Table of Contents Mission and Purpose I Call for Papers I Journal Leadership and Editorial Board Iii

Table of Contents Mission and Purpose i Call for Papers i Journal Leadership and Editorial Board iii

Sport Commitment, Occupational Commitment, and 1 Intent to Quit Among High School Sport Officials Christopher R. Barnhill, J. Michael Martinez, Damon P. Andrew, and Wes Todd “Don’t sit back with the geraniums, get out”: The 24 Complexity of Older Women’s Stories of Sport Participation Sean Horton, Rylee A. Dionigi, Michael Gard, Joseph Baker and Patricia Weir Formation and Function of a Collegiate Athletics 52 Sustainability Committee Brian P. McCullough, Timothy Kellison, and Elodie Wendling Concussion Knowledge of Youth Sport Athletes, 82 Coaches, and Parents: A Review Sungwon Kim, Daniel P. Connaughton, Robert F. Leeman, and Jong Hoon Lee Female Roller Derby Athletes’ Athletic Identity and 108 Systematic Pursuit of Leisure Hung-Ling Liu, Timothy Baghurst, and Michael Bradley

Mission and Purpose The overarching mission of the Journal of Amateur Sport (JAS) is to provide scholars an outlet in which to share scholarship relevant to the amateur sports realm. We define amateur sport as those who participate and govern at the youth, recreational, community, international, and intercollegiate level. We acknowledge the tenuous debate surrounding the amateurism of intercollegiate athletics, thus at this time we welcome examinations that are focused on the less commercialized avenues of college sport participation and governance (especially NCAA Division II, III, and other less publicized governing bodies and settings). Submissions from all disciplines are encouraged, including sociology, communication, and organizational behavior. Similarly, we welcome a wide array of methodological and structural approaches, including conceptual frameworks, narratives, surveys, interviews, and ethnographies.

As an open-access journal, submissions should be of interest to researchers and practitioners alike. In all, the content published in JAS should advance the collective understanding of the participants, coaches, administrators, and/or institutional structures that comprise amateur sports worldwide. We challenge authors to submit creative and nontraditional manuscripts that are still high-quality in nature. Authors are encouraged to email the editors before submitting if they are unsure if their manuscript is a proper fit within JAS.

Call for Papers Thank you for considering the Journal of Amateur Sport (JAS) for your scholarly work. Please follow the guidelines laid out below when submitting your manuscript to JAS. Visit http://www.jamsport.org and click “Submit Now” to begin the submission process. To aid in the double-blind review process, please include three separate files: (1) a title page with corresponding author information, (2) an abstract of no more than 500 words with no identifying information, and (3) the full manuscript with no identifying information. The manuscript should not have been simultaneously submitted for publication or been published previously. Manuscripts should follow

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Mission and Purpose i the current Publication Manual of the American Psychological Association with exception to the elements noted below. The document must be double-spaced, in Garamond font, size 14, and utilize one inch margins throughout. Maximum length, including references and figures, is 50 pages. Be sure to include a running header, page numbers, and footnotes (when appropriate). Authors are responsible for receiving permission to reproduce copyrighted material before submitting their manuscript for publication.

There is no charge for submission or publication. Authors will be provided with a free digital and print copy of published articles. JAS is an open-access, online journal and thus strongly encourages the posting and sharing of published articles by authors on their personal and departmental websites, Google Scholar, and e-portfolios once they are posted to the JAS website. Authors should expect a maximum 60-day turnaround time from initial submission to receiving the initial review. Submissions that are determined to be outside of the scope or not appropriate for JAS are subject to desk rejection. If an article is deemed fit for publication, the author(s) must sign a publishing agreement before the article is officially accepted. Submissions will be subjected to a double- blind review from at least two members of the editorial board (or outside reviewers when appropriate).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Mission and Purpose ii

Journal Leadership and Editorial Board

Leadership Co-Editor: Cody T. Havard, University of Memphis Co-Editor: Brian S. Gordon, University of Kansas Incoming Co-Editor: Lama Reams, Old Dominion University Associate Editor: Kyle S. Bunds, North Carolina State University Associate Editor: Mark Vermillion, Wichita State University Contributing Executive Council: Earle Zeigler Production Director: Dominique Kropp, University of Kansas

Editorial Board Kwame Agyemang Louisiana State University Emeka Anaza James Madison University Chris Barnhill Louisiana State University Jonathan Casper North Carolina State University Cassandra Coble Indiana University Simon Darnell University of Toronto Travis Dorsch Utah State University Brendan Dwyer Virginia Commonwealth University Travis Feezell University of the Ozarks Rick Grieve Western Kentucky University Marion Hambrick University of Louisville Meg Hancock University of Louisville James Johnson Ball State University Timothy Kellison Georgia State University

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Leadership iii

Shannon Kerwin Brock University Ryan King-White Towson University Geoffery Kohe University of Worcester Leeann Lower Ohio State University Marshall Magnusen Baylor University Brian McCullough Seattle University Chad McEvoy Northern Illinois University Nicole Melton University of Massachusetts Amherst Katie Misener University of Waterloo Joshua Newman Florida State University Calvin Nite University of North Texas Dawn Norwood Wingate University Julie Partridge Southern Illinois University Ted Peetz Belmont University Ann Pegoraro Laurentian University Adam Pfleegor Belmont University Lamar Reams Old Dominion University Steve Ross University of Concordia – St. Paul Michael Sam University of Otago Jimmy Sanderson Arizona State University Chad Seifried Louisiana State University Clay Stoldt Wichita State University Sarah Stokowski University of Arkansas Nefertiti Walker University of Massachusetts Amherst Daniel Wann Murray State University Stacy Warner East Carolina University Janelle Wells University of South Florida Craig Williams University of Exeter Masa Yoshida Biwako Seikei Sport College

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Leadership iv

Sport Commitment, Occupational Commitment, and Intent to Quit Among High School Sport Officials

Christopher R. Barnhill1 J. Michael Martinez1 Damon P. Andrew1 Wes Todd2

1Louisana State University 2Auburn University

This case study sought to examine the issue of attrition among high school sport officials by exploring turnover intentions through the lenses of occupational and sport commitment. A questionnaire was distributed via email to high school sport officials in a suburban region in the southeastern United States. The data were analyzed via hierarchical multiple regression, revealing that affective occupational commitment and sport commitment are negatively correlated predictors of occupational turnover intentions. Implications for practitioners and avenues for future scholarship are conferred.

igh school sport participation are tightening for many schools and state steadily increased in the United athletic associations (Wolf, 2015). Budget H States throughout the last quarter constraints of state athletic associations century. During the 2015-16 academic year, place strains on increasingly scarce nearly 7.9 million students participated in resources as the number of teams and high school athletic competitions (National contests expand to meet the influx of Federation of State High School athletes. Quality sport officials are a Associations, 2016). With record particularly important and scarce resource participation, local conferences and state for state athletic associations (Solutions to athletic associations must carefully manage Referee Shortage, 2016). limited resources (NFHS, 2016). Budgets

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 1 Sport officials play important roles in commitment (VanYperen, 1998). maintaining game quality and participant Occupational commitment, defined by safety (Ridinger, 2015). Unfortunately, for one’s level of commitment to a selected many high school athletic associations, profession through continued membership attracting and retaining sport officials is (Irving, Coleman, & Cooper, 1997), and becoming increasingly difficult (Associated sport commitment, defined as a Press, 2015). In some states, shortages are psychological state of one’s desire to severe enough to cause concern among continue sport participation (Scanlan, administrators regarding the ability to cover Carpenter, Schmidt, Simons, & Keeler, athletic contests (Solutions to Referee 1993), are cited as factors indicative to one Shortage, 2016). As experienced referees becoming a sport official (Hancock, withdraw from the profession, due in some Dawson, & Auger, 2015; Wolfson & Neave, part to lack of pay and increased time 2007). Although scholars have explored commitment (Livingston, 2016), the quality various antecedents of turnover intentions of officiating is negatively impacted. of sport officials (Bernal, Nix, & Experience is one of the most important Boatwright, 2012; Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013; indicators of officiating quality (Lirgg, Feltz, Gray & Wilson, 2008; Hancock et al., 2015; & Merrie, 2016). As high school sport VanYperen, 1998; Warner, Tingle, & participation continues to grow, the need Kellett, 2013), the relationship between for quality officials will escalate. Therefore, occupational commitment, sport it is important to understand why officials commitment, and intentions to leave among leave the profession. officials has remained relatively Amateur sport in the United States underexplored. includes youth, high school, club, Very few studies have examined the recreational, and intercollegiate levels of relationship between commitment and competition. Officials in amateur levels of intention to leave amongst sport officials. sport often enter the profession for reasons Those that have done so only focused on other than pay. For most, officiating is a the issue from a sport commitment hobby or secondary source of income perspective (e.g., Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013; (National Association of Sports Officials , VanYperen, 1998). Gray and Wilson (2008) 2001). Others are drawn to the profession also explored commitment and subsequent as a way to stay involved in sport or because outcomes among sport officials, using they enjoy the act of officiating contests organizational commitment, sport (VanYperen, 1998). These notions of commitment, and role commitment in their involvement and enjoyment, as well as model. However, role commitment was elements of personal investments of time, measured using exploratory means and not are related determinants of an official’s the full occupational commitment model. It

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 2 is in this research gap that the present case course of action (Scanlan et al., 1993), is study seeks to contribute to the literature, attitudinal in nature and is generally by examining both occupational comprised of affective attachment, commitment and sport commitment as perceived costs and obligation (Meyer & latent influences on turnover intentions Allen, 1991). among sport officials. Scholarship exploring turnover Occupational Commitment intentions of employees and volunteers, In the context of organizational both associated and not associated with management, of which sport management sport, suggested strong support for shares many similarities, commitment occupational commitment as a predictor of theory has largely focused on individual turnover intentions (e.g., Meyer, Allen, & attitudinal commitments to work and the Smith, 1993; Turner & Chelladurai, 2005). various antecedents and outcomes (e.g., Relatedly, sport commitment has also been Mathieu & Zajac, 1990; Morrow, 1983; indicated as a factor related to turnover Mowday, Porter, & Steers, 1982). Morrow intentions of employees, athletes, and (1983) introduced several foci of these volunteers involved in sport (Cuskelly, 1995; attitudinal commitments, including personal Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013; Scanlan et al., 1993; values, organizations, and one’s career. Of VanYperen, 1998). The purpose of this case these foci, one’s commitment to the study was to explore the role of organization has been a major topic of occupational commitment and sport inquiry (Mathieu & Zajac, 1990). Meyer and commitment on sport officials’ intentions to Allen (1991) introduced the three- stay or leave the sport officiating component model of organizational occupation. Specifically, this case study commitment, and this model continues to explored the effects of affective, serve as a foundation for most managerial continuance, and normative occupational commitment related studies (e.g., commitment, as well the effects of the Cunningham & Sagas, 2004; Rocha & individual components of the sport Chelladurai, 2011; Turner & Jordan, 2006). commitment model (Scanlan et al., 1993) on Later, Meyer et al. (1993) extended this turnover intentions of high school sport model to focus on one’s commitment to an officials in a suburban Unites States city. occupation. Essentially, the authors argued that in some sectors, such as those of Theoretical Framework nursing and law, attitudinal commitment to Commitment theory serves as the the profession or occupation, is distinctly theoretical foundation for the case study. different than being committed to a specific Scholars suggest that commitment, organization (Meyer et al., 1993). operationalized as the persistence in a

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 3 Occupational commitment is defined as, school sport official population, affective “a psychological link between a person and occupational commitment would represent his or her occupation that is based on an one’s desire to remain an official of high affective reaction to the occupation” (Lee, school sports because it is something the Carswell, & Allen, 2000, p. 800). Lee et al. individual wants. Additionally, Weng & (2000) suggested occupational commitment McElroy (2012) suggest that affective is an important construct because organizational commitment is heavily occupations represent a significant focus for influenced by career choices and changes many individuals and provide meaningful due to one’s experience. This also could be links to organizational membership. Similar explained in the sport officials’ context, as to organizational commitment, prior that is a profession in which attitudinal scholarship suggested occupational factors, such as sport enjoyment and commitment is related to several behavioral personal investments, influence outcomes of interest to managers, including participation. those of job satisfaction and turnover A second, distinctively different intentions (Lee et al., 2000). In essence, dimension of occupational commitment, occupational commitment is positively normative occupational commitment, related to an employee’s job satisfaction represents an individual’s sense of (Wang, Sang, Li, & Zhao, 2016), and obligation to their occupation (Meyer et al., negatively related to turnover intentions to 1993). In other words, normative both the organization and the career (Weng occupational commitment represents the & McElroy, 2012). feeling that one ought to remain a sport official or that they owe a debt to the The Multidimensional View of profession. In the examined population, Occupational Commitment normative occupational commitment would Utilizing the previously validated be represented by feelings that one should multidimensional organizational officiate high school athletics. The final commitment framework (Meyer & Allen, dimension in the Meyer et al. (1993) model 1991), Meyer et al. (1993) developed the is continuance occupational commitment. multidimensional view of occupational Continuance occupational commitment is commitment. The multidimensional view the recognition of costs associated with conjectures that individuals may be leaving one’s occupation. committed to occupations emotionally, obligatorily, or through necessity. Meyer et Sport Commitment al. (1993) defined affective occupational Sport commitment has been viewed as commitment as a strong desire to remain in an extension of commitment theory, one’s profession. Translating to the high exploring how commitment to sport affects

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 4 one’s actions and behaviors. Sport withdrawal behaviors (Blau, 2007; Moore, commitment (Scanlan et al., 1993) is 2000; Tett & Meyer, 1993). comprised of five separate constructs: sport Scholarly research has long focused on enjoyment, involvement alternatives, the motives of employees in various personal investments, social constraints and functions and industries (Wayne, Liden, involvement opportunities. Three of the Kraimer, & Graf, 1999) and on the various five constructs relate to the previously stages of the career (Smart & Peterson, mentioned constructs of occupational 1997) as they relate to employee occupation. commitment, including affective (sport These stages include motivation to begin or enjoyment), perceived costs (involvement change a career (Smart & Peterson, 1997), alternatives), and normative (social environments and factors that influence one constraints). Due to the distinct qualities of staying in that career (Meyer & Allen, 1991), sport participation, Scanlan et al. (1993) and, ultimately, what culminates in the added two other constructs of personal employee’s exit from the career (Dingemans investments (investments and activities to & Henkens, 2014). Likewise, this has been participate that come at the expense of an area of interest in the sport management other activities) and involvement literature in recent years (Cunningham, opportunities (value that comes from Sagas, & Ashley, 2001; Martinez, Miller, & continued involvement). Utilizing a sample Koo, 2016). of youth baseball players, Scanlan et al. (1993) found each dimension was unique, Occupational Commitment and but contributed to the participants’ general Intentions to Leave Sport Based commitment to their sport. Occupations Within sport organizational settings, Turnover Intentions research exploring organizational Turnover intentions can be defined as commitment is abundant (e.g., Engelberg- the level of desire one has to leave their Moston, Stipis, Kippin, Spillman, & organization or occupation (Blau, 2007; Burbidge, 2009; Martinez et al., 2016; Blau, Tatum, & Ward-Cook, 2003; Martin, Turner & Chelladurai, 2005), yet few sport 1979). In contrast to actual turnover, which scholars incorporate multidimensional may be hampered by various constraints or occupational commitment variables into barriers to exit, the turnover intentions their models. Many that have done so construct relates to employees’ feelings of choose to focus only on the effects of wanting to end their relationship with their affective occupational commitment. Within employer or occupation. Turnover sport organizational settings, affective intentions are a strong predictor of occupational commitment is predictive of occupational turnover intentions. Two

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 5 studies (Cunningham & Sagas, 2004; occupational commitment was positively Cunningham, Sagas, Dixon, Kent, & related. However, caution must be exercised Turner, 2005) explored the effect of before generalizing results from Turner and affective occupational commitment on sport Chelladurai (2005) to high school sport management students’ intentions to enter a officials. Although both occupations fall sport industry occupation. Both studies within the amateur sport context, factors indicated a positive relationship with such as pay and organizational ties may affective occupational commitment and impact variables differently between college intentions to enter sport-based occupations. coaches and high school sport officials. Neither included variables related to occupational turnover intentions. Research on Sport Officials Conversely, occupational turnover intention While not a major focus of sport was a dependent variable in Turner and management literature, prior research has Chelladurai’s (2005) study examining utilized sport officials as an area of occupational commitment of National examination. According to Ridinger (2015), Collegiate Athletic Association football research on sport officials and referees coaches. Their results mirrored prior generally falls into the following categories: research from other disciplines. Affective entry into the profession (e.g., Furst, 1991); occupational commitment was inversely stress and burnout (e.g., Taylor, Daniel, related to occupational turnover intentions. Leith, & Burke, 1990); and ultimately, Similar results were found when exploring retention (e.g., Titlebaum, Haberlin, & the role of affective occupational Titlebaum, 2009). While this case study does commitment in volunteer coaches not focus on occupational entry, stress or (Engelberg-Moston et al., 2009). burnout specifically, it is concerned with Studies exploring continuance and commitment and turnover, which are normative occupational commitment of important aspects of retention. Past sport-based employees are limited. One scholarship suggested elements of study (Turner & Chelladurai, 2005), commitment to the sport (Gray & Wilson, explored the relationships between 2008) and to the occupation (Furst, 1991) normative occupational commitment, are both important among sport officials. continuance occupational commitment, and Thus, it is prudent to explore both areas of occupational turnover intentions of college commitment, as well as the selected coaches. Within the context of college outcome of turnover, within the present coaches, normative occupational case study. commitment was found to have an inverse Occupational commitment and sport relationship with occupational turnover officials. Sport officials, unlike traditional intentions, whereas continuance employees, may be only loosely tied to an

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 6 organization. Some high school officials are Cooper, 1997; Meyer et al., 1993; Snape & scheduled through conferences and state Redman, 2003). Only one study has associations, while others are scheduled explored occupational commitment of sport through referee associations to which they officials utilizing the Meyer et al. (1993) belong. However, these officials often conceptualization. Gray and Wilson (2008) receive paychecks from host institutions explored retention of track and field prior to contests. In situations where an officials in Canada utilizing all occupational individual’s relationship with the commitment dimensions as predictor organization is non-existent, prior studies variables. Differing from other occupational found officials are drawn to the profession commitment research, none of the through their commitment to sport and the dimensions were found to significantly occupation (Bernal et al., 2012; Warner et impact the officials’ intentions to continue. al., 2013). Sport commitment and officials. Occupational commitment has been Originally developed to examine sport shown to affect turnover intentions of sport commitment among athletes, scholars have officials, though research design and adapted the construct to other members of theoretical models have varied across sport-based organizations, including sport studies. Warner and colleagues (2013) did officials. VanYperen (1998) utilized the not explicitly utilize occupational model of Scanlan and colleagues (1993) to commitment variables in their qualitative explore intentions to leave among referees study regarding attrition of sport officials, in Europe. Utilizing a sample of 420 yet themes related to on-court and off-court volunteer volleyball officials, the authors factors allowed for inference from an found that turnover intention mediated the occupational commitment perspective. link between enjoyment and involvement Koslowsky and Maoz (1988) relied on a alternatives – both elements of sport unidimensional measure of occupational commitment – and subsequent stay/leave commitment to examine attitudinal behavior. Overall, VanYperen’s (1998) differences between two types of sport model explained 50% of the variance in referees – soccer and track and field. The officials’ intentions to stop officiating. authors found that soccer referees are more Similar research exploring intentions to committed and received greater enjoyment stay among rugby officials in Australia from the occupation, than their indicated sport enjoyment and involvement counterparts in track and field. opportunities were significant predictors Contemporary organizational behavior (Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013). Cuskelly and research has demonstrated occupational Hoye (2013) predicted that perceived commitment to be a multidimensional organizational support would also be an construct (Blau, 2003; Irving, Coleman, & important predictor variable. Yet, perceived

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 7 organizational support was not significant Scholarship exploring officials’ once sport commitment variables were motivations to stay or leave the profession added to the model, indicating sport generally falls into two areas. One area commitment a primary factor influencing focused on the role of the association in respondents’ intentions to remain in the retaining officials. Training, organizational profession. Conversely, Gray and Wilson support, and mentoring have all be shown (2008), utilized an alternative scale to to be important factors in retention of sport explore the role of sport commitment. Their officials (Ryan, Sosa, & Thornton, 2014; survey of 80 track and field officials in VanYperen, 1998; Warner et al., 2013; Canada utilized a single item that asked Wicker & Frick, 2016). Conversely, the participants to rate their commitment to the other area of scholarship explored the role sport of track and field. of commitment variables in occupational Although one could argue that Gray and withdrawal. Studies exploring the role of Wilson’s (2008) item is most closely related sport commitment or occupational to the sport enjoyment dimension of commitment on occupational turnover Scanlon et al.’s (1993) scale., here are no intentions include Bernal et al. (2012), items in the multi-dimensional scale of sport Cuskelly and Hoye (2013), Gray and Wilson commitment that directly resemble the item (2008), Koslowsky and Maoz (1988), in Gray and Wilson’s (2008) study. The VanYperen (1998), and Warner et al. (2013). participants in Gray and Wilson’s (2008) study were highly committed to track and Hypotheses field (M = 6.24 on a seven-point scale), yet Although the literature has explored they found no significant relationship aspects of occupational commitment, sport between their sport commitment item and commitment, and turnover in various turnover intentions. combinations, the relationships among all Turnover among sport officials. three constructs has received little attention Motivation to enter the sport officiating from researchers. Inferences made from the occupation is influenced by love of sport entire body of knowledge may indicate a and intrinsic rewards associated the activity more complex relationship between (Hancock et al., 2015). Once established occupational commitment, sport within the occupation, passion for sport commitment, and turnover intentions than remains a primary factor for officials who what has been explored in the individual choose to continue (Bernal et al., 2012). studies. Other factors that influence employee There appears to be no research retention include feelings of pride and including all dimensions of occupational competency (Parsons & Bairner, 2015). commitment and the entire sport commitment model as antecedents of

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 8 occupational turnover. Only one study the work of VanYperen (1998), we predict (Gray & Wilson, 2008) included that all elements of sport commitment occupational commitment (operationalized would be negatively related to occupational as role commitment) and sport commitment turnover intentions with the exception of in the same model, but an alternative sport involvement alternatives, which would be commitment measure was used. Likewise, a positively related. cursory review of literature reveals that high school sport officials have been excluded Methods from prior research. Because results of A case study design was utilized to commitment studies from other observe sport officials operating in a occupations are not generalizable (Irving et singular setting. Eisenhardt (1989) urged the al., 1997), one should not assume that high use of case studies in management research school sport officials would react similarly to advance theory or provide greater depth to others in the sport industry, or officials of knowledge regarding phenomena that has from other levels of sport. Yet, a majority of received little attention from scholars. literature in both sport and other fields Although case study results are not (Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013; Lee et al., 2000; generalizable to the general population (e.g., VanYperen, 1998; Wang et al., 2016; Weng all high school sport officials), theory can be & McElroy, 2012) indicates significant advanced by eliminating potentially relationships between commitment variables confounding variables present across (occupational and sport) with turnover multiple settings (Eisenhardt, 1989). intentions. Based on the aforementioned literature, Participants we developed two hypotheses. First, we The current case study utilized predicted affective and normative participants who were high school sport occupational commitment would be officials in a southeastern United States city. negatively related to occupation turnover A questionnaire was distributed with intentions, whereas, continuance assistance from a state high school athletic occupational commitment would have a association. The association disseminated positive relationship. This result would links to the survey via email to 253 sport contradict Gray and Wilson (2008), which officials. Eighty-four completed surveys (N found no significant relationships among = 84) were submitted for a response rate of occupational commitment and turnover 33.2%. intention, but would be consistent with The mean age of respondents was 45.3 other explorations of occupational years old (SD = 11.5) with 14.8 years of commitment in sport (see Turner & experience (SD = 10.3). Nearly all Chelladurai, 2005). Second, consistent with respondents were male (Male = 80, 95.2%;

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 9 Female = 4, 4.8%). Many of the officials Sport commitment items were refereed multiple sport including football (n measured utilizing items adapted from = 48, 57.1%), basketball (n = 35, 41.7%), Scanlan et al. (1993), which is frequently baseball (n = 23, 27.4%), softball (n = 16, used to explore commitment of athletes. 19.0%), volleyball (n = 14, 16.7%), soccer (n However, the Sport Commitment Model = 4, 4.8%), ice hockey (n = 1, 1.2%). In scale has also been adapted by several addition, many in the sample officiated scholars to explore sport commitment of sport at other levels in addition to high sport officials (see Cuskelly & Hoye, 2013; school (middle school = 57, 67.9%; VanYperen, 1998). Our adaptations recreation = 42, 50.0%; college = 40, involved removal of terminology related to 47.6%; professional = 2, 2.4%). participating in a sporting event, which was then replaced by terms related to officiating. Instrumentation For, example, Scanlan et al.’s (1993) scale Data were collected via online surveys contains the item, “Do you like playing in distributed to high school sport officials in a Little League this season?” We altered the suburban town in the southeastern United item to state, “Do you/did you like States. To gain access to the officials, email officiating this sport this season?” Items distribution was conducted with the from VanYperen (1998) were utilized to cooperation of a state high school athletic measure occupational turnover intentions of association, for whom the survey sport officials. participants officiated contests. To ensure construct validity, survey items were Data Analysis adapted from established scales. Data analysis was conducted utilizing Occupational commitment items were IBM SPSS Statistics 23. All variables in the adapted from Meyer et al. (1993) by model were measured using Likert type changing nursing related terms in the scales (1 = disagree, 5 = agree). Although all original scale to terms related to sport items in the survey were adapted from officiating. For example, the affective previously validated scales, additional steps occupational commitment item, “I am were taken to ensure convergent and enthusiastic about nursing” was altered to “I discriminant validity. Convergent validity am enthusiastic about officiating.” The scale refers to the level of agreement between has been widely utilized by occupational and items measuring the same construct. sport management scholars and has been Discriminant validity is the uniqueness of the subject of numerous empirical tests separate constructs (Campbell & Fisk, establishing its reliability and validity (see 1959). Average variance extracted (AVE) is Irving et al., 1997; Snape & Redman, 2003; recommended as an appropriate test for Turner & Chelladurai, 2005). exploring issues related to construct validity

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 10 (Fornell & Larcker, 1981). When sample of the measures. Table 1 illustrates the size or other factors prevent AVE from correlation matrix and contains scale means, being conducted, Trochim, Donnelly, and standard deviations and Cronbach’s Alpha Arora (2016) recommend examining inter- scores for all variables in the model. item correlations and factor analysis to infer Hierarchical linear regression was convergent and discriminant validity. utilized to test the proposed hypotheses. Acceptable convergent validity is Age, years of experience, and gender values represented by inter-item correlations above were entered in step one to control for r = 0.5 for items measuring the same potentially confounding variables. All sport construct (Carlson & Herdman, 2012). With commitment and occupational commitment the exception of one item in the affective variables were loaded in step two. commitment scale, all items met the r = 0.5 threshold. The offending item was removed Results from further analysis. All factor loadings of The control variables accounted for the remaining items were above the .65 (N 1.6% (adjusted R2 = -.02, p > .05) of the < 85) threshold recommended by Hair, variance. After controlling for potential Anderson, Tatham, and Black (1998). Based effects related to demographics of on the recommendations of Trochim et al. participants, occupational and sport (2016), convergent validity of the scales commitment variables accounted for an could be inferred. additional 31.2% (adjusted R2 = .25, F(8, Divergent validity is inferred by low 72) = 4.17, p < .001) of the variance of inter-item correlations and low correlations occupational turnover intentions (see Table between constructs (Campbell & Fisk, 1959; 2). Results revealed that affective Trochim et al., 2016). There is no agreed occupational commitment ( = -0.296, p < upon threshold, however, inter-item .05) and involvement opportunities ( = - correlations should be lower non-related 0.244, p < .05) were significantly negatively items than for items proposed to measure related to occupational turnover intentions. the same construct (Trochim et al., 2016). Both hypotheses were partially supported. Table 1 highlights correlations between constructs. A strong correlation between Discussion normative commitment and continuance The purpose of the case study was to commitment was noted (r = 0.551), but, explore the effects of occupational inter-item correlations between revealed no commitment and sport commitment on cause for concern as correlations were occupational turnover intentions of high stronger amongst constructs than across school sport officials. Although the model constructs. Cronbach’s Alphas were explained 32.8% of the variance in generated to determine internal consistency occupational turnover intentions, only

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 11 affective occupational commitment and turnover intentions of sport officials have involvement opportunities were significant been inconsistent. VanYperen (1998) found predictors of high school officials’ all but social constraints to be significant intentions to leave the occupation. Both had predictors, while Cuskelly and Hoye (2013) a negative relationship, thus indicating high found sport enjoyment and involvement affective occupational commitment and opportunities to be the only significant involvement opportunities reduce intentions predictors. The disagreement of findings to leave the sport officiating occupation. from these two studies provides some The results offer similarities and justification for the exploration in the differences between the case study and present case study. As Patton and other commitment research on sport Applebaum (2003) argue, case studies officials. Multidimensional occupational provide the opportunity to explore findings commitment has been explored in not in a generalizable sense, but in numerous sport-based occupations, though explaining “the particular case at hand with the only prior study utilizing sport officials the possibility of coming to broader found the effects of all dimensions to be conclusions,” (p.64). The current study nonsignificant (Gray & Wilson, 2008). Like indicated only involvement opportunities to the prior study, continuance and normative be a significant predictor of occupational occupational commitment did not turnover intentions for high school sport significantly predict occupational turnover officials. intentions among high school officials. Differences between high school sport However, the case study revealed affective officials in the case study and officials from occupational commitment to be a other areas of the world may not be significant predictor of occupational surprising. Relating back to VanYperen turnover intentions of high school officials (1998), who surveyed volleyball officials, within the sample. This finding is similar to and Cuskelly and Hoye (2013), who that found in other management focused examined rugby referees, these differences fields, including Weng and McElroy (2012), may stem from the type of sport. who suggest that affective occupational Koslowsky and Maos (1998) echo this commitment is further enhanced as one sentiment as they found attitudinal meets career goals and develops new skills. differences between soccer referees and In the sport officiating occupation, career track and field officials. Considering growth in terms of advancement in sport occupational commitment research has level could be categorized as meeting career demonstrated the construct to have goals and developing new skills. inconsistent results outside of the observed Previous studies exploring sport population (Irving et al., 1997), it stands to commitment’s effects on occupational

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 12 reason the same can be said for sport it makes sense that affective levels were commitment. higher than both normative and It must be noted that the mean affective continuance commitment levels. occupational commitment response was Likewise, involvement opportunities are near the top of the scale (4.76 out of 5), opportunities that are only provided indicating the individuals in our case study through continued involvement in sport were officiating high school athletics due to (Scanlan et al., 1993). Officiating at the high attitudinal desire. Sport officials generally school level provides individuals, many of join the occupation as a hobby or a whom may have been former athletes, an secondary source of income (Titlebaum et opportunity to remain involved in the sport al., 2009). High affective occupational that they enjoy (Bernal et al., 2012). commitment scores are congruent with the Officiating is one of the few activities that notion that this is an occupation of choice allow former athletes to remain on the field or hobby for those involved. The mean of play. This notion is supported by normative occupational and continuance previous research, such as Gray and Wilson occupational commitment response were (2008) [track and field officials] and lower,further highlighting the idea that Koslowsky and Maos (1988) [soccer survey participants were not officiating officials], who noted personal connections because they felt they had to do so. and past experiences with the sport In hindsight, perhaps it should have influenced their involvement. been surprising if normative or continuance occupational commitment levels were Limitations related to occupational turnover intentions One potential confounding factor that for the participants in this case. By nature of was not controlled for in this study was the the position, high school officials have fact that all participants in this study were many other options and are likely tied to currently involved in high school officiating. another occupation or organization where Mean responses to the occupational they have higher normative commitment. turnover intentions items were near the Drawing inferences from other fields may bottom of the scale, indicating few help explain this phenomenon. Felfe, participants in the survey were interested in Schmook, Schyns, and Six (2008) suggested leaving the high school sport officiating new forms of employment, such as occupation. The results may have been temporary or freelance workers, has caused different if the sample included those who people to find work that best fits their left the occupation. personal needs and attitudes. Considering Another limitation of this study stems sport officials get into the field largely due from the lack of gender diversity among the to attitudinal desire (Titlebaum et al., 2009), sport officials surveyed. Direct access to the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 13 sport officials was not granted by the state have a desire to do. For athletic high school athletic association who assisted associations, administrators should focus on with survey distribution. Furthermore, the retention initiatives that build on high assisting association did not track the school sport officials’ desire to be involved gender of sport officials to whom the with the occupation. Administrative surveys were distributed, nor does it make attention also has been shown to influence a publicly available the demographics of its related area of research within sport member officials. officiating. Kellett and Warner (2011) One possible reason for this lack of examined factors that influenced sense of inclusiveness is the continued struggles community among sport officials. Among female officials have in terms of entry into these findings, a lack of administrative the profession. Tingle, Warner, and Sartore- consideration – including a lack of career Baldwin (2014) explored this issue in a development opportunities – decreased the different context, interviewing former overall sense of community. Therefore, female basketball officials. The findings governing organizations can implement indicate that female officials experienced professional development activities – such factors such as lack of mutual respect and as instructional clinics and training poor mentoring. While examining gender programs (Mascarenhas, Collins, Mortimer, differences was not an aim of the present & Morris, 2005) – that allow officials to case study, future research should explore build their skills without taking time away the role gender plays in regard to from other elements of their lives. At the occupational commitment. Finally, it should same time, athletic associations must be noted that a second edition of the Sport eliminate activities or distractions that take Commitment Model (Scanlan, Chow, Sousa, sport officials’ focus away from the act of Scanlan, & Knifsend, 2016) was published officiating. following our data collection. From a practical perspective, results from this case study can be utilized to better Implications and Future Research inform future sport officials with a more Prior research had indicated that realistic look at the sport officiating passion for the sport and intrinsic rewards occupation – specifically those interested in associated with officiating led people to the pursuing a career as a high school sports occupation (Bernal et al., 2012; Hancock et official. Academically, the implications of al., 2015). The current study indicates the this case study provide the opportunity for intrinsic rewards associated with being a further exploration of occupational part of sport remain important. It also commitment, sport commitment, and indicates the activity of officiating is turnover intentions in relation to all subsets something that the participants in this study (i.e., sport leagues and sports) of sports

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 14 officiating. Considering the aforementioned Conclusion discrepancies of findings, future research Recruiting and retention of qualified could examine a more comprehensive sport referees is a problem affecting examination of attitudinal differences based associations throughout the United States. on sport, extending the work of VanYperen While this case study did not explicitly (1998), Cuskelly and Hoye (2013), and address actual turnover, occupational Koslowsky and Maos (1988). turnover intentions indicate the attitudes Future studies should also explore officials have toward leaving the occupation. factors that lead to actual occupational The findings in the present study help withdrawal. It is plausible that samples of provide a better picture of the perceptions former high school officials may yield of high school sport referees from both different results. For officials who are sport commitment and occupational active, affective occupational commitment commitment. Considering sport officiating and involvement opportunities are is distinct from other occupations, building important factors in maintaining low affective occupational commitment and occupational turnover intentions. Scholars enhancing involvement can limit should explore potential antecedents of occupational turnover intentions, which affective occupational commitment and may lead to less actual turnover. involvement opportunities in high school --- officials. Additional exploration on this topic could also be conducted in relation to gender diversity among sport referees. While there has been an increase in research in the area of sense of community (e.g., Kellett & Warner, 2011; Tingle et al., 2014), occupational commitment could have some related implications. Finally, replication of the current study should be considered. The current study utilized a case study format with a relatively small sample involved with high school athletics in a single community. Future replications should include larger samples from a variety of locations throughout the United States from which broader generalization could be inferred.

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Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 19 turnover: Path analyses based on commitment on the relationship meta-analytic findings. Personnel between unmet expectations and job Psychology, 46(2), 259-293. satisfaction. Social Indicators Research, Tingle, J. K., Warner, S. & Sartore-Baldwin, 127, 401-412. M. L. (2014). The experience of Warner, S., Tingle, J. K., & Kellett, P. former women officials and the (2013). Officiating attrition: The impact on the sporting community. experiences of former referees via a Sex Roles, 71, 7-20. sport development lens. Journal of doi:10.1007/s11199-014-0366-8 Sport Management, 27(4), 316–328. Titlebaum, P. J., Haberlin, N., & Titlebaum, Wayne, S. J., Liden, R. C., Kraimer, M. L., & G. (2009). Recruitment and retention Graf, I. K. (1999). The role of human of sports officials. Recreational Sports capital, motivation and supervisor Journal, 33(2), 102-108. sponsorship in predicting career Trochim, W. M., Donnelly, J. P., & Arora, success. Journal of Organizational K. (2016). Research methods, The essential Behavior, 20(5), 577-595. knowledge base (2nd ed.). Boston, MA: Weng, Q., & McElroy, J. C. (2012). Cengage Learning Organizational career growth, Turner, B. A., & Chelladurai, P. (2005). affective occupational commitment Organizational and occupational and turnover intentions. Journal of commitment, intention to leave, and Vocational Behavior, 80, 256-265. perceived performance of Wicker, P., & Frick, B. (2016). Recruitment intercollegiate coaches. Journal of Sport and retention of referees in nonprofit Management, 19, 193–211. sport organizations: The trickle-down Turner, B. A., & Jordan, J. S. (2006). effect of role models. VOLUNTAS: Commitment and satisfaction of International Journal of Voluntary and coaches: Which is more important in Nonprofit Organizations, 27(3), 1304– the retention and performance of 1322. coaches? Journal-International Council for http://doi.org/10.1007/s11266-016- Health Physical Education Recreation 9705-4 Sport and Dance, 42(4), 42-48. Wolf, J. (2015, July 28). As budgets dwindle, VanYperen, N. W. (1998). Predicting high schools and youth sports teams stay/leave behavior among volleyball turn to crowdfunding. USAToday. referees. The Sport Journal, 12, 427– Retreived from: 439. http://usatodayhss.com/2015/as- Wang, P., Sang, J., Li, P., & Zhao, J. (2016). budgets-dwindle-high-schools-and- How to make a newcomer happy? youth-sports-teams-turn-to- The mediating role of career crowdfunding

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Tables

Table 1

Means, standard deviations, internal consistency reliability coefficients and correlations Item M SD a AOC NOC COC SE IA PI SC IO AOC 4.76 0.334 0.703 --- NOC 2.96 0.794 0.830 0.216* --- COC 2.86 0.756 0.774 0.250* 0.551** --- SE 4.37 0.648 0.964 0.194 0.036 -0.086 --- IA 2.88 0.757 0.732 -0.032 -0.245* -0.093 -0.031 --- PI 4.00 0.563 0.684 0.270* 0.060 0.113 0.219* 0.084 --- SC 1.77 0.700 0.811 -0.114 0.330** 0.345** -0.278* 0.020 -0.059 --- IO 4.18 0.648 0.807 0.305** 0.272* 0.424** 0.098 -0.201 0.248* 0.041 --- OTI 1.54 0.821 0.835 -0.403** -0.093 -0.144 -0.219* 0.184 -0.265* 0.191 -0.394** Note: AOC = Affective occupational commitment; NOC = Normative occupational commitment; COC = Continuance occupational commitment; SE = Sport enjoyment; IA = Involvement alternatives; PI = Personal investment; SC = Social constraints; IO = Investment opportunities; OTI = Occupational turnover intentions * p ≤ 0.05 ** p ≤ 0.01

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Barnhill et al., 2018 22

Table 2

Results of Hierarchical Regression Analysis Testing the Effects of Age, Gender, Years of Experience, Occupational Commitment, and Sport Commitment on Occupational Turnover Intentions Variable B SE b Step 1 Age 0.006 0.010 0.082 Gender -0.224 0.439 -0.059 Years of experience 0.002 0.011 0.025 Step 2 Age 0.003 0.010 0.047 Gender -0.126 0.389 -0.033 Years of experience 0.009 0.010 0.119 Affective occupational commitment -0.727 0.279 -0.296* Normative occupational commitment 0.001 0.136 0.001 Continuance occupational commitment 0.022 0.148 0.021 Sport enjoyment -0.086 0.134 -0.068 Involvement alternatives 0.154 0.113 0.142 Personal investment -0.183 0.154 -0.126 Social constraints 0.145 0.133 0.124 Involvement opportunities -0.309 0.146 -0.244* Note. Overall R2 = .33 (Overall Adjusted R2 = .22). Step 1 R2 = .02 (Adjusted R2 = -.02, p = .73). Step 2 DR2 = .31 (Adjusted DR2 = .31, p < .001). *p < .05.

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“Don’t sit back with the geraniums, get out”: The Complexity of Older Women’s Stories of Sport Participation

Sean Horton1 Rylee A. Dionigi2 Michael Gard3 Joseph Baker4 Patricia Weir1

1University of Windsor 2Charles Sturt University 3The University of Queensland 4York University

Encouraging sport participation ‘for all’ is one method governments have utilized in the attempt to facilitate a more active senior citizenry. To date, investigations of seniors’ participation in sport has focused primarily on physiological variables, with fewer investigations devoted to psychosocial outcomes or what playing sport means to the older person in the context of wider health promotion discourses. Our qualitative investigation consisted of in-depth interviews with women competing in the 2013 World Masters Games. Interviews were conducted with 16 women ranging from 70 to 86 years of age and data were analysed within a post-structural framework. Three main themes emerged from the analysis: Multi-faceted benefits, Overcoming barriers, and Social roles. Unquestionably, there is complexity inherent to older females’ sport participation, in that our participants held views that both challenged and perpetuated some of the most common aging and gender stereotypes. On the one hand, by competing in sport at an older age these women were resisting traditional views and structures that excluded them from sport. On the other hand, they were conforming to the contemporary ‘sport for all’ ideal while subtly disparaging others who do not play sport or keep active. Thus, our findings critically analyze health promotion trajectories as they relate to older women and sport.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 24 n the summer of 2015, Canada crossed contentious term (see the 2015 special issue a key demographic threshold, as for the on successful aging in The Gerontologist), and I first time more of its citizens were 65 other concepts have also been widely years and older than under 15 (Evans, utilized in research and policy, including 2015). This mirrors the demographic trends positive aging (e.g., Bowling, 1993) aging globally; by 2050 the number of adults over well (e.g., Peel, McClure, & Bartlett 2005), the age of 60 in developed countries will optimal aging (e.g., Aldwin, Spiro, & Park, nearly double those under 15 (United 2006), active aging (e.g., Pike, 2011; World Nations, Department of Economic and Health Organization, 2002) and productive Social Affairs/Population Division, 2015). aging (e.g., Warburton & Peel, 2008). These aging trends have caused a certain Central to all of these concepts is the notion degree of consternation in public policy that aging is, to a certain extent, subject to circles, as governments try to prepare for our control and that ill health is as much the impact of an older population on social about sedentary living and disuse as it is programs (Canadian Medical Association, about age (Vopat, Klinge, McClure, & 2015; Horton, Baker, & Deakin, 2007). Fadale, 2014), which are key reasons why Exacerbating the demographic trend is the the promotion of sport and physical activity fact that we are living longer. The average participation has appeared in health and lifespan has increased by an average of three aging-related policies (Gard & Dionigi, months per year since the 1840s, to the 2016). Much of the supporting evidence for point that individuals born in advanced ‘successful aging’ comes from research on industrial countries can now expect to live physical activity involvement (or lack into their 80s (Oeppen & Vaupel, 2002; thereof) in older adults (Colley et al., 2011; World Health Organization, 2016). Dogra & Stathokostas, 2012; Harvey, Rapid growth in the senior cohort has Chastin & Skelton, 2015; Meisner, Dogra, fueled interest among academics and Logan, Baker, & Weir, 2010). For the policymakers in how to maximize time majority of people, involvement in physical spent living a life high in quality, and activity declines precipitously as we move simultaneously compressing the time living through the lifespan (Colley et al., 2011), yet with disease and disability (King & for those who can and do remain active, Guralnik, 2010), hence the focus on what fitness and health measures are generally has been most commonly referred to as superior to their peers, and often equivalent ‘successful aging’ (Rowe & Kahn, to those in a much younger cohort (Leyk et 1987;1997) as part of a wider health al., 2010; Wroblewski, Amati, Smiley, promotion policy direction. While Goodpaster, & Wright, 2011). successful aging is the most commonly used Encouraging sport participation ‘for all’ term in gerontology, it is also a highly is one method governments have used in the attempt to facilitate a more active senior benefits of participating in Masters events citizenry (Gard & Dionigi, 2016; Pike 2011). (Dionigi, Baker, & Horton, 2011a). Regardless of whether governmental Notably, Rowe and Kahn’s model has, influence is actually having an effect on despite its high profile (or perhaps, because participation rates, it is clear that sporting of it) come under criticism for its narrow, events for older adults are growing in biomedical focus, with comparatively little popularity. A notable example of this is the attention paid to various psychosocial World Masters Games (WMG) which began aspects of aging that seniors themselves with the inaugural event in 1985 and 5,000 consider important to age successfully athletes competing. It has since expanded to (Geard et al., 2017; Liffiton, Horton, Baker, the extent that it is now the largest sporting & Weir, 2012) nor the wider cultural context event in the world, with up to 30,000 within which meanings of aging and participating in the quadrennial event (Weir, physical activity are situated (Dionigi, Baker, & Horton 2010). Horton, & Bellamy, 2011b). Investigations A number of researchers have asserted of how older adults define successful aging that Masters athletes represent an important have led to broader conceptions than those group to study (see Geard, Reaburn, Rebar, forwarded by Rowe and Kahn, and included & Dionigi, 2017). Some argue that many of items such as happiness/enjoyment with life these Masters athletes represent an aging (e.g., Bowling, 2006; Knight & Ricciardelli, “ideal,” at least from a physical perspective 2003), having a positive outlook (e.g., (Cooper, Powell, & Rasch, 2007; Hawkins, Hilton, Gonzalez, Saleh, Maitoza, & Wiswell, & Marcell, 2003; Spirduso, Francis, Anngela-Cole, 2012; Tate, Leedine, & & MacRae, 2005). More recently, Pesce and Cuddy, 2003), personal growth (e.g., Fisher Audiffren (2011) suggested that partaking in & Specht, 1999), acceptance of oneself (e.g., sports that were high in cognitive demands Reichstadt, Sengupta, Depp, Palinkas, & enhanced mental flexibility, thereby Jeste, 2010; Tate et al., 2003), and close contributing to “successful cognitive aging” personal relationships (e.g., Lee & Fan, (pg 623). Maintaining physical and cognitive 2008; Matsubayashi & Okumiya, 2006). functioning, along with avoidance of disease Consequently, a consensus definition of and disability are two defining features of successful aging has proven elusive as Rowe and Kahn’s (1987; 1997) model of researchers have revised and expanded the successful aging. The third component of concept to the point that a recent systematic this model, an active engagement with life, review unearthed 84 unique definitions is also associated with sport involvement, as (Cosco, Prina, Perales, Stephan, & Brayne, the opportunity to develop friendships, 2014). This proliferation inspired Geard et travel to new places, and receive social al. (2017) to divide successful aging into support are all cited by older adults as four distinct areas: physical, psychological,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 26 cognitive, and social, arguing that, while the and Kluge (2013) conducted a qualitative evidence is still in its early stages, investigation with eight novice female particularly for the latter three of these volleyball players ranging in age from 65 to areas, Masters athletes may exemplify 76, many of whom were participating in successful aging in all four domains (Geard, athletic activity for the first time in 50 years. Rebar, Reaburn, & Dionigi, in press). Geard The authors speculated that this team et al.’s (in press) assertion has some support environment, overseen and sponsored in a from a recent systematic review by Gayman university setting, which included high and colleagues, which suggested that seniors quality coaching, may be a viable model for may derive benefits from partaking in sport introducing non-athletic women to over and above those accrued from competitive sport. involvement in physical activity (Gayman, Research by Pfister (2012) has also Fraser-Thomas, Dionigi, Horton, & Baker, focused exclusively on females - two older 2017). Nevertheless, these studies rarely athletes who still participated in sport consider what participation in sport means competitions. Pfister (2012) discussed the to older women within the broader cultural “double barrier” women faced with respect context. to participation in competitive sport as a Investigations of seniors’ participation result of being both older and female. in sport has focused primarily on Indeed, past literature has emphasized the physiological variables, with fewer historical difficulties women have investigations devoted to psychosocial encountered in the sporting world outcomes (Baker, Fraser-Thomas, Dionigi, (Vertinsky, 1995) and McIntosh (2015) has & Horton, 2010; Dionigi, 2016; Gayman et described the history of women’s sport as a al., 2017). Gayman et al. (2017) uncovered “history of struggle.” Drawing on post- ten articles that focused on psychosocial structural theories and using a critical, outcomes of sport participation in adults 60 qualitative approach, Dionigi (2010; 2013) years of age and older. Of these ten articles, noted how older sportswomen (aged 55 five focused on men’s participation (Langley years and over) across a range of sports & Knight, 1999; Lobjois, Benguigui, & simultaneously resisted and conformed to Bertsch, 2006; Lobjois, Benguigui, Bertsch, discourses of sport, aging and gender. & Broderick, 2008; Roper, Molnar, Post-structural theories help explain the Wrisberg, 2003; Rotella & Bunker, 1978), ways in which dominant cultural notions four examined the experiences of both men (e.g., of sport, gender, or aging) can be and women (Eman, 2012; Grant, 2001; challenged, used, or reinforced through Pesce & Audiffren, 2011; Reed & Cox, individual experiences and practices 2007), with just one focused on females (Markula & Pringle, 2006; Shaw, 2006; exclusively (Kirby & Kluge, 2013). Kirby Wearing, 1995). For example, older women

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 27 can resist negative stereotypes of aging that individual, paired and/or team sporting portray old age as a time of weakness and events within the broader context of sport, frailty by maintaining a strong, healthy body aging, gender, and health promotion and thereby deriving a sense of competency discourses by taking a critical approach to and empowerment. Alternatively, the qualitative research, shaped by a post- increasing cultural and social pressure to structuralist perspective. remain active and participate in sport, Methodology evident in government policy, academic Research paradigm literature and the media, can result in the A critical approach to qualitative marginalization and stigmatization of those research “requires a look beyond the who cannot or do not want to engage in immediate, to question that which we take these activities, as well as a heightened for granted and seek connections between individual and cultural fear of aging seemingly disparate ideas; it is an approach (Dionigi, Gard, Horton, Weir & Baker, that nurtures creativity…with an eye toward 2014; Gard, Dionigi, Horton, Baker, Weir, social change” (Swaminathan & Mulvihill, & Dionigi, 2017). Given the distinct lack of 2017, p. 4-5). It involves interrogating and research specific to older women’s (i.e., 70 questioning taken-for-granted assumptions, years and over) sporting experiences, such as sport and physical activity should be despite their apparent growing involvement practiced by all, and pays close attention to in sport, this qualitative study (framed in power and privilege, such as sport being a post-structuralism) of older women middle-class preoccupation. A critical competing in the 2013 WMG expands approach also accepts multiple or partial existing knowledge on this topic. truths, examines context and structure Historically, both participation in and the alongside personal empowerment, and public discourse surrounding sport has been resists separating the researcher from the dominated by young to middle-aged men, research process (Swaminathan & Mulvihill, leaving the voices of women, older women 2017). Therefore, although qualitative in particular, notably absent (Dionigi, 2013; research attempts to see the world from the Freysinger, Shaw, Henderson, & Bialeschki, standpoint of participants, we recognize that 2013; Hargreaves, 1994; Vertinsky, 1995). If researcher (and reader) bias is inevitable being heard is a form of power, then and, indeed, embraced in qualitative listening to the voices of older, female research and writing (Denzin & Lincoln, athletes is potentially valuable in helping to 2011). Our critical research paradigm aligns redress this imbalance. with post-structural perspectives which Thus, the aim of our study was to better claim that there is no single interpretive understand the meaning of sport in the lives truth and cast doubt over any discourse, of older women who currently compete in theory or method holding authoritative

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 28 knowledge over another (Denzin & Lincoln, For this paper, interviews with 16 women 2003; Richardson, 1998). Post-structuralism ranging from 70 to 86 years of age were is also interested in issues of power and the analyzed to gain a better understanding of rights of individuals. Within this research older women’s experiences and meanings design and theoretical framework, we used associated with competing in sport in the semi-structured interviews and purposive wider context of aging, sport, gender, and sampling methods (Patton, 2002), as health promotion discourses. Participants explained below, to better understand sport were selected, using purposive criterion- and aging from the perspectives of older based sampling, (Patton, 2002) based on age female athletes. (70 years and over), gender (women), and language (ability to speak English). The Participants women participated in a variety of paired or We recruited athletes participating in the individual sports, specifically: track and 2013 WMG in Turin, Italy. This is a global field, swimming, weightlifting, table tennis, event that attracted approximately 20,000 and badminton. Eleven different countries athletes from countries around the world. were represented in this group of 16 Research team members approached women. All identified as Caucasian, with the athletes at various athletic venues with the exception of one woman from Canada who purpose of initiating a conversation. We did identified as Aboriginal. This was a highly this at a time when athletes were not educated group, with only one participant competing so as to be minimally disruptive indicating less than high school education, to their routine. Early in our conversation and 11 with some schooling beyond high we would mention the research we were school (i.e., college courses, university undertaking and ask if they were interested degree) and one woman reported obtaining in a more formal interview, which we would a Ph.D. Almost all of the women were conduct at a time and place most either fully (10) or partially (5) retired with convenient to them. Overall, we found that one indicating that she was still working full athletes were receptive to sharing their time. Reported careers varied considerably, experiences with us, as we have found in and included teachers (5), nurses (2), and our past research on older athletes (Dionigi physicians (2). Other careers mentioned et al., 2011a; Dionigi, Horton, & Baker, included secretary, engineer, lawyer and 2013). bank teller. Seven women were widowed, Data presented here were collected as six were married, and three reported being part of a larger study that examined ideas divorced. More than half of the women about sport involvement, sport promotion, talked about being multi-sport athletes, with training and competition, role models of 10 mentioning involvement in sports other aging, and involvement in physical activity. than the one they were engaged in at the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 29 WMG. Participants provided informed establish agreement on the emergent themes consent, and the ethics approval was and categories (Johnson, 1997). In addition obtained from a university’s Research to this ‘peer debriefing’ (Sparkes & Smith, Ethics Board. All participants were given 2014, p. 189), below we provide ‘detailed pseudonyms for the purposes of data descriptions’ (Sparkes & Smith, p. 181) of presentation to protect their confidentiality. the analysis process, our conceptual Interview Format framework and biases so readers can further Participants were interviewed judge the credibility and quality of this individually in a quiet space at a time when research. they were not competing. Interviews were conducted in a semi-structured format Analysis (Patton, 2002), which provided the Interview transcripts were analyzed and interviewer the flexibility to probe interpreted within a post-structural participants’ answers for more detail. Each framework (Markula & Pringle, 2006; Shaw, author is an experienced qualitative 2006). Post-structuralism rejects universal researcher, and all participated in the norms for truth and morality, focusing development of the interview protocol instead on a world that is uncertain, (Johnson, 1997). We met frequently over fragmented, diverse, with plurality one of its the course of the WMG to discuss the essential components (Merriam, 2002). interview process, to share our experiences, Sport contains within it multiple power question one another, self-reflect and make structures, which both shape and are shaped slight adjustments when necessary. by its participants (Markula & Pringle, An interview guide provided the basic 2006). There is no single way to ‘do’ sport, topics. Sample questions included: what role and there are a plethora of reasons that does sport play in your life? What do you drive participation. Furthermore, there are get out of participating in sport? What numerous conditions under which sport barriers do you experience in relation to participation can shape one’s self-concept your continued participation in sport? What and identity, and vice versa. is the hardest thing for you about Post-structuralism’s strength as an competing? Why do you think many older analytical approach is its “power to resist people do not participate in sport? and work against settled truths” (Williams, Interviews generally lasted from 30-60 2005, p. 3). This approach recognizes that minutes, although some lasted upwards of people attach multiple, dynamic, and 90 minutes, were digitally recorded and later contradictory meanings to their aging transcribed. Discussion amongst authors experience, as well as how meanings continued throughout the coding process to influence and are influenced by language ensure critical reflection on the data and to and discourse at all levels of society. While

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 30 an individual’s concept of self and identity categories, and example meaning units). will be diverse, fragmented, and culturally This approach to qualitative analysis has its specific, we can gain an understanding of roots in the constant-comparative method one’s experience of aging and the sense (Glaser & Strauss, 1967), which involves people make of their actions through the contrasting the data until “saturation,” when stories they tell about themselves and their no new themes or categories emerge. This bodies. Our reading and interpretation of approach to analysis allowed us to reveal the the interviews was done in this spirit, albeit meanings and contradictions in the data, with an abundance of caution given that, which aligns with the post-structural while the language participants used to talk framework outlined above. That is, like about their lives is steeped in historical previous studies in this area (e.g. Dionigi, context, our analysis of their stories is 2010; 2013), we did not use Grounded similarly influenced by our own culture, Theory explicitly, however we did bias, and background. Thus, in the findings incorporate components of that approach we have included a number of verbatim (coding and constant comparison) so that quotes to provide context, with the our themes emerged from/were grounded expectation that the reader may interpret in our analysis of the data (Merriam, 2002). these somewhat differently than the Based on the interview questions that were authors. asked, numerous readings of the transcripts, When analysing our data we used an and our analysis, three broad themes were inductive approach for the coding, in which established – Multi-faceted benefits, Overcoming quotes from the interviews were identified barriers, and Social roles. as ‘meaning units’ (Côté, Salmela, Abderrahim, & Russell, 1993; Côté, Salmela, Findings & Russell 1995). Subsequently, common Multi-faceted Benefits features from these meaning units were The first theme, Multi-faceted benefits, identified, compared, and organized into consisted of three categories: benefits that our main themes (Côté et al. 1993; Tesch, were Social, Psychological, and Physical in 1990). Within these themes, we grouped nature. similar meaning units together into Social benefits. Virtually unanimous categories. For example, a number of our amongst our participants was the participants commented on the pain and conception that there were major social injuries they were managing in order to benefits from partaking in sports in general, continue sport participation. These and Masters games in particular. Lisa (aged comments were grouped together into a 72, swimming) noted, “Masters (events) category entitled dealing with disease, pain, and have given me an opportunity to meet injury (please see Table 1 for all the themes, women who will be my friends all my life.”

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 31 Alexis (72, swimming) expressed discussed a variety of topics that included comparable sentiments, stating “the stress relief, mental health, positive self- enjoyment, being with the group. I’ve made perceptions, goal-setting, meeting a lot of great friends because of it.” challenges, and even improving their Similarly, Nora (70, swimming) noted that organizational skills. In preparing for events “the camaraderie you get, and the support like the WMG and setting goals, Sarah (81, you get, especially from the club. Locker swimming) noted: “All that gives me new room chatter is wonderful.” Betty (70, things to look forward to, get a little weightlifting) discussed how the WMG nervous about, which is not a bad thing.” become a way for the athletes to stay Geraldine (70, track and field) discussed connected or reconnect: improved stress levels, but also the extent to The friendships you make, all people which her perceptions of herself changed around the world, if you get to travel once she became an athlete: around the world to championships, Stress relief is one but it’s more than and then you don’t see them for a year, that, it’s the effect it has on you and you might have an email now and then, your perception of yourself as a person, it’s just lovely to see them again and so that self-concept, that I believe they all support each other. changes… You see yourself, not just The social component of sport and the mother, the wife, the teacher, but an competition was clearly one of the most athlete. It adds that extra dimension to important benefits highlighted by our your self-concept. participants. At the same time, the women Our participants in this study grew up at a in our study, unlike the majority of older time when women’s roles were women, were ‘privileged’ - they had the predominantly limited to that of a wife or means, ability and desire to travel the world mother, or some other caring role like a and play sport. In addition, they were teacher or nurse. Therefore, becoming an conforming to the culturally accepted view “athlete” was a new part of Geraldine’s that one should be socially active in later identity and one that was not typical among life, which aligns with the active engagement women of her time. Mary (73, badminton) aspect of successful aging and health-related drew a direct link between fitness and her promotion policy trajectories, such as ‘sport state of mind. “It’s that feeling of being fit; I for all’ (Carr, Smith, Weir & Horton, in just think you’re more mentally alert.” press). Mary’s statement indicates that benefits Psychological benefits. While social from sport can generalize to an overall and psychological aspects overlapped to a feeling of well-being. Just as there was certain degree, participants described frequently overlap between the social and distinct psychological benefits. The women psychological benefits women described,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 32 there was also overlap between the strong, performing body, and psychological and the physical, exemplified simultaneously, the negative cultural here by Mary. This ties into our final emphasis on the weak, ‘fat’ and/or aging category within this theme, that of physical (female) body. benefits. Nora also struggles with arthritis, which Physical benefits. Our participants began when she was 35. In addition to the talked about improved health, looking and arthritis, she recounted other injuries she feeling younger, and generally feeling better had suffered throughout the years. Asked about themselves. They seemed very what kept her coming back to swimming, invested in their bodies, in terms of how she responded: they functioned, how they performed, and Because I know I’m going to heal. I’ve how they looked. In a culture that values healed every time. Swimming actually youthful, fit, sporty, functional bodies, it is makes me feel good. When I had perhaps not surprising that these ‘privileged’ arthritis really bad, the first five minutes women also valued these traits in others and of swimming was very painful. After in themselves. What was particularly that it felt good, and the pain would go noteworthy, however, was the extent to away. It just made me feel good in body which these women extolled therapeutic and spirit. benefits, as many of them were dealing with These sentiments expressed by Nora and pain and/or injuries. Betty had been battling Betty are representative of the distinct rheumatoid arthritis, including weight issues physical benefits experienced by these older, as a result of her condition, and had four female athletes. They also reveal the extent hip replacements which affected her to which these women are invested in their technique as a weightlifter. She started physical health and functionality, which competing at age 60, and stated, “It gave me relates to the next major theme - back my life, it really did. Because as the overcoming barriers. muscles became stronger, those weak joints were supported, pain lessened.” Betty Overcoming Barriers clearly derived important physical benefits Within this theme, three categories from her weightlifting. At the same time, emerged from our analysis, which consisted getting her “life” back is associated with this of Dealing with disease, pain, and injury, improvement in physical function, with a Financial obstacles, and Combatting gender and subtle insinuation that her life was somehow age norms. of less value in its previous (physically weak, Dealing with disease, pain, and overweight) state. Therefore, Betty’s quote injury. Many of our participants had dealt is reflective of, or perhaps buys into, the with, or were currently dealing with, serious value western cultures place on the fit, injuries or health issues. Alexis talked about

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 33 her recovery from a recent stroke. Lisa or resist the aging body. Fiona (70, discussed her heart attack of 10 years ago, badminton) was particularly noteworthy due and managing associated complications to her battle with Parkinson’s disease. She since that event to allow her to swim described her symptoms as being “well competitively. Others spoke of hip controlled” with her medication, and that a replacements, broken bones, or debilitating combination of this and her active lifestyle arthritis. Common to all of these women, help to maintain her good health. In her however, was a determination to get past words, “I firmly believe with the right level these serious health issues, with sport as an of activity, you can improve any medical important component of their therapy. condition.” Fiona’s optimism is striking, Often it meant making adjustments, for considering how debilitating the symptoms example, learning a different swimming of the disease can be without her stroke to accommodate for an injury. The medication. She commented that, “If I body is, in a sense, treated as an instrument, don’t take my medication I find I can’t walk to be fixed, prodded, mended, and brought very well” and that even a few hours delay back to ‘life’; disease, pain, and injury are taking her medication can have fairly drastic thus insufficient reasons to give up on effects on her badminton performance. She sport. Betty spoke of changing her faces these obstacles as rewarding weightlifting technique to accommodate for challenges, however, and speaks of a wrist injury and having both hips replaced. constantly seeking out new ways of pushing She commented on the therapeutic benefits herself: of exercise for people more generally: “I When you quit doing things, and know it’s hard with pain to make the first looking for new challenges, that’s when step, but if they could possibly do it they you get old. Your body starts to fall would find in time, they feel better.” Some apart…. It’s the best way I know to changed sports completely. Sarah moved to fight disease - don’t give into it. I could swimming, noting its low impact nature: say ‘oh, I have Parkinson’s’ and there I want to get these older people in the are people who do that. water … anything else is often These women were dismissive of barriers unforgiving for bones, because I have a that others might, perhaps logically or hip replacement, I broke this one skiing; justifiably, consider substantial in nature. but in the water, there is no pain, it’s What is remarkable about women like Fiona wonderful. You are free of all that stuff. is the resilience, determination, and Alongside these women’s feelings of optimism that they display. At the same personal empowerment is a belief in the time, Fiona’s resistance subtly denigrates the idea that exercise can help to prevent aging term ‘old’, associating it with giving up and and disease and a belief that one must fight quitting. She also subtly denigrates those

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 34 who ‘give in’ to disease by differentiating particularly if you do not live in close herself from people who do. This way of proximity to the host venue. Many of our thinking has the potential to blame participants built the Games into their larger individual choice and behavior for disease, travel plans, and used it as an opportunity to which is problematic given the random explore new places and new countries. They nature of so many diseases and the socio- did acknowledge, however, that such cultural determinants of health outcomes, endeavors are problematic for many people, particularly as one ages. Resisting disease, and they also acknowledged the privileged resisting the tendency of the body to ‘fall position they occupied. Alexis noted, “I apart’ as we age appears to be crucial to know some people that couldn’t afford to Fiona’s sense of self. The body is of most go and it’s a big problem getting all your value to Fiona, like others in this study, money together.” when it looks and performs in a youthful Similarly, Betty remarked that it took manner. considerable financial resources, combined Our participants were determined to do with reaching an age at which other what they wanted, and not much was going financial obligations are absent, to be able to to stop them. This is perhaps best afford participating in the WMG. “The exemplified by 81-year-old Sarah, who, after younger ones have got commitments, describing her broken hip from skiing, her they’ve got mortgages, they’ve got children. back surgery for arthritis, and her resulting It’s too hard to be spending as much money struggles to perfect a new swimming stroke, as we are spending coming here.” The said “Real barriers? I think I would crawl women recognized the travel costs, but also over them; I am so determined to do the the considerable expenses associated with things I want to do.” As a society, we the year-round training, equipment, and admire and celebrate women with such an coaching that many masters athletes accrue attitude, and perhaps rightfully so. This kind in order to compete. Betty does go on to of fierce resistance and resilience, however, distinguish, however, between the expenses tends to conform to Rowe and Kahn’s associated with events like the WMG, and (1987; 1997) biomedical model of aging, the ability to partake in basic exercise, which assumes we all can, and should, take declaring “…you don’t have to be an responsibility for our health, and that the Olympic weight lifter like I am, you just way we age is very much under our control. have to get a couple of tins of baked beans Financial obstacles. This was an and hand weights.” These women were obstacle that our participants recognized as passionate about exercise, and insisted that real, and important, but it did not really one does not have to take it as seriously, nor apply to them. Participating in an event like have the financial resources they have, to the WMG can be an expensive undertaking, derive benefits. In fact, the pervasive

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 35 attitude in our data appears to be that there marriage. … In the 1950s and 60s, you is no rational reason for a completely had the Victorian time…..the wife did sedentary lifestyle, irrespective of age, health what the husband said. status, or economic circumstance, an Clearly these attitudes did not prevent these attitude also implied in ‘sport for all’ and women from becoming athletes, and in this related health promotion messages. Our sense they were just one in a series of participants lamented the lack of sport or obstacles our participants overcame which even basic physical activity in the majority helped them to feel empowered. And while of older adults, a topic which is covered in earlier in their lives they faced barriers more detail in a subsequent theme. related to gender norms, more recently they Combatting gender and age have encountered stereotypes associated “norms.” All of our participants were born with age. Once again, these women feel prior to the end of WWII, and some of that, while these stereotypes do exist and them referenced the lack of opportunities in can be powerful, they apply to older people their childhood. Fiona spoke of the limited more generally, rather than themselves prospects for engaging in sports during her specifically. Hence, their comments school years: reflected that perception. Lisa observed: When I was in school, there really I think most adults feel that they are not wasn’t much for girls… we just played capable. ‘No, I can’t do that, I’m 70 with each other. That’s really all there years old. I can’t take a yoga class, I’m was... I guess there were people who 70 years old.’ I think we need to thought athletic girls were kind of encourage senior men and women to strange. come out of themselves and take a risk, Similar sentiments were expressed by Nora, take a chance, try it, see if you can do it. who was surprised to arrive in the United Don’t just say so quickly, ‘I can’t do States from Austria as a young adult only to that.’ find few opportunities to participate in Similarly, Sarah suggested that most seniors sports. “When we came to the United sell themselves short, and more media States, my age group, the women were told exposure of events like the WMG would they had to be ladies. Sports was not the help change perceptions of what is possible: done thing.” Sarah experienced issues in her I think that the older population wasn’t marriage as a result of perceived gender brought up in that; you need to get that roles: realization that, why can’t older people That’s not nice to say so but my do this? You need to advertise that and husband, he discouraged me from show that it can be done. almost anything that I wanted to do and Our participants knew, in one sense, that that has caused a problem in our they were the exception rather than the rule,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 36 and that they represented a model of an A common sentiment that emerged was older (female) adult who was active and the notion of “if she can do it, why can’t I?” athletic at a relatively late age. To a very real This went both ways, in the sense that our degree, these women thought of themselves participants recognized that they inspired as examples of how one should live life at other women, yet notably there were their age, which leads us to our last major instances in which our participants were theme. similarly inspired, generally by women older than themselves who were still active and Social Roles competing in sport. For example, Sarah This final theme includes two (aged 81) noted that, “there is a woman categories, role modeling, and evangelical about here, her name is Barbara... she is 89 and exercise. she is fantastic.” Similarly, Sally (70, Role modeling. There was swimming), who works out a gym five considerable variety in how our participants mornings a week to complement her referred to themselves with respect to their swimming training, and is met in the social roles. Kim (72, swimming), for mornings by “one of my friends (who) is 81. example, was quite overt about referring to So, I’m inspired by her.” Betty noted that herself as a role model. “My family is very part of the reason she competes is so that athletic and I am a role model for my family people can see that “she can still do things.” so they know that everybody has to pick a It is important to Betty to put her body and sport.” Similarly, Sarah indicated, “I hear abilities on display, and show her physicality awesome people telling me ‘you’re my role and prowess through her sport. She believes model.’” Lucinda (83, swimming) notes that she inspires others in this manner, and also she is held up by prominent people in her derives inspiration from her co-competitors, town as someone to emulate: “The mayor some of whom are “…a lot older than me. of my town always calls me the example for You get out there and they see that you can other elder people. ‘Look at her!’ You know do it.” geraniums? There’s a saying in Holland: Whether or not our participants Don’t sit back with the geraniums, get out.” explicitly saw themselves as role models, Others were slightly more reticent, but did they all saw themselves as having a distinct acquiesce to the notion of being a role “role to play.” Our participants wanted to model. Betty, for one, has been profiled share their passion for sport, exercise, and extensively in her hometown’s local media: fitness in the hopes that they would inspire “I don’t see myself as a role model but the others to become more active. In a sense, other ladies would probably disagree. So I these women were “exercise evangelicals” (have had) a lot of radio and magazines which constitutes our final category. written about me.”

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 37 Evangelical about exercise. Our final often conveyed is that individuals who do category focuses on the messages that our not partake in exercise or sport are shirking participants try to convey, in varying ways, their social and moral responsibility to about the benefits of exercise and/or sport maintain an active, healthy lifestyle involvement. Most were rather blunt in their throughout their senior years. This can be recommendations, which they often subtle, as with Leena (80, swimming) who perceived as encouraging and supportive of notes, “I’ve always been active and never others. Martha (86, swimming) is direct in one to just sit around with a bunch of her advice: “I say to all of my friends, ‘you women and talk about my aches and pains. wouldn’t be limping like that if you came Not that I condemn them.” Some of our swimming with me.’” Similarly, Mary has a other participants, however, were more similar message to her friends: “I always say willing to offer some level of condemnation to them ‘live! You are young enough to for a less-than-active lifestyle. Betty stated: participate and learn new things, do more Hopefully more and more because if things, play more sport.’” Betty was very not then people will start getting more forthright about her evangelical nature: “I and more obese, the health system will give lectures to the ladies, as you can tell, on fail, but the trouble is there is still a lot this subject, the need to do weights, even who just don’t want to listen, who still with a tin of baked beans in each hand. smoke, and they are the ones who will There are enormous health benefits.” drain the system when you get to Geraldine has spent many years running pension age. exercise classes and pursuing advanced When Iris (72, table tennis) was asked why graduate degrees related to physical more seniors are sedentary rather education and motivation. Some of her than active in their lifestyle choices, she work takes her into nursing homes, where responded: she tries to implement PA programs. Lazy, lazy, only lazy. They like to eat a I work in a nursing home so these lot of food, junk food, they don’t want people are there, you’ve got the to walk. Simple. WALK. Use your captured audience, you go around and body, use your muscles. Don’t let your you tell them we are just going to do a muscles die. If you’re not moving, little bit of movement, you don’t say you’re dying. exercise... they say “I’m too old for that, It does appear to be a slippery slope from I did all that when I was young.” taking responsibility for your own health This evangelical nature is a double-edged and well-being to castigating those who sword, for while the messages conveyed by cannot, for whatever reason, do the same, our participants are intended to be thereby blaming them for ill health or encouraging and supportive, the attitude disease. These findings clearly highlight the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 38 complexity inherent in older women’s 2012). A number of our participants stories of sport participation within the discussed these barriers, and how they wider context of sport, aging, and health experienced a lack of opportunities in their promotion discourses. youth, or a less than supportive spouse. What was striking, however, was the fierce Discussion determination these women displayed in the Our study both supports and extends face of numerous barriers, whether these the literature on older (female) masters were societally based, or more individual in athletes. Previous investigations of the nature (i.e., overcoming disease and injury). sporting experiences of older athletes have Our participants talked at-length about emphasized the multiple and varied benefits various adverse events that had occurred in these individuals derive from sport their lives, yet they were determined to participation (Dionigi et al., 2011a; Kirby & continue with exercise and sport. This was Kluge, 2013). Similarly, our athletes perhaps best exemplified by Sarah, who discussed the social, psychological, and spoke of crawling over barriers, because she physical benefits of their sport involvement. is “so determined to do the things I want to For women like Geraldine, sport can be an do.” empowering experience, expanding one’s Clearly our participants have displayed self-concept and identity so she sees herself determination and persistence, and this may not just as a mother, a wife, and a teacher, be worthy of both admiration and but also as an “athlete.” Biographical emulation. We broached this possibility, and interpretations of aging successfully while only some of them overtly referred to emphasize the possibilities, despite potential themselves as role models, virtually all our changes in health status and socio-cultural participants saw themselves as having a role and economic resources as one ages (Diongi to play when it came to encouraging others et al., 2011b). These transitions can be to be more active in sport and/or physical interpreted as important components of activity. Kirby and Kluge (2013) discussed one’s life story and create multiple the potential of the female volleyball players understanding of one’s “self” while also in their study to be role models, both for creating alternative meanings of the aging their peers and for younger generations. process (Chapman, 2005; Dionigi et al., Considering these women were described as 2011b; Phoenix & Sparkes, 2009). volleyball novices who had never Older females have traditionally faced participated in competitive sport previously, numerous barriers to sport participation, they are perhaps well-suited to inspire other due to culturally-based stereotypes and seniors. Importantly, the WMG emphasizes norms related to both age and gender and encourages participation, with multiple (Vertinsky, 1995; Dionigi, 2013; Pfister, divisions catering to everyone from elite

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 39 athletes to those who are primarily matched peers (Lithopoulosa, Rathwell, & recreational in nature (Weir et al., 2010). Young, 2014). Previous research has indicated that older From a post-structural perspective, athletes who are more “elite” may actually individuals will often challenge, negotiate intimidate other seniors from getting and conform to dominant cultural involved in sport (Horton, Baker, Cote, & conceptions through their words and Deakin, 2008; Horton, Dionigi, & Bellamy, practices (Markula & Pringle, 2006; Shaw, 2013; Ory, Hoffman, Hawkins, Sanner, & 2006; Wearing, 1995). By resisting Mockenhaupt, 2003). Role model research traditional gender and aging stereotypes the that has been conducted with young people women in our study and others of their ilk suggests that the ideal role model was may help to change perceptions of what it someone who was slightly older and had means to grow old. Indeed, extraordinary achieved outstanding, but not impossible older female athletes are occasionally success in an area in which respondents profiled in the popular press. Ruth Frith hoped to excel (Lockwood & Kunda, 1997). was one of two athletes over 100 years of While having appropriate role models for age participating in the 2009 WMG in young people is widely acknowledged to be Sydney, Australia, and she became a media important (Beck, 1989; Nauta & Kokaly, star (Pfister, 2012). Somewhat ironically, 2001) research on this topic for seniors is in these elite athletes have the potential to its infancy (Joop, Jung, Damarin, Mirpuri, & resist traditional aging stereotypes, but also Spini, 2017). There is, however, growing simultaneously reinforce them (Dionigi, awareness that it may be a significant 2010; 2013; 2016). They reinforce aging research area for a senior population that is stereotypes by distancing themselves from growing in both age and number (Horton et other women their own age who are al., 2013; Kirby & Kluge, 2013). McIntosh sedentary. While our participants see (2015) noted that one senior female athlete themselves as having a role to play, their in her study exclaimed ‘we need role models evangelical enthusiasm for exercise too!’ The early evidence suggests that what potentially masks a disdain for those who constitutes a viable role model for youth (supposedly) lacked the initiative or will- may be applicable to seniors (Horton et al., power to engage in physical activity. Words 2013; Joop et al., 2017; Lockwood & such as ‘lazy’ or ‘drain the system’ were used Kunda, 1997). However, while more to describe non-exercisers. In this manner, research is needed on role models for older our participants reinforced a biomedical adults, it may be that some of the women in approach to aging that emphasizes self- our study, given their elite-athlete status, responsibility for one’s health and devalues may be more suitable role models for ill-health in old age (Dionigi et al., 2014). younger generations than for their age- This is problematic for those who lack the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 40 resources, knowledge, ability or even the Calasanti, 2014; Rubinstein & de Medeiros, interest to engage in physical activity and/or 2015). Despite these criticisms within the sport in later life (see Gard et al., 2017). academic literature, Rowe and Kahn’s While our participants acknowledged their successful aging model maintains a privileged position, and similarly prominent place in discussions on aging and acknowledged that many people could not in government policy (Geard et al., 2017). afford the expenses associated with Notably, our interviews with older female competitive sport, there was considerably athletes suggest that their views fall very less sympathy for those who did not partake much within Rowe and Kahn’s framework. in any kind of physical activity, whether that Our participants, sometimes subtly, and constituted walking, or using a tin of baked other times less so, conveyed the notion beans to maintain muscular strength. that obstacles, whether those constituted On an individual level, the manner in disease or injury, or even aging itself, were which our participants resist an aging body, simply barriers to overcome. While their and the control they attempt to assert over determination is laudable, the danger here is various physical and social barriers, may be twofold: First, what happens when they an effective and empowering way to eventually succumb to old age, as we all do approach their lives. Much of the literature unless we die on the field of play (Dionigi, in psychology suggests that locus of control Horton & Baker, 2013; Gard et al., 2017)? (i.e., beliefs regarding whether one’s health By resisting deep old age so vehemently, do is controlled by oneself, others, or fate) is an we potentially fear it more, and adjust more important predictor of mental health and poorly when the inevitable arrives (Dionigi, well-being, as well as proactive behaviour 2016; Dionigi et al., 2014)? Second, what are (Cheng, Cheung & Lo, 2016; Cobb-Clark, the implications for those who do not, for Cassenboemher & Schurer, 2014; Norman, whatever reason, engage in a similarly active Bennett, Smith, & Murphy, 1997). From a lifestyle? Are they at risk of being treated by societal perspective, however, this focus on people, and by governments, as somehow individual agency is problematic, for it morally inferior for lacking the assumes that everyone, irrespective of determination and fortitude to make the health condition or economic circumstance, choices that would improve their health (see can exert similar control over the aging Gard et al., 2017)? Minimizing societal process (Gard et al., 2017; Gard & Dionigi, constraints that influence the aging process 2016). This exhortation to make individuals provides the rationale for governments to take responsibility for their own aging is a reduce funding or eliminate programs, compelling critique leveled against Rowe placing the burden of aging successfully and Kahn’s (1987; 1997) biomedical model squarely on the individual (Dionigi, 2017; (e.g., Dillaway & Byrnes, 2009; Katz & Dillway & Byrnes, 2009; Rubinstein & de

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 41 Medeiros, 2015). These potential and attitudes. These women seemingly have implications of older women’s sport the power and potential, through their participation call into question current sport words and their actions, to both inspire and and health-related promotion policy discourage others with respect to sport and directions that encourage ‘sport for all’, physical activity participation. regardless of age, gender, race or Our participants were eager to spread circumstance. Largely absent from the the positive message of an active lifestyle literature are the views of minimally active and the benefits to be accrued from physical and sedentary women on the prospects of activity; they clearly felt they had a role to sport involvement (Horton et al., 2013). play when it comes to promoting sport. In Given that older women who are inactive this manner, these women challenged constitute the majority of that cohort, and typical stereotypes of aging as a time of are the primary target of government physical decline and sedentary living and initiatives and ‘sport for all’ promotional resisted traditional views and structures that strategies, procuring their stories takes on excluded them from sport. At the same greater importance and constitutes an time, these women were conforming to the intriguing avenue for future research. contemporary ‘sport for all’ ideals, including advocating self-responsibility for health, Conclusion purporting sport and physical activity The 16 women that we interviewed participation as ‘cures’ to aging-related derived important benefits from their disease and disability, as well as believing participation in sport and physical activity in that everyone should be physically active to general, and the WMG in particular. The some degree as they age. Somewhat stories they shared identified clear social, ironically, by subtly denigrating their peers physical, and psychological dividends who are not active, these sportswomen may associated with sport competition. Sport has also reinforce the very stereotypes that they allowed them, or in some cases forced resist. Rather than encouraging other them, to conquer a variety of societal and seniors to partake in physical activity and personal barriers, including traditional aging sport, their example may have the and gender stereotypes. In many respects, unintended consequence of discouraging our participants are trailblazers in their their peers. Their actions could also participation in competitive sport at a unintentionally reinforce negative relatively late stage in life, yet their effect on stereotypes towards, and the marginalization stereotypes of aging and sport participation of, those who do not compete in sport at an more generally remains equivocal, largely older age. due to the complexity and ‘double-edged Pfister (2012) noted that women who sword’ inherent in their stories, experiences, began sport as a remedy for aging quickly

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 42 dropped out when they failed to experience joy and satisfaction. Perhaps seniors would be better served if we moved away from prescriptive and promotional statements about the health benefits of sport and physical activity, and instead focused our efforts on the social components and fun that are a primary motivation for and benefit of playing sport. In that way, sport will be seen as another opportunity for older people to enjoy later life, rather than as a ‘tool’ to control individual behaviour. ---

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Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 48 Patton, M. Q. (2002). Qualitative Evaluation Richardson, L. (1998). Writing: a method of and Research Methods (3rd Ed.). inquiry. In N.K. Denzin & Y.S. London: Sage Publications Ltd. Lincoln (eds.) Collecting and interpreting Peel, N. M., McClure, R. J., & Bartlett, H. P. qualitative materials (1st ed., Vol. 3), (2005). Behavioral determinants of Thousand Oaks, CA: Sage healthy aging. American Journal of Publications, pp. 345-371. Preventive Medicine, 28(3), 298-304. Roper, E. A., Molnar, D. J., & Wrisberg, C. Pesce, C., & Audiffren, M. (2011). Does A. (2003). No “old fool”: 88 years old acute exercise switch off switch and still running. Journal of Aging and costs? A study with younger and Physical Activity, 11(3), 370-387. older athletes. Journal of Sport & Rotella, R. J., & Bunker, L. K. (1978). Locus Exercise Psychology, 33(5), 609-626. of control and achievement Pfister, G. (2012). It is never too late to win motivation in the active aged (65 – sporting activities and years and over). Perceptual Motor Skills, performances of ageing women. Sport 46(3), 1043-1046. in Society: Cultures, Commerce, Media, Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1987). Human Politics, 15, 369-384. Aging: Usual and successful. Science, Phoenix, C., & Sparkes, A. (2009). Being 237(4811), 143–149. Fred: Big stories, small stories and Rowe, J. W., & Kahn, R. L. (1997). the accomplishment of a positive Successful aging. The Gerontologist, 37, aging identity. Qualitative Research, 433–440. 9(2), 219–236. Rubinstein, R. L., & de Medeiros, K. Pike, E. (2011). The Active Aging agenda: (2015).“Successful aging,” Old folk devils and a new moral Gerontological theory and panic. Sociology of Sport Journal, 28, neoliberalism: A qualitative critique.” 209-225. The Gerontologist 55(1): 34–42. Reed, C. E., & Cox, R. H. (2007). Motives Shaw, S. M. (2006). Resistance. In C. Rojek, and regulatory style underlying senior S. M. Shaw & A. J. Veal (Eds.), A athletes’ participation in sport. Journal Handbook of Leisure Studies (pp. 533- of Sport Behavior, 30(3), 307-329. 545). New York: Palgrave, Reichstadt, J., Sengupta, G., Depp, C. A., Macmillan. Palinkas, L. A., & Jeste, D. V. (2010). Sparkes, A.C. & Smith, B. (2014) Qualitative Older adults’ perspectives on research methods in sport, exercise and successful aging: Qualitative health: From process to product. interviews. The American Journal of Routledge, London. Geriatric Psychiatry, 18(7), 567–775. Spirduso, W. W., Francis, K. L., & MacRae, P. G. (2005). Physical dimensions of aging

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 49 (2nd ed.). Champaign, IL: Human life. European Journal of Ageing, 5(2), Kinetics. 129-136. Swaminathan, R. & Mulvihill, T.M. (2017). Wearing, B. (1995). Leisure and resistance in Critical approaches to questions in an ageing society. Leisure Studies, qualitative research. New York: 14(4), 263-279. Routledge. Weir, P., Baker, J., & Horton, S. (2010). The Tate, R. B., Leedine, L., & Cuddy, T. E. emergence of masters sport: (2003). Definition of successful aging Participatory trends and historical by elderly Canadian males: The developments. In J. Baker, S. Horton, Manitoba follow-up study. The & P. Weir (Eds.), The Masters athlete: Gerontologist, 43, 735–744. Understanding the role of sport and exercise Tesch, R. (1990). Qualitative Research Analysis in optimizing aging (pp. 7-14). New Types and Software Tools. New York: York, NY: Routledge. Falmer Press. Williams, J. (2005). Understanding United Nations, Department of Economics postructuralism. Durham: Acumen and Social Affairs/Population Publishing. Division (2015). World population World Health Organization. (2016, May 19). prospects: The 2015 revision, volume World Life Expectancy at Birth. II: Demographic profiles. Retrieved Retrieved from: from: http://gamapserver.who.int/mapLib http://esa.un.org/unpd/wpp/Public rary/Files/Maps/Global_LifeExpect ations/Files/WPP2015_Volume-II- ancy_bothsexes_2015.png Demographic-Profiles.pdf World Health Organization (2002) Active Vertinsky, P. (1995). Stereotypes of aging Aging: A Policy Framework. Geneva, women and exercise: A historical Switzerland. perspective. Journal of Aging and Wroblewski, A. P., Amati, F., Smiley, M. A., Physical Activity, 3, 223–237. Goodpaster, B., & Wright, V. (2011). Vopat, B. G., Klinge, S. A., McClure, P. K., Chronic exercise preserves lean & Fadale, P. D. (2014). The effects of muscle mass in masters athletes. The fitness on the aging process. Journal of Physician and Sportsmedicine, 39(3), 172- the American Academy of Orthopaedic 178. Surgeons, 22(9), 576-585. Warburton, J., & Peel, N. M. (2008). Volunteering as a productive ageing activity: the association with fall- related hip fracture in later

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Tables

Table 1

Themes, Categories, and Example Quotations

Theme Category Example Quotation (Meaning Unit) Multi-faceted Benefits Social I really enjoy (competing in sports) but also because it has become my social life

Psychological You see yourself, not just the mother, the wife, the teacher but an athlete. It adds that extra dimension to your self-concept.

Physical The health reasons, my bone density is that of a 50 year old.

Overcoming Barriers Dealing with disease, pain, and I know I’m going to heal. I’ve injury healed every time. Swimming actually makes me feel good. When I had arthritis really bad, the first five minutes of swimming was very painful. After that it felt good, and the pain would go away

Financial I know some people that couldn’t afford to go and it’s a big problem getting all your money together.

Combatting gender and age I think most adults feel that they ‘norms’ are not capable. ‘No, I can’t do that, I’m 70 years old. I can’t take a yoga class, I’m 70 years old.’

Social Roles Role modelling I think we can encourage senior men and women to come out and take a risk, take a chance, try it, see if you can do it.

Evangelical about exercise We say “rest rust.” When you rest, you get rusty. So, don’t rest because then you get rusty. In order not to get rusty you have to do sport.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Horton et al., 2018 51

Formation and Function of a Collegiate Athletics Sustainability Committee

Brian P. McCullough1 Timothy Kellison2 Elodie Wendling3

1Seattle University 2Georgia State University 3University of Florida

Institutions of higher learning may be considered dual-identity organizations because of the perceived distinctiveness between universities’ academic and athletic missions. One way in which these barriers can be weakened is through cross-sector social partnerships (CSSPs), a form of collaborative engagement aimed at achieving a common societal goal. In this study, we examine the formation of a university- directed CSSP focused on enhancing environmentally sustainable initiatives within the Athletic Department. Interviews with 11 members of a so-called Green Team illustrate the processes of boundary spanning and boundary blurring. As demonstrated in the article, boundary spanning occurred under the leadership of a “champion” that assembled a team of stakeholders to assist with the major renovation of a pro-environmental football stadium. Though the sustainability committee has a common goal, not all experiences of Green Team members have been the same. In light of these differences, we identify key barriers and prescribe solutions that can lead to the realization of a new organizational form.

nvironmental sustainability efforts athletic departments have responded to have become widespread deepen their environmental commitment is E throughout the sport industry. Yet by establishing “green committees” or individual sport federations, leagues, and “green teams.” Green teams consist of teams address environmental sustainability relevant internal and external stakeholders in different ways. One way in which college that can help advance an organization’s

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 52 sustainability initiatives (Natural Resources traditional sector lines are being blurred and Defense Council, 2013). These committees innovative hybrid organizations are are voluntary and formal collaborative emerging, thereby shifting traditional ways arrangements between members with varied and expectations of addressing backgrounds, including campus environmental issues. sustainability, athletics, recreation, The contextual focus of our study transportation, waste management, involves cross-sector social partnerships sponsorship companies, campus facilities, (CSSPs), a form of collaborative concessionaires, and environmental NGOs. engagement that has received widespread By bringing industry partners and attention in recent years, especially in representatives from local government and organization studies (e.g., Clarke & Fuller, non-profit environmental organizations 2010; Cornelius & Wallace, 2010; Lin, 2014; together, these committees form complex Selsky & Parker, 2005, 2010; Townsley, tri-sector partnerships (Selsky & Parker, 2014; Wassmer et al., 2014). Selsky and 2005). Thus, they can serve as valuable Parker (2005) defined CSSPs as relations examples of tri-sector environmental that are “formed explicitly to address social collaborations, the subject of which has issues and causes that actively engage the been surprisingly absent from existing partners on an ongoing basis” (p. 850). environmental partnership studies despite Despite its various terminology, CSSP is the increasing frequency in which these considered a subset of cross-sector committees are forming (Wassmer, Paquin, partnerships and interorganizational & Sharma, 2014). relationships whose priority from the outset Given that sustainable committee is to achieve societal outcomes such as members belong to distinct sectorial improving environmental sustainability, an affiliations and present wide ranges of initiative central to our study (Seitanidi, experience, expertise, power, and motives, it Koufopoulos, & Palmer, 2010). is of paramount interest in this study to A review of the sport management provide a better understanding of how such literature also indicates a gap in cross-sectoral green teams are formed and understanding CSSPs. Although the how sector boundaries span and then examination of cross-sector partnerships in ultimately erode. Thus, the purpose of this the sport context has yielded several study is to examine how organizations, in an examples (e.g., Babiak, 2009; Babiak & effort to respond to environmental Thibault, 2009; Dowling, Robinson, & concerns, have adapted their structures, Washington, 2013), little attention has been processes, and values through afforded to the CSSPs being organized transformational partnerships. As part of across sport to address environmental the study, we endeavor to demonstrate how concerns, specifically in collegiate sport

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 53 (Babiak & Trendafilova, 2011; Kellison, Previous research has demonstrated that Trendafilova, & McCullough, 2015; Pfahl, there is a working relationship, albeit 2013; Trendafilova, Nguyen, & Pfahl, 2014). unbalanced, between college athletic and Environmental sustainability initiatives have sustainability offices (Pfahl et al., 2015). been assessed in intercollegiate sport However, due to its public visibility, through cross-functional collaborations collegiate sports may influence (Casper, Pfahl, & McSherry, 2012; Pfahl, environmentally sustainable practices and 2010; Pfahl, Casper, Trendafilova, act as the champions of the sustainability McCullough, & Nguyen, 2015). In addition, movement. Thus, the higher education most of the literature on sustainability- sector possesses strategic resources, related partnerships has focused on two capabilities, assets, and influence that can types of bisector partnerships, both of contribute to a CSSP aimed at inducing which involve the private business sector societal change, especially with regard to (Wassmer et al., 2014). Besides the focal environmental issues (Dentoni & Bitzer, involvement of the latter in environmental 2015). Additionally, environment-focused collaborations, the role of universities has CSSPs may serve as a medium through been overlooked in spite of being a critical which the perceived academic–athletic component for supporting environmental ideological gap can be bridged (e.g., causes. Indeed, the higher education sector Nichols, Corrigan, & Hardin, 2011). may support the capability to generate Therefore, in analyzing the tri-sector benefits to civil society, so there is a need to partnership processes and structures of an examine this unique social sector more innovative collaborative relationship as closely when discussing environmental illustrated by a green committee, this study collaborations. contributes to both the sport management From the few studies that incorporated literature and environmental sustainability this sector, the research component of the partnerships studies. university was capitalized to achieve environmental goals (Agrawal, 2001; Parker Theoretical Foundations & Crona, 2012; Steward & Conway, 1998). Models of cross-sector relationships Aside from research capabilities, many large have generally been organized into public universities have their own formation, implementation, and outcomes sustainability offices that have the duty to phases (Gray, 1989; Selsky & Parker, 2005; carry environmental initiatives. These Siegel, 2010; Wohlstetter, Smith, & Malloy, universities also house prestigious athletic 2005). Given that the formation stage departments that can serve as valuable usually refers to the motives for initiating instruments for engaging various partnerships, the first stage focuses on stakeholders in environmental stewardship. theoretical rationales for partnership

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 54 formation. The subsequent phase in the management literature as motivations for evolution of CSSPs refers to managerial and partnership formation (Barringer & operational aspects of partnership Harrison, 2000; Ireland, Hitt, & Vaidyanath, implementation since this phase 2002; Siegel, 2010), we found four types of incorporates activities such as “governance, motivations for cross-sector collaborations structure, and leadership characteristics, as supporting social causes: economic, well as behavioral dynamics such as culture, leverage, legitimacy, and central to this communication, and relationship study, societal-related motives. Although development” (Selsky & Parker, 2005, p. each of these perspectives was proven to be 855). In this phase, partnership members useful in explaining the reasons for attempt to span sector boundaries by relationship formation, we largely focus on establishing and cultivating transformational the societal-related motives in this review collaborative relationships (Austin & and start by presenting a brief overview of Seitanidi, 2012a; Selsky & Parker, 2005; the other three motives. (For a complete Townsley, 2014). In the final phase, such review of those motives, see Barringer & collaborative relationships combined with Harrison, 2000.) an aim at achieving societal change lead to Non-profit sport organizations have the expansion of boundaries such that the engaged in strategic alliances with emergence of hybrid organizations may be organizations in the private, public, or deemed a key intangible result that stems commercial sectors for economic-related from CSSPs. To illustrate the evolution motives in order to offset increased process of CSSPs, these three stages are organizational risks (Babiak, 2007). This discussed in turn below. belief of dependency triggers the need to develop cross-sector relationships with Crossing Boundaries: Motives in the stakeholders who can provide scarce and Formation of CSSPs necessary resources vital to the success of The identification of preconditions and the organization (Babiak & Thibault, 2009; antecedents of cross-sector collaborations is Pfeffer & Salancik, 1978). As mentioned by a critical activity to ensure the effectiveness Babiak (2007), such relationships are of CSSPs. This activity represents the established to acquire expertise, secure foundations of the partnership upon which access to key resources, and gain control subsequent collaborative engagement and over turbulent settings. Amateur sport arrangements will occur. Indeed, it is organizations also follow suit with regards essential to clearly determine motives to join to implementing environmental CSSPs prior to launching cross-sector sustainability campaigns through various projects. Among the theoretical perspectives partnerships (McCullough, Trendafilova, & that have commonly been referenced in the Picariello, 2016). Furthermore, leverage-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 55 related motives have proven to be useful in environmentally focused initiatives (Babiak conceptually presenting the process of & Trendafilova, 2011). strategic planning for cross-functional Societal-related motives have been environmental sustainability teams working mostly explained through stakeholder in the sport and recreation industry (Babiak, theory. Given that organizations are part of 2007; Babiak & Thibault, 2009; Pfahl, 2010). an intertwined stakeholder network, they are Indeed, those organizations seek to acquire conscious that any of their decisions and complementary and distinct resources in actions may affect their strategic order to be more effective and competitive relationships with other social actors in that as a whole (Babiak & Thibault, 2009). For network, so a sense of responsibility and instance, partnering with nonprofit groups mutuality toward their stakeholders is of for environmental initiatives enables sport primary concern in stakeholder theory. With organizations to have access to their its emphasis on societal problems and expertise and network of supporters (Babiak sectoral interdependence, the focus of these & Trendafilova, 2011). The 2018 Special partnerships is based on ethical obligations Olympics USA Summer Games in Seattle in which collective interests rather than self- can also serve as a practical example of an interests are to be served (Sartore-Baldwin, amateur sporting event seeking to improve McCullough, & Quatman-Yates, 2017). its environmental performance by These strategic alliances enable the partnering with corporate sponsors, development of objective congruence vendors, and volunteers, among others, in among social actors of the network, order to combine each of these groups’ particularly with respect to environmental existing idiosyncratic and complementary and social endeavors (Doh & Guay, 2006; resources (visit Sartore-Baldwin & McCullough, in press; specialolympicsusagames.org). Finally, Rod & Paliwoda, 2003). As a result, Siegel motives to address institutional pressures (2010) suggested that “to claim citizenship incite organizations to get involved with in a cause is to redraw organizational partnerships that will make them appear as boundaries in such a way that the cause socially and environmentally responsible by itself becomes the central organizing applying the concept of institutional principle” (p. 41); hence, the desire to be a mimetic isomorphism (DiMaggio & Powell, responsible citizen encourages societal 1983; McCullough, Pfahl, & Nguyen, 2016). initiatives. Those legitimacy-related motives can As Babiak (2007, 2009) found in her facilitate public image enhancement and line of research, there are helpful aspects conformity with social norms, as evidenced that help draw and sustain the connection by sport organizations engaged in between members of a CSSP. She found that a personal connection to the cause or

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 56 individuals increased trust and strengthened Bridging Boundaries: Collaborative the network of individuals and Relationships organizations in the CSSP. In particular, Whether the formation of CSSPs is non-profit sport organizations can draw an justified by synergistic abilities of achieving increased affinity and connection among more with less or leveraging resources and stakeholders that are unique across other reducing redundancy, such partnerships are commercial industries. This approach is championed by those who have the ability particularly important for amateur sport to bridge sector boundaries. These organizations that may be considerably champions, sometimes referred as limited in human and financial resources “boundary spanners” (Le Ber & Branzei, and who can leverage the goodwill their 2010), “boundary spanning agents” organization has in the community to (Marchington & Vincent, 2004), or partner with outside organizations to “boundary crossers” (Hora & Millar, 2011), achieve their goals (Misener & Doherty, act on the behalf of their organizations and 2013). advocate for the development of powerful In this first phase, it is critical to locate organizational collaborations such as CSSPs crossing points in sectoral boundaries then to undertake initiatives that create public find reciprocal transformative intentions value (Townsley, 2014). Thus, these (Seitanidi et al., 2010). The importance of champions carry bridging functions in order such a phase was demonstrated in the to connect members from distinct sectorial professional and amateur sport settings affiliations and nurture the launch of (Gerke, Babiak, Dickson, & Desbordes, innovative collaborations sharing resources 2017). Once the motives and suitability for and mutual goals (Manning & Roessler, crossing traditional sector boundaries are 2014). clearly recognized, implementing cross- Negotiating agreements are necessary sector partnerships entails building on this for partnerships to prosper. Although momentum and needs to be examined to champions are not necessarily better understand how CSSPs develop over representatives of the top leadership team, time. According to Austin and Seitanidi mid-level managers may play the (2012b), in this second stage, transformative champion’s role (Schroeder, 1999). Their processes that shift sector boundaries are formal or informal leadership role will help established, calling for the need to examine involved constituents unlearn traditional the evolutionary dynamics of CSSPs’ organizational and sector-based functions to implementation in the next section. facilitate their engagement toward implementing CSSPs. Despite the possible lack of formal sources of power, champions strongly influence the direction and manage

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 57 structures, processes, and outcomes of the In addition to the presence of collaborative partnership. Instead of being champions, organizational compatibility is based on traditional leadership models with critical and may be established by discerning an emphasis on hierarchical structures, a broad linked interests and shared issues, and CSSP’s leadership structure highlights integrating central missions, values, and facilitative and relational processes strategies to help reconcile differences, align (Townsley, 2014). intentions and expectations, and deepen In the context of our study—amateur trust between partners (Gray, 1989; sport in general and college athletics Seitanidi et al., 2010; Selsky & Parker, 2010). specifically—a green committee provides a Recognizing congruency between frame for a formal collaborative organizations and developing a common arrangement with a joint decision-making agenda require an effort from each process. Committee members correspond champion and partner to mutually to environmental champions from various understand and appreciate each other’s sectors with competing perspectives and differences. To evolve into a expectations but with complementary needs transformational collaboration, and resources whose mission is to attain organizational fit between partners must be environmental excellence through sustained determined in order to capitalize on collaborative partnerships across sectors. distinctive competencies and Members of these committees carry complementary resources that are boundary spanning roles as they operate at exchanged conjointly. This mutual resource the intersection of sector boundaries and dependency will contribute to the creation intend to set up bridges between sectors to of synergistic partnerships. Indeed, the establish interdependent partnerships with primary premise of transformational mutual goals. Although the complexity of collaborations is to combine partners’ interactions is heightened by the cross- knowledge, resources, and expertise to sector aspect of the relationships with achieve more together than they could have competing power and diverse leadership alone (Austin & Seitanidi, 2012a). Tangible styles, these champions—highly committed and intangible assets from different sectors to the CSSP’s goals—reunite under this are combined into a unique amalgamation committee in an effort to smoothly run this of resources that will help generate benefits complex partnership and monitor its to partners and create innovative solutions progress over time to ensure the to societal problems that could not have achievement of the compatible goals been accomplished by a single sector alone (Rondinelli & London, 2003; Wohlstetter et (Austin & Seitanidi, 2012b; Bryson, Crosby, al., 2005). & Stone, 2006; Nelson & Zadek, 2000). Under this premise, frequent innovations

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 58 such as fundamental changes and superior Another intangible outcome entails the results are likely to be advanced. emergence of a pioneering “hybrid In deciding to pursue a transformational organization” caused by the expansion of engagement, CSSP champions deliberately sector boundaries (Boyd, Henning, Reyna, recalibrate their roles to coordinate societal- Wang, & Welch, 2009; Selsky & Parker, focused initiatives with the belief that such 2010). Selsky and Parker (2005) suggested effort is imperative to create fundamental that CSSPs have the potential to evolve into changes and address societal problems. In a collaborative arrangement in which sector addition, these champions facilitate the boundaries are blurred. This potential must shifts in sector boundaries and in be accompanied with transformational organizational roles. Thus, transformational collaborative relationships between partners collaborations’ effects may “change each and an aim toward remedying complex organization and its people in profound, public issues to enable the discovery and structural, and irreversible ways” (Austin & expansion of new frontiers. From Seitanidi, 2012a, p. 744). After developing transcending boundaries to blurring them, transformational collaborative relationships, this evolving and interactive network of champions need to assess the outcomes of people discovers ways to combine distinct CSSPs, as discussed further in the next and complementary resources and unify section. perspectives to create synergistic solutions that go beyond each of their own sectors’ Blurring Boundaries: Societal Change as limited competencies and vision. As a result, a CSSP Outcome these partnerships may create more public Following the implementation phase value together than what individual sectors and the execution of CSSP-related projects, could have achieved separately (Gray, 1989; an evaluation is necessary to ensure progress Selsky & Parker, 2005); hence, they provide is being made toward solving shared a means to alleviate and respond to society’s problems. Any discrepancies with planned most pressing concerns (Boyd et al., 2009; outcomes require improvements or changes Getha-Taylor, 2012). to the second phase, emphasizing the Contemporary societal problems are so iterative and adaptive nature of CSSPs large and complex that they cannot be (Murphy, Perrot, & Rivera-Santos, 2012; solved by any private, nonprofit, or public Wohlstetter et al., 2005). Although actor alone; these actors are obligated to organizational benefits and tangible results transcend traditional sector boundaries in are important, the top priority of these order to address society’s grand challenges transformational CSSPs involve societal adequately (Selsky & Parker, 2010). Since betterment, and the evaluation phase champions and partners met together enables the examination of such impact. primarily to achieve collective changes at

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 59 the societal level rather than to focus the CSSP with diverse (and sometimes uniquely on their own organizational self- divergent) goals and strategies. These interests, they engage in transformational differences may be especially pronounced in collaborations that enable a shift in the large partnerships that span commercial, three sectors’ identities and roles by fusing nonprofit, and government sectors. In this them into a hybrid organization. As a result, study, we examine the process of forming evolving into transformational, collaborative and implementing a CSSP with the goal of relationships may help not only to span advancing pro-environmental initiatives in a boundaries but also eventually merge large intercollegiate athletic department. As sectors into one new entity that is governed demonstrated below, this setting presents by merged authorities and operated by several unique challenges; the identification merged capabilities and activities, resulting of these challenges can advance the in the blurring of traditional boundaries function of CSSPs in amateur sport and between sectors (Bryson et al., 2006). This assist sport organizations seeking to blurring process leads to promising advance their own environmental pathways for aspirational and sustainability efforts. transformative societal changes, which are the main focus of transformational Method collaborations. For instance, green The unique placement of the green committees may aspire to make committee and its direct stakeholders makes transformative societal changes by this case particularly interesting. In previous improving environmental standards, studies, researchers have examined CSSPs in fostering recycling, and lessening pollution. various contexts including local sport Therefore, in an effort to address societal (Babiak, 2007; Babiak & Thibault, 2009), needs such as environmental protection, major sporting events (Meenaghan, 1998), partners engaging into a transformational and professional sport (Kihl, Tainsky, CSSP may not only bridge sector Babiak, & Bang, 2014). However, little boundaries but also blur them by replacing consideration has been given to CSSPs in the old and narrow sector mindsets with an collegiate sport, in general, or how college innovative, transformative, and “mission- athletic departments achieve sustainability driven” (Boyd et al., 2009) organizational objectives by leveraging CSSPs, specifically. form. As a result of this lack of research, we In the section above, we highlight the sought to evaluate a CSSP established by a benefits of an effective and synergistic college athletic department renowned for its CSSP. However, the formation of these sustainability achievements. While this partnerships can be a complicated process, specific context and objective of the CSSP as individuals and departments may enter have not been examined before, it is

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 60 nevertheless important as more sport Participants organizations begin to increase their Interviews were conducted with current commitment to environmental sustainability members of the green committee organized (Kellison & McCullough, 2017; McCullough by the athletics department at the university. & Kellison, 2017; McCullough et al., 2016). In total, 11 interviews were conducted over Further, amateur sport organizations the course of two weeks in March 2016, typically encounter financial limitations that which included five Athletics require them to seek outside assistance to representatives, one student-athlete, and achieve organizational goals (e.g., personnel from non-Athletics departments environmental initiatives; Babiak & including a concessionaire, three members Thibault, 2009). To this end, we employed a from the university Office of Sustainability, case-study qualitative methodology, which and an employee from the Waste has been commonly used by Babiak and Management department. Table 1 contains others to research new areas of inquiry basic information for the participants related to CSSPs. interviewed for this study including each Specifically, we examined the evolution participant’s pseudonym, years served on of an environmental-focused CSSP through the Green Team, role at the university, and semi-structured interviews with members of student–professional status. a sustainability committee (i.e., Green It should be mentioned that there were Team) centrally located in a university members of the Green Team missing from athletic department in the western United the participant roster, most notably, States. The Green Team was formed in representatives from the athletic 2010 as one of the earliest and well-known department’s sponsorship and marketing sustainability committees across all levels of departments. These non-participating sport. As a CSSP, the Green Team is made representatives explicitly stated that they did up of more than 20 individuals (including not want to be interviewed for the study. students and student-athletes, university Further, we were predominately dependent personnel, and industry partners) on athletic department connections of the representing a wide range of departments, members on the committee. In particular, including business and finance, operations, the Green Team’s coordinator and other marketing, grounds and facilities, ticketing, members of the committee assisted with university sustainability, waste management, arranging interviews and meetings. The and concessions. More specific information coordinator of the committee was able to on the participants is provided below. speak to these two areas despite the non- participation of the individuals. This aspect will be discussed further below.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 61 Procedures based on the themes of a theoretical Following Cunningham (2009) and as framework (see Ponterotto, 2005); this originally outlined by Alderfer (1980), we analytic approach has been used in other employed an organizational diagnosis qualitative studies within the academy approach to the study. This approach is “a (Cunningham, 2009; McCullough, 2013). process based on behavioral science theory This method of coding is commonly for publically entering a human system, referred to as an “a priori, content-specific collecting valid data about human scheme” whereby codes emerge through experiences with that system, and feeding careful and rigorous study of the issue and that information back to promote increased the theoretical interests that guide the understanding of the system by its inquest (Schwandt, 2007). Thus, the members” (Alderfer, 1980, p. 459). We empirical material was analyzed and coded deemed this approach appropriate since according to themes informed by the sustainability teams are rather limited in guiding theory (i.e., cross-sector sport organizations in general and college relationships; Gray, 1989; Selsky & Parker, athletic departments specifically (Kellison & 2005; Siegel, 2010; Wohlstetter et al., 2005). McCullough, 2016). The byproduct of this Several steps were taken to improve the approach allows a broad understanding, or credibility and trustworthiness of the group interpretation, of organizational empirical material. To improve the study’s processes by the members of the internal trustworthiness, we employed committee. This approach also allows for a methods triangulation. That is, testimony deeper understanding of how the green from Green Team members was compared committee has performed by evaluating its with internal communications, websites (i.e., past, current, and planned initiatives. Athletics, Office of Sustainability, Waste Semi-structured interviews with each Management), and press releases related to participant ranged from 35–70 minutes. The the athletic department’s sustainability interview guide specifically examined how efforts. These documents were consistent the CSSP (i.e., Green Team) was formed, with the testimony from the participants’ implemented, and evaluated. Interviews interviews. Additionally, two peer debriefers were recorded with permission of the (neither of whom were involved with the participants and then transcribed verbatim study but were familiar with qualitative for analysis. methodology) audited the research process. As part of the audit, they reviewed the Analysis of Empirical Material codes, themes, and interpretations of the We followed a constructivist empirical material. Lastly, a summative (interpretivist) paradigm, which allows the report and presentation were given to the empirical material to be analyzed into codes green committee to seek their thoughts on

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 62 the interpretations and findings of the study Formation and Tasks of the Green of inquiry. Team To determine the underlying motives Results and Discussion for commitee formation and each member’s In the following section, we discuss the involvement with the Green Team, we various themes that emerged from the asked participants to describe how they interviews of the Green Team members. became involved with the Green Team and These themes include: formation and tasks their general thoughts on its mission. of the Green Team, transition and growing Indicating societal-related motives, most pains, and boundary blurring. As the results participants mentioned that the university as will show, the initial formation of the Green a whole had placed a strong priority on Team was tasked to focus on a specific environmental sustainability. As an project (i.e., renovation of the football extension of that priority, the athletic stadium) and to achieve Leadership in department was responding in kind to do its Energy and Environmental Design (LEED) part to fulfill the university’s commitment Silver certification. A bulk of the energy and “to be sustainable by 2025,” as noted by accomplishments were driven by upper Tim, a senior-level participant: “That is a management (e.g., Athletic Director, core value of the university. When you have University President), who made lofty goals that core value of the university, it is easier more easily attainable. The committee for Athletics to implement environmental experienced growing pains as it struggled to sustainability. The support from upper find its new identity and tasks after the campus has been great.” The culminating stadium project and encouragement from the university’s upper concomitant support from upper administration and specifically from the management dissipated. However, as new campus Office of Sustainability was viewed initiatives were introduced, new committee by Athletics and non-Athletics Green Team members joined, requiring more openness members as an impetus to the Green Team, and adaptability on behalf of Athletics. That a notion supported by previous research. is, the athletic department members on the For instance, following the tenet of upper Green Team were not comfortable letting echelon theory, McCullough and the coordination and leadership of specific Cunningham (2010) posited that the degree initiatives go to outside members (e.g., to which sustainability initiatives would be Campus Recycling). implemented is greatly dependent on the attitudes of upper administration (Hambrick & Mason, 1984). Further supporting the societal-related motive, the organizational culture and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 63 positive attitudes toward environmental meet their sustainability goals, thereby sustainability on campus clearly influenced spanning the boundaries of the athletic the perception and attitudes of the members department and its support system. of the Green Team. In fact, the Green As a result, architectural partners and Team was commissioned by the Athletic campus staff were able to lend their Director because of a planned major expertise so that the stadium renovation renovation of the football stadium. As achieved LEED Silver certification. Further, noted by Joan, the original and current chair members of the Green Team representing of the Green Team, the stadium renovation the university’s Office of Sustainability had drove conversation in the early days of the specific expertise in communications, which committee: “The seed that started it all was helped to “tell the success stories of the the stadium construction project, the talk athletic department’s sustainability efforts.” about…certification, what that meant, and One such press release produced by a who knew about it.” The renovation was a committee member promoted the project’s multi-hundred-million-dollar project that forward-thinking design: prioritized environmental aspects into the The project’s approach to sustainability construction and operation of the facility looked past the basics of water and including LEED certification and a dual- energy conservation to enhance stream waste management system (i.e., infrastructure, reduce the building’s diverting all waste away from landfills via impact on the surrounding environment composting and recycling). The renovation and provide a platform that has allowed project would serve as the launching point [the university] to promote for the athletic department to implement a sustainability to its stakeholders, sustainability program. However, realizing students, and fans. the limitations of the athletic department’s While the exposure that various Green Executive Staff and consistent with Team members were able to provide for the leveraging-related themes discussed renovation project, this publicity highlights previously, it was noted that the Athletic the various aspects and components that Director asked if anyone in the department were considered and integrated into the had knowledge or interest in spearheading project by the Green Team. the launch of their sustainability program. When questioned further, Joan As members of the athletic department indicated that economic- and leverage- began to defer to outside experts, the need related themes were also considered when to include individuals outside of Athletics selecting the first members of the became clearer. This perspective allowed the committee. She mentioned the recruitment expertise of new partnerships to inform the of architects, athletic department staff, non- athletic department about how they could athletic department staff, and off-campus

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 64 vendors that served the athletic nine departments be represented on the department’s sustainability goals. As Joan committee, including athletic department noted, the Green Team was created “with partners (e.g., concessionaires, sponsorship the task of analyzing and putting in place sales company), campus waste management, practices for the reopening of the stadium.” and sustainability. Mark, a mid-level athletic In order to achieve these goals, it was ticketing office employee, stressed the necessary to expand the boundaries beyond importance of involving various the athletic department staff and avail the departments because it was the “best way to committee to the various resources on get the message out on the things that campus. As previously noted, university everyone can do to help.” Previous research campuses have resources that are not readily has noted the challenges athletic accessible to other sport organizations. departments face when attempting to play Expanding the partnership to include these an active role in promoting and integrating unique resources (e.g., recycling, waste environmental sustainability into their daily management, sustainability, faculty, operations (Pfahl et al., 2015). Pfahl and students) can also increase the capabilities colleagues (2015) noted that sustainability and capacity for the CSSP to achieve its offices are generally the cause for athletic goals because of the unique background of departments to start implementing these specific stakeholders (Babiak, 2007). environmental sustainability. However, in By design, the organization of the first the case of this study, roles were reversed: Green Team included all nine major the on-campus Office of Sustainability departments within Athletics. Several served in a supportive role to the athletic reasons explained this inclusiveness. First, as department and its initiatives. a number of participants indicated in The primary reasoning behind the interviews, it was necessary to have the inclusion of various departments was to support of the entire athletic department to promote and spread a sustainable ensure the permutation of a sustainability- organizational culture. However, this desire minded culture in the athletic department to include all departments also served and a general awareness of what the Green another purpose. The second intention for Team was doing. Two senior-level members widespread involvement on the committee of the Green Team mentioned that because was to have the range of expertise on the of the wide base and involvement of all committee, which doubled to increase the departments, there was at least one person buy-in and cooperation from the various from each department championing departments. The range of athletic sustainability in her or his respective department staff included personnel from departments. It was deemed necessary by marketing, sponsorship, concessions, the coordinator of the Green Team that all facilities, and operations. Specific to the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 65 organizational buy-in, Joan noted, “When commitment from all members of the you’re talking about stadium operations, and department. As Joan noted, while not all changing the culture…everyone that is departments may have had direct going to work on that event has to be there. involvement with sustainability initiatives on Everyone has input on what’s going to work a daily basis (i.e., ticketing and marketing), it and what would not.” While the was nevertheless important to have their involvement of all nine major departments departments represented on the committee. allowed for additional buy-in, some She argued that by having each department departments were not directly related to the represented, “There was now someone in bulk of work needed to ensure various each Department of Athletics who could stages of environmental sustainability. advocate for Athletics’ sustainability McCullough et al. (2016) described sport initiatives.” Still, as noted by some Green organizations in various stages of their Team members of the team, an individual’s progression and sophistication to integrate membership in the team does not environmental sustainability into their daily automatically translate to involvement with operations. Similarly, the athletic tasks and projects. In light of the perceived department and Green Team examined in lack of contribution from some members, this study has proceeded through various Joan expressed her intention to slowly stages such that while some departments acclimate each department by empowering represented by committee members may individuals working toward the athletic have valuable input, others may not bring department’s sustainability efforts: much expertise to the table. This constant “Everyone that is going to work on that involvement of nonessential departments or event has to be there. Everyone has input staff seemingly decreased the attitudes and on what’s going to work and what would perceptions of the committee’s efficacy by not.” As noted earlier, valuing the expertise some members. of each department with regard to its The second reason for the broad possible contributions to the committee can inclusion of all intra-Athletics departments advance their respective interests in the in the Green Team was to garner support objectives of the CSSPs. The inclusion of all for sustainability initiatives across the intra-athletic department units expands athletic department. The successful Babiak’s (2007) research by suggesting that renovation of the football stadium and the expansion of included stakeholders is resulting accolades it received for its pro- necessary to develop an organizational environmental design bolstered the culture that fosters awareness and momentum of the Green Team, which was acceptance of the committee’s sustainability trying to generate excitement within efforts. Athletics in order to encourage a deeper

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 66 During the formative period of the the efforts of the Green Team as the Green Team, committee members were committee tried to inculcate each singularly focused on the football department within Athletics to adopt an renovation project. After the successful environmental sustainability mindset. For completion of that major project, the example, Steve, a senior Athletics Facilities committee began working broadly to manager, argued, “Even here, football implement environmental sustainability refuses to put compost bins in the football across the athletic department’s operations. office.” The lack of involvement from During this transition phase, the Green various departments within Athletics Team underwent several changes, including ultimately created a barrier for even the increased autonomy, reorganization, and senior staff on the Green Team to connect changes to membership. Additionally, the with the executive staff or Athletic Director team began working on multiple, small-scale to encourage widespread compliance. This projects that necessitated the formation of barrier increased the Green Team’s reliance subcommittees. As discussed in the next on non-Athletics members of the section, this period was marked by Green committee to help advance its sustainability Team members operating at the intersection programs. As Babiak (2009) noted, these of sector boundaries and establishing inter- pressures may lead sport managers to seek sector partnerships with mutual goals. new partnerships to help achieve complex organizational goals. However, the goals as Transition and Growing Pains stated by the Green Team leader During the initial task of the Green demonstrate a desire for complete buy-in Team, there were considerable amounts of from all intra-department units beyond the funding and attention from the athletic success of various game day or facility department’s executive staff. These upgrade projects. resources afforded the Green Team more To this end, smaller initiatives were credibility and legitimacy. However, after delegated to the Green Team, while larger the stadium renovation project was projects—generally with a larger cost completed, Athletics administrators became savings or return on investment—were less involved as the Green Team overseen by Athletics administrators. For repositioned itself toward a new, broader example, the Green Team proposed and goal: to integrate environmental priced out a project to install LED lighting sustainability across the athletic department throughout several facilities and all athletic from its organizational culture to its daily department offices. The cost of the project operations. As noted by several was nearly $1 million, but once the athletic interviewees, this lack of support or department’s executive staff approved the involvement had inadvertently undermined project, the Green Team relinquished

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 67 oversight of the project to upper-level sustainability, in her own interview, Joan administration. expressed concern that her responsibilities On the other hand, some major projects on the Green Team had led to job have been left under the Green Team’s enlargement—the expansion of work- authority. For example, waste management related duties. In addition to serving as and diversion rates remain tremendously Green Team chair, Joan is a senior important to the Green Team. In-stadium administrator in the athletic department. recovery rates have plateaued between 75– Thus, she stressed the need for more Green 80%, but there is no organized waste Team members to adopt leadership roles. recovery system in the tailgate lots. Such roles, she argued, required not just Tailgating was characterized as “the wild expertise, but also passion: west of waste recovery” by Melissa, the I think that you got to have people that Green Team’s Facilities representative. are passionate about it and you have to McCullough (2013) noted the distinct seek those people out. It is really tough differences between in-stadium and parking to have any program—it’s tough to lot experiences with waste management keep it going without that energy. That systems (e.g., landfill, recycling, is where our partnership with campus is composting). These differences were in critical because of their passion. large part related to the unique jurisdictions Through her passion and notoriety around of each campus department (i.e., Athletics the athletic department and on campus, managed in-stadium waste, while Facilities Joan has been able to involve various or Transportation and Parking handled campus stakeholders on the committee, parking and tailgating lots). While tailgating primarily from waste management and waste management systems would have a campus sustainability. As a “boundary financial return and environmental benefit, spanner” (Le Ber & Branzei, 2010), she has these sustainability programs would require sought partnerships with other stakeholders the coordination of a large number of to forward the Green Team’s successes into departments and sectors. Therefore, the next phase beyond the stadium Athletics administrators have left waste renovation. As noted earlier, these management to the Green Team and its connections bridge specific functions or members. expertise that help attain mutual goals Champions. There was unanimous (Manning & Roessler, 2014). However, agreement among participants that the based on Joan’s testimony, the Green Team leader of the Green Team was Joan, the in its current form may not be efficiently original and current chair of the committee. functioning in this role. Described by others as an individual deeply All athletic department participants passionate about environmental noted that the committee chair, Joan, was

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 68 the driving force of the committee. When it difficulties and responsibilities that fall upon came to idea generation, committee the leader (i.e., champion) to maintain the members from Athletics and the university’s cohesion and direction of the group Office of Sustainability predominately (Babiak, 2007, 2009; Babiak & Thibault, identified Joan as the individual who would 2008). One way to boost cohesion is identify tasks and deploy subcommittees to through these ancillary meetings. In effect, address specific aspects. In fact, the Green these meetings could serve as ways to Team’s four subcommittees—Branding and advance the overall committee’s progress. Marketing, Data Collection (Energy/Water), For example, Patrick in the Office of Celebrating Success, and Events—were Sustainability said their goal was to created by Joan. Each member on the “strengthen the relationship with [Athletics] Green Team is assigned to a respective a little bit and to provide even more subcommittee, and these subcommittees are support” in order to fulfill the university’s encouraged to meet at least once between overall sustainability goals. the quarterly Green Team meetings. Mutual goals, different approaches. However, because of the lack of time A boundary spanner who effects change like Joan has to dedicate to directing the the Green Team chair brings various subcommittees, several committee members stakeholders together to achieve specific acknowledged that subcommittee meetings goals. Representatives from two non- were not taken seriously. For example, Athletics units—the Office of Sustainability Nicole, the Green Team’s student-athlete and Waste Management—expressed the representative, quipped, “I don’t even know mutual desire to promote and deepen the if I went to the last subcommittee meeting.” university’s commitment to environmental The intended purpose of the subcommittee sustainability. Despite this common goal, is to pair members with similar job the two departments take different responsibilities to support the Green approaches to their roles on the Green Team’s efforts in one form or another, but Team: while the Office of Sustainability because environmental sustainability is an serves a supportive role, Waste Management ongoing process, it is necessary for constant endeavors to exert more influence. progression. However, Frisby, Thubault, The Office of Sustainability’s Green and Kikulis (2004) demonstrated sport Team members mentioned how their role administrators do not have the experience on the committee was “supportive,” “to or expertise to manage these complex provide recommendations,” or “to help partnerships. This finding is also supported with specific ideas.” These members by other researchers who examined the understood that environmental organization and leadership of sustainability was a relatively new concept to organizational partnerships due to the most personnel in Athletics, so they wanted

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 69 to build momentum slowly within the diversion rates. Emily, the lone member on department to ensure initial success. Ronan, the Green Team from the university’s Waste most senior among Green Team members Management department, discussed several from the Office of Sustainability, said, “I shortcomings with the current procedures don't feel like my role is so much to come in to increase diversion rates and referenced and try to…be a dominant voice but to kind her expertise and that of others on campus of listen—to see what they're talking about (i.e., behavioral scientists) who could help and offer suggestions where appropriate.” increase waste recovery rates. Despite This approach has encouraged and having the knowledge and rich experience informed the Green Team on establishing to address problems with the current new relationships throughout campus, system, Emily described her hesitance to sharing ideas, and avoiding mistakes made intervene: “I don’t want to be always by other departments on campus. This harping on certain things – so I go along.” bridge with the Office of Sustainability has Here, Emily channels a tension several linked the athletic department with others acknowledged during interviews: university-wide goals. As discussed by although each member of the Green Team several interviewees and in the literature, brought her or his own expertise to the university athletic departments are often table, there was a reluctance to engage perceived to operate independently from beyond a supportive capacity. This timidity the university, leading to “dual is especially meaningful considering Waste organizational identities of institutions” Management’s expressed desire to be more (Buer, 2009, p. 110). However, the involved with the Green Team. Moreover, formation of the Green Team—which Emily described her willingness to oversee linked Athletics to the broad sustainability waste recovery across all game day venues, goals of the university—has provided a noting that Waste Management would be medium through which university and “more than willing to provide resources to Athletics personnel can collaborate and improve programs and recovery rates.” As work toward a common goal. While the discussed below, there may be several Office of Sustainability maintains sharply reasons behind some Green Team defined roles, other members desire members’ disengagement in committee boundary blurring of roles through deeper projects. This disconnect is common in collaboration. partnerships that do not properly engage the For instance, the Waste Management members with specific tasks and ill-defined department wants to take a more active role roles on the committee (Babiak & Thibault, on the Green Team, particularly when it 2009). As such, uninterested or comes to addressing one of the Green disconnected members will withdraw from Team’s main responsibilities: game day their involvement, possibly undermining the

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 70 committee’s goals. Nevertheless, it is clear or fans to behave in a more sustainable that various members of the Green Team, manner. For example, the waste particularly those outside of Athletics, are management protocol has only two ready to work in a greater capacity to options—recycle or compost—and if fans forward the committee’s sustainability do not dispose of their waste appropriately, programs but are reluctant to take initiative. it is caught during the postgame sorting of all waste. While projects such as this are A Prescription for Balanced Boundary relatively unobtrusive, they require Blurring substantial investment and infrastructure to On the surface, the Green Team support. As a result, the proverbial low exemplifies a hybrid organization; because it hanging fruits have been picked and it is comprises both university and Athletics necessary for the university, Athletics, and representatives but operates largely the Green Team to deepen their autonomously, its membership consists of commitment and increase the sophistication representatives with varied backgrounds and of their sustainability programming. For expertise. Still, each members’ responsibility example, Samantha, the concessionaire to the Green Team is secondary to their contact, discussed the exorbitant amounts primary roles on campus (i.e., their of food waste after football games: professional and/or academic obligations). The [athletic department says], “Oh, When it comes to boundary blurring—a we’re having 50,000 [fans in process marked by unified perspectives and attendance],” and we have 40,000. We solutions that transcend individual made enough food to cover 50,000 so competencies— it is clear that some now we have that extra 10,000 people individuals feel integral to the committee, worth of food. So…if we could figure while others have yet to be utilized fully. out that science a little better that would If the Green Team is to move forward, be my number one concern to see less it will become necessary for Athletics food waste on our end. members to more heavily rely on its non- Specifically, she desired deeper Athletics committee members. The initial sophistication on predicting how many sustainability programs that the Green spectators would attend each game based on Team implemented have been rather specific variables in order to prepare the unobtrusive to employees and spectators. appropriate amount of food and ultimately That is, the initiatives selected (i.e., green reduce the amount of total waste (i.e., building design, two-stream waste compost). management system, LED lights, electric While most participants acknowledged automation systems) do not require much both the university’s overall commitment to active participation on behalf of employees environmental sustainability and Athletics’

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 71 efforts to be sustainable, they also transportation. Even though athletic emphasized the fact that there was more department staff members are the main work to be done. As discussed previously, drivers of the various initiatives, the success the involvement of multiple departments of intermediate goals (e.g., fan engagement, within Athletics—while well intentioned— recovery rates, sustainability transportation may have been counterproductive. The choices) are best addressed by non-Athletics inclusion of each department in Athletics members. As mentioned above, for was designed to promote acceptance of the example, the Waste Management athletic department’s orientation toward department sees much more potential in the environmental sustainability; however, this recovery rates in and out of the football emphasis led to a disproportionate number stadium. Further, Samantha, the of Athletics representatives on the Green concessionaire, conveyed a desire to deepen Team. Thus, non-Athletics committee their involvement to meet her company’s members may feel like outsiders working sustainability objective to solve the issue of for Athletics. Indeed, most of the food waste by deepening her “relationship committee members mentioned they do not with the client to let them know that this is take a proactive step to introduce new a warning to us as a business. We are initiatives, but when asked during interviews committed to finding ways to create less about what initiatives they would like to waste to push the issue.” It appears that she, implement, they were not short on ideas. like other outside members, wants to Thus, non-Athletics members have been further blur existing boundaries in order to unintentionally undervalued, and as a result, mutually meet sustainability goals. There is a the CSSP has not fully realized its leverage- growing necessity to allow non-Athletics related potential. committee members to take a larger role in McCullough and colleagues (2016) the future direction of the Green Team. argued that as sport organizations deepen However, in order for all Green Team their commitment to sustainability members to fully engage in the CSSP, the initiatives, the sophistication and committee’s chair and fellow Athletics coordination of these efforts must increase representatives must create an environment as well. Green Team members interviewed that penetrates the perceived fortress in this study expressed a strong common in athletic departments (cf. Buer, understanding of this need by pointing to 2009) by blurring the boundaries of the increasingly technical projects such as fine- athletic department to meet the university’s tuning recovery rates in the stadium, better sustainability goals. addressing waste management strategies in When each member was asked tailgate areas, reducing water consumption specifically what three initiatives they would in athletic facilities, and addressing fan like to see the Green Team address, they

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 72 predominately listed: increasing diversion leadership style and the efficacy of its rates, addressing tailgating, and an initiative members can limit the potential of a CSSP. related to their specific position on campus. In this study, some members of the Green A non-Athletics member of the Green Team had experienced clear shifts in their Team suggested that the committee be work responsibilities and organizational restructured to address the sustainability commitments (i.e., blurring boundaries), initiatives that they wanted to address. That while others felt that their talents were left is, instead of being configured like an largely untapped because of the Green athletic department (i.e., Marketing and Team’s placement within the athletic Promotions, Data Collection, Celebrating department. Success, and Events), it should be While we suspect that much of the structured around specific initiative reason behind the uneven organizational categories (e.g., waste management, blurring was the result of the Green Team’s electricity, water, human behavior). Before Athletics-focused orientation, additional these changes can occur, however, more research would yield further insight. For alliances must be given to the Chair and example, the Green Team consisted of specific content experts on the Green individuals with varying professional ranks, Team. years of service with the committee and the university, and environmental expertise. Conclusion These dynamics may have led some The academic mission of institutions of members to be assertive while others higher learning is sometimes at odds with remained passive. Furthermore, it remains the athletic mission of their collegiate unclear the extent to which turnover among athletic departments. For this reason, committee members hindered collaboration universities are often considered dual- in the Green Team. Particularly related to identity organizations. It is clear that student members, the cyclical nature of the environmental sustainability—while a university made committee membership priority at a growing number of relatively unstable. institutions—is not the primary focus across This study builds on the theoretical all campuses. Still, because CSSPs like the development on transformational CSSPs by Green Team operate autonomously with providing a better understanding of the key one overarching goal (i.e., advancing enablers and indicators that permit the sustainability initiatives at the university and development of transformational within Athletics), it can bridge the collaborative relationships. We also academic–athletic ideological gap and orient responded to a need to examine the all parties toward a pro-environmental development of CSSPs by providing the mission. As demonstrated above, however, analysis of an in-depth case study with a

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 73 retrospective inquiry to capture the university in order to maintain a balance of evolutionary dynamics of a complex power between the academic and athletic collaborative arrangement (Kihl et al., 2014; arms of the institution. Selsky & Parker, 2005). Researchers examining this context in Since sport may be viewed as not only a the future should consider assessing the crucial platform for environmental evaluation process of the committee’s set awareness but also as a powerful vehicle for Key Performance Indicators. Additionally, social change (Kellison & Kim, 2014; our findings raise further questions that Kellison et al., 2015), the contextually rich should be researched in the future including: insight yielded from this study provided Who are the necessary stakeholders to promising contributions to our include when initially forming a green understanding of how organizational forms committee? What policies or strategies can can shift and expand in response to issues properly empower a green committee? Can of environmental and social importance. CSSPs involving athletics and other campus Ideally, athletic departments can blur their departments help bridge the isolation organizational boundaries with the public, athletics has on campus? These questions business, and non-profit sectors in order to and others will continue to arise as Green become more effective at addressing Teams become more commonplace on contemporary issues. As demonstrated in college campuses seeking to boost the this study, however, the perceived barrier sustainability efforts of their athletic between academics and athletics can departments. dampen the benefits of a CSSP. To this end, --- our findings provide valuable information to researchers seeking to forward environmental efforts within the sport industry. For example, athletic administrators or sustainability officers can use these findings to better organize and define the roles for their Green Team members. Similarly, this study may help organizational champions better understand the importance of delegating, supporting, and yielding authority to others when leading cross-sector partnerships. Furthermore, when forming a CSSP, decision-makers may consider appointing upper-level administrators from across the

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Tables

Table 1

Interview Participant Details

Years on Green Pseudonym Department Status Team Joan 5 Athletics–Administration professional Tim 3 Athletics–Administration student Athletics–Student-Athlete John 2 professional Support Mark 1 Athletics–Ticketing professional Samantha 2 Concessions professional Melissa 3 Waste Management professional Steve 4 Athletics–Facilities professional Nicole 2 Athletics–Student-Athlete student Brian 2 Office of Sustainability professional Ronan 3 Office of Sustainability professional Patrick 1 Office of Sustainability professional

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One McCullough et al., 2018 81

Concussion Knowledge of Youth Sport Athletes, Coaches, and Parents: A Review

Sungwon Kim1 Daniel P. Connaughton1 Robert F. Leeman1 Jong Hoon Lee2

1University of Florida 2University of New Mexico

Mild traumatic brain injury, commonly known as a concussion, has gained widespread public attention. Approximately 1.1 to 1.9 million children 18 years old or younger suffer sport/recreation-related concussions in the U.S. annually. The purpose of this review was to assess research articles examining concussion knowledge of youth sport athletes, coaches and parents. Twenty-one articles published from 2009-2016 were selected. The results of this review suggest that most athletes, coaches, and parents had good knowledge regarding the definition of a concussion, common signs/symptoms, and complications from repeated concussions, while most stakeholders had moderate knowledge about the causes, prevalence, and return-to-play guidelines. However, the majority of respondents did not correctly identify the emotional signs/symptoms associated with concussions and did not know that youth concussions should be managed more conservatively than adult concussions. Notable knowledge deficiencies were found among youth athletes and parents. Suggestions to improve youth sport stakeholders’ concussion knowledge are provided in the discussion.

port-related mild traumatic brain concussions each year in the U.S. (Bryan, injury (mTBI), known as a concussion, Rowhani Rahbar, Comstrock, & Rivara, S is a major public health issue among 2016). A concussion is a complicated brain young athletes. Approximately 1.1 to 1.9 injury that may cause cognitive, behavioral million children 18 years old or younger and physical impairments (Jotwani & suffer sport or recreation-related Harmon, 2010). Typical signs and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 82 symptoms of a concussion include, but are Compared to adults, youth sport athletes are not limited to, headache, nausea, dizziness, at greater risk of sustaining concussions due vertigo, difficulty concentrating, drowsiness, to their premature brain structures and slow reaction time, difficulty sleeping, physiological weaknesses (Karlin, 2011). emotional changes, anxiety, and sadness Additionally, younger athletes with a (Halstead & Walter, 2010; McCrory et al., concussion typically require longer recovery 2017; Meehan & Bachur, 2009). Athletes time than adults (Covassin, Elbin, & who sustain another concussion without Sarmiento, 2012). Accordingly, proper care completely recovering from the previous and diligence must be provided to younger one can suffer a rare condition known as athletes particularly when deciding when to second impact syndrome which may cause return to play. brain swelling, herniation, and even death Efforts to recognize, manage, and (Buzzini & Guskiewicz, 2006; McCrory, prevent concussions at the youth sport level Davis, & Makdissi, 2012). Additionally, have been primarily accomplished by athletes who sustain repetitive concussions providing concussion education to YSS. may also suffer long-term health problems Consensus-based concussion education such as cognitive impairment and focuses on the proper identification of depression (National Research Council & signs/symptoms, assessment, treatment, Committee on Sports-Related Concussions and RTP guidelines (Harmon et al., 2013). in Youth, 2014). Athletes with a concussion, The need for concussion education stems therefore, should be seen by an appropriate from the fact that concussions are often healthcare provider and follow difficult to diagnose and frequently go individualized return-to-play (RTP) unrecognized which may result in guidelines to avoid potential catastrophic underreporting, particularly among athletes. health consequences (Harmon et al., 2013). Several research studies found that more At the youth sport level, where than 50% of concussive incidences were healthcare providers (i.e., athletic trainers, unreported due to athletes’ lack of team physicians) are not typically available understanding the signs/symptoms and not onsite, the recognition, management (i.e., thinking that the injury may have been a following healthcare provider(s) advice, and concussion (Delaney, Lacroix, Leclerc, & RTP guidelines), and the prevention of Johnson, 2002; Echlin et al., 2010; McCrea, youth concussions is particularly important Hammeke, Olsen, Leo, & Guskiewicz, for youth sport stakeholders (YSS). For the 2004; Register-Mihalik, Linnan, Marshall, purpose of this review, YSS were defined as Valovich McLeod, Mueller, & Guskiewicz, athletes, coaches, and parents, and did not 2013). Although it is premature to suggest include clinicians (e.g., physicians, athletic that increased concussion knowledge may trainers, school nurses, physical therapists). help reduce concussions, one study reported

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 83 that concussion knowledge was an YSS prior to the implementation of state important predictor of recognizing and concussion legislation (Washington was first reporting symptoms to appropriate medical to do so in 2009), and such findings personnel (Sefton, Pirog, Capitao, suggested a mixed level of knowledge Harackiewicz, & Cordova, 2004). (Guilmette, Malia, & McQuiggan, 2007; Additionally, although most concussions Valovich McLeod, Schwartz, & Bay, 2007). have been found to occur during games Presumably due to heightened public (Daneshvar, Nowinski, McKee, & Cantu, awareness stemming from concussion 2011; Gessel, Fields, Collins, Dick, & legislation, related lawsuits, and media Comstock, 2007; Marar, McIlvain, Fields, & attention, since 2009, a significant number Comstock, 2012), it has been reported that of studies have assessed YSS’s concussion athletes’ increased knowledge was knowledge. The purpose of this review was associated with increased reporting of to evaluate YSS’s baseline knowledge (i.e., concussions during practices (Register- recognition, management and prevention) Mihalik et al., 2013). regarding youth concussions. No Over the past few years, a number of comprehensive review of YSS’s baseline organizations (e.g., CDC, National concussion knowledge has been conducted Federation of State High School to date. The specific research questions Associations) have made concussion guiding this review were: What knowledge education resources available and/or items (e.g., signs and symptoms, RTP provided safety recommendations for YSS. guidelines, etc.) were commonly assessed? Additionally, national youth sport What types of instruments were used to organizations (e.g., Pop Warner, Little examine concussion knowledge? What are League Baseball, US Youth Soccer) have the stakeholders’ strengths and weaknesses established concussion safety policies that regarding concussion knowledge? Is there require and/or recommend YSS review any particular stakeholder(s) that concussion educational resources as a demonstrates a deficit(s) in concussion prerequisite for participation (Paradis, 2014; knowledge? The results of this review may Sussingham, 2015). The requirement of be used to inform policy makers and sport educating YSS about concussion safety has governing bodies to develop, revise, and/or also stemmed from legislative mandates (i.e., promote effective concussion educational youth sport concussion statutes) in all 50 programs and safety policies/practices at states and the District of Columbia the youth sport level. (Lowrey, 2014). To the best our knowledge, there is a Method relatively small number of studies that The present review examined research examined baseline concussion knowledge of articles published during 2009-2016 (i.e., 8-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 84 year-span) to assess the overall level of participants are 18 years of age or YSS’s concussion knowledge. We selected under. this 8-year time frame because the first 2. Studies must have examined baseline youth sport-related concussion statute in the concussion knowledge. For intervention U.S. was implemented in 2009 and likely studies (including those that utilized created a heightened awareness regarding control conditions), only assessment of youth sport-related concussions. baseline concussion knowledge was Additionally, we found a notably large reported if available. number of relevant published articles during 3. Studies evaluating health care this period. providers/clinicians (e.g., athletic A total of 872 articles were identified trainers, nurses, physical therapists, using the PubMed and SPORTDiscus physicians) were excluded from this databases before being screened for review. The purpose of this review was eligibility. Keywords utilized for the primary to assess studies examining concussion search included concussions (“concussions”, knowledge of non-clinical YSS (i.e., OR “brain injury”, OR “sport concussions” youth sport athletes, coaches and OR “mild traumatic brain injury” OR parents). “mTBI”), AND knowledge (“knowledge”, 4. Studies conducted outside of the U.S. OR “baseline knowledge”), management or Canada were not included since (“management”, OR “awareness”, OR public perception and awareness toward “familiarity”, OR “recognition”, OR sport-related concussion may be “evaluation”, OR “prevention,” OR significantly different than those found “understanding”) AND youth sport in these two countries. stakeholders (“athletes”, OR “coaches”, OR 5. Studies that did not examine objective “parents”). During the search, we used the knowledge measures (i.e., those keywords independently and in multiple measuring perception, attitude, combinations. We also reviewed references opinions, agreements, practices, found in the initially retrieved articles and policies, etc.) were excluded. then finally conducted additional searches 6. Studies must have been published in a (i.e., utilizing Google Scholar, Internet peer-reviewed journal. search). The specific inclusion and exclusion 7. Studies must have been original criteria for selecting articles for this review research (i.e., no review studies or book were: chapters). 1. Youth sport refers to both 8. Studies must have been written in interscholastic and recreational sport English. programs where the majority of the After utilizing the aforementioned keywords and inclusion/exclusion criteria,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 85 study titles and abstracts were reviewed for Reviewed studies assessed concussion relevance to the present review. For knowledge from athletes (k = 9), coaches (k selection purposes, relevant articles were = 9), and parents (k = 8). It should be then further screened through a full-text noted that some articles surveyed more than review (see Figure 1). one stakeholder (Bloodgood et al., 2013; Cusimano, 2009; Gourley et al., 2010; Results Shenouda, Hendrickson, Davenport, After the screening process, a total of Barber, & Bell, 2012). Overall, YSS included 21 articles published from 2009 through in this review were associated with 2016 were selected for review. Questions interscholastic and/or recreational youth regarding a study’s inclusion/exclusion were sport programs where the majority of the resolved through a discussion among the participants were 18 years of age or under. current investigators. All 21 articles utilized Twelve studies examined interscholastic a survey instrument to gauge respondents’ sport stakeholders and nine studies concussion knowledge. The questionnaires examined recreational YSS’s concussion included a combination of true/false, Likert knowledge. The vast majority of reviewed scale, closed-ended, open-ended and studies involved a contact and/or collision multiple-choice questions. However, none sport (e.g., football, soccer, hockey, of the reviewed studies utilized a wrestling, lacrosse, etc.) which are known standardized survey instrument and most of for higher incidences of concussions. the studies did not indicate whether the Among the studies reviewed, the knowledge questionnaire had been validated. All studies items assessed varied widely due to a lack of included in this review developed a unique uniformity in the surveys utilized. However, questionnaire based upon the literature, the most popular knowledge items were (1) consensus statements, position statements, key facts about concussions, such as educational resources (e.g., CDC’s Heads definition, causes, prevalence, and youth Up materials), Sport Concussion concussion care; (2) signs/symptoms; (3) Assessment Tool (SCAT), and/or expert RTP guidelines; and (4) medical opinions. Five studies adopted and/or complications from repeated concussions. slightly modified a previously utilized survey We chose these four categories as key (Anderson, Gittelman, Mann, Cyriac, & knowledge measures since they reflect best Pomerantz, 2016; Gourley, Valovich practices based on consensus (McCrory et McLeod, & Bay, 2010; Kurowski, al., 2017) and position statements (Broglio Pomerantz, Schaiper, & Gittelman, 2014; et al., 2014). A summary of the articles Kurowski, Pomerantz, Schaiper, Ho, & reviewed can be found in Table 1. The Gittelman 2015; Shroyer & Stewart, 2016). remainder of this section will provide a synthesis of each stakeholder’s knowledge

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 86 from the four selected knowledge suggested knowledge deficits (i.e., only 58- assessment categories. 61% of respondents answered correctly) in understanding the causes of concussions Youth Concussion Facts among parents (Mannings et al., 2014) and Sixteen studies examined key athletes (Kurowski et al., 2014; Kurowski et concussion facts. These included but were al., 2015). not limited to definition, causes, prevalence, The likelihood of suffering another and management of youth concussions. The concussion is greater if an athlete has not vast majority (>80%) of athletes (Cusimano, recovered from a previous one. Four studies 2009; Mrazik, Perra, Brooks, & Naidu, (Anderson et al., 2016; Kurowski et al., 2015; Register-Mihalik et al., 2013), parents 2014; Kurowski et al., 2015; Mrazik et al., (Cusimano, 2009; Shenouda et al., 2012) and 2011) that examined factors associated with coaches (Cusimano, 2009; Mrazik, Bawani, repetitive concussions (i.e., prevalence) & Krol, 2011; Shenouda et al., 2012; showed mixed results based on the type of Shroyer & Stewart, 2016) understood that a stakeholder. Specifically, while the vast concussion is a form of mTBI. However, in majority (91.6%) of coaches agreed that the one study, only 34.7% of parents identified likelihood of another concussion increases the correct definition of a concussion with a previous history (Mrazik et al., 2011), (Mannings, Kalynych, Joseph, Smotherman, a moderate (65-77% correctly responded) & Kraemer, 2014). level of knowledge regarding the likelihood In regard to the causes of concussions, of suffering another concussion was found studies reviewed indicated mixed results. among youth sport athletes (Anderson et al., Promisingly, most (>80%) athletes (Mrazik 2016; Kurowski et al., 2014; Kurowski et al., et al., 2015), coaches (Chrisman, Schiff, 2015). Chung, Herring, & Rivara, 2014; Mrazik et Finally, three studies (LaBond, Barber, al., 2011; Shroyer & Stewart, 2016), and & Golden, 2014; O’Donoghue, Onate, Van parents (Coghlin, Myles, & Howitt, 2009) Lunen, & Peterson, 2009; Shroyer & knew that a concussion could be caused by Stewart, 2016) examined whether YSS a blow to the body (e.g., neck, jaw) other understood that youth concussions should than the head. Meanwhile, four studies be managed more conservatively than those reviewed suggested knowledge deficiencies sustained by older athletes due to their in athletes and parents regarding the causes physiological differences. The results of of concussions. For instance, Bloodgood et these studies overall revealed a low-to- al. (2013) revealed that only a quarter of moderate level of knowledge regarding the both athletes and parents knew a importance of conservatively managing concussion can be caused by a blow other youth concussions. Specifically, 48% of than to the head. Similarly, other studies coaches did not believe that youth athletes

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 87 typically take longer than adults to recover consciousness is not necessary to sustain a from concussions (Shroyer & Stewart, concussion. 2016), and approximately 57% of coaches The overall findings from studies believed that all athletes, regardless of age, reviewed revealed a gap in YSS’s knowledge recover at the same rate (O’Donoghue et al., in understanding the subtle deficits and/or 2009). Additionally, approximately 33% of less distinct signs/symptoms of a parents disagreed or did not know that head concussion. For instance, approximately 30- trauma was typically more serious in 70% of athletes (Cournoyer & Tripp, 2014; younger athletes (LaBond et al., 2014). Kurowski et al., 2014; Kurowski et al., 2015), coaches (Chrisman et al., 2014), and Signs and Symptoms parents (Mannings et al., 2014) did not Seventeen articles assessed YSS’s recognize emotional changes. Additionally, understanding of concussion signs and 30-60% of athletes (Cournoyer & Tripp, symptoms. The overall results revealed that 2014), coaches (Naftel et al., 2014), and most athletes, coaches, and parents, in parents (Coghlin et al., 2009; Mannings et general, had good knowledge in recognizing al., 2014) did not know that sleep problems the key indicators of a concussion. The can be associated with concussions. majority of YSS in several studies correctly Furthermore, approximately 40-70% of identified commonly perceived athletes (Cournoyer & Tripp, 2014) and signs/symptoms. Specifically, over 80% of coaches (Chrisman et al., 2014) did not athletes (Anderson et al., 2016; Cournoyer identify anxiety/nervousness, while & Tripp, 2014; Kurowski et al., 2014; approximately 40-50% of athletes Kurowski et al., 2015; Register-Mihalik et (Cournoyer & Tripp, 2014 Kurowski et al., al., 2013), coaches (Chrisman et al., 2014; 2014; Kurowski et al., 2015) did not identify Mrazik et al., 2011; Naftel, Yust, Nichols, vomiting, as potential signs/symptoms of a King, & Davis, 2014; O’Donoghue et al., concussion. 2009; Shenouda et al., 2012), and parents (Coghlin et al., 2009; Mannings et al., 2014; Return to Play (RTP) Guidelines Shenouda et al., 2012) correctly identified RTP guidelines were another key headache, dizziness, confusion, memory knowledge item that many of the reviewed loss, and blurred vision as common studies (k = 13) examined. Articles assessing signs/symptoms of concussions. respondents’ familiarity with RTP Furthermore, over 80% of athletes guidelines, however, reported mixed results (Anderson et al., 2016; Cournoyer & Tripp, based on the type of stakeholders. 2014; Register-Mihalik et al., 2013) and Promisingly, most (80-100%) coaches coaches (Mrazik et al., 2011; Shroyer & (Bramley, Kroft, Polk, Newberry, & Silvis, Stewart, 2016) were aware that a loss of 2012; Coghlin et al., 2009; Esquivel, Haque,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 88 Keating, Marsh, & Lemos, 2013; Shroyer & concussion, approximately 16% would allow Stewart, 2016) recognized that same day a player to RTP with a minor concussion return to play is not recommended once a (Bramley et al., 2012). Finally, 33-40% of concussion is suspected. Moreover, 88% of hockey players thought, as long as they were coaches (Shenouda et al., 2012; Shroyer & feeling better, they could return to play on Stewart, 2016) and parents (Shenouda et al., the same day they sustained a concussion 2012) were aware that parents/guardians of (Cusimano, 2009). an athlete should not provide clearance for a RTP decision. Furthermore, according to Medical Complications Chrisman et al. (2014), approximately 95% Six studies examined whether YSS knew of coaches indicated that they would not that repeated concussions and premature allow an athlete to return to play even if return to play can lead to catastrophic health symptoms were present briefly (i.e., 15 consequences (i.e., second impact minutes or less). syndrome). Stakeholders from the majority Meanwhile, respondents from six of studies reviewed correctly indicated that studies did not completely understand athletes who sustain a second concussion specific RTP components such as the (before fully recovering from a previous importance of medical clearance before one) could suffer serious health returning to play. For instance, only 63% of consequences. For instance, 83-92% of athletes (Kurowski et al., 2015) reported athletes (Anderson et al., 2016; Kurowski et that they should be thoroughly evaluated by al., 2015), coaches (Shenouda et al., 2012), medical personnel after a concussion to and parents (Shenouda et al., 2012) were make sure they are recovered, and only 73% aware of the risk of serious injury or death if of coaches and parents (Shenouda et al., a second concussion occurs before a 2012) knew that soccer players must receive previous one is fully healed. Also, over 85% written clearance from an appropriate of athletes correctly identified potential healthcare provider to return to play. complications of a concussion which Additionally, only 55.2% of coaches were included brain damage and memory familiar with the concept of “graduated problems (Register-Mihalik et al., 2013). return to play” (Chrisman et al., 2014). Cournoyer & Tripp (2014), however, Similarly, Gourley et al. (2010) found only reported that only 60-70% of high school 62% of athletes and 56% of parents both athletes correctly identified brain agreed that a young athlete should RTP in a hemorrhage, coma, and death as potential slow progressive manner if symptom free consequences of a concussion. (i.e., graduated return to play). Interestingly, Although evidence regarding the long- in one study, while 99% of coaches would term effects of concussions is not never allow an athlete to RTP with a severe conclusive, only a few athletes were able to

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 89 identify early-onset Alzheimer’s (47%), limited to the CDC’s Heads Up initiative dementia (64%), and Parkinson’s disease (CDC, 2016), NFHS’s Concussion in Sports (28%) as potential consequences from (NFHS, 2017), and Brain 101: The repetitive and/or improper management of Concussion Playbook (ORCAS, 2011). concussions (Cournoyer & Tripp, 2014). Several studies demonstrated the Similarly, according to LaBond et al. (2014), effectiveness of educational interventions 35% of parents did not know that repeated (e.g., concussion videos, lectures, web-based head trauma could lead to dementia. resources, etc.) which helped increase concussion knowledge of athletes Discussion (Cusimano, Chipman, Donnelly, & Over the last decade, the topic of youth Hutchison, 2014; Glang et al., 2015; sport-related concussions has received Miyashita, Timpson, Frye, & Gloeckner, considerable attention from the scientific 2013), coaches (Covassin, et al., 2012), community. Additionally, heightened public parents (Glang et al., 2015), and non-athlete awareness likely stemming from concussion students (Bagley et al., 2012; Falavigna et al., legislation, related lawsuits, and media 2012). attention has emphasized the need for Meanwhile, knowledge gaps among concussion recognition, management, and some stakeholders remain. A number of prevention among YSS. The purpose of this studies revealed that parents and athletes, in review was to examine baseline concussion particular, did not have strong knowledge knowledge (i.e., recognition, management regarding key concussion facts, RTP and prevention) of youth sport athletes, guidelines and potential medical coaches, and parents. Given the complications. Chrisman et al. (2014) noted complicated nature of properly recognizing that a lack of concussion knowledge among and managing concussions, it is imperative athletes and parents may be due to the that stakeholders are knowledgeable about, vague language in state concussion statutes and undertake a concerted effort to reduce (i.e., concussion education requirement). In concussions. Based on the present review, fact, not all concussion statutes specify the YSS demonstrated good concussion type of education required for parents knowledge overall while exhibiting and/or athletes (Harvey, 2013). While some deficiencies in some areas. statutes state an “information sheet” as a Improved stakeholder knowledge may specific method of knowledge be attributed to several recent educational dissemination under the educational initiatives aimed at increasing concussion provision, several statutes do not specify a awareness and knowledge particularly at the method for conveying such education. This youth sport level. These resources (available vagueness may have created challenges in online and at no-cost) include but are not offering concussion education and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 90 subsequently failing to improve both understanding of recognizing, managing and athletes’ and parents’ knowledge. Future preventing concussions compared to other legislative efforts should consider clarifying stakeholders (e.g., coaches, health care the specific requirements regarding providers). Perhaps, younger athletes’ concussion education in state concussion concussion knowledge may have been statutes. negatively influenced by the culture in Furthermore, educational initiatives sports which often emphasizes “sacrifice” have not been as common for parents of and “playing through pain” (Howe, 2004; youth sport athletes when compared to Young & White, 1995), which could impact coaches (Sarmiento, Mitchko, Klein, & an athlete’s desire to learn and appreciate Wong, 2010). Presumably due to a the value of concussion education. In subsequent lack of knowledge, it is likely McCrea et al. (2004), two-thirds of high that some parents may not believe school athletes did not report potential concussions warrant proper medical care concussions because they did not want to and sufficient recovery time. Perhaps some be removed from a game. Likewise, parents perceive a concussion merely as a Register-Mihalik et al. (2013) found that “bell ringer” or “ding” and, therefore, treat “letting down” teammates and coaches was it as a mild injury. Indeed, many parents a primary reason for not reporting who participated in youth sports themselves suspected concussions. Furthermore, may have been taught such. Given parents’ Kurowski et al. (2014) revealed that close involvement with young athletes, it is improved knowledge and previous important that they understand concussion education were not associated with self- signs/symptoms and the importance of reporting concussions. Such findings seeking proper medical care. In 2013, the suggest that educational initiatives alone CDC launched a concussion toolkit (i.e., may influence young athletes’ concussion Heads Up to Parents) specifically designed safety behaviors (i.e., reporting symptoms to for parents of youth sport athletes. Similar coaches and parents). Therefore, to their previous concussion educational stakeholders, particularly those in leadership initiatives (e.g., Heads Up to Youth Sports, roles (e.g., coaches and administrators), Heads Up to School Sports), the parents’ should attempt to change the youth sport toolkit contains valuable concussion safety culture by fostering an environment where educational materials that are tailored to athletes are encouraged to take proper parents (CDC, 2016). measures to identify and report The results of this review are consistent concussions. Furthermore, young athletes with previous research (Delaney et al., 2002; may not take concussion education seriously McCrea et al., 2004), in which youth sport because they may not perceive a concussion athletes generally had a poorer to be a serious injury and may also think

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 91 they are less vulnerable to suffer a al., 2012; Williams, et al., 2014) suggests concussion compared to older athletes using social media (i.e., Facebook, Twitter, (Mrazik et al., 2015). Relevant to such YouTube) to deliver concussion education beliefs, Elkind (1985) posited that younger programs although its effectiveness needs to children often believe the adverse effects of be studied further. Additionally, risky behaviors will not apply to them. Provvidenza et al. (2013) suggests Future efforts, therefore, should not only integrating several educational strategies consider implementing effective educational including the use of video, case studies, programs, but also focus on increasing social media, handouts, oral presentations awareness and attitudinal changes among and discussions that can be delivered over younger athletes. multiple sessions to better suit individuals Although concussion education should with different learning styles. Future be directed to all relevant YSS, optimal research should continue to evaluate knowledge transfer (KT) strategies have not optimal KT strategies for concussion been studied extensively (Provvidenza & education programs, particularly considering Johnson, 2009). The purpose of KT the knowledge to action cycle. strategies is to bridge the knowledge gap The present review is not without between the scientific/medical community limitations. First, although all reviewed and the general public (e.g., youth sport studies were published from 2009 through coaches, athletes, and parents) that use such 2016, data collection procedures in some knowledge (Straus, Tetroe, & Graham, studies were conducted several years prior 2013). In fact, KT strategies should consider to the publication date. Such lag in time may the needs of the target audience, as well as not have accurately depicted the the type, content, and quality of educational stakeholders’ most recent concussion materials (Provvidenza et al., 2013). Passive knowledge, particularly after the concussion education (e.g., printed implementation of concussion legislation. materials, handouts, and websites) may not However, to the best of our knowledge, all lead to significant behavioral changes over data in the reviewed studies were collected time if such sources are used as a standalone no more than four years prior to the method (Grimshaw et al., 2001). Instead, publication date. Second, due to the use of interactive KT strategies that deliver convenience sampling (i.e., selection bias) in concussion education over multiple sessions several reviewed studies, there was a wide should be utilized in an effort to have a variation in the stakeholder’s demographics. long-term effect on the stakeholders’ Such variation is concerning because concussion knowledge, attitudes, and research suggests that age, education, behaviors. Research (Ahmed, Sullivan, gender, and socioeconomic status can affect Schneiders, & McCrory, 2010; Sullivan et the stakeholders’ concussion knowledge

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 92 (Bagley et al., 2012; Kurowski et al., 2014; the knowledge of these important Lin et al., 2015). The present review was, stakeholders who are primarily responsible therefore, a holistic evaluation of YSS’s for the clinical management of concussions. concussion knowledge and may have Furthermore, future investigation on this unintentionally disregarded the topic should center on comparing YSS’s aforementioned demographics which could concussion knowledge pre and post-state have affected their baseline knowledge. law implementation. Concussion legislation Third, articles retrieved for consideration was passed in all states from 2009 to 2014 were obtained primarily from two databases (Lowrey, 2014). Additionally, comparing (i.e., PubMed and SPORTDiscus). We also concussion knowledge of recreational sport utilized references from the selected articles stakeholders versus interscholastic sport as well as from other sources (i.e., Google stakeholders is warranted since some state Scholar, Internet search) to retrieve legislation only applies to interscholastic additional articles for consideration. competitions. Therefore, we believe the present review, Although several of the studies when conducted, represented the full body reviewed examined key knowledge items of literature (from 2009-2016) on baseline such as concussion facts, signs/symptoms, concussion knowledge of youth sport RTP guidelines and medical complications, athletes, coaches, and parents. future research should consider assessing Due to the frequency and potential other important knowledge constructs. severity of youth concussions, efforts from Recently, concussion management strategies various stakeholders are necessary to reduce for student-athletes have been centered on concussions in youth sport. To date, “return-to-learn” or “academic research has assessed concussion knowledge accommodation” for those with previous of stakeholders other than athletes, coaches, concussions (Weber, Welch, Parsons, & and parents. For instance, concussion Valovich McLeod, 2015). Consensus knowledge of healthcare guidelines strongly recommend that providers/clinicians (Zemek et al., 2014; concussed student-athletes take cognitive Zemek et al., 2015), athletic trainers rest before returning to full academic (Cusimano et al., 2009; Esquivel et al., 2013 activities (McCrory et al., 2017). Cognitive Naftel et al., 2014), physical therapists rest allows the brain to recover and prevents (Yorke, Littleton, & Alsalaheen, 2016), and exacerbation of existing concussive speech-language pathologists (Duff & symptoms (Moser, Glatts, & Schatz, 2012). Stuck, 2015), has been examined. Such Finally, all of the studies reviewed stakeholders may play pivotal roles in utilized questionnaires which were reducing and managing youth concussions. developed after a review of the literature Future research should consider evaluating and/or by revising previously used surveys.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 93 To the best of our knowledge, at the time of 2017) to assist in reducing concussions in this review, there was not a standardized youth sports. questionnaire that measured baseline --- concussion knowledge. The Rosenbaum Concussion Knowledge and Attitudes Survey (RCKAS) is one of very few standardized instruments that assesses concussion knowledge and attitude of youth sport athletes (Rosenbaum & Arnett, 2010); however, none of the studies reviewed utilized this instrument. Also, it is unknown whether several of the studies reviewed used validated questionnaires. Future research should focus on creating a standardized, psychometrically-valid instrument, which would allow for more effective knowledge comparisons across stakeholder groups and increase the rigor in evaluating baseline concussion knowledge.

Conclusion Based on the present review, the overall findings suggest that although most YSS demonstrated good overall concussion knowledge, knowledge gaps in certain areas were found among athletes and parents in particular. A significant number of articles assessing athletes’ and parents’ concussion knowledge revealed that these groups had many misconceptions about key concussion facts, RTP guidelines, and medical complications. These groups, therefore, should be targeted for more extensive concussion education. Finally, it is suggested that youth sport organizations adopt widely accepted concussion safety policies/practices (i.e., CDC, 2016; NFHS,

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Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 96 Gourley, M, M., Valovich McLeod, T. C., & Howe, P. D. (2004). Sport, professionalism, and Bay, R. C. (2010). Awareness and pain: Ethnographies of injury and risk. recognition of concussion by youth London, UK: Routledge. athletes and their parents. Athletic Jotwani, V., & Harmon, K. G. (2010). Training & Sports Health Care, 2(5), Postconcussion syndrome in athletes. 208-218. Current Sports Medicine Report, 9(1), 21- Grimshaw, J. M., Shirran, L., Thomas, R., 26. Mowatt, G., Fraser, C., Bero, L., ... & Karlin, A. M. (2011). Concussion in the O'Brien, M. A. (2001). Changing pediatric and adolescent population: provider behavior: An overview of Different population, different systematic reviews of concerns. Physical Medicine & interventions. Medical Care, 39(8) II2- Rehabilitation, 3(10 suppl 2), S369- II45. S379. Guilmette, T. J., Malia, L. A., & McQuiggan, Kurowski, B. G, Pomerantz, W. J., Schaiper, M. D. (2007). Concussion C., & Gittelman, M. A. (2014). understanding and management Factors that influence concussion among New England high school knowledge and self-reported attitudes football coaches. Brain Injury, 21(10), in high school athletes. Journal of 1039-1047. Trauma and Acute Care Surgery, 77(3 Halstead, M. E., & Walter, K. D. (2010). Suppl 1), S12-17. Sport-related concussion in children Kurowski, B. G., Pomerantz, W. J., and adolescents. Pediatrics, 126(3), Schaiper, C., Ho, M., & Gittelman, 597-615. M. A. (2015). Impact of preseason Harmon, K. G., Drezner, J. A., Gammons concussion education on knowledge, M., Guskiewicz, K. M., Halstead, M., attitudes, and behaviors of high Herring, S. A.,… Roberts, W. O. school athletes. Journal of Trauma and (2013). American Medical Society for Acute Care Surgery, 79(3), S21-28. Sports Medicine position statement: LaBond, V., Barber, K. R., & Golden, I. J. Concussion in sport. British Journal of (2014). Sports-related head injuries in Sports Medicine, 47(1), 15-26. students: Parents’ knowledge, Harvey, H. H. (2013). Reducing traumatic attitudes, and perceptions. NASN brain injuries in youth sports: Youth School Nurse, 29(4), 194-199. sports traumatic brain injury state Lin, A. C., Salzman, B. A., Bachman, S. L., laws, January 2009-December 2012. Burke, R. V., Zaslow, T., Pisek, C. American Journal of Public Health, Z.,… Upperman, J. S. (2015). 103(7), 1249–1254. Assessment of parental knowledge and attitudes toward pediatric sports-

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 97 related concussions. Sports Health: A The 5th International Conference on Multidisciplinary Approach, 7(2), 124- Concussion in Sport held in Berlin, 129. October 2016. British Journal of Sports Lowrey, K. (2014). State laws addressing Medicine, 5(11), 838-847. youth sports-related traumatic brain Meehan, W. P., & Bachur, R. G. (2009). injury and the future of concussion Sport-related concussion. Pediatrics, law and policy. Journal of Business & 123(1), 114-123. Technology Law, 10(1), 61-72. Miyashita, T. L., Timpson, W. M., Frye, M. Mannings, C., Kalynych, C., Joseph, M. M., A., & Gloeckner, G. W. (2013). The Smotherman, C., & Kraemer, D. F. impact of an educational intervention (2014). Knowledge assessment of on college athletes' knowledge of sports-related concussion among concussions. Clinical Journal of Sport parents of children aged 5 years to 15 Medicine, 23(5), 349-353. years enrolled in recreational tackle Moser, R. S., Glatts, C., & Schatz, P. (2012). football. Journal of Trauma and Acute Efficacy of immediate and delayed Care Surgery, 77(3 Suppl 1), S18-22. cognitive and physical rest for Marar, M., McIlvain, N. M., Fields, S. K., & treatment of sports-related Comstock, R. D. (2012). concussion. The Journal of Pediatrics, Epidemiology of concussions among 161(5), 922-926. United States high school athletes in Mrazik, M., Bawani, F., & Krol, A. L. 20 sports. American Journal of Sports (2011). Sports-related concussions: Medicine, 40(4), 747-755. Knowledge translation among minor McCrea, M., Hammeke, T., Olsen, G., Leo, hockey coaches. Clinical Journal of P., & Guskiewicz, K. (2004). Sport Medicine, 21(4), 315-319. Unreported concussion in high Mrazik, M., Perra, A., Brooks, B. L., & school football players: Implications Naidu, D. (2015). Exploring minor for prevention. Clinical Journal of Sport hockey players’ knowledge and Medicine, 14(1), 13-17. attitudes toward concussion: McCrory, P., Davis, G., & Makdissi, M. Implications for prevention. Journal of (2012). Second impact syndrome or Head Trauma Rehabilitation, 30(3), 219- cerebral swelling after sporting head 227. injury. Current Sports Medicine Reports, Naftel, K. G., Yust, E. M., Nichols, M. H., 11(1), 21-23. King, W. D., & Davis, D. (2014). McCrory, P., Meeuwisse, W., Johnston, K., Knowledge and management of Dvorak, J., Aubry, M., Molloy, M., & sports concussions among coaches Cantu, R. (2017). Consensus and certified athletic trainers in statement on concussion in sport:

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 98 Alabama. Southern Medical Journal, Journal of Sports Medicine, 47(5), 332- 107(7), 418-423. 338. National Federation of State High School Provvidenza, C. F., & Johnston, K. M. Associations (NFHS). (2017). (2009). Knowledge transfer principles Concussion in Sports. Retrieved from: as applied to sport concussion https://nfhslearn.com/courses/6106 education. British Journal of Sports 4/concussion-in-sports Medicine, 43(Suppl 1), i68-i75. National Research Council & Committee on Register-Mihalik, J. K., Linnan, L. A., Sports-Related Concussions in Marshall, S.W., Valovich McLeod, T. Youth. (2014). Sports-related concussions C., Mueller, F. O., & Guskiewicz, K. in youth: improving the science, changing the M. (2013). Using theory to culture. Bethesda, MD: National understand high school aged athletes’ Academies Press. intentions to report sport-related O’Donoghue, E. M., Onate, J. A., Van concussion: Implications for Lunen B., & Peterson, C. L. (2009). concussion education initiatives. Brain Assessment of high school coaches’ Injury, 27(7-8), 878-886. knowledge of sport-related Rosenbaum, A. M., & Arnett, P. A. (2010). concussions. Athletic Training Sports The development of a survey to Health Care, 1(3), 120-132. examine knowledge about and Oregon Center for Applied Science attitudes toward concussion in high- (ORCAS). (2011). School-wide school students. Journal of Clinical and Concussion Management. Retrieved Experimental Neuropsychology, 32(1), 44- from: http://brain101.orcasinc.com/ 55. Paradis, L. (2014, September 1). Parks and Sarmiento, K., Mitchko, J., Klein, C., & recreation’s role in the concussion Wong, S. (2010). Evaluation of the campaign. Parks & Recreation. Centers for Disease Control and Retrieved from Prevention's concussion initiative for http://www.parksandrecreation.org/ high school coaches: “Heads Up: 2014/September/Parks-and- Concussion in High School Recreation-Role-in-the-Concussion- Sports.” Journal of School Health, 80(3), Campaign/ 112-118. Provvidenza, C., Engebretsen, L., Tator, C., Sefton, J. M., Pirog, K., Capitao, A., Kissick, J., McCrory, P., Sills, A., & Harackiewicz, D., & Cordova, M. L. Johnston, K. M. (2013). From (2004). An examination of factors consensus to action: Knowledge that influence knowledge and transfer, education and influencing reporting of mild brain injuries in policy on sports concussion. British

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 99 collegiate football. Journal of Athletic among youth coaches. Clinical Journal Training, 39, S52–S53. of Sport Medicine, 17(2), 140-142. Shenouda, C., Hendrickson, P., Davenport, Weber, M. L., Welch, C. E., Parsons, J. T., K., Barber, J., & Bell, K. R. (2012). & Valovich McLeod, T. C. (2015). The effects of concussion legislation School nurses’ familiarity and one year later-what have we learned: perceptions of academic A descriptive pilot survey of youth accommodations for student-athletes soccer player associates. Physical following sport-related concussion. Medicine & Rehabilitation, 4(6), 427- Journal of School Nursing, 31(2), 146- 435. 154. Shroyer, J., & Stewart, C. (2016). Williams, D., Sullivan, S. J., Schneiders, A. Knowledge of concussions by high G., Ahmed, O. H., Lee, H., school coaches in a rural Balasundaram, A. P., & McCrory, P. environment. Physical Educator, 73(2), R. (2014). Big hits on the small 373-388. screen: An evaluation of concussion- Straus, S. E., Tetroe, J, & Graham, I. D. related videos on YouTube. British (2013). Knowledge translation in health Journal of Sports Medicine, 48(2), 107- care: Moving from evidence to practice. 111. West Sussex, UK: Wiley & Sons. Yorke, A, M., Littleton, S., & Alsalaheen, B. Sullivan, S. J., Schneiders, A. G., Cheang, C. A. (2016). Concussion attitudes and W., Kitto, E., Lee, H., Redhead, J., ... beliefs, knowledge, and clinical & McCrory, P. R. (2012). ‘What's practice: Survey of physical happening?’ A content analysis of therapists. Physical Therapy, 96(7), concussion-related traffic on 1018-1028. Twitter. British Journal of Sports Young, K., & White, P. (1995). Sport, Medicine, 46(4), 258-263. physical danger, and injury: The Sussingham, R. (2015, August). Florida first experiences of elite women athletes. state to require concussion training Journal of Sport & Social Issues, 19(1), for high school athletes. State-Impact. 45-61. Retrieved from Zemek, R., Eady, K., Moreau, K., Farion, https://stateimpact.npr.org/florida/ K. J., Solomon, B., Weiser, M., & 2015/08/31/florida-first-state-to- Dematteo, C. (2014). Knowledge of require-concussion-training-for-high- paediatric concussion among front- school-athletes/ line primary care providers. Paediatrics Valovich McLeod, T. C., Schwartz, C., & and Child Health, 19(9), 475-480. Bay, R. C. (2007). Sport-related Zemek, R., Eady, K., Moreau, K., Farion, concussion misunderstandings K. J., Solomon, B., Weiser, M., &

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Kim et al., 2018 100 Dematteo, C. (2015). Canadian pediatric emergency physician knowledge of concussion diagnosis and initial management. Canadian Journal of Emergency Medicine, 17(2), 115-122.

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Figure

Figure 1

Flow Chart of Review Process

Articles from database (i.e., PubMed and SPORTDiscus) searches (k = 872) from 2009-

2016

dentification I

Titles Screened for eligibility Records excluded (k = 790) (k = 872)

Abstracts Screened for Records excluded (k = 39) eligibility (k = 82)

Screening/Eligibility Full-texts Screened for eligibility (k = 43) Records excluded (k = 22) Non-objective knowledge measures (k = 7) Outside the scope of research (k = 8) Not youth sport population (k = 3) Articles included in the Outside of U.S. or Canada (k = 4) review (k = 21)

Included

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Table 1

Chronological published reports of youth sport stakeholders’ concussion knowledge

Date Reference Stakeholder(s) Sport(s) Level Key knowledge measure(s) Summary of the knowledge assessed 2016 Anderson Athletes Football Interscholastic (1) Signs/symptoms More than 75% of respondents correctly identified five et al. (n = 120) sports (2) Medical complications out of the six listed symptoms related to concussions. Approximately 92% of respondents agreed that improper management of concussions could lead to severe health consequences. 2016 Shroyer Coaches Multiple Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Nearly half of respondents did not know that high et al. (n = 53) sports (2) RTP guidelines school athletes typically take longer to recover from concussions than older athletes. Most of respondents were familiar with RTP guidelines. 2015 Kurowski aAthletes Football, Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Overall, athletes exhibited a moderate understanding et al. (n = 262) Soccer, sports (2) Signs/symptoms of concussion signs and symptoms. However, athletes Basketball, & (3) RTP guidelines reported a low to moderate understanding of the less Wrestling (4) Medical complications distinct signs/symptoms such as emotional changes, neck pain, hallucinations and vomiting. Over 92% of athletes agreed that they must complete a gradual return to play before returning fully to sports. Most (86%) agreed that, if a second concussion occurs before the first one is healed, there is a risk of death. Approximately 61% believed that concussions can be only sustained if hit in the head. 2015 Lin Parents N/A Interscholastic (1) Signs/symptoms Respondents scored an average of 18.4 (possible, 0-25) et al. (n = 214) sports (2) RTP guidelines on the Concussion Knowledge Index. 2015 Mrazik bAthletes Hockey Recreational (1) Concussion facts Most (86.8%) hockey players were familiar with the et al. (n = 183) sports (2) RTP guidelines causes of concussions. However, one-half of respondents were not familiar with the prevalence of concussions. Approximately 68% of hockey players indicated that they were unfamiliar with RTP protocols. a Control group (pre-season data) RTP = Return-to-Play

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Table 1 Continued Date Reference Stakeholder(s) Sport(s) Level Key knowledge measure(s) Summary of the knowledge assessed 2014 Chrisman Coaches Football & Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts The majority (95%) of respondents knew that concussions et al. (n = 270) Soccer sports (2) Signs/symptoms can be caused without a direct blow to the head. Also, most (3) RTP guidelines respondents were knowledgeable about common signs/symptoms of a concussion, but did not correctly identify many of the mental symptoms (i.e., being more emotional, anxious and sad). More than 95% of respondents would not allow an athlete to return to play even if symptoms appeared only briefly (<15 min). Only 55.2% were familiar with the term “graduated return to play.” 2014 Cournoyer Athletes Football Interscholastic (1) Signs/symptoms Although most respondents correctly identified the common et al. (n = 314) sports (2) Medical complications signs/symptoms of a concussion such as headache, dizziness and confusion, many failed to recognize the less apparent signs/symptoms (e.g., nausea, vomiting, personality change, trouble falling asleep, being more emotional and anxious). While 93% of respondents correctly identified persistent headache as a consequence of improperly managing concussions, only 60-70% knew that brain hemorrhage, coma and death could be possible consequences as well. 2014 Kurowski Athletes Football, Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Respondents correctly identified 68.8% of the knowledge- et al. (n = 496) Soccer, sports (2) Signs/symptoms based questions on concussion facts. Less than half failed to Basketball, & realize that emotional changes and neck pain could result Wrestling from concussions. Approximately, 41.7% did not know that a person can get a concussion other than receiving hit in the head, and 67% knew that a person with previous concussion(s) is more likely to get another. 2014 LaBond et Parents Multiple Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts More than half of respondents did not know that al. (n = 235) sports (2) RTP guidelines concussion severity was typically higher among children. (3) Medical complications Sixty-one percent of respondents revealed that they had limited knowledge regarding RTP guidelines although 99% agreed that a concussed athlete should be evaluated by a physician before returning to play. Approximately 35% did not know that repeated head trauma could lead to dementia. b Control group (non-player) RTP = Return-to-Play

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Table 1 Continued Date Reference Stakeholder(s) Sport(s) Level Key knowledge measure(s) Summary of the knowledge assessed 2014 Mannings et Parents Football Recreational (1) Concussion facts Approximately two-thirds of respondents failed to realize al. (n = 130) sport (2) Signs/symptoms that a concussion is a mild traumatic brain injury. Moreover, 42% were unaware that a concussion could be caused by something other than a direct blow to the head. Many respondents were unable to identify irritability, emotional outburst and sleeping difficulty as possible symptoms of a concussion. 2014 Naftel et al. Coaches Multiple Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Although 85.7% of coaches correctly identified the (n = 402) sports (2) Signs/symptoms concussion signs/symptoms, they had difficulty recognizing the more subtle and profound symptoms such as sleep troubles and personality changes. 2013 Bloodgood et Athletes N/A Recreational (1) Concussion facts Among respondents that had heard about concussions, only al. (n = 252) & sports (2) Signs/symptoms about one-quarter indicated that they were familiar with the Parents definition of a concussion and one or more of its (n = 300) signs/symptoms. 2013 Esquivel et Coaches Football, Interscholastic (1) Signs/symptoms Most respondents were able to identify common al. (n = 119) Hockey, sports (2) RTP guidelines signs/symptoms associated with a concussion. All & Soccer respondents agreed that a concussed athlete should not return to play the same day of the injury. More than 90% required physician care and clearance before returning to play. 2013 Register- Athletes Football, Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Most (84.7%) athletes were aware that a concussion can Mihalik et al. (n = 167) Soccer, sports (2) Signs/symptoms occur without losing consciousness, and 88.5% correctly Lacrosse, (3) Medical complications identified that a concussion is an injury to the brain. While & most respondents correctly identified the common Cheerlead signs/symptoms of a concussion, many did not realize that - ing nausea and amnesia could also be indicative of a concussion. The majority were familiar with the potential complications from suffering recurrent concussions and/or prematurely returning to play. 2012 Bramley et al. Coaches Hockey Recreational (1) RTP guidelines Using clinical vignettes, 80% or more of respondents (n = 314) sports indicated that they would not allow a concussed athlete to return to a game; however, a small percentage would allow an athlete to return depending on the severity of a concussion. Respondents noted that they were more likely to allow return to play for championship games as opposed to regular games. RTP = Return-to-Play

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Table 1 Continued Date Reference Stakeholder(s) Sport(s) Level Key knowledge measure(s) Summary of the knowledge assessed 2012 Shenouda et Parents Soccer Recreational (1) Concussion facts Most respondents displayed high proficiency in concussion al. (n = 246), sports (2) Signs/symptoms facts (i.e., definition, causes, treatment) and correctly Coaches (3) RTP guidelines identified most of the symptoms associated with a (n = 78) (4) Medical complications concussion. Although 73% of respondents understood that written clearance was required from a trained professional for returning to play, many did not know that a trained professional could be a volunteer. Eighty-three percent of respondents knew that continuing to play with a concussion can lead to further injury and/or death. 2011 Mrazik et al. Coaches Hockey Recreational (1) Concussion facts Most (84%) agreed that concussions can be sustained (n = 178) sports (2) Signs/symptoms without a blow to the head and that a loss of consciousness (3) RTP guidelines is not required for sustaining concussions. More than 90% reported that they would not allow players to return to play if a concussion is suspected with symptoms of headache, loss of consciousness and forgetfulness. However, about 12% would allow players to return to play if concussion symptoms had improved by the end of the game. 2010 Gourley Athletes Multiple Recreational (1) Concussion facts Approximately 77% of athletes and 85% of parents agreed et al. (n = 73) & sports (2) Signs/symptoms that a concussion only occurs when an athlete blacks out. Parents (3) RTP guidelines Both parents and athletes correctly identified approximately (n = 100) 9 out of 16 signs/symptoms questions. On the scenario question, 66% percent of athletes and 68% of parents agreed that an athlete who only experiences mild dizziness and headache following a blow to the head should not return to play that day. Additionally, only 62% of athletes and 56% of parents agreed that a youth athlete should return to play in a slow progressive manner. 2009 O’Donoghue Coaches Multiple Interscholastic (1) Concussion facts Approximately 43% of respondents indicated that an athlete, et al. (n = 126) sports (2) Signs/symptoms regardless of age, recovers from concussion at the same rate. (3) RTP guidelines Respondents scored an average of 92% on the recognition (i.e., signs/symptoms) section of the survey. However, they scored only 79% on the management section (i.e., RTP guidelines). RTP = Return-to-Play

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Table 1 Continued Date Reference Stakeholder(s) Sport(s) Level Key knowledge measure(s) Summary of the knowledge assessed 2009 Cusimano Athletes Hockey Recreational (1) Concussion facts Forty-five percent of athletes did not correctly identify the (n = 267), sports (2) Signs/symptoms causes of concussions. Approximately one-quarter of the Parents (3) RTP guidelines parents and coaches, and a quarter to a half of athletes (n = 92), were not aware of any concussion symptoms or were able Coaches to name only one symptom. About a quarter of athletes (n = 22) did not know or thought it was acceptable to continue playing while having concussive signs/symptoms. Additionally, 33-40% of athletes believed that they can return to play prematurely as long as they are feeling better. 2009 Coghlin et al. Parents (n = 114) Hockey Recreational (1) Concussion facts Approximately 86% of respondents knew that concussions sports (2) Signs/symptoms can be caused by a blow to the neck, jaw or elsewhere in (3) RTP guidelines the body. While respondents had decent understanding of common signs/symptoms of a concussion (e.g., nausea, fatigue, slurred speech, etc.), they did not know that difficulty with sleep, disorientation and emotional irritability were also key components of recognizing a concussion. Over 95% indicated that a concussed athlete should not return to play the same day of the injury. RTP = Return-to-Play

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Female Roller Derby Athletes’ Athletic Identity and Systematic Pursuit of Leisure

Hung-Ling Liu1 Timothy Baghurst2 Michael Bradley3

1South Dakota State University 2Oklahoma State University 3Eastern Kentucky University

Athletic identity is a foundational element of an individual’s self-concept and affects psychological, social, and behavioral characteristics. The purpose of this study was to investigate a women-dominated sport, roller derby, by exploring the relationships between athletic identity of women athletes and serious leisure pursuit in the sport. Participants were 578 women registered with the Women’s Flat Track Derby Association (WFTDA) who completed an online survey regarding their athletic identity. Hierarchical multiple regression analysis showed demographic variables (family income) were a minor predictor of participants’ serious leisure pursuit. Internal and external components of athletic identity were positively associated with participant’s level of serious leisure, while internal components (i.e. self-identity and positive affectivity) were stronger in predicting women athletes’ systematic leisure pursuit in roller derby than external ones. Results of this study support that roller derby provides an opportunity for women to enjoy a full-contact sport and develop identity as an athlete with strength and knowledge through their systematic leisure pursuit. Furthermore, findings suggest promoting roller derby programs or other untraditional female sports may foster greater engagement and greater commitment to sport and facilitate equality for women in sports.

port provides a salient, visible, and much attention in sports phenomena accessible venue to create a self-image studies, including athlete and fan identity in S and self-identity in Western society. sports. Studies of athletic identity have Athletic-related identities have received focused primarily on professional and

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 108 collegial athletes’ career development and liberating symbol in sport history (Pavlidis, maturity (Lally & Kerr, 2005; Murphy, 2012). Roller derby is a high intensity and Petitpas, & Brewer, 1996), student-athlete full contact sport, providing women an identity conflicts (Yopyk & Prentice, 2005), activity and space that challenges them to and coping with career transition or use their body instrumentally and offers an retirement (Grove, Lavallee, & Gordon, alternative way of experiencing their body 1997). In part because sports are generally (Storms, 2008). considered to be activities for young, Although there are a few studies that middle-class, and white men (Henderson, have investigated roller derby, research is Hodges, & Kivel, 2002; Kay, 2000; Lim et limited (Eklund & Masberg, 2014; Eklund, al., 2011), little research has been conducted & Masberg, 2015; Paul & Blank, 2015). For to understand the women and minority example, the majority of existing studies perspective of leisure pursuits in sports. have applied ethnographical methods or Therefore, it is important to understand qualitative approaches, such as observation, women’s perspective of athletic identity in in-depth interviews, field studies, and case- assisting them to gain personal, physical, study research. Using a quantitative and psychological empowerment through approach with a larger number of research sport in their leisure time (Dilley & Scraton, participants may provide insight into the 2010; Heuser, 2005; Mennesson, 2000). psychological engagement and social Roller derby is a female-dominated adaptations of women athletes in roller sport that is aggressive and incorporates derby from a larger scale and use a body contact into competition. The quantitative approach to connect with other philosophy of roller derby, “by the skaters, related theories for future studies (Gould, for the skaters” (Beaver, 2012, p.25), Moore, McGuire, & Stebbins, 2008). illustrates a do-it-yourself ethos where Therefore, the purpose of this study was women athletes are typically owners, two-fold: (1) to investigate how internal and managers, and/or operators of their own external athletic identity affected level of leagues while following rules, safety, and seriousness in participating in roller derby guidelines for national and international with a large sample size, and (2) to explore competition (Women’s Flat Track Derby whether demographics affect leisure pursuit Association, 2012). With high speed skating, in the sport. and players alternating offense and defense positions constantly, the game is physical, Literature Review competitive, and risky (Carlson, 2010). Identity can be defined as “parts of a Historically, the sport of roller-skating and self-composed of the meanings that persons roller derby spinning started in the attach to the multiple roles they typically nineteenth century and became a gender- play in highly differentiated contemporary

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 109 societies” (Stryker & Burke, 2000, p.284). thoughts and feelings toward their athlete The concept has been discussed within role as an aspect of life with personal and structural and cognitive identity theories. social factors (Horton & Mack, 2000). Structural identity theory focuses on the Previous research identified several influence of external/social components, dimensions of internal and external identity; such as society and groups, while (1) Social identity refers to the degree in internal/personal identity theory explores which an individual views him/herself as an the effects of internal components on athlete from a social standpoint; (2) individuals’ evaluation of themselves Exclusivity reflects the degree to which (Stryker & Burke, 2000). Luhtanen and individuals rely heavily on their athletic role Crocker (1992) stated that “whereas or performance to determine their value as a personal identity refers to how people view person; (3) Self-identity captured the themselves as individuals, social identity strength of an individual’s self-referred refers to how they view the social groups to him/herself as an athlete; (4) Negative which they belong” (p. 302). Social identity affectivity emphasized the negative can derive from a variety of group experience of individual’s sports-related memberships, including family, friends, performance and outcomes (i.e., injury); and colleagues, or groups based on race, gender, (5) Positive affectivity emphasized the and occupation. For example, college positive and desirable outcomes of students might identify themselves based on individuals’ sport participation (Brewer, Van their internal value of potential and Raalte, & Linder, 1993; Cieslak, 2004; Jun & individual qualities, while values may be Kyle, 2012; Martin et al., 1997; Phoenix, formed through relevant social groups and Faulkner, & Sparkes, 2005). significant others, such peers, parents, and coaches. Social structure and self-evaluation Athletic Identity for Women in Sport affect behavior in addition to internal and It is necessary to understand the external self (Cieslak, 2004; Green, 2001; significance of sport and exercise for Stryker & Burke, 2000). women and the effects of sport on their Athletic identity is a key component of sense of identity in a male-dominated field the self-concept of an individual athlete and (Messner, 2002; Paul, 2015). In general, is relevant to psychological, social, and participation in sports is an opportunity for behavioral characteristics (Martin, Eklund, women to gain empowerment, in spite of & Mushett 1997; Nasco & Webb, 2006). the social, political, and economic realities The initial athletic identity was treated as a that have limited their opportunities to single-dimension theory; whereas later, most acquire facilities, opportunities, and researchers adopted a multidimensional legitimacy as athletes (Raisborough, 2006; approach to examine an individual’s Ross & Shinew, 2008; Wachs, 2005).

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 110 Although athletic identity has been used Through interviewing women’s flag to understand athletes’ view and football tournament participants, Green identification in their sports engagement, (2001) found that participants were attracted only a few studies have focused on women’s to the sport by the physical nature of the athletic identity in sports. Mean and Kassing game and enjoyed having a space to share (2008) reported that women athletes wanted and celebrate their identity as women to be identified as athletes based on their football players. Heuser (2005) found that athletic ability and performance rather than the social nature of competitive sports gender alone. They also experienced limited created a community for women sharing avenues and resources available to establish similar interests, experiences, challenges, their athletic identity as women compared and a sense of accomplishment. Women to their male counterparts. In addition, Ross athletes and adventurists are aware they can and Shinew (2008) found that female negotiate and prioritize time and space for athletes were viewed (by others) as serious pursuing sport and recreation to receive and competitors with pride and well-developed reinforce benefits from the experience athletic skills. (Little, 2002). These outcomes reinforced A few other studies have focused on their sport identities associated with the amateur and recreational women athletes’ activity and developed a career-like identity with sports or adventure recreation. involvement. In research by Lamont-Mills and Christensen (2006), several patterns of Serious Leisure Theory athletic identity between level of sport The theory of serious leisure was originally participation among women and men defined by Stebbins (1992): athletes were identified: (1) elite women The systematic pursuit of an amateur, athletes indicated a higher athletic identity hobbyist, or volunteer activity that from others (social identity) and relied on people find so substantial and their athletic role to determine who they are interesting, and feeling that, in typical (exclusivity) than did recreational and non- cases, they launch themselves on a participation women athletes; (2) only elite (leisure) career on acquiring and men’s athletes scored higher in social expressing a combination of its special identity than their women counterparts; and skills, knowledge, and experience (3) athletes from different gender and level (Stebbins, 2006, p. 3). of improvement experienced similar Stebbins formulated the theory through negative affectivity in the sports they chose. ethnographic research involving musicians, In other words, athletic identity has showed actors, archeologists, baseball players, variation by gender and level of sport astronomers, entertainment magicians, involvement. football players, and stand-up comics.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 111 Through systematic pursuit in leisure, also tend to identify strongly with their people are enabled to develop their chosen activity and engage with the unique confidence, self-esteem and gain close ethos within the social group and community friendship, lifelong learning experiences, of activity. and personal growth opportunities (Brown, McGuire, & Voelkl, 2008; Patterson & Roller Derby Identity Through Pegg, 2009). Serious leisure has been viewed Systematic Leisure Pursuit as a profound, consistent, invariable In studying individuals’ leisure pursuit in engagement based on substantial knowledge sports, the theory of serious leisure is and skills, and also requires more regularly used to explore characteristics of perseverance to overcome challenges and amateur athletes pursuing their leisure complex tasks. Within this type of leisure systematically and acquiring benefits from experience, people feel deep satisfaction and the process (Stebbins, 1992). Stebbins experience a full existence (Stebbins, 2001). (2001) stated that “every serious leisure Serious leisure has been defined by six activity offers a major lifestyle and identity distinguished qualities (Stebbins, 2006). for its enthusiasts (p.56).” Although roller Participants acquire perseverance to overcome derby is considered a form of sport and fits psychological and physical difficulties within the context of serious leisure, several during their experiences (i.e., anxiety, views exist that challenge this idea. While embarrassment, and physical dangers). roller derby might face opposition for being Participants embark upon a leisure career in viewed as a sport from outsiders, roller the endeavor to improve their engagement derby participants claim and play it as a shaped by special contingencies and turning sport “for real” or a legitimate sport with points of achievement or involvement. risky factors (Carlson, 2010, p. 436). Participants require significant personal effort Like other leisure experiences, roller for earning special skills, knowledge, and derby participants freely choose personally training, all of which require more learning meaningful engagement and to make a opportunities outside of formal education, strong commitment to enjoy the sport. This or through a self-directed learning process. helps facilitate participant leisure identity A variety of durable benefits through serious development and career-like progression in leisure pursuit have been discussed, such as the sport (Heo & Lee, 2010; Raisborough, self-actualization, self-image, social 2006 Stebbins, 2001). In understanding interaction, belongingness, and physical and roller derby participants’ involvement and mental health in various studies (i.e., Dilley dedication to the sport, several studies & Scraton, 2010; Heo, Stebbins, Kim, & (Beaver, 2012; Eklund & Masberg, 2014; Lee, 2013; Lamont, Kennelly, & Moyle, Paul, 2015; Pavlidis & Fullagar, 2015; 2014; Tsaur & Liang, 2008). Participants Raisborough, 2006) have shown a

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 112 substantial connection with the concept of Popular music is also part of the creative serious leisure through the six distinguished assemblage in roller derby (Pavlidis, 2012). qualities of serious leisure developed by Roller derby women athletes are able to Stebbins (1992), including: (1) perseverance, create their roller derby identity individually (2) a leisure career in their endeavor, (3) and collectively as a team (Pavlidis & significant personal effort, (4) durable Fullager, 2012; Raisborough, 2006) and benefits, (5) unique ethos within the activity, reinforce their established identity in this and (6) strong identification with the chosen competitive sport (Dionigi, 2002; Green, activity. For example, many roller derby 1998). participants wear their bruises and scars The close relationship between serious with pride and celebrate injury as an honor leisure and athletic identity has been to the sport (Paul, 2015; Pavlidis & Fullagar, discussed in various sports, including 2015; Storms, 2008), all of which enhance swimming (Hastings, Kurth, Schloder, & their internal identity as roller derby women Cyr, 1995), running (Goff, Fick, & and create a community to enable them to Oppliger, 1997), and golfing (Siegenthaler & enforce their external identity through O’Dell, 2003). The strong identity friendship and sense of belongingness associated with athletes is an evolving (Fagundes, 2014). process of systematic involvement in sports Women athletes tend to show strong where individuals are able to acquire a sense identification with roller derby. The “do it of being an athlete with who they are and yourself” operation of roller derby league how they want others to view them (Green maintains and manages participants’ athletic & Jones, 2005; Kane & Zink, 2004; activity and organization and serves to O’Connor & Brown, 2010; Stebbins, 2006). protect the sport as a whole. It creates an This process results in a reinforcing cycle of alternative to differentiating between sports strengthening individuals’ athletic identity and a lifestyle creation, which defines the and accruing benefits from the sport of uniqueness of the sport and creates a space their choice. Such benefits include for women to develop their identity on and enhancing personal confidence and self- off the track (Beaver, 2012; Messner, 2002). esteem, fostering friendships, and creating Other than as a sport, roller derby lifelong and personal learning experiences participants have created subcultures within (Brown et al., 2008; Dilley & Scraton, 2010; the sport, such as music and fashion Dionigi, 2002; Patterson & Pegg, 2009). (Carlson, 2010; Pavlidis, 2012). Roller derby Only a few studies have explored the has its own artistic sensibilities toward relationship between serious leisure and outfits and make-up, whereby female athlete identity in women through a athletes dramatically express their own quantitative approach. Various qualitative individuality and identity (Paul, 2015). studies have indicated that women athletes

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 113 increase their sports self-concept and Instruments empower personal identity and body Serious Leisure Inventory and through leisure spaces and experiences Measurement (SLIM). A modified version (Baghurst, Parish, & Denny, 2014; Bartram, (Gould et al., 2011) of the Serious Leisure 2001; Gillespie, Leffler, & Lerner, 2002; Inventory and Measurement (SLIM; Gould Mennesson, 2000; Raisborough, 2006). et al., 2008) was used to measure amateur Roller derby women athletes are able to roller derby participants’ level of create their roller derby identity individually involvement and personal durable and collectively, (Pavlidis & Fullager, 2012; outcomes. This 18-item instrument closely Raisborough, 2006) and reinforce their adhered to Stebbins’s theoretical concept of established identity in this competitive sport amateur athletics’ leisure pursuit (Gould et (Dionigi, 2002; Green, 1998). As a women- al., 2011). Respondents rated each item of centered sport, roller derby offers a unique the SLIM using a five-point scale from one, research opportunity to better understand strongly disagree, to five, strongly agree, how women experience and explore internal where a higher subscale score indicates a and external identity through their leisure higher level of serious leisure pursuit. An pursuits (Ross & Shinew, 2008). average mean score of these items was calculated as a dependent variable for Method assessing roller derby participants’ level of Sampling and Data Collection involvement. The population of the study consisted Athletic Identity Measurement Scale of roller derby competitors registered in the (AIMS-Plus). The Athletic Identity Women’s Flat Track Derby Association Measurement Scale-Plus is one of the most (WFTDA) in the United States. Researchers popular instruments to assess elite and collected 2037 e-mail addresses from the amateur athletes in sport psychology WFTDA online database (84 of which were (Brewer & Cornelius, 2001; Cieslak, 2004; invalid). An email invitation was sent out to Jun & Kyle, 2012). Nineteen items of AIMS 1953 usable email addresses, and 578 were used to measure participants’ self- women roller derby athletes responded and determined identity with the sport, including completed the web-based survey. The social identity (5 items), exclusivity (5 survey remained available for four weeks in items), self-identity (3 items), negative September of 2012. There was no follow-up affectivity (2 items), and positive affectivity invitation or reminder. Prior to data (4 items). Respondents rated each item collection, the Institutional Review Board using a five-point scale from one, strongly (IRB) at a south-central university in the disagree, to five, strongly agree, where a United States approved the study. higher subscale score indicates a higher level of self-identification on each dimension.

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 114 Each sub-dimension of athletic identity was of leisure above their demographics. calculated as an independent variable. Following the sequence, the first multiple Demographics and behavioral regression model included four patterns. Other general demographic demographics (dichotomous variables): age, information was collected including age education, annual family income, and race. (18–34; 35–54; 55+), education level (less The second regression model added five than Bachelors; Bachelor’s degree and athletic identity variables for predicting above), race (white; non-white), and roller derby participants’ level of household annual income (< $55,000; ≥ seriousness. Tolerance and variance $55,000). Additional information specific to inflection factor (VIF) were utilized to roller derby was collected to understand diagnose multicollinearity among participants’ engagement with the sport. independent variables; all independent Examples included whether participants variables had a tolerance greater than .40 were members of a roller derby and VIF of less than 10 (Vaske, 2008). The organization, the frequency of their Cronbach’s alpha of the serious leisure practices (several times per week, once per variable and five sub-dimensions of athletic week, once per two weeks, once per month, identity ranged from .68 (negative and once every few months), and the affectivity, 2 items) to .94 (serious leisure, 18 numbers of participated bouts (match items). An alpha level of 0.05 significance between two teams) in which they had was used in this study. competed in the past year. Results Data Analysis The majority of participants ranged in Descriptive analysis was used to report age from 18 to 34 years old (69%) and no demographics of research participants, and participants reported they were 55 or older. a Pearson’s r correlation was used to Slightly more than two-thirds (68.2%) of examine correlations between the participants had a Bachelor’s degree or dependent variable (serious leisure) and higher. Ninety-three percent of research independent variables (demographics and participants were Caucasian/White, while athletic identity). The researchers used a other ethnic groups were relatively small. hierarchical multiple regression to examine Over two-thirds of participants had an how well the set of independent variables individual membership with WFTDA. (demographics and athletic identity) Almost all (98%) practiced once a week, and predicted the probability of women no participants reported their practice less engaging in roller derby as a serious leisure than once a week. Participants reported pursuit and to determine if athletic identity competing on average 13 times over the improved the prediction of systemic pursuit previous year; 7 at home and 6 away. Table

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 115 1 reports the demographic and behavioral and education level were statistically profile of participants. The average score of significant in this model, respectively (β = - serious leisure (SLIM) was 4.24, while the .16, p < .001; β = - .10, p = .02). average score of athletic identity factors The second model used demographics ranged from 3.76 to 4.42, in which Positive and athletic identity to predict roller derby affectivity was the highest score and participants’ serious leisure pursuit which Exclusivity the lowest (Table 2). showed a statistically significant relationship The correlation between serious leisure, [R2 = .65, F(5, 568) = 200.07, p < .001; demographics, and athletic identity is shown adjusted R2 = .65]. The addition of athletic in Table 2. Serious leisure was negatively identity to the prediction of level of correlated with education level (r = - .11, p seriousness in leisure led to a statistically < .01) and family annual income (r = - .16, p significant increment in R2 of .61, p < .001. < .01). Among the demographics, Within the second model, all five athletic participants’ age was negatively correlated identity variables were statistically with education (r = - .09, p < .05) and significant, including positive affectivity (β = positively correlated with family income (r = .50, p < .001), self-identity (β = .26, p < .27, p < .01). Roller derby participants’ level .001), exclusivity (β = .13, p < .001), social of serious leisure was positively correlated identity (β = .09, p = .003), and negative with their athletic identity, ranging from .16 affectivity (β = - .08, p = .005). Annual (negative affectivity) to .64 (positive family income was the only demographic affectivity). Positive correlations between variable that remained statistically significant athletic identity variables were between .18 in the second model (β = - .07, p = .012). and .61. A two-step hierarchical regression Discussion investigated how well the set of This study represents an initial independent variables (demographics and exploration of the relationship between athletic identity) predicted participants’ roller derby participation as a systematic probability of engaging in the sport as a leisure pursuit and its association with serious leisure pursuit, and to determine if demographics and athletic identity through the addition of demographic variables a quantitative approach. The characteristics improved the prediction of serious leisure. of roller derby women participating in the Table 3 shows the detailed results of each study were similar to those reported in the regression model. Results of the first model WFTDA’s demographic survey (2012) and [R2 = .04, F(4, 573) = 5.51, p < .001] previous roller derby studies (Beaver, 2012; indicated that participants’ demographic Carlson, 2010; Eklund & Masberg, 2014). variables accounted for 4% of their serious The majority of roller derby participants in leisure in roller derby. Annual family income the United States are White/Caucasian,

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 116 between the ages of 25 and 45, have a four- result confirmed that internal/self-identity year college degree, and have an annual and external/social identity are important household income of about $55,000 for individuals to form and define “who (WFTDA, 2012). they are” as athletes (Anderson & Taylor, In the present study, participants’ 2010; Hurst, Hale, Smith, & Collins, 2000; education and income were negatively Stryker & Burke, 2000). The results also correlated with their level of serious leisure showed that women roller derby in the sport, indicating that participants with participants’ internal identity factors, such as a higher income and education reported a self-identity and positive identity, were less serious involvement in the sport. stronger predictors than external factors in However, there was a positive correlation responding to their level of systematic between roller derby participants’ age and leisure pursuit. Similar to other roller derby income, suggesting that the women athletes studies, roller derby women exhibit a strong between the age of 35 and 54 were more will and identity in the sport, and could their likely to have higher annual income than the leisure participation as a space for them to younger group. It is possible that the develop internal identity outside of their younger roller derby women may have traditional role in the family (Dionigi, 2002; attained a higher education/degree, but Green, 1998; Pavlidis & Fullager, 2013; their annual income was lower because of Raisborough, 2006). the length of their working history. The results of the study also revealed Although household income, a that participants showed the strongest demographic variable, was significant in the association with the sport through their final hierarchical regression model, it is internal athletic identity components, relatively minimal compared to other including positive affectivity and self- psychological variables (i.e., athletic identity identity. Positive affectivity (personal variables) in predicting roller derby rewards) have been the most substantial participants’ consistency and dedication in variable to predict serious leisure their leisure pursuit. participants (Misener, Doherty, & Hamm- This study expanded upon previous Kerwin, 2010). It is possible that leisure as qualitative research by supporting the the central aspect of participants’ lives connection between athletic identity and provides an opportunity for women to serious leisure (Green & Jones, 2005; Kane empower their internal identity and establish & Zink, 2004; Stebbins, 2006). All five social identities within the sport community athletic identity variables (two external and with those who understand the benefits variables and three internal variables) and culture of the sport (Brown et al., 2008; significantly predicted roller derby Dilley & Scraton, 2010; Kane & Zink, 2004; participants’ serious leisure pursuit. This Raisborough, 2006). Regardless of external

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 117 identification from outsiders, internal results. Such biases may include identity in relation to the sport and as underrepresentation or overrepresentation athletes might be more important for of particular groups and issues related to participants’ systematic pursuit and long- internet access or responding to a survey term commitment to roller derby. online. Using regression analysis, another Having electric and paper-based contribution from the study was finding a questionnaires with random sample negative coefficient between serious leisure techniques might be helpful for including a and negative affectivity, meaning negative more diverse roller derby sample and a outcomes are not actually “negative” effects better ability to generalize results to the to roller derby participants. The result was entire population. It also could be beneficial unexpected, as in general, athletes tend to to study the leisure constraints of different experience high negative outcomes when age groups to investigate whether they have a high expectation for their motivations for participation differ by age. performance and do not meet those Additionally, most research participants expectations (Brewer, Shelby, Linder, & were in a roller derby group/league, which Petitpas, 1999; Tasiemski & Brewer, 2011). may result in a higher level of seriousness in It is possible that an amateur athlete’s ability their participation in the sport. to transform a negative or unpleasant Demographic variables were included in experience into a positive practice may help this model to investigate the difference explain a long-term dedication of systematic between amateur athletes in serious leisure pursuit rather than being worried about context. However, a limited choice of professional career and livelihood. As demographic items might contain some Raisborough (2006) stated, amateur athletes restrictions to the results. Some additional tend to “structure their lives in such way to variables should be considered for future privilege their time and resources for their studies: (1) demographic variables such as serious leisure” (p. 245). marital status, with or without children, and Although these findings make a unique physical condition; and (2) additional contribution to the understanding of behavioral variables, such as years of women roller derby participants in the involvement in roller derby, skill-level, serious leisure context, there are several money spent on roller derby, distance limitations in the study, which may provide traveled to practice or compete, and lifestyle opportunities for further inquiry. alteration for the sport. It might be Convenience sampling and a single email beneficial to apply the recreation invitation was the only approach used to specialization theory to explore how recruit potential research participants. This amateur roller derby participants gain a approach might contain some biases in the career-like experience and to examine

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 118 recreationalists’ cognitive development researchers then explored the relationship through sport, such as motivation and between serious leisure and athletic identity satisfaction (Needham, Scott, & Vaske, for a better understanding of how women 2013; Scott, 2012; Tsaur & Liang, 2008). athletes’ dedication and embodied This may increase the understanding of how experiences through sport participation. to foster roller derby participants’ Although roller derby might struggle to be dedication in leisure pursuit and assist to viewed as a sport from outsiders (Breeze, promote a supportive environment for 2013), roller derby participants showed a women to enjoy physical activities and strong commitment and career-like sports as their leisure pursuit in general. progression in gaining the knowledge and Finally, research participants did not skills necessary to be successful at the sport. intrinsically define themselves as serious Applying a multidimensional construct leisure participants. The researchers defined to study athletic identity might provide an Serious Leisure by the participants’ SLIM insight to understanding how roller derby score: a higher the score showed a higher women athletes define themselves and level of seriousness. It might be helpful to construct their identity through the sport include women roller derby participants’ (Lamont-Mills & Christensen, 2006; Ryska, perspective on leisure and their experience 2002). The study revealed that women roller in systematically pursuing roller derby as derby participants’ serious leisure pursuit their leisure activity for further was positively associated with their understanding their free time use as serious internal/personal and external/social leisure participants and their identity with identities as an athlete. Internal or personal the sport. components of athletic identity that are associated with roller derby are the most Conclusion significant formation and preservation This study supports roller derby, a avenue for women athletes in creating their women-dominated sport, as a serious sport own identity as athletes in the competitive and leisure space for women to develop and full-contact sport. In addition, external their identity as women and as athletes. or social components of athletic identity Roller derby could help women gain tend to influence how they evaluate and physical skills and a sense of pride through interpret their identity through a social their leisure pursuit and their own identity context (Jun & Kyle, 2012; Martin et al., (Carlson, 2010; Messner, 2002; Paul, 2015; 1997; Stryker & Burke, 2000). Although Pavlidis, 2012; Ross & Shinew, 2008). This internal and external components are study utilized a quantitative approach and important for an individual to define, sampling with a larger participant pool than maintain, and reinforce their identity as an previous studies in roller derby. The athlete, in general, internal identity

Journal of Amateur Sport Volume Four, Issue One Liu et al., 2018 119 components are stronger predictors than external ones. This study also found that amateur athletes or recreation sport participants might gain a strong sense of self and positive psychological benefits, much like elite athletes, through their leisure pursuits. The results of this study suggest offering promotion for roller derby programs or contact sports (i.e., boxing, football) to foster women’s engagement and a greater commitment to sport. This might create a space for women to redefine who they are and what they can do through sport participation, as well as facilitate equality for women in sports. In order to promote roller derby as a sport for younger generations, women roller derby leagues could assist junior roller derby leagues by starting leagues/bouts, creating modified derby rules, safety training, and advancing skills of the sport (Cathorall & Puches, 2017). By doing so, it is possible to help the public understand the positive effects for roller derby participants physically and psychologically and alter negative stereotypes and restrictions for women participating in competitive sports and leisure pursuits (Dilley & Scraton, 2010; Paul, 2015; Roster, 2007). ---

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Tables

Table 1

Demographics and Behavioral Profile of Respondents

Variables Frequency Percentage Age 18–34 400 69.2% 35–54 178 30.8% Race White 535 92.6% Non-White 43 7.4% Education Less than Bachelor’s 184 31.8% Bachelor’s or above 394 68.2% Household income < $55,000 321 55.5% ≥ $55,000 257 44.5% Member of WFTDA* Yes 400 76.1% No 132 22.8% Practice Frequency Weekly* 565 97.8% More than once 7 1.2% Once Participated Bouts Annually Home bouts M = 7.33; SD = 4.01 Away bouts M = 6.65; SD = 4.78 Note: * Three participants did not response “Member of WFTDA” and six did not response “Practice Frequency Weekly”

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Table 2

Pearson’s Correlation between Serious Leisure and Participants’ Demographics and Athletic Identity

Demographics Variables Age Race Education Income Serious 0.01 -0.01 -0.11** -0.16** Leisure Age 1 -0.06 -0.09* 0.27** Race 1 -0.02 -0.03 Education 1 0.07 Income 1 Athletic Identity Variables Social Exclusivity Self- Negative Positive Cronbach’s identity identity aff. aff. alpha Serious 0.38** 0.48** 0.62** 0.14** 0.64** 0.94 Leisure Social 1 0.49** 0.48** 0.27** 0.36** 0.69 identity Exclusivity 1 0.61** 0.37** 0.44** 0.70 Self-identity 1 0.29** 0.60** 0.71 Negative 1 0.18** 0.68 aff. Positive aff. 1 0.78 Mean 4.02 3.76 4.09 3.97 4.42 SD .73 .61 .63 .75 .41 Note: p < .05*, p < .01**

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Table 3

Hierarchical Regression Predicting Roller Derby Women’s Serious Leisure from Demographics and Athletic Identity

Serious Leisure Model 1 Model 2 Variable B β B β Demographics Age .04 .05 .04 .04 Race -.01 -.01 -.02 -.01 Education -.08 -.10* -.02 -.02 Family income -.13 -.16* -.05 -.07* Athletic identity Social identity .62 .09** Exclusivity .09 .13** Self-identity .17 .26** Negative affectivity -.04 -.08* Positive affectivity .41 .50** R .19 .81 R2 .04** .65** Change R2 .61** Note: *p < .05, **p < .001; B = Unstandardized coefficients, β = Standardized coefficients

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