TR9700002 International Symposium and Field Seminar on Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts
KARST SU KAYNAKLAR! XARST WATER RESOURCES
U K A M K A R S T ' 9 5
10-20 SEPTEMBER, 1995 BELDiBi - ANTALYA - TURKEY International Symposium t Field Seminar on 'KarsI Waters I Environmental Impacts'. September 10-20, 1995 Antatya - TunXey
INTERNATIONAL SYMPOSIUM AND FIELD SEMINAR ON KARST WATERS & ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS
September 10-20,1995 Beldibi - Antalya, Turkey
ABSTRACTS
Compiled by:
Gultekin Gunay, Levent Tezcan, and A. Ozlem Atilla
Reviewed by Typed by Bakatowicz, M. Atilla, A. 0. Balderer, W. Qelik, H. Bayari, C. S. Demirci, N. Custodlo, E. Dogdu, M.?. Do§an, A. U. Eren, T. Ekmekci, M. Giiven, F. Ford, D. Meric, B.T. Gunay, G. Selquk, B. Johnson, A. 1. Tezcan, L. LaMoreaux, P. E. Sarin, A.
Tezcan, L. Yurtsever, Y Zojer, H.
Antalya, 1995
VOL M£WATfONALWMfHXfUh'A/Vl> ff£U> &MMAR'ON ftf&TWATe&fflt>eNmoNM£iJTALIMPACTS
September 10 - 20, 1995 Beldlbi - Antalya, Turkey
Organized bv;
Hacettepe University International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM)
Supported bv:
Hacettepe University International Association of Hydrogeologlsts International Association of Hydroiogical Sciences International Atomic Energy Agency Med-Campus Project 355 Scientific and Technical Research Council of Turkey Turkish Promotion Fund UNESCO, Division of Water Sciences UNESCO-IGCP Project-379 United Nations Development Program United Nations Environmental Program United Nations Natural Resources & Environmental Planning and Management Branch United States National Committee for Scientific Hydrology
International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resourcm (UKAM), Hacettepe University, 06532 Beytepe Ankara, Turkey • Phone +90 312 235 2543 • Fax +90 312 235 2862 • [email protected] International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
CONTENTS
KEYNOTE PAPER Legal aspects of karst areas and insurability P.E. LaMoreaux and H. LeGrand
COST ACTION 65 COST 65: Hydrogeological aspects of groundwater protection in karstic areas B. Biondic and A. Pulido-Bosch Karst groundwater protection: Hydrogeological criteria and recommended methodology M. Bakalowicz and F. Zwahlen
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS -1 Karst hydrogeology and environmental impacts of Pamukkale thermal springs 5 G. Giinay, §. §im§ek, N. Keloglu, M. Ekmekci, H. Elhatip, C. Ye$ertener, C. Dilsiz, and Z. Qetiner Al Mokattam city karst problems 6 /. M. EIRamly Main hydrogeological problems in the karstic aquifers of NE Bulgaria 6 M. Machkova, A. Pulido-Bosch, J.M. Calaforra, P. Penchev, M.L. Cab/ache, M. Lopez-Chicano, D. Dimitrov, andB. Velikov Environmental impacts of fly ash from coal fired power plants 7 A. U. Dogan, R. Rajagopal, and M. Dogan Environmental impact on the occurrence of groundwater in two different types of limestone terrains in Egypt 8 M. A. A. Sayed
ENGINEERING AND ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS OF KARST The impact of karstic features on mining hydrology and groundwater resource for Precambrian limestone in India 9 P.K. Gupta and T.N, Singh Reservoirs in karst: Common watertightness problems 10 P. Milanovic Geotechnical constraints and remediation in karst terrane 10 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters
J. A. Fischer, J. J. Fischer, and R. Canace Estimation of large scale transmissivity and leakage of a reservoir through karstic terrain using piezometric data: A case in Northern Greece 11 P. G. Marinos and M. Kavvadas Problems related to the regional water-level sinking in karstic aquifers caused by mining operations 12 /. Sarvary
RESEARCH METHODS Implications from results of continuous in-situ-measurements of dissolved carbon dioxide in karst aquifers 13 R. Benischke, T. Harum, W. Trettnak, and F. Reininger The use of well logging for the study of karstic water resources in Maharlu basin 13 A. Zamani and H. Rachi The application of geophysical methods for the analysis of subsurface karst structures 14 R. Muller
Groundwater - surface water exchange in the unconfined karstified Floridan aquifer, a view from inside the aquifer with implications for groundwater protection 15 T. R. Kincaid Heat as a natural tracer: Characterization of a conduit network in a karst aquifer using temperature measurements of the spring water 17 M. Sauter and S. Renner The principles of search of karst, fracture and fracture-vein waters of the mountain folding zones 17 F. S. Aliev, I. f. Tagiev, and Y. D. Zamanov The resistivity method in karst media: Application to the Macic,o Calcario Estremenho (Portugal) 18 A. R. A. Afonso, F. A. M. Santos, andJ. A. Marques About construing data of seismic radioscopy between boreholes in karst rocks 18 S. I. Parfenov
Airborne remote sensing systems and usability at pollution research of karst water resources 19 M. Onder The study of engineering geophysics in karstic grounds and case studies 19 Z. Kamaci Monitoring of sea water intrusion zone along the Mediterranean coast of Turkey by means of geophysical techniques 20 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey
H. Elhatip Geoelectrical investigation of Beskonak head-reach tunnel 20 E. Barlas and M. Degirmenci Satellite image analysis of structural fabric controlling groundwater flow in Southwestern Taurus karst region 21 H. Koyuncu
TRACING TECHNIQUES The latest Paderborn tracing test (Northrhine Westphalia, FRG) 22 IV. Kitss and E.P. Lohnert 1 'racing techniques and hydrodynamique analysis in the karst 22 B.F. Mijatovic Stochastic modeling of single well tracer data in fractured rock . 23 W. Drost and L Kovac Guidelines for the quantity of dye needed for quantitative tracing to springs in carbonate rocks 24 S. R. H. Worthington, D. C. Ford, and C. C. Smart Interpretation of tracer experiments in the Danube-Aach system (Western Swabian Alb, Germany) with analytical models 24 A. Werner, H. Hotzland P. Maloszewski Karst aquifer regionalization in the Basque country (Northern Spain) 25 /. Antiguedad
HYDROCHEMISTRY Seasonal fluctuations and trends in the hydrochemical background of karst waters in some regions in Bulgaria 26 M. Machkova, D. Dimitrov, and B. Velikov The governing factors of the physical and hydrochemical characteristics of karst springs 26 E. Raeisi, F. Moore, and GH. Karami The influence of CO2-conversion on the dissolution kinetics of limestone and its consequences to the safety of dam sites 27 W. Dreybrodt
Hydrochemical assessment of Umm er Radhuma karstic aquifer in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia 28 Z §en
iii International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Kare( Wafers & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey
Hydrogeochemistry and karstification in the Cienaga de Zapata aquifer (Matanzas, Cuba) 28 J.R. Fagundo, I. Morell, J.E. Rodriguez Rubio, A. Pulido Bosch, M. Lopez Chicano, and M.L. Calvache The thermomineral springs blended to carbonate formations of Oran meseta (Algeria) 29 A. Issaadi and A. Haouchine The modern dynamics of the upper Ribeira karst, Southeastern Sao Paulo state, Brazil 29 /. Karmann and D. C. Ford Geochemistry of the groundwaters from the Moneasa karst (Romania) 30 C. Marlin, L. Dever, P. Vachier, and L. Timofte Determination of CaO. MgO ratio from core drilling on karst water resources of Maharlu karst basin (SW Iran) 31 H. Kazemi Correspondence analysis for hydrochemical characteristics of karst water in Northern China 32 Y. Yuesuo and Y. Jiexin Study the migratory law and water bearing media characteristics of karst water by using mineral saturation index 32 W. Jintao Formation of sulfate-calcic waters in cave massif 32 K.A. Gorbunova, N.G. Maximovich
Forming of karst water composition by the technogenic factors 33 N. G. Maximovich, V. N. Kataev, S M. Blinov Algae: An important agent in deposition of karstic travertines: Observations on natural-bridge Yerkoprii travertines, Aladaglar, Eastern Taurids-Turkey 34 C.S. Bay an and T. Kurtta$ Hydrochemical characteristics of the karst groundwaters in Serbian Carpatho - Balkan ides 35 Z Stevanovic, V. Dragisic, and P. Papic
ENVIRONMENTAL ISOTOPES IN KARST Hydrodynamics of Almyros karst aquifer, Crete island, Greece 36 M. Probst, H. Zojer, M. Knithakis, and W. Stickler Isotopic and hydrochemical significance of a karst aquifer within the semi-arid Datong coal mine area, China 37 / Zhitnuo, Z. Pingsheng, F. Rongan, F. Guangchan, and G. Weizu
IV International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karsl Waters & Environmental Impacts', September W - 20,1995 Antalya - Turkey
Environmental isotope study and 2-D modeling of cold and thermal karst within the Gemlik (Bursa) area of Northwestern Turkey 38 T. Eisenlohr, M. Pfister, and W. Balderer
Measurement of karst effluents into the streamflow by means of natural oxygen-18 content: Case study of the Ermenek basin: Central Taurids-Turkey 38 C. Ye§ertener Regional discharge of a Triassic artesian karst aquifer: mixing and age of spring waters in the Thuringian basin, Germany, estimated by isotope methods 39 P. G. Dietrich and D. Hebert Determination of the recharge area of springs in an Alpine region by applying a model using the altitude effects of specific discharge and oxygen-18-content 40 T. Harum and J. Fank Isotope hydrology study of the major areas of Paramithia and Koroni 41 /. L. Leontiadis, C. H. Smyrniotis, E. Nikolaou, and P. Georgiadis Environmental isotope study on karst water of a typical coal mine in North China 42 P. Shulan Stable isotopes of hydrogen and oxygen in study of North Caucasus gypsum karst 43 Y.A. Federov Determination of karst groundwater flow systems of different origin by means of environmental isotope and hydrochemical data: The Lower Dalaman basin (Western Taurids-Turkey) 44 C. Ye§ertener Karst groundwater studies in Lamas river region (Limonlu-Erdemli-Icel), Turkey 44 G. Yiice, N. Pelen, E. Onhon, M. Nazik, T. Karaogullanndan, and N. Baqaran
TRANSPORT PROCESSES Case studies of the subsurface pseudo-karst on preferential contaminant transport at the Savannah river site, South Carolina, USA 46 P. A. Thayer, M. K. Harris, and G. C. Blount Investigations of groundwater flow and solute transport in fractured rock at the Grimsel test site (Switzerland) 47 A. Keppler and W. Drost Bacterial and chemical contaminant transport tests in a c ^nfined karst aquifer (Danuba valley, Swabian Jura, Germany) 47 J. P. Orth, R. Netter, and G. Merkl Contaminant transport from leaky landfills in karst areas 48 M. Eiswirtn, H. Hotzl, C. Lazar, and G. P. Merkler Transport mechanism in the subcutaneous zone 50 International Symposium i Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey
H. Hotzl, B. Reichert and P. Trimborn
MODELING AND FLOW SYSTEMS Delineation of a carbonate-alluvial groundwater flow system using a mixing-cell model and the spatial distribution of deuterium 51 M. E. Campana and J. G. Roth Study on the pollution of fracture-karst water in Boshan district, Shandong province, China 51 X. Yu Zhu, N. Q. Zhou, and S. H. Xu Hydrology of Dreznicko polje in the karst (Croatia) 52 O. Bonacci and K. Plantic Double continuum porous equivalent (DCPE) vs. discrete modelling in a karst terrane 53 G. Teutsch Hysteresis effect of karst vadose zone in Spring KR5, MT. Krauterin, Austria 53 D. Zhang, H. Fischer, B. Bauer, and C. E. Hamann On the karst spring discharge forecasting by the means of stochastic modelling 54 D. Dimitrov, M. Machkova, and G. Damyanov The karst springs in the Rhodopes mountain, Bulgaria 54 E. K. Bojilova Developments and achievements in the mathematical simulation of cave systems 54 L. F. M. Leon Computer simulation of the karst water table in the Transdanubian mountain ranges Hungary 55 A. Csepregi Modeling, exploration and development of deep water level confined karst water in Zhungeer coal district 56 L. Lian, B. Qingxiang, L. Wenbo, Y. Guijun, L Zengping, and Y. Jikun Determination of specific yield of a carbonate aquifer by analysis of discharge curves for wells and springs and laboratory tests 56 A. Kowalczyk and A. Witkowski Radial flow toward a karstic spring 57 Y.K. Birsoy Some important points in the evaluation of flow analyses in karst springs 57 S. Oran, O. Dumlu and A. Onak EBB and flow behavior of a karst spring, Kings canyon national park, California 58 L. D. Urzendowski and J. W. Hess
VI International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20,199S Antalya - Turkey
KARST MORPHOLOGY AND PALEOENVIRONMENT Sannur Cave: A crescent shaped cave developed in Alabaster formation in Eastern Desert, Egypt 59 G. Giinay, F. El-Bedewy, M. Ekmekqi, S. Bayan and T. Kurtta§
Speleogenesis in the Miocene gypsum strata in the Western Ukraine as a governor of underground water exchange between aquifers in a storey artesian system 60 A. Klimchouk Paleoclimate and paleokarst in South Africa 61 A. Issar Environmental isotope uranium (U) in karst aquifer of Southwest Datong, China 61 G. Weizu, Z. Pingsheng, and C. Guangye Karst geomorphology and the exploitation of water resources in South China 62 S. Linhua
REGIONAL KARST SYSTEMS The origin of a high transmissivity zone in the Floridan aquifer system and its relevance to karst 63 A.F. Randazzo, G. Butler, C. Denizman, and R. Baker Peculiarities of karst water resources of the Black Sea basin, their possible variability in future 64 V. S. Kovalevsky Hydrological balance in finding out the catchment area of major groundwater sources in the Donovaly area 65 P. Malik Groundwater velocities in low gradient, glaciated carbonate strata in Ontario, Canada 66 S. R. H. Worthing ton, D. C. Ford, andM. J. Buck Groundwater flow in a young karst terrane developed along a coastal setting, Northern Guam, Marina Islands 67 W. Barner Study the migration of pollutants in soil and groundwater 68 D. E. Legheraba, S. Belaadi, and M. Diboun Underground waters of carbonaceous rocks of the Great Caucasus and their hydrochemical peculiarities 69 E. M. Shekinski and A. B. Alekperov The hydrogeology of Upper Cretaceous limestone aquifer at Areif el-Naqa area, East Central Sinai-Egypt 70 E. A. Zaghloul, and M. S. Farid
vii International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey
Underground karst water circulation in Peloponnesus, Greece 70 C. Tavitian and L Tiniakos Hydrogeological investigation of Alashtar basin (West of Iran) 71 G. Giinay and M.R. Ahmadipour Comparing of hydraulic conductivity of carbonated rocks obtained by an empirical formula and field measurement 72 A. V. Aghassi and M. E. Saati Karst hydrogeology in Fengcong landscape of Xichou country, Southeastern Yunnan plateau 72 S. Linhua Thermal water in karst areas of China 73 W. Ji-Yang Karstic terrain and major karstic systems in Romania 73 /. Oraseanu, A. lurkiewicz Permeability and hydrodynamic behavior of a karstic environment 74 P. Y. Jeannin and A. Grasso Hydrogeological investigation of the karstic system within the tectonically complicated part of the Jura region of the canton of Solothurn, Switzerland 75 T. Herold, W. Balderer, and P. Jordan Determination of aquifer parameters by step pumping tests 75 Y. K. Birsoy and S. D. Qobanyildizi Karst hydrogeological investigation of the gypsum at near east of Sivas, Turkey 75 M. Degirmenci, F. Kaqaroglu, and O. Cerit Karstification around Bucak and surrounding area and problems arised 76 A. Bilgin, M. Ozkul, S. Ta§delen, and R. Karaguzel Indicator principal component kriging as a decision tool in assessing groundwater pollution 77 A. E. Tercan, C. Sarag, and D. Mamurekli Karst systems of Turkmenistan and karst hydrochemistry 77 B. Jumamuradov, S. Khasibulin, and T. Iskanderov
JAMES F. QUINLAN POLLUTION CONTROL AND KARST WATER PROTECTION SESSION Standard guide for the design of groundwater-monitoring systems in karst and fractured-rock aquifers: ASTM standard D 5717 78 J. F. Quinlan, M. R. McCann, and G. J. Davies
VIII International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters 4 Environmental Impacts; September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya - Turkey
Are deterministic numerical models helpful to delineate groundwater protection zones in karstic aquifers? 79 A. Dassargues and S. Brouyere
Factors controlling groundwater protection of the karst islands of Croatia 80 A. Sarin, V. Goatti, and D. Ivicic EPIK a methodology ror evaluating vulnerability of groundwater to contamination in karstic aquifer; its application on a test site in Swiss Jura 81 N. Doerfliger and F. Zwahlen Groundwater exploration in a confined karst aquifer of the Swabian Jura (Germany) 82 H. Behrens, W. Drost, W. Rauert, J. P. Orth, R. Netter, and G. Merkl
Synthesis of polymers for membrane preparation, polymer bulk modification for novel separations: Extraction of organics from waste aqueous solutions by pervaporation 83 Z. Bendjamaa, D. Legheraba, and R. Maachi Chemico-physical pollution in urban areas of groundwater flowing in a littoral carbonate aquifer 83 V. Cotecchia and M. Polemio Groundwater pollution in Iskenderun karst basin Southerstern Turkey 84 M. Ekmekgi, M. Degirmenci, B. Erduran, and O. F. Sevtik A Mechanism of reducing sulfur contents of coal by centrifugal-pneumatic communition 85 A.U. Dogan, P.B. Buter, andM. Dogan Complex refining of high mineral water and it's influence on the environment 86 B. Jumamuradov
An initial assessment of sanitary bacterial dynamics in the Castleton karst, Derbyshire, England 87 J. Tranter, J. Gunn, and C. Hunter The case for upland recharge area protection in the rocky mountain karsts of the Western United States 88 P. W. Huntoon
ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS -11 The impacts of massive recent deforestation on the unconfmed karst aquifers of South China 90 P. W. Huntoon Discussion on geological-ecological environments and economic developmental ways -The karst regions in South China as the example- 90 L. Yaoru
IX International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
Importance of public awareness in improvement of effectiveness of karst groundwater protection studies 91 G. Giinay and M. Ekmekgi An example of regulation of karst aquifer 92 Z Stevanovic and V. Dragisk
A karst model ordinance 93 J. A. Fischer and D. Drewes Environmental impact on karstic aquifers in Istria in Western Croatia 94 K. Urumovic, T. Vazdar, D. Mayer, B. Hlevnjak, and I. Dragicevic Hydrogeological aspects of karstified aquifers and its environmental impacts in Eastern Desert-Egypt 94 J. Khalil and T. M. Hassan Investigations on the causes of salinity in karstic springs of Rahmat mountain, Zagros, Iran 95 M. Zare and H. Mohammadzadeh Karstic area erosion in Iran 95 A. R. Ghaffari, A. A. Abbasi, and F. Iranmanesh The effect of salt domes on karst water 96 A. Sharafi, E. Raeisi. and G. Farhoudi Environmental impacts on the karst aquifer systems in Wadi Arab catchment area Jordan 96 M. Almomani Evolution of geoecological environments in some karst regions in China 97 L. Yaoru Pollution transport in the vadose zone: An example from Postojnska jama - Slovenia 98 J. Kogovsek Environmental impacts on calcareous water-bearing formations in Tunisia 98 M. Hamza Ecology and pedogenesis of karstic lands in Turkey 99 / Atalay Determination of hard metals traces in groundwaters and influence of environment 100 T.A. Iskanderov and N.N. Chernova Environmental impacts of an allogenic surface water-groundwater system on the Floridan aquifer 101 D. P. Spongier and C. Denizman International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karat Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
HYDROLOGY Evapotranspiration from karstic mountain grassland 102 J. Porhemmat and E. Raeisi Stochastic response of karst aquifers to rainfall and evaporation, Maharlu basin, Iran 102 N. Samani and H. Sahraei-Parizi Base flow retention time determination of some karst springs in Slovenia 103 J. Urbane, J. Pezdic, and A. Juren Assesment of the karst spring contributions of Lamas basin modelled by exponential functions 104 A. Alkan, N. Keloglu, B. Kaya, 0. 0zi$, Y. Ansoy, and E. Benzeden
Flood peak reducing effects of karst 104 E. Benzeden, 0. 6zi?, A. Alkan, and S. (Okay) Tuncay
Snowmelt effects on flow in Upper Zamanti river basin of Turkiye 104 / GurerandO. M. Yavaf
Average base flow rates of karst spring effluents in Turkey 105 T. Baron, N. Harmancioglu, and U. 6zi$
How much precipitation on Manavgat karst? 105 A.S. Wain
Determination of the surface flow component by seperation of ground water and interflow components using mathematical simulation models based on exponential discharge functions in river flows with significant karstic spring effluents 106 /. Ati§
XI International Symposium t Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters t Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turks/
KEYNOTE PAPER competitively the water supply in surrounding areas. Springs and well Legal aspects of karst areas and water are prone to contamination in insurability water-table karst areas. P.E. LaMorcaux and H. LeGrand The risks of lawsuits are high near P. E. LaMoreaux & Assoc. Inc., P.O. Box buildings and roads in sinkhole-prone 2310, TuscaloosaAL 35403, USA areas, especially where water levels Sensitive environmental impacts in are lowered appreciably by pumping. karst settings are common and are Insurance policies against personal more distinctive than those in other and property damages as a result of rock terrains. Human changes in dynamic karst actions may be karst hydrology regimes can trigger restrictive because of uncertainties numerous legal activities where the resulting from human and natural effects, of changes go beyond actions related to water. Case property boundaries. Regulatory histories of karst environmental procedures that are applicable in problems need to be compiled and other rock terrains are not necessarily sorted so that probability assessments suitable for karst settings. of future damaging actions can be A predominant dependence on water considered an refined in a Bayesian from wells and springs in the framework. Skillful knowledge of numerous scattered karst regions of karst hydrogeology is needed for the world requires careful water and legal activities and for applicable waste management policies that are regulatory procedures. closely related to legal issues. In Various environmental regulations contrast to the widespread abundant that apply to all terrains are helpful in water supplies in the confined karst protecting acceptable karst settings; region of Florida and Georgia, USA, yet, local ordinances that are are the restricted and localized zones especially applicable to local and springs in the common mature conditions are proper. Some sensitive surface karst of many other regions. actions by humans in heavily Both types of karst regions have populated karst areas will continue to complex legal implications involving keep karst problems at a high level. hundreds of billions of dollars. Vulnerability and sensitivity maps Damages to karst water supplies can that express some cause and effect be permanent and costly. relations are needed for all karst Numerous lawsuits develop: (1) from settings. lowering of water levels beneath wide areas in permeable karst settings and (2) from selective flow paths of subsurface water that are not easy to determine. Excessive withdrawal of water for municipal and industrial use may readily affect International Symposium i Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
COST ACTION 65 where the present water quality and natural conditions guarantee the COST 65: Hydrogeological aspects feasibility to maintain such quality in of ground water protection in the future and to give high-quality karstic areas water supply to a large portion of the B. Biondic1 and A. Pulido-Bosch2 European population. Institute of Geology, Zagreb, Croatia Being conscious of that fact, the 'University of Granada, Spain researchers of European countries, The COST Action 65 "Hydro- where the karstic aquifers have a geological Aspects of Groundwater large share in total reserves of Protection in Karstic Areas" is a joint potable water, have associated to scientific research project of 16 solve the problem. They try, within European countries (Austria, the framework of the Commission of Belgium, Croatia, France, Germany, European Union, within its Hungary, Ireland, Italy, Malta, Cooperation in Science and Portugal, Slovakia, Slovenia, Technology Actions (COST Switzerland, Spain, Turkey and Actions), to help in solving possible United Kingdom) in the domain of problems. Within the COST Action karst aquifer protection. In spite of 65' during the last five years, they the fact that from karst aquifers have tried, through their individual emerge huge amounts of high-quality and joint research work, to evaluate, potable water except in some firstly, the present cognitions on karst European areas, mainly in aquifers. After that, they have tried to Mediterranean and Alpine countries, improve national and international the karst groundwater has not an approaches and measures to improve adequately significant role in public the protection of those so precious water supply. A frequent reason for resources for the present and future that phenomenon is a lower demand potable water supply. From the very of potable water in karstic areas in beginning of this research action, comparison with alluvial lowlands numerous research pilot areas have where most of big urban and been established in all participating industrial consumers are situated. countries and they represent various The extracted karst groundwater has types of karst aquifers. Initial and to be conveyed rather costly to annual national reports reveal the usually large distances. However, the problems of groundwater protection alluvial aquifers have become over and ways how particular countries more polluted, mainly because of an deal with them. intensive agriculture, but many urban During the research, ten joint and industrial sources of pollution working meetings were held, six of should not be neglected as well. The them were of a so-called regional actual interest of European countries type when the participating is directed to the water supply from researchers visited the research pilot karstic, mainly mountainous areas areas in eight countries (Croatia, International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
Ireland, Switzerland, Germany, water management experts of other Spain, France, Austria, Slovakia) and countries, those not included within they were acknowledged with various the COST Action 65, to solve the hydrogeological and groundwater discussed problems. protection conditions. The joint The results of the research within the research work was carried out within COST Action 65 will be presented in four working groups: an abridged form in the paper. I. Character of karstic groundwater systems, lead by M. Bakalowicz, Karst groundwater protection: France Hydrogeological criteria and recommended methodology II. Exploration methods, lead by F. 1 Zwahlen, Switzerland M. Bakalowicz and F. Zwahlen" III. Transport and processes, lead by B.R.G.M. Centre Thematique Eau, C. Almeida, Portugal Montpellier, France Centre d'Hydrogeologie tie I'Universite de IV. Regulations, lead by H. Hotzl, Neuchatel, Switzerland Germany Karst is first known as a landscape, The research results are presented in with specific landforms and features, a book divided in three parts: essentially developed in carbonate I. Recommendations for karst aquifer rocks. Karst areas are characterized protection by the absence of permanent surface II. Results of joint research activity flow and the presence of closed depressions, by the common III. National reports of 16 occurrence of caves and, more participating countries generally, of underground passages We do believe that the research where water flows or not, and by the results of European experts gathered occurrence of important springs. within the COST Action 65 will be Therefore, karst should be defined as valuable contribution for the a surface landscape, but also as an groundwater protection of karstic underground landscape and an terrains not only in Europe but also aquifer. in the other karstic areas. A particular Karst aquifers present i) in their value of this action is that a large saturated zone, drains, flow paths number of European hydrogeologists hierarchized in a way similar to and related experts are closely surface streams with high velocities associated within the COST and flow rates, where water residence organization and IAH. They are able time is short and waters do not mix to react jointly, if necessary, to solve very well; *\nd storage areas, the so- problems that may appear in karstic called a iex-to-drain systems, where areas as consequences of the present water flows very slowly because of urban, industrial, traffic, and bad hydraulic connections with agricultural development. They may drains and where water residence also help to the hydrogeologists and time is much longer; ii) in their International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey infiltration zone, a disseminated into account the whole specific infiltration all over the carbonate characters of karst aquifers. At first, outcrop, a concentrated infiltration because of widely opened voids, in a few sinking points collecting waters are not filtered. Secondly, the surface streams flowing on flow velocity is much faster in karst impermeable terrains and an aquifer (from ten to several hundred epikarstic zone, a locally saturated meters per hour) than in any porous zone near the surface. or fissured aquifer (commonly a few The final result of karst processes is meters per day in alluvium). At last, i) a hierarchization of flows and karst surface flow sinkholes, which are voids, ii) a high time variability of direct access to drains, are points flow conditions and of water particularly sensitive to pollution. chemical contents. Consequently, it Then, self purification does not occur is not possible to define a kaist in karst and high velocity rates aquifer by any Representative rapidly induce a pollution spreading Elementary Volume (REV) like any far from the injection point. In karst, aquifer; but the only whole karst pollution may be attenuated only by a system takes into account the dilution effect. drainage structure. In return, the high flow velocities in Contrarily to porous and fissured the karst drainage structure are aquifers, karst aquifers show: responsible for a fast renewing of stored waters which efficiently - various infiltration conditions (fast removes the polluted waters. infiltration through streams into large Nevertheless, because of their joints, slow infiltration through two- structure and of their high phase flow into Fine cracks, local and permeability in large voids, karst temporary storage in the epikarstic aquifers seem to be especially zone), sensitive to permanent pollution, - an organized phreatic zone with from agriculture for example. These drains of high hydraulic conductivity characters should be taken into and large karstic cavities badly account for managing land surfaces, connected hydraulically to drains and for defining protection zones of karst strong hydraulic discontinuities. spring recharge areas. Then, a karst system should be Therefore, the recommended defined by its framework (geological methodology should be focused on conditions, boundaries), by its the determination of flow conditions structure of underground flows both inside the karstic aquifer and on the in infiltration and phreatic zones, by possible relations between land its functioning, which results on the surface and groundwater. Some of state of development and of past the methods commonly used in conditions and by its evolution. porous or fissured aquifer The exploitation and the protection hydrogeology are also useful in karst of karst water resources must take studies; but a great care must then be International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey taken. For instance, interpretation of Hacettepe University Beytepe, 06532, pumping tests, especially in Ankara, Turkey boreholes, may present some Pamukkale travertine area is one of difficulties i) because the borehole the world's most important natural may be not connected to the drainage heritages located in the West structure (or its relative position is Anatolian geographical region of unknown), ii) mainly because the Turkey. It has partially overwhelmed basic assumptions of. pumping test the Roman City and the Necropolis modeling (e.g. Theis's assumptions) of Hierapolis. Pamukkale 'cotton are unrealistic in karst. Then, a new castle' is covered by the widespread way of interpreting pumping tests natural, white travertines which are must be followed, as for other acquired immediately on deposition methods, like tracing tests. from hot spring waters. A set of methods should be worked Karst hydrogeological and up for describing karst vulnerability. environmental studies of the Geological and geophysical methods Pamukkale thermal springs were are devoted to define the framework. carried out within the program of Geomorphology approach, like Development and Conservation speleology and other direct Projects implemented by the Ministry approaches are involved in of Culture of Turkey. Definition of describing the (paleo) structure. the physico-chemical characteristics Hydrodynamics, water geochemistry of the hot waters, factors affecting and artificial tracing deal with system the travertine deposition, the sources functioning. Landscape analysis of pollution, delineation of protection gives information about karst areas and establishing the evolution. Finally, the whole conservation strategy were the main information should be synthesized by objectives of this project. Geological a vulnerability map, the final and hydrogeological mapping, document supporting the decisions hydrological analyses, hydrochemical for managing the karst land surface measurements and analyses, isotopic in order to protect the groundwater analyses and evaluations, dye tracing resources in quantity and in quality. and pumping test were carried out in achieving these objectives. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS Based on the results obtained from AND LEGAL ASPECTS -1 these studies, a new concrete canal 'arst hydrogeology and system were constructed for hot environmental impacts of water distribution onto the travertine Pamukkale thermal springs area, and a conservation strategy was established. G. Giinay, §. §im§ek, N. Keloglu, M. Ekmekci, H. Elhatip, C. Ye$ertener, C. Dilsiz, and Z. Cetiner International Research and Application Center For Karst Water Resources (UKAM), International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
Al Mokattam city karst problems and heavy blocks falling during I. M. EIRamly October 1993 in Naser and Al- Senior Water Resources Consultant, P. O. Duweiqa squatter settlements and in Box 5118 Heliopolis West, Cairo, Egypt the nearby slum areas, caused a Al Mokattam City has started its sudden catastrophe to the inhabitants inauguration in the early sixties. The of these communities through the city is located on top of Al Mokattam destruction of their houses and Plateau which in turn bounds the establishments. eastern side of Cairo city including Simple improvements in local the suburbs of Nasr City, Al Maadi building design in this locality would and Helwan. The plateau is have prevented much of the damage comprised of highly dissected Middle and loss of life which did occur. and Upper Eocene formations including several rock units Main hydrogeological problems in composed of intercalations of the karstic aquifers of NE Bulgaria limestone, marl, and claystones. M. Machkova1, A. Pulido-Bosch2, J.M. 2 2 Tectonic and non-tectonic Calaforra , P. Penchev', M.L. Calvache , 2 1 displacements exist along the plateau M. Lopez-Chicano , D. Dimitrov , and B. and were mapped by several authors. Velikov1 Due to the successive tectonic events National Institute of Meteorology and that occurred in this locality, the Hydrology, Sofia 1784, Bulgaria limestone and marly layers were Dep. de Geodinamica, Universidad de affected by the network of fracture Granada 18071, Spain systems. The fracture systems aided The area of Bulgaria bordered by the in the development of the wide caves Rumania, the Black Sea, and Suha, and caverns, and the infiltration of and Batovo rivers covers rainfall and leakage from the approximately 4600 km2. The area sewerage systems along the plateau has at least two main carbonated surface, penetrated deeply along the aquifers that can be distinguished. fractures, that widen them and aided The lower one is Valanginian in age in the separation of the limestone and has a maximum thickness of that blocks. 400 m, and upper one, Sarmatian Recent urbanization during the last (Serravallian) in age has a thickness 35 years contributed to the slumping ranging from 0 to 250 m. of the separated blocks that caused a The climate of the region is semi- lot of damage to the unplanned urban arid, with average annual rainfalls communities established along the ranging from 440 mm in the eastern slopes of the plateau. In addition to edge to 500 mm in the northwestern this, the earthquake which had sector. Tlu- average annual stricken Cairo on 12 October 1992 temperature ranges from 10 to 14 °C. caused the release of these blocks Both aquifers have an independent and to roll along the slopes of Al behavior because of the existence of Mokattam plateau. These enormous International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', TR9700009 a geometrically complex marly bed due to its deeper geological position. between them. The chemical The lower aquifer is tapped by a character of the groundwater from series of artesian wells with thermal the Valanginian aquifer varies and sulphidric water which are depending on the sector, but it is located all along the coastal fringe. always within the limits of potability. The discharge from these wells The thermal character of the represent a waste of groundwater as groundwater is well recorded in the they have no closing system. coastal fringe, where temperature is The study of these two aquifers is higher than 40 °C in some localities. being possible thanks to financial The groundwater from the support given by the European Union Serravallian carbonates characterized through the project Ecological mainly as calcic bicarbonated and Problems of Karst Water Caused by magnesic facies but in some localized Overexploitation and Contamination areas sodic bicarbonated and sodic (CIPA - CT93 - 0139). Preliminary chloride types occur. results of this research will be shown At the present, both system are in the proposed paper. exploited by several wells and derivations in the springs, the Environmental impacts of fly ash groundwater is uvd mainly for from coal fired power plants agriculture and urb;m supply. Locally A.U. Dogan1, R. Rajagopal2, and M. a slight depletion ci the Serravallian Dogan3 aquifer is noted because of the 'Department of Geological Engineering, concentration of exploitations. This Ankara University, Turkey 'Department of Geography, University of may be interpreted as a sign for the Iowa, U.S.A. potential overexploitation of aquifers 3Department of Geological Engineering, in the near future. Moreover, the risk Hacettepe University, Turkey of salt water intrusion is important if The incombustible residue of coal we take into account that in the called fly ash and constitutes around coastal area the main pumping 15-45 % of the coal. Ash handling stations are located, in some areas, and collection systems in power less than 1000 m from the coastline. plants may achieve collection In fact, the influence of salt water is efficiency of up to 99 %. evidenced in some coastal points by Uncollectable fly ash is discharged the existence of sodic chloride facies into the atmosphere as paniculate waters. emissions causing air pollution and Likewise, the intensive agricultural the collected fly ash and bottom ash activity in some areas is responsible may became hazardous waste. Karst for a noticeable increase in nitrate system with their huge capacity is content in groundwater (more than very attractive dump sites. However, 200 ppm determined in some wells). hydraulic aspects of this hazardous Evidences of this kind of pollution do waste deposition has to be evaluated not occur in the Vallanginian aquifer and the fly ash must be characterized Intemational Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karat Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey carefully before discharge of releasing these particulates to soil, particulates as waste material. Indian water, or karst system will coal has a very high ash content and contaminate the environment. If karst therefore represents an excellent case system is used as dump sites then to study the environmental impacts of ground water will be contaminated the fly ash. due to rapid water circulation and In this study particle morphology, inability of self purification capacity size distribution, and chemical of karst aquifer will create great risk composition of fly ash from India for the future and certainly degrade have been studied using scanning the environment. electron microscope, image analysis, Environmental impact on the x-ray fluorescense, x-ray diffraction, occurrence of groundwater in two x-ray microanalysis, and flame different types of limestone analysis techniques. Seven sets of fly terrains in Egypt ash samples from a power plant in India were obtained and studied M. A. A. Sayed under an electron microscope. Niost Desert Research Center, Al-Matariya 11753, of particles were observed to be Cairo, Egypt spherical, with few distortions in The need for more water than is large particles. A representative site supplied by the River Nile for the was selected and samples were agricultural expansion has led to analyzed for size distribution using evaluating the occurrence of semi-automatic digital image analysis groundwater in other non-traditional technique. The fly ash particles were sources such as the limestones analyzed and the size distribution in forming the Mediterranean rainy belt each sample set was compared by in the northwestern part of Egypt and plotting histograms. The mean the limestone plateau bordering the diameter of particles in each sample Nile Valley. was also calculated. Chemical Vertical Electrical Sounding has analysis showed thai the fly ash is been applied for this purpose to composed of mainly SiOj, AUOj, determine or evaluate the impact of ferrous oxide with some minor the physical characteristics of the components of CaO, MgO, K2O, limestone, structural and climatic Na2O, TiO2, and some trace elements impacts on the storage of water in the including As, Be, Cd, Cr, Co, Cu, Pb, limestone. Mo, Ni, Zn. It is observed that the The results of this study rcveale4d that concentrations of (hese trace in the Mediterranean littoral zone, elements increase with decreasing where precipitation is available, the particle sizes. limestone is oolitic with primary Trace elements classified into three porosity of 25% and in the absence major groups and their enrichment of limiting geologic structure, mechanism is discussed. Most of groundwater with fair quality can be these trace elements are toxic and developed. However, the limestones International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey bordering the Nile Valley were span of geological periods, leading to determined to have no groundwater formation of karstic features. The that infiltrated from the Nile, karstic features are characterized although secondary porosity in the with occurrence of karren, form of fissures and caverns may be fluviokarst, sinkhole, spring, solution present. This is due to the compact cavity, underground drainage and nature of the limestone, presence of terra rossa among Vindhyan clay and shale intercalations, limestone of Rajusthan, Madhya presence of faults and absence of Pradesh, Bihar States. An attempt has precipitation. However, saline or been made in this paper to classify brackish water may be present in these karstic features into young and some localities. mature category through selected It is thus concluded that although the case histories. limestones surrounding the Nile The impact of young category • arstic Valley cover wide areas of the features are Banjari (Bihar) and country, they are unfortunately not Senadih (Madhya Pradesh) are orone considered to be a potential for the to mining hydrological hazards. groundwater development. The These sites are traversed by perennial oolitic limestone present along the rivers, besides the occurrence of Mediterranean coastal areas are sinkhole, solution cavity, spring, and considered, more adequate terra rossa. Both sites have cement groundwater source as long as grade limestone with varying degree withdrawal remains under accurate of mining from large to small scale control based on the aquifer activity. The mining of karstic characteristics. limestone exhibits hydrological problem due to high recharge ENGINEERING AND capacity of strata, scanty vegetation, ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS good rainfall, variation in size and OF KARST location of solution cavity, overall fracture pattern. Banjari limestone The impact of karstic features on mining produces karstic discharge at mining hydrology and rate of 2200 kilo liter per hour since groundwater resource for its inception due to large scale Precambrian limestone in India operation. Senadih limestone mining P.K. Gupta and T.N. Singh has not faced such hazard due its Central Mining Research Institute, Barwa initial stage of mining under small Road Dhanbad 826001, India scale activity. Precflmbrian limestone is widely distributed in Indian subcontinent The impact of mature category belonging to Vindhyan system. These karstic features at Jedhpur (Rajsthan) limestone possess denudation due to and Rewa (Madhya Pradesh) have varied action of local drainage, large groundwater resources. These rainfall and groundwater ever large are associated with large cavern due to underground drainage, karren, and International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1935 Antalya • Turkey fluviokarst. They are very promising because of karst nature, the solutions confined aquifer with yield of 10 to are extremely complex. The hazard 1000 kilo liter per hour without any component can not be totally significant drawdown. eliminated even in the case of investigation program increasing. Reservoirs in karst: Common In this article a few examples are watertightness problems presented from different karst areas, P. Milanovic typical for watertightness problems Energoprojecl, Beograd, Yugoslavia of reservoirs situated in karstified In spite of serious investigations and rock mass. large scale sealing treatment, a very few dam sites and reservoirs in the Geotechnical constraints and karst operate without any leakage. remediation in karst terrane Some of reservoirs never been filled J. A. Fischer, J. J. Fischer, and R. Canace up (impounded). Some of them only Geoscience Sen'ices, 25 Claremont Road, partially filled by water, and some Bernardsville, New Jersey 07924, USA are dry and out of use. Significant portions of the eastern Number of examples confirm that United States are underlain by difficulties and failures commonly Paleozoic carbonate rocks. These occurs during the first filling of solution-prone rocks often lie in reservoir. Very rare if can happen scenic folded and faulted valleys, after many years of dam and once prime farmland, but now under reservoir operation. relentless development pressures. The problems posed by development The karst channels and open in these areas are both structural and (karstified) cracks are source of environmental in nature. As a esult, problems. Naturally that features are groundwater contamination ; s well plugged by clay and covered by as the provision of suitable support alluvium and terra rossa. Some of for structures of varying sizes and the them have been reactivated by water related infrastructure, are of pressure, suffusion and air pressure increased concern to owners, effect. In many cases, it occurs as purchasers, and the regulatory consequence of inadequate community in these areas. geological analysis and insufficient funds for investigations, but it is not Conventional soil mechanics and a rule. Quantity of leakage vary from foundation engineering investigation few hundreds of liters per second to techniques are not adequate to 25-30 mVs. develop a suitable understanding of a subsurface that contains, cavernous Practical solutions and rehabilitation rock, soil voids, eroding soils, soft treatment requires a lot of patience, and weak soils underlying firm soils, close collaboration between soft vuggy rocks, highly weathered experienced geologists and civil and open seams, the lack of filtering engineers, and adequate funds. But or absorption of contaminants
10 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey entering the subsurface; large, in- Estimation of large scale place boulders; and an incredibly transmissivity and leakage of a variable rock surface. reservoir through karstic terrain Planning an appropriate geotechnical using piezometric data: A case in investigation requires an Northern Greece understanding of both geology and P. G. Marinos and M. Kavvadas civil engineering concepts in addition National Technical University, Athens, to economic realities. Appropriate Greece investigative tools include; aerial The design of an earth dam in photographs; satellite imagery; Northern Greece required the geologic mapping; site investigation of the potential reconnaissance; rotary wash boring leakages of the reservoir water and drilling procedures; split, double through a portion of the slope tube coring devices; experienced covered by slightly karstified inspectors and drillers; the limestones. monitoring of drilling water loses; A part of the reservoir area consists and good fortune. of carbonate formations (limestones Foundation solutions available in the and marbles) which were originally USA include: the relocation of the thought to be inclusions inside the site or structure(s), piles or piers, otherwise watertight schists and preloading, reduced excavation, ophiolites forming the greater region. special design standards, dental The hydrogeological evaluation of concrete, and grouting. Grouting is the available data indicated that the often one of the most economical carbonate formations are not isolated concepts, but requires an experienced since (i) there are no springs at the field crew. Any foundation solution interface of the limestones with the must be predicated upon a full underlying schists inside the understanding of the geologic reservoir to discharge the rain water conditions at the site, the nature of collected in the carbonate formations the development planned and the and (ii) the piezometric levels in the nature of the possible effects upon limestones-marbles indicate a flow other activities in the site locale. towards an area about five kilometers Enlightened construction inspection away from the reservoir where is a necessity, with the ability to springs with an appreciable discharge quickly offer alternate solutions to exist. those originally planned. Despite the fact that the carbonate formations in the area are not isolated, it was considered necessary to estimate the amount of the potential leakage which might not be excessive since (i) the carbonate formations are only slightly karstified and (ii) the piezometric levels
11 international Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey measured in the limestones did not cones around the mines and caused appear to respond rapidly to the regional water-level sinking over vast annual variation from the wet to the areas. The affected karstic region is dry season, thus indicating a about 7000 km2, the average relatively slow discharge of the decreasing of the water table is 20-30 groundwater towards lower meters. elevations, probably due to the As a consequence a big number of geometrical features of the aquifer. local water supply networks were A computational model of the region damaged. Later they were substituted was analyzed in order to estimate the by regional systems based on the potential leakage of reservoir water concentrated water-intake facilities as a function of the water level in the belonging to the mines. Some great reservoir. The macroscopic thermal springs, well known for ages transmissivity of the limestones was and serving as balneological or estimated by analyzing the annual recreational centers, also dried up, change of the piezometric levels in causing heavy reactions in the public the limestones. opinion. It was concluded that although the At the end of the eighties several limestones and marbles are not mining sites were abandoned for watertight and some seepage of economic reasons. The karstic water- reservoir water should be anticipated, table began to rise again and by the the calculated amount of the leakage time the cavities of mining- was tolerable compared to the annual operations are flooded. It is a danger storage capacity of the reservoir. that the remaining pollution - originating from the human activity Problems related to the regional and from the altered minerals- will water-level sinking in karstic appear in the regional water-supply aquifers caused by mining systems. Methods to avoid this operations impending danger are treated. I. Sarvary VITUKI • Budapest, Hungary The bulk of the coal and bauxite bodies in the Transdanubian Range (Hungary) are laying on the Triassic karstic rocks or on fanglomerate-like permeable rock consisting of debris of dolomite. After the II. World War, the advance of mining production forced the operations to descend to a level deeply under the karstic water table. For security reasons, they had to dewater the surrounding rock masses, which created depression-
12 International Symposia S hieid ae/niiur on Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", S TR9700017 RESEARCH METHODS dioxide is somewhat tedious. But the question is arising whether the Implications from results of calculated parameters are reliable or continuous in-situ-measurements not. of dissolved carbon dioxide in Recently developed multiparameter karst aquifers field-devices, which measure R. Benischke', T. Harum', W. Trettnak2, continuously in situ temperature, pH and F. Reininger" and dissolved carbon dioxide, Institute of Hydrogeotogy and Geolhermics, combined with appropriate data Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria loggers, make it possible to compare "Institute for Chemical and Optical Sensors, the measured data with those of Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria manually taken water samples, field Carbonate hydrogeochemistry is seen measurements, and subsequent as a tool for selective laboratory analyses. characterization of karst aquifers. In The results derived from a case study hydrogeological investigations of show the sensitivity of the individual karst aquifers, for example, a number parameters on the accuracy and of hydrogeo-chemical methods offer precision of their measurement. In the opportunity to use carbonate and particular it is shown that carbon dioxide equilibria to interpretative implications on characterize hydrodynamic hydrogeochemical processes depend processes. The calculation of very closely on measurement saturation indices and solution methodology. equilibria with respect to predominant mineral phases (e.g., The use of well logging for the calcite, dolomite, gypsum) under study of karstic water resources in ambient temperature/pressure con- Maharlu basin ditions in natural waters of known A. Zamani and H. Rachi ionic strength is made very easy by Dept. of Geology, College of Sciences, Shiraz application of computer programs University, Shiraz, Iran such as WATEQ, PHREEQE, etc. Maharlu Karst Basin (MKB) is Generally the calculations are based located in central part of Fars on field-measurements of province, Iran (29°25'-29°55' N and temperature, pH (as a primary 52°08'-52°40' E). Shiraz city is variable), electrical conductivity and placed in the center of the basin and on laboratory analysis of the major the great part of people drinking constituents (calcium, magnesium, water obtained from 32 exploitation potassium, sodium, bicarbonate, wells that drilled in carbonaceous chloride, nitrate, and sulfate). It is formation around the city. normally calculated instead as carbon Tectonic activities, lithology, and dioxide partial pressure from given climate play important role in the equilibrium equations because direct formation and development of karstic measurement of dissolved carbon features. Different subsurface
13 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey geological techniques, particularly The application of geophysical Well Logging, are usually used to methods for the analysis of explore karstic water resources. In subsurface karst structures order to find out distribution of R. Miiller karstic zones, karstic water resources Joanneum Research, Dept. for Applied and study hydrogeological Geophysics, Leoben, Austria parameters in the carbonate rocks, The detection and analysis of more than 40 piezometer, exploration subsurface karst structures, wells and coring boreholes drilled in especially cavities, by exclusively this rocks (Asmari-Jahrum geophysical surface methods is quite formations). Various well logging a difficult problem, since usually methods include Electrical, Gamma, very few information about possible Neutron, Gamma Ray, Flowmetery, target depth, extension, and filling Fluid Resistivity, Temperature, and material is available. Caliper Loggings have been used to Repeated surficial collapses in a study the karstic water resources "rauhwacke" formation, a cellular within carbonate rocks of MKB. dolomite, in course of which there The results show that porosity, was also a fatal accident, were the density, resistivity, and lithology of occasion for systematical geophysical the rock formations in the Maharlu measurements in that karst region in basin changes with depth. These some part of Southern Austria. changes are prominent in the The actual aim was the evaluation of dolomitic sections. The distribution the optimal method or combination of permeable interval, inflow and of methods to get a maximum of outflow zones within water wells information about the karst features indicates that karstification in Ghasr- and least about the situation of e Ghomsheh, Kaftarak and Derak is possible subsidence zones. Therefore more extensive compared to the other geoelectrical profiling, self-potential parts of the basin. The water tables and mise-a-la-masse measurements, within the basin matches fairly well gravity and infrared - ground with the karstic zones. Existence of temperature measurements and semipermeable layers between electromagnetic methods in the low karstic sections in some parts of the (EM 31 and 34 at < 10 kHz) as well basin indicates early stage of tiered as high frequency range (ground cave formation. penetrating radar at 100 and 300 MHz) were applied on a 50 m x 100 m grid of a specific test area. As the results showed, the ground penetrating radar (GPR), the geoelectrical mise-a-la-masse and profiling methods were the most appropriate. The geoelectrical
14 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', i TR9700019 profiling at different spacings (on 2 aquifer represents a significant profiles) gave (pseudo) depth - component of the groundwater which profiles of the specific electrical discharges from the many springs in resistivity characterizing the water- region where the aquifer is dissected table as well as certain high- by surface streams. A three year resistivity regions up to a depth of ca. investigation of the Devil's Ear Cave 6m. These anomalies correlate well System, an extensive saturated cave with the anomalous structures in the system in the Floridan aquifer which radargrams and might be interpreted underlies a 1.5-km reach of the Santa as air-filled cavities. A maximum of Fe River in north-central Florida, information concerning the depth and revealed that there is an appreciable lateral position of anomalies was and rapid exchange of water between provided by the GPR. Based on those the river and the underlying aquifer. results a map of highly karstified Natural tracers Radon-222 (222Rn) zones of the test-area was drown. and 8'8O were used to quantify these Some problems encountered with the exchanges. Cave diving was interpretation of the measured data employed to collect water samples will also be mentioned. They include which were analyzed for tracer the inherent ambiguity of the nature content and to observe water clarity of the anomalies, strong external and groundwater velocities within the influences (e.g. vegetation, topo- saturated karst conduits as far as 1.2- graphy) and the corresponding lack km upstream of Devil's Ear spring. of quantitative parameter The Santa Fe River drains the determination. Concerning the mise- Northern Highlands province of a-la-masse measurements a prospect north-central Florida where the on a corresponding research project Floridan aquifer is confined by the aiming at the quantification of mise- 25-m thick Hawthorne Formation, a-la-masse results for the presence of which precludes hydrogeological and environmental hydraulic connection between the topics will also be given. river and the aquifer. However, downstream in the lowland Groundwater - surface water provinces, the Hawthorne confining exchange in the unconfined layer is eroded so that the Ocala karstified Floridan aquifer, a view Limestone is exposed at the surface. from inside the aquifer with Here the Floridan aquifer is implications for groundwater unconfined leaving the river and the protection aquifer in excellent hydraulic T. R. Kincaid connection. Department of Geology and Geophysics, University of Wyoming, P.O.Box 3086, The direction of flow between the Laramie, Wyoming 82071, USA river and the aquifer is dependent Surface water that has intruded into primarily on where rainfall enters the the unconfined parts of the Floridan total system. If precipitation is concentrated in the uplands, the
15 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20. 1995 Antalya • Turkey water accumulates in the Santa Fe which water moves through this layer River as overland flow and the flood is dependent on the magnitude and pulse moves down the river onto the duration of the hydraulic head unconfined part of the aquifer. difference that develops between the Consequently, even a small increase river and the aquifer. Large floods in river stage, as little as 1 m, originating in the highlands of the produces a downward hydraulic upper Santa Fe River are responsible gradient causing large amounts of for observed surface water intrusion river water to infiltrate into the into the aquifer in periods of as little underlying karst. This tannin stained as one day, based on water clarity surface water quickly enters caves reductions in the cave. developed under and parallel to the The findings of this - study river resulting in dramatic water demonstrate the vulnerability of the clarity reductions in the caves, a unconfined sections of the Floridan serious problem confronting cave aquifer to contamination from divers. Under these conditions, as 3 surface streams. During and after much as 50% of the 8 m /s discharge flood events, wholesale from the Devil's Ear system can contamination of the major karstic consist of surface water lost from the conduits underlying the Santa Fe Santa Fe River. River can occur in as little as one Conversely, when precipitation is day. Given this sensitive, it is clear concentrated on the lowland regions that there is virtually no distinction where the Floridan aquifer is between groundwater and surface unconfined, the hydraulic head in the water in this hydrologic system. This aquifer increases above that of the conclusion, however, is contrary to river resulting in upward flow from the current state regulations which the aquifer to the river. The water in segregate groundwater and surface the cave clears as the tannin surface water with regard to permissible water from the Santa Fe River is levels of contaminants. State flushed upward and out of the regulations allow higher levels of aquifer. certain contaminants such as nitrates A 30-m thick section of saturated, to be discharged to a river or stream karstified Ocala Limestone serves as than would be permissible in the the permeable layer separating the Floridan aquifer. Based on the Santa Fe River and the huge current distinction between ground conduits, up to 10-m in diameter, that and surface waters, state regulatory comprise the Devil's Ear Cave agencies permit the growing dairy System. Interconnected cavities and chicken farming industries to within this lay^r contain water in discharge large quantities of nitrate, storage that is displaced when either ammonia, and soluble organic a downward or upward gradient nitrogen species to surface streams. develops in response to the different Because the hydrologic connection types of recharge pulses. The rate at between the river and the aquifer has
16 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey not been acknowledged, the flow rapid enough in order to avoid regulations permitting these temperature equilibration with the discharges will directly contribute to surrounding rock. Analyzing the legally unacceptable groundwater spring water temperature time series contamination of the Floridan for the controlling processes and the aquifer. And in this light, similar comparison with analytical models problems will plaque similar allows the distinction between the hydrologic environments elsewhere influence of the epikarst and the in the state. unsaturated zone (cooling of the recharge water) and the phreatic zone Heat as a natural tracer: (heat convection and heat Characterization of a conduit conduction). Effective parameters network in a karst aquifer using and geometries could be estimated temperature measurements of the for the solution channels of the karst spring water unsaturated and saturated zone. The M. Sauter and S. Rentier results were comparable with values, Applied Geology, Geological Institute, obtained from other measurement Sigwarstr. 10, 72076 Tubingen, Germany methods. Temperature variations in spring water have been recorded over more The principles of search of karst, than six years with a resolution of fracture and fracture-vein waters 0.01 °C in the Gallusquelle karst of the mountain folding zones spring (deep karst, Swabian Alb, SW. F. S. Aliev, I. I. Tagiev, and Y. D. Germany). The temperature of the Zamanov spring water is highly controlled by The State Committee on Geology, Behram recharge events i.e., their intensities Agayev, 100/A, Baku, The Azerbaijan and magnitudes. Even during summer Republic events, the recorded variations In arid zones, there is critical demand display only negative deviations, in fresh, low mineralized (1-3 g/1), which are caused by the arrival of but also in mineral and a thermal recharge water at the water table, waters. In mountain folding zones are cooler than the groundwater itself. concentrated karst, fracture and The heat exchange with the rock in fracture vein waters with great the karstified unsaturated zone, exploitational reserves. As compared which is cooler than the phreatic with submontane plains hydrogeo- zone because of the upward directed logical conditions of mountain geothermal gradient, is responsible folding zones are poorly studied, for the temperature difference where conditions of underground between groundwater and recharge waters (UW) accumulation are water. In order to have any different. By search and prospecti in significant deviation between the of UW of the mountain folding zones temperature of recharge water and traditional methods have not been groundwater, recharge water has to used. For revealing water locations in karst, fractures, and vein of original
17 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts',. TR9700023 rocks in the mountain folding zones, The resistivity method in karst it is necessary to study the role of media: Application to the Macico tectonic fracturing and karst in Calcario Estremenho (Portugal) hydrogeo-logical processes and A. R. A. Afonso, F. A. M. Santos, and diversity of its display on various J.A. Marques levels of subsurface hydrosphere. Centro cle Geofisica da Universidade de One of modern hydrogeological Lisboa, Rua da Escola Polilecnica, 58, 1200 principle question is clearing up the Lisboa, Portugal role of fractures and karst in The resistivity method was used to formation and location of UW detect void and/or partially filled deposits. It is necessary to draw caves in karst media. The data were attention at following: achieved from field works in the /.Hydrogeological zonation of area "Macico Calcario Estremenho" and on the base of system analysis of from model simulations in an materials of geological corn-position, automated tank analog, using the aerial cosmic surveys, geo-physical pole - dipole and the dipole - dipole and hydrogeological investigations, arrays. The automatic inversion of reveal watery tectonic fractures and the data was performed considering karst locations. 2.Carrying out no the caves as empty bodies or bodies research methods in potentially UW with a resistivity greater at least two locations with various structural - orders of magnitude than the facies conditions, clearing up the surrounding geological formations. geotectonic peculiarity of deep fault The numerical results calculated with zones and karst locations, the the two physical approaches are character of water bearing rocks, UW almost coinciding and are also very circulation, hydrodynamic and well correlated to those obtained for physical - mechanical parameters. similar models both in the field or in J.The influence of hydrodynamic the tank analog. factors at the flooding of watery The resolution of the arrays was also locations (karst, fractures). analyzed in connection with the 4.Working out research criteria of depth and the diameter of the caves. flooding and valuation the The field data also provided the perspectivity of various fracture and geometry of the circulation of the karst types for prospecting and looking for UW. 5.Working out new underground waters close to the technologies of drilling and testing to "Almonda" cave. avoid the change for the worse water About construing data of seismic conductivity of tectonic fractures and radioscopy between boreholes in physical-chemical component of karst rocks UW. S. I. Parfenov Vsegingeo, Russia The usual interpretation of seismograms assumes the first entries 18 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey on them to be provoked by straight a) Depending on abroad, beams of seismic waves, ascertains, b) Difficulty of providing imagery by a delay of these beams, only the for requested time and area, presence of a big cavern between c) Taking long time to provide of boreholes and lessens its real size by existing imagery, many times. d)Highly influencing from Caves in karst rocks are local objects meteorological conditions, of a small density. Therefore, the first signs of waves on a seismogram e) Low level image resolution for are provoked by waves surrounding a some applications, cave. They come before the waves f) High cost. spreading through the cave. The Airborne Remote Sensing Systems calculation of this peculiarity and the are becoming more and more use of the Huygens principle permit important, because they eliminate to determine a place and sizes of a some of the above mentioned cave from a seismogram of problems and reduce the minimum radioscopy between boreholes by level some of the others. slanting beams. In this study, it is aimed to explain Airborne remote sensing systems technical features of airborne remote and usability at pollution research sensing systems, existing situation of of karst water resources project which was commenced by TUFUAB and usability of data from M. Onder concerning systems for researching General Command of Mapping, Ankara, Turkey of pollution of karst water resources. Remote Sensing studies have been The study of engineering going on by using both imagery geophysics in karstic grounds and obtained from sensor systems which case studies are located on satellite platform Z. Kamaci produced for that purpose and aerial Suleyman Demirel University, Engineering - photographs supporting them, widely Architectural Faculty Department of as an natural extension of existing Geophysical Engineering, Isparta, Turkey space and computer age. Mentioned The karstic cavities which effect generalization is not only valid for engineering structures in a large scale world perspective but also for our could give unimportant results and its country. influence can be negligible, but its It can be clearly seen that, these effect magnify by considering a studies have lots of deficiencies in smaller scale. The foundation of operational considerations, when it is Antalya province, originally a karstic held by the point of view in near ground, made of travertines. future developments. These These travertines consist of solution deficiencies primarily in satellite cavities, caverns, joints, fractures, imagery can be listed as follows; and alteration zones. The
19 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey determination of hidden cavities and The carbonate aquifers are highly structural features and engineering effected by sea water intrusion cither properties of the rock mass in the by natural processes or travertine grounds particularly mismanagement of groundwater identified by the use state - of - the - resources. Therefore, determining the art geoelectrical and seismic from depth of fresh water - salt water geophysical exploration methods. interface toward the inland becomes Different case studies are given and major concern. Temporal changes of interpreted by using seismic and the position of this interface control geoelectrical methods, for the the amount of the groundwater that solution of foundation problems in could be taken from these aquifers. the Antalya city grounds which In this paper, the author discusses consist of travertines, permissible some of the typical sea water bearing capacity of the ground and intrusion cases and geophysical settlement of foundation and its methods applied to monitor and elastic parameters for burden determine the expected saline water removal and determination of ground encroachment zone and its behavior rippability. Also different case during groundwater exploitation of studies for features, which means coastal karst aquifers in Turkey. The fractures, faults and joints, solution present sea water intrusion problems cavities and caverns, alteration zones, take place in most of the provinces swelling clay fillings, the position of which are located along the groundwater. Mediterranean coast of Turkey.
Monitoring of sea water intrusion Geoelectrical investigation of zone along the Mediterranean Beskonak head-reach tunnel coast of Turkey by means of E. Barlas and M. Degirmenci geophysical techniques 'Gen. Directorate oftLBANK, Dept. of H. Elhatip Drinking Water, Geophysical Research International Research and Application Section, Ataturk Bulvari No:21, 06053 Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Ankara, Turkey Hacettepe'University, Beytepe 06532, Cumhuriyet University, Dept. of Geology, Ankara, Turkey Sivas, Turkey High population density along the In Turkey, one third of the surface is coastline creates problems related to covered by the carbonate rocks of the lack of reliable surface waters. karstic properties and these karstic The wide spread coastal aquifers are areas possess 50 % of the the main water resources to cover the hydroelectric energy potential of our demand in these areas. The coastal country. aquifers occur within highly Be§konak dam and hydroelectric karstified units and exhibit complex power station is planned in Kopriicay hydraulic systems. basin which is located in the Western Taurids karst system. Problems
20 lr:rm?!<-y™.< Sj/mposiun f, Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey pcciili;.ir lo k.irstic environments impouant role in the regional fluid observed in these dam and reservoir flow and, in this* case regional site made the project infeasible. direction of circulation. The most Alternative to this project, it is important and typical elements and planned to construct a dam on geomorphologic forms related to impervious units, to convey the water karst terranes, such as those of collected in the reservoir area by sinkholes, dry valleys, karst poljes open canals and as a result to and springs are the results of produce energy by making use of the fracturing and faulting. natural flow of the water in a head- This paper focuses on the specific, reach tunnel. common practice of lineament Since the head-reach tunnel route has analysis in groundwater resource such a topography that makes it exploration, and illustrates some of impossible to apply investigation both the pitfalls and the power of drillings and unemployment of the remote sensing images for structural seismic refraction method because of analysis in karst. Lineament analysis the velocity problem. Vertical may focus attention on domain Electrical Sounding became the only boundaries or zones of weaKness, solution in the problem of separation systems of close faults with similar of conglomerate-flysch levels along strike, or large individual faults, the tunnel route. which, in return, control the so called "concentrated underground flows" in Along the tunnel route, at the end of karst terranes. Additionally, an making Vertical Electrical Soundings attempt was made to show probable at 55 points by using the hydraulic connections may exist Schlumberger Method, between the principal recharge, conglomerate-flysch levels were discharge, and transition areas based distinguished. on both analyses of lineaments and Satellite image analysis of thermal radiance band of Landsat structural fabric controlling Thematic Mapper. groundwater flow in Southwestern The results of this research may help Taurus karst region reveal regional hydrodynamic system H. Koyuncu and thus, pojlution sensitive areas, General Directorate of Mineral Research and where preventive, measures need to Exploration, Remote Sensing Center, Image be taken into consideration during Analysis and Geographic Information the development of projects and Systems Laboratory, Ankara, Turkey environmental planning. The digital Digital analysis of remotely sensed nature of the data will allow the imagery data can be used to help results to be used as ready data for interpret regional structure, to aid in hydrological modeling of karst locating buried structures, and to map systems. fractures. In regional syntheses, structural fabric of a terrane plays an
21 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey
TRACING TECHNIQUES -Li can be used and analyzed without problems even in acid groundwaters The latest Paderborn tracing test and humic acid-rich groundwaters (Northrhine Westphalia, FRG) -Lithium ions are invisible 1 2 W. Kass and E.P. Lohnert -Lithium ions are proved to be MUhlematten 5, Umkirch 7801, Germany physiologically harmless even at "Angewandte Geologic Westfaliche such expected high concentrations Wilhelms- Universitat, Geologisch- Palaontologisches Institut, Correnstr. 24, -Lithium chloride is a rather cheap Miinster 48149, Germany tracer although only 16% of LiCl is Numerous tracing tests were to be analyzed as Li. performed in the Paderborn Transition curves of the both lithium Cretaceous karst aquifer system over and uranine are to be discussed along the past hundred years. with hydraulic data representing the Previous tests were restricted to the actual state of the system when the open karst system of the Paderborn test was conducted. High Plateau, with sinkholes within Tracing techniques and stream beds used as injection points hydrodynamique analysis in the and the Pader springs were sampled karst as discharge points to prove the tracer's re-appearance and to B.F. Mijatovic calculate travel times. Recently, the Geozavod University ofNovi Sad, P.O. Box 275, str. Koradjordjeva 48, Beograd 11000, confined system from which deep Serbia karst groundwater is being abstracted Recent developments in applying for drinking and industrial purposes, tracing techniques in different karstic was included in the testing activities. systems indicate that informations Results of the latest test in July 1994 obtained are of restricted value as far are presented. Chemical tracers, hydrodynamical transport models are namely lithium chloride (30 kg) were concerned. In the Dinaric and applied for the first time besides Carpathian-Balkan karsts was studied uranine. LiCl proved to be a very for two hydraulic flows by use of suitable tracer, especially within several tracers experiments. The groundwater protection areas where tracers used were injected dyes are to be avoided. instantaneously and simultaneously The following advantages are to be in the flowing channels which were emphasized: known up to this date. Their -analysis without interference with restitution was followed at the fluorescence dyes principal outlets of the karstic -because of the small lithium ion system. The interpretation of radius there are hardly any experimental results has allowed to interactions to be expected with the specify the mass transfer made in this aquifer karst. This is particularly true regarding stable hydrodynamical
22 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey regime (stationary) during the tracing units open to the well. The nuclear procedure which rarely may be tracer logs have been used at provided in field. However, it is different discharge and recharge important to note that careful conditions in open and cased investigation of the DTRT curve boreholes in the Swabian and (Distribution of Tracer Retaining Franconian Jura (Germany), where Time) may give certain very the measurements and their important characteristics of given interpretation were en-countered in HKS (Hydrogeological Karst problems of safe yield, delineation of System), particularly concerning it's protection zones and well transmissivity, and storage capacity construction. properties. This is of a high Stochastic modeling was applied in importance in hydrogeological order to assess the uniformity of studies of groundwater pollution. conditions of the localized data and Tracing techniques using artificial their correlation between holes over a tracers should be combined with large area of the generally natural tracers such as temperature, anisotropic fractured aquifers. The chemical properties of water, and statistical approach is analyzing the water mass flux, etc. Those natural localized hydraulic conductivities as tracers are complementary with a process by which the variance of tracing techniques using artificial the medium conductivity is produced tracers and may significantly improve mainly proportional to aquifers reliability in overall data dispersivity. The parameter to be interpretation. evaluated is the correlation scale between the localized conductivities Stochastic modeling of single well which can be estimated by variogram tracer data in fractured rock analysis. The analysis is made with a W. Drost' and L. Kovac2 computer code which lets variance lGSF-Institutefor Hydrology, D-85748 and correlation scale float and Oberschleissheim, Germany compares experimental with model 2KMT-Engineering, SK-81103 Bratislava, variograms. Slovakia The results of the stochastic analyses There are many downhole methods mirror the different types of porosity that provide excellent assessment of which may exist within the rock. In rock and fracture flow characteristics conditions of fracture flow where the immediately surrounding the well. interfracture spacings are small in Among them are single well tracer comparison with the scale of the techniques which employ the use of system and which may be treated as short-lived radionuclides for dilution, an equivalent porous media and direction and slug logging of natural described by Darcy's law under or artificially induced inhole flow certain conditions the stochastic which is related to the hydraulic approach produces aquifers conductivity of the water bearing dispersivity scale dependent and
23 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20. 1995 Antalya - Turkey reaching an asymptotic value of some determine if a statistically significant hundred meters. In conditions of flow equation could be determined. The within large cavernous systems tests included a wide range of spring which may be treated as pipe or open discharges (0.002-47 mVs), distances channel flow or by analytical models (30 m - 30 km) and mass of dye used such as flow between parallel plates (
24 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey loss the largest spring of Germany, Karst aquifer regionalization in the Aachspring, is located. Due of the Basque country (Northern this remarkability (the water loss of Spain) the Danube and the extremely large I. Antiguedad spring), the Danube - Aach - system Department ofGeodynamics, University of is a research area for a long time. Basque Country, 48940 Lenioa (Bizkaici) Since 1869, many tracer experiments Basque Country, Spain will be carried out there, the first Carbortct 25 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey decisive influence the local factors, significantly affected by geology related ones mainly, have in antropogenic factors and thus being the development of the karstic suitable for evaluating and analyzing drainage. the background parameters. Finally, the detailed analysis of the Conclusions derived, clarify the tracer breakthrough curves, hydrochemical characteristics of the combined with the geological, region investigated and give hydrogeological and hydrochemical information about the application of information, has provided a valid the method in solving other similar structural model (rapid circulation problems. subsystem and fissured subsystem) of The governing factors of the some aquifers. Lithium tracer shows physical and hydrochemical excellent recovery rates as opposed characteristics of karst springs to fluorescein and iodide which have offered less satisfactory results. E. Raeisi, F. Moore, and GH. Karami Department of Geology, College of Sciences, HYDROCHEMISTRY Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran The physico-chemical characteristics Seasonal fluctuations and trends in of karstic springs is not a sole the hydrochemical background of function of flow path in the karst waters in some regions in carbonate rock masses. A number of Bulgaria other parameters including the type M. Machkova , D. Dimitrov , and B. of precipitation, vegetation cover, Velikov2 morphology of the exposed area, and National Institute of Meteorology and hydrochemistry of the infiltrating Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria water into the karst system also have 2 " University of Mining and Geology, Sofia, their own contribution. Bulgaria In the present study, the Gar and the The present study aims to develop Barm Firuz Mountains are chosen to methodology and way of presentation determine the governing factors of of results in the evaluation of the physical and hydrochemical fluctuations of the main parameters characteristics of karst springs. of the hydrochemical background of Geological, hydrochemical and tracer karst waters using the Bistretz karst analysis data reveal that the drainage spring in the North-West Bulgaria as area of Sheshpeer aquifer comprises an example. Based on historical the whole of the Barm Firuz Mount hydrological and hydrochemical and the northern flank of the Gar information (monthly values for Mount. The following measurements eleven years period), a method for were carried out. evaluation and analysis of the 1. Variation of discharge as a seasonal fluctuations and trends are function of time. Temperature, outlined. The region investigated is electrical conductivity and pH of the chosen as a typical one in an area not inflow into six sinkholes 26 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey 2. Electrical conductivity, pH and and W. Dreybrodt [3] also concluded temperature of water at the surface that karstification might endanger and 40 centimeters inside soil cover hydraulic structures. A critical 3. Major ions, temperature, electrical condition for the safety of a dam was 5 conductivity and pH of the formulated [3] by 2.6x10 > 3 precipitation, fresh and accumulated a -i-ct/k,-l, where a is the width of snow and the inflow of the sinkholes the fissure, / its length in cm and i the 2 4. Infiltration parameters of the soil hydraulic gradient, k (mole/(cm s)) and the carbonatic exposures by and c'eq (mole/cm) determine the doub'e ring method dissolution rate far from equilibrium, given by R = k (l-c/cei/). The value of 5. Discharge, major ions, temperature k, therefore, is of crucial importance. and electrical conductivity of the For natural conditions a ~102 cm, water was measured every twenty and dissolution proceeds in a system days for a period of three years. closed to CO2. In such cases D. The results indicate that the physico- Buhmann and W. Dreybrodt [4] have chemical characteristics of the inflow shown theoretically that the value of systems changes with time. In k is determined by the slow advanced karst systems where the + conversion of CO2 —>H +HCO 3 and dissolution channels are large and the depends on the ratio r = V/F; V is the flow is turbulent, the characteristics volume of the water and F the of the outflow system (springs) is surface of the dissolving limestone. influenced by the inflow one; while 1 To verify these predictions we have in undeve )ped karst systems where performed batch experiments to the type of flow is diffused, the measure k for r-values of 0.4 cm and hydrochemical properties of the 0.04 cm under chemical conditions discharging spring is mainly similar to nature. The results clearly controlled by the aquifer. demonstrate the influence of CO2" conversion, showing a significant The influence of CO2-conversion on the dissolution kinetics of decrease of k with decreasing r. The limestone and its consequences to k value for r = 0.01 cm corresponding to joint widths of the safety of dam sites 2x102 cm inferred from these data W. Dreybrodt yields k = 5x10"" mole/(cm2s) in Institute of Experimental Physics, University comparison to a value of 4x10 10 Bremen, 28334 Bremen, Germany suggested by James [1]. In In a recent book [1], A. N. James consequence of the safety criteria claims the possibility to predict above a dam site predicted to be safe endangerment of dam sites caused by with the higher k value of 4xlO"4 CO containing aggressive -water 2 could fail in nature. seeping through fissures in the underlying limestone and enlarging [1] Soluble Materials in Civil them by dissolution. A. N. Palmer [2] Engineering, Ellis Horwood, London, 27 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September W-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey 1992; 121 Assoc. of Groundwater The hydrochemical characteristics of scientists and engineers. Proceeding, the Umm Er Radhuma aquifer were 1988: [3|Appl. Hydrogeol. I, 20, 1992; investigated by the aforementioned [41Chem. Geol.,53, 109, 1985 new and classical techniques. The Hydrochemical assessment of results indicated that the major I mm er Radhuma karstic aquifer groundwater types are sodium in the eastern part of Saudi Arabia chloride and calcium sulfate. Umm Er Radhuma groundwater is saturated Z. §en with respect to calcite but Istanbul Technical University, Meteorology unsaturated for anhydrite in the Department, 80626 Maslak, Istanbul, Turkey northern part of the study area. Hydrochemical behaviors of a karstic aquifer help to identify groundwater Hydrogeochemistry and quality types within the extensive karstification in the Cienaga de area of the reservoir. Classical bar, Zapata aquifer (Matanzas, Cuba) pie, trilinear, and Durov diagrams are J.R. Fagundo', I. Morell2, J.E. Rodriguez used extensively in the literature for Rubiol A. Pulido Bosch4, M. Lopez such a purpose. However, in this 4 4 research new techniques and Chicano , and M.L. Calvache 'CNIC, Cuba procedures such as area-concen- -> tration, frequency-concentration, ion- "University Jaume I, Spain concentration percentage-frequency yINGEO, Cuba relationships are developed in the University of Granada, Spain (2 & 4: form of various charts for the AMH92-02I1). Depl. ofGeodymimics, Faculty of Science, 18071, Graiuuhi, Spain identification of zonations and saturations of the groundwater in The area of La Cienaga de Zapata terms of various chemical and its surroundings occupy some 2 constituents. Furthermore, relative 4500 km , composed of gently tilting frequency-electrical conductivity and Miocene, Pliocene, and Quaternary total dissolved solid relationships are materials which are somewhat obtained based on whether the fractured and intensely karstified. In grow \ater is of sodium chloride, the recent geological history of the calcium chloride, calcium chloride or sector, the sea level has fluctuated, mixture of two types. Last but not the thereby strongly favoring the least, chemical equilibrium studies karstification processes. At the same led to ionic strength = total dissolved time, the central part of the marsh solids = electrical conductivity (Cienaga), depressed by tectonic relationships as well as the activity events and/or by karstification, coefficient charts for major ions and became the discharge point for local cations. All of these techniques can flow systems of the aquifer, be used in groundwater studies in any encouraging the accumulations of part of the world. peat exceeding 10 m in places. This accumulations of organic matter, nearly impervious, has in turn played 28 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmentai Impacts", I TR9700040 a major part in the karslification by carbonate rocks of Oran Mcseia are adding acidity to the environment examined. and increasing the partial pressure of The interpretation of both measured the CO:. At present, this physico-chemical values, analytical accumulation confines the carbonate results of chemical elements (majors aquifer. The hydrogeochemical and minors) and also isotopic processes brought about by this analysis and ^coihermometry allow situation, in addition to certain to state precisely the functioning human activities (intensive pumping mechanism of thermomineral water throughout the influx area), are t!u linked to this carbonate massif. object of detailed study. The most outstanding aspect is the extremely The modern dynamics of the upper horizontal contact between fresh and Ribeira karst, Southeastern Sao .aline water, apparently due to the Paulo state, Brazil high average permeability of the I. Karmann and D. C. Ford" materials. As a consequence of human activities, notable thicknesses Institute c\e Ceociencias, University of Sao Paulo, Brazil have been detected in the mixing 'McMastcr University, Hamilton, Canada zone. Despite the relatively The hydrology and hydrochemistry homogeneous karstification of the of the Perolas - Santana karst aquifer, the presence of certain drainage system has been monitored sectors of preferential flow can be deduced, evident in certain for one hydrological year in order to hydrochemical anomalies. estimate the chemical denudation rate of a subtropical humid karst system. Finally, a strategy for the exploitation The Perolas - Santana system belongs and management of this peculiar to a karst area in dolomitic and system is proposed, analyzing the calcitic metalimestones of the Middle positive and negative consequences Proterozoic Acungui Group in the such exploitation could have for the Upper Ribeira river valley, between aquifer and associated singular Apiai and Iporanga, southeastern Sao ecosystems. Paulo State, Brazil. The thermomineral springs The following hydrochemical facies blended to carbonate formations of have been defined: allogenic surface Oran meseta (Algeria) runoff, fluviokarstic runoff, vadose A. Issaadi and A. Haouchine autogenic fissure seepage, vadose Institul of Earth Sciences, University of autogenic conduit flow, deep phreatic Sciences and Technology, B.P 32 El Alia, conduit flow, and karst resurgence Bah Ezzoitar, Alger.s, Algeria flow. The hydrochemistry indicates The geomorpho'iOgical and litho- that the karstification is basically structural factors with govern the controlled by meteoric water infiltration and groundwater flow in enriched in carbonic acid. Minor dissolution of carbonate by sulfuric 29 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impac TR9700042 acid produced by oxidation of pyrite impermeable deposits of the lower disseminated in impure limestone is nappe. thought to occur in deep flow routes. Water is largely used for thermalism The modern erosive dynamics of the since about one hundred years. studied karst has been quantified Fourteen waters were sampled from according to the following natural emergences, pumped wells, parameters: saturation rate in calcite and runoff. The water temperatures and dolomite of allogenic rivers range between 7.7 to 32.8 °C while entering the limestone surface, the the electrical conductivities vary seasonality of the saturation index of between 20 to 520 |uS.cm"'. A large the main hydrochemica! facies and range of alkalinity is found (0.05 to the rate of limestone surface 6.30 meq.l') for a pH variation of lowering through dissolution. The 6.02 to 8.21. The high contents of calculated mean chemical denudation dissolved oxygen indicate a rate for the Perolas - Santana basin is groundwater circulation under 31.1 ±6 mm/ky, based on a one year oxidized conditions. water budget of the basin and water The good correlation between hardness variation with respect to the temperature and mineralization of the spring discharge. karst waters shows a binary mixing Geochemistry of the groundwaters between (1) cold, highly mineralized from the Moneasa karst (Romania) waters recharged in altitude through 1 2 the carbonated formations and (2) C. Marlin', L. Dever , P. Vachier , and L. slightly mineralized waters with 3 Timofte higher temperature indicating a deep Labomtoire d'Hydrologie el de Ceochimie circulation. For the latter, the low Isotopique, Universite Paris-Sud, France mineralization is due to a contact 'Laboratoire des Sols, INRA, Thivenal- with the silicated formations of the Grignon, France upper nappe basement. Inslitutul de Fizica Atomica, Bucarest, Romania The oxygen-18 and deuterium The karstic Moneasa region situated contents do not show large variations in the Apuseni mountains (Western as values range within -9.6 to -11.0 part of the Carpathians, Romania) is %o vs. SMOW and -69.9 to 76.7 %c known for its thermal waters where vs. SMOW respectively. All the temperatures reach 24 to 32.8°C. The waters of the karst, the runoff and the geological structure of the area is natural sources originated from characterized by the overthrust of oceanic air masses condensation as two nappes in relation with the alpine indicated in the deuterium vs. orogenesis. The karst is located in oxygen-18 diagram. However, the carbonates and black dolomites of deep waters sampled from the wells the Middle Triassic in the upper show (1) characteristics of both nappe nearby the contact with the Mediterranean and oceanic origin 30 International Symposium & Fieid Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey and (2) lower condensation 53,28 Eastern geographical temperatures than the other ones. longitudes and between 29,1 and 30,6 The Carbon-13 contents of the Total Northern geographical latitude. Dissolved Inorganic Carbon (TDIC) The area of this basin is 4027 km2 vary between -13 to -10%c vs. PDB and carbonate rocks composes about and are. well cqrrelated with the 1600 km2 which include 40% from bicarbonates. Although the high the total of the whole area basin. altitude waters show the more I3 These carbonate formations are depleted 8 C values, all the waters belongs to Upper Campanian to are mineralized under an open system Maestrichtian age (Tarbur with respect to the biogenic soil CO2. Formation) and Eocene to Oligo- The radiocarbon activities present a Miocehe age (Jahrom-Asmari wide range, from 16 to 100 % of Formation). modern carbon. The relationship I4C Jahrom-Asmari Formation includes activities vs. temperature suggests a 97.5% of the carbonate rocks, that is mixing between cold recent and why we have drilled 8 core drilling warm old waters. The contribution of piezometers in Jahrom-Asmari sub-surface with respect to the deep Formation, it's worthy of mention water in the mixing increases with that, this formation provides 68% of the distance from the Moneasa fault drinking water supply from Shiraz which constitutes a drain of an city. For determination of CaO, MgO upwards circulation. ratio in this basin, about 328 samples Determination of CaO, MgO ratio from core drilling and from from core drilling on karst water geological profiles of this formation resources of Maharlu karst basin were collected and analyzed (289 (SW Iran) samples have sent for determination of CaO, MgO ratio and 39 samples H. Kazemi for micropaleontology studies). Karst Applied and Study Research Center, Accor-ding to the results CaO, MgO Ministry of Energy, Tehran, Iran contents were between 26 to 55 and 0 One of the best methods for facies to 20 percent, respectively. We have and lithological investigation of calculated effective porosity (8.1% to karstic resources is determination of 21.46%), permeability from pumping porosity ratio, permeability tests (4.1xlO2 m/day), permeability assessment, karstification ratio, from micropaleontology (8.3xl06 to assessment of tectonic role in 6.5x10') and minimum of karstification ratio, and correlation karstification ratio (zero to 68.8%). between core drilling piezometers by using the results from CaO, MgO ratio, and micropaleontology of core drilling samples. Maharlu Karst Basin is located in Fars Province between 52,12 and 31 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Correspondence analysis for Study the migratory law and water hydrochemical characteristics of bearing media characteristics of karst water in Northern China karst water by using mineral Y. Yuesuo and Y. Jiexin saturation index Depl. Hvdrogeology, Changchun University W. Jintao of Earth Sciences, Changchun (130026), Institute of Karst Geology, Ministry of Jilin. P. R. China Geology and Mineral Resources, Guilin, i With the development of industry China and agriculture, groundwater in karst This paper takes the karst water area has become an important supply system of Jixian, Tianjin City as an source in Northern China. Then, the example, make use of mineral approach on the hydrochemical saturation index to study corrosional characteristic of karst water and the capacity of varying water and flowed impacts of environment to karst direction of groundwatcr, solved water is an urgent need in the some disputed boundary properties development of karst water. and important hydrogeological This paper uses the correspondence problems; make use of interrelated analysis technique to carry out the analysis of dolomite saturation index research on the formulation and and CO2 partial pressure to distribution characteristics of karst distinguish conduit flow and crevice water in Qinhuangdao area, Northern diffuse flow, expounded the China. From the analysis of characteristics of water-bearing hydrodynamic and hydrochemical media of dolomite. field of karst water, the dominating factors and hydrochemical Formation of sulfate-calcic waters components of karst groundwater are in cave massif determined, which can provide a K.A. Gorbunova, N.G. Maximovich scientific basis for groundwater Geology ofTechnogenic Processes quality evaluation and management. Laboratory, Scientific Natural Institute, Perm University, Russia Through combination of Q and R factor analysis, the research result The caves present the objects suitable can be expressed in the same factor for investigating hydrochemical axes, and the interrelation between processes which take place in the variables and the samples of karst Earth's crust. Perm University water will be obtained. The approach together with Kungur Station of the can also combined explain the Ural Branch of RAS carry on special distribution law and different complex investigation of Kungur ice type of sample characteristics on cave. The cave of 5.6 km length was hydro-chemical components of karst formed in gypsum and anhydrite water. interbedded by thin limestone and dolomite of Lower Permian Kungur stage. It is one of the most visited tourist caves in Russia. 32 International Symposium S Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts". September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey The chemical composition of water Forming of karst water in cave massif represents mainly a composition by the technogenic result of gypsum and anhydrite factors dissolution. The degree of water N. G. Maximovich, V. N. Kataev, S. M. metamorphization is indicated by its Blinov "sulfateness", that is by the ratio of Scientific Natural Institute, Perm University, sulfate ion content to hydrocarbonate 4 Gencel sir., Perm, 614600, Russia ion content (mg/1). Weakly Karst regions are the terrains of the mineralized water recharging the specific geostructural and hydro- cave massif features low sulfateness: geological conditions. Geological 0.5 - 1.6 snow, 0.5 river water. The environment of these regions is very sulfateness of atmospheric ice unstable. Assimilation of the karst crystals in the cave equals to 0.6 - regions is connected with dangerous 0.7. In spite of similar sulfate-calcic situations and unreversible changes composition and high mineralization of the natural conditions. Karst (1-2 g/1) water and ice in the cave process determines the equilibrium of differ on sulfateness index: 10-21 geological environment in the areas drops, 11-16 karst water, 3-9 which cover more than 180000 underground lakes and stream, 26-38 square kilometers of the Urals. old ice, 9-10 young ice. Drops and Chemical composition of the coal karst water formed in rock fractures mine water depends on contents of (i.e. in a closed system) show higher the sulfur, carbonated and diffused sulfateness compared to open elements in the coal formation. If the reservoir, in the latter case water contents of sulfur in coal is more interacts with bottomset beds. Old ice than 4% karst water acquired acid is notable for the highest sulfateness. reaction (pH=2-3) and sulfate Sulfateness is a genetic feature that composition. Sulfate - Iron points out the sources and the centres Aluminum - Natrium - Calcium water of karst water recharge, conditions of acquired mineralization 2.5-19 g/1. their formation. The influence of anthropogeneous factor causes the The sulfur contained minerals and increase of mineralization of the organic compounds yield sulfuric atmospheric precipitation of above acid by process biochemical cave area, the appearance of nitrites oxidation. During exploitation of the and nitrates in karst water. coal deposits, in connection with increase of the water influxes, air exchange and volumes of the rocks in geochemical process the mineralization can increase to 35 g/1. In the mine water as compared with natural karst water content of lead, copper, zinc, silver, nickel, cobalt increased in several tens time. 33 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey The rivers of the West Ural coal concentrated sulfate and polluted mine districts have hydrocarbonate- subsurface water on depth 30-50 m. calcium-natrium hydrochemical Hydrochemical hydrocarbonate facies with mineralization 90-150 calcium facies is changed under mg/1 before of the mine water source of pollution to sulfate - tributaries fall in water of this rivers hydrocarbonate - calcium (contain is fresh and ultrafresh, slightly acid sulfate achieved 300-350 mg/1 when (pH=5.8). After of the mine water mineralization is 700-760 mg/1). fall in water of the karst rivers acquired Sulfate-Iron-Aluminum Algae: An important agent in composition and mineralization from deposition of karstic travertines: 640 to 5000-6000 mg/1. Content Observations on natural-bridge sulfate is from 1000 to 3700 mg/1, Yerkoprii travertines, Aladaglar, iron from 160 to 900 mg/1, aluminum Eastern Taurids-Turkey from 11 to 160 mg/1 when pH=2.5- C.S. Bayan and T. Kurtta§ 2.9. International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Throw of the mine water has greatly Hacettepe University, Beytepe 06532, changed the natural regime of the Ankara, Turkey karst rivers. The iron contained Travertines are terrestrial, fresh deposits (with hematite about 46%) water carbonate deposits formed by partly or fully had filled karst cavities karstic springs and associated in excepted underground flow and streams which are supersaturated increased part of surface drainage. with respect to calcite. Field The sediments of bottom have very observations from recently travertine intensive pollution too. The water depositing karstic springs in the extracts by pollution were changing Aladaglar, Eastern Taurids - Turkey from hydrocarbonate-calcium to indicate that the deposition process is sulfate-calcium. Contain of the accelerated considerably by the chemical salt increased from 300-350 physical and biochemical mg/1 to 9500-9700 mg/1. The reaction contribution of algae which are was changed from slightly acid (pH- mostly belong to classes of 5.5) to very acid (pH=2.5-4). The Cyanophyceae (blue - green algae), sediments are sources of the Chlorophyceae (green algae), secondary pollution. Bacillariophyceae (diatoms), The underground karst water are Eugleno-phyceae and Xhantophyceae partly isolated from the surface stream and active pollution by Algae contributes physically to the naturally-technogenic reasons. deposition of travertine by means of Nevertheless, the pollution from the trapping of inorganically formed surface flows by filtration is existing calcite micro-crystals by algal and not only during the flood filaments and mucilagenous periods. Atmospheric water going secretions and by providing proper through the coal slag-heaps are 34 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impact TR9700049 nucleation sites for calcite water exchange and the rapid precipitation. Biochemical activity of filtration. They are weakly algae also forces the aquatic system mineralized waters with a prevailing to deposit travertine due to the content of HCO3 in the anion and of photosynthetic removal of free Ca in the cation composition. The carbon dioxide from the solution. average content of ion HCO, is 87 % Field observations indicate that the mval and of ion Ca it is 75 % mval, rate of physical and chemical therefore ions Mg, Na, K, SO4, C), contribution to the deposition NO3, etc. usually occur inferiorly. depends strongly on the hydraulic Ions of NH4, Fe, Mn, as well as conditions. Physical and biochemical microelements, are usually absent, roles becomes important in high and and if they do occur, it is always low velocity/energy streams, within the limits of the valid quality respectively. The effect of algal standards. association over the travertine deposition can be observed The pH values imply a generally apparently especially in streams alkaline, rarely a neutral character where the ratio of algal mass to the (mean value 7.6). With regard of the rate of stream flow is substantially hardness value, these waters cover all high. transitions from soft to very hard waters. Since the climatic conditions (air temperature and insolation) have The gas composition is dominated by strong influence upon the abundance N2 and O2. Very low values are of algae, the rate of travertine characteristic of U, Ra, and Rd deposited by algal contribution contents. All analyzed waters show a decreases during the winter months low mineralization rate of 0.2 - 0.4 when algal population decreases. g/1 (only 10 % samples below, and 6 Similarly, the biochemical % above these estimates), the total contribution shows a diurnal pattern average value being 0.28' g/1. with a maximum during mid day Chemical composition of these because of the higher uptake of waters usually does not substantially carbon dioxide via photosynthesis. changes throughout the year. The amplitude of changes concerning the Hydrochemical characteristics of mineralization values throughout the the karst groundwaters in Serbian year is only rarely higher than 0.1 g/1. Carpatho - Balkanides Chemical composition of these Z. Stevanovic, V. Dragisic, and P. Papic waters is usually pure in the sanitary Institute ofHydrogeology, School of Mining aspect, mostly for the catchment and Geology, University of Belgrade, Djusina areas on mountain massifs being 7, 11000 Belgrade, Yugoslavia unpopulated. Cavern and channel The chemical composition of these dimensions, high filtration rapidity, waters reflects entirely the conditions or the like, cause frequent of their formation, the intensive bacteriological pollutants, therefore 35 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', TR9700050 the entire catchment area of each plain of the Iraklion trench from the source should be proclaimed a wider karst massif of dolomitic limestones. zone of sanitary protection. Recent investigations were dealing The results of tracing experiments with the mechanism of salinity, with groundwaters indicate that calculations of the seasonal fresh under convenient conditions, the water components and its recharge pollution may migrate as far as 10 dynamics. Almyros spring reacts km of rectilinear distance as early as quickly, though sometimes with a 24 hours. Active hydraulic certain delay, to precipitation events. connections between the ground and Looking at the mean flow duration surface waters, where by the harmful curves for some investigated years components may be carried from one can see a very steep falling curve great distances including nonkarst representing the fact that a discharge terrains and infiltrated into the of 14 mVs was only reached or narrowest spring zone, have a exceeded for 30 days (<10%) in the particular significance in this regard. year. This is caused by high runoff periods during the winter time mostly ENVIRONMENTAL shown as direct runoff. ISOTOPES IN KARST Chloride content of spring water Hydrodynamics of Almyros karst usually decreases with increasing aquifer, Crete island, Greece discharge. The highest sea water M. Probst1, H. Zojer1, M. Knithakis2, and portion is calculated between 22 and W. Stichler1 23%. As the maximum permissible chloride content for drinking water is Institute of Hydrogeology and Geothermics, given at 200 mg/l the spring ought to Joanneum Research, Graz, Austria have drinking water quality with 'Institute for Geology and Mineral Exploration, Relhimnon/Crete, Greece respect to chloride at a discharge of at least 11.8 mVs. International Atomic Energy Agency, Vienna, Austria During the season 1985 and 1986 the The brackish karst spring of Almyros dynamic of the karst water body was is located about 8 km west of Irak I ion investigated by the correlation of one km inland from the coast. With spring discharge, chloride content its discharge between 3 and and concentration of oxygen-18. It is approximately 50 mVs, it is the evident that the peaks of spring largest spring on Crete Island. discharge are accompanied by an Because of its complicated increasing of fresh water portion. At underground drainage system a the same time the oxygen-18 content number of hydrogeologists have decreases since the fresh water 36 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", Se( TR9700051 from high altitudes is reaching the Stable isotopic data shows that the spring about two months after t..e 8D VS 5I8O of local precipitation increase of spring discharge. marches the world meteorological Finally the comparison of different line WML, but this relationship of methods leads to the conclusion of karst groundwater shows another different storage capacities in the picture. Two groups of karst water individual geological-tectonical from this aquifer could be units. distinguished. Data of the first group is situated near to the WML, it Isotopic and hydrochemical implies that this kind of karst water is significance of a karst aquifer mixed by recent precipitation which within the semi-arid Datong coal could be demonstrated by comparing mine area, China the annual variations of groundwater J. Zhiinuo', Z. Pingsheng , F. Rongan", F. level within boreholes with that of GuangcharT, and G. Wei/.u precipitation. Data of the second group has a 8D vs 5ISO paralleled to Datong Coal Mining Administration, PR. WML with a deuterium excess very China near to zero, it implies that this kind 'Coalfield Geology Administration, P.R. China of karst groundwater is originated Nanjing Institute of Hydrology and Water during ancient climate environment. Resources, P.R. China Two kinds of karst water show its Water resources become an urgent hydrochemical differences. The first problem for the semi-arid Datong group has a hydrochemical water 2 region, a main coal mine area of type of HCO37HCO,"-SO4 - but China. After decades of development second group is rich in Na+ but poor of pore water from Quaternary 2 in SO4 which seems to be formed aquifers, great attention has turned to within a relatively isolated the potential of the South- environment. Typical data of ions Kouquangully karst aquifer of and other indexes e.g., carbonate- Ordovician period extended about 2 saturation etc. of these two kinds of 710 km with depths 170 to 400 m. karst water are compared and listed, This aquifer is geologically formed and a piper diagram related to is on a large syncline. However, two shown. kinds of karst water within this large aquifer have been identified isotopically and hydrochemically. It is formed due to the distribution of local faults and igneous rocks. It reveals that two different hydrochemical environments accompanied with different recharge and discharge conditions are existed. 37 Internationa/ Symposium i Field S TR9700053 TR9700052 Environmental isotope study and US/cm) and hot, stagnant karstic 2-D modeling of cold and thermal water (40-50 °C, 300-400 |xS/cm). karst within the Getnlik (Bursa) Applying the FE-element code area of Northwestern Turkey FRACTure (Kohl et al., 1993) two- T. Eisenlohr, M. Pfister, and W. Balderer dimensional modeling of the coupled Geological and Geophysical Institutes, Swiss hydrothermal circulation pattern as Federal Institute of Technology, Zurich, well as of the tritium transport Switzerland pattern were performed. Introducing The main topic of the 1-D linear elements the necessary interdisciplinary MARMARA- high groundwater velocities in karstic Project of the Swiss Federal Institute aquifers were achieved. The of Technology Zurich is the differentiation between hot, relationship between active crustal subthermal, and cold springs were movements, seismicity, heat flow, possible regarding the outflow and characteristics of deep temperatures as well as the tritium groundwater circulation in concentration of the different springs. northwestern Turkey. The Armutlu It turned out that the high water Peninsula, between Istanbul and velocities in the karstic systems in Bursa, is one of seven areas, where relation to the normal groundwater detailed hydrogeological inves- velocities of the country rock (not tigations were performed. The karstic underground) and also the peninsula is situated between two appearance of fracture zones are very branches of the North Anatolian responsible for this special situation Fault zone (NAF). In the of groundwater circulation. The southeastern part of the peninsula a results of the hydrogeologic metamorphic sequence, consisting of investigations were nicely confirmed greenschists, a marble unit and flysh- by these quantitative calculations. sediments, builds up a mountain region. Related to outcrops of the Measurement of karst effluents marbles seven big karstic springs into the streamflow by means of with discharges between 30 and 160 natural oxygen-18 content: Case 1/s, and temperatures between 13 °C study of the Ermenek basin: and 25 °C flow out at the slope of Central Taurids-Turkey mountains. In the plain of Gemlik C. Yejertener artesian thermal water (37 °C, 410 International Research and Application |j.S/cm) appears. Chemical analysis Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), showed that thermal water as well as Hacettepe University, Beytepe Campus spring waters have the same origin 06532, Ankara, Turkey and are controlled by solution of The precise measurement of karst calcite. The isotopic compositions groundwater contribution into the indicate a mixture between cold streamflow bears special importance karstic water (12-15 °C, 250-450 in reservoir tightness investigations that are carried out for the feasibility 38 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', Sep TR9700054 of planned water structures in karstic method (5.1 m3/s) and by the sudden areas. The interaction between the dump dye dilution technique (5.3 karst groundwater and the stream m3/s) was found to be quite flow through the planned reservoir consistent. area should be carefully determined to ensure reservoir tightness. Regional discharge of a Triassic Although, precise streamflow artesian karst aquifer: mixing and measurements are usually age of spring waters in the accomplished by using classical Thuringian basin, Germany, velocity-area methods, in some cases, estimated by isotope methods this approach can not be applied due P. G. Dietrich and D. Hebert to the difficulties (e.g., turbulent flow Technical University Bergakademie Freiberg, conditions) arising at the Institute of Geology and Institute of Physics, measurement site. In such cases, the Germany use of tracer dilution techniques can The investigated karstic aquifer is a help to overcome the specific middle Triassic limestone problem existing at the desired (Muschelkalk), covered by measurement section. Artificial impermeable upper Triassic (Keuper) tracers, including fluorescent dyes, clayey marls and shales and situated isotopes, salt solutions etc., have in a comparatively small basin (about been widely used for determination 110 x 70 km) without important of stream flow rate. However the differences in the altitude of present study demonstrates that the infiltration areas. Stable isotopes like natural stable isotope (18O) contents 2H and 18O give therefore only a little of the stream flow and the karst possibility of genetic interpretation groundwater could also be used for for the discharge of karst waters, this purpose. The stable isotope concentrated in some places with contents of the karstic groundwater bigger karst springs. and the streamflow at the points Good results give the contents of located at the upstream and tritium (3H) and radiocarbon (I4C): in downstream of the contribution site the diagram of 3H versus 14C are and the rate of the streamflow at the visible areas of old, young, and downstream part are the prerequisites mixed karstic ground waters. It has of the proposed methods. been calculated mixing ratios and As verified by the dye dilution test, residence times of the mixing the present approach has been components for some of the karst successfully applied for the springs. determination of the karstic Geochemical indicators like the bulk groundwater contribution into the content of soluble matter, the Ermenek River located in the Central geochemical type of water, the Taurids. The rate of karst contents of O2, Si, and F support the groundwater contributions into the isotope results. streamflow as determined by this 39 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impact TR9700055 Determination of the recharge area used for the drinking water supply of of springs in an Alpine region by the small town Strobl. applying a model using the altitude The main directions of karsl water effects of specific discharge and flow were determined by means of oxygen-18-content combined tracing experiments which T. Haruin and J. Fank proved the existence of shallow Institute ofllvdrogeology and Geothennics, drainage channels with high flow loanneum Research, EHsabethstrassc 16/11, velocities in the Jurassic limestone, A-SOIOGra;, Austria but the tracer could not be detected in The area of investigation is situated the springs draining the dolomitic in the Northern Limestone Alps near aquifer as the Kaltwasserquelle. the lake Wolfgangsee (Salzburg, The investigation area was divided Austria). It consists primarily of into various orographic drainage Triassic dolomites with fine- basins with continuous recording and fractured joint networks and high partly periodic measurements of storage capacity and intensively discharge. The hydrological karstified Jurassic limestones. The catchment model is based on the area reaches altitudes up to more than following parameters, which were 2000 m asl the mean annual determined for the orographical precipitation being in the range of drainage basins: 1800-2200 mm. -surface A The intensive and progressive use of -mean altitude H the karstified region by tourism and r -mean annual precipitation P pasture represent important pollution depending on the altitude sources for the springs, most of them -mean annual evapotranspiration E, draining the karstified limestone are characterized by primarily depending on the altitude -theoretical mean annual specific bacteriological problems. Therefore 2 the main purpose of the discharge (l/s km ) from the water hydrogeological investigations was balance equation -mean annual discharge MQ (l/s) and the determination of the main 2 underground connections between specific discharge Mq (l/s km ) (for pollution sources and the springs, and catchments with only single of their recharge areas and of the measurements computed by residence time of karst water as an correlation with the data of the next important parameter for gauging station) bacteriological pollution risks. The The data from small local catchment investigations were especially aimed areas in less permeable rocks with at the main spring, the so called different mean altitudes were used Kaltwasserquelle ("Coldwater for the calibration of the model spring") with a mean annual showing similar theoretical and discharge of 174 l/s (fluctuations measured specific discharges. A between 91 and 333 l/s), which is significant linear relationship 40 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', S TR9700056 between mean altitude and mean investigations in alpine karr.tic specific discharge could be regions. developed thus indicating their The presented method gives the corresponding surfaces of the possibility to estimate the mean orographical catchments and the altitude and the surface of the underground drainage systems. recharge area of springs. Therefore, it Deviations from this calibration represents an important base for the equation can be quantified as deficits detection of pollution risks and for (recharge areas) and surplus the delimitation of protection areas. (discharge area) and therefore give informations about the main Isotope hydrology study of the underground drainage systems. major areas of Paramithia and The altitude effect of the stable Koroni isotope I8O was used for the I. L. Leontiadis , C. H. Smyrniotis", E. determination of the mean altitudes Nikolaou , and P. Georgiadis of the catchment areas of the springs. National Center for Scientific Research The isotope contents of the "DEMOKR1TOS", Aghia Paraskevi Attikis, catchments and springs used for the Greece calibration of the hydrological model 'Institute of Geology and Mineral show a strong linear relationship with Exploration, Athens, Greece the mean altitudes giving a slope of ' Institute of Geology and Mineral the regression equation of 0.22 Exploration, Branch of Preveza, Preveza, Greece 5%r/100 m the isotope data of a Politechnic School of Athens, Athens, Greece neighboring precipitation station being on the same calibration line. The areas under investigation belong Based on this isotope model, it was to the water district of Epirus, in the possible to estimate the mean altitude northwestern part of Greece. of the recharge areas of karstic Limestones formations are the major springs. constituents of the highlands, while recent deposits cover the lowlands. Introducing this parameter into the The flow rates of the big karstic calibration equation of the springs suggest interrelations hydrological model, one can deduce between the aquifers formed in the the theoretical mean annual specific carbonic rocks of different ages, as discharge Mq and from the ratio well as between surface and MQ/Mq the surface of the ground waters. underground drainage basin. The Sampling of springs at different effective porosity of the dolomites in elevations with well defined recharge the catchment of the areas established ihat the altitude Kaltwasserquelle could be estimated effect on the 818O value of on the basis of these parameters as p° groundwaters is uniform in the entire = 1.8%, a value which agrees well water district of Epirus, and namely - with the results fiom other 0.18%oper 100 m. 41 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Imp TR9700057 Based on the isotopic composition of the recharge of the aquifers formed in surface and groundwaters, the origin the nearby plains or to the feeding of and the dynamics of groundwaters very closely or at distances up to 30 and the interrelation of the major km located springs, directly or by aquifers between each others or replenishment of the respective between them and the surface waters aquifers. were determined. Concerning the system of Parga Generally, the interrelation between Mountains, which present a front to aquifers formed in the carbonic rocks the sea, the entire dolomitic of different ages in the areas under formation of its isolated southern part investigation is confirmed. is recharging the saline spring of The karstic system of the mountains Ammoudia. The water of the swamp of Paramithia and Souli is subdivided Kalodiki inflowing to the sinkhole at in three parts, each one forming its the borders of this part of Parga own aquifer. The northern one (mean Mountains seems to be feeding annual yield 6.6x106 nrr1) is feeding submarine springs. the spring of Kristalopigi. The Environmental isotope study on highlands of the central and main one karst water of a typical coal mine (mean annual yield more than in North China 186.6xlO6 m3) are recharging the river Acheron, mainly through the P. Shulan spring of Gliki. The regions of less Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, P. O. than 700 m of altitude at the borders Box 9825 Beijing 100029, PR. China of this part are mainly contributing to Groundwater gush in coal mine is the recharge of the aquifers of the frequent especially in north China it surrounding younger formations by is very large in amount, so that lateral intrusion. The southern part of economic loss, even life loss are the mountains Paramithia and Souli serious problem. We apply isotope is mainly contributing to the recharge techniques for identifying the origin of the plain in the site of the and the mechanism of the water gush, community of Narkissos. the research work focused to the Zhao coal mine which is one of the In the mountainous complex of most important coal mine in China Margariti two karstic systems are and the research work has important distinguished. The northern one is meaning in both application and feeding the spring Neraida to the science. north, while the southern one, where at least two aquifers are developed, is 33 water samples collected for recharging mainly the springs oxygen-18, deuterium, tritium, and Ampoula to the east and Koroni to chemical analysis. The research has the south. The waters inflowing to resulted in some important the sinkholes of the Margariti achievement, isotope and chemical mountainous complex contribute to data were used to divide groundwater system to trace the movement of 42 international Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impac TR9700058 groundwater to determine the mixing best to prevent karst water from ratios of various groundwater and its being recharged by pore water in recharge source. river Dashahe basin so as to decrease According to the isotope chemical the karst water recharge intensity. data and related six figures, it seams Stable isotopes of hydrogen and that there are three kinds of water; oxygen in study of North Caucasus the first one is precipitation, 5D = -71 18 gypsum karst %o, 5 O = -10.0 %0, the second is surface water, 5D = -40.9%e, 5I8O = - Y.A. Federov 3.64 %o, and the third is karst water Hydrochemical Institute of Roshydromel, Rostov-on-Don, Russia 5I8O = -8.50 %o, 8D = -62.0 %>. The stable isotope compositions of the The present study comprises hydrogen and oxygen isotopic three kinds of water have no change, composition of precipitation, surface so it can be concluded that it's and underground water and water of recharge is stable. It is recharged by gas-fluid inclusions in gypsum and local precipitation. 5I8O, 5D values halite. of the karst water are very close to that of pore water of river Dashahe It was established that all types of basin. The closeness indicates that natural waters take part in the they have same origin. It is the pore processes of gypsum cast formation, water of river Dashahe basin that while precipitation and surface recharge the karst water. The deep waters are predominant. The bulk karst water belong to the zone of points of isotopic composition of stagnation, replacement of karst streams and reservoirs waters is groundwater is rather slowly. along the GMWL. Some points of karst lakes are displaced to the right Karst water is the key point of and down and those of water of cave groundwater gush in research coal walls - upper and to the left of this mine, pore water in river Dashahe line. basin is the main recharge sources of karst water. Karst water in relic karst These could be explained by develop zone is filled with fractionation of isotopes as a result of Quaternary pore water from bottom condensation-distillation processes. to top. Karst water can be divided Another group of points locates to into deep and shallow parts. The the right and lower of the this line, shallow karst water has a relatively along the line of mixture of large removal range and strongly talassogenic and meteoric waters, replaces with pore water. In contrast, what is also confirmed by the data on the deep karst water has a small chemical composition. removal range and replacement with In the Mineral Waters area meteoric pore water is slow. There is no water reaches a depth over 1000 m. hydraulic contact between karst Interaction of meteoric fluids with water and surface water. Therefore, talassogenic waters, carbon dioxide in coal mine area we should do our and ionic-salt complexes of rocks 43 International Symposium & Field Semma, TR9700060 TR9700059 results in formation of unique environmental isotope data from 10 mineral waters. The results of karstic springs. 'isotopic and geochemical studies, The results of both environmental daia of drilling and logging testify isotope and hydrochemical data the development of karst processes at revealed that the regional karst much greater depths, then those groundwater system is rather achieved by speleologists. This is complex and comprises of three also confirmed by the results of study subsystems which can be described of isotopic composition of gas-fluid as (1) an upper karst groundwater inclusions in halite and gypsum and system, (2) a middle flow system anhydrite, serving as an indicator of exhibiting slight mixing with thermal meteoric fluids presence in groundwater, and (3) a lower karst geological section. groundwater system discharging waters composed of sea water and Determination of karst thermal groundwater. groundwater flow systems of different origin by means of In this paper, the author proposes an environmental isotope and overall picture of the origin and the hydrochemical data: The Lower groundwater flow system of the large Dalaman basin (Western Taurids- karst springs. Turkey) Karst groundwater studies in C. Ye^ertener Lamas river region (Limonlu- International Research and Application Erdemli-Icel), Turkey Center [or Karst Water Resources (UKAM), Hacettcpe University. Heylepe, 06532, G. Yiice, N. Pelen, E. Onhon, M. Nazik, Ankara, Turkey T. Karaogullanndan, and N. Basaran The Dalaman basin of SW Turkey DSl, Adana, Turkey comprises autogenic and allogenic The geology and hydrogeology of the karstic carbonate aquifers of karstic drainage basin in the Lamas Miocene and Mesozoic age, region covering a surface area of respectively. The basin extending 1500 square kilometers was along the Mediterranean Sea to v,irds investigated for the groundwater highlands has numerous karstic potential. The main objective of springs with different hydrochemical Lamas Project is to define the characteristics. Fresh-waier springs relation between the recharge to and brackish thermal springs highlands and the discharge realized emerging from the same aquifer are by the karstic coastal or submarine encountered in different parts of the springs along the Mediterranean basin. Distinction among the coast and assist to development of different karst groundwater flow karst water resources. systems existing in the basin has Formations of Paleozoic, Mesozoic been accomplished by the and Cenozoic crops out in the region. examination of hydrochemical and The base rocks of quartzite, schists and crystalline limestones of 44 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karsl Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Paleozoic are unconformitably encroachment is observed on (he covered by the dolomitic limestones coast line with the due to the of Mesozoic. The ophiolitic melange karstification and the seasonal is overthrusted to the north. variations are identified. Cenozoic, starting with marly The samples collected from the area limestones of Kaplankaya formation represents precipitation. springs, continues with Karaisah limestones. streams, and drilled wells. The linear All important karstic activities are regression line representing observed in this formation which Giizeloluk precipitation is reaches up to 1000 m in thickness. D = 7.07 5I8O + 7.91 where r = 0.91 The investigation area was extended almost 4400 square kilometers where The regression line representing the the elevation varies between 0 to samples is determined as: 2700 m. Mediterranean climate D = 7.7 5ISO + 13.67 where r = 0.91 influences the region and the mean Depending on the o'sO, 8D, and T annual precipitation is 605 mm on results the samples are collected in the coastal line and 756.5 mm in six groups. Evaluation is made by the Giizeloluk (1400 m), and 673 mm in analysis of variance to investigate the Kirobasi (1400 m). relation between and within croups Lamas river is the main river in 95% confidence level. The crossing the area. The maximum estimated turnover time with 8'"O discharge reaches up to 13.48 rtv'/s values gave the result of and minimum 2.77 m"'/s. The approximately 30 years. discharge to and from the spring is By taking into consideration the observed by step measurements along unmeasured discharge along the the river bed. The average loss coast line, the infiltration from the reaches up to 0.58 mVs. The runoff precipitation is approximately 50-60 coefficient is estimated as 0.28. %. The groundwater flow is from The springs in the region can be north to the south and sometimes classified as karstic, coastal, and may not be effected from the low marine springs. The yields are altitude precipitation. The effect of between 2500 to 0.2 l/s depending on the sea water encroachment is the hydrogeological conditions. The detected by isotopic and mean discharge of three important hydrochemical analyses. Measures springs are K-3 34.0 hmVa, K-14 should be taken to protect the 18.0 hm'/a, and K-19 18.9 hm7a. ovcrpumping from the water along The karstification has reached at least the coast line. 250 m in depth almost to the base of Depending on the hydrogeological Karaisah limestone. The karstic and isotope hydrology investigations, features are often observed and small it has been concluded that the poljes are found in various development of the karst water elevations. The sea water resources can only be realized on the 45 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters 46 International Symposium t Reli TR9700062 * TR9700063 Investigations of groundwater flow waters. The tritium contents of the and solute transport in fractured tunnel water show actual recharge at rock at the Grirnsel test site the slopes but prove with <1 TU a (Switzerland) residence time of more than 40 a in A. Keppler and W. Drost the central part of the tunnel with a GSF-Institute for Hydrology, D-85764 maximum of overgrowth. The Oberschleissheim, Germany residence time was confirmed by the 14 The Grimsel Test Site (1730 m asl) results of TAMS dating of C in low consists of a laboratory tunnel in a volume dissolved organic carbon. depth of 450 m in the fractured rock More than 50 migration experiments of the Central Aar Massive of the were carried out within a steady Bernese Alps. As part of the research asymmetric dipole field in the shear program migration experiments were zone with pulse or continuous carried out in order to obtain injection. The numerical analysis of chemical and physical information conservative tracer breakthrough for both qualitative and quantitative curves produces data on fracture characterization of nuclide transport aperture (=1 cm), dispersivity (=10 in fractured rock, including matrix cm) and porosity of secondary fill diffusion and sorption. As site of the (0.3) and matrix (=102). These migration experiment a steeply- characteristic formation parameters dipping shear zone was selected, were applied in the numerical which forms a relatively strong water analysis of the reactive nuclide (l37Cs bearing fracture and is partially filled and 85Sr) breakthrough curves in with porous, unconsolidated fault order to determine the field values of gouge material. the coefficients of sorption and As part of an extensive retardation as well as of matrix- hydrogeological and geochemical diffusion which are essential terms investigation program over a period for the modeling of transport of more than two years water processes. samples were collected from all tunnel inflows as well as from Bacterial and chemical springs, runoff, snowmelt and contaminant transport tests in a glaciers in the environment in order confined karst aquifer (Danuba to study the recharge conditions for valley, Swabian Jura, Germany) groundwater within the rock massive. J. P. Orth, R. Netter, and G. Merkl The results of the stable isotope Institute for Water Quality Control and Waste analysis of tunnel water yield to a Management, Technical University Munich, well fit of the meteoric water line Germany established for modern precipitation The transport behavior of bacterial in Switzerland. In using the altitude and chemical tracers in a confined relation for the stable isotopes a karst aquifer was examined by one- mean altitude of 2200 m was found dimensional field investigations. A for the catchment area of the tunnel dipole of two wells (126 and 203 m 47 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impac TR9700064 depth) gave access to a 200 m tracers. The results indicate, that experimental distance in a massive, even in rock aquifers of high cavernous Malm limestone aquifer. conductivity bacteria are quickly By controlling the artesian outflow, inactivated, whereas chemical potential gradient, flow direction and contaminants are slowly eliminated. flow velocity of the karst groundwater could be varied. Contaminant transport from leaky landfills in karst areas The test substances were injected together with fluorescent dye tracers M. Eiswirth, H. Hotzl, C. Lazar. and G. directly into the karst groundwater. P. Merkler As fecal indicator bacterium, Department of Applied Geology, University of Karlsruhe, Kaiserstrasse 12, 76128 Escherichia coli K 12 (wild type) Karlsruhe, Germany was used. Terbuthylazine, Leachates leaking from damaged Isoproturon and nitrate (as NaNO3) landfills represents a potential threat were used as chemical tracers. As of groundwater pollution and is abiotic particular material, in increasingly matter of public and comparison to bacteria, fluorescent regulatory concern. Old landfills with polystyrene microbeads ((()l|Xm) were no or insufficient leachate collection used. Radiohyrometrical single-well systems can constitute a frequent risk measurements (deter-mination of to groundwater quality because the local flow vectors) and isotope leachates often contain specific hydrological measurements organic pollutants as well as a (groundwater dating) were carried substantial content of organic-matter. out as well. The migration and fate of The investigations revealed: The contaminants from leaky landfills in flow time of the tracers (first karst areas have been investigated, appearance) was between 1.5 and 6 using soil gas surveys and d. The transport behavior of the geophysical methods. The contaminants pesticides and nitrate investigation area was a municipal was nearly the same as that one of landfill above karstified limestones the fluorescent dissolved tracers. The of Triassic age Northern Black recovery of E.coli (living cells) was Forest, Southern Germany. One karst similar to that one of the fluorescent spring north of the landfill is subject microbeads and 0.1-1 % of the to severe pollution. Water samples recovery of the fluorescent dissolved from this spring and groundwater tracers. This indicates that the observation wells indicate that there number of culturable cells must be an aquifer pollution by waste significantly decreases during the site leachate. Therefore, detailed passage and that abiotic particles hydrogeologicat and geophysical sufficiently represent the transport investigations have been carried out characteristics of bacteria. In all to detect contaminant flow paths cases the bacteria and microbeads from the leaky landfill. Historical arrived earlier than the dissolved 48 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey investigations showed that the former biodegradation of leachate quarry walls have been sealed not compounds in the unsaturated zone correct. Geological investigations and in the groundwater decreases the suppose a NNE striking extension O2 and increases the CO, in the soil fault zone underlying the landfill. air and in the groundwater. The The karstified limestones of the degradation of leachate compounds Middle and Upper Muschelkalk in on small, preferential flow paths, like the investigation area strikes west to the fault zone leads to elevated CO, westeast and dips with 5 to 10 and depressed O, concentrations degrees north to northeast. Soil gas compared to background levels sampling in the surroundings of the within the karstified limestones. The leaky landfill was carried out in 1.5 results of the 222Rn investigations m deep, small diameter boreholes. indicate also a main anomaly at The boreholes were closed against location 70 and three minor the atmosphere during the anomalies at location 10, 85 and 130 measurements with blowed up (Fig. I). The main 222Rn anomaly at packers. The soil gas was analyzed 222 location 70 refers to the extension for CO2, CH4, O2, H2S and Rn. fault zone. This positive 222Rn Electromagnetical soundings on the anomaly expresses probably the high 10 investigation profiles have been Radon emanation in the fault zone. carried out with direct current The results of the electromagnetic process. Horizontal coplanar and soundings show a broad zone below vertical coplanar coil configurations 35 meters and two areas with low with spacings of 10, 20 and 40 m apparent electrical resistivities at between transmitter and receiver lead location 55 and 110 in 20-40 m depth to 6 various depth penetrations (2.5 (Fig. I). The zone below 35 m depths m to 40 m depth) along the cross- refers to the groundwater of the karst sections. aquifer. It seems that the two During the soil gas screenings neither anomalies correspond to two separate CR, nor H2S have been detected in inclined extension fault zones. The the soil gas. The CO2 concentration very low resistivities (< 100 Ohm. m) along the cross-section varies in those zones possibly refer significantly (Fig. I). saturated conditions (water, leachate) within the limestones. Especially at At location 70 and 85 CO maximas 2 location 55, this low resistivity zone in soil gas were detected. These reaches up to 15 meters below maximas correspond clearly with the surface. detected minima in the soil gas O2 - In combination of soil gas screenings concentrations. The positive CO2 and and geophysical investigations, two negative O2 anomalies at location 70 and 85 probably refers to the inclined fault zones have been contaminant transport on the detected. Leachate water leaks from extension fault zone. The aerobic the damaged landfill into those fault zones. Within the fault zones the 49 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', & TR9700065 leachates are transported to the epikarst or vadose zone, is of groundwater. The detailed particular importance for a karst investigations on other investigation aquifer with respect to quantification profiles allow, in combination with of recharge, storage and discharge hydrological and hydrochemical processes. It extends from the upper investigations, the detection of fault weathered part of the bedrock above zones as well as the further run of the permanently saturated zone up to preferential flow paths of leachate the soil. Arising from considerable and contaminated groundwater. chemical solution during downward percolation of water, a high secondary permeability characterizes the subcutaneous zone. Reliable estimation of the influence of the subcutaneous zone requires a detailed characterization of the hydrogeological and hydraulical properties and of the solute transport. Cave systems provide and excellent opportunity for intercepting water in the unsaturated zone and monitoring solute movement. Our investigation have been 'carried out in the ca. 30 m thick Fig. 1: Results of the soil gas subcutaneous zone above the cave screenings and electromagnetic Cerna jame, Slovenia. As observation soundings on a cross-section north of network about 15 trickles and the leaky landfill. dripping points with varying Transport mechanism in the discharge behavior was selected. subcutaneous zone Rainwater was collected with two 1 1 2 parts. Event monitoring was carried H. Hotzl , B. Reichert and P. Trimborn out during autumn 1993, summer and Department of Applied Geology, University autumn 1994. Daily measurements of of Karlsruhe, D-76128 Karlsruhe, Germany discharge, temperature pH, electrical 2GSF -Institute for Hydrology, D-80764 conductivity (EC) and carbon dioxide Neuherberg, Germany and bicarbonate have been carried Within the framework of the current out for the selected trickles and research project of the International drippings. Additional water samples Association of Tracer Hydrology were taken daily for analysis of (ATH) in the classical karst area of oxygen-18 content and weekly for a Slovenia intensive investigations of complete analysis of selected anions subcutaneous zone of karst aquifers and cations. Point source were started in summer 1993. The experiments with artificial tracers subcutaneous zone, also termed the were carried out in autumn 1994 to 50 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey supplement the information from the Valley groundwater flow system, a hydraulic observations and the carbonate-alluvial system covering environmental tracers (Oxygen-18, approximately 15000 km2 in central temperature and chloride). Nevada, USA. The model provides Our results to date show that the first approximations to the volume of observation points can be divided in groundwater in storage, recharge at least two groups based on their rates and groundwater ages. A two- response to precipitation events. This layer model simulates the upper distinction reflects the existence of alluvial aquifer system and the two flow components in the underlying carbonate aquifer system. subcutaneous zone. A fast component Since the system is poorly is activated during the initial phase of constrained we use two different cell a recharge event (within one or two configurations, each with three days, partly within hours after the different flow scenarios. Our novel event), while a slow component acts approach, applied herein to an arid- with a significant delay (typically region, large-scale, carbonate-alluvial within one week, although sometimes aquifer system, is independent of without response depending on aquifer type or climate. recharge intensity). Comparison of Total groundwater storage in the the baseflows of both components alluvium ranges from 4.6x10" m3 to reveals that the fast recharge 1.5xl012 m3; groundwater storage in component only comprises about 10 the carbonate aquifer ranges from % of the total recharge volume, 2.0x10" m3to l.OxiO12 m3. The total whereas the remaining 90 % arrive in subsurface flow through the system is the drippings within a period of approximately 1.4x 108 m3/year. Mean weeks. groundwater ages vary from 1200 to MODELING AND FLOW 46000 years; the oldest groundwater SYSTEMS in the system approaches 150000 years old. Our modeling results Delineation of a carbonate-alluvial indicate that the Railroad Valley flow groundwater flow system using a system is not closed but receives mixing-cell model and the spatial inflow from an adjacent carbonate- distribution of deuterium alluvial flow system, the White River M. E. Campana1 and J.G. Roth2 flow system. Department of Earth and Planetary Study on the pollution of fracture- Sciences, University of New Mexico, karst water in Boshan district, Albuquerque, NM 87131-1116 USA Shandong province, China Water Resources Center, Desert Research Institute, P.O. Box 60220, Reno, NV89506 X. Yu Zhu, N. Q. Zhou, and S. H. Xu USA Department of Earth Sciences, Nanjing We use the spatial distribution of the University, PR. China stable isotope deuterium to calibrate Boshan is an industrial city is the a mixing-cell model of the Railroad middle of Shandong Province. 51 /ntemationaf Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Groundwater is the unique sources establish a water resource protection for the urban water supply. The main area. water resource is fracture-karst water in Middle Ordovician carbonate Hydrology of Dreznicko polje in rocks. In this paper we studied the the karst (Croatia) main pollution sources and the path O. Bonacci1 and K. Plantic2 of pollution, the main contaminants Civil Engineering Faculty, Split University, n groundwater and their 58000 Split, Malice Hrvatske 15, Croatia characteristics of space-distribution, Energy Institute, 41000 Zagreb, Avenija estimating groundwater quality by Vukovar 37, Croatia indistinct mathematics method. Dreznicko polje is typical closed Geostatistical methods, such as trend polje in the karst located in the analysis, and kriging method, were central part of Croatia. Inflow in the taken to simulate contaminants polje comes from three main distribution in space. Grey system directions which have surface and method and characteristic finite groundwater components. From the element solution of advective - hydrologic-hydrogeologic point of dispersive equation were adopted to view the Dreznicko polje is a part of forecast pollution in the future. a wider system with catchment area Finally, some proposals for of about 225 km2. The annual rainfall protection of groundwater varies from 1700 to 2200 mm with an environment in Boshan area are average of about 2000 mm. suggested. They are: Maximum volume of the Dreznicko 6 1. Some factories which take the risk polje retention is 5OxlO m\ The of serious polluting environment polje is regulaily flooded in the cold have to be moved out of the recharge and wet periods of the year, usually area of fracture-karst water. In the from October to April. The paper other factories which were located in deals with the complex problems of recharge area, drainage of sewage the flow in karst terrain. The and heap of rubbishes have to be conceptual Streamflow Synthesis and managed rigorously. Reservoir Regulation (SSARR) model was applied for definition all 2. In leaky sections of the Xiaofu components of the Dreznicko polje River and its branches impermeable inflow and outflow. The model was clay laying on limestone has to be applied by using the daily hydrologic constructed. and meteorological data. In complete 3. Rubbish heaps and land fills on karst flow conditions very encourage limestone in recharge area must be results were achieved with a general taken away. non karstic model. Especially 4. The water quality in the new well interesting results are connected with field in Tianjinwan is good for definition of the discharge curve of drinking. We must protect the water the Dreznicko polje swallow holes. resource from contamination and 52 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey Double continuum porous simulated using different modeling equivalent (DCPE) vs. discrete approaches and the model results modelling in a karst terrane compared. G. Teutsch The paper presents the DCPE Applied Geology, Univ. ofTuebingen, modeling approach including the Sigwartstr. 10, 72076 Tubingen, Germany results from different karst Groundwater flow in Karst terranes catchments and also the results of the has been quantitatively described by numerical studies. numerous authors using analytical as well as numerical modeling Hysteresis effect of karst vadose approaches. Within these studies, one zone in Spring KR5, MT. problem commonly encountered is Krauterin, Austria the adequate representation of the D. Zhang, H. Fischer, B. Bauer, and C. E. extreme variabilities in the flow Hamann system which cannot be described Institute of Geography, University of Vienna, employing classical single-continuum Universitatstr, 7, A-1010, Vienna, Austria porous equivalent (SCPE) models. The vadose zone of Spring KR5 is An alternative approach using a made of Dachsteinkalk limestone of double-continuum porous equivalent Upper Triassic age. While surface (DCPE) model concept was sheet flows and rills appear in a few developed by the author in 1988. minutes during a rain event, echo in There, the first continuum represents the spring is usually 2 hours later. A the large conduits and the second flooding process can be divided into continuum represents the numerous pure lag stage in which no echo smaller fissures. This approach has gives to rain event, pure energy been successfully applied for the inputting stage in which discharge modeling of various catchment areas increases due to tube air compression on the Swabian Alb Jurassic Karst and then due flooding wave plateau in Southern Germany. transmission, and material inputting However, a drawback of the DCPE stage in which fresh water arrives at approach is that the model the spring. A triangular matrix of the parameters transmissivity, storage effect lag relations combined with coefficient and the exchange hydrographic and chemographic coefficient between the two continua analyses is applied to understand the can only be obtained through master characters of the karstic calibration (inverse parameter vadose zone. Electric concentration fitting). Since there is no simple way is about 270 microS/cm (at 25 °C) for of relating the resulting (calibrated) the input pulse, and can drop to 160 hydraulic parameters to experimental microS/cm in a tempest. The decline data from the field, extensive is usually lags to the discharge peak numerical studies were performed, one hour. Before it a peak of water where different karst aquifer systems temperature may occur. Due to the (simplified prototypes) were water-absorption ability, rock walls 53 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya - Turkey can hold some volume of infiltration capability of the water supply and then the held water may systems, statistical analyses of spring evaporate in the following dry discharges in the Rhodopes mountain season. When the fall of a rain event is applied. is less than 5 mm, no echo occurs at In this study graphical methods are spring system. used for estimation of the spring discharges. The partial flood peak On the karst spring discharge series are used for the extreme values forecasting by the means of as they are more representative than stochastic modelling the annual peak series. D. Dimitrov, M. Machkova, and G. Damyanov The application of the cluster analysis for an objective National Institute of Meteorology and Hydrology, Sofia, Bulgaria classification of karstic springs in the The present paper deals with the study area is discussed. short range modeling and forecasting Developments and achievements in of the daily karst spring discharge, the mathematical simulation of heaving relatively isolated drainage cave systems area. The idea is to apply "black box" L. F. M. Leon type stochastic model when detailed information on the flow formation Centro de Hidrologia y Calidad de las Aguas, Instituto Nacional de Recursos Hidraulicos, processes is not available. The model PO Box 23, General Peraza 19210, Ciudad used includes autoregression on the de la Habana, Cuba dependent variable as well as on the In the last ten years the author has residuals and multiple regression on developed a mathematical model to the independent variables- forecast the three-dimensional spatial precipitation and other inputs, using distribution and time evolution of different time lags. Data from the cave passages in karstic carbonate typical karst spring at the town of regions. Several real systems have Kotel have been used. The results been simulated with an acceptable obtained show real possibilities to degree of accuracy. establish forecasting procedure, but Tested under different initial and the model accuracy needs boundary conditions, modeling has improvement during the winter allowed to: 1) the derivation or period as far as the snowmelt process extension of different sets of have not been included in the model. governing equations describing-in The karst springs in the Rhodopes time and space- the development of mountain, Bulgaria limestone caves; 2) to forecast the position and some geometrical E. K. Bojilova characteristics of known galleries and NIMH-BAS, Bulgaria unknown cave passages, and 3) to For the purposes of the water policy test, in particular cases, the theories planning and increasing the 54 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karsl Waters 4 Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey performed to explain the origin of karstic aquifer surpassed the average simulated cave systems. recharge, therefore, the water-table When active hydrologic cave systems decreased 30-80 m or more, over are simulated, model shows the local whole reservoir area. The horizontal and sometimes regional distribution extension of the karst is more than 2 of flow patterns, allowing to forecast 10000 km , the infiltration area is the position of the underground about 1500 km2. drainage network, the location of Efforts of the last years have been springs and the position of concentrated on creating a hydraulic groundwater divides, among other model of the karst-reservoir. From important tasks of karst hydrology. hydrogeological point of view the Conceptually,- the model has been whole region is explored in detail, performed involving several due to the large-scale dewatering principles from the theory of operation of mines. The karst water automatic control of non-linear self- observation network, established regulated feed-back systems under from the end of '60'es covers the random inputs, non-equilibrium whole reservoir area. The network thermodynamics and inertial, time consists of more than 500 wells. dependence, scaling effects, entropy The applied methods for the variations and mass, moment and infiltration-estimation enable the energy transfer properties of the model to perform simulation of the involved constitutive spaces within natural karst-water level changes. the considered media. The database used by the model Examples of model output of real contains all the essential natural, and systems are shown, with a special artificial factors, (i.e., precipitation, discussion on the "unsuccessful" climatic parameters, discharge of spatial outputs and their relation with spring, wells, and shafts) affecting the high level of performance the karst water-table since 1950. required by several theoretical Thus the hydraulic model can factors. simulate the variation of the water- table in the karst reservoir for the last Computer simulation of the karst forty-four years. water table in the Transdanubian The developed finite element model mountain ranges Hungary is able to forecast water table A. Csepregi changes in the future. Several V1TUKI, Water Resources Research Centre important decision were made in Pic, Kvassay Jeno. ut ]., Budapest, H-I095, connection with management of Hungary bauxite and coal mines, as well as During the last four decades the water-supply considering model water resources of the Transdanubian results. karst reservoir were endangered by the karst water withdrawal of mines. The water-discharges of the main 55 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters a Environmental Impacts', September W-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Modeling, exploration and remarkable economic and social development of deep water level benefits. confined karst water in Zhungeer coal district Determination of specific yield of a carbonate aquifer by analysis of L. Lian, B. Qingxiang, L. Wenbo, Y. Guijt'n, L. Zengping, and Y. Jikun discharge curves for wells and Zhungeer Coal Industry Corp., State springs and laboratory tests Development Bank P. R. C, China National A. Kowalczyk and A. Witkowski Administration of Coal Geology, P.R. China Silesian University, Faculty of Earth Zhungeer coal district is situated in Sciences, Dep. of Hydrogeology and Eng. the northeastern part of Zhungeer Geology, ul. Bedzimka 60, 41-200 Sosnowiec, Poland county, Yikezhaoer profecture at the Inner Mongolia Autonomous Region. Mathematical modeling, commonly As a big coal field with high reserves used in hydrogeology, requires a abundance it has been included in list detailed characterization of of the major projects of energy base hydrogeological properties of rocks. construction during the period of The pumping tests are a preferred China's Eighth Five-year Program. method of determination of those properties. However, it is costly and, Previous work in this area had got the therefore, it cannot extensively be conclusion that the Cambrian- used in regional studies. Moreover, Ordovician karst aquifers of the coal the pumping tests are too short and measure basement where poor of the yield is often too low for water and the water supply prospects satisfactory results in the case of would be bad. karst-fractured aquifers. Therefore, it In order to solve the problem of is necessary and advisable to use water supply in this coal district, results of laboratory investigation based on ascertaining the karst and data obtained during exploitation hydrogeological condition, we of already existing water intakes and applied the theory of karst water springs. system, established a Tian Qiao Karst In this report, we present results of Water System, setup a model for the determination of specific yield of transformation between the rain carbonate rocks of the Tria sic karst- water, the Yellow River water and fractured aquifer. Calculations of the the Karst groundwater and the specific yield were made on the basis multistage discharge of deep karst of interpretation of hydrograms of a water in the Yellow River Walley water intake and two springs and by area, found out strong runoff zones in use of laboratory tests. the deep water level confined karst aquifer and two water supply sites Because of (.he relatively steady have been completed, with a capacity consumption of water, changes in the of 74000 nrVd. This has been proved depression are caused predominantly to be successful and have achieved by changes in recharge of the aquifer by rainfalls. A hydrogram of specific 56 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya - Turkey capacity was made for the period of Radial flow toward a karstic 1978 to 1994 and discharge curves spring were plotted. The Maillet equation Y.K. Birsoy was used for the interpretation of University ofDokuz Eyliil Faculty of hydrograms of water intakes and Engineering, Department of Geology, 35100 springs. Bornova ozmir, Turkey Specific yield was determined in 28 Physically based approaches to samples using centrifuging method. karstic discharge problems have been Pore-size distribution analysis by a appeared in literature. These assumes Mercury Injection Scanning unidirectional groundwater flow. Porosimeter was applied. This However, radial flow seems to be enabled calculation of a theoretical more representative of natural specific yield from the distribution phenomenon. curves. Using linearly connected multicell Values of the specific yield obtained reservoir model, it is shown in this by centrifuging ranged from 0.37% to study that karstic discharge recession 23.76%; on average 6.64%. The equations empirically proposed by theoretical specific yield obtained Maillet and Scheoller are also valid from the pore-size distribution, was for the watersheds which are low and ranged from 0.06% to approximately a circular sector with 0.15%. Hydrograms of springs gave a circular sectorial angle § and radius specific yield of 0.3% up to 12% R. depending on the spring and on both rate and time of drainage (recession Some important points in the of discharge of spring). The evaluation of flow analyses in karst hydrogram of the water intake gave springs values of the specific yield between S. Oran, O. Dumlu and A. Onak 2.67% and 3.78%. Relatively high ITU Mining Faculty, Geological Engineering scatter of values of the specific yield Department, Istanbul, Turkey coefficient in rock samples suggests a Relationships among discharge, time, structural micro-scale inhomogeneity and active reservoir volume are of the aquifer. Differences in values investigated by using spring of the specific yield for springs discharge analyses but the sensitivity resulted from the lithological of the estimated reservoir volume can variability in the catchment area of not be checked. In this study, the the springs. Small variation in values sensitivity of this type of analyses of the specific yield derived from the was investigated in the Gbkpinar hydrogram of the water .ntake spring in karstic environment of indicates both structural and western Taurus and the water volume hydraulic homogeneity of the aquifer of the Kovada Lake which is the within the catchment area of a 45 reservoir of this springs. A km2. correlation coefficient of 0.99 was found for the relationship between 57 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey the spring flow and the reservoir EBB and flow behavior of a karst volume by doing base flow analyses spring, Kings canyon national properly. In order to do these types of park, California analyses properly, contribution of L, D. Urzendowski1 and J. W. Hess2 surface water, interflow coming from major cracks and small streams to the 'Bennett & Williams, Inc., 2700 E. Dublin- Granville Road, Suite 500, Columbus, OH measurement point must be 43231-4054, USA eliminated. Water Resources Center, Desert Research In this type of analyses, the method Institute, University of Nevada System, P. O. that will be applied should be chosen Box 19040, Las Vegas, NV 89132-0040, USA according to type of flow (confined- Big Spring, the resurgence of the unconfined or laminar-turbulent). It karst aquifer in the Lilburn Cave-Big must be considered that the Maillet Spring system (Kings Canyon formula can be used for confined and National Park, California), displays laminar flow or when reservoir the uncommon phenomenon of ebb volume is larger than total volume of and flow discharge during periods of flow or changes in flow with time at high runoff. Hydrograph and spectral unconfined aquifers are small. analyses of stage and discharge time- series data, sediment size analyses, In this type of studies, continuity of and a bench scale model were spring flow is important. Because of combined to elucidate the internal this reason at the Kbprii spring, hydrology of this karst aquifer flowing or drying according to the system. water level of the Kovada Lake, water level-flow analyses could not Digital stage data have been recorded be done accurately. Small channels almost continuously at two critical drying and loosing their water during hydraulic junctures: the Z-Room (the dry season keep the some of water upstream storage chamber with a 3 coming from the lake from reaching year database), and Big Spring (the the spring when the water level rises. resurgence of the karst system with a At the end of wet season no water 6 year database). The Z-Room is comes from the lake, however, stored located within Lilburn Cave water in the small channels may feed approximately 700 m north and 10 m the spring. As a result of this, above Big Spring. Time-series correlation between level and observations of the Z -Room and Big discharge can not be established Spring stage levels revealed two accurately. This indicates that distinct flow patterns during the high applying these flow analyses runoff season (February through mentioned above to seasonal springs June). The first is an ebb and flow, do not give accurate results. 180 degree out-of-phase response in which a drop in Z-Room stage results in an instantaneous rise at Big Spring. The second type of flow recognized is a high, sustained flow 58 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey suggesting an in-phase relationship plug in its lowest sump behaving between the Z-Room and Big Spring stochastically to cause the ebb and stages. The triggering mechanism flow behavior during periods of high between these modes of flow is runoff. poorly understood, but our initial results suggest that the transition may KARST MORPHOLOGY AND be chaotic. PALEOENVIRONMENT Hydrograph analyses indicate that the Sannur Cave: A crescent shaped section of Lilburn Cave between the cave developed in Alabaster Z-Room and Big Spring is primarily formation in Eastern Desert, Egypt a conduit flow aquifer discharging G. Giinay1, F. El-Bedewy2, M. Ekmekiji', approximately two-thirds of its flow S. Bayan1 and T. Kurtta§' through large diameter conduits, one- fourth in smaller conduits and open International Research and Application Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), fissures, with the remainder through Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06532, small fissures and fractures. Ankara, Turkey Power spectra performed on multiple The Egyptian Geological Survey and Mining data sets strongly indicate a nonlinear Authority, Cairo, Egypt system, with evidence of small-scale An expedition to Egypt set out to quasilinear behavior. Both types of explore the Wadi Sannur where no flow at the Z-Room (input) behave speleological work had taken place. stochastically, possibly the result of The most notable karst feature flow path blockage from a variable identified to date is the Sannur Cave, sediment load present within the the largest subterranean chamber system. Transfer and kernel function known in Egypt. It is situated about analyses confirm the presence of 70 km to the southeast of Beni-Suef nonlinear and quasilinear flow city in the remote Wadi Sannur of the regimes, and further indicate that no Eastern Desert where the main rock additional significant inputs or units belong to Eocene and Pliocene outputs to the system exist. periods. The Eocene is represented A bench scale model built to simulate by limestone including alabaster the ebb and flow cycles observed in which is known to be quarried first the Lilburn Cave-Big Spring system by the ancient Egyptians. Sannur was developed, and results were Cave is first explored during blasting compared to the currently accepted in the alabaster quarry which caused theories of 1) a natural siphon within an artificial entrance to the cave. the rock matrix, 2) a reciprocating The cave is a single crescent shaped spring, and 3) blockage by a chamber approximately 275m long sediment plug. Our model, in and can be arbitrarily divided into conjunction with analytical results two sections having different and observations of diverse Cave characteristics; left side gallery and Research Foundation scientists, is a right side gallery. Few speleothems single large conduit wit.i a sediment occur in the left side gallery while 59 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Kant Waters S Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey the right side gallery is decorated usually treated as an aquifuge intensively with many kinds of dividing the aquifers beneath and speleothem including stalagtites, above the gypsum. stalagmites, flowstones, microgours, Recent speleogenetic studies have helictites, and soda-straws etc. shown that extensive maze cave In addition to surveying the cave, systems form in gypsum due to based on the geologic, structural and dispersed upward recharge from the morphologic observation inside and beneath-gypsum aquifer. Such outside the cave some interpretations recharge occurs where erosional on the paleoenvironment and the entrenchment occurs in the capping origin of the cave. Surveying was clay thickness (in zones of performed with GRADE 5D piezominimum). The paper shows according to BCRA Gradings. how speleogenesis in the gypsum controls and governs water exchange Speleogenesis in the Miocene between major aquifers in the gypsum strata in the Western Miocene artesian system. Ukraine as a governor of Speleogenetic evolution caused underground water exchange alteration of hydrogeological between aquifers in a storey function, performed by the gypsum artesian system stratum, from an aquifuge to a karst A. Klimchouk aquifer. During such evolution the Institute ofGeol. Sciences, Natl. Academy of flow p-.ttern has altered deeply in the Sciences, Kiev, Ukraine who'., Miocene artesian system. The artesian aquifer system of the D; .cribution of karst permeability in Miocene sequence is one of the the gypsum and extent of major regional water-bearing unii in interconnectivity of the aquifers in the Western Ukraine, in the south- the system is controlled by local west and south part of the Volyno - regularities in the formation and Podolsky artesian basin. The main occurrence (distribution) of cave aquifers are that in the Lower systems, which in turn are Badenian sandy-carbonate thickness determined by peculiarities of paleo- and in the Upper Badenian carbonate and recent surface relief. and argilo-carbonate horizons; the 10 The understanding of the true rule to 40 m thick gypsum stratum which the gypsum stratum and cave normally lies between these two systems in it play in a water aquifers. exchange in the Miocene aquifers Due to continuing differential Plio- system, is of great importance for Pleistocene uplifts the aquifer system solving of many scientific and became unconfined and drained in practical problems of regional the part of the territory (the Podolsky geology, such as a genesis of native sub-basin) while in the other part true sulfur deposits, formation of H2S artesian settings still prevail. In this mineral water deposits, prediction of later region the gypsum stratum was water inflow during open-cut mining 60 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey (sulfur, gypsum, and clay quarries), Environmental isotope uranium land use in the karst terrain, etc. (U) in karst aquifer of Southwest Datong, China Paleoclimate and paleokarst in 1 2 South Africa G. Weizu , Z. Pingsheng , and C. Guangye3 A. Issar Water Resources Center, Blaustein Institute Nanjing Institute of Hydrology and Water for Desert Research, Ben-Gurion University Resources, Nanjing, P.R. China of the Negev Sede Boker Campus 84990, Datong Coal Mining Administration, Israel Datong, P.R. China A good paleoclimatic record for the Coalfield Geology Administration of P.R. upper most Quaternary, has been China 2 derived from a speleothem in the The research area of about 710 km , karstic Cango caves, located in the southwest of Datong, extended from o southern Cape Province (Talma and 112 41'-113°03' E and 39°38'- Vogel, 1992). The paleo- 39°58' N is mountainous within the temperatures were calculated from semi-arid region of north China with the I8O content of the carbonate. annual mean precipitation about 400 There is a temperature decrease from mm. Water resources seems the about 30000 BP, reaching a serious problem of this coal mining minimum value between 19000 and area, it leads to a groundwater 17000 BP. Afterwards, up to 13800 research focused on its main karst BP the temperature increased. At this aquifers of Ordovician carbonate date, precipitation of carbonates which exist in general more than 500 stopped and was renewed only at m below the ground surface, about 2 5000 BP. It is suggested that the 114 km of carbonate limestone is absence of deposition of calcium exposured. Environmental isotope U carbonate from ca. 13000 to 5000 BP is used for the fundamental research is due to the fact that as temperatures of this karst groundwater which is started rising, the winter rains started sampled from boreholes by a to decrease while summer rain specially designed sampler to bail increased. The vegetation being deep groundwater from 20 sites dominantly arboreal absorbed and distributed within this area, the transpired all the water infiltrating dewatering of karst water from 3 the subsurface. Only after the sites and the rainwater, phreatic ecosystem changed into a floral water, surface water are also assemblage, which did not have deep sampled. roots, did recharge to groundwater Characteristics of U in waters: U and thus drip water restart. content and 234U/238U of Ordovician groundwater are compared with that of surface water, phreatic water and groundwater from the aquifer of Permian Period. A higher range of "4U/238U about 2-6 are detected from 61 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters 4 Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Ordovician aquifer. Two regions Karst geomorphology and the with different 234U/238U ranges are exploitation of water resources in identified, it reveals the different South China relations between surface water and S. Linhua groundwater for these regions. Institute of Geography, Chinese Academy of 234 Sciences, Beijing 100101, P.R.China Karst water runoff: Uex and The very thick carbonates aged from 234 Precambrian to Tertiary developed in runoff research where Uex = 238 234 238 the south China, it occupies about 50 U( U/ U - 1). Two regions with 2 different runoff conditions are km in Guizhou, Guangxi, Yunnan, West Hunan, and South Sichuan identified. Runoff directions of provinces. Under the several different regions are found from the intensively function of the geoforces, relationships of 234U versus U and es the carbonates were formatted as from the isolines of 234U/238U. fractures, faults and folds which Source of karst groundwater: The formed a complicated structural recharge sources of karst systems according to the geoforce groundwater of this area are property and the nature of the identified from relationships between structures, such south-north structure, 234 Uex and U contents of various east-west structure, Neocathaysian waters. Results from most boreholes system etc. The Himalaya uplift show that in general it is composed effected the regional by three water sources i.e., surface geomorphological development and water (s), phreatic groundwater (q), the characteristics, such three and the old groundwater stored in terraces of landform, Tibetan plateau, Ordovician aquifers (o). Yunnan plateau and Guizhou plateau Recharge contribution of surface and Guangxi basin. The uplifting also water to karst groundwater: It is an cause the erosion base and karstic important item for the development base lower down, that made the of karst groundwater of this area, a rivers cutdown to form the canyons spatial distribution of the portion such as the Jinsha Jiang gorges, contributed by surface water is Yangtze three gorges, Wujiang demonstrated. For karst water from gorges, Nanpan Jiang gorges, Beipan Jiang gorges and so on. The great borehole x with volume Vx, the regional geomorphology controls the portion of surface water Vs is related to end members s, q and o as follows karst water flow direction and distribution, because they constitute ,uexq-uexo. the drainage base of karst water. (Ux-U0)(- -)-(Uexx-Uexo) uq-u0 Under the conditions of the tectonic . ^ exq ^ exo )-(u -u ) movements and climate, the local uq-u0 exs exo karst geomorphology developed in different way. For example, Fenglin landscape developed in the Guangxi 62 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey basin and the block of water divide mVday) groundwater zone. It is a of Guizhou plateau, Fengcong scape deeply buried (500-1100 m. deep) in the slope of geomorphological cavernous zone in the Floridan units and near the banks of rivers, so Aquifer System, currently being used the karst water relatively for the disposal of municipal liquid homogeneorsly distributes and water wastes. The BZ developed in the level is near ground surface, some Paleocene and Lower and Middle places appears karstic pools and Eocene marine carbonates and surface rivers, in the Fenglin areas evaporites. Petrographic analyses of and conduit flows and underground rock cores, water and rock lakes are very well developed in the geochemistry, geophysical logs and Fengcong landscape and the regional structures studies support transmitting zone from Fenglin to the following hypothesis. Fracturing Fengcong landscapes. In Fengcong and faulting of Cretaceous and areas, the groundwater is buried very Tertiary rocks, during the tectonic deep, some places more than 100 m, evolution of the Caribbean and Gulf and surface streams are lack of. of Mexico, created conduits for the The patterns of exploitation of karst migration of diagenetic fluids. Non- water resources are quite different. marine and marine groundwaters The karst water in Fenglin areas is have repeatedly flushed this easy developed, such as by pump. In sedimentary package during sea-level Fengcong areas, water is also mainly fluctuations and migrations of by pump, but to make dam to form groundwater mixing zones over the the underground reservoirs is very past 15-20 m.y. Geothermal popular in south China. In the convection enhanced the Fengcong region, the people effectiveness of fluid circulation and concentrate to develop the rain water sea-water exchange from the Florida resource as to make the water tajik in Straits. different dimensions. Groundwater of varying REGIONAL KARST compositions and oxidation states, perhaps in concert with bacterial SYSTEMS chemosynthetic production and The origin of a high transmissivity hydrocarbon fluid migration from zone in the Floridan aquifer system Cretaceous sequences, brought about and its relevance to karst dissolution of carbonates and evaporites in fractured zones. A.F. Randazzo, G. Butler, C. Denizman, and R. Baker Resulting H2S-rich water, ascending through fractures, mixed with more Dept. of Geology, University of Florida, Gainesville, FL 32611, USA oxygen-laden groundwater to produce su If uric acid and caused South Florida's Boulder Zone (BZ) is more massive dissolution and later one of the most enigmatic examples precipitation of CaSO as veinlets of a highly transmissive (2.8x105 4 63 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey and pore fillings in the upper parts of Characteristic property of karst water the section. resources along with abundant water The geochemical reactions invoked is their close dependence on to explain creation of the BZ can also atmospheric precipitation that be applied to deep burial determines highly dynamic discharge dolomitization events and the origin both annual and perennial. Thus, of submarine karstic features of the mean annual groundwater discharge margins of the Florida Platform. The for springs and recharged with them lack of a well-developed BZ in north small rivers, changes in this region 2 2 Florida and the southern Atlantic from 3-4 1/s.km to 20-25 1/s.km , Coastal Plain may be the result of dynamic coefficient (QmJQmin) are thinner early Tertiary evaporite from 5-10 to 600. Rates of discharge sequences and less tectonic variations after precipitation fall-out fracturing in these areas. Stable amount to 100 and even 1000 liters isotopic analysis of the diagenetically per second with a time lag in 1-3 derived mineral assemblages in the days only and the level of aquifer carbonate host rocks is being used to depletion (Qmin/Qaverage) changes from reveal the precise nature and origin portions of a percent (that is of the diagenetic fluid from which periodically intermittent springs they formed. Secondary minerals actually) to 20-30%. A portion of include gypsum, anhydrite, calcite, annual atmospheric precipitation and dolomite. recharging karst aquifer changes from 20 to 80% and depends on some Peculiarities of karst water geological, hydrogeological, resources of the Black Sea basin, orographical and climate conditions. their possible variability in future The stated relationship between this V. S. Kovalevsky portion variability on the level of a Institute of Water Problems, Russian year water content serves a basis for Academy of Sciences, Moscow 107078, predicting assessment of possible Russia variability of karst water regime and Karst water and aquifers in alluvial resources under the impact of man- deposits recharged with it, are the induces climate transformations. The main source of water supply in the assessments made have revealed that northern and eastern parts of the a reduction of karst water resources Black Sea basin. Water supply of in this region will continue to the end Sevastopol, Simferepol, Yalta Lvov, of the current and beginning of the Novy Afon, and many other towns next century. This resulted in the depends on the karst water. necessity to work out measures for Therefore, the study of these karst water rational use, management resources and predictions of their of its withdrawal, including the possible variability in future is of development of the system for joint great practical value. use of surface and groundwater. The solution of the last problem bases on 64 /ntemati'ona/ Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey the study and prediction of possible the Donovaly envelope series. alternation of an excess and deficit in Geologic situation suggests that these surface runoff and a choice of an two hydrogeologic structures are not average value for optimal discharge hydraulically connected with one that can compensate possible water another (Rakus in E. Kullman, 1971) deficit in low water periods using but hydrogeochemical, balance and speeded up exploitation of karst isotopic evidence indicates the water geological reserves (lower the opposite. The Bukovec syncline basis of its drainage). covers an area of 10.248 km2, its average altitude is 936.5 m and its Hydrological balance in finding recharge as well as discharge out the catchment area of major capacity based on the area of groundwater sources in the carbonates exposed on the surface is Donovaly area as much as 184.41 1/s (assumed i.e. P. Malik potential specific discharge is 17.99 2 Dionyz Stur Institute of Geology, Bratislava 1/s.km ). 81704, Slovak Republic But if we also admit the underground Five springs of the Jergaly branch of hydraulic connection of these two the Pohronie water-supply system in hydrogeological structures, the total Donovaly-Dolny Jelenec area make discharge thus exceeds recharge by up a major groundwater source, its 184.59 1/s whose recharge area must average total discharge being about lie somewhere outside these 502 1/s. The springs have only one structures. Nevertheless, gauging small obvious catchments area in indicated that carbonate rocks of this their vicinity. Likewise, this unit is until are recharged from the discharged only by the above- immediate vicinity-brooks on the mentioned springs. The recharge southern slopes of Mt. Motyckova potential of this Donovaly - Hanesy - hol'a and Mt. Zvolen gradually Stubne hydrogeologic structure disappear in their alluvia and seep composed of Krizna nappe Triassic into the carbonate substratum. carbonates derived from its area and Geologic evidence also indicates that 19^2 precipitation is 45.78 1/s (16.79 2 the overlying nearly horizontal l/s.km ).This recharge potential Tithonian-Neocomian beds of the calculated according to empirical Krizna nappe along with the equations based on ten-year-long permeable Triassic substratum monitoring (Kullman,1990) for stretch further north beyond the Vah representative closed karst-fissure / Hron water divide (leading through structures in the Veliky Choc outlier Mt. Zvolen 1402.3 m and Motyckova and Harmanec syncline situated close hol'a 1292.1 m high) on an area of (40 and 15 km) to the investigated 6.8 km2 roughly as far as the lower area. South of the Donovaly-Hanesy- edge of Krizna nappe Triassic Stubne structure lies another carbonate inliers in Zarnovka and carbonate body-Bukovec syncline in Vel'ka Bzdova valleys and 65 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karat Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey approximately the lower edge of the present and the delineation of higher Krizna nappe Triassic protection zones in this area is being carbonate inlier in the Hrickov under discussion. valley. Therefore, we assume that groundwaters circulate below the Groundwater velocities in low geomorphologic water divide. Two gradient, glaciated carbonate of these units displayed deficits in strata in Ontario, Canada comparison with their recharge S. R. H. Worthington1, D. C. Ford1, and potential -18.00 1/s (carbonate inlier M. J. Buck2 in Vel'ka Bzdova valley) and -16.44 Dept. of Geography, Me Master University, 1/s (carbonate inlier in Zarnovka Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4K1, Canada valley). This fact alone does not Dept. of Geology, McMaster University, explain the surplus in the Donovaly- Hamilton, Ontario, L8S 4M1, Canada Hanesy-Stubne structure and Much of Southern Ontario is Bukovec syncline below Donovaly, underlain by Proterozoic and but provides clues for a possible Paleozoic carbonates. Surface solution. The lower margins of these evidence for karst is limited, since units situated north of the water glaciation has eroded pavements and divide lie at an elevation of 860 m buried ancient karst features. (carbonate inlier in Zarnovka Valley) However, there are both pre- and and 720 m (carbonate inlier in Vel'ka post-Wisconsin caves longer than 1 Bzdova valley), and the lower one of km in length. Recent sink-to-spring the two inliers in Hrickov valley ends and well-to-spring tracer tests at an altitude of 720 m. If the indicate that karstification of the effective recharge amounts to only a carbonates is widespread. half of the recharge potential inferred Results from four low-gradient sites by equations for local total are presented. Ottawa River Cave, precipitation, i.e. 9 1/s.km2 instead of near Pembroke, has a network of 4 18 1/s.km2, possible recharge in the km of submerged passages ranging latter two territories is about 175 1/s. up to 20 m in width and 6 m in This amount corresponds to the height. At Marble Cave, near 184.59 1/s surplus above the recharge Kaladar, the major flow route is a capacity of carbonates exposed in single submerged passage 150 m this area. The existence of such a long. At Smithville there are two recharge area in the north was later traced flow routes to a common also suggested by oxygen isotopic spring; one is via the vadose compositions in the major springs in Smithville Cave, and the other is an the Donovaly area. As this area is unexplored route from sinks in intensively used for winter sports and Twenty Mile Creek. At Dewdney's tourism and estimated recharge area Cave, near Bobcaygcon, multiple is intersected by a frequently used allogenic inputs from a forested motor road, the danger of damaging swamp recharge two vadose the water quality is quite already streamways. At all four sites, the 66 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey hydraulic gradients are extremely Groundwater flow in a young karst low, ranging between 0.00014 and terrane developed along a coastal 0.002 for submerged conduits, and setting, Northern Guam, Marina ranging up to 0.007 for vadose Islands conduits. W. Barner More than 40 quantitative tracer tests ICF Kaiser Engineers, Inc., Pittsburgh, PA, have been conducted at different USA discharges. The largest velocity range Recent site characterization activities demonstrated is from the sinks of at Andersen Air Force Base, Guam, Twenty Mile Creek, where Mariana Islands, has provided some groundwater velocities between interesting data challenging the 0.0008 and 0.22 m/s have been expectations of rapid conduit flow in measured. In all cases velocity- this karst terrane. Guam is located discharge relationships are described approximately 2400 km south of by power functions, with exponents Japan and approximately 5300 km ranging from 0.55 to 1.0. southwest of the Hawaiian Islands. It is significant that some of the most The Mariana Islands are a complex rapid groundwater tracer velocities island-seamount system, divisible ever measured occur in the very low- geographically, tectonically, and gradient, large-diameter conduits at chronologically into two island arcs; Ottawa River Cave, with velocities an older frontal arc includes the up to 0.34 m/s. These high velocities relatively large islands of Guam, in large low-gradient conduits are Rota, Tinian, Saipan as well as two expected from the Manning and smaller uninhabited islands. A Hagen - Poiseuille equations. In both younger arc of active volcanic equations conduit diameter is more seamounts and islands lies to the important than slope in determining west and north of the older arc. velocity. The main water bearing limestones of It appears to be counter-intuitive that northern Guam consist of coralline the fastest velocities are found in the reef limestones of the Barrigada and lowest-gradient situations, and these the Mariana Limestone Formations. results contradict the commonly-held The Barrigada lies on top of the notion that the fastest velocities are underlying Tertiary aged volcanics. associated with the highest The Mariana Limestone covers most groundwater gradients. However, it is of the surface of the northern plateau worth noting that similar results have and onlaps the Barrigada Limestone been demonstrated for surface rivers. as a vertical and transgressional Leopold (1953) showed that the facies change from a deep to a highest velocities are found in large, shallow water depositional sequence. low-gradient rivers; this finding came There are no surface streams on the as a shock to most geologists of that northern plateau because of the time. porous nature of '\t limestone. Rain water rapidly infii ates through the 67 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey limestone and supplies the freshwater aquifer. However, flow within the aquifer. The aquifer is commonly epikarst/vadose zone can be several referred to as the Northern Guam times the velocity of the aquifer and Lens. The water table is encountered very difficult to predict the direction several feet above sea level with a of groundwater movement. flat gradient toward the sea approximately 160 meters below land Study the migration of pollutants surface. Other factors influencing the in soil and groundwater lens are tidal fluctuations, storm D. E. Legheraba, S. Belaadi, and M. surges, stratigraphic relationships Diboun and karstification of the limestone. USTHB-1CI, BP 32 El-Alia Bab Ezzouuar, This can alter groundwater flow Alger 16111, Algeria paths, velocities, and salinities. The protection of soils and Evidence from boreholes drilling groundwater resources has emerged inland and near the coast confirm in recent years as a first priority for other documented occurrences of many countries. cavern formation developing between The prediction of transport of the phreatic and vadose zone, and contaminants in soil and groundwater within the transition zone between porous media through measurements the fresh and saltwater interface in and modeling is of great interest coastal carbonate terranes. Caves being the growing trend towards investigated along the lower coastal subsurface waste disposal practices. terraces also provides evidence, by The modeling of groundwater the steeply sloping entrances that pollution is mainly at growing a formed within the transition zone, descriptive and predictive that the sea level was higher in the management tool practical for field past and/or tectonic activity vertically problems, whose type and resulting displaced the transition zone accuracy will depend on the responsible for the active dissolution considered management objectives of the limestone and the formation of and, naturally, the socio-economical caverns. constraints of the study. Although one might expect rapid, Laboratory field and experiments are conduit flow in this karst aquifer, two important approaches but are non-flashy responses on water levels differentiated in respect to their in wells after rainfall and current objectives. Investigations at results from a dye tracing study, laboratory scale are being directed suggest groundwater movement is towards a better understanding of the indicative of diffuse, advective flow. physical, chemical and biological During a 15 month dye trace study processes with affect the solute monitoring over 70 monitoring wells, concentration during contaminant water supply wells, and cave pools, transport through the porous media in indicate groundwater flow velocity the laboratory, these processes can be on the order of 30 ft/day within the 68 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey isolated and studied under controlled (3629 m) mountain ranges constantly conditions at a minimum cost. acting cool (3-4 °C) springs with the The transport of pollutants which in flow 1-30 1/s are coming from glacial part determines their residence times rocks. in the soil solution was described by Fresh and mineral (cool and thermal) physical laws translated into hydrosulphuric waters are confined differential equations, which affected to CR, mainly consist of limestone by the chemical reactivity of the and partially of marlstone. The flow transport pollutant. In experimental of springs, those confined to the studies concerned with Upper Cretaceous limestone usually environmental behavior of hazardous amount to 36 1/s, karst limestone 10- contaminants, great efforts have been 30 1/s. These deposits are spread on invested in the measurements of the drainage areas of Kozluchai, solid-liquid coefficient "KO". Pirsagatchai, and Geokchai rivers. Carbonaceous rocks of Turon-Dat Underground waters of ages are spread on the east of carbonaceous rocks of the Great Shakhdag-Kizilkaya zone, where Caucasus and their hydrochemical springs flow not more than 0.1-2 1/s. peculiarities Waters are cool, fresh (0.3-0.9 g/1) E. M. Shekinski and A. B. Alekperov and hydrocarbonate calcic. The State Committee on Geology, Behram Mineral waters are confined to Agayev, Baku, The Azerbaijan Republic tectonic fractures of carbonaceous In Azerbaijani part of the Great rocks-limestone. Depends on Caucasus that characterized by circulation depth waters are cool with multiple folding watery carbonaceous the flow 0.013-0.3 1/s and thermal rocks (CR) and less watery tuff (46.2-48.8 °C) with the flow 0.01-0.1 sandstone and tuffs of Quaternary, 1/s, hydrosulphuric (4.7 mg/l) with Cretaceous and Jurassic ages have hydrocarbonate-sulfate natrium- wide-spread occurrence. calcic composition. Thermal waters More than 288 springs with summary also are stripped by wells in flow 525 1/s and in individual from Chulkhur-Urt region. The specific 0.1 to 25 1/s are confined to the capacities of water in wells to 0.1 -1.6 Quaternary alluvium-Talus deposits 1/s.m, mineralization -0.3-1.3 g/1, that mainly consist of CR. Their water type-hydrocarbonate natrium waters are cool (3-12 °C), fresh and calcic. (0.15-0.25 g/1), hydrocarbonate calcic In the Lower Cretaceous with hardness 3-8 mg/eqv. carbonaceous rocks the springs flows Accumulated in the river valleys are not more than 3-10 1/s and in alluvial deposits are more watery, karst locations the spring flows are springs flows amount to 5-30 1/s and not resistant. Their waters are fresh their quality is same as described (0.2-0.3 g/1), hydrocarbonate calcic above. In Bazarjozi (4466 m), with hardness 4.52 mg/eqv.1. Shakhdag (4243 m), and Babadag 69 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Jurassic carbonaceous rocks are less Recent detailed hydrogeological watery springs flows-not more than 2 investigations carried out by RIWR 1/g. Waters are fresh (0.21-0.9 g/1), including geophysical, geological hydrocarbonate calcic with hardness and test drilling have contributed 4.3-1.1 mg/eqv. 1. C ol and thermal much to the hydrogeological (23-40 °C) hydrosulphuric waters information as an additional water also are confined to the fractures of resources in Sinai and its limestone of this age. Springs flows development. reach 0.5-3 1/s, mineralization 0.9-1.7 g/1, waters are hydrocarbonate Underground karst water circulation in Peloponnesus, natrium content of H2S 0.4-12 mg/1. Greece Identity of chemical and gas C. Tavitian and L. Tiniakos composition of waters depends on Land Reel. Surv., Ministry of Agriculture, 92, geochemical conditions of water P. Pigadion Str, 264-41 Patras, Greece bearing rocks. The hydrogeological characteristic of The hydrogeology of Upper Peloponnesus are given by the Cretaceous limestone aquifer at lithological variance of the strata as Areif el-Na».a area, East Central well as by the distribution of fault Sinai-Egypt patterns due to the tectonic E. A. Zaghloul, and M. S. Farid development. The highly fractured Research Institute for Water Resources and karstified carbonate rocks of (RIWR), Cairo, Egypt Peloponnesus deformed during the The most significant occurrence of Alpine Orogeny and later by block carbonate rocks in central Sinai is the faulting, form prolific aquifers that limestone and dolomitic strata of exhibit a high permeability due to Upper Cretaceous and Eocene their secondary porosity. They also periods. The chronostratigraphically form rugged mountains extending to equivalent Galala, Wata, Matulla, the eastern and southern coasts where Thebes, and Minia Formations over the karst water is discharged to the an area of about 40000 km2 attains a (Mediterranean) sea by brackish maximum thickness of 1500 m. onshore and offshore springs. This indicates a good circulation of In this paper, attention will be underground water in fairly large focused only on Areif El-Naqa area, structurally controlled conduits. East-Central Sinai, Egypt. The area is There is a scarcity of surface runoff most beneficial for demonstrating in the limestone terrains. Most of the general hydrogeological streams, in one way or another, characteristics of karst features discharge into swallow holes. which is well defined in the Syrian folding belt. Research in these region Peloponnesus lies in the Eastern stimulated the origin of karstology Mediterranean between latitudes 21° and speleology. 05'- 23° 30 East and longitudes 36° 25 - 38° 20 North. Most of it is rough 70 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey country. Mountains (elevation 700- Center for Karst Water Resources (UKAM), 2500 m) comprise almost 50% of its Hacettepe University, Beytepe 06532, Ankara, Turkey total area, hills (300-700 m) 30% whereas the plains (<300 m) the The Alashtar plain is located to the remaining 20%. High infiltration and north east of Khorramabad in low runoff are characteristic of the western Iran. hydrology of karst terrains in Peloponnesus. Geomorphologically, the plain forms a graben whose horsts are the high There are nin^ mountain chains Garrin, Varkhash, and Mahab (highest Ziria reaches 2400 m) that Mountains. follow roughly the direction of the main thrust zones: The surface The plain is covered by alluvium drainage takes place from central which is composed of cobble, sand, Peloponnesus. The greatest rivers and clay. The maximum thickness of flow south. However, there is a the alluvium occurs at the center of number of smaller streams with less the plain as much as 150 meters. The significant surface flow in the north. surrounding geological formation are Eastern Peloponnesus due to its mainly of Mesozoic and Cenozoic lower precipitation and the presence Era. The karstic limestones of of highly karstified limestones does Jurassic-Cretaceous age are the major not have any significant runoff. recharging units. The alluvium Discharge to the sea takes place only aquifer supplies water to the wells once every ten-twelve years. about 15 MGM per year. The Kahman River having a mean The principal carbonate rocks, 6 limestones, dolomitic limestones, annual discharge of 120xl0 MCM, dolomites and marbles of the drains the surface water of the basin Pelagonian, Tripolitsa, Pindus and has two district characters; it is a Ionian zones, represent the main losing stream at the upstream karstic aquifers here. sections and is recharged by Hydrogeologically they are separated groundwater at the downstream area. by less permeable rocks of the The regional groundwater flow is ophiolitic complex, flysch and the controlled strongly by structural phyllites. Moreover, vertical and aspects. Almost all karstic springs lateral displacements during and after issue at the intersections of the the overthrusting initiated the lineaments. development of subsurface drainage Isotopic data revealed that the systems. springs discharging at the area are recharged mainly by recent Hydrogeological investigation of precipitation but from different Alashtar basin (West of Iran) altitudes. The flow analyses of Amir 1 2 M.R. Ahmadipour and G. Giinay and Honam springs suggest that they Lorrestan University, Iran. are affected by only one groundwater International Research and Application circulation system, whereas the Zaz 71 international Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey and Chenare springs exhibit more with 170 meter depth using Lugeon complex hydrodynamic structure test in descending method (Km). being affected by at least two distinct Comparison of the obtained groundwater circulation systems. The hydraulic conductivities indicates quality of the waters from the springs that measured hydraulic conductivity is degraded generally due to is smaller than calculated one in this lithological contamination, experiment. This result along with particularly from extensive the monitoring of other engineering dissolution of gypsum. Antropogenic geological properties of joints pollution is not observed. indicate that the joints are not The conceptual model developed for interconnected. This means that no the regional groundwater system is developed karstification could be based on the hydro-chemical occurred in Saveh dam's foundation evaluations. rock. This result was verified during The model distinguished three grout-curtain execution. Thus, it may categories of waters as alluvial, of lead to an actual approach about shallow circulation, deep circulation, karstification phenomena by a and mixed waters. precise joints surveying of carbonated rocks. The safe yield of the aquifer is calculated as 40 MCM per year Karst hydrogeology in Fengcong which can be available for landscape of Xichou country, agricultural, industrial, and domestic Southeastern Yunnan plateau use. S. Linhua Comparing of hydraulic Institute of Geography, Chinese Academy of conductivity of carbonated rocks Sciences, Beijing 100101, P.R. China obtained by an empirical formula The study area is located in the and field measurement transmitting zone from Yunnan Karst plateau to the Vietnam low hilly and A. V. Aghassi and M. E. Saati" lowlands, geographically at 23°O5'- /. K. N. Toosi University of Technology, 23°37' N and 104°22'-104°58\ the Tehran, Iran 2. Sabir Company, Ministry of Energy, annual average temperature is 15.9 Tehran, Iran °C, annual mean precipitation is 1260 According to observation and field mm, the rainy season from May to measurement of joints surveying in October falls 1096 mm. As the effect diversion gallery of Saveh dam, Iran, of different humid current from the situated in Oligo-Miocene limestone, Bac bo Gulf and the Bay of Bengal six joint systems were distinguished. and dry current from the plateau, First, hydraulic conductivity of this regional precipitation greatly changes rock was calculated by an empirical in the area. formula with regard to the width of The 5000-6000 m thickness of joints (Kc). Then, this parameter was carbonates had been Totalled as to measured in five exploratory drillings form the ear geological structure. The 72 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Ka/st Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey carbonates distribute between the the capital of Shanxi Province. shale, sandstone, and metamorphic Niangziguan (Women-soldiers Pass rocks in which the deep rivers of Great Wall in Shanxi Province) developed for the Yunnan Plateau hot springs with temperature of 18 °C uplifting since Cenozoic era. In the are the largest in flow rate (12.58 water shade block, the characteristics mVs) in North China and famous for of plateau geomorphology is still its water-supply for industry and remained. The karst hydrogeology is agriculture as well as for its splendid characterized as: (1) The scene of waterfall from a limestone hydrogeology is strongly controlled cliff 32 m high. In addition to these by the geological structure; (2) The famous hot springs, there exists a karst water appears as the huge reservoir of thermal water with underground streams; (3) The water temperature up to 104 °C at a depth level is controlled by the drainage more than 2000 m in the so-called base which is constituted by the "buried hill" of Proterozoic- different lithology of carbonate Cambrian-Ordovician carbonates rocks; (4) The longitudinal gradient with extensive paleo-karst. The of the karst drainage system is lower estimated recoverable resources of in the upper stream and higher near this thermal water reservoir amount the springs; (5) The drainage to 4.2x10'° m3 which contains the capacity of the ground conduits is heat of 9.4xl08 J and equals to 0.36 lower than the income of collected billion ton standard coal. Nowadays, water, the most depressions are thermal water from this reservoir has flooded in the rainy seasons; and (6) been widely used for space heating, The storage of the karst aquifer is agriculture, aquaculture, and getting less and less as the decrease industrial use in Beijing, Tianjin of the coverage rate of forest. cities and rural area of the vast country sides in North China. Thermal water in karst areas of Sometimes, thermal water from this China paleo-karst reservoir may invade into W. Ji-Yang shifts and galleries of coal mines and Institute of Geology, Academia Sinica, cause serious environmental impacts. Beijing 100029, P.R. China Case history is given in this regard. Thermal water is widely distributed in karst areas of China. Many famous Karstic terrain and major karstic hot springs occur in karst area of systems in Romania North China with large flow rate. For I. Oraseanu, A. Iurkiewicz instance, issuing from Ordovician Prospectiuni S.A. Company, Dep. of limestone, Jinci hot spring with Hydrogeology, Str. Caransebes Nr.l, Sector temperature of 17.5 °C and flow rate 1, Bucharest, Romania of 1.945 mVs are situated at the Jinci The carbonate rocks in Romania are Hall at the foot of Xuanweng Hill in distributed on a territory of about the southern suburb of Taiyuan City, 10,000 km2. Hydrogeological 73 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey features of the Romanian Karst are First and foremost, it is necessary to specific for each of the main estimate the percentage of infiltration geostructural units of the country. water which transits within the Such differences, supported by field karstic network (rapid flow) and that data resulted in identifying four which transits the low permeability hydrogeologic types of karst: sections (slow flow). The comparison Carpathian orogene karst type, North of the annual flow volume of the base Dobrogea karst type, platform karst flow with that of the flow during type, and post-tectonic Carpathian's floods demonstrates that 47% of the cover karst type. flow volume corresponds to the base Various investigation methods flow and 53% to the rapid flow. The (tracing tests-more then 150, water comparison of effective infiltration, budget analysis, etc.) have been used estimated on the basis of for the delineation of more than 15 climatological measurements and the major karst systems. volume of flood water, makes it possible to calculate that the The hydrodynamic and proportion of effective infiltration hydrochemical features of systems in which directly supplies the karstic Banat, Padurea Craiului, Valcan, network (rapid flow) varies from 50 Bihor and Codru-Moma Mountains to 70% and inversely, the proportion are synthetically outlined. The of effective infiltration which average discharge of these systems supplies the low-permeability sectors ranges from 500 to 1200 1/sec, many is approximately 30 to 50%. Finally, of them being tapped for water observations in the low permeability supply of major Romanian cities. boreholes indicate that the Permeability and hydrodynamic fluctuations measured correspoHd to behavior of a karstic environment the variations in the base flow. P.Y. Jeannin and A. Grasso Measurements of the hydraulic head University of Neuchatel Hydrogeology in the karstic network and between Centre,! 1 rue E.-Argand, 2007Neuchatel, packers in the boreholes have Switzerland revealed the ex'stence of major and The karstic environment has often extremely rapid reactions in the been summarized from a karstic network and slower and less hyrogeological point of view by a significant reactions in the low network of highly permeable, permeability sections. Moreover, organized and interconnected they clearly demonstrate the conduits which «irain a volume of limitations regarding the use of fractured, low-permeability rock piezometric maps (of water levels) in (Kiraly, 1978). On-site measurements a karstic environment. carried out on two test sites in Switzerland demonstrate the validity and the limitations of this summary. 74 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Hydrogeological investigation of Determination of aquifer the karstic system within the parameters by step pumping tests tectonically complicated part of the Y. K. Birsoy and S. D. £obanyildizi Jura region of the canton of Dokuz Eylul University, Faculty of Solothurn, Switzerland Engineering, Department of Geology, 35100 Bornova, Izmir, Turkey T. Herold1, W. Balderer', and P. Jordan2 Aquifer parameters, transmissivity Engineering Geology, ETH • Zurich, Switzerland (T) and storage coefficient (S), and Water Management Authority, Canton of the well losses, presently have been Solothurn, Switzerland estimated independently from each In the WSW-ESE striking anticline other. This independent estimation and syncline complex of the means that pumping well is assumed Weissenstein and Farisberg of the to be 100% efficient in determination folded Jura, three areas with local of aquifer parameters. On the other SW-NE fault sets in the limestone of hand; drawdowns, observed during the Malm and of the Hauptrogenstein the course of a pumping test, are were localized. They have a strong strictly related to the well losses as influence, showed by the tracer well as the aquifer parameters. This experiment on the function and speed interrelation, implies the necessity of of the karst systems and also on the simultaneous determination of both connection to the springs. aquifer parameters and the well losses. Thus, in this study, a In the Malm limestones they act as computer program is written for this important lateral drains of the whole purpose using nonlinear curve fitting karst systems which results in techniques and, it has been shown decreased flow of the water diagonal that estimated aquifer parameters the faults. In the karst systems of the may be erroneous if the well losses is Hauptrogenstein a continuous not taken into account. increase in velocity parallel to increasing distance could be found. Karst hydrogeological The difference can be attributed to investigation of the gypsum at near the fact that the Hauptrogenstein is east of Sivas, Turkey underlain by and overlies by M. Degirmenci1, F. Ka^aroglu2, and O. aquicludes. Cerit1 The research shows that not only the Cumhuriyet Univ., Dept. of Environmental karst systems of the Malm were Eng., 58140 Sivas, Turkey drained but also a small portion of Cumhuriyet Univ., Dept. of Geological Eng., the largest karst system in the 58140 Sivas, Turkey Hauptrogenstein. So the karst In this study, karstification developed systems of the Malm and in the Miocene aged gypsum which Hauptrogenstein limestones were covers a large area around the Sivas, partly mixed along this fault zones. the relation between karstification and regional tectonics and 75 International Symposium <£ Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 • 20, 7 was wnarya • i umey hydrogeological features have been major cations in the waters are Na investigated. and Ca, major anions are SO4 and Cl The karstic features in the gypsum and the waters are in the brackish have developed conformable to the water class. Because of these fault zones and the general strikes of properties, especially in summer and gypsum beds. In the study area autumn, these springs cause extreme numerous sinkholes and dolines of salinization in Kizihrmak river whose runoff decreases to the 4-5 different sizes are observed. Most of 3 these karstic features are located in m /sec. In similar way, the extension the different sized longitudinal of the gypsum in large areas, effects depression (troughs) which are the other water resources, restricting developed conformable to the the use of them as drinking and tectonic structures. In general, on the domestic waters. occurrence of these karstic features, NE-SW directed bedding planes and Karstification around Bucak and about NW-SW and N-S directed surrounding area and problems fracture zones have been effective. arised At the intersections of these A. Bilgin, M. Ozkul, S. Tas.delen, and R. longitudinal throughs, high yield Karagiizel karst springs are observed. The most S.D.O. Miih. Mim. Fak. Jeoloji Mult Boliimii, important of these are Goydu'n and 32260 Isparta, Turkey Seyfe Springs. Karst is terrain with distinctive geology, hydrology and Goydiin and Seyfe Springs, which geomorphology arising from a located within the same surface combination of solution cavities, drainage area, have the average secondary porosity, and rock discharges of 1.10 nvVsec. and 0.25 structure. Especially in Turkey, the mVsec. respectively. In addition, Mediterranean basin have been the there are some low yield springs in focus of karstic studies, because the the same drainage area. The western Taurus are mainly covered groundwater recharge from the by carbonate rocks. These rocks precipitation in the surface drainage supply the domestic water for most area can not provide the total of the population in the area. groundwater discharge from Gbydlin and Seyfe Springs. According to the Most of the carbonate rocks of water budget calculation results, Mediterranean basin are intensively more than 70 % of the water karstified. Orogenic movements discharged by these two springs are raised carbonate rocks above the sea provided from the adjacent basins. level, so the above mentioned soluble rocks highly jointed and fractured Goydu'n and Seyfe Springs are rich due to tectonism. These from the point of dissolved species discontinuities helped circulation and and average electrical conductivities passage of the underground water. (EC) are about 13000 u.S/cm. The 76 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10 - 20, 19°S Antalya • Turkey Bucak and surrounding area are Hacettepe University, Dept. of Geological covered by karstic features such as Engineering, Beytepe, 06532, Ankara, Turkey terra rossa, lapies, sinkholes, caves, In a polluted groundwater travertine, and natural tunnels which environment the choice of a water are characteristic of the well location becomes highly critical. Mediterranean region. In an Decisions based on estimates of a advanced stage of solutional pollutant considered to be important decomposition and erosion of are subject to error. Decision makers limestone which formed residual hills can avoid risks if they know the around Kestel plain especially upper probabilities of exceedence of a parts of the area. critical threshold. Indicator principal The town of Bucak has one of the component kriging may be a valuable towns with waste water treatment tool in the evaluation of these facilities. The waste water which exceedence probabilities. This paper went through water purification describes applications of the processes given to a karstic dolines to methodology to groundwater the east of Kestel plain where the pollution problems. The paper drinking water of Bucak is obtained. presents the variograms of the But, after 3 years operation period indicator principal components for the doline is plugged, so cause of nitrate concentration in groundwater contamination of drinking water of samples taken from the Eskisehir aquifer. plain (Turkey). It maps the conditional probabilities that the true For the purpose of investigation, values are greater than the approximately 300 square kilometers recommended maximum for nitrate. area is mapped and studied by preparing geological and Karst systems of Turkmenistan hydrological maps with the scale of and karst hydrochemistry 1/25000, consideration from geology, B. Jumamuradov, S. Khasibulin, and T. hydrology and geophysics point of Iskanderov view. Institute of Chemistry of Academy of Science, Consequently, without leading to Ashgabat, Turkmenistan pollution and damage, the Karst water occurrences on the exploitation of karstic resources territory of Turkmenistan are forms a matter of great importance. associated with the southern part of the Cissar mountain range Indicator principal component (Govurdak-Koitendag area) and with kriging as a decision tool in the Central Kopetdag (the Kow-Ata assessing groundwater pollution karst lake). A. E. Tercan1, C. Saraij2, and D. A typical peculiarity of the Mamurekli Govurdak-Koitendag area is Hacetlepe University, Dept. of Mining availability of the karst form relief Engineering, Beytepe, 06532, Ankara, Turkey such as craters, grotts, caves which 77 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey are connected with different Karst and crack-stratum waters of lithologic structure rocks (with Govurdak - Koitendag and Central limestones, gypsums, sodium and Kopetdag areas are used for various potassium salts). The dimension of illnesses treatment. some karst systems reach dozens and hundreds of meters. JAMES F. QUINLAN POLLUTION CONTROL AND Karst waters of this area are KARST WATER connected mainly with the water- PROTECTION SESSION carrying complex of the upper part of the Jurassic deposits. This complex Standard guide for the design of includes also sulfur carrying groundwater-monitoring systems limestones, laying in the foot of in karst and fractured-rock Kimmerige - Titon directly on the aquifers: ASTM standard D 5717 Kelloway - Oxford limestones. J. F. Quinlan1, M. R. McCann2, and G. J. Sulfur carrying limestones are a very Davies3 good penetrated and highly water- 'Quinlan and Associates, Box 110539, abundant collector for karst and Nashville, TN 37222, USA crack-stratum waters. Average values 2Westinghouse Electrical Corporation, Box of the filter factor are to 0.55 m/hour, 997, Bloomington, IN 47402, USA those of specific output are to 0.013 'Cambrian Ground Water, 109 Dixie Lane, Oak Ridge, TN 37830, US* mVsec, open porosity is about 10 %. ASTM, the American Society for There is a clear natural regularity of Testing and Materials, one of the alteration of mineralization of largest organizations in the world for underground, karst and crack-stratum the development of voluntary waters on the most researched part of standards for materials, products, the territory of the Govurdak sulfur systems, and services, has been deposit. These waters are sulfate, generating an extensive series of sulfate-calcium chloride, and sodium- standards and guidance documents calcium chloride types of natural for groundwater and vadose zone waters with mineralization from 3 up investigations. This has been in to 50 kg/m\ Sodium chloride type response to perceived needs and brines with mineralization from 50 3 requests by regulatory agencies. The up to 200 kg/m appear in the task group concerned with karst and direction of general immersion. fractured rock has written a guidance These brines contain such rare document for groundwater elements as iodine, bromine, lithium, monitoring in these heterogeneous, rubidium and others. Brines with anisotropic aquifers. In June 1995, high content of H2S are discovered in after a series of ballots and revisions the limestone layers of the southern over several years, this document section of the Govurdak sulfur was approved. It will be published as deposit. Standard D 5717 in Volume 04.09 of the 1996 Annual Book of ASTM 78 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Standards but will be available quality in carbonate and fractured- separately before then and after from rock aquifers. Other karst-related and ASTM (Prepaid cost: $15 within the fractured-rock-related standards and U.S.; $17 to other countries; from guidelines are being written. ASTM, Publications Department, 1916 Race Street, Philadelphia, PA Are deterministic numerical 19103-1187, USA). models helpful to delineate groundwater protection zones in The standard guide was written to karstic aquifers? promote the design and implementation of accurate and A. Dassargues and S. Brouyere reliable groundwater-monitoring Laboratoires De Geologie De ilngenieur, d'Hydrogeologie, el de Prospection systems in settings where the Geophysique (L.G.I.H.), University of Liege hydrogeologic characteristics of an Bat. B19, 4000 Liege, Belgium aquifer do not allow invocation of a In karstified media, the main porous-medium equivalent. Most difficulty consists in finding a good commonly, this is any unconfined adequation between the highly carbonate or fractured-rock aquifer. heterogeneous reality of the aquifer Some of the topics discussed are: 1) and its representation using karst-related concepts, 2) use of "equivalent" parameters in the tracing to determine the destination framework of the Representative and velocity of groundwater flow Elementary Volume (REV) concept. from a site to be assessed, 3) probable need for monitoring off-site, The parameters describing the and 4) groundwater monitoring at aquifer (hydraulic conductivity, only springs, cave streams, and wells effective porosity, and dispersivities, that have been shown by site-specific etc.) chosen with "equivalent" or contaminants and by tracing to drain averaged values on the REV, do not from the site. Groundwater describe with accuracy the reality of monitoring at traditionally-used, the aquifer but they represent randomly-located or fracture-trace- globally behaviors of the different located wells that have not been zones of the aquifer. tested by tracing is unlikely to be A practical case study is described reliable - except by chance. where a finite element model using Many of the guidelines given in D the REV concept has been realized. 5717 had already been adopted by The study was asked by a Belgian the U.S. Environmental Protection water supply company exploiting two Agency and by numerous state wells producing about 3000 mVday environmental protection agencies. from a limestone karstified aquifer. Now that they have been confined, More than 10 piezometers have been these guidelines will be more widely drilled, pumping and multi-tracing adopted and applied, thus becoming a tests have been completed and national standard and greatly interpreted. The finite element model increasing protection of groundwattr used to simulate transport and flow 79 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey processes has been realized using the The islands are mostly composed of code AQUA. The results of the study Cretaceous carbonates and, to a less show the difficulty to represent extent, of Jurassic carbonates and adequately the particular behavior of Paleogene carbonates and flysch. The the aquifer. geological structure is typically From this example, many lessons can imbricate abounding in numerous be drawn about the advantages and folds and reverse and other faults. the limitations of the application of a The islands are mostly elongated REV based model in karstic extending parallel to their structural hydrogeological conditions. forms and being often 6 to 7 times Emphasis is given to the longer than wide. They were the consequences on the way of peaks and ridges while the channels considering the delineation of and bays were dry valleys of the protection and prevention zones Dinaric Mountains some 25000 years around a production well in karstic ago when the sea level was about 100 aquifers. m lower than today. Massive and thick-bedded Factors controlling groundwater limestones, which prevail, are protection of the karst islands of karstified and very permeable. Croatia Laminated limestones and dolomites A. Sarin, V. Goatti, and D. Ivicic are considerably less permeable, Institute of Geology - Zagreb, Croatia practically impermeable. So are also In the Adriatic Sea, there are more flysch deposits. On sufficiently wide than 1200 islands, islets and just bare islands (over some 2-3 km) rocks. All of them are in Croatia, impermeable and low permeable except less than ten islets in Italy and formations usually form barriers to Montenegro. The islands extend transversal groundwater flow. If such along the mainland coast. The largest barriers are deep and appear at both island has an area of 410 km2 and 13 longer sides of the islands, they may islands are larger than 50 km2, but decrease substantially fast only 66 islands are permanently groundwater drainage and protect inhabited. The inhabitants have been fresh groundwater from sea water engaged mainly in shipping, penetration during its abstraction by shipbuilding, fishing, fish processing, pumping. If there is only one barrier, vinegrowing, olive-tree raising, and the effect is somewhat similar but sheep rearing. A high-developed incomparably poorer. Various marine tourism, occupying countless tectonic deformations make the caps, doves and beaches of those " conditions considerably more necklaces of rocky pearls" has complex. become a main field of insular The insular groundwater under economy augmenting several times "natural" conditions, i.e., without the local population during summer. overexploitation that results in the rise of its chlorides content and 80 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey without pollution, has a very good The objective of this methodology quality and may be used lur public developed with the contribution of water supply. The actual and the Swiss Federal Department of potential sources of groundwater Environment, Forest and Landscape pollution are; the use of fertilizers (OFEFP) is to produce vulnerability and pesticides in the vineyards, rare mapping specifically for a spring or ship farms, and rare settlements. The well water catchment area as latter two sources are caused by an groundwater protection zones inadequate (or better to say mapping, where the OFEFP's ways of nonexistent) sewerage system. delineating protection areas are not The main problem in the insular satisfactory. It can also be used groundwater protection is the water realize vulnerability mapping at a management policy. That is to say, regional scale in the framework of the decision makers' opinion is that groundwater management. The the good-quality potable water vulnerability mapping is at the should be conveyed by long pipelines present moment obtained by a from major karst springs situated in manual method; it will be possible to the mainland and to use the local obtain it with a GIS software. insular groundwater only for After delineation of the water technical purposes. Meanwhile, there catchment area of the spring s.l., the is a relatively wide and well-argued methodology employs a four-steps opposition to such attitude and the procedure: (1) characterizing the authors of the paper share that view. existed karstic network and attribute a global factor the area, (2) mapping EPIK a methodology for the infiltration conditions using evaluating vulnerability of different methods, (3) mapping the groundwater to contamination in protective cover of the karstic aquifer karstic aquifer; its application on a (pedological cover and overlayered test site in Swiss Jura rock formations), and (4) mapping N. Doerfliger and F. Zwahlen the epikarstic layer. Also, four key Center of Hydrogeology, CHYN, University of parameters are treated, divided in Neuchatel, 11 rue E-Argand, CH-2007, classes that are weighting by some Neuchatel, Switzerland theoretical factors. The superposition EPIK, for Epikarst, Protective cover, of the four parameters maps and Infiltration conditions, and Karstic calculation of the rating for each network development, is a general resulted vulnerability zones methodology for delineating and (mathematics mean) give the final rating landscape in relation with vulnerability map. groundwater sensitivity to all kinds The EPIK methodology was of pollutants: It is based on a developed and tested on three hydrogeological conceptual model of different test sites. Differences of karstic aquifer. those test sites are size, available or known informations related to 81 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey geological and hydrogeological distances. In order to measure the characteristics, elevation and land's complex flow conditions with a use. Results of the test site of La reasonable degree of certainty as Raissette spring (St-Imier, Folded many tools as possible, >imong them Swiss Jura) one of the three test sites, isotope hydrology techniques were and comments are discussed in the applied. The gradient of the present paper. potentiometric surface of the regional flow is perpendicular to the main Ground water exploration in a fracture direction. Hydraulic testing confined karst aquifer of the produced hydraulic conductivities in Swabian Jura (Germany) the range.of 3xlO5 to 2xlO"4 m/s and H. Behrens1, W. Drost1, W. Rauert1, J. P. effective porosities in the order of 14 Orth2, R. Netter2, and G. Merkl2 2%. The C results indicate recent X karst water recharge, and tritium GSF-Institute for Hydrology, D-85764 Oberschleissheim, Germany analyses display the simultaneous 2TUM-Institute for Water Quality Control presence of tritium free and tritium and Waste Management, D-85748 Garching, rich groundwater and mirror the Germany heterogeneous permeability The definition of protection zones in distribution. Also the local flow karstic aquifers requires the modeling vectors measured by single well of groundwater flow and contaminant nuclear tracer techniques scatter from transport in the presence of high well to well and the velocity amounts velocities and limited possibilities for vary considerably. Groundwater contaminant attenuation and tracing with dyes over distances from purification. Such a modeling is 1.5 to 3.5 km were unsuccessful to predominantly based on a hydraulic prove any underground connection characterization of the host rock and for migration tests. retardation data. In-situ migration In view of these findings a small experiments provide a method for scale dipole for solute injection and producing realistic information on detection was established over a transport and retention of distance of 200 m, where contaminants and for testing the groundwater in the acceptor well is extrapolation of laboratory data to under artesian pressure of about 5 m. field conditions. Due to results of dye tracing and The study area (10 km2) for in-situ local flow vector measurements the investigations is located in the donator well is located within • the transition of the Swabian Jura into catchment of the acceptor even at the Danube Valley. The confined different discharge conditions. The karst aquifer displays a wide results of the migration tests are variability of porosity and discussed by the abstract of ORTH et permeability of the anisotropic al. ("Bacterial and chemical fracture and fissure distribution in contaminant transport tests in a the carbonate rocks even within short confined karst aquifer (Danube 82 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Valley, Swabian Jura, Germany)"), pervaporation flux. We used Flory- submitted to the symposium. Huggins approach which appears to be valid, in its simplified form Synthesis of polymers for (applicable to binary mixtures) for membrane preparation, polymer ethyl acetate sorption. The values of bulk modification for novel the interaction parameter of the separations: Extraction of organics model were determined for different from waste aqueous solutions by elastomeric materials in the whole pervaporation range of composition. Z. Bendjamaa, D. Legheraba, and R. Maachi Chemico-physical pollution in Institute of Chemical Industry, USTHB urban areas of groundwater (Algiers), Cite Lavigerie BTNo. 5, flowing in a littoral carbonate Mohammadia, El-Harrach, Atgiers (Algeria) aquifer This work concerns the extraction of V. Cotecchia and M. Polemio volatile organic components in CNR-CERIST, Inst. di Geologia Applicata e aqueous media by pervaporation Geotecnica, Facolta di Ingegneria, through elastomeric membranes Politecnico di Bari.^ia Orabona 4, Bari made of polydimethylsiloxane 70125, Italy (P.D.M.S). In the run of the last decades the The extraction process (batch and coming up of new technologies as continuous) for a model compound well as new needs has increased the ethyl acetate was modeled. More interest in ground-water likely to be over the proposed model allowed us found in aquifers below massively to completely characterize the urbanized areas, even where said considered membrane liquid mixtures water could not be proper for from anunique pervaporation ordinary urban preposes. Such an operation. The pervaporation of assumption has led to a study aiming elastomers based on a bi-component at ascertaining the extent of the silicone resin whose preparation chemical-physical characteristics temperature and relative proportion degradation of groundwater flowing of the cross linker containing in the aquifer underlying Bari town. component and the systematic The aquifer is a part of Murgia determination of their mechanical hydrogeological unit in carbonatic and physical properties showed that Apulian region. The karstic the hardness, the density, the glass hydrogeology of Murgia is transition temperature are close to the characterized by the relative low and preparation conditions of the discontiners presence of fractured of membrane material. Finally, in order karstificated rocks. to predict quantitatively the solvent Surveys proved that significant contents in the membrane *at the groundwater alterations are mostly upstream face in pervaporation and due to massive widespread water consequently to predict the 83 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey taking and sewage releasing in the karstic features such as sinkholes, subsoil. dolines and other depressions, in the Air-conditioning systems or hydrologic and pollutant cycle. generally heat changer plant play an Misuse of the karstic depressions and important role. solution cavities as waste disposal sites threatens the karst aquifer In order to ascertain the extend and seriously. This will most probably how such heat exchanges, mostly cause to abandon them in the very unauthorized take place numerical near future unless the authorities simulations were resorted to during prevent these adverse activities. investigations. Another source for contamination of Ground water pollution in water resources in Iskenderun area is iskenderun karst basin the lithology. High content of Southerstern Turkey ironsulphur, magnesium, and manganese where deep faults exist M. Ekmekcj', M. Degirmenci , B. 3 degrade the quality of the Erduran , and 6.F. Seviik groundwater. International Research and Application Center For Karst Water Resources (UKAM), The main sources of groundwater Hacettepe University, Beytepe, 06532, contamination in Iskenderun area Ankara, Turkey were determined from monitoring the Cumhuriyet University, Geological Eng. springs and wells. The protection Dept., Sivas, Turkey areas were then delineated by means General Directorate of Mineral Research of morphologic, hydrologic analyses, Exploration, Ankara, Turkey and tracing techniques. Apart from tllerbank, Diyarbahr, Turkey technical side, it is demonstrated that Iskenderun city, situated in the East- educating the local authorities and Mediterranean region of Turkey, has the public about the role of karstic a shortage of water as a consequence features in karst groundwater of rapid economic development and pollution is an important task as the population increase. Scarcity of technical works in preventing surface water resources in the region pollution. Measures to be taken in lead the authorities to search for this task are discussed in this paper. possibilities of utilizing the ground water resources. The two main water bearing lithologic units in lskenderun province are the coastal alluvium and the extensively karstified carbonate rocks. The former has already been contaminated by sea water intrusion. The karstic carbonate rock aquifer is also being polluted by inhabitants who ignore the important role of the 84 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey A Mechanism of reducing sulfur power. Of this vast usage of energy contents of coal by centrifugal- only 3 % is used to comminute the pneumatic communition product. The remaining is lost to A.U. Dogan1, P.B. Buter2, and M. heating, radiation to the environment, Dogan3 friction of the machinery, etc. It is 'Department of Geological Engineering, obvious then a more efficient Ankara University, Turkey, communition mechanism will benefit 2 Department of Mechanical Engineering, the coal industry as well as other University of Iowa, U.S.A. industries where a large percentage 1 Department of Geological Engineering, Hacettepe University, Turkey of the total energy expenditure is in crushing. Sulfur is one of the most harmful substances in coal and it is the major The Centrifugal-Pneumatic (CP) coal cause of the global environmental mill is a comminution device that problem of acid rain. In this study, produces micronized particles. It scanning electron microscope and x- disintegrates particles by high speed ray microanalysis is used to particle-to-particle attrition rather investigate a formation mechanism of than crushing particles against a the pyrite in Iowa coal and then a surface. The attrition process possible mechanism of removing or continues until the coal particles are reducing a pyritic component of small enough to be drawn through sulfur content by centrifugal- the impeller and thrown into the pneumatic communition. outlet duct. The flow of air created by the impeller conveys the particles Thermodynamic factors control the pneumatically from the mill to a precipitation of the pyrite precursors. centrifugal classifier that separates A common product formed in coal is them at a desired size. Drag forces pyrrhotite then it can be converted to are applied by internal baffles to the pyrite or marcasite in the presence of coarse particles and allow the air to excess sulfur. Once formed, the iron pass through them for separation of sulfide precipitate is highly stable the fines. The heaviest particles drop and will not go back into solution to the bottom of the classifier and are expect under extreme conditions. discharged to the control hopper. Pyrite and marcasite are also stable, Other particles above the cut point however, it may be oxidized and go follow into the coarse particle into solution as ferric iron or sulfate discharge. The air system carrying sulfur. the fine particles follows a spiral path To remove the pyrite component the to the outlet on each side of the unit. coal must be powdered. The Therefore, CP coal mill produces mechanism used in practically all smaller particle size distribution with communition process is compaction a high specific surface area at a low namely crushing and grinding. The energy expenditure and help to crushing and grinding industry uses remove and/or reduce pyrite about 16 % of the world's electric framboids from the coal. 85 International Symposium i Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey Complex refining of high mineral solutions of iodine-bromine plants water and it's influence on the for getting of magnesium oxide are environment carbonate, different salts of boron B. Jumamuradov and lithium, chlorides of calcium and Institute of Chemistry of Academy of Science, potassium, white salt is worked out. Ashgabal, Turkmenistan Extraction of magnesium is carried Turkmenistan are rich in various out by it's precipitation by lime milk kinds of hydromineral raw materials, in the form of hydroxide. By means such as the brines of the largest salt of calcination different kinds of lake the Karabogazgol Gulf, magnesium oxide, as well as by underground high mineralized iodine carbonization, magnesium carbonates and bromine containing waters, are obtained. Preliminary extraction accompanying waters of oil and gas of magnesium ions prevents the deposits, and layer waters of sulfur pollution of sodium chloride by deposits, etc. doubled magnesium salts during the Iodine and bromine containing brines further precipitation of NaCl by sun of operated deposits of Turkmenistan evaporation. White salt is obtained are treated as natural waters of by washing NaCl by concentrated chloride-sodium-calcium type, which solution of sodium chloride. contain different salts up to 150-250 From concentrated solution, which kg/m\ iodine-0.02 - 0.05 kg/m3, and contain valuable microelements, the bromine-0.2 - 0.4 kg/m3. At present, following elements are obtained: only iodine and bromine are boron by ion changing sorption; extracted from the brines. Worked lithium by hemosorption by doubled out brines, which contain, besides hydroxysulfate of aluminum and sodium, calcium and magnesium magnesium; strontium by chlorides, such as valuable precipitation with barium sulfate; microelements as boron, lithium, potassium chloride by crystallization. strontium, rubidium, cesium, etc., are The finite product-calcium chloride poured off to natural man-made is obtained in melt form. sewage farms. The worked out technology is The great amount of mineral salt is wasteless, and does not require acid loosed because of sewage and in and alkali to change pK o." solutions. addition to it, the ecological Most reagents used in different problems connected with submerging stages of processing (lime milk, of large territories and the toxic magnesium and sodium sulfates) are elements pollution of the territories produced in Turkmenistan. nearly the Caspian Sea. In the Institute of Chemistry of Academy of Science of Turkmenistan, the technology of complex processing of water 86 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey An initial assessment of sanitary point sources of faecal bacterial bacterial dynamics in the Castleton contamination are known in this area karst, Derbyshire, England or in the larger autogenic catchment J. Tranter, J. Gunn, and C. Hunter which is also predominantly grazing Limestone Research Group, Department of land. However, several farmsteads Geographical and Environmental Sciences, discharge effluent to septic tanks. The University of Huddersfield, Queensgate, Of the two springs, Russet Well Huddersfield, HD1 3DH, England drains the allogenic catchment, but The fact that pollutants may move also receives some autogenic rapidly through karst aquifers has recharge whereas Peak Cavern Rising long been known to researchers receives only autogenic recharge although pollution incidents continue except at high stage when it functions because of the ignorance of many as an overflow spring for the Russet planners and land managers. Well system. Over the year as a However, there have been very few whole and during each three-month studies of the sanitary bacterial season, median FC concentrations at dynamics at karst springs. This paper P6 are significantly higher than at outlines initial results from the Russet Well. The difference is Castleton area of the Derbyshire greatest during the spring and Peak District which contains an summer months and is lowest in extensive and complex karst drainage winter and it appears that FC system. Recharge is provided by a concentrations at the rising are a series of stream sinks which drain a 5 complex function of faecal inputs km2 allogenic catchment and by 2 and flow-through time which varies diffuse infiltration into a 8.5 km soil from 1-10+ days. Underground flow covered autogenic catchment. The velocities in the allogenic system are influence of land use practices within 24 to 175 m/hr and, on the basis of the allogenic catchment on sanitary limited water tracing experiments, bacterial dynamics in surface streams autogenic waters are thought to take is currently the subject of a detailed significantly longer to reach the cave. investigation by the first author. This Hence, it was hypothesized that FC paper reports the results of weekly concentrations at Russet Well would measurements of concentrations of be consistently higher than at Peak the sanitary indicator bacteria faecal Cavern Rising. However, the coliform (FC) at the P6 stream sink situation proved to be much more and at two contrasting springs complex. Over the sampling period (Russet Well and Peak Cavern as a whole and during the spring Rising) over a 68-week period. The months (March-May) there was no P6 stream drains grassland-dominant significant difference between agricultural grazing land which median FC concentrations at the two includes unimproved, semi-improved risings; during the autumn and winter and improved pasture. There is a very periods, when discharge was highest, low population density and no large median FC concentrations at Russet 87 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Well were significantly higher than cavernous permeability. Introduced at Peak Cavern Rising; and during contaminants including pollutants, the summer months FC soils, and even wood debris arrive at concentrations at Peak Cavern Rising springs many miles from the source were significantly higher than at within hours to days in typical Russet Well. Further work is in settings. progress with the aim of determining Rocky Mountain alpine karsts are whether the pollution results from characterized by well developed point inputs, possibly of human epikarst zones that generally overlie origin, or diffuse inputs from a highly organized networks of caves bacterial land store. which rapidly conduct water down gradient to the flanks of the ranges. The case for upland recharge area Most of the water in the cave protection in the rocky mountain networks is rejected through springs karsts of the Western United States from the lower slopes of the ranges P. W. Huntoon to surface streams owing to Department of Geology and Geophysics, basinword decreases in hydraulic University of Wyoming, P.O. Box 3006, gradients and to greatly diminished Laramie,WY8207I, USA permeabilities within the aquifers. Thick sections of Paleozoic Basinword decreases of carbonate rocks crop out along the permeabilities occur either because crests or flanks of a considerable the carbonate aquifers are fault percentage of the mountain ranges in severed by range bounding faults or the Rocky Mountain west of North because dissolution permeabilities America. Invariably these carbonates decreases toward the basins in cases are karstified. The karsts commonly where carbonate strata continue comprise the principal recharge areas unbroken into the basins beneath for extensive artesian aquifers in the confining layers. adjacent basins. All are the headwaters for spring fed streams The epikarst zones generally do not that serve as important municipal, store appreciable quantities of water agricultural and fishery water beyond the snowmelt period. The supplies. intricate networks of dissolution widened fractures and dissolution Alpine and subalpine karsts are tubes are extremely permeable. among the most sensitive of upland Consequently, the epikarst is most recharge areas owing to the rapid efficient in conducting infiltrating flow-through hydraulics operating snowmelt and storm waters to down within the highly organized gradient springs on the ranges or into dissolution networks that drain them. deeper zones containing the cave There is virtually no interstitial networks that channel the water off filtration and the water typically the ranges. Thus, the alpine epikarsts travels down gradient at surface have poor storage characteristics and water velocities through the tend to be ephemerally saturated. 88 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey The underlying cave networks forest soils. If forest regeneration is rapidly conduct water to the lower not rapid, upland soils erode and are flanks of the ranges. The caves are in lost to the subsurface karst networks. hydraulic connection with the The hydraulic impact on springs is saturated fractures and interstitial that early summer discharge rates are porosity of the host rocks, and all of increased, recessions are abbreviated, these elements combine to form and flows become more flashy. alpine karst aquifers. Alpine karst Unsightly as they may be, the aquifers possess varying, but residual wood slash and stumps generally limited, degrees of storage. provide a degree of protection to The conduit networks within them karst soils, particularly by allowing serve as highly permeable drains and certain species which preferentially the tubes in them have a hierarchical root in wood debris to become order which increases in the reestablished. In areas where the downstream direction. wood is burned, regeneration is Alpine karsts supply large quantities further retarded. of excellent quality water to low The role of forests as upland elevation springs. Because storage reservoirs in karsts cannot be within the karsts tends to be small, overstated. From a quantity stream flows decrease with the perspective, significant volumes of cessation of snowmelt and onset of water are retained by forests to be dry seasons. Typical winter released gradually as late season discharges from karst springs are two recharge to the karst. These delayed orders of magnitude less than early releases sustain stream flows in the summer yields. One consequence of lowlands. From a quality perspective, minimal aquifer storage and large retention of mosses, the organic mat conduit permeability is that spring and bogs affords a first and only line 'discharges tend to be flashy in of defense against the migration of response to rain storms. contaminants released in the uplands. Forests on mountain karsts are The Chinese, who are now living extremely important in retaining with the consequences of massive water in the uplands. The water is deforestation, call their forests "the held primarily in mosses, the organic green reservoir". This is not a mat that comprises the root zone, and whimsical term, but an accurate bogs held in place by organic description of an integral component structures. Removal of the forest in a healthy hydrologic system. They canopy through clear cutting results found that removal of too great a in increased temperatures, decreased percentage of their forests from their humidity, increased solar albedo, and karsts resulted in regional climatic increased ground wind velocities. modification characterized by drying The result is destruction of mosses, and increased temperatures. The oxidation of the organic mat, and, consequences were desertification ultimately, desiccation of the thin 89 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey and severe soil loss, both of which regional population of over 100 thwart regeneration of their forests. million people who are two crop failures away from starvation. ENVIRONMENTAL IMPACTS AND LEGAL ASPECTS - H Two trends thwart recovery: (1) heavy dependence of the local The impacts of massive recent population on wood for fuel and (2) a deforestation on the unconfined population explosion. Reforestation karst aquifers of South China efforts are underway but they are P. W. Huntoon gradually losing to human Dept. of Geology and Geophysics, University encroachments. of Wyoming, Laramie, USA Development of groundwater offers a The sublime south China karst belt, degree of mitigation. However, the host to some of the most exotic karst thin shallow karst aquifers present landscapes found on earth, has been are characterized by (1) large lateral profoundly and detrimentally permeabilities which rapidly transmit impacted by massive post-1958 large volumes of water to surface deforestation. Although south China streams where it then flows out of the occupies a subtropical monsoon region and (2) minimal reservoir climatic zone, it endures an annual storage. flood-drought cycle. This cycle has Remarkable groundwater been sufficiently exacerbated by the developments, driven by desperation, loss of the "green reservoir" that are proceeding, but they are fraught desertification has occurred over with frustration as renewed emphasis significant areas. on development of wood resources A primary impact of deforestation takes places and the population has been lost retention of water in the continues to swell. uplands. Surface runoff has become more flashy, and stream discharge Discussion on geological-ecological recessions brief. The consequence environments and economic has been increased flood hazards developmental ways -The karst during the rainy seasons followed by regions in South China as the parched conditions during the dry example- season. Water that was formerly L. Yaoru retained beyond the wet season in the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering forested uplands, later to be released Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral Resources, The P.R. China to the shallow karst aquifers under the lowland plains, now passes The most important and typical karst quickly through the region during the regions in southwest China and wet seasons. middle-south China are in Yunnan, Guizhou, Sichuan, Hubei, and Hunan Wildlife populations were decimated. provinces and Guangxi autonomous Risks of crop failures have risen. The region, the area of bare and semi-bare situation has grown precarious for a karst that include about 540000 km2. 90 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey In these regions, the four main aquifers are made of karstic resources, are energy, water, mineral carbonate rocks, require more and biogenic which are abundant but thoroughness in exploiting and many natural disasters have effected protecting the groundwater resources. these resources. This paper discuss Geomorphologic and the comprehensive evolution about hydrogeological studies have the qualities of geological exhibited large quantities of the input ecological environments in these and throughput features like karst regions. sinkholes, dolines, uvalas, and poljes A series of maps of geological- in the recharge areas of many karst ecological environments have been aquifers in Turkey. Naturally, compiled as the attachment of the recharge areas are generally located new work, which contents are related at higher elevations and remote to: (1) general situation of karst types regions from the urbanized areas. and water-land resources; (2) main These factors are considered as energy resources and water favorite by the local authorities and resources; (3) main reserve zones and local people to utilize the karst tourist resources; (4) geological features for their own purposes. disasters; and (5) prospects for Dolines and ponors are commonly economic development. The five utilized as injection points for waste maps together reflect the basic water while uvalas and poljes are compound features of geological- used as solid waste disposal sites. In ecological environments in these doing this, the people are karst regions that should be used to unconscious of the connection with insure a reasonable development in the wells or springs that provide these regions and environment water for their supply. protection. A number of experiences in Turkey, This paper is introduced some have demonstrated that no matter contents of a new research by the how perfect is the efficiency of the author of the past several years. technical work, protection of the water resources is primarily related Importance of public awareness in to the consciousness of the local improvem .it of effectiveness of authorities. These people will either karst ground water protection take the proper measures to protect studies the resources or to educate the public G. Giinay and M. Ekm. 51 in this issue. To achieve this purpose, International Research and Application it is very important to involve the Center For Karst Water Resources (UKAM), public administrative sector as well Hacettepe University Beytepe, 06532, as technical sector in preparing Ankara, Turkey guidelines for integrated Scarcity of water, particularly in environmental evaluation of karst cities situated along the water resources. The main phase of a Mediterranean coast where the main study should include locating 91 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20,1995 Antalya • Turkey appropriate sites for disposal of either by natural flow or through the waste water and solid waste that will induced infiltration. The analyses satisfy requirements by the made so far show enormous administrators as well as providing a possibilities in this respect on water supply of good quality for the numerous localities in karst areas. public. Based on the project by experts of This paper discusses how to the Faculty of Mining and Geology, overcome the public awareness Belgrade University, few systems for problem. Some examples artificial regulation of karst aquifer demoqstrate how the technical was made in the region of Carpatho- achievements failed to be effective Balkanides in eastern part of Serbia. and applicable due to the lack of One of the successful projects has contribution of the local authorities been developed withjn the and the public. A series of investigations for regional water suggestions is made for revision of supply for the towns in the region of the current regulations which fall Timok. The previous complex short in this account. investigations included the test of long duration pumping from the An example of regulation of karst siphon channel of Mrljis spring, aquifer during which almost twice as large Z. Stevanovic and V. Dragisic yield was obtained compared to the Institute of Hydrogeology, Faculty of Mining natural regime of discharge (from and Geology, University of Belgrade, 7 170 to 325 l/s), with a depression in Djusina sir, 11000 Belgrade, Yugoslavia • the broader zone of exploitation field For valuation of the karst aquifer of only 1 m and without any potential and more, effective and influence on surface waters of the rational use of water to be possible, it river flowing near the spring. The is necessary: preliminary water regulation project 1. To perform extensive exploration includes, besides installations for work so as to obtain relevant data water abstraction from large springs, concerning the regime of aquifer, the the construction of vertical wells up water resources and quality as well as to 100 m deep at three most favorable other elements necessary to provide localities determined by preliminary the basis for technical solutions to be investigations, about 500 m in applied to regulation and control of diameter from the main spring. This the aquifer. will also provide the possibility for 2. To arrange artificial regulation of making a larger depression in the the regime of water discharge with karst aquifer in the necessary periods induced tapping of water from deeper of groundwater recovery. parts of karst aquifer, to arrange for As one of the bases for the overpumping of the source of karst forecasting of the conditions and groundwater in the periods required, possibilities for groundwater and to provide additional reserves recovery in this area, the 92 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey hydrodynamic model of karst aquifer "Carbonate Area District" overlay to has been used. the existing land-use zoning maps was the means used to identify areas A karst model ordinance of concern. Definitions of specific J. A. Fischer and D. Drewes terms were provided to give both Limestone Resource Committee of the North credibility and understanding to the Jersey Resource Conservation Development legal and intellectual process of Council, New Jersey 07924, USA interpreting the ordinance. An Significant portions of the eastern attempt was made to provide rational, United States are underlain by but non-confining engineering Cambro-Ordo*vician-aged carbonate performance standards. deposits. These solution-prone rocks The procedural and submission often lie in scenic folded and faulted requirements for a geotechnical and valleys, once prime farmland, but environmental evaluation ' were now under relentless development defined. A technical checklist format pressures. The problems posed by was employed to guide the applicant development in these areas are both through the phased site investigation structural and environmental in and review process. Construction nature. inspection and ongoing evaluation of In March 1988, one of the first project sites in the "Carbonate Area "limestone" ordinances in the USA District" were deemed necessary and was passed in Clinton Township, became a part of the model ordinance New Jersey. The ordinance was not requirements. To aid the prospective of a "no build" nature, but rather a users of the ordinance, explanations "build with care and understanding" and comments were provided on a law. Slowly, interest grew in the section-by-section basis. The surrounding region and the crusade technical aspects of the ordinance for rational development guidelines were developed by planners, was joined by the North New Jersey geologists, and engineers. Pro bono Resource Conservation and legal review was provided by two Development (RC&D) Council, a local land-use attorneys. Federal and County sponsored organization. The RC&D identified The model ordinance has been used "limestone geologic areas" as a as the basis for some six Township regional issue for inclusion in their ordinances passed under New Jersey Land-Use Law up to the time of the work program. One of the first tasks preparation of this paper. in this program was to draft a model ordinance for use by municipalities. The first step in developing the model ordinance was to provide both a practical rationale for its existence and a legal basis for its implementation. The concept of a 93 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 -20,1995 Antalya • Turkey Environmental impact on karstic Hydrogeological aspects of aquifers in Istria in Western karstified aquifers and its Croatia environmental impacts in Eastern K. Urumovic, T. Vazdar, D. Mayer, B. Desert-Egypt Hlevnjak, and I. Dragicevic J. Khalil and T. M. Hassan Rudansko-Geolosko-Nqftni Fakultet, Research Institute For Groundwater (RIGW), Sveucilista u Zagrebu, 41000 Zagreb, Iran Croatia Pierolieva 6, Croatia With the population growing and On the Istria Peninsula in western increasing demand of water, Croatia karstic aquifers are deteriorating water quality and developed that are suitable for study increasing environmental of sustainable development on one degradation, more effort is required side of this touristically developed to investigate and evaluate additional area, and on the other side of inland sources of groundwater from that has important agricultural unexplored carbonate aquifer supply. The area has high demand for systems. Carbonate rocks are widely water-supply during the summer/dry distributed in Egypt and cover more season. than 50 % of its surface area, and are The geological framework, penetrated in many of the deep bore morphology of terrain, high holes. precipitation in hinterland together Karstified aquifers underlie a good with well developed karstification proportion of the Eastern Desert that creates deep circulation of between the Red Sea Hills and the underground waters and important River Nile. It is over 1000 m thick, migrations of watersheds of and is a part of the Neogene, in the individual springs. The study of the Gulf of Suez area; the Eocene and quality of underground water and the Upper Cretaceous in the central monitoring of it during the period of area of Eastern Desert, which forms low-water level becomes especially the conspicuous elevated plateau of important for monitoring of El Galala, Ataqa, El Mukattam, and environmental impact on El Maaza Carbonate rocks are underground waters in real affected by intensive fault systems, conditions. The most realistic data which play a significant role in the will probably be obtained from development of fissures and overpumping conditions. Favorable consequently in formation of springs. conditions for this procedure exist The paper discusses the geographical because of the extensive hydraulic distribution, the hydrogeological connection of springs with caverns characteristics, possible potential of that reach the depth of approximately karstified formations in the Eastern 50 m below the sea-level. This Desert and its environmental impacts research could contribute to the for sustainable development and definition of scales in the exploration redistribution of population in Egypt. of karstic aquifers. 94 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Investigations on the causes of In the study area the climate is semi- salinity in karstic springs of arid, the soil texture is heavy (clay Rahmat mountain, Zagros, Iran and silty clay), and the depth to water M. Zare and H. Mohammadzadeh table is close to land surface, thus Geology Department, Shiraz University, evaporation from groundwater is Shiraz, Iran high. Data indicate that the saline Rahmat Anticline is located at 55 water in the upper alluvial aquifer, kilometers NE of Shiraz city, in south which flows from NW to SE, is of Iran (29,45 - 30,00 N and, 52,45 - mixed with karstic water in Rahmat 53,15 E). The anticline is in the zone anticline and discharge from saline "three" (simply folded belt) of Zagros springs at the lower portions of the ranges. The exposed formations of anticline rim. the anticline are mainly carbonate Karstic area erosion in Iran rocks of Sarvak formation 1 2 (Cenomanien) and marls of A. R. Ghaffari , A. A. Abbasi , and F. Kajhdumi formation (Albian). Iranmanesh3 Karstification is developed in, the Hydrology and Water Resources Dept., Soil carbonate rocks due to the effect of Conservation and Watershed Management climate and existence of faults and Research Center (S. C. W. R. C), Iran joints. Several small and large 2Dept. of Flood Control S. C. W. R. C, Iran springs around the anticline 3 Watershed Management S. C. W. R. C, Iran discharge karst water from the Many large areas of Iran are Sarvak formation. underlain by dolomite and limestone The quality of water from springs formations such as Zagros mountain along the southern flank of the west and south-west of Iran and anticline decreases from NW towards Alborz mountain in north and other SE. Electrical conductivity ranges mountains in center of Iran. The main from 698 to 10710 micromhos/cm. factor of erosion in karstic regions is dissolution of limestone by stream An attempt has been made to flow. If limestones are impermeable determine the reason for the increase flow through cracks will cause gully in salinity of the springs in the SE of erosion, caves, tunnels, and dr> the Rahmat anticline. Water samples channel. Cteaticn and improvement were collected for hydrochemical of soil in karstic region is affected b> analysis from springs and several physical ana chemical, characteristic^ shallow and deep wells in the of the karstic formation adjacent area in the SE of the Rahmat anticline. Isochemical maps, In this investigation, the drainage composition diagrams, and area of Alamarvedasht in south of 2 isopotential maps were drawn and Iran of 5000 km contains gypsum, groundwater flow direction was dolomite and Sarvak, Ham, Asmari, determined from a isopotential map. Jahrom, Gachsaran, Mishan and Aghajari formations were studied. Mean annual precipitatioit in tii -s 95 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey drainage basjn is 150 mm and the discharge of the Kuh-e-Siah spring mean annual temperature is 23.9 °C. have been determined triweekly for a Climate of this basin is in the duration of 9 months. Additionally Domarten classification as dry. the discharge of a few seasonal In this investigation causes and springs issuing from the salt dome mechanism of soil erosion have been measured as well. Based phenomena and relationship between on these data it is concluded that the soil erosion and karstic formation salt dome is the source of were studied and results were contamination. submitted. Environmental impacts on the The effect of salt domes on karst karst aquifer systems in Wadi water Arab catchment area Jordan A. Sharafi, E. Raeisi, and G. Farhoudi M. Almomani Geology Department, Shiraz University, Iran Water Resources Studies Dept., Water Outcrops of karst formations occur Authority of Jordan, Amman, Jordan over about 23% of the surface area in Wadi Arab is one of the northern rift the middle of southern Iran. In side catchments of Jordan draining general, the electrical conductivity is from the escarpment towards the 2 less than 500 |imho/cm (Raeisi, Jordan valley. The area is 267 km . 1992). The karstic formations form Six high productive flowing wells aquifers containing water of good were drilled in the area in 1982/1983. quality, especially in the Fars These wells have been used for water Province (Southern Iran). There are supply purposes to Irbid district since about 200 saltplugs in the southern 1985. part of Iran and Persian Gulf. In some In addition, Wadi Arab storage dam places of this area salt piercements has been constructed at the outlet of are adjacent to carbonate rocks, the Wadi. It started receiving the therefore the karstic waters are of effluent from the sewerage treatment poor quality. plant of Irbid city during the first The water of the Kuh-e-Siah spring, years of operation. Kufr Asad which is located in the vicinity of observation well is used for Firoozabad, is flowing from the monitoring the groundwater Sarvak Limestone Formation. This quantitatively and qualitatively. spring is adjacent to a salt dome. The natural flow and the withdrawal Thus its water is of poor quality. from Wadi Arab well field caused a A geologic map with a scale of decline in the equipotential head of 1:50,000 has been prepared. 54 m recorded in the observation Moreover, concentration of the well. This caused drying of the total following ions: Ca^, Na+, Mg^, K+, base flow in the Yv adi. SO4 , HCO3, and Cl, the water pH, In addition to the hydrological and EC and the temperature, and also the hydrogeological data, monitoring of 96 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey water quality and complete chemical Resources, Zhengding, Hebei, 050803, PR. analyses of Wadi Arab well field are China available since 1982. NO3, BOD, The surroundings of the Earth as the COD have been analyzed in those spaces for living all the organisms wells as well as in the Kufr Asad will be referred to as geoecological observation well. Also included are environments, which usually consists the results of stable and radioactive of dual features. In China, these are isotope samples collected from the nine types of geoecological wells. A sampler has been used for environments, which are related to sampling the monitoring well from karst regions, loess regions, littoral different horizons and depths. lands and islands, plains, grasslands, deserts, high mountains, inner basins One of the results of the study and high plateau. This paper is indicates that the water in the concerned with the evolution of monitoring well is influenced by geoecological environments in some several components of water sources. main karst regions in China. There is significant fluctuation of tritium content, NO3, BOD and COD The basic environmental problems in the monitoring well, also are discussed first, which include enrichment of the stable isotope as a earthquakes, floods and drought, result of evaporation. This is due to rocky desertification, and sea water the direct infiltration of some intrusion. The statistics of larger sewerage effluent and local recharge earthquakes in the past 500 years are within the Wadi to the calcareous summarized, and the energy released karst aquifer tapping the water table. related to the earthquakes for larger The seasonal variation has an effect magnitudes have been calculated. on the variation. The statistics of the frequency related to drought, flood and waterlogging Protection of water from these wells during the past 500 years are also as well as the water in Wadi Arab summarized and analyzed. dam from possible contaminants becomes necessary. WAJ constructed The discussion in this paper is paid diversion dam within the drainage of more attention to the regions, where Wadi Arab and a pipe line to convey the industry and agriculture are the effluent to the Jordan valley. quickly developing in the near future. More precautions could be taken for The prospect of the evolution of the possible environmental activities geoecological environments in these within the catchment area. regions and related qualities have been put out as a primary results in Evolution of geoecological this paper. The geoecological environments in some karst environments of the Earth as the regions in China living spaces for mankind are the L. Yaoru compound surroundings to hold the Institute of Hydrogeology and Engineering geosphere, hydrosphere, atmosphere Geology, Ministry of Geology and Mineral and biosphere. But it is most 97 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "KansJ Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 - 20,1995 Antalya • Turkey important that the mankind's actions particular trickles in the cave but have obviously influenced the only these where the pollution was evolution of geoecological detected. The permeability and the environments in karst regions in dynamics of drainage in respect to China. particular trickles is controlled by the pollution transport from the surface Pollution transport in the vadose and by eventual autopurification zone: An example from Postojnska processes, the latter being assessed in jama - Slovenia the case of polluted water percolation J. Kogovsek into Pivka jama. Institut za raziskovanje krasa ZRC SAZU, After the removal of the pollution Titov trg 2, SI - 66230 Postojna, Slovenia origin the percolating water The paper gives the observation progressively improved. After good results of pollution coming from the three years of washing (annual karst surface through 100 m thick amount of precipitations is 1700 mm) limestones into the underground of we may assess minor pollution only Postojnska jama at the time of active at the trickles with very slow and pollution (communal waste water) in weak exchange of water. the years 1988-91 and later when the origin of pollution was removed and Environmental impacts on the cave ceiling underwent transport calcareous water-bearing controlled washing and cleaning. formations in Tunisia The pollution advanced together with M. Hamza rainwater into the karst interior. Thus CRDA- Route de Nefta-2200- Tozeur, Tunisia in Posiojnska jama on the area of Calcareous water bearing formations about 20 m of diameter at four constitute potential aquifers in permanent trickles we assessed Tunisia. Their outcrops cover about various stages of pollution. We 32% of the surface of the country. In mostly concentrated on detection of most areas, they stretch out deeply essentially increased specific under a sedimentary cover. They are electrical conductivity, increased particularly developed in NW, nitrates, phosphates, sulfates and Center-West, and SE regions of hardness contents and minor increase Tunisia. It is a matter of fractured of chlorides and organic pollution and fissured carbonated layers with (chemical oxygen demand). As a different age.s: Jurassic, Cretaceous comparison we used a near and Eocene. unpolluted trickle. The Expljitable renewable resources are communication of the surface with estimated as 430 MnrVyear, they the cave was better explained by the represent 36.7% of the total tracing experiment, the tracer was resources of Tunisian deep aquifers. injected on the point of pollution. The replenishment of these The test indicated variously calcareous aquifers is provided by permeable conduits leading to precipitation, and the groundwater 98 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey discharges from springs are Ecology and pedogenesis of karstic significant. The quality of calcareous lands in Turkey groundwater is usually good and is in I. Atalay demand for the industry, as mineral Department of Geography, Buca Faculty of water and for the water supply of the Education, Dokuz Eyliil University, Buca, population. The exploitation of Izmir-Turkey calcareous aquifers is made by the Karstic areas of southwestern and means of tapping of springs or western Turkey have special galleries and of digging wells for importance in terms of ecology and buried structures. Water use at pedogenesis. As a result of carbonate present is about 355 MmVyear from dissolution soils are developed from the 861.3 MmVyear produced by the the clay residues (impurities) and whole deep aquifers in 1992. they are in clayey texture. These karstic aquifers are very As the soils can not be preserved on vulnerable considering that their the steep slopes of the karstic lands, recharge area is on the surface or they are found along the cracks and situated under a covering of variable between the bedding surfaces in the thickness and permeability. Already, karstic regions both in Mediterranean in some aquifer structures, signs of and Aegean regions. When water contamination have emerged and penetrates into cracks and diffuses chemical quality of exploited into sedimentary layers, locally groundwater has begun to deteriorate weathering processes take place. of areas with problems. Examples These soils are common on the cited in newspapers are as follows: western part of the Taurus Sraa Ouertane: where groundwater mountains. As a result, the formation contains a high concentration of of soils proceeds in situ along the cracks and within the layers and not nitrates increase as a result of the use necessarily related to the of nitrate fertilizer. transportation of soil materials from Bulla Regia: where groundwater higher elevations. contains a high concentration of salts because of the proximity to salty Sedimentology and mineralogy of the outcrops. limestone in the karstic region are also important factor that control the "Complexe Terminal" aquifer of nature of the soils. Soils are generally Nefzaoua: where the groundwater thin and stony on the massive and salinity raises progressively less cracked limestone. While soils according to the exploitation are thick and common within the increase. densely cracked/fissured limestone This problem of evolution of and especially those that have groundwater quality of calcareous alternating layers of marl and sandy- aquifers suggests to set up a strategy silty layers. to preserve this quality. Soil particles move towards the deeper parts of the limestone as a 99 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters S Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey result of the widening of the lapies (analyzing) of microelements in these which are mostly formed along the case even by modern method like crack. In these areas transportation of atomic absorption is rather labor- the soil particles takes place in the consuming (difficult) because of low vertical direction. concentrations of metals and highly The oxidation process and/or the salt background. reddening of soil brings about easily Development of highly sensitive and in the limestone in comparison with at the same time the express-method the other parent materials, since the of determination of metals in natural cracked structure of limestone leads waters is the aim of present work. to water and air circulation in good The investigation included the conditions. Presence of pyrite in following steps: limestone can very much accelerate (1) Development of effective this process. Most of the red soils in (efficient) and rapid method of the karstic land may have developed metals preconcentration during the Tertiary and hot and (2) Optimization of concentrating humid periods of the Quaternary condition and determination time. The thick soils which are found (analyzing) of metals by the method within the limestone clearly testify of A AS. the paleoclimatic conditions. Last time more and more application The existence of the dense forest is found for the polymeric helatic communities reflect the favorable absorbents, containing the same ecological conditions of karstic lands functionally-analytic groups and with respect soil formation and easily possessing the similar helatoforming developing of root systems of trees in properties like corresponding the Taurus mountains. monomolecular organic reagents. Determination of hard metals For carrying out of efficient and traces in groundwaters and quantitative concentrating of hard influence of environment metals, characterized by great T.A. Iskanderov and N.N. Chernova volume capacity of passing sohdion Institute of Chemistry, Turkmenistan and adequate quantitative desorption Academy of Science, 744012 Soviet of metals into the minimal element's Pogranichnikov sir., N-92, Ashgabat, volume and by the possibility of Turkmenistan carrying out multiple sorption - The determination of microelements desorbtion cycles, by high dynamic in highly mineralized natural waters of sorbents volume the following is of great importance for sorbent was carried out: polystyrol - understanding the formation of methylene - imino - 4 - nitro- 6 - precipitation, chemical elements sulphophenyl.- balance in the Earth cheath, and also For the quantitative extraction of the for estimation of ecological situation. microelements, being found in the The straight determination natural waters in different forms, 100 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey before concentration they are Floridan aqaifer discussed in this transferred into the labile forms. paper occurs within the "Marginal The method of the group Zone" formed by the retreat of an concentration of the hard metals (Mn, escarpment due to surface water Fe, Zn, Cr, Pb, Co, Cd, Ni, and Cu) erosion. This transition zone is in the static conditions in the natural situated between the Northern waters with the application of the Highlands plateau (-150 m asl) in polymeric helatic sorbent has been which the Floridan aquifer is under studied. The optimum conditions of confined conditions due to the sorption are when pH=5-6 for Mn, overlying clay and sand deposits, and Fe; 9, 5-10 for another elements. the Western Valley (15-30 m asl) Relative standard deviation of the where it is overlain by a thin blanket atomic absorbing derivation of the of sand. Allogenic surface waters toxic microelements, being analyzed, originating from the non-carbonate does not change within the limits rocks of the Northern Highlands have from 0.01 to 0.07. resulted in discrete recharge points and extensive karstification in the Environmental impacts of an Marginal Zone. The area is allogenic surface water- represented by numerous sinking groundwater system on the streams, dolines of various sizes, Floridan aquifer closed karst prairies, and karst D. P. Spangler and C. Denizman resurgences. Point recharge to the University of Florida, Geology Department, Floridan aquifer occurs via discrete Gainesville, Florida, USA conduits connected to well-developed This paper attempts to discuss phreatic cave systems of anastomotic environmental problems caused by pattern. The overall structure of the urbanization and industrialization on karst system is further complicated a karst terrain in North Central by paleokarst horizons developed Florida with special emphasis on the during low sea-level stands. potential of groundwater Nevertheless, the close interaction between surface waters and many contamination due to surface water - spring systems has been established groundwater interactions in a karst by speleological research and system. groundwater tracing experiments. The Floridan aquifer, consisting of Based on the accumulated data and highly karstified Tertiary carbonate information provided by previous rocks, and known as one of the most studies, this paper presents typical productive karst aquifers in the cases of environmental degradation world, is subject to severe in karst areas and addresses the roles environmental hazards due to high of geology, hydrochemistry, population growth. It underlies the geomorphology, and anthropogenic whole Florida peninsula and is the impacts in these processes. main source of drinking water in most of the State. The part of the 101 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10 • 20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey HYDROLOGY determine the independency and normality of the data. The regression Evapotranspiration from karstic coefficient, standard error, different mountain grassland percent, and slope of regression line J. Porhemmat1 and E. Raeisi" are the statistical parameters being Ashayer Organization Office, Hedayet used to determine the accuracy of the Cross, Flestin Avenue, Shiraz, Iran mentioned equations. Department of Geology, College of Sciences, The results reveal that the Blaney- Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran Criddle and Turc equations are the The karstic formation which build most suitable methods. Penman, high ridges due to tectonic activity VanBawel, Priestley-Taylor, are one of the important water Hargreaves-Samani, and resources in the south of Iran. The Thornthwaite methods were objective of this study is to estimate calibrated for the study area. The the evapotranspiration and crop crop coefficient curve of regional coefficient of karstic mountain pasture was proposed by using actual grassland which is a very valuable and potential evapotranspiration. factor in a karst aquifer water budget. A climatological station was set up at Stochastic response of karst an elevation of 2810 m in 1991. aquifers to rainfall and Temperature, relative humidity, evaporation, Maharlu basin, Iran precipitation, pan evaporation, wind N. Samani and H. Sahraei-Parizi speed, and sunshine duration were Geol. Dept., Shiraz University, Shiraz, Iran measured daily for a period of one Maharlu karst basin with an year. The actual evapotranspiration approximate surface area of 400 km2 was estimated by the difference of is located in central part of Fars soil water content during a no- Province, Iran (29°, 30'- 29°, 50' N, rainfall interval. 52°, 10'-52°, 30' E). The basin falls The equations by Penman (1963), in zone three (simple folded belt) of Jensen-Haise (1963), Priestley- the Zagros orogeny. The exposed Taylor (1972), Hargreaves-Samani geological formations in decreasing (1985), Thornthwaite (1948), order of age consist of Pabdeh-Gurpi Cristiansen-Khosravi (1972), shales and marls, Sachun VanBawel (1965), Turc (1961), and gypsiferous, Asmari-Jahrum Blaney-Criddle modified by FAO limestone and dolomite and Razak (1977) are selected to estimate evaporates. The well karstified potential evapotranspiration. Class A Asmari-Jahrum formation covers pan using doorenbos and pruitts about 40 percent of the area with coefficients was chosen as a criterion huge reservoirs of karst water, for comparing accuracy of the including Sabzposhan aquifer. This selected methods. Auto correlation, aquifer is discharged by a number of Kolmogrov-Smironov, and Chi- production wells and few major square test were used respectively to springs. Due to lack of vegetation, 102 International Symposium S Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey discharge through transpiration is Protection, Authority of R SLO, Vojkova 1 B, practically zero. Ljubljana 61000, Slovenia For geological reasons, salt water The objective of our research was to intrusion takes place in the aquifer determine the base flow recharge and as a result Pol-e-Brengi spring dynamics of some karst aquifers in reaches an EC value of 1554 SW Slovenia. Three major karst (Xmhos/cm. Other springs and also aquifers, situated in close proximity production wells have lower value of to one another, were included into EC ranging between 400 to 60 the research: the aquifers of the mhos/cm. The main recharge source Vipava, Hubelj and Podroteja. Their of karst aquifer is rainfall. In order to recharge areas lie in the Trnovski establish a relation between rainfall Gozd plateau with prevailing and evaporation with groundwater altitudes between 700 and 1000m levels and springs discharge, time- a.s.l. series techniques both in time and In water dynamics modeling, the frequency domains are employed. exponential model was used. Data on The results of study are presented as oxygen isotope composition of correlograms, spectrums, phase precipitation on aquifer recharge diagrams, coherency-diagrams and areas were modeled and the results cross-correlograms. A time lag of 1-3 were compared with measurements months distinguished between of isotope composition of spring base rainfall occurrence and groundwater flow waters. Due to different time response and springs discharge. spans between individual sampling periods, an appropriate time Very low cross-correlation correction of input data was used. coefficient and low coherency indicate that water table in Modeled results are in good Sabzposhan aquifer bears no accordance with measured data, relationship to evaporation. The time which leads to the conclusion that the lag gives some indication of flow exponential model can adequately path length and the extent of describe the accumulation and karstification in the aquifer. The time discharge of base flow reservoirs of lag together with geological evidence karst aquifers. Data on the average may be used to propose preventive groundwater retention time and base measures for salt-water intrusion of flow rate were also used to estimate springs in the area. the volumes of base flow reservoirs of individual springs. Base flow retention time determination of some karst springs in Slovenia J. Urbane1, J. Pezdic', and A. Juren2 'Geological Survey, Dimiceva 14, Ljubljana 61000, Slovenia 1Uprava RS ZA Varstvo Narave, Nature 103 International Symposium & Field Seminar on "Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Assesment of the karst spring non-karst river basins has been contributions of Lamas basin carried out. modelled by exponential functions Data from six hydrometric stations A. Alkan1, N. Keloglu2, B. Kaya1, U. located in different karst basins and Ozi§', Y. Ansoy1, and E. Benzeden' from two stations located in two different non-karst basins in Turkey Dokuz Eylul University, Civil Eng. Dept, Izmir, Turkey were selected. ~DSI 5. Regional Directorate, Ankara, Turkey Under the assumption that Based on recession hydrograph dimensionless peak floods follow a during dry periods, in the exponential Type-I external (Gumbel) form, reciprocal exponential distribution, it has been shown that functions, a decreasing one for the the presence of effluents originating dry period of 6 to 7 months, an from karst springs reduces increasing one for the wet period of 5 significantly the intensity of floods. to 6 months, was proposed to model This reduction effect reflects that, in the karst related part of the the frequency distribution, a small deterministic component of river rise of the flood discharge runoff with significant karst spring corresponds to a considerably large effluents whereas the surface runoff increase of the return period. part of the deterministic component will be represented by periodical Snowmelt effects on flow in Upper Fourier functions, covering only the Zamanti river basin of Tiirkiye wet period (Keloglu 1984, 1985, and 1. Giirer' and 6. M. Yava§2 1988). Gazi University, Engineering and This approach is applied to daily Architectural Faculty, Civil Engineering flow series of Lamas basin at the Department, Maltepe, Ankara, Tjkiye Kizilgecit station, in order to analyze Republic of Turkey, Ministry of Public Works and Settlement, General Directorate of and assess the karst spring effluents Disaster Affairs, Lodumlu, Ankara, Tiirkiye of this interesting basin. The contribution of snowmelt as Flood peak reducing effects of direct runoff can be estimated by the karst analysis of hydrologic budget E. Benzeden, U. Ozi§, A. Alkan, and S. components or statistical approaches (Olcay) Tuncay using data such as snow layer Civil Engineering Department, Faculty of thickness, snow density, snow water Engineering, Dokuz Eylul University, equivalent, percentage of the Bornova 35100, Izmir, Turkey drainage area covered by snow, and In order to evaluate the flood air temperature, etc. reduction effect of karst on the In case of the contribution to the floods, a comparison of the subsurface flow through conduits, the frequency distribution of separation of hydrograph is more dimensionless annual peak floods difficult in karstic areas. Besides the (flood indices) between karst and methods of the snowmelt hydrograph 104 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts', September 10-20, 1995 Antalya - Turkey separation for non-karstic areas are development and operation. Karst not directly applicable in karstic spring effluents are emerging at recharge areas. several locations near the river bed In spring thaws, the water produced and are not readily measured by by melting at the bottom of the snow direct hydrometric methods. Hence, layer as well as that comes from the indirect evaluations, based on surface of the snow cover enters the modular runoff rates, and/or linear enlarged cracks or other features to regression equations, and/or reach the main conduits and then exponential mathematical models are contributes to the main spring used to estimate the characteristics, discharges. Statistical analysis of especially the average base flow rates discharge data of the springs do not of karst spring effluents. The results completely reveal the contribution of are summarized for all involved the snow pack because snowmelt hydrometric gaging stations in the contribution to base flow may Mediterranean, Goksu, Seyhan, continue over the dry season Ceyhan, Euphrates, and Tigris basins according to prevailing in Turkey. meteorological conditions. How much precipitation on A case study is presented for Upper Manavgat karst? Zamanti subbasin of Seyhan river A.S. Wain located between central and southern Knight Piesold and Partners, Ashford, UK Anatolia. The perennial snow cover is found on average at an elevation of Annual water balances of Manavgat about 1400 m (a.m.s.l.) and surface subcatchments (rainfall 1500 according to snow data collected to 1700 mm, runoff up to 8240 mm) from 14 snow courses, extending infer that total contributing areas are from 1978 to 1992, the snow cover many times larger than surface reaches an average depth of 925 mm, catchment areas. This is not disputed with a mean density of 290 kg/m3. but in such remarkable circumstances it is argued that improved assessment Average base flow rates of karst of areal rainfall in the mountainous spring effluents in Turkey catchment is essential, and should not T. Baran, N. Harmancioglu, and U. Ozi§ be delayed, for the purposes of karst Dokuz Eyliil University, Civil Eng. Dept, research and development planning Bornova, Izmir, Turkey and environmental impact assessment Karst springs contribute significantly of development proposals. A to streamflow along a belt extending preliminary proposal for a rainfall from Dalaman to Tigris basins in research program-increasing the rain southern Turkey. Since a large part gauge network from seven to 37 of the country's water resources are gauges, with some additional ground in karst regions, studies to identify level gauges for estimating errors in the effects of karst formations are of catches of standard gauges is made great importance for their appropriate for the purpose of stimulating debate. 105 International Symposium & Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters & Environmental Impacts", September 10-20, 1995 Antalya • Turkey Determination of the surface flow recession hydrograph which component by seperation of continuous until the following rising groundwater and interflow hydrographs. components using mathematical Exponential discharge function have simulation models based on been used for modeling the karst exponential discharge functions in spring baseflows separately. These river flows with significant karstic functions have been defined by the spring effluents parameters estimated directly from t. Au§ flows in the recession hydrographs of DSl 2. Bulge MUdurlugii, 35100 Bornova, the dry period. In the period the Izmir, Turkey parameters are determined by In the presented study underground considering the beginning and the storage outputs, which constitute end of two successive recession karstic baseflows and interflows, hydrographs. have been represented by a Manavgat river basin is situated in a conceptual model using the karst environment where the exponential discharge function of a effluents of the karst spring single linear reservoir in a river fed considerably contribute to the river by karstic spring flows. The approach flows. The method has been applied considered reflects the physical to the daily flows of Homa stream structure of the basin since the gaging station to separate the total discharge coefficient is included as flows into their components during an important parameter of the karst the period between 1964 -1982. environment. Within this period, the average total The flow processes is considered in flow of Homa is 139.4 nrVs and it has two periods of wet and dry months of been found that it involves 62% of the year. It has been assumed that the total flow (86.6 m3/s) as karst spring parameters of dry period, which are baseflow, as 22% interflow (31.2 determined by means of the recession nrVs) and 16% as surface flow (21.7 hydrograph, are also valid in the wet m7s). period. The total of the karst spring flow and interflow in the wet period In a river fed by karstic springs, the has been determined by a model analysis of surface flows obtained by which has successive recession subtracting the spring baseflow and hydrographs in a stepped structure interflow components from the total and by using the parameters of the flows, is significant in research dry period. With an increase in the studies on frequency analysis and total flows, the model outputs that precipitation - surface flow trans- represent the sum of the karst spring formation in karstic basins. This is flow and interflow reflect increased due to the fact that such surface values as a result of precipitation flows are clear of any effects of contributing to the underground karstic spring flows and interflows. storage. This period is followed by a 106 International Symposium 8. Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts' September 10-20 1995 Antafya • Turtey AUTHOR INDEX Abbasi. A A 96 Cotecchia, V. 84 Afonso, A. R. A. 18 Csepregi, A. 56 Aghassi, A. V. 73 Cetiner, Z. 5 Ahmadipour. MR. 72 Cobanyildizi, S. D 76 Alekperov, A. B. 70 Damyanov. G. 54 Aliev. F S 17 Dassargues, A. 80 Alkan, A. 105 Davies, G J 79 Almomani, M 97 Denizman, C. 64, 102 Antiguedad, I 25 Dever, L. 30 Ansoy, Y. 105 Degirmenci, M. 21,76,85 Ad?, 1. 107 Diboun, M. 69 Atalay, 1 100 Dilsiz, C. 5 Basaran, N. 45 Dimitrov. D. 5, 6, 26 Bakalowicz, M 3 Doerfliger, N. 82 Baker, R. 64 Dogan, A.U. 7,85 Balderer, W. 38.75 Dogan, M. 7,85 Baran, T. 106 Dragicevic, I. 95 Barlas. E. 21 Dragisic, V. 35,93 Barner, W. 68 Drewes. D. 94 Bauer, B. 54 Dreybrodt, W. 27 Bayan, C.S. 35.60 Drost, W. 23, 47, 83 Behrens, H. 83 Dumlu, O. 58 Belaadi, S. 69 Eisenlohr, T. 38 Bendjamaa, Z. 84 Eiswirth, M. 49 Benischke, R. 13 Ekmekci, M. 5, 60, 85, 92 Benzeden, E 105 El-Bedewy, F. 60 Bilgin, A. 77 Elhatip, H. 5,20 Biondic. B. 2 EIRamly, I. M. 6 Birsoy, Y.K. 58,76 Erduran, B. 85 Blinov, S. M 34 Fagundo, JR. 29 Blount, G. C. 46 Fank, J. 40 Bojilova, E. K. 55 Farhoudi, G. 97 Bonacci, O. 53 Farid, M. S. 71 Brouyere, S. 80 Federov, Y.A. 44 Buck. M. J. 67 Fischer, H. 54 Buter. P.B. 85 Fischer, J. A. 10,94 Butler, G. 64 Fischer, J. J. 10 Calaforra, J.M. 6 Ford, D. C. 24, 30, 67 Calvache, ML. 6,29 Georgiadis, P. 42 Campana, ME. 52 Ghaffari, A. R. 96 Canace, R. 10 Goatti, V. 80 Cent, O. 76 Gorbunova, K.A. 33 Chernova, N.N. 101 Grasso, A. 75 Chicano, M. Lopez 29 Guangchan, F. 37 Into/national Symposium I Field Seminar on 'KarsI Waters I Environmental Impacts' September 10-20, 1995 Affiant - Turtty Guangye, C. 62 Khasibulin. S. 78 Guijun, Y. 56 Kincaid, T. R. 15 Gunay, G. 5.60. 72, 92 Klimchouk, A. 60 Gunn, J. 87 Knithakis, M. 36 Gupta, P.K. 9 Kogovsek, J. 99 GUrer, 1. 105 Kovac, L 23 Hamann, C. E. 54 Kovalevsky. V. S. 65 Hamza, M. 99 Kowalczyk. A. 57 Haouchine, A. 29 Koyuncu, H. 21 Harmancioglu, N. 106 Kurtta§, T. 35,60 Harris, M. K. 46 uaMoreaux, P.E. 1 Harum, T. 13,40 Lazar, C. 49 Hassan, T. M. 95 Legheraba, D. E. 69,84 Herold, T. 75 LeGrand, H. 1 Hess, J. W. 59 Leon, L. F. M. 55 Hlevnjak, B. 95 Leontiadis, I. L. 42 Hdtzl, H. 25,49,50 Lian, L. 56 Hunter, C. 87 Linhua, S. 63,73 Huntoon, P. W. 89,91 Lohnert, E.P. 22 Iranmanesh, F. 96 Lopcz-Chicano, M. 6 Iskanderov, T. 78, 101 Maachi, R. 84 Issaadi, A. 29 Machkova, M. 6,26,54 Issar, A. 61 Malik, P. 65 Iurkiewicz, A. 74 Maloszewski, P. 25 Ivicic, D. 81 Mamurekli, D. 78 Jeannin, P.Y. 75 Marinos, P. G. 11 Ji-Yang, W. 74 Marlin, C. 30 Jiexin, Y. 32 Marques, J. A. 18 Jikun. Y. 56 Maximovich, N.G. 33,34" Jintao. W. 33 Mayer, D. 95 Jordan. P. 75 McCann, M. R. 79 Jumamuradov, B. 78,86 Merkl, G. 48,83 Juren. A. 104 Merkler, G. P. 49 Kacaroglu. F. 76 Mijatovic, B.F. 23 Kamaci, Z. 20 Milanovic, P. 10 Karagiizel, R. 77 Mohammadzadeh, H. 96 Karami. G.H. 27 Moore. F. 27 Karaogullarindan, T. 45 Morell, I. 29 Kannann. I. 30 Muller, R. 14 KSss. W. 22 Nazik, M. 45 Kataev. V. N. 34 Netter, R. 48,83 Kawadas. M 11 Nikolaou, E. 42 Kaya. B. 105 Onak, A. 58 Kazcmi. H. 31 Oran, S. 58 Kelog.u. N. 5, 105 Oraseanu, I. 74 Keppler. A. 47 Orth, J. P. 48,83 Khalil. J 95 Onder, M. 19 Symposium t Field Seminar on 'Karst Waters i Environmental Impacts'. September 10 -20. 1995 Antalya - Turkey Onhon, E. 45 Stichler, W. 36 öziş, Ü. 105, 106 Şen,Z. 28 özkul, M. 77 Şimşek, Ş. 5 P. G. Dietrich and D. Hebert 40 Taşdelen, S. 77 Papic, P. 35 Tagiev, II. 17 Parfenov, S. I. 19 Tavitian, C. 71 Pelen, N. 45 Tercan, A. E. 78 Penchev, P. 6 Teutsch, G. 53 Pezdic, J. 104 Thayer, P. A. 46 Pfister, M. 38 Timofte, L. 30 Pingsheng, Z. 37,62 Tiniakos, L. 71 Plantic, K. 53 Tranter, J. 87 Polemio, M. 84 Trettnak, W. 13 Porhemmat, J. 103 Trimborn, P. 50 Probst, M. 36 Tuncay (Olcay), S. 105 Pulido-Bosch, A. 2, 6, 29 Urbane, J. 104 Qingxiang, B. 56 Urumovic, K. 95 Quinlan, J. F. 79 Urzendowski, L. D. 59 Rachi, H. 13 Vachier, P. 30 Raeisi, E. 27, 97, 103 Vazdar, T. 95 Rajagopal, R. 7 Velikov, B. 6,26 Randazzo, A.F. 64 Wain, AS. 106 Rauert, W. 83 Weizu, G. 37,62 Reichert, B. 50 Wenbo, L. 56 Reininger, F. 13 Werner, A. 25 Renner, S. 17 Witkowski, A. 57 Rodriguez Rubio, J.E. 29 Worthington, S. R. H. 24,67 Rongan, F. 37 Xu, S. H. 52 Roth, J.G. 52 Yaoru, L. 91,98 Saati, M. E. 73 Yavaş, Ö. M. 105 Sahraei-Parizi, H. 103 Yeşertener, C. 5, 39, 44 Samani, N. 103 Yu Zhu, X. 52 Santos, F. A. M. 18 Yüce, G. 45 Saraç, C. 78 Yuesuo, Y. 32 Sarin, A. 80 Zaghloul, E. A. 71 Sarvary, I. 12 Zamani, A. 13 Sauter, M. 17 Zamanov, Y. D. 17 Sayed, M. A. A. 8 Zare, M. 96 Sevük, Ö.F. 85 Zengping, L. 56 Sharafi, A. 97 Zhang, D. 54 Shekinski, E. M. 70 Zhimuo, J. 37 Shulan, P. 43 Zhou, N. Q. 52 Singh, T.N. 9 Zojer, H. 36 Smart. C. C 24 Zwahlen, F. 3,82 Smyrniotis, C. H. 42 Spangler, D. P. 102 Stevanovic, Z. 35,93sediment and indurated sandy and P. A. Thayer , M. K. Harris , and G. C. muddy limestone. Blount2 Core data coupled with loss of Department of Earth Sciences, University of circulation and rod drops during North Carolina at Wilmington, 601 South College Road, Wilmington, 601 South drilling indicate that the limestones College Road, Wilmington, NC 28403-3297, contain erratic zones of vuggy USA porosity. The hydraulic 2 Westinghouse Savannah River Company, conductivities of the vuggy P.O. Box616, Aiken, SC29802, USA limestones are often significantly The Savannah River Site (SRS), higher than the surrounding located in the inner Atlantic Coastal terrigenous and calcareous Plain pysiographic province, covers unconsolidated sediments. approximately 800 km2 in Groundwater monitoring well data southwestern South Carolina. The and modeling studies indicate the SRS is operated by the U.S. presence of isolated flow paths Department of Energy and was set within the limestones that are aside in 1950 as a controlled area for different in flow direction and the production of nuclear material for gradient when compared to the national defense. Past industrial surrounding sediments. In addition, activities at the SRS have resulted in contaminant data supports the soil and groundwater contamination hypothesis that the vuggy limestones at localized sites. serve as conduits for transport of The sedimentary sequence at the SRS contaminants. ranges from Cretaceous tc Holocene * Information in this investigation was developed under contract DE-AC09-89SR18035 with US in age and consists of uncunsolidated Department of Energy. sand, silt, clay, and minor mixed terr enous-carbonate sediment with