Sustinere, Volume 1 (2021), No. 1, pp. 26-52

Secondary Education in Ontario: Effective Strategies for Prejudice Reduction Between Indigenous and Non-Indigenous Communities — Prepared for Ministry of Education of Government of Ontario

JENNIFER HAN

This policy brief uses the lens of prejudice reduction to scrutinize Ontario’s secondary education curriculum in efforts to promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities in Canada. Ever since the founding of Canada, Indigenous peoples have experienced prejudice and discrimination in Canadian society. This paper argues that quality education promoting prejudice reduction is the most viable method to mitigate contemporary conflict and disputes between two communities such as the Coastal GasLink pipeline dispute and the Wet’suwet’en protest, residential school trauma, and overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the criminal justice system. Furthermore, it critically analyzes the current education system of Ontario to reveal the lack of availability of Native Studies, the dismissal of Indigenous values, and the recommendation of outdated textbooks that present the experiences of Indigenous peoples in a non-holistic narrative. The paper then insists on the implementation of school-based prejudice reduction strategies in the Ontario Curriculum that have been found effective in promoting peace in the Middle East through CISEPO and education programs for the Israeli-Palestinian conflict. Lastly, the paper recommends various teaching methods and updated resources to encourage holistic learning and understanding of Indigenous experiences in order to reduce prejudice and promote reconciliation between Indigenous and non- Indigenous communities. Han 27

SECTION 1: INTRODUCTION 1.1 What is Prejudice Reduction in Education? Prejudice reduction addresses potential intergroup conflict and attempts to forge a common identity between contentious communities in order to foster harmony and peaceful integration.1 In other words, this strategy allows individuals from different cultures to learn from each other and build relationships to understand multifaceted dimensions of ongoing tensions and resolve them peacefully. Since the 1600s, Indigenous peoples of Canada have been grossly mistreated by the Canadian government. The mistreatment ranges from the deprivation of Indigenous land and freedom to the establishment of the Indian residential schools, a nightmare still living in the memories of the community. In the midst of disruption, the education system can be an instrument of social change. It can facilitate prejudice reduction, transmit productive and practical knowledge, and establish inclusive social norms against prejudice, inequality, and discrimination.2 If quality education is not delivered to students, tensions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities could escalate, potentially fragmenting the nation and bringing disastrous consequences to both parties. To evaluate effective strategies of prejudice reduction in education, it is important to understand the complexity of ongoing challenges to Indigenous rights and inadequate government efforts to repair past wrongs. Quality education is the most viable means of reconciliation that can alleviate escalating tensions and promote peaceful integration.

1.2 Organization of the Policy Brief This policy brief approaches the development of effective school-based prejudice reduction strategies in a three-fold manner. First, current challenges faced by Indigenous communities such as the disenfranchisement of land rights, persistent

1 Arie W. Kruglanski et al, “What Should this Fight Be Called? Metaphors of Counter- Terrorism and Their Implications,” Psychological Science in the Public Interest 8, no.3 (2007): 118-121. This article is known for using prejudice reduction as a metaphor of counterterrorism, which focuses on terrorism arising from intergroup conflicts.

2 James Lynch, Prejudice reduction and the schools, (London: Cassell & Co., 1987), 85. Han 28 suffering and trauma from residential schools, and gross overrepresentation of Indigenous peoples in the Canadian criminal justice system, will be examined. The section will then be followed by a discussion about the value of the education system in alleviating these challenges. Second, there will be a critical analysis of the Government of Canada’s response and the revised Ontario Curriculum to assess the extent of the implementation of Calls to Action. Furthermore, the paper will scrutinize the 2005-2013 Ontario Canadian and World Studies Curriculum and two of Ontario’s newly revised curricula, revealing the lack of interest and availability of Native Studies, the dismissal of Indigenous knowledge and beliefs, and the recommendation of outdated textbooks that present the experiences of Indigenous peoples in a non-holistic narrative. After establishing that the education system needs to do better to provide students with tools for critical thinking, successful case studies of prejudice reduction employed in the Middle East, such as CISEPO and unique education programs to mitigate the Israeli-Palestinian tension in schools, will be used as interpretive frameworks for the Ontario Ministry of Education to apply these strategies in its curriculum. The paper will conclude with policy recommendations to reduce prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities, including the invitation of Indigenous Elders to classrooms, different teaching styles and activities to increase engagement, and a variety of learning materials that introduce Indigenous content in a deeper context.

SECTION 2: CONFLICT BETWEEN INDIGENOUS AND NON- INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES 2.1 The Coastal GasLink Pipeline Dispute and the Wet’suwet’en Protest Ever since the European settlers arrived in Canada, Indigenous peoples have experienced discrimination, marginalization, and disadvantages that persist in Canadian society, characterized by consumerism and profit. Even though Canada attempts to reconcile and build respectful relationships with Indigenous communities by acknowledging its past wrongs, Indigenous peoples continue to be deprived of their land and resources, evident in the case of the Coastal GasLink pipeline dispute in Han 29

British Columbia. In 2020, there was a conflict between the Canadian government and Wet’suwet’en Nation, centred around the path of the Coastal GasLink pipeline that needed to pass through traditional Wet’suwet’en territory. The pipeline company argued that this project should be approved since it signed agreements with all First Nations band councils involved. However, the band councils have no authority over traditional Indigenous territories because their authority only comes from the Indian Act. The hereditary chiefs who have that authority were rejecting the construction of the pipeline.3 Even though British Columbia was the first province to implement the UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples in their legislation, the Supreme Court of British Columbia issued an injunction in January 2020, forcing the Wet’suwet’en Nation to comply with the project.4 In response, protests and rail blockades resisting the construction took place across Canada followed by RCMP raids,5 and the Wet’suwet’en hereditary chiefs issued an eviction notice to the pipeline contractors.6 The dispute de- escalated in May 2020 when the hereditary chiefs struck “an unprecedented deal” with the federal and provincial governments on Wet’suwet’en rights and title.7 Yet, there remains ongoing disputes regarding the pipeline as the hereditary chiefs continue to

3 Chantelle Bellrichard and Jorge Barrera, “What you need to know about the Coastal GasLink pipeline conflict,” CBC News, February 5, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/indigenous/ wet-suwet-en-coastal-gaslink-pipeline-1.5448363. Band councils only have authority over their individual reserves.

4 Bethany Lindsay, “B.C. Supreme Court grants injunction against Wet’suwet’en protesters in pipeline standoff,” CBC News, December 31, 2019, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british- columbia/bc-injunction-coastal-gaslink-1.5411965. The UN Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples demands free, prior, and informed consent of Indigenous peoples. See United Nations General Assembly resolution 61/295, United Nations Declaration on the Rights of Indigenous Peoples, A/RES/61/295 (September 13, 2007), https://www.un.org/esa/socdev/unpfii/ documents/DRIPS_en.pdf.

5 Leyland Cecco, “Canada: Wet’suwet’en sign historic deal to negotiate land rights,” The Guardian, May 15, 2020, https://www.theguardian.com/world/2020/may/15/canada-wetsuweten- historic-deal-land-rights-pipeline.

6 Joel Dryden, “Hereditary First Nation chiefs issue eviction notice to Coastal GasLink contractors,” CBC News, January 5, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/calgary/wet-suwet-en- coastal-gaslink-na-moks-1.5415586.

7 Cecco, “Canada: Wet’suwet’en sign historic deal.” Han 30 oppose its construction.8

2.2 Residential School Trauma The legacy of the residential school system lives on through intergenerational trauma affecting survivors and their families. From the mid-1800s until the 1970s when residential schools were abolished, more than 150,000 Indigenous children were separated from their families and forced into the residential school system according to Canada’s assimilation policy.9 The objective was to “deal with the Indian problem”10 and “kill the Indian in the child.”11 In residential schools, children were deprived of their language, culture, and identity, while being subjected to poor living conditions, second-rate education, and systemic physical, sexual, and spiritual abuse.12 This “internalized colonization” fostered a sense of self-hatred and shame for Indigenous peoples, which resulted in low self-esteem, depression, loneliness, post-traumatic stress disorder, and suicide even after residential schools were abolished.13 In May 2021, more than 200 bodies of children were found buried under the grounds of the former Kamloops Indian Residential School, the largest residential school in Canada.14 The discovery of the bodies has brought back the trauma suffered by the survivors and their families, where one survivor stated that “the death

8 Betsy, Trumpener, “A year after Wet’suwet’en blockades, Coastal GasLink pipeline pushes on through pandemic,” CBC News, February 5, 2021, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/british- columbia/coastal-gaslink-pipeline-bc-wet-suwet-en-pandemic-1.5898219.

9 “More than 200 bodies found at Indigenous school in Canada,” CBS News, May 31, 2021, https://www.cbsnews.com/news/215-bodies-found-canada-indigenous-school/.

10 Dawn Smith, Colleen Varcoe, and Nancy Edwards, “Turning Around the Intergenerational Impact of Residential Schools on Aboriginal People: Implications for Health Policy and Practice,” Canadian Journal of Nursing Research 37, no.4 (2005): 40.

11 A famous phrase that has been associated with Canada’s residential school system.

12 Smith, Varcoe, and Edwards, “Turning Around,” 40.

13 Lisa Monchalin, “Canadian Aboriginal peoples victimization, offending and its prevention: Gathering the evidence,” Crime Prevention and Community Safety 12, no. 2 (2010): 122-123.

14 “More than 200 bodies,” CBC News. Han 31 reopen[ed] old wounds that never fully healed.”15 Moreover, she urged the Canadian government to listen to stories and experiences that survivors repeatedly share because she believed that the reconciliation process is not being taken seriously at the provincial and the federal level. Furthermore, she stressed that not enough work and effort is being put into healing the members of Indigenous communities.16

2.3. High Incarceration Rates To cope with the pain and trauma of residential schools and colonization, the members of Indigenous communities have turned to drugs, alcohol, and gambling, thus becoming vulnerable to physical and sexual violence, prostitution, and poverty.17 As a result, they are overrepresented as both victims and offenders within the criminal justice system. Even though the Indigenous population only makes up about 5% of Canada’s population, they account for 30% of the population of the penitentiary – Indigenous women accounting for at least 42% of the federal inmate population.18 While there are many underlying factors, enduring racism, bias, and discrimination in the criminal justice system have been responsible for imposing more serious and longer sentences on Indigenous peoples.19 To address these challenges faced by Indigenous communities, discrimination against Indigenous peoples needs to be addressed not only in the judicial system, but

15 Rachel Bergen, “Manitobans honour and mourn 215 children found buried at former B.C. residential school,” CBC News, May 30, 2021, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/manitoba/ residential-school-survivors-winnipeg-215-children-kamloops-1.6045993.

16 Bergen, “Manitobans honour and mourn.”

17 Monchalin, “Canadian Aboriginal peoples,” 123. These behaviours and mental health challenges get passed onto the next generations, perpetuating the legacy. These challenges would lead to a lack of family bonding, breeding conflicts and disconnection in the family. For more information about intergenerational transmission of mental health, see Smith, “Turning Around the Intergenerational Impact,” 52-53.

18 Chantelle Bellrichard, “Over-representation of Indigenous people in federal prisons reaches ‘disturbing’ historic high,” CBC News, January 21, 2020, https://www.cbc.ca/news/ indigenous/indigenous-overrepresentation-prison-oci-statement-1.5434712.

19 Bellrichard, “Over-representation.” Han 32 also in the healthcare system, government policies, and other social institutions.20 Most importantly, Ontario’s education system must shift away from Eurocentrism that is entrenched in its education and curricula. Instead, the education system should raise awareness about Indigenous experiences of colonization and teach students about Canada’s historical wrongs and injustices to challenge any bias and prejudice against Indigenous peoples.

SECTION 3: ASSESSMENT OF ONTARIO’S EDUCATION SYSTEM 3.1 Calls to Action and the Response of the Government of Canada In 2015, the Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada (TRC) published Calls to Action, which demanded government reforms at all levels of government, including education reforms to address the legacy of the residential school system and move forward with reconciliation.21 In response, the Government of Canada recently implemented numerous calls to action in their policies to demonstrate their dedication to meeting those demands.22 However, Canada’s responses to calls to action regarding “Education and Reconciliation” missed critical aspects of incorporating local knowledge into the development of the education curriculum. The Call to Action 62 demands all levels of government to make a mandatory K-12 education curriculum on “residential schools, Treaties, and Aboriginal peoples’ historical and contemporary contributions to Canada,” specifically “in consultation and collaboration with Survivors, Aboriginal peoples, and educators.”23 The Government of Canada has responded that it is currently

20 Monchalin, 124.

21 Truth and Reconciliation Commission of Canada, Calls to Action, (Winnipeg, MB: 2015), http://trc.ca/assets/pdf/Calls_to_Action_English2.pdf.

22 “Delivering on Truth and Reconciliation,” Government of Canada, https://www.rcaanc- cirnac.gc.ca/eng/1524494530110/1557511412801.

23 “Education for Reconciliation,” Government of Canada, https://www.rcaanc-cirnac.gc.ca/ eng/1524504501233/1557513602139. Under the same call, the TRC urges all levels of government to provide necessary funding to post-secondary institutions and Indigenous schools to educate teachers on how to integrate and utilize Indigenous knowledge and teaching methods into classrooms. It also urges the establishment of senior-level education positions dedicated to developing Indigenous content. Han 33 collaborating with the Council of Ministers of Education, Canada (CMEC) to enhance awareness of Indigenous history and culture for students and teachers.24 Nevertheless, it fails to mention the inclusion of Indigenous communities and Elders in the curriculum development process, thereby perpetuating the marginalization of Indigenous communities. Moreover, the Call to Action 63 urges the CMEC to develop learning resources and capacity-building measures for students and teachers for intercultural understanding and respect.25 In this case, the Government of Canada refused to comment by stating that it is “not the lead” on this call.26 Even though education falls under the jurisdiction of provincial governments, the Government of Canada and the CMEC could have made a positive contribution to improving learning outcomes by putting forth a public statement that encourages collaboration between provincial governments and Indigenous communities or by collecting and publishing data on the extent of Indigenous content in various courses to ensure accountability.27 This brief will demonstrate the need to implement Calls to Action into Ontario’s education system by highlighting the omission of critical Indigenous voices and perspectives in its past and current education curricula and learning resources.

3.2 2003-2015 Ontario Canadian and World Studies Curriculum The 2003-2015 Ontario Canadian and World Studies Curriculum provides crucial insight into the alarming ratio of optional and mandatory Indigenous content in

24 “Education for Reconciliation,” Government of Canada. Click on the “What’s Happening?” hyperlink to see the Government of Canada’s response.

25 “Education for Reconciliation,” Government of Canada.

26 “Education for Reconciliation,” Government of Canada.

27 Andrew Parkin, “Defining an appropriate federal role in education,” Policy Options, March 4, 2015, https://policyoptions.irpp.org/magazines/building-a-brighter-future/parkin/. Han 34

the Grades 9-12 curriculum. Table 128 presents the average mandatory coverage of Indigenous content across all non-required courses in all streams, which only adds up

28 Table 1 has been produced by the author. The data and structure of Table 1 were taken from Tables 1 and 2 from Laura M. Schaefli, Anne M. C. Godlewska, and John Rose, “Coming to Know Indigeneity: Epistemologies of Ignorance in the 2003-2015 Ontario Canadian and World Studies Curriculum,” Curriculum Inquiry 48, no.4 (2018): 480-481. Table 1 has been modified to include Grade 9/10 required courses and Grade 11/12 non-required courses. It is important to note that the average coverage across non-required courses in the 2003-2015 Ontario Curriculum do not include Grade 9/10 courses because they are all required. On a side note, the brackets beside each course name are course types. Academic and applied courses each have a different focus to match different post-secondary goals. As for higher level courses, they are divided into three streams: post-secondary preparation, workplace preparation, and open courses without any prerequisites. You can find more at “Understanding Types of Courses and Credits,” Ottawa Catholic School Board, https://www.ocsb.ca/course-types/. Han 35 to 1.9% while the optional coverage corresponds to 9%.29 Almost all mandatory coverage is concentrated in elementary school education; therefore, these results reveal that it is highly likely for students to graduate high school without any exposure to Indigenous topics after Grade 9 and 10 geography and history courses.30 Moreover, Indigenous content is placed in many history-oriented courses rather than in politics or law courses that deal with contemporary issues. For example, the American history course has high mandatory coverage, whereas courses such as Canadian and World Politics or Understanding Canadian Law have none.31 These trends are prevalent throughout four years of high school education, which is problematic because concentrating Indigenous content in history courses suggests that Indigenous issues are not relevant in contemporary Canadian society.32 Since 2015, the Ontario Ministry of Education has revised its curricula to reflect the TRC’s Calls to Action. However, the revision continues to present some critical flaws in the curricula.

3.3 Newly Revised Ontario Curricula: Statistics, Content, and Textbooks Although the Ministry of Education devised The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 to 12: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies, 2019 and The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 and 10 Canadian and World Studies, 2018 to increase Indigenous content, there are obvious gaps between the Ministry’s aspiring vision and the reality of the curricula. Notably, the revised First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies curriculum integrates rich Indigenous history, culture, and perspectives with citizenship education to build strong, respectful,

29 See Table 1. The percentages have been calculated by adding average mandatory coverage across non-required courses in all course types (1.1%+0.8%) and by adding average optional coverage across non-required courses in all course types (5.1%+3.9%).

30 Schaefli, Godlewska, and Rose, “Coming to Know Indigeneity,” 480.

31 See Table 1.

32 Schaefli, Godlewska, and Rose, 480. Han 36

and reciprocal partnerships between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities.33 However, Table 234 suggests that less than 1% of Ontario’s secondary students are estimated to be enrolled in one of the Native Studies courses because these courses are neither mandatory nor advantageous for students to take. Furthermore, these courses are offered in just 56% of high schools across Ontario, meaning that Native Studies are not accessible to all students.35 Indigenous content in The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 and 10 Canadian and World Studies, 2018 document is also problematic despite its recent revision. In particular, the Grade 9 Geography curriculum will be scrutinized in three aspects. First, the geography curriculum undermines the essential Indigenous views on territories and resources

33 See section “Vision” and “Goals” from Government of Ontario, Ministry of Education, The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 to 12: First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies, 2019 (Ontario: Ministry of Education, 2019), http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/First-nations-metis-inuit- studies-grades-9-12.pdf. First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies is formerly known as Native Studies. Both terms will be used in this brief.

34 Table 2 has been produced by the author. Enrollment data was taken from Government of Ontario, 2017-2018 Course Enrolment in Secondary Schools, (Ontario: 2018), https:// files.ontario.ca/opendata/mdc_enrol_1718_en_supp.txt. These First Nations, Metis, and Inuit Studies courses are specifically extracted from the data pool. Method of calculation was adding up all the numbers enrolled divided by the enrollment of twelve First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies courses (both English and French offered courses). With this calculation, it is estimated that about 0.67% of the Ontario high students take one of these courses.

35 See section “Indigenous Education” from People for Education, The new basics for public education, (Toronto, ON: 2018), https://peopleforeducation.ca/wp-content/uploads/2018/06/ AnnualReport18_Web.pdf. Han 37 while subtly reinforcing colonial narratives. For example, when students learn about Canadian resources and industries, one sample question asks, “Who do you think owns a resource, such as water or air, that crosses political borders? What view do First Nations people take of the ownership of such resources?”36 Indigenous land, resources, and rights to resources are undermined by this question as it asks students to consider the ownership of resources based on borders, which are products of colonialism, and asking for their opinion without the incorporation of Indigenous perspectives.37 Such questions can also influence students into believing that Indigenous peoples are preventing Canada’s economic growth by rejecting the extraction and development of resources, which can breed hostility.38 Second, Indigenous knowledge is reflected as its own isolated realm in the curriculum, suggesting that Indigenous knowledge has no relevance or value to other communities. In fact, the curriculum recommends exploring how the “traditional ecological knowledge of the First Nations, Métis, and Inuit peoples influence their beliefs about the natural environment and its importance to them.”39 By limiting “their beliefs” to “their environment,” it categorizes Indigenous knowledge as theirs only, rather than suggesting how interconnectedness could be employed in different areas of everyday life of non-Indigenous peoples.

36 See “C2.2 The Development of Resources” under the section “Issues in Canadian Geography, Grade 9, Academic (CGC1D)” from Government of Ontario, Ministry of Education, The Ontario Curriculum Grades 9 and 10: Canadian and World Studies, 2018, (Ontario: Ministry of Education, 2018), http://www.edu.gov.on.ca/eng/curriculum/secondary/ canworld910curr2018.pdf.

37 Goldie Osuri, “Imperialism, colonialism and sovereignty in the (post)colony: India and Kashmir,” Third World Quarterly 38, no.11 (2017): 2432. Political borders should not be assumed to be given. Division of borders was a colonial technique to colonize those within the borders and manage them more systematically. Therefore, establishing ownership of resources based on political borders is contentious in the field of postcolonialism.

38 We can already see instances of hostility in the Coastal GasLink pipeline dispute. See Heather Yourex-West, “Indigenous people in Canada facing racism over We’suwet’en solidarity blockade action,” Global News, March 3, 2020, https://globalnews.ca/news/6626029/indigenous- people-canada-racism-wetsuweten-blockades/.

39 See “B1.1 The Physical Environment and Human Activities” under the section “Issues in Canadian Geography, Grade 9, Academic (CGC1D)” from Government of Ontario, Ministry of Education, Canadian and World Studies, 2018. Han 38

Last, a deeper analysis of Indigenous peoples’ experiences and discussions on contemporary events relevant to Indigenous communities are absent in the most recent geography curriculum. Questions like, “What kinds of political issues (e.g., Aboriginal rights and concerns, boundary disputes, stakeholder concerns) may be related to the location of a resource and its development?” ask to identify general themes of Indigenous experiences; however, the implications, complexities, and impacts of resource extraction on Indigenous communities are not discussed.40 At the same time, every single textbook approved by the Ministry of Education has supported the outdated version of each curriculum, presenting archaic information and simple narratives of Indigenous history and events. For First Nations, Métis, and Inuit Studies, all approved textbooks supported the 1999 and 2000 Native Studies curriculum in 2020.41 Currently, for Canadian and World Studies, all eight textbooks support the 2013 version of the curriculum.42 While the limited number of textbooks for these courses is concerning, Indigenous content in those textbooks is even more concerning. When Indigenous communities are mentioned in the outdated textbooks, they are generally tied to topics like poverty, unemployment, poor health, and low educational achievement, without any explanation as to why these circumstances

40 See “C2.1 The Development of Resources” under the section “Issues in Canadian Geography, Grade 9, Academic (CGC1D)” from Government of Ontario, Ministry of Education, Canadian and World Studies, 2018.

41 “The Trillium List: Grade 10 Native Studies,” Ministry of Education, http:// www.trilliumlist.ca/browse/native-studies/10; “The Trillium List: Grade 11 Native Studies,” Ministry of Education, http://www.trilliumlist.ca/browse/native-studies/11. In 2020, there were two textbooks approved for Native Studies. There was one textbook approved for Grade 10 Native Studies that supported The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 and 10: Native Studies, 1999. Similarly, there was one textbook approved for Grade 11 Native Studies, supporting The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 11 and 12: Native Studies, 2000. In 2021, there are no textbooks approved for Grade 10/11 Native Studies.

42 “The Trillium List: Grade 9 Canadian and World Studies,” Ministry of Education, http:// www.trilliumlist.ca/browse/canadian-and-world-studies/9; “The Trillium List: Grade 10 Canadian and World Studies,” Ministry of Education, http://www.trilliumlist.ca/browse/canadian-and-world- studies/10. There are two approved textbooks for Grade 9 and six approved textbooks for Grade 10. They all support The Ontario Curriculum, Grades 9 and 10: Canadian and World Studies, 2013. Han 39 persist.43 The lack of context works to reinforce prejudice against Indigenous peoples and blame Indigenous communities for their incapability instead of considering the effects of colonization.44 Similarly, by concentrating the focus on Indigenous peoples living on reserves, the lifestyles of those who are living in urban areas are disregarded in the textbooks.45 Prejudice reduction cannot begin until students have the opportunity to evaluate their prejudice first. However, if they are not exposed to the multi-faceted dimensions of the Canadian-Indigenous conflict, how will these students have the capacity to critically assess their prejudice and move towards reconciliation? To answer this question, successful case studies from the Middle East are reviewed to provide a basis for policy recommendations so that school-based prejudice reduction strategies used in the region can be modified and adapted to the context of Canada.

SECTION 4: PREJUDICE REDUCTION IN THE MIDDLE EAST 4.1 The Canada International Scientific Exchange Program in Otolaryngology (CISEPO) CISEPO is a multilateral knowledge transfer network consisting of researchers and practitioners from Canada and the Middle East, which was founded purely for medical purposes.46 The success of the program, however, depends on maintaining professional and personal relationships between members of different communities currently in long-standing political tension and violence, particularly Israel, Jordan, and

43 Schaefli, Godlewska, and Rose, 485.

44 Schaefli, Godlewska, and Rose, 485.

45 Schaefli, Godlewska, and Rose, 486.

46 Joy Fitzgibbon, “The Canada International Scientific Exchange Program in Otolaryngology,” in Networks of Knowledge: Collaborative Innovation in International Learning, ed. Janice Stein (Toronto, ON: University of Toronto Press, 2001): 51-52. For more information, visit “Who We Are,” CISEPO, http://cisepo.ca/about-us/. Han 40

Palestine.47 By bringing these members together who would otherwise have little or no interaction, Canada was able to facilitate dialogue between these communities and respond to local health needs, allowing positive interactions in the midst of increasing political strain.48 Together, members of CISEPO respectfully challenged each other’s ideas to improve the healthcare system in their countries and become a model for the local population to realize that peace is beneficial for everyone.49 Overall, CISEPO has been effective in promoting peace-building and reducing prejudice by creating a cooperative environment for members to strengthen interpersonal relationships.

4.2 Education Programs for Israeli-Palestinian Conflict The impact of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict on Israeli-Palestinian relations has been revealed through a poll, which concluded that 49.5% of Jewish Israeli high school students did not think Arab Israelis should be granted the same rights as Jews. Moreover, 56% expressed that Arabs should be banned from running for office in the Israeli parliament, which concerned the Israeli Ministry of Education officials about increasing trends of extremist views among students.50 Therefore, a pilot peace education program called Pathways into Reconciliation was implemented in selected

47 Fitzgibbon, “The Canada International Scientific,” 52. CISEPO seeks to reduce prejudice based on the intergroup contact theory and the direct contact model. For prejudice reduction to be effective, these conditions must be met: equal status of participants, common goal pursued by participants, intergroup cooperation, and support of authorities for all participants. Rony Berger et al, “Reducing prejudice and promoting positive intergroup attitudes among elementary-school children in the context of the Israeli-Palestinian conflict,” Journal of School Psychology 57 (2016): 54. For more information about intergroup contact theory, see G.W. Allport, The nature of prejudice, (MA: Addison-Wesley, 1954).

48 Fitzgibbon, 55-56. Even during the Tel Aviv bombing, the Israeli and Jordanian members were able to continue collaborating because they had developed and maintained such strong relationships.

49 Fitzgibbon, 66. To find more about local hearing aid projects and achievements of the CISEPO, see Fitzgibbon, 59.

50 Or Kashti, “Poll: Half of Israeli High Schoolers Oppose Equal Rights for Arabs,” HAARETZ, March 11, 2010, https://www.haaretz.com/1.5040299. The journalist received responses from 536 Jewish and Arab students between the ages of 15-18. Han 41

Palestinian and Jewish grade 10 curriculum.51 It addressed three spheres of “the other:” “the other inside me,” which is to have awareness of oneself in the conflict; “the other near me,” which is to tolerate the others around one’s surroundings; and “the distant other,” which is to foster relationships with members from the other side.52 A series of questions associated with peace were asked, such as concepts, meanings, advantages, and ways to attain peace. Results showed that before the program, the majority of Palestinian youths perceived peace in a structural form53 – having independence – while Israeli students mentioned negative peace54 – the absence of wars and corpses. However, at the end of the program, participants from each group strived towards attaining more positive peace55 – that is, living in harmony through cooperation and “building bridges” – accepting perspectives from the other group.56 Similarly, in a reconciliation-aimed workshop directed by an Israeli-Palestinian NGO, Palestinian and Jewish youths gathered together in small groups for a series of discussions that dealt with social, cultural, and political issues.57 By sharing personal

51 Yifat Biton and Gavriel Salomon, “Peace in the eyes of Israeli and Palestinian youths: effects of collective narratives and peace education program,” Journal of Peace Research 43, no.2 (2006): 169. This peace education program is based on the information model, where attitudes toward the other community members are shaped by knowledge and information they receive in information-based interventions. For more information about the information model, see Rony Berger et al, “Reducing prejudice,” 54.

52 Biton and Salomon, “Peace in the eyes,” 169-171. This program took place two hours a week and lasted for six to eight months of the school year. From four high schools in different regions, data was collected from 564 students: half served as a control group while the other half participated in the program.

53 Biton and Salomon, 167–180. Structural peace refers to social structures that are built to foster peace, justice, law and order, and equality. For more information about peace, see Johan Galtung, “Violence, Peace and Peace Research,” Journal of Peace Research 6, no.3 (1969): 183-186.

54 Biton and Salomon, 172. Negative peace simply refers to the absence of violence.

55 Biton and Salomon, 172.

56 Biton and Salomon, 176.

57 Ifat Maoz, “An Experiment in Peace: Reconciliation-Aimed Workshops of Jewish-Israeli and Palestinian Youth,” Journal of Peace Research 37, no.6 (2000): 724-726. Data was collected from 67 Palestinian students and 64 Jewish students with no control group. Three reconciliation- aimed workshops incorporated both direct contact and information-based model. For more information about the models, see Rony Berger et al, 54. Han 42 stories, feelings, as well as negative perceptions of the other group, students were able to explore bias behind their perceptions and realize that their perceptions have been grossly misrepresented and inaccurate. Jewish students perceived Palestinians as less intelligent while Arabs perceived Jews as lacking in social and emotional dimensions.58 However, after having a dialogue, they were surprised to learn that Palestinian youths were very similar to themselves. One Israeli male participant shared, “In the beginning of the encounter we generalized that all Palestinians are murderers, all are stone throwers, all are haters of Israel, but they showed the opposite side from what we thought.”59 In reaction, Palestinian students emphasized that there are also individuals who want peace and shared their experience of violence and humiliation from Israeli armed forces. One Palestinian male student expressed, “Also we are afraid… Two months ago, a child in the village of Lid, a soldier came and killed him with blows of the M16 gun, in front of people, in a very violent way. And a child like me is afraid to go out.”60 The open dialogue increased understanding of the experience on both sides and fostered an amicable environment where the students made meaningful relationships with the other side during and even months after the workshop.61 Overall, the findings showed a significant reduction of stereotyping and generalization and an increase in favourable mutual perceptions of each other.62

4.3 Challenges for Prejudice Reduction Despite the advantages of prejudice reduction strategies, the interventions may backfire and instead, increase prejudice, anxiety, and anger towards the minority group. These negative experiences can occur when the task instructions and objectives are neutral, vague, and difficult rather than them being positive and easy. If participants are

58 Maoz, “An Experiment in Peace,” 726.

59 Maoz, 728.

60 Maoz, 729.

61 Maoz, 729.

62 Maoz, 731-732. Han 43 individual-focused and non-cooperative instead of being group-oriented and cooperative, interventions may fail.63 The effectiveness of prejudice reduction strategies ultimately depends on the participants’ motivation and their underlying reasons for prejudice reduction.64 If the participants want to reduce prejudice for internally motivated reasons such as their personal goal to respond without prejudice based on moral principles, they would be successful in regulating and internalizing prejudice reduction strategies across different circumstances.65 In contrast, externally motivated participants, who are only concerned with appearing non-prejudiced to avoid social disapproval, would not be able to regulate their prejudice in the long run, especially in urgent and unexpected situations where control is difficult.66 Such individuals typically tend to feel like their personal freedom, belief, and expression are being restricted by these strategies. Thus, they may counter the restriction with anger and more prejudice.67 As a result, they may feel more anxious about intergroup interactions and try to avoid them altogether.68 To prevent negative consequences of prejudice reduction, encouraging individuals to develop internalized motivation through self-reflection and empathy may lead to more positive interactions.69

63 Keon West and Katy Greenland, “Beware of “reducing prejudice”: imagined contact may backfire if applied with a prevention focus,” Journal of Applied Social Psychology 46, no.10 (2016): 584. The article focuses on negative effects of imagined intergroup contact, but since direct and imagined intergroup contact has similar background, objectives, and theories, these challenges can be assumed to happen during direct contact.

64 E. Ashby Plant and Patricia G. Devine, “Internal and External Motivation to Respond Without Prejudice,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 75, no.3 (1998): 812.

65 David A. Butz and E. Ashby Plant, “Prejudice Control and Interracial Relations: The Role of Motivation to Respond Without Prejudice,” Journal of Personality 77, no.5 (2009): 1316. Moreover, internally motivated people look towards forming meaningful relationships and engaging with the minority group. See Butz and Plant, “Prejudice Control,” 1329.

66 Butz and Plant, 1314-1316.

67 Butz and Plant, 1319.

68 Butz and Plant, 1327.

69 Butz and Plant, 1337. Han 44

SECTION 5: POLICY RECOMMENDATIONS Taking the analysis of the Ontario Curriculum, effective intervention strategies in the Middle East, and potential challenges for prejudice reduction into account, there are policy prescriptions that should be implemented in the current Ontario Curriculum to reduce prejudice between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities.

5.1 Local and Indigenous Knowledge into the Classroom Research has proven that direct intergroup contact is the most effective way of reducing prejudice.70 The positive effects of direct intergroup contact could be amplified when institutions endorse the contact.71 Thus, Ontario secondary schools should have events where Indigenous Elders come in and share their local knowledge. In Indigenous communities, Elders play an important role in education by providing holistic teachings and advice that are vital for their students and communities.72 Indigenous holistic education advocates interconnectedness and respect for all life. It teaches the importance of maintaining a respectful relationship with “the spirit, the people, the community, the animals, and the land” as we are all interconnected.73 In non- Indigenous communities, there should also be an opportunity for Elders to share Indigenous teachings in classrooms to facilitate prejudice reduction of non-Indigenous students and validate the legitimacy of Indigenous beliefs and values. In Western culture, the only objective of the schools is for students to obtain the

70 Thomas F. Pettigrew and Linda R. Tropp, “A meta-analytic test of intergroup contact theory,” Journal of Personality and Social Psychology 90, no.5 (2006): 751.

71 Kruglanski, “What Should This Fight Be,” 122. Institutions refer to authorities that have the power to sanction the contact. In this case, the Ministry of Education will be applicable. However, it is equally important to recognize that organizations like media agencies could bring negative results by cultivating and reinforcing prejudice and stereotypes. See Lynch, “Prejudice reduction,” 23.

72 John G. Hansen and Rose Antsanen, “Elders’ Teachings about Resilience and its Implications for Education in Dene and Cree Communities,” International Indigenous Policy Journal 7, no.1 (2016): 4.

73 Hansen and Antsanen, “Elders’ Teachings,” 4. Han 45

“head knowledge;”74 however, in Indigenous culture, one Elder states:

There is nothing more important than the learning that makes a person wise… I think about what school would look like if we had worked together from the beginning to make the learning better for our younger ones. I look to the future in believing it will be more on our terms where both worlds can be combined. It will be not just about knowledge, but how to behave and be wise, not just knowing.75

This passage demonstrates the need for high schools to provide space for cooperation and collaboration between both communities to foster peacebuilding for true reconciliation. Most importantly, this intervention will only be effective when it is well-integrated into the curriculum in the long term.76

5.2 Diverse Teaching Methods: Blanket Exercises and Classroom Discussions Teachers need to move away from traditional lecture-style teaching and implement different teaching activities, such as blanket exercises and classroom discussions, to explore Indigenous experiences and history. The blanket exercise is an interactive learning activity that is designed to teach students about the history of Indigenous peoples.77 Students are asked to stand on blankets that represent the land of Indigenous peoples. Then, they are asked to imagine themselves as an Indigenous person who is confronted with European settlers. Through their interaction with the settlers (played by the facilitators), the blankets are folded repeatedly and made smaller to represent the loss of their land through treaties and the creation of reserves. Students

74 Brian Ellis Lewthwaite, Thomas Owen, and Ashley Doiron, “Curriculum Change and Self- Governing Agreements: A Yukon First Nation Case Study,” International Journal of Multicultural Education 17, no.3 (2015): 50.

75 Lewthwaite, Owen, and Doiron, “Curriculum Change.” 50.

76 Lynch, 41.

77 Kate McGillivray, ”How blankets can teach 500 years of Indigenous history,” CBC News, July 26, 2017, https://www.cbc.ca/news/canada/toronto/programs/metromorning/blanket-exercise- indigenous-history-1.4222403. Han 46 are asked to move their blanket when a group of Indigenous peoples must relocate or step away from their blanket when they encounter European diseases or wars. By the end of the exercise, only a few people are left standing on their small blankets, which allow students to foster understanding, respect, and empathy for Indigenous peoples.78 Moreover, teachers should encourage classroom discussions to facilitate meaningful dialogue and learning on Indigenous events. Classroom discussions provide an opportunity for students to raise questions and share their opinions, feelings, and thoughts, while teachers talk to students about current issues facing Indigenous peoples or their history. Through increased engagement and discussion, students are more likely to remember what they have learned, self-assess their bias, challenge misconceptions, and think from different perspectives. By targeting different students’ learning styles and needs, different approaches to delivering Indigenous content can yield positive outcomes of prejudice reduction.

5.3 Textbooks and Other Learning Resources Textbooks are a pedagogical tool that teachers use to teach students about the course content and serve as a guide to meet the expectations of the curriculum. Students also use textbooks to obtain information and supplement their learning. Given these diverse functions, textbooks need to be continuously updated to convey the most current, relevant, and accurate information and data. Moreover, it is crucial for textbooks to present a variety of perspectives to allow students to reflect, critique, and develop their own point of view on issues. Overall, textbooks and the content they explore play an integral role in shaping the worldview of students. To confront the gap between the Ministry of Education’s goals and what students are learning in classrooms, textbooks must be updated appropriately to match the expectations of the revised curriculum and Calls to Action. As mentioned earlier, the textbooks that have been approved for Canadian and World Studies as well as Native Studies are outdated and biased, which is why they must be replaced with sources that are more current and committed to present true stories, experiences, and portrayals of

78 McGillivray, “How blankets can teach.” Han 47

Indigenous peoples. Furthermore, based on the limited number of approved textbooks, sufficient funding needs to be allocated towards developing more textbooks and other learning resources. Superior textbooks and learning resources will allow both students and teachers to think more critically about the issues and discourses surrounding Indigenous communities.

SECTION 6: CONCLUSION This policy brief has highlighted the importance of prejudice reduction strategies in Ontario’s education system to resolve tensions between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities in Canada. Currently, the Government of Canada and the Ontario Curriculum are not doing enough to correspond with the TRC’s Calls to Action. As a result, the policy recommendations such as incorporating local knowledge in the classrooms, employing diverse teaching methods, as well as updating textbooks and other learning resources have been proposed based on the inadequate response of the Ontario Curriculum as well as the effective interventions taken in the Middle East. In essence, the Ontario Curriculum must reform and reflect the values and experiences of Indigenous peoples just the way Indigenous communities demand. By ensuring quality education, tensions and conflict between Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities should be alleviated, paving the road towards harmonious relations and true reconciliation. Han 48

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