karst geological section. groundwater system discharging waters composed of sea water and Determination of karst thermal groundwater. groundwater flow systems of different origin by means of In this paper, the author proposes an environmental isotope and overall picture of the origin and the hydrochemical data: The Lower groundwater flow system of the large Dalaman basin (Western Taurids- karst springs. Turkey) Karst groundwater studies in C. Ye^ertener Lamas river region (Limonlu- International Research and Application Erdemli-Icel), Turkey Center [or Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Hacettcpe University. Heylepe, 06532, G. Yiice, N. Pelen, E. Onhon, M. Nazik, Ankara, Turkey T. Karaogullanndan, and N. Basaran The Dalaman basin of SW Turkey DSl, Adana, Turkey comprises autogenic and allogenic The geology and hydrogeology of the karstic carbonate aquifers of karstic drainage basin in the Lamas Miocene and Mesozoic age, region covering a surface area of respectively. The basin extending 1500 square kilometers was along the to v,irds investigated for the groundwater highlands has numerous karstic potential. The main objective of springs with different hydrochemical Lamas Project is to define the characteristics. Fresh-waier springs relation between the recharge to and brackish thermal springs highlands and the discharge realized emerging from the same aquifer are by the karstic coastal or submarine encountered in different parts of the springs along the Mediterranean basin. Distinction among the coast and assist to development of different karst groundwater flow karst water resources. systems existing in the basin has Formations of Paleozoic, Mesozoic been accomplished by the and Cenozoic crops out in the region. examination of hydrochemical and The base rocks of quartzite, schists and crystalline limestones of 44 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karsl Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey

Paleozoic are unconformitably encroachment is observed on (he covered by the dolomitic limestones coast line with the due to the of Mesozoic. The ophiolitic melange karstification and the seasonal is overthrusted to the north. variations are identified. Cenozoic, starting with marly The samples collected from the area limestones of Kaplankaya formation represents precipitation. springs, continues with Karaisah limestones. streams, and drilled wells. The linear All important karstic activities are regression line representing observed in this formation which Giizeloluk precipitation is reaches up to 1000 m in thickness. D = 7.07 5I8O + 7.91 where r = 0.91 The investigation area was extended almost 4400 square kilometers where The regression line representing the the elevation varies between 0 to samples is determined as: 2700 m. Mediterranean climate D = 7.7 5ISO + 13.67 where r = 0.91 influences the region and the mean Depending on the o'sO, 8D, and T annual precipitation is 605 mm on results the samples are collected in the coastal line and 756.5 mm in six groups. Evaluation is made by the Giizeloluk (1400 m), and 673 mm in analysis of variance to investigate the Kirobasi (1400 m). relation between and within croups Lamas river is the main river in 95% confidence level. The crossing the area. The maximum estimated turnover time with 8'"O discharge reaches up to 13.48 rtv'/s values gave the result of and minimum 2.77 m"'/s. The approximately 30 years. discharge to and from the spring is By taking into consideration the observed by step measurements along unmeasured discharge along the the river bed. The average loss coast line, the infiltration from the reaches up to 0.58 mVs. The runoff precipitation is approximately 50-60 coefficient is estimated as 0.28. %. The groundwater flow is from The springs in the region can be north to the south and sometimes classified as karstic, coastal, and may not be effected from the low marine springs. The yields are altitude precipitation. The effect of between 2500 to 0.2 l/s depending on the sea water encroachment is the hydrogeological conditions. The detected by isotopic and mean discharge of three important hydrochemical analyses. Measures springs are K-3 34.0 hmVa, K-14 should be taken to protect the 18.0 hm'/a, and K-19 18.9 hm7a. ovcrpumping from the water along The karstification has reached at least the coast line. 250 m in depth almost to the base of Depending on the hydrogeological Karaisah limestone. The karstic and isotope hydrology investigations, features are often observed and small it has been concluded that the poljes are found in various development of the karst water elevations. The sea water resources can only be realized on the

45 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters