An Annual Compendium of Information About Yellowstone National Park

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011

m. r Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011

An annual compendium of information

Will climate change affect thepika? Scientists of the "Pikas about in Peril Project" are researching this question as part of the Yellowstone National Park Service Climate Change Response Program. National Park

Read more about pikas in Chapter 7, and climate change in Chapter 8. The National Park Service in Yellowstone National Park wishes to thank the Yellowstone Association for its support of this publication.

Reviewers Resources & Issues is reviewed annually by Yellowstone National Park staff. The park experts responsible for the information in this edition are listed at the end of each chapter in "For More Information."

Editing, design, production Carolyn Duckworth, Publications Specialist Division of Interpretation

Managing Editor Linda Young, Chief of Interpretation

Produced by the Division of Interpretation, Yellowstone National Park, Mammoth Hot Springs, Wyoming. Suggested citation: Yellowstone National Park. 2011. Yellowstone Resources & Issues. Mammoth, WYI Division of Interpretation.

Available online at www.nps.gov/yell or for purchase through the Yellowstone Association, www. YellowstoneAssociation.org.

All material is in the public domain unless noted below, in which case copyright is owned by person or organization listed.

Front cover & p. 1 — NPS, Grand Teton National Park collection

Photographs: Most are from Yellowstone National Park or by National Park Service photographers. Individuals or organizations contributing photos: p. 51, 71 (top, chart top & center), 72, 73, 75 (top, bottom), 78, 81, 82, 84— Carolyn Duckworth; p. 63—UWS/UWM Great Lakes Water Institute; p. 71 (chart bottom), 74 (bottom), 76 (left top, center)—Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University; p. 75 (second)—Russell Rodriguez & Joan Henson; p. 75 (fourth), 86—Jennifer Whipple; p. 79—NASA/JPL;p. 118—TomCawley;p. 120— Fred Paulsen; p. 122—Toni K. Ruth, Hornocker Wildlife Institute & Wildlife Conservation Society; p. 135, 139—Steve Hill ebrand, USFWS; p. 137— Bill Buchanan, USFWS; p. 148-151, Jeff Arnold; p. 158—AdamLohmeyer;p. 160, middle left— David Riecks, University of Illinois at Urbana-Champaign; p. 160, bottom left— Charles Ramcharan, Wisconsin Sea Grant; p. 160, right— Florida Department of Agriculture & Consumer Services; p. 165— Richard Wilson, UNebraska Medical Center (1975).

Maps and illustrations: Most are produced by the staff of Yellowstone National Park, including the Spatial Analysis Center, or are from other National Park Service sources. Exceptions: wildlife illustrations in FAQ

and Chapter 7—© Bill 55-58 (bottom), courtesy Dr. Robert B. Zachery Zdinak; p. 27— Chapman; p. 65— — Smith, from Windows Into the Earth (co-authored with Lee J. Siegel), 2000, Oxford Press; p. 58 (top) Dr. Robert B. Smith; p. 62, 63— Dr. Lisa Morgan, USGS; p. 70— Dr. Jack Farmer, first appearing in GSA Today, July 2000; p. 73 (virus)—Thermal Biology Institute, Montana State University; p. 119— University of Oregon, Atlas of Yellowstone; p. 147—Debra Patla; p. 174 (graph)—Scripps Institute of Oceanography; p.

175 (graph)—Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC); p. 178— National Renewable Energy

Laboratory, Department of Energy; p. 185—Xanterra Parks & Resorts. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 UPB Contents

Park Facts 7 Mission 66 39 From Managed to "Natural" 40 Frequently Asked Questions 9 Involving Native Americans 40 General 9 Complex Times 40 Geography 12 Preserving the Park's History 41

Geology 13 Historic Structures & Districts ... 42 The Fires of 1988 16 The Legacy of Yellowstone 45 Wildlife 17 Major Areas 19 2 Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem 47

Introduction 27 Biodiversity & Processes 49 Community Complexity 50 The Beginning of an Idea 27 Intricate Layers 50 Today's National Park System 28 Trophic Cascades NPS Mission Statement 29 50 Balancing Nature? YNP Mission Statement 30 50 Winter 51 Significance of YNP 30 Yellowstone as Laboratory 52 BioBlitz 53 1 History of the Park 31 Management Challenges 53 Earliest Humans in Yellowstone . . 31 Increased Use 32 3 Geology 55 The Little Ice Age 33 What Lies Beneath Historic Tribes 33 55 Ancient Yellowstone 56 "Sheep Eaters" 33 Magma Hotspots 56 European Americans Arrive 34 & Future Volcanic Activity Expeditions 34 58 Hydrothermal Systems 60 Birth of a National Park 35 Beneath Yellowstone Lake 62 The Formative Years 36 Earthquakes 64 Flight of the Nez Perce 36 Glaciers 65 The Army Arrives 37 Sedimentation Erosion 66 The National Park Service Begins. 38 & Fossils 67 Boundary Adjustments 38 The 1940s 39

contents continue 4 Life in Extreme Heat 69 7 Wildlife 103 About Microoes 70 A: Mammals

Thermophiles in the Tree of Life 70 List of Mammals in Yellowstone. 103 Thermophilic Bacteria 71 Small Mammals 106 Thermophilic Archaea 72 Bear, Black 113 Thermophilic Viruses 73 Bear, Grizzly 114 Thermophilic Eukarya 74 Bears, Comparison 115 Thermophilic Communities 76 Beaver 116

Thermophiles by Place & Color . . 78 Bighorn Sheep 117

Thermophiles in Time & Space. . . 79 Bison 118 Cats: Bobcat & Lynx 120 5 Vegetation 81 Cougar 121 Major Types 81 Coyote 123 Effects of Disturbances 82 Deer, Mule & White-tailed 124 Vegetation Map 83 Elk 125 Trees 84 Fox 127

Threats to Trees 85 Moose 129 Endemics 86 Pronghorn 131 Managing Invasive Plants 87 Wolf 133

Restoring Native Plants 88 B: Birds 135

C: Fish 143 6 Fire 89 D: Reptiles & Amphibians 147 Fire Ecology & Behavior 89 Fire 92 Managing 8 Park Issues 157 The Fires of 1988 94 Aquatic Invaders 157 Aftermath of 1988, Research 99 Bear Management 161 Bioprospecting 164 Bison Management 167 Climate Change 172 Northern Range 179 Sustainable & Greening Practices 182 Wilderness 186 Winter Use 188 Wolf Restoration 193 Preface

Science is a progress report that keeps changing. Henry Heasler, geologist Yellowstone National Park

This compendium contains information about the park's history, natural and cultural resources, and issues. The information is concise, broad, and general. Each chapter is underlain by a great deal of research and decades of experience, and each is carefully edited and reviewed for accuracy and relevance. A resource list at the end of each chapter leads you into the subjects more deeply. We also encourage you to consult the websites listed below, which provide up-to-date and more detailed information.

How the Book Is Organized

The book is organized to provide an introduction to Yellowstone information, and chapters about major topics. Thus, the book begins with "Park Facts," followed by "Frequently Asked Questions" and a brief introduction. More detailed information follows in the chapters.

How the Chapters Are Organized Summary box containing key facts Main text providing overview of subject

Resource list for more information

Some material is repeated in the book to accommodate users with varying needs.

Updating the Information Information about Yellowstone constantly changes; the information provided here is current as of January 1, 2011. For updates: www.nps.gov/yell www.greateryellowstonescience.org park publications and exhibits The interpretive rangers who staff visitor centers also have updated information. We welcome your feedback and comments.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 5 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 Park Facts

Yellowstone National Park was established on March 1, 1872.

Yellowstone is the world's first national park.

GEOGRAPHY 1,000-3,000 earthquakes annually 3,472 square miles or 8,987 sq. km More than 10,000 hydrothermal features

2,221,766 acres or 899,139 hectares More than 300 active geysers Approximately 290 waterfalls Note: No area figures for the park have been scientifically verified. Thesefigures have been Tallest waterfall near a road: Lower Falls of usedfor many years & in different references. the Yellowstone River at 308 ft. to the total park area continue. Efforts confirm WILDLIFE 63 air miles north to south (102 km) 67 species of mammals, including: 54 air miles east to west (87 km) 7 species of native ungulates 2 species of bears 96% in Wyoming 322 species of birds nesting species) 3% in Montana (148 1% in Idaho 16 species of fish (5 non-native) 6 species of reptiles Highest Point: 11,358 ft. (Eagle Peak) 4 species of amphibians Lowest Point: 5,282 ft. (Reese Creek) 2 threatened species: Canada lynx, grizzly Larger than Rhode Island & Delaware bear combined 1 endangered species: gray wolf Approximately 5% of park covered by water; 15% by grassland; and 80% by forests FLORA 7 species of conifers Precipitation ±80% of forest is lodgepole pine Annual precipitation ranges from 10 inches ±1,150 species of native vascular plants (26 cm) at the north boundary to 80 inches >210 species of exotic (non-native) plants (205 cm) in the southwest corner 186 species of lichens Temperature At least 406 species of thermophiles Average, at Mammoth: January: 9°F CULTURAL RESOURCES July: 80°F 26 associated Native American tribes

Records: Approximately 1,600 archeological sites High: 99°F, 2002 (Mammoth) More than 300 ethnographic resources Low: -66°F, 1933 (West Entrance, (animals, plants, sites) Riverside Station) More than 24 sites, landmarks, and districts Yellowstone Lake on the National Register of Historic Places

131.7 square miles of surface area 1 National Historic Trail 141 miles of shoreline More than 900 historic buildings 20 miles north to south More than 379,000 cultural objects and 14 miles east to west natural science specimens

Average depth: 140 feet Thousands of books (many rare),

Maximum depth: 410 feet manuscripts, periodicals 90,000 historic photographs GEOLOGY An active volcano

One of the world's largest calderas at 45 x 30 miles EMPLOYEES Budget National Park Service Fiscal Year 2010 (in millions) Permanent: 355 Total: $69.5 Full time, 210 year-round: Federal Funding Full time, seasonal: 139 Congressional Annual Appropriations: Part time: 6 Operations & staff (base): $36.8 Term (variable duration): 36 Seasonal: 429 Wildland Fire: $1.9 Other Appropriations: $7.1 Concessioners Approximately 3,200 people work for Other Funding concessioners at peak summer levels Donations & Grants: $1.4 Fees: $12.2 FACILITIES Reimbursable: $10.1 9 visitor centers, museums, and contact stations Distribution ofBudget 9 hotels/lodges (2,000+ hotel rooms/cabins) Administration: 12% 7 NPS-operated campgrounds (450+ sites) Includes human resources, contracting,

5 concession-operated campgrounds budget &finance, property management, telecommunications & information (1,700+ sites) technology More than 1,500 buildings (NPS and concessions) Facility Operations & Maintenance: 43% Includes utilities, roads, trails, structures, 52 picnic areas historic preservation coordination, 1 marina construction management 13 self-guiding trails Resource Preservation: 13% ROADS AND TRAILS Includes research & monitoring of 5 park entrances natural and cultural resources, invasive species management 466 miles of roads (310 miles paved) More than 15 miles of boardwalk Visitor Services: 32% Approximately 1,000 miles of backcountry Includes interpretation & education, law enforcement, emergency medical trails services, search & rescue, entrance station 92 trailheads operations, structuralfire activities, and 301 backcountry campsites park concessions management

Record Numbers of Visitors Enjoyed Yellowstone in 2010

For the second year in a row, and for the third time in the last four Top Ten Years years, Yellowstone National Park has set a new annual visitation 1 2010 3,640,184 record: 3,640,184 people visited the world's first national park in 2009 3,295,187 2010 — 10.5 percent higher than 2009, which itself was a record year. 2

2010 also set monthly visitation records June through October. 3 2007 3,151,343

The West Entrance continues to be the park's busiest, with nearly 4 1992 3,144,405 1.5 million visitors entering through that gate. 5 1999 3,131,381

Park managers think record visitation may have been due to: 6 1995 3,125,285

• visits to national parks represent a good value 7 1998 3,120,830 • national parks were aggressively promoted by state tourism offices 8 2008 3,066,570 • gasoline prices remained stable 9 1994 3,046,145 • public television aired the national park series on national parks 10 2003 3,019,375 Detailed park visitation information is available at www. nature, nps.govIstats I. Frequently Asked Questions

See also Park Facts, pages 7 & 8.

How did Yellowstone get its name? Yellowstone National Park is named after the Yellowstone River, the major river running through the park. According to French-Canadian trappers in the 1800s, they asked the name of the river from the Minnetaree tribe, who live in what is now eastern Montana. They responded "Mi tse a-da-zi," which literally translates as "Rock Yellow River." (Historians do not know why the Minnetaree gave this name to the river.) The trappers translated this into French as "Roche Jaune" or "Pierre Jaune." In 1797, explorer-geographer David Thomson used the English translation—"Yellow Stone." Lewis and Clark called the Yellowstone River by the French and English forms. Subsequent usage formalized the name as "Yellowstone."

Did other national parks exist before Yellowstone? The golden walls of the Grand Canyon of the Some sources list Hot Springs in Arkansas Yellowstone River, above. Yellowstone National as the first national park— it was set aside in Park is sometimes confused with Yosemite 1832, forty years before Yellowstone was National Park (below), which is in California.

established in 1872 — but it was actually the nation's oldest national reservation, set aside to preserve and distribute a utilitarian resource (hot water), much like our present national forests. In 1921, an act of Congress established Hot Springs as a national park.

Other sources argue Yosemite was the first national park. In 1864, Congress set aside the area surrounding the Yosemite Valley and the Mariposa Grove of Big Trees and gave them to the state of California to administer for public use and recreation. In 1890, new legislation returned the operation of Yosemite to the federal government, but

did not specifically name it Yosemite National Park; that was done by the Secretary of the Interior — 18 years after Yellowstone had become the first official national park.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 — .

FAQ: General

DeathDeaf Valley Wrangell-St. Elias (California & (Alaska) Nevada)

Yellowstone

The scale of these comparisons is approximate, and based on a map produced by the National Park Service.

Is Yellowstone the largest national Yellowstone National Park is recog- park? nized as part of the international net- No. More than half of Alaska's national work of biosphere reserves. This net- park units are larger, including Wrangell- work of protected samples of the

St. Elias National Park and Preserve, which world's major ecosystem types is

is the largest unit in the National Park devoted to conservation of nature and System (13 million acres). Until 1994, scientific research in the service of man.

Yellowstone (at 2.2 million acres) was the It provides a standard against which the largest national park in the contiguous effect of man's impact on the environ- United States. That year Death Valley ment can be measured. National Monument was expanded and The September 8, 1978, United Nations became a national park it has more than 3 — designation of Yellowstone as a World million acres. Heritage Site, requested by U.S. President Does Yellowstone include a federally Richard Nixon and Congress, stated: designated wilderness? Through the collective recognition of The and the No. Most of the park was recommended for Man the community of nations . . Biosphere Program this designation in 1972, but Congress has Yellowstone National Park has been designates not acted on the recommendation. (See designated as a World Heritage Site and Yellowstone as a Chapter 8, "Wilderness") Biosphere Reserve & joins a select list of protected areas World Heritage Site. around the world whose outstanding Why is Yellowstone called a Biosphere To find out more: Reserve and a World Heritage Site? natural and cultural resources form the www.cr.nps.gov/ The United Nations designated Yellowstone common inheritance of all mankind. worldheritage National Park as a Biosphere Reserve and a whc. unesco.org/ What is the difference between a World Heritage Site because of the world- www. unesco. org! national park and a national forest? mab wide significance of its natural and cultural National parks are administered by the resources. These designations have nothing Department of the Interior and national to do with how Yellowstone is managed forests by the Department of Agriculture. the United Nations has authority to dic- no The National Park Service is mandated to tate federal land management decisions in preserve resources unimpaired, while the the States nor they change the United — do Forest Service is mandated to wisely man- fact that Yellowstone is under the legal age resources for many sustainable uses. authority of the United States of America. Six national forests surround Yellowstone Yellowstone Resources National Park, shown in the map on & Issues 2011 The October 26, 1976, United Nations designation of Yellowstone as a Biosphere page 48. 10 Reserve stated: How many rangers work in You can also stay at Old Faithful Snow FAQ: Yellowstone? Lodge, from which you can walk, snowshoe, In Yellowstone, approximately 780 people or ski around the geyser basin; take shuttles General work for the National Park Service during to crosscountry ski trails; or join a tour to the peak summer season; approximately 355 other parts of the park such as West Thumb, year-round. Park rangers perform duties in Hayden Valley, and the Grand Canyon of interpretation, education, resource manage- the Yellowstone River. ment, law enforcement, emergency medical services, and backcountry operations. Other park employees perform duties in research, maintenance, management, administration, trail maintenance, fire management, and fee collection.

Is Yellowstone the most visited national park?

Yellowstone is in the top five national parks for number of recreational visitors. Great Smoky Mountains National Park has the most—almost 9.5 million in 2009. The Grand Canyon and Yosemite also received more recreational visits than Yellowstone that year. Go to www.nps.gov/stats to find out more details about how many visitors come to our national parks.

Is Yellowstone open in winter? Yes. You can drive into the park through the North Entrance year-round. At Mammoth, Can we swim in Yellowstone's rivers you can take self-guiding tours of Fort and lakes? Yellowstone and the Mammoth Terraces, Swimming is not recommended because join a guided walk or tour, cross-country most lakes and streams are extremely cold. ski, snowshoe, ice skate (sometimes), rent a Firehole Canyon, near Madison Junction, hot tub, soak in the Boiling River, watch has a swimming area popular in summer. wildlife, attend ranger programs, and visit The area known as the Boiling River, north the Albright Visitor Center. You can also of Mammoth Hot Springs, is one of the few arrange for tours to Norris Geyser Basin, legal thermal soaking areas; soaking is Old Faithful, and the Grand Canyon of the allowed during daylight hours only and at Yellowstone River. your own risk.

From Mammoth, you can drive past Blacktail Plateau, through Lamar Valley, and on to Cooke City, Montana. You may see coyotes, bison, elk, wolves, eagles, and other wildlife along the way. You can also stop to crosscountry ski or snowshoe a number of trails that begin along this road.

If the interior of the park is open for winter use, you can tour the lower half of the park by guided snowmobile or snowcoach trips.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 11 FAQ: What is the highest peak in the park? Does the Missouri River begin here? Eagle Peak in the southeastern part of No, but its three tributaries begin in the Geography Yellowstone is the highest at 11,358 feet. Greater Yellowstone area. The Jefferson begins in the Centennial Mountains, west of What is the Continental Divide? the park. The Madison River forms inside Think of the Continental Divide as the crest the park at Madison Junction, where the of the continent. Theoretically, when pre- Gibbon and Firehole rivers join. The cipitation falls on the west side of the Gallatin River also begins inside the park Divide, it eventually reaches the Pacific north of the Madison River. It flows north Ocean. When it falls on the east side of the through Gallatin Canyon and across the Divide, it eventually reaches the Atlantic Gallatin Valley, joining the Madison and Ocean. In Yellowstone (as elsewhere), this Jefferson rivers at Three Forks, Montana, to ridgeline is not straight. (See illustration, form the Missouri River. page 13.) You cross the Continental Divide three times between the South Entrance Does the Snake River begin here? and the Old Faithful area. Craig Pass is the Yes, the Snake River— a major tributary of highest crossing, at 8,262 feet. the Columbia River—has its headwaters just inside Yellowstone on the Two Ocean Plateau, at a point on the Continental Divide. The river flows through Idaho and joins the Columbia in Washington. The Snake River is 1,040 miles long; 42 miles of

it are in Yellowstone National Park.

How did Mt. Washburn form? At 10,243 feet, this peak can be seen from many locations in the park. It is a remnant of an extinct volcano from the Absaroka Volcanics of about 50 million years ago. The volcano was literally cut in half by a volcanic eruption 640,000 years ago. (See next

page and Chapter 3.) Only the northern part

of the original volcano is still visible.

How did the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River form? Yellowstone River Scientists continue to evolve their theories Road about its formation. After the Yellowstone River Snake River **»«»~^ Continental Divide Caldera eruption, 640,000 years ago, lava Park Boundary flows and volcanic tuffs buried the canyon area; but hydrothermal gases and hot water weakened the rock. The river eroded this How cold is Yellowstone in winter? rock, carving a canyon in the Yellowstone Average winter highs are 20-30°F; average River beginning at Tower Fall and heading lows are 0-9°F. The record low was -66°F upstream to Lower Falls. at Riverside Ranger Station, near the West Entrance, on February 9, 1933. How did Yellowstone Lake form? The lake's main basin is part of the Where does the Yellowstone River Yellowstone Caldera, which was formed See chapters 2-4 flow? 640,000 years ago; West Thumb was formed for more informa- The river begins outside the park on Younts tion about geogra- by a later, smaller eruption. The arms of the Peak and flows into Yellowstone Lake. It phy & geology in lake were formed by uplift along fault lines leaves the lake at Fishing Bridge, and con- Yellowstone. and sculpting by glaciers. The lake drains tinues north-northwest until it leaves the north at Fishing Bridge. Some scientists park near Gardiner, Montana. The consider LeHardys Rapids to be the geolog- Yellowstone River continues north and east ic northern boundary of the lake because through Montana and joins the Missouri Yellowstone Resources the periodic rise and fall of that site appears & Issues 2011 River just over the North Dakota state line. to control lake outflow. 12 —

Is Yellowstone a volcano? Yes. Within the past two million years, many volcanic eruptions have occurred in the Yellowstone area—three of them major.

What is the caldera shown on the park map? The Yellowstone Caldera (right) was created by a massive volcanic eruption approximately 640,000 years ago. Subsequent lava flows filled in much of the caldera, and it is now measured at 30 x 45 miles. Its rim can best be seen from the Washburn Hot Springs overlook, south of Dunraven Pass. Gibbon Falls, Lewis Falls, Lake Butte, and Flat Mountain Arm of Yellowstone Lake are part In addition, YVO scientists collaborate with of the rim. scientists from all over the world to study the hazards of the Yellowstone volcano. To When did the Yellowstone volcano view current data about earthquakes, last erupt? ground movement, and stream flow, visit the An eruption approximately 174,000 years YVO website at volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo/. ago created what is now the West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. The last lava flow was What is Yellowstone National Park approximately 70,000 years ago. doing to stop or prevent an eruption? Nothing can be done to prevent an eruption. Is Yellowstone's volcano still active? The temperatures, pressures, physical char- Yes. park's hydrothermal features The many acteristics of partially molten rock, and attest to the heat still beneath this area. immensity of the magma chamber are Earthquakes— 1,000 to 3,000 per year beyond human ability to impact—much less also reveal activity below ground. The control. Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) tracks this activity closely. If Old Faithful Geyser quits, is that a sign the volcano is about to erupt? What is a supervolcano? All geysers are highly dynamic, including Some scientists consider Yellowstone to be a Old Faithful. We expect Old Faithful to "supervolcano," which refers to volcano change in response to the ongoing geologic capable of an eruption of more than 240 processes associated with mineral deposi- cubic miles of magma. Two of Yellowstone's tion and earthquakes. Thus, a change in Old three major eruptions met the criteria. (See Faithful Geyser will not necessarily indicate Chapter 3.) a change in volcanic activity. Will the Yellowstone volcano erupt soon? Current geologic activity at Yellowstone has remained relatively constant since scientists first started monitoring more than 30 years ago. Another caldera-forming eruption is theoretically possible, but it is very unlikely in the next thousand or even 10,000 years. Scientists have also found no indication of an imminent smaller eruption of lava.

How do scientists know the Yellowstone volcano won't erupt? Scientists from the Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) watch an array of monitors in place throughout the region. These monitors would detect sudden or strong Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 movements or shifts in heat that would indicate increasing activity. No such evidence exists at this time. —

Why are geysers in Yellowstone? What is the oldest thermal area in the Yellowstone's volcanic geology provides the park, active or inactive? three components for geysers and other Terrace Mountain, at Mammoth Hot hydrothermal features: heat, water, and a Springs, is a dormant thermal area that has natural "plumbing" system. Magma beneath been dated to 406,000 years old. the surface provides the heat; ample rain Is Yellowstone's geothermal energy and snowfall seep deep underground to used to heat park buildings? supply the water; and underground cracks Yellowstone National Park's thermal areas and fissures form the plumbing. Hot water cannot be tapped for geothermal energy rises through the plumbing to surface as because such use could destroy geysers and hydrothermal features in Yellowstone, hot springs, as it has done in other parts of including geysers. (See Chapter 3.) the world. (See Chapter 8, "Greening,"for

What exactly is a geyser basin? more information.) A geyser basin is a geographically distinct Why can't I bring my dog on geyser area containing a "cluster" of hydrothermal basin trails? features that may include geysers, hot Dogs do not seem to recognize the differ- springs, mudpots, and fumaroles. These ence between hot and cold water. Dogs have distinct areas often (but not always) occur died diving into hot springs. They also dis- in low places because hydrothermal features turb wildlife and are prohibited from all tend to be concen- park trails. In the few places pets are per- trated around the mitted, they must be leashed at all times. margins of lava flows Ask at a visitor center where you can safely and in areas of and legally walk a pet. faulting. Is it really dangerous to walk off the Where can I see boardwalks in geyser basins? mudpots? YES! Geyser basins are constantly changing. Small mudpot areas Boiling water surges just under the thin occur at West crust of most geyser basins, and many r Thumb Geyser people have been severely burned when they Basin, Fountain have broken through the fragile surface. Paint Pot, and Artist Some people have died. Paintpots. The larg-

est group of mudpots Why can't I smoke in the geyser can be found at Mud basins? Volcano, at the Cigarette butts quickly accumulate where southern end of smoking is allowed, and they— like any Hayden Valley. litter — can clog vents, thus altering or destroying hydrothermal activity. Also, What is the most sulfur deposits exist in these areas, and they active thermal area in the park? easily catch fire, producing dangerous Norris Geyser Basin is the hottest, oldest, sometimes lethal —fumes. and most dynamic of Yellowstone's active hydrothermal areas. The highest tempera- Were Native Americans afraid of ture yet recorded in any Yellowstone hydro- geysers? thermal area was measured in a scientific Native Americans in general were not afraid drill hole at Norris: 459°F just 1,087 feet of geysers. Many of the associated tribes of below the surface. Norris shows evidence of Yellowstone say their people have used the having had hydrothermal features for at park as a place to live, to collect food and least 115,000 years. The features change other resources, and as a passage through to often, with frequent disturbances from seis- the bison hunting grounds of the Great mic activity and water fluctuations. Norris Plains. Archeologists and historians have evidence that people is so hot and dynamic primarily because it also uncovered ample sits at the intersection of three major faults, lived in and visited Yellowstone for thou- of intersect fracture sands of years before historic times. {See Yellowstone Resources two which with a ring & Issues 2011 from the Yellowstone Caldera eruption Chapter 1 for more about Native Americans in Yellowstone.) 14 640,000 years ago. Did glaciers ever cover Yellowstone? and other high country, following river cor- FAQ: Yes, Yellowstone has experienced glaciers ridors such as the Lamar, Yellowstone, and many times. Scientists estimate that 18,000 Madison. An ice cap also formed. The gla- Glacial years ago, for example, most of the park was ciers and ice cap retreated and advanced under 4,000 feet of ice. (Seepage 65.) During several times at least, and finally retreated this glacial era, called the Pinedale, glaciers 13,000-14,000 years ago. flowed down from the Beartooth Plateau

Erratics: Huge boulders dropped by glaciers.

Kames: Hills of glacial debris.

Thermal kames: Formed when underlying hydrothermal features melted remnants of ice and caused masses of debris to be dumped, which were then altered by steam and hot water.

Moraines: Ridges of glacial debris formed alongside or at the ends of glaciers.

Outwashes: Glacial debris flowing away from the glacier.

Where to see evidence of glaciers

1 Mammoth Hot Springs: Thermal kames exist in this area. Mount Everts and Bunsen Peak

were both overridden by ice.

2 Swan Lake Flat: These meadows and wetlands formed after the glaciers retreated. Electric Peak, to the northwest, was also carved by glaciers.

3 Norris Geyser Basin: The Ragged Hills, which are northwest of Porcelain Basin, are thermal kames. 4 Madison Valley, west of Seven Mile Bridge: Glacial moraines, glacial outwash, and recent Madison River deposits can be seen.

5 Fountain Flats: The Porcupine Hills are thermal kames. 6 Upper Geyser Basin: Glacial deposits underlying this and other area geyser basins store the water necessary for geysers to occur and allow the water to percolate up from depth.

7 Hayden Valley: The valley is covered with glacial till left from the most recent glacial retreat

13,000-14,000 years ago. This glacial till contains many different grain sizes, including clay and a thin layer of lake sediments that do not allow water to percolate quickly into the

ground. Thus, Hayden Valley is marshy and has few trees.

8 Tower Fall area: North of Tower Fall, sediments between layers of basalts may show

evidence of the oldest known glaciation in Yellowstone. Plus, huge boulders (known as erratics) from the last major glaciation rest atop the youngest basalt. Yellowstone Resources 9 Lamar Valley: The huge boulders and most of the ponds between the Lamar and & Issues 2011 Yellowstone rivers were left by glaciers, as were several moraines. 15 FAQ: How much of the park burned in Did Yellowstone's fire management 1988? policy change after the fires of 1988? The Fires The 1988 fires affected 793,880 acres or After the fires of 1988, a national policy 36 percent of the park. Five fires burned review team examined the national fire pol- of 1988 into the park that year from adjacent public icy again, and concluded that natural fire lands, including the largest, the North Fork policies in national parks and wilderness

fire. It started accidentally and burned more areas were basically sound. It also recom- than 410,000 acres. mended improvements that were incorporated into the National Park Service's fire How were weath- policy of June 1990 and into Yellowstone er conditions National Park's fire management plan of different than in previous years? 1992. (For more aboutfire policy and where it stands today, see Chapter 6.) Yellowstone usually experiences after- How does fire benefit Yellowstone? noon showers three Fires are a natural part of the Northern or four days each Rockies ecosystem. Vegetation in the week during the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has adapted summer, but in 1988 to fire and in some cases may be dependent no measurable rain on it. Fire promotes habitat diversity by fell for almost three removing the forest overstory, allowing dif- months. The most ferent plant communities to become estab- severe drought in the lished, and preventing trees from becoming park's recorded his- established in grassland. Fire increases the tory occurred that rate that nutrients become available to summer. Also, a plants by rapidly releasing them from wood large number of and forest litter and by hastening the weath- strikes lightning ering of soil minerals. This is especially came with a series of important in a cold and dry climate like dry storm fronts. Yellowstone's, where decomposition rates This lightning start- are slower than in more hot and humid ed many of the fires areas. and storm fronts In addition, the fires of 1988 provided a rare stoked them with natural laboratory for scientists to study the particularly high and effects of fire on an ecosystem. sustained winds. Visitors came Why doesn't the park remove burned throughout the Could the fires have been put out? summer of 1988. trees? It is possible that the few fires that started in Burned trees and those that have died for early June might have been extinguished. other reasons still contribute to the ecosys- However, between 1972 and 1987, the aver- tem. For example, dead standing trees pro- age fire had gone out naturally after burn- vide nesting cavities for many types of ani- ing only one acre. So, while the early fires mals; fallen trees provide food and shelter were monitored closely and some were con- for animals and nutrients for the soil. tained from going out of the park, the histo- However, park managers will remove dead ry of fire behavior in Yellowstone, coupled or burned trees that pose safety hazards with an abnormally wet spring, suggested along roads or in developed areas. these fires would go out as previous fires had. After July 15, all fires were fought aggressively from the moment they were detected. Despite the largest firefighting effort in the history of the nation, weather finally contained the fires when snow fell in September.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 16 bison and elk live in the Old Faithful area Where can I see wildlife? FAQ: It helps to know the habits and migration year-round. In the winter, they take advan- patterns of the animals you want to see and tage of the warm ground and thin snow Wildlife, the habitats in which they live. For example, cover. Both black and grizzly bears visit bighorn sheep are adapted to live on steep these areas during the spring when winter- General terrain; so you might see them on cliffs in killed animals are available. the Tower area. Osprey eat fish, so you The map below shows some of the more would expect to see them along rivers. Bison likely places to see big mammals, but their graze on grasses and sedges, and mate in locations will vary with the season and the August, so you are likely to see them in big, weather. Rangers at the visitor centers can noisy herds in the Hayden and Lamar tell you more about where wildlife have valleys. been seen recently. Hydrothermal basins provide important habitat for wildlife. For example, many

South Entrance

Animal illustrations © Zachery Zdinak Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 17 FAQ: Where are the bears? because the "true" buffalo exist on other People who visited Yellowstone prior to the continents and are only distant relatives. Wildlife, 1970s often remember seeing bears along However, "buffalo" is used for less formal, roadsides and within developed areas of the everyday use; "bison" is preferred for scien- General park. Although observing these bears was tific use. In this book, we use "bison."

very popular with park visitors, it was not Where are good birding locations? good for the people or the bears. (See That depends on what kind of birds you Chapter 8.) In 1970, the park initiated an want to see, what time of day you are look- intensive bear man- ing, and where you are in the park. agement program to return the grizzly Hayden Valley is one of the best places to and black bears to view water birds and birds of prey. Shore feeding on natural birds feed in the mud flats at Alum Creek. food sources and to Sandhill cranes often nest in the valley. reduce bear-caused Ducks, geese, and American white pelicans human injuries and cruise the river. Bald eagles and osprey hunt property damage. for fish along the river; northern harriers fly The measures low looking for rodents in the grasses. Great included installing gray owls are sometimes seen searching the bear-proof garbage meadows for food (these birds are sensitive cans and closing to human disturbance). Drawing © Zachery garbage dumps in the park. Zdinak Blacktail Pond, between Mammoth and

Bears are still sometimes seen near roads Tower Junction, and the Madison River west and they may be viewed occasionally in the of Madison Junction are also good places to wild. Grizzly bears are active primarily at look for birds. (See also Chapter 7, "Birds.") dawn, dusk, and night. In spring, they may Why is fishing lead-free in be seen around Yellowstone Lake, Fishing Yellowstone? Bridge, and the East Entrance due to the Birds, such as loons, waterfowl, cranes, and trout spawning creeks in these areas. In shorebirds, are vulnerable to lead poisoning. mid-summer, they are most commonly seen While we can do little about natural haz- in the meadows between Tower-Roosevelt ards, we can minimize the effects of lead on and Canyon, and in the Lamar Valley. Black these species. Yellowstone National Park bears are most active at dawn and dusk, and bans most lead tackle. (Terminal tackle must sometimes during the middle of the day. be lead-free; sinkers used to fish for deep- Look for black bears in open spaces within dwelling lake trout are permissible because or near forested areas. Black bears are most they are too large to be ingested.) commonly observed between Mammoth, Tower, and the Northeast Entrance.

Are grizzly bears considered threatened or endangered? The Yellowstone grizzly population was removed from the federal threatened species list in 2007, and relisted in 2009.

Regardless of its listing status, scientists will See Chapter 7 for continue to monitor the long-term recovery more information goals for grizzly bears. (See Chapter 8.) about wildlife in

Yellowstone, and What is the difference between a Chapter 8 for more bison and a buffalo? about issues involv- In North America, both terms refer to the ing wildlife. American bison; the scientific name is Bison bison. Early European explorers called this animal by many names. Historians believe that the term "buffalo" grew from the Yellowstone Resources French word for beef, "boeuf." Some people & Issues 2011 insist that the term "buffalo" is incorrect How big is the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River? This huge canyon is roughly 20 miles long, Canyon more than 1,000 feet deep, and 1,500 to 4,000 feet wide. Village

What causes the different colors in the Area canyon? You could say the canyon is "rusting." The colors are caused by oxidation of iron compounds in the rhyolite rock, which has been Grand Canyon hydrothermally altered ("cooked"). The of the colors indicate the presence or absence of Yellowstone water in the individual iron compounds. River Most of the yellows in the canyon result This area has a point and a trail from iron and sulfur in the rock. (See named after "Uncle Tom"; who was Chapter 3.) he? "Uncle Tom" Richardson was an early Mount Where can I see the canyon and falls? concessioner in the canyon area. From North Rim Drive: Accessible walkways at Washburn 1898-1905, he guided visitors to the canyon the Brink of Lower Falls lead to views of floor a steep trail using rope ladders. both waterfalls. You can also see the Lower down Today the trail descends partway into the Falls from Lookout, Red Rock, and via steel layden Valley Inspiration points. canyon steep steps.

South Rim Drive: See the Lower Falls at What animals can I see in this area? Artist Point, from Uncle Tom's Trail, and Inside the canyon, look for osprey soaring from a few places along the South Rim Trail; over the river or perched on their five-foot see the Upper Falls from two viewpoints at diameter nests. Generally, six to ten osprey Uncle Tom's Point. nests are occupied in the canyon near Canyon Village. They nest here from late Visit Brink of Upper Falls from a viewing April until late August or early September. area on the Grand Loop Road south of Also look for ravens, bald eagles, and Canyon Junction, between the entrances to swallows. North and South Rim drives. Away from the canyon, look for mule deer,

Is there a place where I can both see moose, red foxes, grizzly and black bears, falls at once? coyotes, Steller's jays, and great gray owls. No. The canyon bends between the Upper During July, a variety of butterflies feast on and Lower falls, so there is no location the abundant flowers in the meadows. where they can be seen at the same time. Hayden Valley, which begins approximately tall How are the falls? 5 miles south of Canyon Junction, is one of Upper Falls: 109 ft.; Lower Falls: 308 ft. the best places in the park to view a wide variety of large mammals. Grizzly bears are How much water goes over the falls? often seen in the spring and early summer The volume varies from 63,500 gallons per when they may be eating winter-killed ani- second at peak runoff to 5,000 gallons per mals or preying upon elk calves. Large herds second in the late fall. of bison may be viewed in the spring, early What causes the green stripe in the summer, and during the rut in August. Lower Falls? Coyotes can almost always be seen in the A notch in the lip in the brink makes the valley; wolves are also sometimes seen. water deeper and keeps it from becoming Mt. Washburn is another excellent place for Pick up the Canyon Area turbulent as it goes over the edge. Trail Guide at visitor viewing wildlife. Bighorn sheep and mar- centers or at viewpoints Can I get to the bottom of the mots can be seen on its slopes in the sum- in the Canyon area. 50tf canyon? mer. Wolves and black and grizzly bears are donation requested. Only one trail in this area leads to the bot- sometimes seen. Elk and bison frequent the Yellowstone Resources tom of the canyon—Seven Mile Hole Trail, valley north of the mountain, and coyotes & Issues 2011 a strenuous, steep round trip of 11 miles. are often seen there too. 19 F

FAQ: What happened to the old campground at Fishing Bridge? Fishing The National Park Service campground was located where bears came to fish, and many Bridge human/bear conflicts occurred. It was kjc ishing Bridge I a ke+ & closed in 1989. A recreational vehicle park, operated by a concessioner, still exists in the Lake area. Only hard-sided camping units or RVs are allowed at this campground.

How cold is Yellowstone Lake? During late summer, Yellowstone Lake becomes thermally stratified with several water layers having different temperatures. The topmost layer rarely exceeds 66°F, and Where does the Yellowstone River the lower layers are much colder. Because of begin? Where does it end? the extremely cold water, survival time for It begins on the slopes of Younts Peak in the anyone in the lake is estimated to be only 20 Absaroka Mountains southeast of the park to 30 minutes. In winter, ice thickness on and completes its 671-mile run by joining Yellowstone Lake varies from a few inches the Missouri River near the Montana/ to more than two feet with many feet of North Dakota border. Its waters then travel snow on top of the ice. to the Mississippi River and into the Atlantic Ocean at the Gulf of Mexico. It is What's that smell at Mud Volcano? the longest undammed river in the United That "rotten egg" smell comes from hydro- Historic Areas States. gen sulfide gas. Sulfur, in the form of iron & Structures sulfide, gives the features their many shades How big is Yellowstone Lake? How Fishing Bridge of gray. deep? Is it natural? Trailside Museum The lake is natural and has 131.7 square can I see in this area? Lake Fish What animals miles of surface area and 141 miles of shore- Hatchery Historic The lake is home to the largest population District including line; it is 20 miles long by 14 miles wide. Its of Yellowstone cutthroat trout in North Lake Lodge deepest spot is about 410 feet; its average America. You can see these trout and Lake Hotel depth is 140 feet. The lake's basin has an longnose suckers from Fishing Bridge. estimated capacity of 12,095,264 acre-feet of In spring, you might be able to see trout See Chapter 1 for water. Because its annual outflow is about more information leaping upstream at LeHardys Rapids, 1,100,000 acre-feet, the lake's water is com- on historic areas in three miles north of Fishing Bridge. (See pletely replaced only about every eight to the park. chapters 7 and 8 for more about aquatic life in ten years. Since 1952, the annual water level the lake.) fluctuation has been less than six feet. Also look for white pelicans, bald eagles, Is Yellowstone Lake the largest lake in osprey, and a variety of ducks and other the world? water birds. No, but it is the largest lake at high elevation The Fishing Bridge area, including Pelican (above 7,000 feet) in North America. Valley to the north and east, is especially Why can't we fish from Fishing significant to bears and other wildlife Bridge? because lake, river, and terrestrial ecosys- Overfishing for cutthroat trout here con- tems merge here to create a diverse natural tributed to their decline in the lake. The complex. Bears visit numerous streams in trout also spawn here. For these reasons, the spring and early summer to eat spawn-

fishing is prohibited from the bridge. It's ing trout. A bison herd winters in Pelican still a good place to watch trout. Valley, and individuals can be seen through- Pick up the Mud Volcano out the area. Moose used to be seen in the Area Trail Guide at visitor Yellowstone Lake area much more than they centers or at the area. SOt donation requested. are today; look along water edges and in marshes. At Bridge Bay Marina, look for Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 river otters. 20 How did Madison Junction get its FAQ: name? West Here, the Gibbon River joins the Firehole Yellowstone Madison River to form the Madison River. (The Gibbon River flows from Grebe Lake & through the Norris area to Madison West Junction. The Firehole River starts south of Old Faithful and flows through the park's Yellowstone major hydrothermal basins north to Madison Junction.) The Madison joins the Areas Jefferson and the Gallatin rivers at Three Forks, Montana, to form the Missouri River.

What forms the cliffs around Madison Junction? Is the story about National Park Part of what you see is the rim of the Mountain true? Yellowstone Caldera, plus later lava flows. The legend, which you can read about on National Park Mountain is actually part of page 27 and at the Madison Information the lava flows. Some of these lava flows Station, tells of explorers camping here in come down to the road through Firehole 1870 and deciding Yellowstone should be set Canyon, approximately one mile south of aside as a national park. It is a wonderful Madison Junction. Gibbon Falls, four miles legend, but it isn't true. Explorers did camp north of the junction, drops 84 feet over a at the junction in 1870, but they apparently remnant of the caldera rim. (See Chapter 3.) did not discuss the national park idea.

Why is the bridge between Madison They camped in a location where people and the Entrance called West "Seven have camped for centuries. Archeologists Mile Bridge"? have found campfire remnants, obsidian Seven Mile Bridge is located midway flakes, and bone fragments dating back at between (and seven miles from both) the least 10,000 years. West Entrance and Madison Junction. This landmark serves as a convenient reference point and separates the rugged lava-lined Madison Canyon east of the bridge from gentle hills to the west.

What animals can I see in this area? Along the Madison River, approximately 100 elk live year-round. The meadows adjacent to the Madison and Gibbon rivers are prime elk-calving areas in the spring. During the fall rut, elk frequent the meadows from Seven Mile Bridge to Madison Junction.

During spring, fall, and winter, herds of Historic Areas bison favor the same meadows. Bison often & Structures use the entrance road to travel from one for- Madison Trailside Museum aging area to another. In summer, they move to Hayden Valley, their traditional summer habitat and breeding area. See Chapter 1 for more information on Bald eagles have nested in a tree about one historic areas in the mile west of Seven Mile Bridge in recent park. years. Several pairs of ospreys also nest along the Madison. You might also see trumpeter swans, Canada geese, mallards, Barrow's goldeneyes, and other water birds. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 21 Mammoth

FAQ: through this National Historic Landmark District. Mammoth Can we soak in the hot springs? Area No. You may soak in bodies of water fed by runoff from hydrothermal features, such as at "Boiling River" two miles north of Mammoth. It is open during daylight hours

and is closed during times of high water.

What is the 45th parallel? On the road between the North Entrance and Mammoth, a sign marks the 45th paral-

lel of latitude, which is halfway between the Equator and the North Pole. Contrary to Historic Areas Is Mammoth Hot Springs in the popular belief, the majority of the Montana/ & Structures Yellowstone Caldera? Wyoming state line does not follow the 45th Mammoth Hot No, it lies north of all three calderas. parallel through the park. Springs Historic District Where does the heat for the hot What forms the canyon north of Fort Yellowstone springs come from? Mammoth? Historic Landmark Scientists continue to study this question. A The canyon is the face of Mt. Everts, 7,841 District large fault between Norris system runs feet high. It consists of layered sandstones Obsidian Cliff Geyser Basin and Mammoth, which may and shales— sedimentary deposits from a National Historic allow thermal water to flow between the 70-140 Landmark shallow inland sea, million years two. Also, multiple basalt eruptions have ago. Fossils have been found here. Its steep U.S. Post Office occurred in this area. Thus, basalt may be a cliffs — eroded by glaciers, floods, and land- See Chapter 1 for heat source for the Mammoth area. slides —provide habitat for bighorn sheep. more information on historic areas in the Why are the dry springs so white? Mt. Everts was named for explorer Truman park. Limestone, a form of calcium carbonate, Everts, a member of the 1870 Washburn underlies this area. Water dissolves the Expedition who became lost in the wilder- mineral, which is deposited at the surface to ness. He was found east of the mountain, Also here: form travertine. This rock is naturally near Blacktail Plateau. Administrative white; colors in the hot springs come from Headquarters Why is Obsidian Cliff a National heat-loving microorganisms called of Yellowstone Historic Landmark? National Park thermophiles. (See chapters 3 and 4.) For centuries Native Americans came to Are the springs drying up? this cliff to quarry obsidian, which they No, the overall activity and volume of water traded and used to make projectile points discharge remain relatively constant; most and other tools. Obsidian from this site has of the water flows underground. been found as far east as Ohio. The exhibit kiosk is also on the Register of National How was Bunsen Peak formed? Historic Places. Built in 1931, it was one of At 8,564 feet high, Bunsen Peak (south of the first wayside exhibit structures in the Mammoth) is an intrusion of igneous mate- National Park System. rial (magma) formed approximately 50

million years ago. (See Chapter 3.) Bunsen What animals can I see in this area? Peak and the "Bunsen burner" were named Elk live here all year, and are wild and for physicist Robert Wilhelm Bunsen. He unpredictable. Each year visitors are chased, was involved in pioneering geyser research trapped, and sometimes injured by elk. in Iceland. His theory on geyser activity Look for Uinta ground squirrels in front of

Pick up the Mammoth was published in the 1800s, and it is still the visitor center and among the hotel Area Trail Guide at visitor considered accurate. cabins during summer. You might see big- centers or at the terrace horn sheep in the canyon north of trailheads. 50t donation What were these old buildings? of Bunsen requested. Mammoth Hot Springs. South Most of these buildings belong to Fort Peak is Swan Lake Flat, where visitors often Yellowstone, built by the U.S. Army from Yellowstone Resources see elk, bison, and sometimes grizzlies and & Issues 2011 1891 to 1918, when it managed the park. (See wolves. It is also an excellent place for Chapter 1.) You can walk a self-guiding trail 22 watching cranes, ducks, and other birds. Is Norris Geyser Basin within the FAQ: Yellowstone Caldera? Norris is not in the Yellowstone Caldera, but Norris it is in the first caldera. The northern edge of the first caldera lies near the southern base Area of Mount Holmes, which is north of Norris. The Yellowstone Caldera's rim is south and east of Norris. (See also page 13 & Ch. 3.) When does Echinus Geyser erupt? Once very predictable, Echinus's eruptions now vary from days to months.

When will Steamboat Geyser erupt? Steamboat's major eruptions (more than 300 feet high) are unpredictable and often many Museum of the National Park Ranger, years apart. Its most recent major eruption which is housed in the Norris Soldier occurred May 2005. Its frequent "minor Station, one of the only remaining soldier phase" eruptions eject water 10 to 40 feet stations in the park. (See Chapter 1.) high. Did Roaring Mountain used to roar? early Why is Norris so colorful? Visitors during the late 1800s and The colors here, like in other hydrothermal 1900s would say so. Roaring Mountain is a areas, are due to combinations of minerals large, acidic hydrothermal area (solfatara) and life forms that thrive in extreme condi- with many fumaroles. The number, size, and Historic Areas tions. At Norris, silica or clay minerals power of the fumaroles were much greater & Structures than today. The fumaroles are most easily saturate some acidic waters, making them Norris Soldier appear milky. Iron oxides, arsenic, and seen in the cooler, low-light conditions of Station (now the cyanobacteria create the red-orange colors. morning and evening. Museum of the Cyanidium grows bright green. Mats of National Park What will I see on Virginia Cascade Ranger) Zygogonium are dark purple to black on the Drive? Geyser surface where they are exposed to the sun, Norris This one-way drive east of Norris was once Basin Museum bright green beneath. Sulfur creates a pale part of the Grand Loop Road. It follows the yellow hue. (See Chapter 4.) Gibbon River upstream, alongside outcrops See Chapter 1 for of volcanic rock (Lava Creek Tuff). Here, What is the "thermal disturbance" at more information you are close to the Yellowstone Caldera's Norris that people talk about? on historic areas in rim. Virginia is formed by the Periodically, Norris Geyser Basin undergoes Cascade the park. a large-scale basin-wide thermal distur- Gibbon River as it crosses the tuff, which bance lasting a few days to a few weeks. formed as the caldera collapsed. Water levels fluctuate, temperatures and pH Are mudpots in this area? change, color changes, and eruptive pat- Yes, at Artists Paintpots, which is 3.8 miles terns change throughout the basin. No one south of Norris Junction. The trail to the is sure what causes a thermal disturbance. It mudpots is steep, and one mile round-trip. might be caused by a massive fluctuation in the underground reservoirs providing water What animals can I see in this area? to the basin's features. In the fall, this could Black and grizzly bears are sometime seen. happen when decreased surface water mixes Grizzlies feed on carcasses of elk and bison with water from deep underground, which that died in the hydrothermal areas during holds more silica and clogs the cracks and the winter. crevices that supply water, thereby creating Norris is one of the few areas in the park a "disturbance" as pressure builds. where sagebrush lizards live. They can sur- Pick up the Norris Area How did Norris get its name? vive here due to warmth of hydrothermal Trail Guide at visitor centers or Norris. The area was named for Philetus W. Norris, activity. Listen for chorus frogs in spring. at 50tf donation requested. the second superintendent of Yellowstone, Killdeer are found in the basin year-round who provided early detailed information taking advantage of the brine flies and other Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 about the hydrothermal features. Two insects that live in the warm waters. historic buildings remain in this area: The 23 Norris Geyser Basin Museum and the FAQ: eruptions mean more water and heat are discharged and they require more time to Old recharge. Currently, staff uses eruption data from a temperature logger to determine the Faithful interval.

Area What else can I see at this geyser basin? • The Upper Geyser Basin has 150 geysers in Upper, one square mile, plus hundreds of hot Midway, & springs. Five large geysers are predicted reg- Lower Geyser ularly by the interpretive ranger staff. You can reach them and other features on Basins boardwalks that loop through this basin. Walk or drive to nearby Black Sand Basin How often does Old Faithful Geyser and Biscuit Basin to view their features. erupt; how tall is it; how long does it last? What will I see at Midway Geyser The average interval between eruptions of Basin? Old Faithful Geyser changes; as of January This geyser basin, 6 miles north of the Old

2011, the usual interval is 93 minutes ± 10 Faithful area, is small but spectacular.

minutes, with intervals ranging from 51 to Excelsior Geyser is a 200 x 300 foot crater Historic Areas 120 minutes. Old Faithful can vary in height that constantly discharges more than 4,000 & Structures from 106 to more than 180 feet, averaging gallons of water per minute into the Firehole Nez Perce National 130 feet. Eruptions normally last between Prismatic Spring, Yellow- Historic Trail River. Grand l'/2 to 5 minutes and expel from 3,700 to stone's largest hot spring, is 200-330 feet in Old Faithful Inn 8,400 gallons of water. At the vent, water is diameter and more than 121 feet deep. Old Faithful 204°F (95.6°C). Historic District Can I see mudpots in this area? General store Is Old Faithful Geyser as "faithful" as You'll see all four types of thermal features north of the Old it has always been? (geysers, hot springs, fumaroles, and Faithful Inn its in Since formal discovery 1870, Old mudpots) at Fountain Paint Pot, 8 miles Queen's Laundry, Faithful has been one of the more predict- north of Old Faithful and 2 miles north of begun in 1881 but able geysers. Over time, the average interval Midway Geyser Basin. Be sure to drive the neverfinished, in between Old Faithful's eruptions has Sentinel Meadows Firehole Lake Drive, where you can walk increased, in part due to ongoing processes past hot cascades, hot springs large and See Chapter 7 for within its plumbing. Changes also result small, and view geysers such as White Dome information on from earthquakes. Prior to the Hebgen Lake Fountain. historic areas. and Great Earthquake (1959), the interval between Old

Faithful's eruptions averaged more than one What animals can I see in this area? hour. Its average interval increased after Hydrothermal basins provide important that earthquake and again after the 1983 habitat for wildlife in the Old Faithful area. Borah Peak Earthquake, centered in Idaho. Bison and elk live here year-round. In the In 1998, an earthquake near Old Faithful winter, they take advantage of the warm lengthened the interval again; subsequent ground and thin snow cover. Both black and earthquake swarms further increased grizzly bears are seen, especially during the intervals. Sometimes the average interval spring when winter-killed animals are avail- decreases. able. In summer, yellow-bellied marmots are frequently seen in the rocks behind Grand How can you predict it, if it changes Geyser and near Riverside Geyser. Thermo- so much? philes live in the runoff channels of hot Old Faithful Geyser has been analyzed for Pick up the Old Faithful springs and geysers, providing food for tiny Area Trail Guide at visitor years by mathematicians, statisticians, and black ephydrid flies. The flies, in turn, lay centers or at area geyser dedicated observers. They have shown that their eggs in salmon colored clumps just basins. donation SOi a relationship exists between the duration of requested. above the water surface where they are then Old Faithful's eruption and the length of the preyed upon by spiders. Killdeer also feast following interval. During a short eruption, Yellowstone Resources on the adult flies. & Issues 2011 less water and heat are discharged; thus, 24 they recharge in a short time. Longer Why is this area called "Tower"? FAQ: The area is named for its major waterfall, Tower Fall, which is named for the tower- Tower- like rock formations at its brink. Roosevelt How tall is Tower Fall? 132 feet. Area

Old pictures show a big boulder at the brink of Tower Fall. When did it fall? W.H.Jackson's photograph in 1871 clearly Lamar Valley shows the boulder (see page 35). For more than a century, visitors wondered when it would fall. It finally did in June 1986. Northeast

Can I hike to the bottom of Tower 1920. The area is registered as the Roosevelt Entrance Road Fall? Lodge Historic District. (See Chapter 1.) No, the lower part of the trail is closed because of severe erosion. You can walk past What animals can I see in this area? the Tower Fall Overlook % mile, ending Elk, bison, deer, and pronghorn thrive in with a view of Tower Creek flowing into the the grasslands of this area, known as the Yellowstone River. If you have heart, lung, northern range. In fact, some of the largest or knee problems, you may want to enjoy wild herds of bison and elk in North the view from the overlook. America are found here. The northern range is critical winter habitat for these large ani- formed the rock columns in the What mals, which in turn provide food for several canyon north of Tower Fall? packs of wolves. Coyotes are also common, The rock columns were formed by a basaltic and an occasional bobcat, cougar, or red fox lava flow that cracked into hexagonal col- is reported. umns as it slowly cooled. You can see other basalt columns at Sheepeater Cliff along the The gorge and cliffs between the junction Gardner River between Mammoth and and Tower Fall provide habitat for bighorn Norris. sheep, osprey, peregrine falcons, and red- tailed hawks. How did the Petrified Tree become petrified? Both grizzly and black bears are sighted throughout the area, particularly in the The Petrified Tree, west of Tower Junction, spring. Black bears are more commonly seen is an excellent example of an ancient red- around Tower Fall and Tower Junction. wood. Petrification of this and other trees Grizzlies are sometimes seen in the Lamar occurred for two main reasons. They were Valley and on the north slopes of Mt. buried rapidly by volcanic deposits and Washburn, particularly in the spring when mudflows 45-50 million years ago, which elk are calving. Road pullouts provide excel- minimized decay. The volcanic deposits also Historic Areas lent places from which to watch wildlife. & Structures contributed high amounts of silica to the Lamar Buffalo groundwater. Over time, the silica precipi- Ranch tated from ground water, filled the spaces Northeast within the trees' cells, and petrified the Entrance Station trees. Roosevelt Lodge In Yellowstone, glacial ice, running water, Historic District and wind have uncovered vast areas of pet- See Chapter 1 for rified trees. You can see some of these areas more information on from the road that follows the base of historic areas in the Specimen Ridge, east of Tower Junction. park.

Did Teddy Roosevelt really stay at Roosevelt Lodge? No, but President Theodore Roosevelt Yellowstone Resources camped nearby during his visit to & Issues 2011 Yellowstone in 1903. The lodge opened in 25 —

FAQ: at West Thumb via stagecoach from the Old Faithful area. They could continue on the West stagecoach or board the steamship "Zillah" Thumb to reach the Lake Hotel. Later, a gas station, marina, photo shop, & Grant store, cafeteria, and cabins were built here. They were removed in the 1980s to protect Village the hydrothermal features and improve West Thumb & visitor experience. Grant Village now Area Grant Village provides most of these facilities. West Thumb still has restrooms, picnic tables, and a bookstore and information station in the historic ranger station.

Why is this area called West Thumb? Why does Grant Campground open so Yellowstone Lake resembles the shape of late in the year? a human hand; West Thumb is the large Grizzly and black bears frequent this area in western bay that would be the thumb. spring when cutthroat trout spawn in five

The bay is a caldera within a caldera. It streams here. To protect bears and people, was formed by a volcanic eruption approxi- the campground opens after most of the mately 174,000 years ago. The resulting spawn is over. caldera later filled with water forming an Isn't there a unique lake nearby? extension of Yellowstone Lake. That's Isa Lake, at Craig Pass. At one time, it West Thumb is also the largest geyser basin was probably the only lake on Earth that on the shore of Yellowstone Lake—and its drained naturally backwards to two oceans, hydrothermal features lie under the lake the east side draining to the Pacific and the

too. The heat from these features can melt west side to the Atlantic. If this still occurs,

ice on the lake's surface. it is only at the peak of snow melt after winters with deep snowfall. How did Fishing Cone get its name? People learned they could stand on this What's that big lake you see south of shoreside geyser, catch a fish in the cold Craig Pass?

lake, and cook it in the hot spring. Fortu- Shoshone Lake is the park's second largest nately for anglers, this geyser has only two lake, and is thought to be the largest lake in

years of known eruptions: In 1919, it erupt- the lower 48 states that cannot be reached ed frequently to 40 feet and in 1939 to lesser by road. Its maximum depth is 205 feet and

heights. Fishing here is now prohibited. it has an area of 8,050 acres. The Shoshone Geyser Basin contains one of the highest How hot are the springs at West Thumb? concentrations of geysers in the world more than 80 in an area 1,600 x 800 feet. Temperatures vary from less than 100°F to just over 200°F. What animals can I see in the West Thumb area? How deep are Abyss & Black pools? In addition to the bears that frequent this Abyss is about 53 feet deep; nearby Black area in spring (see above), elk cows and their Pool is 35-40 feet deep. new calves are often seen here in May and The mudpots here aren't like they June. Bald eagles and osprey dive into the used to be. What happened? bay to catch cutthroat trout. Other birds Like all hydrothermal features, the West include ravens, common loons, and Thumb Paint Pots change over time. During bufflehead and goldeneye ducks. the 1970s and 1980s, they were less active; Pick up the West Thumb In winter, pine marten are sometimes seen. they became more active in the 1990s. Area Trail Guide at visitor River otters pop in and out of holes in the centers or at the trail. 50tf ice; coyotes and bald eagles eat their fish donation requested. What happened to the development at West Thumb? scraps. Yellowstone Resources West Thumb was a center of visitor services & Issues 2011 until the 1980s. Early visitors would arrive 26 Introduction The Beginning of an Idea

One of the most enduring legends of Yellowstone National Park involves its beginning. In 1870, explorers gathered around a campfire at the junction of two pristine rivers, overshadowed by the towering cliffs of the Madison Plateau. They discussed what they had seen during their exploration and realized that this land of fire and ice and wild animals needed to be preserved. Thus, the legend goes, the idea of Yellowstone National Park was born.

It is a wonderful story—and a myth. But The management of Yellowstone from 1872 TWO "ORGANIC those men were real, and so is this land they through the early 1900s, which is described ACTS" explored. Thanks to their reports and the in Chapter 1, helped set the stage for the cre- The laws creat- work of explorers and artists who followed, ation of an agency whose sole purpose was ing Yellowstone the United States Congress established to manage the national parks. Promoters of National Park and the National Yellowstone National Park in 1872. The this idea gathered support from influential Park Service are Yellowstone National Park Protection Act journalists, railroads likely to profit from both called "The says "the headwaters of the Yellowstone increased park tourism, and members of Organic Act" River ... is hereby reserved and Congress. National Park Service withdrawn The because each

settlement, . . . from occupancy, or sale and Organic Act was passed by Congress and created an entity. dedicated and set apart as a public park or approved by President Woodrow Wilson on (Also called pleasuring-ground for the benefit and enjoy- August 25, 1916: "enabling legisla- ment of the people." In an era of expansion tion") However, There is created in the Department of throughout the young nation, the federal the name most the Interior a service to be called the government had the foresight to set aside often refers to the National Park Service, [which] . . . shall land deemed too valuable to develop. law that created promote and regulate the use of the the National Park For the following 18 years, Yellowstone was Federal areas known as national parks, Service. To avoid "the national park." Then in 1890 Congress monuments, and reservations ... by confusion, we refer established three more national parks: such means and measures as conform to to the laws by their Sequoia, General Grant (now part of Kings the fundamental purpose to conserve names as listed in Canyon), and Yosemite. Mount Rainier the scenery and the natural and historic the U.S. Code Table followed in 1899. In 1906, Congress passed objects and the wild life therein and to ofPopular Names: the Antiquities Act, which gave the presi- provide for the enjoyment of the same in The Yellowstone National Park dent authority to establish national monu- such manner and by such means as will Protection Act and ments. By 1914, the United States had 30 leave them unimpaired for the enjoy- The National Park national parks and monuments, each man- ment of future generations. Service Organic aged separately and administered by three Act. different federal departments—Interior, Agriculture, and War. No unified policy or Yellowstone Resources plan provided for the protection, adminis- & Issues 2011 tration, and development of these parks and 27 monuments. Today's The National Park Service (NPS) manages approximately 83 million acres in 49 states, National the Virgin Islands, Puerto Rico, Guam, and American Samoa. Delaware is the only state Park without a unit in the national park system. System National parks are the oldest, most well Many national memorials fit the descrip- known part of the system and are usually tion for national historical parks or sites, areas of spectacular natural scenery but some of these are also set aside Units in the relatively untouched by human develop- because of important historical issues National Park ment. National parks are established by not specifically linked to the site of the System acts of Congress. memorial, such as Mt. Rushmore and Vietnam Veterans. National monuments are areas of histor- Total, as of January 2011: ic or scientific interest established by Most other types of National Park System 394 presidential proclamation. units are well defined by their titles.

82 Historic sites National historical parks and national

73 Monuments historic sites are both set aside to commemorate some facet of the history 58 Parks of the people of those areas. 42 Historical parks

30 Memorials

25 Battlefield parks &

sites, & military parks National Park Units Near Yellowstone 20 Preserves & reserves

18 Recreation areas

15 Rivers, wild & scenic ^ANADA_____ UNITED STATES rivers, & riverways • Glacier National Park Bear* 14 Lakeshores & Paw Battlefield seashores

4 Parkways

3 Scenic trails

11 Sites of other

designation > Missoula

• Grant-Kohrs Ranch list • Nez Perce National For a detailed of National Historic Site Historical Park NPS units, visit Big Hole Billings National www.nps.gov/ Bozeman. Little Bighorn Battlefield ' • Battlefield .Livingston pub_afflrefdeskl National Monument index.html MONTANA _ WYOMING Bighorn Canyon National Devil's Tower* Recreation Area National MO_ [L^a_T\J Monument IDAHO

Craters of the Moon • John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway National Monument • • Grand Teton National Park Boise •Idaho Falls 'Jackson

• Hagerman Fossil Beds National Monument Fort Laramie • Minidoka Internment National Historic Site* National Historic Site

• Fossil Butte • City of Rocks National Monument National Reserve Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 —

Implementing the NPS Mission National Systemwide Park The NPS Mission Statement expresses the dual responsibility of preserving parks in Service their natural state (or, at historical areas, to

preserve a scene as nearly as it appeared on Mission a certain date), and making these areas accessible for public use and enjoyment. These two fundamental goals can be incompatible and present difficult choices; The National Park Service preserves unimpaired two policies provide some direction: the natural and cultural resources and values of the Natural resources (plants, animals, National Park Systemfor the enjoyment, education, water, air, soils, topographic features, and inspiration of this andfuture generations. The Park paleontologic resources, and esthetic Service cooperates with partners to extend the benefits values such as scenic vistas, natural of natural and cultural resource conservation and quiet, and clear night skies) are managed outdoor recreation throughout this country and the to maintain, rehabilitate, and perpetuate world. their inherent integrity. Native species that have been exterminated should be all reasonable measures to limit adverse reintroduced and exotic species elimi- effects will be taken, including recovery nated, if possible. Livestock grazing, of data and salvage of materials. hunting, and resource extraction are prohibited in National Park System Development zones, such as the Old areas, with a few exceptions. Faithful area, allow for visitor use. Roads, walks, buildings, and other visi- Cultural resources (prehistoric and tor and management facilities may occu- historic structures and resources, much of the zone and the natural landscapes, archeologic resources, py aspect of the land may be altered. ethnographic resources, and museum However, if a park manager determines collections) are preserved. that a resource is or would become Individual Parks impaired by public use or development, To implement these policies, each park unit the manager may limit public use or prepares a General Management Plan/ close a specific area. Master Plan that outlines management zones. In Yellowstone: International Leadership The National Park Service example has Natural zones (most of Yellowstone inspired countries around the world to National Park) protect natural resources establish more than 100 national parks and values. All components and pro- modeled in whole or part on Yellowstone cesses of park ecosystems, including the National Park and the National Park natural abundance, diversity, and eco- Service idea. Additionally, the NPS lends its logical integrity of the plants and ani- experienced staff to other countries to eval- mals, should be maintained. Change is uate park proposals, management plans, recognized as an integral part of func- and resource issues. tioning natural systems, and interference is allowed only under special circum- As the first national park, Yellowstone stances such as emergencies when also continues to be a leader in developing human life and property are at stake. and implementing policies in the National Park Service, such as the benefits-sharing Cultural or historic zones, such as policies described in Chapter 8. Fort Yellowstone, preserve cultural resources. Where compatible with cultural resource objectives, the policies for natural zones will be followed. Any

action that will adversely affect cultural lowstone Resources resources will be undertaken only if & Issues 2011 there is no reasonable alternative, and 29 —

Mission Preserved within Yellowstone National Park are Old Statement- Faithful and the majority of the world's geysers and hot springs. An outstanding mountain wildland with clean Yellowstone water and air, Yellowstone is home of the grizzly bear and National wolf andfree-ranging herds of bison and elk. Centuries- old sites and historic buildings that reflect the unique Park heritage ofAmerica'sfirst national park are also protected. Yellowstone National Park serves as a model and inspiration for national parks throughout the world. The National Park Service preserves, unimpaired, these and other natural and cultural resources and valuesfor the enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this andfuture generations.

Purpose Yellowstone, the world's first national park: • preserves geologic wonders, including the world's most extraordi- Statement nary collection of geysers and hot springs and the underlying volcanic activity that sustains them;

• preserves abundant and diverse wildlife in one of the largest remaining intact wild ecosystems on Earth, supporting unparalleled biodiversity;

• preserves an 11,000-year-old continuum of human history, including the sites, structures, and events that reflect our shared heritage; and

• provides for the benefit, enjoyment, education, and inspiration of this and future generations.

Significance • An international symbol of natural the Canada lynx and the grizzly bear. preservation. • Home to one of the largest concentrations of • A Biosphere Reserve and a World Heritage of elk in the world. (Rocky Mountain Yellowstone Site. (See page 10.) National Park also has a large concentra- • Contains approximately half of the world's tion of elk.) National hydrothermal features—more than 10,000 • Only place in the U.S. where bison have Park —including the world's largest concentra- existed in the wild since primitive times. tion of geysers—more than 300. The early legislation that protected these

• Home of the world's tallest active geyser, bison, the Lacey Act of 1894, was a Steamboat, which erupts to more than 300 precursor to the Endangered Species Act.

feet. • Site of one of the largest volcanic eruptions

• One of the few places in the world with in the world, which left behind one of the active travertine terraces. largest calderas. (See Chapter 3.)

• • Hydrothermal features are habitats for Site of the spectacular Grand Canyon of microbes that are providing links to primal the Yellowstone River. (See Chapter 3.)

life, origins of life, and astrobiology; plus • Location of largest lake above 7,000 feet in they are proving useful in solving some of North America—Yellowstone Lake. (See our most perplexing medical and environ- Chapter 3.)

mental problems. (See Chapter 8.) • Source of two great North American • With the restoration of the gray wolf in rivers: two of the three forks of the 1995, the park now contains all the large Missouri River, and the Snake, which is mammal species known to be present part of the Columbia River system. The when European Americans first arrived. Yellowstone River, which begins just south Yellowstone Resources • to of the park, is the longest free-flowing & Issues 2011 Home one endangered species —the gray wolf, and two threatened species river in the U.S. 30 History of the Park 1

HIGHLIGHTS OF YELLOWSTONE'S HISTORY • People have been in Yellowstone more than 11,000 years, as shown by

archeological sites, trails, and oral histories. • Although Sheep Eaters are the most well-known group of Native

Americans to use the park, many other tribes and bands lived in and

traveled through what is now Yellowstone National Park prior to and after European American arrival. The human history of the Yellowstone • European Americans began exploring Yellowstone in the early 1800s. region goes back more than 11,000 years. • First organized expedition explored Yellowstone in 1870. • Yellowstone National Park established in 1872. How far back is still to be determined, but • Railroad arrived in 1883, allowing easier visitor access. humans probably were not here when the • The U.S. Army managed the park from 1886 through 1918. entire area was covered by ice caps and • Automobiles allowed into the park in 1915, making visits easier and more glaciers. last period of ice coverage The economical. ended 13,000-14,000 years ago—and some- • First boundary adjustment of the park made in 1929. time after that, humans arrived here. • "Leopold Report" released in 1963; its recommendations changed how

wildlife is managed in the park. The Earliest Humans in Yellowstone • 1970: New bear management plan eliminates open-pit garbage dumps in Human occupation of the greater Yellow- park. stone area seems to follow environmental • 1988: "Summer of Fire." changes of the last 15,000 years. Glaciers and • 1995: Wolves restored to the park. • 1996: Federal buyout of gold mine northeast of Yellowstone protects the a continental ice cap covered most of what is park. now Yellowstone National Park. They left • 2006: Canyon Visitor Education Center opens. behind rivers and valleys people could fol- • 2009: Science agenda established for the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. low in pursuit of Ice Age mammals such as • 2010: Old Faithful Visitor Education Center opens. the mammoth and the giant bison.

The first people arrived in this region sometime before 11,000 years ago. Archeologists have found little physi- B. P. = Before Present cal evidence of their presence except for their distinctive stone tools C. E. = Common Era (replaces A. and projectile points. From these artifacts, scientists surmise that D.) B.C.E. = Before they hunted mammals and ate berries, seeds, and roots. Common Era As the climate in the Yellowstone region warmed and dried, the (replaces B.C.) animals, vegetation, and human lifestyles also changed. Large Ice Age animals that were adapted to cold and wet conditions became extinct. The glaciers left behind layers of sediment in valleys in which grasses and sagebrush thrived and pockets of exposed rocks that provided protected areas for aspens and fir to grow. The uncovered volcanic plateau sprouted lodgepole forests. By about 7,000 years ago, people had adapted to these changing conditions. They could no longer rely on large mammals for food. Instead, smaller animals such as deer and bighorn sheep became more Knife (9350 B.P.) important in their diet as did plants such as prickly pear cactus. from the Yellowstone They may have also established a distinct home territory in the National Park valleys and surrounding mountains. Museum Collection

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 31 Paleolndian Period (B.P.= Before Present

o 1 1 A Clovis point from this period was found near Folsom people were in the A site on the shore of History Yellowstone and was made Yellowstone area as early as Yellowstone Lake has been from obsidian obtained at 10,900 B.P.—the date of an dated to 9350 B.P. The obsidian Obsidian Cliff. Folsom projectile point points had traces of blood found near Pinedale, Wyoming. from rabbit, dog, deer, and Sites along the Canyon to Lake bighorn. People seem to Hell Gap Point (shown at Road yielded Paleolndian arti- have occupied this site for right), 9600-10,000 B.P. facts. short, seasonal periods.

This favorable climate would continue more than 9,000 years. Evidence of these people in Yellowstone remained uninvestigated, even long after archeologists began excavat- ing sites elsewhere in North America. Archeologists used to think high regions such as Yellowstone were inhospitable to humans and thus, did little exploratory work in these areas. However, park superintendent Philetus W. Norris (1877-82) found artifacts in Yellowstone and sent them to the Smithsonian Institution in Washington, D.C. Today, archeologists study environmental change as a tool for understanding human uses of areas such as Yellowstone.

Approximately 1,600 archeological sites have been documented in Yellowstone National Park, with the majority from the Archaic period. Sites contain evidence of successful hunts for bison, sheep, and elk.

Campsites and trails in Yellowstone also provide evidence of early use. Some trails have been used by people since the Paleolndian period.

No scientific evidence conclusively connects prehistoric tribes with historic people such as the Crow and Sioux, but oral histories provide links. For example, the oral tradition of the Salish places their ancestors in this region several thousand years ago. The Shoshone say they originated here.

Increased Use People seem to have increased their use of the Yellowstone area beginning about 3,000 years ago. During this time, they began to use the bow and arrow, which replaced the Obsidian Cliff, formerly a major source of obsidian atlatl, or spear-thrower, that had been used for Native Americans, as seen from the Grand Loop for thousands of years. With the bow and Road, between Mammoth and Norris. It was designated a National Historic Landmark in June 1996. arrow, people hunted more efficiently. They also developed sheep traps and bison corrals, and used both near the park, and per-

haps in it. This increased use of Yellowstone may have occurred when the environment Yellowstone Resources was warmer, favoring extended seasonal use & Issues 2011 on and around the Yellowstone Plateau. 32 Archaic Period (7000 BP-200 CE

Beginning 9000 B.P until 1000 CE., people leave traces of camps on shores of Yellowstone Lake. Vegetation similar to Oral histories of the Bow and arrow begins what we find today Salish place their ances- to replace atlatl (throw- begins to appear. tors in the Yellowstone ing spear); sheep traps Projectile points begin to area. (in the mountains) and be notched. bison corrals (on the plains) begin to be used in the Rocky Mountain region.

Archeologists and other scientists are working together to study evidence such as plant pollen, landforms, and tree rings to understand how the area's environment changed over time. (See also Chapter 8,

"Climate Change. ")

The Little Ice Age Climatic evidence has already confirmed the Yellowstone area experienced colder temperatures during what is known as the Little Ice Age—mid-1400s to mid-1800s. Archeological evidence indicates fewer people used this region during this time. Campsites appear to have been used by smaller groups of people, mostly in the summer. Such a pattern of use would make sense in a cold region where hunting and gathering were practical for only a few months each year.

Historic Tribes Tribal oral histories indicate more extensive use during the Little Ice Age. Kiowa stories place their ancestors here from around 1400 to 1700. Ancestors to contemporary Blackfeet, Cayuse, Coeur dAlene, Bannock, Nez Perce, Shoshone, and Umatilla, among Above: An ancient trail, now called the others, continued to travel the park on the already established trails. Bannock Trail, is shown in two possible loca- They visited geysers, conducted ceremonies, hunted, gathered tions. Physical evidence of the trail is extremely plants and minerals, and engaged in trade. The Shoshone say family difficult to find; historic maps and journals do groups came to Yellowstone to gather obsidian, which they used to not match modern maps; and oral histories of field dress buffalo. Some tribes used the Fishing Bridge area as a tribes do not always match what little evidence exists of the trail. The solid line shows the trail's rendezvous site. location as interpreted in the 20th century. The Crow occupied the country generally east of the park, and the Today, many scholars think the dashed line Blackfeet occupied the country to the north. The Shoshone, shows the more accurate location, which is based on an 1869 map by Henry D. Washburn. Bannock, and other tribes of the plateaus to the west traversed the park annually to hunt on the plains to the east. Other Shoshonean Below: Wickiups provided temporary shelter for groups hunted in open areas west and south of Yellowstone. some Native Americans while they were in Yellowstone. None are know to remain. In the early 1700s, some tribes in this region began to acquire the horse. Some historians believe the horse fundamentally changed lifestyles because tribes could now travel faster and farther to hunt bison and other animals of the plains. However, the horse does not seem to have changed the tribes' traditional uses of the Yellowstone area.

The "Sheep Eaters" Some groups of Shoshone who adapted to a mountain existence chose not to acquire the horse. These included the Sheep Eaters, or Tukudika, who used their dogs to transport food, hides, and other provisions.

Sheep Eaters acquired their name from the bighorn sheep whose migrations they followed. Bighorn sheep were a significant part of Yellowstone Resources their diet, and they crafted the carcasses into a wide array of tools & Issues 2011 33 C.E. 1000-1 700s T Little Ice Age Lakota Sioux begin 1 begins. exploring the North American tribes in Yellowstone the southwest begin acguir- area. History Oral histories of the ing horses in the mid- to Kiowa place their ances- late 1600s. Fur traders travel the tors in the Yellowstone Ancestors of the Crow may rivers into the area from this time have come into Yellowstone Yellowstone region. through the 1700s. during this time. Tribes in the Yellowstone area begin using horses.

Not long after Colter's explorations, the United States became embroiled in the War of 1812, which drew men and money away from exploration of the Yellowstone region. The demand for furs resumed after the war and trappers returned to the Rocky Mountains in the 1820s. Among them was Daniel Potts, who also published the first account of Yellowstone's wonders as a letter in a Philadelphia newspaper.

Jim Bridger also explored Yellowstone during this time. Like many trappers, Bridger spun tall tales as a form of entertainment around the evening fire. His stories inspired future explorers to discover the truth.

As quickly as it started, the trapper era and implements. For example, they soaked Tribes used hydro- ended. By the mid-1840s, beaver became thermal sites sheep horn in hot springs to them make scarce and fashions changed. Trappers ceremonially and pliable for bows. They traded these bows, medicinally. The turned to guiding or other pursuits. plus clothing and hides, to other tribes. Mud Volcano area is Looking for Gold especially significant European Americans Arrive for the Kiowa. Their During 1863-1871, prospectors crisscrossed tradition that In the late 1700s, fur traders traveled says a the the Yellowstone Plateau every year and hot spring called great tributary of the Missouri River, the searched every crevice for gold and other Dragon's Mouth Yellowstone, in search of Native Americans (above) is where precious minerals. Although gold was found to trade with. They called the river by its their creator gave nearby, no big strikes were ever made inside French name, "Roche Jaune." As far as we them the Yellow- what is now Yellowstone National Park. stone area for their know, pre-1800 travelers did not observe the home. The Crow hydrothermal activity in this area but they Expeditions "Discover" Yellowstone also have stories probably learned of these features from Although Yellowstone had been thoroughly about this feature. Native American acquaintances. tracked by trappers and tribes, in the view The Lewis and Clark Expedition, sent by of the nation at large it was really "discov- President Thomas Jefferson to explore the ered" by formal expeditions. The first orga- newly acquired lands of the Louisiana nized attempt came in 1860 when Captain Purchase, bypassed Yellowstone. They had William F. Raynolds led a military expedi- heard descriptions of the region, but did not tion, but it was unable to explore the explore the Yellowstone River beyond what Yellowstone Plateau because of late spring is now Livingston, Montana. snow. The Civil War preoccupied the government during the next few years. A member of the Lewis and Clark Expedi- Afterward, several explorations were tion, John Colter, left that group during its planned but none actually got underway. return journey to join trappers in the Yellowstone area. During his travels, Colter probably skirted the northwest shore of Yellowstone Lake and crossed the Yellow- Yellowstone Resources stone River near Tower Fall, where he noted & Issues 2011 the presence of "Hot Spring Brimstone." 34 — — 1800-1 850s

The War of 1812.

John Colter explores part Trappers return to Trapper era ends. History of Yellowstone. Yellowstone area.

The Lewis and Clark Trapper Osborne Russell Little Ice Age Expedition passes within encounters Sheep Eaters ends, climate 50 miles of Yellowstone. in Lamar Valley. begins to warm.

The 1869 Folsom-Cook-Peterson The 1871 Hayden Expedition Expedition In 1869, three members of one would-be Ferdinand V. Hayden, expedition set out on their own. David E. head of the U.S. Folsom, Charles W. Cook, and William Geological and Peterson ignored the warning of a friend Geographical Survey who said their journey was "the next thing of the Territories, led to suicide" because of "Indian trouble" the next scientific along the way. From Bozeman, they traveled expedition in 1871, down the divide between the Gallatin and simultaneous with a Yellowstone rivers, crossed the mountains survey by the U.S. to the Yellowstone and continued into the Army Corps of present park. They observed Tower Fall, Engineers. the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone The Hayden Survey "this masterpiece of nature's handiwork" brought back scien- continued past Mud Volcano to Yellowstone tific corroboration of Lake, then south to West Thumb. From the earlier tales of there, they visited Shoshone Lake and the thermal activity. The geyser basins of the Firehole River. The expedition gave the expedition updated an earlier explorer's world an improved map (DeLacy, in wrote an article in 1865), map of Yellowstone Western Monthly magazine, and refueled the and visual proof of excitement of scientists who decided to see the area's unique for themselves the truth of the party's tales curiosities through This photo of of "the beautiful places we had found fash- the photographs of William Henry Jackson Tower Fall was ioned by the practiced hand of nature, that and the art of Henry W. Elliot and Thomas one of many taken man had not desecrated." Moran. The expedition's reports excited the by W.H. Jackson during the 1871 scientific community and aroused even The 1870 Washburn-Langford-Doane Hayden Survey. in Expedition more national interest Yellowstone. His photos helped bring public In August 1870, a second expedition set out to 1872— Birth of a National Park attention to the for Yellowstone, led by Surveyor-General The crowning achievement of Yellowstone's wonders of Henry D. Washburn, politician and busi- Yellowstone. explorers was helping to save Yellowstone nessman Nathaniel P. Langford, and attor- Both the 1870 and from private development. They promoted a ney Cornelius Hedges. Lt. Gustavus C. 1871 expeditions park bill in Washington in late 1871 and Doane provided military escort from Fort spread the word early 1872 that drew upon the precedent of through newspa- Ellis (near present-day Bozeman, Montana). the Yosemite Act of 1864, which reserved per and magazine The explorers traveled to Tower Fall, Yosemite Valley from settlement and articles, speaking Canyon, and Yellowstone Lake, followed tours, and other entrusted it to the care of the state of the lake's eastern and southern shores, and publicity. California. To permanently close to settle- explored the Lower, Midway, and Upper ment an expanse of the public domain the geyser basins (where they named Old size of Yellowstone would depart from the Faithful). They climbed several peaks, established policy of transferring public descended into the Grand Canyon of the lands to private ownership. But the wonders Yellowstone, and attempted measurements of Yellowstone —shown through Jackson's and analyses of several of the prominent Yellowstone Resources photographs, Moran's paintings, and Elliot's & Issues 2011 natural features. sketches—had caught the imagination of 35 1860s-1870s

00 I 00 00 I 00 00 I 00 ON I on On I On 1 o |- I o, T 1 C/V/7 War Civil War ends. Yellowstone National Park Nez Perce (Nee- begins. Protection Act establishes me-poo) flee U.S. History Gold strike the first national park. Army through northwest of Yellowstone. Yellowstone.

First organized expedition attempts First Hayden Expedition. but fails to explore the Yellowstone Washburn-Langford-Doane Expedition; Plateau. Old Faithful Geyser named.

Folsom-Cook-Peterson Expedition.

CANADA Congress. On March 1, 1872, President Ulysses S. Grant signed the Yellowstone National Park Protection Act into law. The world's first national park was born.

The Formative Years The park's promoters envisioned Yellow- stone National Park would exist at no

expense to the government. Nathaniel P. Langford, member of the Washburn Expedition and advocate of the Yellowstone

Canyon Creek' killings National Park Act, was appointed to the White Bird Battle Battlefield • Bozeman unpaid post of superintendent. (He earned his living elsewhere.) He entered the park at o MONTANA, WYOMING least twice during five years in office — as 4 part of the 1872 Hayden Expedition and to evict a squatter in 1874. Langford did what Camas T» Meadowj he could without laws protecting wildlife Battle and other natural features, and without money to build basic structures and hire law Flight of the Nez Perce enforcement rangers. Summer 1877 brought tragedy to the Nez Perce (or, in their language, Nimiipu or Nee-Me-Poo). A band of 800 men, women, and children — Political pressure forced Langford's removal

plus almost 2,000 horses— left their homeland in what is now Oregon in 1877. Philetus W. Norris was appointed and Idaho. Settlers were moving into their homeland and the U.S. the second superintendent, and the next Government was trying to force them onto a reservation. At Big Hole, year, Congress authorized appropriations Montana, many of their group, including women and children, were "to protect, preserve, and improve the Park." killed in a battle with the Army. The remainder of the group Norris constructed roads, built a park head- continuedfleeing, and entered Yellowstone National Park on quarters at Mammoth Hot Springs, hired 23. the August During two weeks they crossed the park, the Nez Perce the first "gamekeeper," and campaigned encountered about 25 visitors in the park, some more than once. against hunters and vandals. Much of the Warriors took hostage or attacked several of these tourists, killing two. primitive road system he laid out remains as The group continued traveling through the park and over the the Grand Loop Road. Through constant Absaroka Mountains into Montana. The Army stopped them near the exploration, Norris also added immensely to Bear's Paw Mountains, less than 40 miles from the Canadian border. geographical knowledge of the park. Some Nez Perce escaped into Canada, but afterfierce fighting and a Norris's tenure occurred during an era of siege, the rest of the band surrendered on October 5. This is where it is warfare between the United States and believed ChiefJoseph said, "From where the sun now stands, I will many Native American tribes. To reassure fight no moreforever." The 1,170-mileflight had ended. the public that they faced no threat from Theirflight is commemorated at 39 sites in Washington, Oregon, these conflicts, he promoted the idea that Idaho, Montana, and Yellowstone National Park as part of the Nez Native Americans shunned this area Perce National Historical Park. To learn more about the Nez Perce because they feared the hydrothermal fea- National Historic Trail, visit the website at www.fs.fed.us/npnht. tures, especially the geysers. This idea belied evidence to the contrary, but the myth endured. Yellowstone Resources Norris fell victim to political maneuvering & Issues 2011 and was removed from his post in 1882. He 36 18805-1 890s 1

History Northern Pacific Railroad The U.S. Army arrives to Poacher Ed Howell captured; reaches the North administer the park. They National Park Protection Act Entrance of the park. stay until 1918. (Lacey Act) passed.

was succeeded by three powerless superin- Secretary of War for assistance. On August tendents who could not protect the park. 20, 1886, the U.S. Army took charge of Even when ten assistant superintendents Yellowstone. were authorized to act as police, they failed The Army strengthened, posted, and to stop the destruction of wildlife. Poachers, enforced regulations in the park. Troops squatters, woodcutters, and vandals ravaged guarded the major attractions and evicted Yellowstone. troublemakers, and cavalry patrolled the 1886—The Army Arrives vast interior. In 1886 Congress refused to appropriate The most persistent menace came from money for ineffective administration. The poachers, whose activities threatened to Secretary of the Interior, under authority exterminate animals such as the bison. In given by the Congress, called on the 1894, soldiers arrested a man named Ed

Touring the Park they bounced along in passenger coaches called At first, travel to and within the park was "Yellowstone wagons" which had to be

difficult. Visitors had to transport themselves unloaded at steep grades. Each night visitors or patronize a costly transportation enterprise. enjoyed a warm bed and a lavish meal at a In the park, they found only a few places for grand hotel.

food and lodging. Access improved in 1883 These visitors carried home unforgettable when the Northern Pacific Railroad reached memories of experiences and sights, and they Cinnabar, Montana, a town near the North wrote hundreds of accounts of their trips. They Entrance. recommended the tour to theirfriends, and A typical tour began when visitors descended each year more of them came to Yellowstone to from the train in Cinnabar, boarded large see its wonders. When thefirst automobile "tally ho" stagecoaches (above), and headed up entered in 1915, Yellowstone truly became a the scenic Gardner River Canyon to Mammoth national park, accessible to anyone who could Hot Springs. After checking into the hotel, they afford a car. Yellowstone Resources toured the hot springs. For the nextfour days, & Issues 2011 37 Early 20th century

c OS I T Union Pacific train service begins The National Park U.S. Army turns over at West Yellowstone. Service Organic Act park management to the History establishes the National Park Service. The Antiquities Act provides for the National Park protection of historic, prehistoric, and Service. scientific features on and artifacts from federal lands.

President Theodore Roosevelt dedicates arch at Private automobiles are officially admitted to the park. the North Entrance in Gardiner.

Howell for slaughtering bison in Pelican Valley. The maximum sentence possible was banishment from the park. Emerson Hough, a well-known journalist, was present and wired his report to Forest & Stream, a popular magazine of the time. Its editor, renowned naturalist George Bird Grinnell, helped create a national outcry. Within two months Congress passed the National Park

Protection Act , which increased the Army's authority for protecting Yellowstone's trea-

sures. (This law is known as the Lacey Act,

and is the first of two laws with this name.)

Running a park was not the Army's usual line of work. The troops could protect the park and ensure access, but they could not fully satisfy the visitor's desire for knowledge. Moreover, each of the 14 other Soldiers pose with bison heads captured from poacher Ed Howell. When Howell returned to the park later that year, he was the first person arrested national parks established in the late 1800s and punished under the new National Park Protection Act, passed in 1894. and early 1900s was separately administered, resulting in uneven management, inefficien- cy, and a lack of direction. The National Park Service 1916—The National Park Service Organic Act Begins Passed in 1916, National parks clearly needed coordinated this law created to the National Park administration by professionals attuned Service and estab- the special requirements of these preserves. lished its mission: Accordingly, in 1916, Congress passed the National Service Organic Act, "to conserve the Park scenery and the creating the National Park Service. natural and histor- Yellowstone's first rangers, which included ic objects and the veterans of Army service in the park, wildlife therein and became responsible for Yellowstone in 1918. to providefor the The park's first superintendent under the enjoyment of the new National Park Service was Horace M. same in such manner and by such Albright, who served simultaneously as means as will leave assistant to Stephen T. Mather, Director of them unimpaired the National Park Service. Albright estab- for the enjoyment lished a management framework that guided offuture genera- administration of Yellowstone for decades. tions." When Frances Pound applied for a law enforce- Boundary Adjustments Updated mission ment position in 1926, Superintendent Albright statement on p. 29. Almost as soon as the park was established, suggested she use her nickname, "Jim, " because people began suggesting that the boundaries Yellowstone Resources she would be one of the first women hired to do & Issues 2011 law enforcement in Yellowstone. be revised to conform more closely to natural topographic features, such as the 38 ridgeline of the Absaroka Range along the " 1920s-1940s

President Hoover NPS Director's The Historic Sites Act Park receives signs first law Order prohibits sets a national policy to one million changing park's killing predators. "preserve for future pub- visitors. boundary. lic use historic sites, \ f \ 1 \ f buildings, and objects. President Hoover Civilian Conservation Nineteen snowplane expands the park Corps established, trips carry 49 passen- again. works in Yellowstone gers into the park in through 1941. winter.

The 1940s

World War II drew away employees, visitors, and money from all national parks, including Yellowstone. The money needed to maintain the park's facilities, much less con- This box represents struct new ones, was directed to the war the original boundary of effort. Among other projects, the road from Yellowstone National Park Old Faithful to Craig Pass was unfinished. Adjustments were made Proposals again surfaced to use the park's in 1929 and 1932. natural resources—this time in the war effort. As before, the park's wonders spoke for themselves and were preserved.

Visitation jumped as soon as the war ended. By 1948, park visitation reached one million people per year. The park's budget did not keep pace, and the neglect of the war years quickly caught up with the park. east boundary. Although these people had the ear of influential politicians, so did their Mission 66 opponents—which at one time also included In 1955 the National the United States Forest Service. Eventually Park Service initiat- a compromise was reached and in 1929, ed a program to President Hoover signed the first bill chang- address backlogged ing the park's boundaries: The northwest construction and corner now included a significant area of maintenance and to petrified trees; the northeast corner was provide modern defined by the watershed of Pebble Creek; facilities for the the eastern boundary included the headwa- traveling public. ters of the Lamar River and part of the The program was watershed of the Yellowstone River. (The targeted for comple- Yellowstone's headwaters remain outside tion by 1966, the the park in Bridger-Teton National Forest.) golden anniversary In 1932, President Hoover issued an execu- of the National Park tive order that added more than 7,000 acres Service, and was called Mission 66. between the north boundary and the In Yellowstone, Canyon Village was Yellowstone River, west of Gardiner. These developed as part of Mission 66. Visitor lands provided winter for elk range and facilities were designed to reflect American other ungulates. attitudes of the 1950s: Anything "old" had Efforts to exploit the park also expanded no value or relevance in "modern" times, during this time. Water users, from the town and convenience was paramount. Visitor of Gardiner to the potato farmers of Idaho, services were arranged around a large park- wanted the park's water. Proposals included ing plaza with small cabins a short distance damming the southwest corner of the away. Canyon Village opened in July 1958, park—the Bechler region. The failure of the first Mission 66 project completed by these schemes confirmed that Yellowstone's the National Park Service. wonders were so special that they should be forever preserved from exploitation. —

1950s-1970s h I os Ion I I On 1 I" ? Mission 66 initiated. The Leopold Thermus aquaticus Grizzly bear listed as

The first concession-run Report is discovered in a threatened species in History snowcoach trips carry more issued. Yellowstone hot spring the lower 48 states. than 500 people into the (see Chapter 8, Overnight winter in winter. "Bioprospecting"). park ^ lodging opens in park.

Magnitude 7.5 earthquake strikes on August 17 west New bear management plan begins, of Yellowstone, killing campers in Gallatin National which includes closing open-pit dumps in

Forest and affecting geysers and hot springs in the park (see Chapter 8). park.

From Managed to "Natural" throughout the National Park System. Until the mid-1960s, park managers actively By adopting this management philosophy, Yellowstone went from an unnatural managed the elk and bison of Yellowstone. managing of resources to "natural regulation" Elk population limits were determined today as Ecological Process according to formulas designed to manage known Management. livestock range. When elk reached those limits, park managers "culled" or killed the The Leopold Report's recommendations animals to reduce the population. Bison were upheld by the 2002 National Academy were likewise heavily managed. of Science report, Ecological Dynamics Yellowstone's Northern Range. In 1963, a national park advisory group, On comprised of prominent scientists, released Involving Native Americans a report recommending parks "maintain Yellowstone National Park has 26 associated biotic associations" within the context of tribes (see map next page). Each tribe has their ecosystem, and based on scientific evidence of its ancestral presence in Yellow- research. Known as the Leopold Report, stone National Park through ethnohistoric this document established the framework documentation, interviews with tribal for park management still used today elders, or ongoing consultations. Many places and resources remain important to A Decade of Environmental Laws these tribes' sense of themselves and in Beginning in the late 1960s, the U.S. Congress passed an unprece- maintaining their traditional practices. dented suite of laws to protect the environment. The laws described In addition, tribes are sovereign nations here particularly influence the management of our national parks. whose leaders have a legal relationship with Policy in The National Environmental Act (NEPA), passed 1970, the federal government that is not shared by establishes a national policy "to promote efforts which will prevent or the general public. Consequently, represen-

eliminate damage to the environment . . . stimulate the health and tatives of Yellowstone's associated tribes

welfare of man . . . and enrich the understanding of ecological participate in consultation meetings with ." systems . . It requires detailed analysis of environmental impacts of park managers. They bring tribal perspec- any majorfederal action that significantly affects the quality of the tives to current issues such as bison manage- environment. Environmental assessments (EAs) and environmental ment. Tribes also comment on park projects impact statements (EISs) are written to detail these analyses and to that could affect their ethnographic provideforumsfor public involvement in management decisions. resources. The Endangered Species Act (1973) requiresfederal agencies to Complex Times protect species that are (or are likely to become) at risk of extinction have throughout all or a significant part of their range. It prohibits any Although change and controversy action that would jeopardize their continued existence or result in the occurred in Yellowstone since its inception, issues destruction or modification of their habitat. the last three decades have seen many arise. Most involve natural resources; some The Clean Water Act (1972) is enacted to "restore and maintain the of these issues are presented in Chapter 8. chemical, physical, and biological integrity of the Nation's waters" by prohibiting the discharge ofpollutants. One issue was the threat of water pollution from a gold mine outside the northeast cor- The Clean Air Act (1970) mandates protection of air quality in all ner of the park. Among other concerns, the units of the National Park System; Yellowstone is classified as Class 1, New World Mine would have sited waste the highest level of clean air protection. storage along the headwaters of Soda Butte Yellowstone Resources Creek, which flows into the Lamar River & Issues 2011 and then the Yellowstone River. After years 40 of public debate, a federal buyout of the Late 20th Centur Ts I 00 f T Public Law 100-443 protects Congress enacts a law allowing a The National hydrothermal features in nation- percentage of park entrance fees Parks Omnibus al parks from geothermal devel- to be kept in the parks. Management Act History opment on adjacent federal is passed. lands. Wolves are restored to the park.

Summer of Fire: more than Clean Air Act Amendments require air Federal buyout of gold 790,000 acres affected by quality monitoring at sites including mine on Yellowstone's

fires in Yellowstone. Yellowstone, a Class I airshed— one of the northeast border is purest in the nation. authorized.

mining company was authorized in 1996. Act. Projects funded in part by this program include a major renovation of Canyon In an effort to resolve other park manage- Visitor Education Center, campground and ment issues, Congress passed the National amphitheater upgrades, preservation of rare Parks Omnibus Management Act in 1998. documents, and studies on bison. This law requires using high quality science from inventory, monitoring, and research to Preserving the Park's History understand and manage park resources. Adding to the complexity of management, Park facilities are seeing some improve- Yellowstone's mission includes preserving ments due to a change in funding. In 1994, historical materials and sites. as part of a pilot program, Yellowstone Archeological Sites National Park was authorized to increase its entrance fee and retain more than half of More than 1,600 prehistoric sites exist in the fee for park projects. (Previously, park Yellowstone. The oldest known site is on the entrance fees did not specifically fund park shore of Yellowstone Lake, and is eroding. projects.) In 2004, the U.S. Congress extend- Rather than stopping that natural process, ed this program until 2015 under the archeologists excavated the site in 2000 and Federal Lands Recreation Enhancement 2002. They found evidence of early North

Turtle Mountain Chippewa

Gros Ventre/ Assinboine

Salish/Kootenai

Crow^| B| Northern m^^^f Cheyenne "Flandreau Santee Sioux 3 Yellowstone National Park nI

Eastern Shoshone/

Northern Arapaho Yankton Sioux

Associated Tribes plus Kiowa in Anadarko, Oklahoma

of Yellowstone National Park and Comanche in Lawton, Oklahoma as of January 2011

Assiniboine & Sioux Confederated Tribes of the Nez Perce Turtle Mountain Band of the Blackfeet Umatilla Reservation Northern Arapaho Chippewa Cheyenne River Sioux Crow Northern Cheyenne Yankton Sioux Coeur d'Alene Crow Creek Sioux Oglala Sioux Comanche Eastern Shoshone Rosebud Sioux Confederated Salish & Flandreau Santee Sioux Shoshone-Bannock Kootenai Tribes Gros Ventre and Assiniboine Sisseton-Wahpeton Sioux

Confederated Tribes of the Kiowa Spirit Lake Sioux Colville Reservation Lower Brule Sioux Standing Rock Sioux

Note: Map shows each tribe's reservation; it does not show their historic territory. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 41 Early 21st Centur 1 1 Park fee pro- Yellowstone's grizzly bears removed Grizzly bears returned to threatened

gram renewed from federal threatened species list. species list. until 2015. History New winter use plan approved for Wolves in Wyoming returned to winters beginning in 2008. endangered species list. National Academy of Sciences confirms Interim winter use plan approved for winters 2009-2011. effectiveness of Gray wolf delisted & relisted

Ecological Process to endangered species list. Bioprospecting final EIS completed. Management (aka Judges rule against the new Science agenda established for natural regulation). winter use plan. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem.

American people considered typical of lower, more open lands. YELLOWSTONE'S CULTURAL RESOURCES They probably used this Yellowstone site in the summer while hunting bear, deer, bighorn, and rabbits, and perhaps making tools and clothes. Archeologists speculate these people may have also made rafts to visit islands in Yellowstone Lake.

Cultural Landscapes Cultural landscapes—geographic areas associated with historic events, activities, or people — also reflect the park's history, development patterns, and the relationship between people and the park. They include areas significant to European American culture, such as Fort Yellowstone and the Old Faithful area, and areas significant to Native American cultures, such as Obsidian Cliff and sacred sites. Yellowstone's cultural landscapes are being inventoried to More than 300 ethnographic resources ensure new undertakings are compatible with them and to identify (animals, plants, sites) landscapes eligible for the National Register. Approximately 1,600 prehistoric and historic Native American archeological sites and his- Ethnographic Resources toric European American archeological sites Yellowstone National Park has more than 300 ethnographic More than 2 dozen sites, landmarks, and dis- resources identified by tribal peoples. These include animals such tricts listed on the National Register of Historic as bison, plants, hydrothermal areas, mineral paints from hydro- Places; many more eligible for listing areas, vision questing sites, obsidian, More than 900 historic buildings thermal Yellowstone Lake, sites. 1 National Historic Trail rendezvous sites, and hunting Museum collection of more than 379,000 Districts cultural objects and natural science specimens Historic Structures & available to researchers Mammoth Hot Springs/Fort Yellowstone Archives containing thousands of historic The Mammoth Hot Springs Historic District includes Fort documents Yellowstone, where 35 structures remain from the 1890s and early Thousands of books and periodicals available 1900s when the U.S. Army administered the park. Significant con- to the public; plus manuscripts and rare books origin of the available to historians and other researchers servation policies were developed here that led to the 90,000 historic photographs used by staff, National Park Service. Fort Yellowstone is also listed as a National scholars, authors, and filmmakers Historic Landmark District, the highest designation. Lake Hotel Right: Albright Visitor Center, in the The Lake Hotel is the Mammoth Hot oldest operating Springs Historic hotel in the park. District and Ft. When it opened in Yellowstone Historic 1891, the building Landmark District, housed the first resembled other "information hotels financed by office" (visitor center). the Northern Pacific Railroad. In 1903, the architect of the Old Faithful Inn, Robert Reamer, designed the Yellowstone Resources Ionic columns, & Issues 2011 extended the roof in 42 three places, and Historic Park Buildings still in use 1

CO 1 \G 1906 1908 1909

1918-28 — ^ Is 1903-04

> ^ ^ r 1 i w •w ^ 1 Lake Hotel, Roosevelt Arch, Old Faithful Lamar Norris Soldier Albright Visitor Old Faithful

National in the Ft. Inn, National Buffalo Station, now the Center, in Lodge, in Historic Site Yellowstone Historic Ranch, Museum of the Mammoth the Old History Historic Landmark; in Historic National Park Historic District Faithful Landmark & the Old District Ranger, in Ft. & Ft. Historic North Entrance Faithful Yellowstone Yellowstone District Road Historic Historic Historic Landmark Historic District District District Landmark District

National Register of Historic Places National Historic Landmarks

The National Register of Historic Places is the National Historic Landmarks are nationally Nation's official list of cultural resources wor- significant historic places designated by the thy ofpreservation. Authorized under the Secretary of the Interior because they possess National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, exceptional value or quality in illustrating or the National Register is part of a national pro- interpreting the heritage of the United States. gram to coordinate and support public and Today, fewer than 3,500 historic places bear private efforts to identify, evaluate, and pro- this national designa- tect our historic and archeological resources. tion. The National Properties listed in the Register include dis- Historic Landmarks

tricts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects program draws upon that are significant in American history, archi- the expertise of tecture, archaeology, engineering, and culture. National Park Service

The National Register is administered by the staff who evaluate

National Park Service. Currently 73,000 list- potential landmarks ings have been nominated by governments, and provide assistance organizations, and individuals because they to existing landmarks. are important to a community, a state, or the nation.

added the 15 false balconies, which caused it The Buffalo to be known for years as the "Lake Colonial Ranch Hotel." By 1929, additional changes— dining The Lamar Buffalo room, porte-cochere (portico), sunroom, Ranch Historic plus interior refurbishing— created the District overlooks landmark we see today. Lamar Valley. The Roosevelt Arch ranch, in operation from 1906 until the The Roosevelt Arch rises in the North 1950s, was the center Entrance Road Historic District and part of of efforts to increase mm the Fort Yellowstone Historic Landmark the herd size of bison Buffalo Ranch District. This soaring stone structure was in Yellowstone. conceived by U.S. Engineer Hiram Remnants of irriga- Chittenden; Robert Reamer may have con- tion ditches, fencing, tributed to the design, and architect N.J. and water troughs Ness also worked on it. President Theodore can still be found, Roosevelt placed the cornerstone for the and four buildings arch in 1903. The top of the arch is inscribed from the original with a line from the Yellowstone National ranch compound Park Act of 1872: "For the benefit and enjoy- remain (center photo) ment of the people." —two residences, Roosevelt Area the bunkhouse, and Old Faithful Inn Diners at Roosevelt Lodge (President the barn. Newer cabins, which blend with Theodore Roosevelt had camped nearby) the historic buildings, house students view much the same landscape seen by attending Yellowstone Association Institute Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 visitors when the lodge opened in 1920. classes or the National Park Service's resi- dential education program. The area is registered as the Roosevelt 43 Lodge Historic District. Historic Park Buildings still in use

1920 u> 1929-32 1925-26 -J 1919-20; ^ ^ w t

Lake Lodge, Roosevelt Four trailside museums built; Mammoth Hot part of Lake Lodge, in the three are still used: Madison, Springs Hotel, History Fish Hatchery Roosevelt Norris, and Fishing Bridge. part of the Historic Lodge Historic They are National Historic Mammoth Hot District District Landmarks. Springs Historic District

Old Faithful Inn & Historic District Most people who step into the Old Faithful Inn for the first time stop as their eyes follow thick rustic logs up to the soaring peak of the ceiling. Robert Reamer designed this National Historic Landmark, which opened in 1904. It is the centerpiece of the Old Faithful Historic District. Nearby, the Old

Faithful Lodge is a result of numerous changes made until 1928 when the lodge reached its present configuration.

Trailside Museums Four trailside museums were built in Yellowstone as part of a national idea that a Yellowstone on the National national park is itself a museum. An interpretive structure should Register of Historic Places blend in with its surroundings and its exhibits explain but not sub-

This is a partial list. stitute for the park experience. The museums here are well-known examples of the architectural style, National Park (also National Historic Landmark District: Rustic Fort Yellowstone called "parkitecture").

National Historic Landmarks: The Old Faithful Museum was the first trailside museum in Fishing Bridge, Madison, and Norris Yellowstone, and the only one no longer standing. It opened in 1929 Trailside Museums to acclaim for its quality materials and construction, and for the way it blended into its surroundings. Northeast Entrance Station The Norris Museum, built in 1930, still serves as a gateway to the Obsidian Cliff Norris Geyser Basin. Visitors first glimpse the area's hydrothermal Old Faithful Inn features from a breezeway; they learn about the area from exhibits National Register Historic Districts: in the wings as well as from trailside exhibits and a trail guide. Lake Fish Hatchery The Madison Museum (photo above), overlooking the junction of Mammoth Hot Springs the Gibbon and Firehole rivers, features many elements associated North Entrance Road with National Park Rustic: stone and wood-shingled walls, and rafters of peeled logs. Built in 1930, it now serves as an information Old Faithful Area station and bookstore. Roosevelt Lodge The Fishing Bridge Museum, built in 1932, retains many original National Historic Sites: exhibits as an example of early National Park Service displays. On Lake Hotel the south side of the museum, visitors can cross a flagstone terrace Lamar Buffalo Ranch overlooking Yellowstone Lake and descend steps to the shore.

Obsidian Cliff Kiosk Lodging No Longer Standing Queen's Laundry Bath House Marshall's Hotel, which stood near the present-day intersection of Fountain Flats Drive and Grand Loop Road, was built in 1880 and Mammoth Post Office was the second hotel in the park. Later renamed the Firehole Hotel,

it was razed in 1895.

Fountain Hotel opened in 1891 north of Fountain Paint Pot. This Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 was one of the first Yellowstone hotels where bears were fed for the entertainment of guests. The hotel closed after 1916 and was torn 44 down in 1927. 1

Four lodging facilities were built at Norris. The national park idea was part of a new History Three were built between 1886 and 1892; the view of the nation's responsibility for the first two burned. The last hotel at Norris, public domain. By the end of the 19th cen- which overlooked Porcelain Basin, served tury, many thoughtful people no longer the public from 1901 to 1917. believed that wilderness should be fair game for the first person who could claim Three hotels were built in succession at and plunder it. They believed its fruits were Canyon, the last being the largest hotel in the rightful possession of all the people, the park. Sited where the horse stables are including those yet unborn. Besides the Construction now, the Canyon Hotel was closed in 1958 Dates for Other areas set aside as national parks, still greater due to financial and maintenance problems Park Buildings expanses of land were placed into national and burned in 1960. Tower General forests and other reserves so the country's Store 1932, 36, 61 These and other sites of former park facili- natural wealth— in the form of lumber, graz- ties are historic archeologic sites. They are Lake General Store ing, minerals, and recreation lands—would studied documented for what they 1920 and not be consumed at once by the greed of a reveal about past visitor use in the park. few, but would perpetually benefit all. Lake Ranger Station 1922-23 The Legacy of Yellowstone The preservation idea, born in Yellowstone, Mammoth Chapel The years have shown that the legacy of spread around the world. Scores of nations 1912-13 those who worked to establish Yellowstone have preserved areas of natural beauty and Mammoth Gas National Park in 1872 was far greater than historical worth so that all humankind will Station 1920 simply preserving a unique landscape. This have the opportunity to reflect on their nat- one act has led to a lasting concept—the ural and cultural heritage and to return to Old Faithful Gas national park idea. This idea conceived wil- nature and be spiritually reborn. Of all the Station (Lower) benefits resulting 1920, 1925 derness to be the inheritance of all people, from the establishment of who gain more from an experience in nature Yellowstone National Park, this may be the Old Faithful Lower than from private exploitation of the land. greatest. General Store 1897, 1921 addition

Old Faithful Upper Cultural Resource Laws General Store These laws guide the management historic and cultural resources in national parks: of 1929-30 The Antiquities Act (1906) providesfor the protection historic, prehistoric, and scientific of South Entrance features on and artifacts federal lands. from Ranger Station The Historic Sites Act (1935) sets a national policy to "preserveforfuture public use historic Duplex 1928 sites, buildings, and objects." West Thumb The National Historic Preservation Act (1966) authorizes the creation of the National Ranger Station Register of Historic Places and gives extra protection to national historic landmarks and proper- 1925; now an information ties in the national register. National parks establishedfor their historic value automatically are station registered; others, such as Yellowstone, must nominate landmarks and properties to the register.

The Archeological and Historic Preservation Act (1974) providesfor the preservation of significant scientific, historic, and archeological material and data that might be lost or destroyed by federally sponsored projects. For example, federal highway projects in Yellowstone include archeological surveys.

The Archeological Resources Protection Act (1979) providesfor the preservation and custody of excavated materials, records, and data.

The Native American Graves Protection and Repatriation Act (1990) assigns ownership or control of Native American human remains, funerary objects, and sacred objects of cultural patrimony to culturally affiliated Native American groups.

American Indian Religious Freedom Act (AIRFA) protects and preserves American Indian access to sites, use and possession of sacred objects, and the freedom to worship through ceremo- nials and traditional rites.

Executive Order 13007 guarantees access to and ceremonial use of Indian sacred sites by Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 Indian religious practitioners and that these sites not be adversely affected. 45 For More Information

www.nps.gov/yell Staff reviewers: Tobin Roop, Chief of Cultural Resources; Lee Whittlesey, Historian

www.greateryellowstonescience.org/mdex.html

Yellowstone Science, free Bartlett, Richard. 1974. Nature's Yellowstone. Tucson: UArizona Qumn, Ruth. 2004. Weaver of Dreams: The Life and from the Yellowstone Press. Architecture of Robert C. Reamer. Bozeman, MT: Ruth & Leslie Qumn. Center for Resources, in Bartlett, Richard. 1985. Yellowstone: A Wilderness Besieged. the Yellowstone Research Tucson: UArizona Press. Remhart, Karen and Jeff Henry. 2004. Old Faithful Inn: Crown Library, or online at Jewel of National Park Lodges. Emigrant, MT: Roche Jaune Carr, Ethan. 2007. Mission 66: modernism and the National Park www.nps.gov/yell. Pictures, Inc. dilemma. Amherst: UMass Press. Yellowstone Today, Russell, Osborne. 1997. Journal of a Trapper. New York: MJF Clary, David. 1993. The Place Where Hell Bubbled Up: A History distributed at entrance Books. of Yellowstone National Park. Moose, WY: Homestead visitor centers. Santucci, Vincent. 1998. Paleontological resources gates and Publishing. of Yellowstone National Park. Mammoth, WY. YCR-NR-98-1. Site Bulletins, published Cook, Charles W., David E. Folsom, and William Peterson. www2.nature.nps.gov/grd/geology/paleo/yell_survey/index. as needed, provide more 1965. The Valley of the Upper Yellowstone: An Exploration htm. detailed information of the Headwaters of the Yellowstone River in the Year 1869. Schullery, Paul, editor. 1979. Old Yellowstone Days. on park topics such as Norman: UOklahoma Press. Boulder: Colorado Associated Press. trailside museums and the U Culpin, Mary S. 2003. For the Benefit and Enjoyment of the grand hotels. Free; avail- Schullery, Paul. 1997. Searching for Yellowstone. Houghton People: A History of Concession Development in Yellowstone able upon request from Mifflin. National Park, 1872-1966. YCR-CR-2003-01. NPS, Mammoth, visitor centers. WY Schullery, Paul. 1965. Yellowstone's Ski Pioneers. High Plains Publishing Company. Davis, L. B. et al. 1995. The Obsidian Cliff plateau

prehistoric lithic source, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Strong, W.E. 1968. A Trip to Yellowstone National Park in July,

U. S. Dept. of the Interior, NPS Rocky Mtn. Region, Div. of August, and September of 1875. Norman: UOklahoma Press.

Cultural Resources, Selections Series. No. 6, Denver, CO. Weixelman, Joseph. 2001. Fear or reverence? Yellowstone

Everhart, William. 1983. The National Park Service. Boulder: Science. Fall.

Westview Press. Whittlesey, Lee H. 2006. Yellowstone Place Names. Wonderland

Frison, George. 1978. Prehistoric Hunters of the High Plains. Publishing Co.

New York: Academic Press. Whittlesey, Lee H. and National Park Service Staff. A Haines, Aubrey. 1996. The Yellowstone Story: A History of Our Yellowstone Album. Boulder: Roberts Rmehart.

First National Park. 2 vols. Niwot: U. Press Colorado. Whittlesey, Lee H. and Paul Schullery. 2003. Myth and History in

Haines, Aubrey. 1974. Yellowstone National Park: Its Exploration the Creation of Yellowstone National Park. Lincoln/UNebraska. and Establishment. National Park Service.

Janetski, Joel C. 2002. Indians of Yellowstone Park. Revised edi- www.nps.gov/history/ tion. Salt Lake City: U Utah Press. www.nps.gov/legacy/organic-act.htm Keller, Robert and Michael Turek. 1998. American Indians and www.nps.gov/legacy/legacy.html National Parks. Tucson: UArizona Press.

Langford, Nathaniel P. 1972. The Discovery of Yellow-stone Park.

Lincoln: UNebraska Press.

Leopold, A.S. et al. 1963. Wildlife Management in the National Parks, www.nps.gov

Merrill, M. 1999. Yellowstone and the Great West: Journals, Letters, and Images from the 1871 Hayden Expedition. Lincoln: UNebraska Press.

Milstein, Michael. 1996. Yellowstone: 125 Years of America's

Best Idea. Billings MT: Billings Gazette.

Nabokov, Peter and Larry Loendorf. 2004. Restoring a Presence:

American Indians in Yellowstone National Park. Norman: UOklahoma.

National Park Service. Management Policies 2006. www.nps. gov/policy/mp/policies.html

National Park Service. Director's Order 28: Cultural Resource Management. being revised) www.nps.gov/refdesk Yellowstone Resou,irces (1998; & Issues 2011 National Park System Advisory Board. 2001. Rethinking the National Parks for the 21st Century, www.nps.gov/policy 46 ——

Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Yellowstone National Park forms the core of GYE BASICS In Yellowstone National the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE) • 12-18 million acres; 18,750-28,125 Park: and at 28,000 square miles, is one of the square miles (see map, next page, 67 mammals largest intact temperate-zone ecosystems on for why it varies) 322 bird species; 148 species nest Earth today. • States: Wyoming, Montana, Idaho here Each of Yellowstone National Park's sepa- • Encompasses state lands, two 16 fish species: 11 native, national parks, portions of six 5 non-native rate parts—the hydrothermal features, the national forests, three national 10 reptiles and amphibians wildlife, the lakes, the Grand Canyon of the wildlife refuges, Bureau of Land 12,000+ insect species, including 128 Yellowstone River, and the petrified trees Management holdings, private species of butterflies could easily stand alone as a national park. and tribal lands ±1,150 species of native vascular That they are all at one place is testimony to • Managed by state governments, plants Greater Yellowstone's diversity and natural federal government, tribal gov- Management Challenges wealth. ernments, and private individuals • Global climate change • One of the largest elk herds in Geological characteristics form the founda- • Landscape changes due to climate North America tion of an ecosystem. In Yellowstone, the change • Largest free-roaming, wild herd interplay between volcanic, hydrothermal, • Invasive Species of bison in U.S. and glacial processes and the distribution • One of two grizzly populations in See page 53 and Chapter 8 for of flora and fauna are intricate and unique. contiguous U.S. more about these challenges. The topography of the land from southern • Home to the rare wolverine and Idaho northeast to Yellowstone probably lynx results from millions of years of hotspot influence. (See Chapter 3.) Some scientists believe the Yellowstone Plateau itself is a result of uplift due to hotspot volcanism. Today's landforms even influence the weather, channeling westerly storm systems onto the plateau where they drop large amounts of snow.

The distribution of rocks and sediments in the park also influences the distribution of flora and fauna. The volcanic rhyolites and tuffs of the Yellowstone Caldera are rich in quartz and potassium feldspar, which form nutrient-poor soils. Thus, areas of the park underlain by rhyolites and tuffs generally are characterized by extensive stands of lodgepole pine, which are drought tolerant and have shallow roots that take advantage of the nutrients in the soil. In contrast, andesitic volcanic rocks that underlie the Absaroka Mountains are rich in calcium, magnesium, and iron. These minerals weather into soils that can store more water and provide better nutrients than rhyolitic soils. These soils support more vegetation, which adds organic matter and enriches the soil. You can see the result when you drive over Dunraven Pass or through other areas of the park with Absaroka rocks. They have a more diverse flora, including mixed forests interspersed with meadows. Lake sediments such as those underlying Hayden Valley, which were deposited during glacial periods, form clay soils that allow meadow communities to out-compete trees for water. The patches of lodgepole pines in Hayden Valley grow These whitebark pines Yellowstone Resources in areas of rhyolite rock outcrops. grow in the andesitic & Issues 2011 soils on Mount Washburn. 47 2 Because of the influence rock types have on mals such as elk and bison are found in the distribution, some scientists theorize park's grasslands, which grow best in soils Greater plant that geology also influences wildlife distri- formed by sediments in valleys such as Yellowstone butions and movement. Whitebark pine is Hayden and Lamar. And the many hydro- an important food source for grizzly bears thermal areas of the park, where grasses and Ecosystem during autumn. The bears migrate to white- other food remain uncovered, provide sus- bark pine areas such as the andesitic volca- tenance for animals during winter. nic terrain of Mt. Washburn. Grazing ani-

The Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem

Sizes, boundaries, and descriptions of any ecosystem can vary—and the GYE is no exception. The park most often uses the two figures listed on the previous page, and most often uses the map shown here. Beaverhead- Custer Deer Lodge N.F. N R Gallatin N.F. MONTANA WYOMING

Yellowstone National Park

) Caribou- Grand Shoshone Targhee Teton National N.F. N.P. Forest

Bridger- Wind River s Teton Indian National Forest I Reservation

vl V-r —

VP01S < lo Q >- I

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 48 ! 2 Biological Diversity Cycles and Processes Biological diversity is one of the bench- Cycles and processes are the building blocks Biodiversity marks measuring the health of an ecosys- in the foundation of any ecosystem. Photo- tem. Biodiversity can be measured two synthesis, predation, decomposition, & ways: the number of different species (also climate, and precipitation facilitate the flow Processes called richness) and the abundance of each of energy and raw materials. Living things species (also called evenness). The diversity absorb, transform, and circulate energy and of animals within the Greater Yellowstone raw materials and release them again. Cycles

Ecosystem is as great as that found anywhere in the contiguous 48 states.

Significantly, Greater Yellow-

7 stone's natural ' ** diversity is essentially intact. With the exception of the black-footed ferret, the region appears to have retained or restored its full historic complement of vertebrate wildlife species—something truly unique in the wildlands of the The Lamar Valley's and processes are the essential connections thick grasses contiguous 48 states. grow within the ecosystem. in soils formed from The extent of wildlife diversity is due in part sediments laid down Life forms are active at all levels. Microbes to the different habitats found in the region, by glaciers. This and beneath Yellowstone Lake thrive in hydro- other Yellowstone ranging from high alpine areas to sagebrush thermal vents where they obtain energy grasslands provide country, hydrothermal areas, forests, mead- from sulfur instead of the sun. Plants draw habitat for bison, ows, and other habitat types. All of these are elk, deer, prong- energy from the sun and cycle nutrients connected, including linkages provided by horn, coyote, wolf, such as carbon, sulfur, and nitrogen streams and rivers that course through the grizzly and black through the system. Herbivores, ranging changing elevations. bear, golden and from ephydrid flies to elk, feed on the plants bald eagles, ravens, Other unique life forms are protected here, osprey and and, in turn, provide food for predators like many too. Various species of microorganisms other species. are coyotes and hawks. Decomposers—bacteria, the living representatives of the primitive fungi, other microorganisms — link all that life forms now recognized as the beginnings dies with all that is alive. of life on this planet. Cyanobacteria found The ecosystem is constantly changing and in Yellowstone's hot springs are similar to evolving. A forest fire is one example of such the cyanobacteria that were among the first an integral, dynamic process. Fires rejuve- organisms capable of photosynthesis (the nate forests on a grand scale. Some species process by which plants use sunlight to con- of plants survive the intense burning to vert carbon dioxide to oxygen and other resprout. Some cones of lodgepole pines pop byproducts). (See Chapter 4.) Because Earth's open only in heat generated by fires, spread- original atmosphere was anoxic (without ing millions of seeds on the forest floor. oxygen), cyanobacteria's photosynthesis After fire sweeps through an area, mam- began to create an atmosphere on Earth that mals, birds, and insects quickly take advan- would eventually support plants and tage of the newly created habitats. Fires animals. recycle and release nutrients and create Knowledge of the park's biodiversity dead trees or snags that serve a number of Yellowstone Resources expanded in 2009 with Yellowstone's first & Issues 2011 ecological functions, such as the addition of bioblitz. Seepage for more about this event. 53 organic matter to the soil when the trees 49 decompose. (See chapters 5 & 6.) 2 Increasing Community Complexity indirectly increasing riparian bird habitat and improving fish habitat. Complexity Many scientists consider the restoration of the wolf to Yellowstone to be the restoration It is too soon to know for sure if this trophic of ecological completeness in the Greater cascade is actually happening, and how Yellowstone Ecosystem. This region now extensive it might be — or if it is one of many contains every large wild mammal, predator factors at work. For example, ecologists or prey, that inhabited it when Europeans have documented a substantial rise in tem- first arrived in North America. But the wolf perature in the northern range: From 1995 is only one factor — albeit restored— in the to 2005, the number of days above freezing For many, the extremely complex and dynamic communi- increased from 90 to 110 days. Changes in sight a wolf of ty of wild Yellowstone. precipitation and effects of global climate chasing an elk change are also affecting vegetation growth. through a meadow For the visitor, this community's complexity Ongoing, long-term scientific research will is the highest sym- has been highlighted primarily through the continue to examine these complicated bol ofwildness. large predators and their prey species. This interweavings of the Greater Yellowstone That's a good ecological "suite" of species provides a rare Ecosystem. (See 52 Chapter 8.) start, but it's the display of the dramatic pre-European con- page & meadow that is ditions of wildlife in North America. Balancing telling us the most Nature? about what wild- Intricate Layers In some circles, some people expected ness really means. wolves would restore a "balance" to park Since wolves were restored, scientists have — ecosystems, meaning that animal popula- Paul Schullery discovered layers of complexity reaching far tions would stabilize at levels pleasing to beyond the large mammals. For example, humans. Instead, a more dynamic variability the carcasses of elk, bison, and other large is present, which probably characterized mammals each become ecosystems of their this region's wildlife populations for millen- own. Researchers have identified at least 57 nia. Nature does have balances, but they are species of beetle associated with these fluid rather than static, flexible rather than ungulate carcasses on the northern range. rigid. Only one of those 57 species eats ungulate meat. All the rest prey on other small scav- Consider the northern Yellowstone elk herd, engers, especially the larvae of flies and which has been declining. The recovery of beetles. Others consume carcass byproducts the wolf occurred simultaneously with such as microscopic fungal spores. In this increased grizzly bear and mountain lion very busy neighborhood, thousands of populations, increased human hunting of appetites interact until the carcass melts elk (especially female or "antlerless") north away and everybody moves on. of the park, and an extended drought. Computer models prior to wolf recovery Thus the large predators point us toward the predicted a decline in elk, but did not incor- true richness, messiness, and subtlety of porate these other factors, and the decline wild Yellowstone. For a wolf pack, an elk is has exceeded predictions. Populations of dinner waiting to happen; for beetles, flies, prey species that share their habitat with and many other small animals, the elk is a more, rather than fewer species of predators village waiting to happen. are now thought to fluctuate around lower Trophic Cascades equilibria. The elk populations of Yellow- Scientists in Yellowstone have been explor- stone will continue to adjust to the pressures face, as will their ing the hypothesis that wolf restoration is and opportunities they causing changes in predator/prey/vegetation wild neighbors, large and small. relationships —what ecologists call a "tro- While some people delight in the chance to phic cascade." Most researchers agree that experience the new completeness of the wolves have caused elk to change their Yellowstone ecosystem, others are alarmed behavior. For example, elk don't linger in and angered by the changes. But with so willow or aspen areas. Some researchers say few places remaining on Earth where we this behavioral change is the reason why can preserve and study such ecological com- recent willow growth has been strong. pleteness, there seems little doubt about the Yellowstone Resources Not all scientists agree with this conclusion. extraordinary educational, scientific, and 2011 & Issues However, if wolves are the main factor in even spiritual values of such a wild 50 willow increase, they could also be community. Bison can reach food beneath three feet of snow, as long as the

snow is not solidified by melting and refreel-

ing. A bison's hump is made of elongated ver- tebrae to which strong neck muscles are attached, which enable the animal to sweep its massive head from side to side.

Winter in Yellowstone • Snowshoe hares, white-tailed jackrabbits, Temperature Gradient Deep snow, cold temperatures, and short long-tailed weasels, and short-tailed Snow weasels turn white for winter. pro- or "depth hoar," days characterize winter in the Greater White vides camouflage forms through Yellowstone Ecosystem, conditions to which but may have evolved snow metamor- plants and animals are adapted. For exam- primarily to keep these animals insulated as phosis during cold hollow white hairs contain air instead of ple, conifers retain their needles through air temperatures pigment. the winter, which extends their ability to when water moves photosynthesize. Aspens and cottonwoods • Snowshoe hares have large feet to spread from warmer snow contain chlorophyll in their bark, enabling their weight over the snow; martens and near the ground to them to photosynthesize before they pro- lynx grow additional fur between their toes colder snow near duce leaves. to give them effectively larger feet. the surface. Snow crystals grow in • Moose have special joints that allow them Animal Behavioral Adaptations size, forming sugar to swing their legs over snow rather than • Red squirrels and beavers cache food snow where small push through snow as elk do. before winter. mammals burrow. • Chickadees' half-inch-thick layer of • Some birds roost with their heads tucked Equitemperature feathers keeps them up to 100 degrees into their back feathers to conserve heat. Snow warmer than the ambient temperature. forms as new • Deer mice huddle together to stay warm. Biochemical/Physiological Adaptations crystals of snow • Deer, elk, and bison sometimes follow each become rounded • Mammals and waterfowl exhibit other through deep snow to save energy. and snowpack counter-current heat exchange in their settles. • Small mammals find insulation, protection limbs that enables them to stand in cold from predators, and easier travel by living Rime Frost water: Cold temperatures cause surface beneath the snow. forms when super- blood vessels to constrict, shunting blood cooled water drop- • Grouse roost overnight by burrowing into into deeper veins that lie close to arteries. lets contact an snow for insulation. Cooled blood returning from extremities is object andfreeze in • Bison, elk, geese, and other animals find warmed by arterial blood traveling towards place. food and warmth in hydrothermal areas. the extremities, conserving heat. Hoar Frost Animal Morphological/Physical • At night, chickadees' body temperature forms when water Adaptations drops from 108°F to 88°F, which lessens vapor sublimates the sharp gradient between the tempera- onto a surface. • Mammals molt their fur in fall. Incoming ture of their bodies and the external tem- (Sublimation guard hairs are longer and protect the perature. This leads to 23 percent means changing underfur. Additional underfur grows each a decrease in the amount of fat burned each from ice to vapor fall and consists of short, thick, often wavy vapor to ice night. or hairs designed to trap air. A sebaceous (oil) without going • Chorus frogs tolerate freezing by becoming gland, adjacent to each hair canal, secretes through a water severely diabetic in response to cold oil to waterproof the fur. Mammals have tem- state.) Hoarfrost peratures ice muscular control of their fur, fluffing it up and the formation of within occurs when night to trap air when they are cold and sleeking their bodies. The liver quickly converts gly- temperatures are

it down to remove air when they are warm. cogen to glucose, which enters the blood very low. stream and serves as an anti-freeze. Within • River otters' fur has long guard hairs with eight hours, blood sugar rises 200-fold. interlocking spikes that protect the under- When a frog's internal ice content reaches fur, which is extremely wavy and dense to 60-65 percent, the frog's heart and breath- trap insulating air. Oil secreted from seba- ing stop. Within one hour of thawing, the ceous glands prevents water from contact- Yellowstone Resources frog's heart resumes beating. ing the otters' skin. After emerging from & Issues 2011 water, they replace air in their fur by roll- ing in the snow and shaking their wet fur. — 2

Research Yellowstone as a Laboratory 1988 fires. According to Monica Turner, speaking at the 9th Biennial Scientific in the Before and after its inception, Yellowstone Conference, 1988 fires has attracted scientists as a unique outdoor "The presented an unprecedented Park laboratory for research. For example, opportunity to study the dozens of comprehensive studies were landscape-scale ecological effects of an infrequent natural large, completed in the twenty years following the disturbance — a severe fire in this case —in an ecological system minimally affected by humans." (See THE YELLOWSTONE VOLCANO OBSERVATORY Chapter 6.) A similar flurry of reseach began Increased scientific surveil- with the restoration of wolves in 1995 and lance of Yellowstone in the continues today. This active volcanic eco- past 30 years has detected system also fuels a wide variety of geologic unmistakable changes in its studies. Many of these scientific studies vast underground volcanic Yellowstone Volcano Observatory have ramifications far beyond Yellowstone system, similar to historical National Park. changes observed at many other large calderas (volcanic In 2010, approximately 200 permits were depressions) in the world. To issued for research in the park. Current strengthen the capabilities of research examples include: scientists to track and respond • Determining if willow growth is related to to changes in Yellowstone's changes in climate, elk populations, or activity, a fifth U.S. volcano hydrology. (See Chapter observatory was created in Ms US. Geological Survey 8.) University of Utah 2001, complementing existing • Monitoring plant and animal species that Yellowstone National Park onesfor Hawaii, Alaska, the may be affected by climate change. Cascades, and Long Valley, • Using tree-ring data, pollen records, and California. The Yellowstone Volcano Observatory (YVO) is charcoal evidence to understand past supported jointly by the U.S. Geological Survey, the University of climate patterns. Utah, and Yellowstone National Park. • Using earthquake monitoring stations to The principal goals include: of YVO detect the numerous daily tremors in the * Strengthening the monitoring systemfor tracking earthquake Yellowstone region, and studying the activity, uplift and subsidence, and changes in the hydrothermal patterns to develop an understanding of (hot water) system; the geodynamics of Yellowstone's hotspot. * Assessing the long-term potential hazards of volcanism, earth- • Surveying rare and unusual plants such as quakes, and explosive hydrothermal activity in the Yellowstone region; mosses, liverworts, lichens, and aquatic species. * Enhancing scientific understanding of active geologic and hydrologic processes occurring beneath Yellowstone and in the sur- • Monitoring the effects of human recre- rounding region the Earth's crust; of and ation on wildlife, air quality, and wilder- * Communicating new scientific results, the current status of ness soundscapes. Yellowstone's activity, andforecasts ofpotential hazardous hydro- • Studying the ecology and life-history thermal explosions or volcanic eruptions to Yellowstone National strategies non-native plants and aquatic Park staff the public, and local, state, andfederal officials. of organisms to better understand how to Current real-time-monitoring data are online at eradicate those that threaten native volcanoes, usgs.gov/yvo/monitoring. html. communities. This text from a YVO pamphlet, "Steam Explosions, Earthquakes, and Volcanic Eruptions— What's in Yellowstone's Future?," sold by the • Understanding how large-scale fires affect Yellowstone Association. carbon cycling on our planet.

• Collecting thermophiles—microorganisms that can live in extreme environments from hydrothermal features to study their heat-resistant enzymes, which may help in All scientists in Yellowstone work under producing biofuels, decontaminating toxic research permits and are closely super- waste, and assisting other organisms with vised by National Park Service staff. heat tolerance. (See chapters 4 8.) Yellowstone Resources J & & Issues 2011 52 2

BioBlitz! Fast search for species Challenges In August 2009, more than 120 scientists, citizen scientists, students, and park staff particpated in Yellowstone's first "BioBlitz"—an effort to document species at one point in time in one location. Such documentation can serve as a benchmark of environmental conditions. The Yellowstone BioBlitz took place during 24 hours in the Mammoth Hot Springs area of the park. Scientists reported finding 1079 species, including:

373 plant species, including a grass new to Yellowstone

86 mushroom species (two new to Yellowstone)

300 insects, including 128 fly species, 24 butterfly species, and 46 bee species

90 nematode genera, some of which may be new to science

45 different lichens, including a species new to Yellowstone

13 mollusk species, possibly one new to the park

Specimens have been sent to scientists around the world for closer examination and identification; the total species count will likely

increase as this phase is completed.

Ecosystem Management Challenges serious threat to both biodiversity and to processes. Despite the size of the ecosystem, Greater ecosystem For example, when homes are built close to wilderness bound- Yellowstone's biodiversity is not guaranteed. aries, they fragment habitats and isolate Many of its plant and animal species are rare, threatened, endangered, or of special populations of plants and animals, cutting off concern—including more than 100 plants, them from processes necessary for survival. hundreds of invertebrates, six fish species, several amphibian species, at least 20 bird Time: Yellowstone National Park was species, and 18 mammal species. These are created before the surrounding states estimates because comprehensive invento- existed, which makes its relationship to its ries have not been completed. Carnivorous neighbors different from many national species —including the grizzly bear, wolver- parks. This park has exclusive jurisdiction ine, and lynx—represent more than half of over managing wildlife; wildlife decisions the mammals in danger. are driven by National Park Service man- Yellowstone's resource managers deal with dates rather than state wildlife management objectives. However, the park to three drivers that are specific to the GYE: chooses work with the states on most issues, includ- Heat: Volcanic activity drives the ecosys- ing wolf and bison management. (See tem; wild fire influences the species that Chapter 8.) live here; and political heat also affects Time also refers to how this ecosystem decisions. (See chapters 3, 6, & 8.) changes and at what pace. What are the Space: The GYE spans different climate intervals between volcanic eruptions? regimes and vegetation zones; crosses Between fires? How has forest composition multiple jurisdictional boundaries; and is changed in the past 100 years? How will the last remaining large native ecosystem in climate change alter these patterns? These the contiguous United States. are the types of "time" questions that influ- The park's geographic location also attracts ence management of Yellowstone. humans who want to occupy increasing Ecosystem managers face these challenges Yellowstone Resources amounts of space in the ecosystem. This & Issues 2011 by addressing the whole ecosystem, includ- leads to habitat modification, which poses a ing preserving individual components and 53 their relationships and linkages between They identified research needs: them. Maintaining healthy, functioning Challenges • How will the ecosystem respond to ecosystems preserves species more effec- climate change—especially aquatic sys- tively than do emergency measures to bring tems, alpine and treeline communities, back threatened species from the brink of changing snow and soil moisture, and dis- extinction. turbance processes such as drought, flood, Greater Yellowstone fire, insect infestations, and diseases? Coordinating Committee • How do humans affect the ecosystem? For example, how can human settlement be In 1964, the managers of the two national managed to minimize impacts on wildlife parks and six national forests in the Greater ecology; activities such as grazing, Yellowstone Ecosystem formed the Greater how do mining, and energy development change Yellowstone Coordinating Committee to land use and the ecosystem? seek solutions to common issues. In 2000, two national wildlife refuges in the GYE • What is driving the spread of invasive joined the committee. During its almost five species; how do these species affect the decades, the GYCC has provided guidance GYE; how will climate change and land- and decisions for managing the GYE. use change affect invasive species and their management? Currently, the GYCC is helping to develop a As a first step to understanding climate science agenda for the next 10-12 years. In change impacts, the GYCC supported a 2009, federal agency managers, scientists project to review and summarize existing from the U.S. Geological Survey and from literature on climate change. The two universities met to identify the external reports (listed below, Ashton & McWethy) drivers threatening to dramatically alter the present climate information from the past GYE: climate change, land-use change, and and potential ecological effects of climate invasive species. The participants summa- change in the future. (See also Chapter 8, rized the challenge as: "Climate Change. ") Understanding how large-scale stressors impact ecosystems, and then determining the best way to manage landscapes based on that understanding.

For More Staff Reviewer: Kevin Schneider, Acting Chief of Yellowstone Center for Resources Information Ashton, I. W., et al. 2010. Observed and projected ecological NRR—2010/260. www.fedgycc.org/documents/McWethy_ www.nps.gov/yell. response to climate change in the Rocky Mountains and Upper et_al_2010_NPS_NRR260_Climate_Terrestrial_Change_ Columbia Basin: A synthesis of current scientific literature. RockyMtns_UprColBasin.pdf www.greateryellowstone- Natural Resource Report NPS/R0MN/ 2010/220. NRR— www. Meagher, M. and D. B. Houston. 1998. Yellowstone and the science.org/index.html fedgycc.org/documents/NRR_Ecological_Synthesis_FINAL_ Biology of Time. Norman: UOklahoma Press. Ve//owsfone Science, free high.pdf OH iff, Tom et al. 2010. A Science Agenda for the Greater from the Yellowstone Despain, D. G. 1987. The two climates of Yellowstone National Yellowstone Area. Yellowstone Science 18(2)14-21. Center for Resources, in Park. Biological Science Proceedings of The Montana Academy Schullery, Paul. 2010. Greater Yellowstone Science: Past, Present, the Yellowstone Research of Science. 47:11-20. and Future. Yellowstone Science 18(2)7-13. Library, or online at Forrest, Louise. 1988. Field Guide to Tracking Animals in Snow. www.nps.gov/yell. Tercek, Michael et al;. 2010. Bottom-up factors influencing Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole Books. riparian willow recovery in YNP. Western North American Yellowstone Today, Fortin, D. et al. 2005. Wolves influence elk movements: behavior Naturalist. In press. distributed at entrance shapes a trophic cascade in YNP. Ecology. 86(5):1320+. Wilmers, et al. 2003. Resource dispersion and consumer domi- gates and visitor centers. Greater Yellowstone Coordinating Committee: www.fedgycc.org nance: scavenging at wolf- and hunter-killed carcasses in Site Bulletins, published Halfpenny, James C. and Roy D. Ozanne. 1989. Winter: An Greater Yellowstone. Ecology Letters. 6:996-1003. as needed, provide more Ecological Handbook. Boulder: Johnson Books. Wilmers, et al. 2003. Trophic facilitation by introduced top detailed information on Kauffman, Mathew et al. 2007. Landscape heterogeneity shapes predators: grey wolf subsidies to scavengers in YNP. J Animal park topics such as wild- predation in restored predator-prey system. Ecology Letters 10: Ecology. 72:909-916. flowers. Free; available 690-700. Ripple, W.J. et al. 2001. Trophic cascades among wolves, elk and upon request from visitor range. Bio. Cons. 102: 227+. Peter J. 1996. Life in the Cold. England. aspen on YNP's northern centers. Marchand, UNew herbivory stabi- McWethy D. B., et al. 2010. Climate and terrestrial eco- Wolf, Evan C. et al. 2007 Hydrologic regime and Resources Yellowstone system change in the U.S. Rocky Mountains and Upper lize an alternative state in YNP. Ecol. App. 17(6): 1572-1587. & Issues 2011 Columbia Basin: Historical and future perspectives for natural Yellowstone to Yukon: www.Y2Y.net 54 resource management. Natural Resource Report NPS/GRYN/ Geology 3

Yellowstone National Park's physical land- YELLOWSTONE'S The largest concentration of scape has been and is being created by many GEOLOGIC SIGNIFICANCE active geysers in the world— geological forces. Here, some of the Earth's • One of the most geologically approximately half of the world's (water + most active volcanic, hydrothermal dynamic areas on Earth due to total. heat), and earthquake systems make this shallow source of magma and The most undisturbed hydrother- national park a priceless treasure. In fact, resulting volcanic activity. mal features left in the world. Yellowstone was established as the world's • One of the largest volcanic erup- One of the few places in the world first national park primarily because of its tions known to have occurred in where active travertine terraces extraordinary geysers, hot springs, mudpots the world, creating one of the are found, at Mammoth Hot and steam vents, and other wonders such as largest known calderas. Springs. • More than 10,000 hydrothermal Site of many petrified trees the Grand Canyon of the Yellowstone River. features, including more than 300 resulting from repeated volcanic What Lies Beneath geysers. eruptions over the ages. Yellowstone's geologic story provides examples of how geologic processes work on a planetary scale. The foundation to understanding this story begins with the structure of the Earth and how this structure gives rise to forces that shape the planet's surface.

The Earth is frequently depicted as a ball with a central core surrounded by concen- tric layers that culminate in the crust or surface layer (see at right). The distance from the Earth's surface to its center or core is approximately 4,000 miles. The core may once have been entirely molten, but, as the planet cooled, the inner core (about 1,500 miles thick) solidified. The outer core (about 1,400 miles thick) remains molten and is surrounded by a 1,800 mile thick mantle of dense, mostly solid rock. Above this layer is the relatively thin crust, three to forty-eight miles thick, on which the continents and ocean floors are found.

The Earth's lithosphere (crust and upper mantle; see illustration next page) is divided into many plates, which are in constant motion. Where plate edges meet, one plate most evidence supports the theory that Illustrations on may slide past another, one plate may be convection currents in the partially molten pages 55-58 adapted with driven beneath another (subduction), or asthenosphere (the zone of mantle beneath permission from upwelling volcanic material pushes the the lithosphere) rigid crustal plates move the Windows Into the plates apart at mid-ocean ridges. above. The volcanism that has so greatly Earth, Dr. Robert Continental plates are of less made dense shaped today's Yellowstone is a product of Smith and Lee J. rocks (granites) than oceanic plates (basalts) plate movement combined with upwellings Siegel, 2000. and thus, "ride" higher than oceanic plates. of molten rock, as described on the next Yellowstone Resources Many theories have been proposed to pages. & Issues 2011 explain crustal plate movement. Currently, 55 —

Yellowstone Geologic History (mya=millions of years ago) 50-40 570 to 66 mya, area covered by inland — million years ago— 3 seas Absaroka Volcanics

Anciem Most of Earth's history (from the beginning now marked by the convergence of the to approximately 570 million years ago) is Nevada, Oregon, and Idaho state lines. Yellowstone known as the Precambrian time. Rocks of Repeated volcanic eruptions can be traced this age are found in northern Yellowstone across southern Idaho into Yellowstone and in the hearts of the Teton, Beartooth, National Park. This 500-mile trail of more Wind River, and Gros Ventre ranges. During than 100 calderas was created as the North the Precambrian and the subsequent American plate moved in a southwestern Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras (570 to 66 direction over a shallow body of magma. million years ago), the western United States About 2.1 million years ago, the movement was covered at times by oceans, sand dunes, of the North American plate brought the tidal flats, and vast plains. Near the end of Yellowstone area into proximity with the the Mesozoic, mountain building processes shallow magma body. This volcanism created the Rocky Mountains. remains a drivingforce in Yellowstone today. During the Cenozoic era (approximately the What is a last 66 million years of Earth's history), Magma & Hotspots hotspot? widespread mountain-building, volcanism, Over the years, the Magma (molten rock from Earth's mantle) faulting, and glaciation sculpted the understanding of a has been close to the surface in Yellowstone Yellowstone area. The Absaroka Range hotspot has evolved. for more than 2 million years. Its heat Some scientists refer along the park's north and east sides was melted rocks in the crust, creating a magma to a hotspot as the formed by numerous volcanic eruptions chamber of partially molten, partially solid source of the heat about 50 million years ago. This period of fueling the volcanism. rock. Heat from this shallow magma caused volcanism is not related to the present The original definition the upper crust to expand and rise. The por- Yellowstone volcano. is: tion of this bulge under Yellowstone, which hotspot is A Approximately 30 million years ago, vast is often called the Yellowstone Plateau, is the surface expanses of the West began stretching apart the hotspot—the surface manifestation of manifestation of along an east-west axis. This stretching also longlived volcanism. long-lived volcanism. The pressure process increased about 17 million years ago caused rocks overlying the magma to break, and continues today, creating the modern forming faults and causing earthquakes. basin and range topography (north-south Eventually, these faults reached the deep mountain ranges with long north-south magma chamber. Magma oozed through valleys) characterizing much of the West these cracks, releasing pressure within the including around Yellowstone. chamber and allowing trapped gases to

About 16.5 million years ago, an intense expand rapidly. A massive eruption then period of volcanism appeared near the area occurred, spewing volcanic ash and gas

This diagram shows the general ideas behind two theories of how magma rises to the surface.

Hotspot magma from the mantle- core boundary

Depth (miles) Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 56 1,800 Core 30 mya to present. "Basin & Range" forces creating Great Basin topography

16 mya, volcanics begin again in present day Nevada and Idaho

Volume Comparison of Volcanic Eruptions

cubic miles = volume of material ejected

1st Yellowstone eruption

2. 1 million years ago; 600 cubic miles

3rd Yellowstone eruption 640,000 years ago; 240 cubic miles

2nd Yellowstone eruption 1.3 million years ago; 67 cubic miles

Mazama (U.S.)

7, 600 years ago; 1 8 cubic miles

Krakatau (Indonesia); 1883; 4.3 cubic miles

Mt. St. Helens (U.S.) r~ L~ 1980; 0.1 cubic miles into the atmosphere and causing fast been found as far away as Missouri. superhot debris (pyroclastic) flows on the Approximately 1.3 million years ago, a ground. As the underground magma cham- second, smaller volcanic eruption occurred ber emptied, the ground above it sunk, on the western edge of the first caldera. creating the first of Yellowstone's three Then 640,000 years ago, a third massive vol- calderas. canic eruption Yellowstone created the Yellowstone Caldera, 30 by 45 miles in size. The volume of material ejected during this A much smaller eruption approximately first eruption is estimated to have been 174,000 years ago created what is now the 6,000 times the size of the 1980 eruption of West Thumb of Yellowstone Lake. In Mt. St. Helens in Washington, and ash has

This diagram shows a general idea of how the rising magma forms the volcanic hotspot, causes earthguakes,and creates the unigue landscape of Yellowstone National Park.

N Yellowstone Caldera — ! Rim boundary fault — Geysers Geysers Resurgent dome

^ Shallow hot water reservoirs Earthquakes ^X/A C^Freshwater^ C^Freshwaier^, MA Earthquakes

Granitic magma

< ^ I Crustal stretching (partial melt) Crustal stretching Yellowstone Geologic History (mya=millions of years ago) 1.3 mya: 2nd Yellowstone eruption 3 2. 1 mya: 1st Yellowstone eruption

Volcano

V100 The magma diagram 0J> 100 -200 at right is courtesy 'f/fy 200 Dr. Robert B. Smith; 200 longitude [km] it appeared in the Journal of Volcanology & Geo- thermal Research, Above: New technology has allowed scientists to between and after these eruptions, lava has 2009. The caldera map a magma plume (orange) originating several flowed—with the last being approximately illustration, below, is hundred miles away from Yellowstone, and far 70,000 years ago. from Smith & Seigel, deeper than previously thought. It feeds magma 2000. See "For More into a reservoir (red in detail) beneath Yellowstone. Over time, the pressure from magma has Information" for the Below: The locations of Yellowstone's three created two resurgent domes inside the full citations. calderas and two resurgent domes. Yellowstone Caldera. Magma may be as little as 3-8 miles beneath Sour Creek Dome and 8-12 miles beneath Mallard Lake Dome; they both lift up and subside as magma or hydrothermal fluids upwell or subside beneath them. The entire caldera floor lifts up or subsides, too, but not as much as the domes. In the past century, the net result has been to tilt the caldera floor toward the south. As a result, Yellowstone Sour Creek resurgent dome Lake's southern shores have subsided and trees stand in water.

Future Volcanic Activity Will Yellowstone's volcano erupt again? Over the next thousands to millions of Mallard Lake years, probably. In the next few hundred resurgent dome 2nd caldera years? Not likely. 1.3 million years old 1st caldera The most likely activity would be lava flows, 2.1 million years old such as those that occurred after the last major eruption. Such a lava flow would ooze slowly over months and years, allowing plenty of time for park managers to evaluate the situation and protect people. No scien- Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 tific evidence indicates such a lava flow will occur soon. 58 (ka= kiloannum, or one thousand years ago)

640 ka: 3rd Yellowstone eruption 174 ka: West Thumb eruption

IADIH-U Kd.ls^- DUIIRi ill LdKe1 ^Isa Glaciation underway 18-16 ka: Pinedale 3 Glaciation maximum

Sheepeater Cliff: columnar basalt

Obsidian Cliff: lava Virginia Cascades: ash flow

Gibbon Falls: Near caldera rim

Tuff Cliff: ash flow West Entrance Road, Mt. Haynes and Mt. Jackson: columnar rhyolite, Lava Creek tuff 7 Firehole Canyon: lava

8 Lewis Falls: Near caldera rim 9 Lake Butte: On edge of caldera, overall view of caldera 10 Washburn Hot Springs Overlook: overall view of caldera

11 Between Tower Fall and Tower Junction: columnar basalt

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 59 -

Hydro Yellowstone's hydrothermal features would following the cracks and weak areas not exist without the underlying magma through rhyolitic lava flows. This upward thermal body that releases tremendous heat. They path is the natural "plumbing" system of the also depend on sources of water, such as the park's hydrothermal features. Systems mountains surrounding the Yellowstone As hot water travels through this rock, it Plateau. There, snow and rain slowly perco- dissolves some silica in the rhyolite. This late through layers of permeable rock silica can precipitate in the cracks, perhaps riddled with cracks. Some of this cold water increasing the system's ability to withstand meets hot brine directly heated by the shal- the great pressure needed to produce a low magma body. The water's temperature geyser. (See description below.) rises well above the boiling point but the surface, silica precipitates water remains in a liquid state due to the At the to form great pressure and weight of the overlying siliceous sinter, creating the scalloped edges of hot springs and the seemingly barren water. The result is superheated water with temperatures exceeding 400°F. landscape of hydrothermal basins. When the silica rich water splashes out of a geyser, The superheated water is less dense than the the siliceous sinter deposits are known as colder, heavier water sinking around it. This geyserite. creates convection currents that allow the lighter, more buoyant, superheated water to begin its journey back to the surface

Geysers are hot springs with constrictions in their plumbing, usually near the surface, that prevent water from circulating freely to the surface where heat would escape. The deepest circulating water can exceed the surface boiling point (199°F/93°C). Surrounding pressure also increases

with depth, much as it does with depth in the ocean. Increased pressure exerted by the enormous weight of the overlying water prevents the water from boiling. As the water rises, steam forms. Bubbling upward,

steam expands as it nears the top of the water column. At a critical point,

the confined bubbles actually lift the water above, causing the geyser to splash or overflow. This decreases pressure on the system, and violent boiling results. Tremendous amounts of steam force water out of the

vent, and an eruption begins. Water is expelled faster than it can enter the geyser's plumbing system, and the heat and pressure gradually decrease. The eruption stops when the water reservoir is depleted or when the system cools.

Cone geysers, such as Riverside in the Upper Geyser Basin (above), erupt in a narrow jet of water, usually from a cone. Fountain geysers, such as Great Fountain in the Lower Geyser Basin (right), shoot water in various directions, typically from a pool.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 Fumaroles or steam vents, are the hottest hydrothermal features Hydro- in the park. They have so little water that it thermal all flashes into steam before reaching the Systems surface. At places like Roaring Mountain

(left), the result is a loud hissing of steam and gases.

Travertine terraces, found at Mammoth

Hot Springs (left), are formed from limestone (calcium carbonate). Water rises through the limestone, carrying high amounts of dissolved calcium carbonate. At the surface, carbon

dioxide is released and calcium carbon-

ate is deposited, forming travertine, the chalky white rock of the terraces. Due to the rapid rate of deposition, these features constantly and quickly change. Mudpots such as Fountain Paint Pot (center, left) are acidic features with a limited water supply. Some microorganisms use hydrogen sulfide, which rises from deep within the earth, as an energy source. They help convert the gas to sulfuric acid, which breaks down rock into clay. Various gases escape

through the wet clay mud, causing it to bubble. Mudpot consistency and activity vary with the seasons and precipitation.

Hot springs such as this one at West Thumb (left) are the most common hydrothermal features in the park. Their plumbing has no

constrictions. Superheated water cools as it

reaches the surface, sinks, and is replaced by hotter water from below. This circulation, called convection, prevents water from reaching the temperature needed to set off an eruption.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 3 Lake Geology

Yellowstone Lake has existed since the end of the Pinedale glaciation. The lake drains north from its outlet at Fishing Beneath Yellowstone Lake structures found in deep ocean areas, such as the Mid-Atlantic Ridge and the de Bridge, into the vast Until the late 1990s, few details were known Juan Atlantic Ocean about the geology beneath Yellowstone Fuca Ridge. They also provided habitat for drainage via the aquatic species Lake. In 1996, researchers saw anomalies on such as fresh-water sponges Yellowstone River. the floor of Bridge Bay as they took depth and algae. The elevation of the soundings. They deployed a submersible lake's north end Lake-bottom Surveys remotely operated vehicle (ROV) equipped does not drop From 1999 to 2003, scientists from the U.S. with photographic equipment and sector- substantially until Geological Survey and a private company, scan sonar. Large targets appeared on the LeHardys Rapids, Eastern Oceanics, surveyed the bottom of which is considered sonar image, then suddenly very large, Yellowstone Lake using high-resolution, the northern spire-like structures appeared in the photo- multi-beam swath sonar imaging, seismic geologic boundary graphic field of view (photo, page 63). These reflection profiling, and a ROV. The survey of the lake. structures looked similar to hydrothermal confirmed the northern half of the lake is inside the 640,000-vear-old Yellowstone Caldera and mapped previously unknown features such as large hydrothermal explo- craters, siliceous spires, Mary Bay sion hundreds of spire inflated crater field plain hydrothermal vents and craters, active fissures, and gas pockets. It also mapped young previously unmapped faults, land- the fissures slide deposits, and submerged older lake V shorelines. These features are part of an undulating landscape shaped by old rhyolitic lava flows that filled the caldera. The southern half of the lake lies outside the *" west caldera and has been shaped by glacial and central West Thumb basin other processes. The floor of the Southeast basin Arm has many glacial features, similar to the glacial terrain seen on land in Jackson Hole, south of the park.

These new surveys give an accurate picture of the geologic forces shaping Yellowstone Lake and determine geologic influences affecting the present-day aquatic biosphere. For example, hydrothermal explosions formed craters at Mary Bay and Turbid Lake. Spires may form similarly to black smoker chimneys, which are hydrothermal features associated with oceanic plate boundaries. Yellowstone Resources The top map shows locations of hydrothermal & Issues 2011 vents in northern Yellowstone Lake; the map above shows the geologic features of the lake 62 bottom. Both maps resulted from the five-year survey project. 3

Spire Analysis Initial Spire Growth Lake With the cooperation of the National Park Service, scientists from the University of Geology Wisconsin-Milwaukee collected pieces of spires and a complete small spire for study by several teams. They conducted a CAT outer shell precipitates t due to mixing with scan of the spire, which showed structures ambient lake water seeming to be conduits, perhaps for hydro- and cooling by dilution thermal circulation. When they cut open the spire, they confirmed the presence of T porous silica sinter with conduits and also saw a layered structure. myriad small channels forms by conductive cooling

Tests by the U.S. Geological Survey show in the center of the • that the spire is about 11,000 years old, lake bottom which indicates it was formed after the last glaciers retreated. In addition to silica, the spire contains diatom tests (shells) and silica produced by underwater hydrothermal processes. The spire's interior shows evidence of thermophilic bacteria. Scientists ascending hydrothermal say this suggests that silica precipitated on vent fluids bacterial filaments, thus playing an important role in building the spire.

Both research projects expanded our understanding of the geological forces at work Mature Spire beneath Yellowstone Lake. Additional study of the spires and other underwater features hydrothermal will continue to contribute to our under- vent fluids standing of the relationship between these features and the aquatic ecosystem.

4 conductive & advective

' cooling

porous & permeable amorphous

silica structure i .\ Ail

) 7 T lake bottom

Illustrations on this page adapted from originals by Dr. Lisa A. Morgan, USGS Research Geologist This spire (left) is among many found in Bridge Bay. Dr. Lisa Morgan sketched how these spires grow (above). Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 63 3 Earthquakes earthquakes generate changes in Yellow- stone's hydrothermal systems. For example, Yellowstone is the most seismically active Earthquakes the 1959 Hebgen Lake and 1983 Borah area in the Intermountain West. Approx- Peak earthquakes caused measurable changes in imately 2,000 earthquakes occur each year Old Faithful Geyser and other hydrothermal in the Yellowstone area; most are not felt. features. They result from the enormous number of faults associated with the volcano. Sometimes Yellowstone experiences an "earthquake swarm" a series of earth- Earthquakes occur along fault zones in the — quakes over a short period of time. crust where forces from crustal plate move- The Scales of largest swarm occurred in 1985, with more Magnitude ment build to a significant level. The rock than 3,000 earthquakes recorded during along these faults becomes so stressed that the Richter On three months. Hundreds of quakes were eventually it slips or breaks. Energy is then Magnitude scale, recorded during swarms in 2009 (near Lake released as shock waves (seismic waves) that the amplitude of Village) 2010 (between Old Faithful reverberate throughout the surrounding and shaking goes up by area and West Yellowstone). Scientists are rock. Once a seismic wave reaches the sur- a factor 10 for of confident these swarms are due to shifting face of the Earth, it may be felt. Surface each unit. Thus, and changing pressures in Earth's crust, not waves affect the ground, which can roll, the shaking will be to any change in volcanic activity. crack or vertically and/or laterally 10 times as large open, be are susceptible to during a magni- displaced. Structures Earthquakes help us understand the sub- earthquake damage because the ground beneath tude 5 earthquake surface geology around and motion is usually horizontal. energy from earthquakes as during a magni- Yellowstone. The travels through hard and molten rock at tude 4 earthquake. In Yellowstone, earthquakes help to main- different rates. We can "see" the subsurface The total amount tain hydrothermal activity by keeping the and make images of the magma chamber of energy released "plumbing" system open. Without periodic and the caldera by "reading" the energy by the earthquake, disturbance of relatively small earthquakes, emitted during earthquakes. An extensive however, goes up the small fractures and conduits that supply geological monitoring system is in place to by afactor of 32. hot water to geysers and hot springs might There are many be sealed by mineral deposition. Some aid in that interpretation. ways to measure magnitudefrom seismograms, Earthquakes in the Yellowstone area, 2009 partially because Approximately 1,611 each method only earthquakes occurred works over a in 2009. limited range of magnitudes and Blue dots --- with different earthquakes Red dotted line = types ofseismome- Yellowstone Caldera ters. But, all methods are designed to Real-time data about agree well over the earthquakes in range where they Yellowstone is available overlap. at www.seis.utah.edu, a website maintained by the University of Utah Seismograph Stations.

Earthquakes 2009

Magnitude • 000000

o 1 Yellowstone Resources 00000 1 000000 & Issues 2011 O 1000001-2 000000 O 2 000001 -3 000000

64 O 3 00000 1 - 4 000000 The extent of two major glaciations is shown on this map: Bull Lake- orange outline; Pinedale— blue outline

Glaciers evidence of Bull Lake Glaciation in these areas. Glaciers result when, for a period of years, more snow falls in an area than melts. Once The Yellowstone region's last major glacia- the snow reaches a certain depth, it turns tion, the Pinedale, is the most studied. Its into ice and begins to move under the force beginning has been hard to pin down of gravity or the pressure of its own weight. because field evidence is missing or incon- During this movement, rocks are picked up clusive and dating techniques are inade- and carried in the ice, and these rocks grind quate. However, scientists can say with some Earth's surface, eroding and carrying mate- confidence that the Pinedale reached maxi- rial away. Glaciers also deposit materials. mum 18,000-16,000 years ago and ended Large U-shaped valleys, ridges of debris 13,000-14,000 years ago. (moraines), and out-of-place boulders During this period, glaciers advanced and (erratics) are evidence of a glacier's passing. retreated from the Beartooth Plateau, scour- Yellowstone and much of North America ing the landscape we know today as the have experienced numerous periods of northern range. Glacial dams backed up glaciation during the last two million years. water over Hayden Valley that deposited Succeeding periods of glaciation have glacial sediment. Such dams also backed up destroyed most surface evidence of previous water over Lamar Valley; when the dams glacial periods, but scientists have found lifted, catastrophic floods helped to form evidence of them in sediment cores taken the modern landscape around the North on land and in the ocean. In Yellowstone, Entrance of the park. a glacial deposit near Tower Fall dates back During the Pinedale's peak, nearly all of Scientific under- 1.3 million years. Evidence of such ancient Yellowstone was covered by an ice cap 4,000 standing of glacier glaciers is rare. dates, sequence, feet thick (see above). Mount Washburn and and extent contin- The Bull Lake Period glaciers covered the Mount Sheridan were both completely cov- ues to evolve; the

region about 136,000 years ago. Evidence ered by ice. This ice cap was not part of the information here is exists that this glacial episode extended continental ice sheet extending south from considered current farther south and west of Yellowstone than Canada. The ice cap occurred here, in part, by Yellowstone's geologists as of the subsequent Pinedale Glaciation because the magmatic activity beneath January 2011. (described in the next paragraph), but no Yellowstone had pushed up the area to a

surface evidence of it is found to the north higher elevation with colder temperatures Yellowstone Resources and east. This indicates that the Pinedale precipitation than the surround- and more & Issues 2011 Glaciation covered or eroded surface ing land. 65 — 3 Sedimentation & Erosion

Not all the rocks in Yellowstone are of Sedimenta "recent" volcanic origin. Precambrian igne- tion & ous and metamorphic rock in the northeast- ern portion of the park and Beartooth Erosion Plateau are at least 2.7 billion years old. These rocks are very hard and erode slowly.

Sedimentary sandstones and shales, deposited by seas during the Paleozoic and Mesozoic eras (570 million to 66 million years ago) can be seen in the Gallatin Range and Mount Everts. Sedimentary rocks in Yellowstone tend to erode more easily than the Precambrian rocks.

Weathering breaks down earth materials from large sizes to small particles, and happens in place. The freeze/thaw action of ice

is one type of weathering common in Yellowstone. Agents of erosion—wind, water, ice, and waves—move weathered materials from one place to another.

When erosion takes place, sedimentation the deposition of material—also eventually occurs. Through time, sediments are buried by more sediments and the material hardens

into rock. This rock is eventually exposed (through erosion, uplift, and/or faulting), and the cycle repeats itself. Sedimentation and erosion are "reshapers" and "refiners" of the landscape —and they also expose Yellowstone's past life as seen in fossils like the petrified trees (see next page).

Above: The Beartooth Mountains northeast of Yellowstone are actually an uplifted block of Precambrian rock. Right: Mt. Everts, near Mammoth, exposes sedimentary rock, which erodes easily and often tumbles or slides into Gardner Canyon.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 3 Fossils Fossil Invertebrates Paleobotany Fossil invertebrates are abundant in Paleozoic rocks, especially the limestones Fossils Nearly 150 species of fossil plants (exclusive associated with the Madison Group in the of fossil pollen specimens) from Yellowstone northern and south-central parts of the have been described, including ferns, horse- park. They include corals, bryozoans, tail rushes, conifers, and deciduous plants brachiopods, trilobites, gastropods, and such as sycamores, walnuts, oaks, chestnuts, crinoids. Trace fossils, such as channeling maples, and hickories. Sequoia is abundant, and burrowing of worms, are found in some and other species such as spruce and fir are petrified tree bark. also present.

Most petrified wood and other plant fossils Fossil Vertebrates come from Eocene deposits about 50 million Fossil remains of vertebrates are rare, but years old, which occur in many northern perhaps only because of insufficient field parts of the park, including the Gallatin research. A one-day survey led by paleontol- Range, Specimen Creek, Tower, Crescent ogist Jack Horner, of the Museum of the Hill, Elk Creek, Specimen Ridge, Bison Rockies, Bozeman, Montana, resulted in the Peak, Barronette Peak, Abiathar Peak, discovery of the skeleton of a Cretaceous In Yellowstone, many petrified trees Mount Norris, Cache Creek, and Miller vertebrate. Other vertebrate fossils found in can be seen (below). Yellowstone include: Creek. Petrified wood is also found along Resulting from streams in areas east of Yellowstone Lake. volcanic eruptions • Fish: crushing tooth plate; phosphatized accessible petrified tree site is on about 50 million The most fish bones; fish scales; fish teeth. Specimen Ridge. years ago, they pres- • Horse: possible Pleistocene horse, Equus ent questions that The first fossil plants from Yellowstone nebraskensis, reported in 1939. scientists continue to were collected by the early Hayden Survey ponder: Were the • Other mammals: Holocene mammals parties. In his 1878 report, Holmes made the trees petrified in recovered from Lamar Cave; Titanothere place and thus are first reference to Yellowstone's fossil "for- (type of rhinocerus) tooth and mandible layers of forest? Or ests." report identified the petrified The found on Mt. Hornaday in 1999. were they scattered trees on the north slope of Amethyst before and after Mountain opposite the mouth of Soda Butte petrification, which the number Creek, about eight miles southeast of means of forests cannot be Junction Butte. determined? Around 1900, F. H. Knowlton identified 147 species of fossil plants from Yellowstone, 81 of them new to science. He also proposed the theory that the petrified trees on the northwest end of Specimen Ridge were forests petrified in place.

Another theory proposes that the trees were uprooted by volcanic debris flows and transported to lower elevations. The 1980 eruption of Mount St. Helens supported this idea. Mud flows not only transported trees to lower elevations, they also deposited the trees upright.

Cretaceous marine and nonmarine sediments are exposed on Mount Everts. The area is under study; fossil leaves, ferns, clam-like fossils, shark teeth, and several species of vertebrates have been found. In 1994 fossil plants were discovered in Yellowstone during the East Entrance road construction project, which uncovered Remember: Collecting any natural Yellowstone Resources areas containing fossil sycamore leaves and & Issues 2011 resources, including rocks and fossils, is petrified wood. illegal in Yellowstone National Park. 67 Staff reviewers: Henry Heasler, Geologist- U.S.A.) J. Sedimentary Res. 70(3): 565-585. Cheryl Jaworowski, Geologist Fournier, R. O. 1989. Geochemistry and dynamics of the General Yellowstone National Park hydrothermal system. Ann. Rev. Earth Planet. So. 17:13-53. Anderson, Roger J. and D. Harmon, eds. 2002. Yellowstone Gallant, Roy A. 1997. Geysers: When Earth Roared. Franklin 3 of or Reservoir of Resilience? Proceedings Lake: Hotbed Chaos Watts. of the 6th Biennial Scientific Conference on the Greater Ingebritsen, S. E. and S. A. Rojstaczer. 1993. Controls on geyser Yellowstone Ecosystem. Yellowstone Center for Resources and periodicity. Science. For More George Wright Society. 262: 889-892.

Ingebritsen, S. E. and S. A. Rojstaczer. 1996. Geyser periodicity Ehrlich, Gretel. 1987. Land of Fire and Ice. New York: Harper Information and the of Collins. response geysers to deformation. J. Geophys. Res. 101(B10): 21,891-21,905. Fritz, William J. 1985. Roadside Geology of the Yellowstone Marler, George D. 1973. Inventory of thermal features of the Country Missoula: Mountain Press Publishing Company. Firehole River geyser basins and other selected areas of Good, John M. and Kenneth L. Pierce. 1996. [New edition is Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Department of Commerce, in press.] Interpreting the Landscapes of Grand Teton and National Technical Information Service, Publication PB221 289. Yellowstone National Parks: Recent and Ongoing Geology www.nps.gov/yell. Marler, George D. 1969. The Story of Old Faithful. Mammoth, Moose, WY: Grand Teton Natural History Association. WY: Yellowstone Library and Museum Association. volcanoes.usgs.gov/yvo Hamilton, Wayne L. Geological investigations in Yellowstone Rinehart, John S. 1976. Guide to Geyser Gazing. Santa Fe: Hyper www.usgs.gov/corecast National Park, 1976-1981. In Wyoming Geological Association Dynamics. www.seis.utah.edu Guidebook. www.greateryellowstone- Yellowstone Lake Keefer, William R. 1976. The Geologic Story of Yellowstone science.org/index.html Cuhel, Russell et al. 2005. The Bridge Bay spires. Yellowstone National Park. U.S. Geological Survey. Yellowstone Science, free Science. 12(4): 25-40. Raymo, Chet. 1983. The Crust of Our Earth. Englewood Cliffs, from the Yellowstone Morgan, Lisa et al. 2003. The floor of Yellowstone Lake Is any- NJ: Prentice-Hall. Center for Resources, in thing but quiet. Yellowstone Science. 11(2): 15-30. Smith, Robert B. and Lee J. Siegel. 2000. [New edition is the Yellowstone Research Morgan, Lisa, ed. 2007. Integrated geoscience studies in the Library, or online at in press.] Windows Into the Earth: The Geologic Story of www.nps.gov/yell. Recent Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. New York: greater Yellowstone area— Volcanic, tectonic, and hydro-

articles covered historic Oxford University Press. thermal processes in the Yellowstone geoecosystem. USGS

sites and park history. Professional Paper 1717. pubs.usgs.gov/pp/1717/ Tuttle, Sherwood D. 1997. Yellowstone National Park in Geology

Yellowstone Today, of National Parks. Dubuque, IA: Kendall-Hunt Publishing Earthquakes distributed at entrance Company. Christopherson, Edmund. 1960, 1962. The Night the Mountain gates and visitor centers. Volcanic Fell. West Yellowstone, MT/Yellowstone Publications. Site Bulletins, published Christiansen, Robert L. 2001. The Quaternary + Pliocene, as needed, provide more Glaciers Yellowstone Plateau Volcanic Field of Wyoming, Idaho, and detailed information on Liccardi, J.M., and Pierce, K.L. 2008. Cosmogenic exposure-age Montana. Professional 729-6. park topics such as geol- USGS Paper chronologies of Pmedale and Bull Lake glaciations in greater

ogy & wildlife. Free; avail- Christiansen, Robert L. et al. 2007. Preliminary assessment of Yellowstone and the Teton Range, USA. Quaternary Science

able upon request from volcanic hydrothermal hazards in Yellowstone National and Reviews 27: 817-831. visitor centers. Park and vicinity. USGS Open-file Report 2007-1071; v. 1.1. Pierce, Kenneth L. 1979. History and dynamics ofglaciation in pubs.usgs.gov/of/2007/1071/. Podcasts and livestream the Northern Yellowstone National Park Area. U.S. Geological webcam at Old Faithful Christiansen, Robert L. et al. 2002. Upper-mantle origin of the Survey Professional Paper 729-F. available at www.nps. Yellowstone hotspot. Geological Society of America Bulletin. Pierce, Kenneth L. 2004. Pleistocene glaciations of the Rocky gov/yell October. 114:10, pgs. 1245-1256.

Mountains in Developments in Quaternary Science, J. Rose Videos Christiansen, Robert L. et al. 1994. A Field-Trip Guide to (ed). 1: 63-76. Elsevier Press. Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming, Montana, and Idaho- The Complete Volcanic, Hydrothermal, and Glacial Activity in the Region. U.S. Sedimentation/Erosion Yellowstone Geological Survey Bulletin 2099. Kharaka, YK. and A.S. Maest, eds. 1992. Proc. of the 7th intern, Yellowstone: Imprints of Cottrell, Dr. William H. 1987. Born of Fire: The Volcanic Origin of symp. on water-rock interaction-WRI-7. Park City, Utah. Time Yellowstone National Park. Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. Yellowstone: A Symphony Fossils Denasquo, K.R. & R.B. Smith, A.R. Lowry. 2009. Density and of Fire and Ice Cannon, K.P. et al. 1997. Results of Archeological and lithospheric strength models of the Yellowstone-Snake River Investigations Plain volcanic system. J Volcanology & Geo.Res. 188:108-127. Paleoenvironmental Along the North Shore of Yellowstone Lake, Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming: 1990- Morgan, Lisa A. et al (editors). 2009. The track of the Yellowstone hot spot: multi-disciplinary perspectives on the 1994. Lincoln: NPS Midwest Archeological Center.

origin of the Yellowstone-Snake River Plain Volcanic Province. Hadly, Elizabeth. 1995. Evolution, ecology, and taphonomy J Volcanology & Geo.Res. 188(1-3): 1-304. of late-Holocene mammals from Lamar Cave, Yellowstone

Puskas, CM. 2000. Deformation of the Yellowstone Caldera, National Park, Wyoming. Ph.D. dissertation. UCalifornia, Hebgen Lake fault zone, and eastern Snake River plain from Berkeley.

GPS, seismicity, and moment release. Masters thesis. U Utah. Hadly, E. A. 1999. Fidelity of terrestrial vertebrate fossils to a

Smith, R.B. et al. 2009. Geodynamics of the Yellowstone hot modern ecosystem. Palaeogeography Palaeoclimatology

spot and mantle plume. J Volcanology & Geo.Res. 188:108- Palaeoecology 149(1999): 389-409. 127. Hadly, E.A. 1990. Late holocene mammalian fauna of

Hydrothermal Lamar Cave and its implications for ecosystem dynamics

in Yellowstone National Park, Wyoming. Master's thesis. Bryan, T. Scott. 2008. The Geysers of Yellowstone. Northern Arizona University. Boulder: Colorado Associated University Press. Fourth Edition.

Yellowstone Resources Fouke, B. W. et al. 2000. Depositional facies and aqueous-solid & Issues 2011 geochemistry of travertine-depositing hot springs (Angel 68 Terrace, Mammoth Hot Springs, Yellowstone National Park, Life in Extreme Heat 4

Extremophile: A microorganism living in extreme conditions such as heat and acid, and cannot survive without these conditions. Thermophile: Heat-loving extremophile. Microorganism: Single- or multi-celled organism of microscopic

or submicroscopic size. Also called a microbe.

Microbes in Yellowstone The hydrothermal features of Yellowstone are magnificent evidence In addition to the thermophilic microorganisms, of Earth's volcanic activity. Amazingly, they are also— habitats in millions of other microbes thrive in which microscopic organisms called thermophiles "thermo" for Yellowstone's soils, streams, rivers, lakes, heat, "phile" for lover— survive and thrive. vegetation, and animals. Some of them are discussed in other chapters of this book. Grand Prismatic Spring at Midway Geyser Basin (above) is an out- Bacteria (Bacterium) standing example of this dual characteristic. Visitors marvel at its Single-celled microorganisms without nuclei, size and brilliant colors. Along the boardwalk (lower right ofphoto), varying in shape, metabolism, and ability to they cross a vast habitat for thermophiles. Nourished by energy and move. chemical building blocks available in the hot springs, microbes con- Archaea (Archaeum) struct vividly colored communities. Living with these microscopic Single-celled microorganisms without nuclei life forms are larger examples of life in extreme environments, such and with membranes different from all other as mites, flies, spiders, and plants. organisms. Once thought to be bacteria. People for thousands of years likely have wondered about these Viruses extreme habitats. The color of Yellowstone's superheated environ- Non-living parasitic microorganisms consisting ments certainly caused geologist Walter Harvey Weed to pause and of a piece of DNA or RNA coated by protein. think, and even question scientists who preceded him. In 1889, he Eukarya (Eukaryote) wrote: Single- or multi-celled organisms whose cells contain a distinct membrane-bound nucleus. There is good reason to believe that the existence of algae of other colors, particularly the pink, yellow and redforms so common in the Yellowstone waters, have been overlooked or mistakenfor deposits ofpurely mineral matter.

However, he could not have imagined what a fantastic world exists in these waters of brimstone. Species, unseen to the human eye, thrive in waters as acidic as the liquid in your car battery and hot enough to blister your skin. Some create layers that look like molten wax on the surface of steaming alkaline pools. Still others, apparent to us through the odors they create, exist only in murky, sulfuric caldrons that stink worse than rotten eggs.

Today, many scientists study Yellowstone's thermophiles. Some of these microbes are similar to the first life forms capable of photosynthesis—using sunlight to convert water and carbon dioxide to oxygen, sugars, and other byproducts. These life forms, called cyanobacteria, began to create an atmosphere that would eventually Yellowstone Resources support human life. Cyanobacteria are found in some of the color- & Issues 2011 ful mats and streamers of Yellowstone's hot springs. 69 4

About Other life forms —the archaea (see page 72) to something else Weed said about —predated cyanobacteria and other Yellowstone, more than a century ago: Microbes photosynthesizers. Archaea can live in the The vegetation of the acid waters is hottest, most acidic conditions in seldom a conspicuousfeature of the Yellowstone; their relatives are considered springs. But in the alkaline waters among the very earliest life forms on Earth. that characterize the geyser basins, Yellowstone's thermophiles and their envi- and in the carbonated, calcareous ronments provide a living laboratory for waters of the Mammoth Hot Springs, scientists, who continue to explore these the case is otherwise, and the red and extraordinary organisms. They know many yellow tinges of the algae combine mysteries of Yellowstone's extreme environ- with the weird whiteness of the sinter ments remain to be revealed. and the varied blue and green of the

hot water to a scene that is, Regardless of scientific advances, visitors form without doubt, one of the most beauti- and explorers in Yellowstone can still relate ful as well as one of the strangest sights in the world.

Thermophiles In the Tree of Life

In the last few decades, microbial research has led to a revised tree of life, far different from the one taught before. The new tree combines animal, plant, and fungi in one branch. The other two branches consist solely of microorganisms, including an entire branch of microorganisms not known until the 1970s—Archaea.

Bacteria Archaea Eukarya Yellowstone's hot springs contain species from the groups circled on the Tree of Life ^^Chloroflexus^ ' Methanothermus Halophiles Methanococcus ^Purple bacteria,

Chloroplast Pyrodictium t^mermococcusj Flagellates CJ^ysnobacteria Havobactena Trichonomads

Microsporidia Diplomonads

Common Ancestor approximately or before 4 billion years ago Dr. Jack Farmer produced this image of Dr. Carl Woese first proposed this "tree" in the 1970s. He also proposed the new branch, Archaea, which the tree of life, which includes many microorganisms formerly considered bacteria. The red line links the earliest organisms that first appeared in GSA evolved from a common ancestor. These are all hyperthermophiles, which thrive in water above 176°F (80°C), Today, July 2000. indicating life may have arisen in hot environments on the young Earth. Used with permission. Relevance to Yellowstone Among the earliest organisms to evolve on Earth were microorganisms whose descendants are found today

in extreme high-temperature, and in some cases acidic, environments, such as those in Yellowstone. Their

history exhibits principles of ecology and ways in which geologic processes might have influenced biological Yellowstone Resources evolution. & Issues 2011 70 —

The word "bacteria" is often associated with thermophiles. All of the cyanobacteria and disease, but only a few kinds of bacteria green nonsulfur bacteria photosynthesize. cause problems for humans. The other Some fulfill both roles. For example, thousands of bacteria, although all simple Thermus sp. —which are photosynthetic organisms, play a complex role in Earth's also may be able to oxidize arsenic into a ecosystems. In fact, cyanobacteria made our less toxic form. oxygen-rich atmosphere possible. They were Individual bacteria may be rod or sphere the first photosynthesizers, more than 3 bil- shaped, but they often join end to end to lion years ago. Without bacteria, we would form long strands called filaments. These not be here. strands help bind thermophilic mats, form- Almost any hot spring or geyser you see ing a vast community or mini-ecosystem. hosts bacteria. Some chemosynthesize, Other groups of bacteria form layered struc- changing hydrogen or sulfur into forms tures, which look like tiny towers, that can other thermophiles can use. Most photo- trap sand and other organic materials. (See synthesize, providing oxygen to other bottom photo, page 76.)

Name pH &T Description Where found

Cyanobacteria: 45-75°C color: usually orange; can be yellow, Mammoth Hot Springs Calothrix 113-167°F blue-green, black Upper, Midway, and Lower

Oscillatoria usually metabolism: photosynthetic geyser basins Leptolyngbya alkaline mobility: some can move to favorable West Thumb Spirulina light and temperatures within a mat Synechococcus form: usually long filaments entwined into mats with other thermophiles

Green nonsulfur bacteria: 60-80°C color: carotenoid pigments cause them to Mammoth Hot Springs Aquifex 140-176°F vary in pinks, yellows, and oranges Upper, Midway, and Lower Chloroflexus usually metabolism: photosynthetic geyser basins Thermus alkaline form: usually long filaments that entwine West Thumb

into mats with other Thermus sp. at Norris,

thermophiles especially at Cistern Spring

Sulfur-oxidizing bacteria: 60-86°C color: black, pink, or gray green, yellow, Lower Geyser Basin \Aquificales sp. 140-187°F white Mammoth Hot optimum metabolism: chemosynthesis, using Springs: Angel Terrace >70°C hydrogen or sulfur ^1 >158°C form: filaments and mats

Yellowstone Resources Note: The cyanobacteria genus Phormidium is now Leptolyngbya. & Issues 2011 4

Thermo- philic Archaea

Archaea (Archaeum) single-celled microorganisms without nuclei

and with membranes different from all other organisms. Once thought to be bacteria.

Archaea are the most extreme of all closely related to Eukarya—which includes extremophiles —some kinds live in the frigid plants and animals. environments of Antarctica, others live in Many kinds of archaea live in the hydro- the boiling acidic springs of Yellowstone. thermal waters of Yellowstone. For example, These single-celled organisms have no Grand Prismatic Spring at Midway Geyser nucleus, but have a unique, tough outer cell Basin contains archaea. They are most well wall. This tough wall contains molecules known in the superheated acidic features of and enzymes that may keep acid out of the Norris Geyser Basin and in the muddy roil- organism, allowing it to live in environ- ing springs of the Mud Volcano area. ments of pH 3 or less. (Vinegar, for example, Whenever you see a hot, muddy, acidic has a pH of less than 3.) Archaea also have spring, you are probably seeing the results protective enzymes within their cells. of a thriving community of archaea called Some scientists think present-day archaea Sulfolobus. This is the archaea most often have not changed much from their ances- isolated and most well known by scientists. tors. This may be due to the extreme envi- In sulfuric hydrothermal areas, it oxidizes ronments in which they live, which would hydrogen sulfide into sulfuric acid, which allow little chance for successful changes to helps dissolve the rocks into mud. The occur. If this is so, modern archaea may not Sulfolobus community in Congress Pool be much different from the original forms— (Norris) is providing interesting new and thus provide an important link with research directions for scientists: It is para- Earth's earliest life forms. sitized by viruses never before known on Once thought to be bacteria, organisms in Earth. (See next page.) the domain Archaea actually may be more

Name pH & T Description Where found

Domain Archaea pH 0.9-5.8 color: none in many of Yellowstone's upper temp.: metabolism: chemosynthesis, using hydrothermal features >80°C/176°F hydrogen, sulfur, carbon dioxide

form: unicellular, tough cell membrane

Sulfolobus pH 2-3, ideal color: none Mud Volcano acidocaldarium <90°C/194°F metabolism: chemosynthesis; oxidizes Norris, esp. Congress Pool

is the species most often sulfur and sulfur compounds into Roaring Mountain isolated sulfuric acid form: spherical with lobes

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 — 4

Thermo- philic Viruses

Viruses non-living parasitic microorganisms consisting of a piece of DNA or RNA coated by protein

Like bacteria, the word "virus" often con- own. Instead, a virus inserts itself into a host jures up images of sickness and death. cell and uses that cell's nutrients and metab- However, relatively few of the many types of olism to produce more viruses. viruses cause problems for humans. None of Scientists suspect many viruses exist in the thermophilic viruses in Yellowstone Yellowstone's hydrothermal features should cause problems for human health because they would be a logical part of the bodies are cold, for one thing. our too thermophilic ecosystem. One kind was Unlike microorganisms in the three discovered in Congress Pool, at Norris domains, viruses are not considered to be Geyser Basin. It was infecting the archaeum alive. (Yet they are still called "life forms.") Sulfolobus. Another kind of virus has been They have no cell structure, only a protein identified in pools near Midway Geyser "envelope" that encloses a piece of genetic Basin. material. They cannot reproduce on their

Name pH & T Description Where found

Viruses pH 0.9-5.8; protein coats a core of genetic material in many of Yellowstone's

(not in a domain) optimum 2-3 cannot reproduce by itself hydrothermal features

55-80°C/ reproduces by using the host cell's 131-176°F metabolism optimum not considered living 70-75°C predators of other microbes

unnamed acidic shape very similar to viruses that infect unnamed pool near boiling bacteria and animals, which could mean Midway Geyser Basin this of viruses existed early in the group This virus parasitizes development of life on Earth Sulfolobus.

unnamed acidic parasitizes the archaeum, Sulfolobus Norris, Congress Pool boiling

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 73 4

Thermo- philic Eukarya

Eukarya (Eukaryote) single- or multi-celled organisms whose cells contain a distinct membrane-bound nucleus

Plants, animals, and mushrooms are the eukarya most of us know. Millions of unseen, microscopic members of this kingdom exist throughout our world, including in the extreme environments of Yellowstone.

Norris Geyser Basin (photo above) is one of the best places to see thermophilic algae. Bright green Cyanidium caldarium grows on top of orange-red iron deposits around Whirligig and Echinus geysers and their runoff channels. Waving streamers of Zygogonium are especially easy to see in Porcelain Basin, where their dark colors contrast with the white surface (top photo at left).

From the boardwalk crossing Porcelain Basin, you can also see larger eukarya, such as ephydrid flies. They live among the thermophilic mats and streamers, and eat, among other things, algae. The species that lives in the waters of Geyser Hill, in the Upper Geyser Basin, lays its eggs in pink-orange mounds, sometimes on the firm surfaces of the mats (visible in center photo at left). Part of the thermophilic food chain, ephydrid flies become prey for spiders, beetles, and birds. Some microscopic eukarya consume other thermophiles. A predatory protozoan, called Vorticella, thrives in the warm, acidic waters of Obsidian Creek, which flows north toward Mammoth Hot Springs,

where it consumes thermophilic bacteria.

Thermophilic eukarya include one form that is dangerous to humans: Naegleria, a type of amoeba, that can cause disease and death in humans if inhaled through the nose.

Although they aren't visible like mushrooms, several thermophilic fungi thrive in Yellowstone. Curvularia protuberata lives in the roots of hot springs panic grass (bottom photo left). This association helps both can survive higher temperatures than when alone. In addition, researchers have recently discovered a virus inside the fungus

that is also essential to the grass's ability to grow on hot ground.

Of all the thousands (if not millions) of thermophilic species thriving in Yellowstone's extreme environments, the eukarya are the group that bridges the world of thermophilic microbes with the larger life forms— such as geese, elk, and bison—that thrive in hot springs panic grass ecological communities beyond the hot springs.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 74 Name pH & T Description Where found

Algae pH 0.5-3 color: bright green Roaring Mountain Cyanidium caldarium <56°C/133°F metabolism: photosynthetic Norris, both basins form: coating on top of formations; mats

Zygogonium pH 2-3 color: dark brown or purple Norris, especially 35°C/96°F) metabolism: photosynthetic Porcelain Basin form: filaments and mats

Protozoa warm predator; can infect humans when Huckleberry Hot Springs Naegleria (amoeba) alkaline ingested through nose Boiling River

Vorticella (ciliate) consumer; single-celled ciliate (feathery Obsidian Creek appendages swirl water, bringing prey)

Euglenids pH 1-2 single-celled Mutablis <43°C/109°F photosynthetic moves by waving one or two strands called flagella

Fungi <65°C/149°F grows in roots of hot springs panic grass Curvularia protuberata with panic (Dichanthelium lanuginosum), enabling grass both to survive high temperatures; the <55°C/131°F plant also produces sugars that the without fungus feeds on

Ephydrid fly >pH2 nonbiting insect that eats microscopic Norris, especially Porcelain

Ephydra sp. <43°C/109°F algae as larvae and adult; prey for Basin spiders, beetles, dragonflies, killdeer Upper Geyser Basin, especially Geyser Hill Mammoth Hot Springs

Ross's bentgrass 38°C/100°F one of Yellowstone's three endemic plant banks of Firehole River

Agrostis rossiae species (see p. 86); may bloom in winter; near Shoshone Lake dries out in summer's hot air temperatures

Warm springs spike rush, warm forms thick floating mats, which also Obsidian Creek with some Tweedy's rush acidic provide habitat for thermophilic algae and other thermophiles

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 75 Communities

Thermophilic communities are as diverse as the communities that humans live in. Community formations, colors, and locations vary depending on the types of microbes, the pH, and the temperature of their environments. The information here pertains to some of the microbe communities most easily seen in Yellowstone.

Millions of individual microbes can connect into long strands called filaments. Some bacteria (photo left) and algae form thin and delicate structures in fast moving water such as the runoff channels of hot springs and geysers. Other microbes form thick, sturdy structures in slower water or where chemical precipitates quickly coat their filaments.

white filamentous bacteria, A bacteria called Thermocrinis formed the structures in the middle seen through a microscope photo; this bacteria is descended from ancient bacteria that metab- olized hydrogen and oxygen. Its filaments entwine, forming mats. Flowing water carries other microbes, organic matter, and minerals that become caught in the streamers and add to the mat.

Photosynthetic activity of cyanobacteria such as Lyptolyngbya form columns or pedestals (bottom photo). Oxygen bubbles rise in the mat, forcing the microbes upward. The higher formations capture more organic matter and sediment than the lower mats, which help build the columns. Called stromatolites or microbialites, these

structures are similar to ancient microbial communities still preserved in formations in some parts of the world.

Mats can be as thin as tissue paper or as thick as lasagna. Multiple white filamentous bacteria layers of microorganisms comprise inch-thick mats. Dozens of types of microbes from all three domains can exist in these layers.

Each microbial layer is a community, and each layer interacts with the other layers, forming a complex community full of millions of microorganisms and their life processes.

Visible and invisible changes occur in thermophile communities as light, temperature, and chemical concentrations change—both short term (within one day) and long term (seasonally). As day brightens to noon, cyanobacteria sensitive to light may move away from the surface; microbes less sensitive to light may move to the top layers of the mat. When light levels cause shifts in organisms,

the community is responding to a light gradient.

Temperature and chemical gradients most often affect thermophilic communities in runoff channels of geysers and in shallow outflows bacterial columns from hot springs. In the photo above, the runoff channels from Pinwheel and Whirligig geysers meet. The outer edges of both are too hot for visible thermophile communities to develop. But as Pinwheel's water cools in the shallower channel edge, Cyanidium Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 (an alga) can grow, forming a bright green community. Whirligig's runoff is hotter, which prevents Cyanidium from growing, but 76 another type of thermophile thrives by oxidizing the abundant iron in the water, forming the orange community. —

Communities

Thermophile community inhabitants are controlled, in part, by water temperature and pH. The chart at right provides general guidelines for what lives in which temperature. Chocolate Pots, on the Gibbon River, are an iron-rich community.

At the Chocolate Pots (photo above), which 73°G163°F you can see from pullouts along the Gibbon Cyanobacteria River just north of Gibbon Meadows, iron- rich water flows from the vents. Three kinds of cyanobacteria Synechococcus, Chloro- flexus, and Oscillatoria—thrive in the this water. The bacterial filaments form mats, in which the mineral is captured. The iron may 62°G144°F also be caught on the bacteria as the Fungi microbes move about within the mat. An olive green color indicates where the orange 60°O140°F iron and green bacteria are enmeshed. Algae Darker streaks indicate the presence of manganese. Scientists think the bacterial concentration may contribute to the iron concentration at the Chocolate Pots, where the iron is one hundred times more concen- 56°0133°F trated than at other neutral hydrothermal Protozoa features.

Communities formed by thermophilic microbes sustain communities of larger organisms within Yellowstone's hydrother- 50°ai22°F mal areas, some of which were described on Mosses pages 74-75. These communities in turn crustaceans affect even larger communities of the park's insects mammals. For example, bison and elk find food and warmth on the less extreme edges of thermophilic environments in winter (photos at right). In turn, coyotes, wolves, and bears seek prey in these areas— especially in late winter and early spring when bison and elk are weaker than any other time of year.

Whether it's the strike of a grizzly's paw or 27°O80°F the shift of heat beneath the Earth, these Trout communities change through common and strange processes. Biologists continue to discover more about the individuals Yellowstone Resources involved in thermophilic communities, and & Issues 2011 ecologists continue to follow the threads of these intricate webs. 77 4

Thermophiles by Place & Color

Upper, Midway, & Lower Geyser Basins and West Thumb Geyser Basin

Characteristics Thermophiles by Temp. Thermophiles by Color

• pH 7-11 (alkaline) • >75°C/167°F, bacteria and archaea • pink, yellow, orange, gray fila-

• underlain by rhyolitic • >75°C/167°F, Thermocrinis and other ments—Thermocrinis bacteria

rock bacteria form streamers of pink, • orange mats— cyanobacteria,

• water rich in silica, which yellow, orange, or gray especially on sunny summer days

forms sinter and geyserite • <75°C/167°F, Synechococcus, (carotenoids protect the organisms deposits Lyptolyngbya, and Calothrix (cyano- from the bright sun)

bacteria) plus Roseiflexus (filamen- • olive-green mats— cyanobacteria tous green bacterium) form mats that mixed with iron

line cooler hot springs and runoff channels

Norris Geyser Basin & Mud Volcano Area

pH 0-5 (acidic) >75°C/167°F, Sulfolobus, an archaeum, pink-pinkish-orange mats and underlain by rhyolite and viruses that parasitize Sulfolobus streamers—Thermus aquaticus and

rock >60°C/140°F, filamentous bacteria in other Thermus sp. yellowish streamers and mats green streamers and mats— <60°C/140°F, filamentous bacteria and Cyanidium archaea form red brown mats orange— iron and/or arsenic, <56°C/133°F, Zygogonium, other algae, perhaps oxidized by thermophiles and fungi form mats in runoff gray, muddy pools— Sulfolobus channels mm Mammoth Hot Springs

pH 6-8 (neutral to 66-75°C/151-167°F, Aquificales (bacte- orange— Chloroflexus and cyanobac-

slightly acidic) ria) filaments near hot springs vents teria in summer underlain by ancient <66°C/151°F, Chloroflexus (green green— Chloroflexus and cyanobac- limestone deposits nonsulfur bacteria) and cyanobacteria in winter; Chlorobium in cooler

water rich in calcium teria mats, and filamentous bacteria water carbonate and sulfur streamers cream— filamentous bacteria <58°C/136°F, Chromatium (bacteria) form dark mats (uncommon) 25-54°C/77-129°F, Chlorobium (bacteria) mats; Calothrix streamers; Synechococcus

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 78 — "

These layers of rock on Mars have minerals and features developed by interactions between liquid water and rocks Thermophiles over time. This evidence does not prove life developed on Mars, but it brings in Time the possibility one step closer to reality.

Photo and caption adapted from & Space www.nasa.gov, image by NASA/JPL

To Mars—and What's the Connection? 1 Beyond? • Yellowstone's hydrothermal features contain The hydrothermal modern examples of Earth's earliest life forms, features of Yellow- both chemo- and photosynthetic, and thus provide a window into Earth's ancient past. stone and their • Yellowstone hydrothermal communities reveal associated thermo- the extremes life can endure, providing clues philic communities to environments that might harbor life on are studied by scien- other worlds. tists searching for evidence of life on other planets. The connection • Yellowstone environments show how mineral- is extreme environments. If life began in the extreme conditions ization preserves biosignatures of thermophilic thought to have been widespread on ancient Earth, it may well have communities, which could help scientists developed on other planets—and might still exist today. recognize similar signatures elsewhere.

• Based on the history of life on Earth, the The chemosynthetic microbes that thrive in some of Yellowstone's search for life on other planets seems more hot springs do so by metabolizing inorganic chemicals, a source likely to encounter evidence of microorganisms of energy that does not require sunlight. Such chemical energy than of more complex life. sources provide the most likely habitable niches for life on Mars or on the moons of Jupiter— Ganymede, Europa, and Callisto For additional where uninhabitable surface conditions preclude photosynthesis. information about Chemical energy sources, along with extensive groundwater systems (such as on Mars) or the scientific value oceans beneath icy crusts (such as on Jupiter's moons) could provide habitats for life. of thermophiles,

see Chapter 8, Similar Signatures "Bioprospecting. Thermophile communities leave behind evidence of their shapes as biological "signatures." For example, at Mammoth Hot Springs, rapidly depositing minerals entomb thermophile communities. Scientists compare these modern signatures to those of ancient deposits elsewhere, such as sinter deposits in Australia that are 350 million years old. These comparisons help scientists better understand the environment and evolution on early Earth, and give them an idea of what to look for on other planets.

Yellowstone National Park will continue to be an important site for studies at the physical and chemical limits of survival. These studies will give scientists a better understanding of the conditions that give rise to and support life, and how to recognize signatures of life in ancient rocks and on distant planets.

Earth formed

— Era of chemical Age of microorganisms Age of mammals evolution Oxygen atmosphere forming Age of dinosaurs Earth's crust stabilizing

3.5 3 2.5 2 1.5 0.5 Billions of years ago

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 79 4

For More Information

7 www.nps.gov/yell Andrews, Mark. 2005. Could It Be? Life on Mars Podcast: Terra Walter, M. R. and D. J. Des Marais. 1993. Preservation of

Videos, episode 105. terravideos.blogspot.com biological information in thermal spring deposits: developing www.greateryellowstone- a strategy for the search for fossil life on Mars. Icarus 101: Barns, Susan et al. 1996. Perspectives on archaeal diversity, ther- science.org/index.html mophily, and monophyly from environmental rRNA sequences. 129-143. Yellowstone Science, free Proceedings Natl Acad. Sci. 93: 9188-9193. Ward, D.M. 1998. Microbiology in Yellowstone National Park. from the Yellowstone News. 64:141-146. Boomer, Sarah et al. 2002. Molecular characterization of novel ASM Center for Resources, in red green nonsulfur bacteria from five distinct hot spring Ward, D.M. et al. 1992. Modern phototrophic microbial mats: the Yellowstone Research communities in Yellowstone National Park. Applied and anoxygenic, intermittently oxygenic/anoxygenic, thermal, Library, or online at Environmental Microbiology. January: 346-355. eucaryotic and terrestrial. In The Proterozoic Biosphere: www.nps.gov/yell. Multidisciplinary Study J.W. Schopf and C. Klein, eds. Brock, Thomas D. 1978. Thermophilic microorganisms and life at a Yellowstone Today, high temperatures. Sprmger-Verlag, New York. Cambridge U Press/Cambridge. entrance distributed at Ward, D.M. and Castenholz. 2000. Cyanobactena in —1998. Early days in Yellowstone Microbiology. RW. gates and visitor centers. ASM News. 64:137-140. geo-thermal habitats. In Ecology of Cyanobactena. Kluwer Academic Publishers. Site Bulletins, published —T. D. 1994. Life at High Temperatures. Yellowstone as needed, provide more Association/Mammoth, WY Ward, D.M. et al. 2002. Natural history of microorganisms detailed information inhabiting hot spring microbial mat communities: clues to the Dyer, Betsey Dexter 2003. A Field Guide to Bacteria. Cornell/ on park topics such as origin of microbial diversity and implications for micro- and Ithaca. geology. Free; available macro-biology. In Biodiversity of Microbial Life: Foundation of Carsten, Laura. 2001. Life in extreme environments. Northwest upon request from visitor Earth's Biosphere, J.T. Staley and A-L. Reysenbach, eds. John Science and Technology. Spring: 14-21. centers. Wiley and Sons/New York. Farmer, Jack D. 2000. Hydrothermal Systems: Doorways to Early

Biosphere Evolution. GSA Today 10(7): 1-9. www.windowsmtowonderland.org, "Hot Colors: Windows into Farmer, J. D, and D. J. Des Marais. 1999. Exploring for a record Hidden Worlds" (electronic field trip) of ancient Martian life. J. Geophys. Res. 104. the public website of the American Fouke, Bruce et al. 2000. Depositional facies and aqueous-solid www.microbeworld.org, geochemistry of travertine-depositing hot springs. Society for Microbiology

J Sedimentary Research. 70(3): 565-585. www.tbi.montana.edu, website of the Thermal Biology Institute of State University Gihrmg, Thomas et al. 2001. Rapid arsenite oxidation by T. Montana

aquaticus and T. thermophilus: Field and laboratory investiga- Additional information available on numerous websites. Search

tions. Environ. Sci. Technol. 35: 3857-3862. topics include thermophiles, extreme life, and astrobiology.

Madigan, Michael and Aharon Oren. 1999. Thermophilic and halophilic extremophiles. Current Opinion in Microbiology.

2: 265-269.

Marquez, Luis et al. 2007. A virus in a fungus in a plant: 3-way

symbiosis required for thermal tolerance. Science 315 (5811): 513-515.

Pierson, Beverly and Mary Parenteau. 2000. Phototrophs in high

iron microbial mats: microstructure of mats in iron-depositing hot springs. Microbiology Ecology. 32: 181-196.

Reysenbach, A-L. et al, eds. 2001. Thermophiles: Biodiversity, Ecology, and Evolution. Kluwer Academic Press/Plenum, New York.

Reysenbach, A-L and Sherry Cady. 2001. Microbiology of ancient and modern hydrothermal systems. Trends

in Microbiology 9(2): 80-86.

Reysenbach, A-L, et al. 2000. Microbial diversity at 83°C in Calcite Springs, Yellowstone National Park. Extremophiles. 4: 61-67.

Sheehan, K.B. et al. 2005. Seen and Unseen: Discovering the Microbes of Yellowstone. Falcon/Helena.

Sheehan, K.B. et al. 2004. Yellowstone Under the Microscope. The Globe Pequot Press/Gilford, CT.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 80 Vegetation

Vegetation Overview Rocky Mountain juniper, limber

• Vegetation in Yellowstone is pine. typical of the Rocky Mountains. • Deciduous trees include quaking • Elements of the Great Plains and aspen and cottonwood. Great Basin floras mix with Rocky • Shrubs include common juniper,

Mountain vegetation in the sagebrush (many species), Rocky vicinity of Gardiner and Stephen's Mountain maple. Creek. • Wildflowers number in the Arrowleaf balsamroot • The interaction of climate and hundreds.

geologic substrate controls distri- • Three endemics— Ross' bentgrass,

bution of vegetation in the park. Yellowstone sand verbena,

Yellowstone's vegetation is composed • Disturbances—fire, floods, insects, Yellowstone sulfur wild buck- primarily of typical Rocky Mountain disease—occur periodically, affect- wheat (see p. 86). species. It is also influenced by flora of the ing portions of the park. • More than 210 exotics. Great Plains to the east and the Intermoun- • Hydrothermal areas support Management unique plant communities and tain to the west. The exact plant community • Controlling exotics, which threaten rare species. present in any area of the park reflects a native species, especially near • Lodgepole pine alone comprises complex interaction between many factors developed areas; some are spread- 80% of the forest canopy. including the regional flora, the climate, the ing into the backcountry. • Six conifer tree species: other • Surveying topography, and the local substrates/soils. areas for sensitive or whitebark pine, Engelmann rare vegetation before disturbance spruce, subalpine fir, Douglas-fir, The vegetation of the park is interrelated such as constructing a new facility. with the geology of the park. (See Chapter 2.) The region's caldera explosions catastrophi- especially in areas such as the Absaroka cally destroyed vegetation. In addition, Range that are underlain by andesites. glaciers significantly altered the region. These species can also be common in the Today, the roughly 1,150 native species of understory where the canopy is entirely flowering plants in the park represent the composed of lodgepole pine. Through time, species able to either persist in the area or in the absence of fire and in non-rhyolitic recolonize after glaciers, lava flows, and soil, subalpine fir and Engelmann spruce other major disturbances. Unlike south- can replace the lodgepole pine, leading to a western Wyoming or central Idaho, the canopy dominated by these species. In Greater Yellowstone region has few endemic rhyolitic soils, which are poor in nutrients vascular plant species, primarily in the east- needed by fir and spruce, lodgepole pine ern portion of the Absaroka Mountains out- remains dominant. At higher elevations side of Yellowstone. Within Yellowstone, such as the Absaroka Mountains and the only three endemics occur, Yellowstone Washburn Range, whitebark pine becomes a sand verbena (Abronia ammophila), Ross's significant component of the forest. In the bentgrass (Agrostis rossiae), and Yellowstone upper subalpine zone, whitebark pine, sulfur wild buckwheat (Eriogonum umbella- Engelmann spruce, and subalpine fir often tum var. cladophorum). grow in small areas separated by subalpine Major Types meadows. Wind and dessication cause dis- torted forms known as krumholtz where Montane Forests most of the 'tree' is protected below snow. Forests cover roughly 80 percent of the park. Miles and miles of lodgepole pine Douglas-fir Forests forest characterize the park, especially Douglas-fir forests occur at lower eleva- Ilowstone Resources & Issues 2011 within the Yellowstone Caldera. Extensive tions, especially in the northern portion of areas of forest dominated by subalpine fir the park. The thick bark of Douglas-fir trees 81 and Engelmann spruce are also present, allows them to tolerate low-intensity fire. 5

Major Some of the trees in these forests are several (Chapter 7), and for numerous insects, birds hundred years old and show fire scars from and fish. Vegetation a succession of low intensity ground fires. In Hydrothermal Communities contrast, lodgepole pine trees have very thin Yellowstone is the best place in the to Types bark and can be killed by ground fires. world see hydrothermal phenomenon such as gey- Understory Vegetation sers and hot springs. Fascinating and unique The understory vegetation differs according plant communities have developed in the Finding to precipitation regime, the forest type, and expanses of thermally heated ground. Many Wetlands the substrate. Lodgepole pine forest is often of the species that occur in the geyser basins Here are afew characterized by a very sparse understory are actually species that tolerate tremen- wetlands locations composed mostly of elk sedge (Carexgeyeri), dously different conditions, and thus grow near roads: or grouse whortleberry (Vaccinium scopari- all over the western United States. Other um). Pinegrass (Calamagrostis rubescens) species, though, are typical of the central Northeast Entrance Road, occurs frequently under Douglas-fir forest Rockies, or are regional endemics. beginning east but is also common under other forest of Effects of Disturbances Yellowstone Picnic types, especially where the soil is better Area: listen for developed or moister. In some areas of the The park's vegetation appears at first glance frogs in spring, park such as Bechler and around the edges to be static and unchanging, but must, in look for sandhill of the northern range, a more obviously fact, respond to change. Hydrothermal plant

cranes throughout developed shrub layer is composed of spe- communities demonstrate in very short the Lamar Valley cies such as Utah honeysuckle (Lonicera uta- periods of time that change is fundamental in any natural system. In a few days, the Firehole Lake hensis), snowberry (Symphoricarpos spp.A ground can heat up, perhaps triggered by an Road: listen for and buffaloberry (Shepherdia canadensis). frogs and look for earthquake, and kill plants, while an adja- Sagebrush - Steppe elephant's head cent area may be turning cooler, allowing flowers where the This vegetation type occurs in northern plants to invade a previously inhospitable road begins range, Hayden and Pelican valleys, and place. The vegetation of the park today Hole. Mountain big sagebrush Dunraven Pass Gardner's reflects the effects of many different types (Artemisia tridentata var. domi- area: lookfor vaseyana) of natural disturbance such as forest fire, abundant wild- nates, along with several other kinds of floods, landslides, insect infestations, flowers in high sagebrush. Several grass species, such as blowdowns, and the changing climate. (See elevation wetlands Idaho fescue (Festuca idahoensis), also domi- chapters 6 & 8). near the road nate sagebrush-steppe. The northern range can be spectacular with wildflowers in late Norris Geyser June and early July. Basin, Back Basin: near Puff Wetlands Stuff Geyser, Yellowstone's wetlands include lakes, rivers, look for dragon- ponds, streams, seeps, marshes, fens, wet flies meadows, forested wetlands, and hydro- All thermal thermal pools. They occupy over 357 square areas: look for miles of Yellowstone: 44 percent are lakes ephydrid flies, and ponds larger than 20 acres or having thermophiles, and water deeper than 6.6 feet at low water; 4 other life forms percent are rivers and streams; 52 percent (see Chapter 4) are shallow water systems that dry up most years. Approximately 38 percent of park's plant species —including half of the rare plants— are associated with wetlands and 11 percent grow only in wetlands. Wetlands provide essential habitat for Yellowstone's rare plants (seepage 86), thermal species reptiles Yellowstone Resources (Chapter 4), and amphibians & Issues 2011

82 Fringed gentian, considered the park's official flower, grows in wetlands. Lodgepole pine forests dominated forests from 7,000 to 8,400 feet. • Dominate more than 80% of the total park • Seeds are ecologically important food for a forested area. variety of wildlife species. • Can be serai (developing) or climax. Non-forest • Climax forests underlain by rhyolite. • Includes grasslands, sagebrush, alpine mead- Douglas-fir forests ows, talus, and hydrothermal environments. • Associated with the Lamar, Yellowstone, and • Encompasses the moisture spectrum from dry Madison river drainages below 7,600 feet. sagebrush shrublands to wet alpine meadows. • Often less than 20 inches annual precipitation. • Provides the winter and summer forage base

• More frequent historic fire interval (25-60 year) for ungulates. than other forest types in the park. Other types not shown on map Spruce-fir forests • Aspen—found in small clones interspersed

• Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir dominate among the sagebrush/forest ecotone (transi- older forests. tion zone) along the Yellowstone, Madison, and • Usually found on moist and/or fertile substrates Snake river drainages.

• Climax forests underlain by andesitic soils. • Wetland— includes various grass, forb, rush, Yellowstone Resources Whitebark pine forests sedge, and woody species. • Riparian—typically streamside vegetation • Major overstory component above 8,400 feet. includes cottonwoods, willows, and various • Major understory component of lodgepole- deciduous shrubs. Trees

Major Types of Trees Douglas-fir Pseudotsuga men-

ziesii Lodgepole pine Pinus contorts • Resembles the fir and the • Most common tree in park hemlock, hence its generic name • Needles in groups of twos • May have serotinous cones Pseudotsuga, which means "false hemlock" • Up to 75 feet tall • Cones hang down and remain LODGEPOLE PINE Limber pine P. flexilis intact, with 3-pronged bract The lodgepole pine (Pinus contorta) is by far • Needles in groups of five between scales the most common tree in Yellowstone. Early • Young branches are flexible • Thick bark resists fires botanical explorers first encountered the • Up to 75 feet tall • Up to 100 feet tall • Often on calcium-rich soil species along the West Coast where it is Rocky Mountain juniper often contorted into a twisted tree by the Whitebark pine P. albicaulis Juniperus scopulorum wind, and thus named it Pinus contorta var. • Grows above 7000 feet • Needles scale-like contorta. The Rocky Mountain variety, • Needles in groups of five • Cones are small and fleshy • Purple-brown cones produce which grows very straight, is Pinus contorta • Up to 30 feet tall important food for squirrels, var. latifolia. Various Native American tribes bears, Clark's nutcrackers Cottonwood Populus spp. used this tree to make the frames of their • Several species and hybrids • Up to 75 feet tall tipis or lodges, hence the name "lodgepole" • Up to 75 feet tall Engeimann spruce pine. Typically, lodgepole pine in Yellow- • Thick, furrowed bark Picea engelmannii stone is seldom more than 75 feet tall. The • Seeds with tangled hairs—the • Often along creeks, or wet areas species is shade intolerant; any branches left "cotton"— dispersed by wind • Sharp, square needles grow singly in the shade below the canopy will wither Quaking aspen • Cones hang down and remain and fall off the tree. Lodgepoles growing by Populus tremuloides intact, with no bract between themselves will often have branches all the • Sedimentary soils in damp areas scales way to the base of the trunk because sun- • Flexible leaf petioles quake and • Up to 100 feet tall light can reach the whole tree. shiver in the breeze Subalpine fir Abies lasiocarpa • Trunks often rough and black Lodgepoles are the only pine in Yellowstone • Only true fir in the park due, in part, to browsing by elk whose needles grow in groups of two. The • Blunt, flat needles and other animals bark is typically somewhat brown to yellow- • Cones grow upright, disintegrate • Reproduces by cloning (most ish, but a grayish-black fungus often grows on tree often), and by seeds (related to the parts of the bark, giving the • Up to 100 feet tall on shady fire) tree a dark cast.

Like all conifers, lodgepole pines have both male and female cones. The male cones produce huge quantities of yellow pollen in June and July. This yellow pollen is often seen in pools of rainwater around the park or at the edges of lakes and ponds. The lodgepole's female cone takes two years to mature. In the first summer, the cones look like tiny, ruby-red miniature cones out near the end of the branches. The next year, after fertilization, the cone starts rapidly growing and soon becomes a conspicuous green. The Yellowstone Resources female cones either open at maturity releas- & Issues 2011 ing the seeds, or remain closed— a condition 84 called serotiny—until subjected to high heat Insects and Fungus Threaten the such as a forest fire. These cones remain Trees of Yellowstone closed and hanging on the tree for years The conifer trees of Yellowstone face six until the right conditions allow them to major insect and fungal threats. The fungus open. Within a short period of time after the is an exotic species, but the insects are tree flashes into flame, the cones open up native to this ecosystem. They have been and release seeds over the blackened area, present and active in cycles, probably for effectively dispersing seeds after forest fires. centuries. A scientist studying lake cores Trees without serotinous cones (like from the park has found some of their insect Engelmann spruce, subalpine fir, and remains in the cores, indicating their pres- Douglas-fir) must rely on wind, animals, or ence even millions of years ago. However, in other agents to carry seeds into recently the last ten years, all five insects have been burned areas. extremely active, which may be due to the

Lodgepole pines prefer a slightly acid soil, effects of climate change. (See Chapter 8, will and grow quickly in mineral soils dis- "Climate Change. ") turbed by fire or by humans (such as a road The beetles damage trees in similar ways: cut). Their roots spread out sideways and do their larvae and adults consume the inner not extend deeply—an advantage in bark. If the tree is girdled, it dies. Yellowstone where the topsoil is only about 6 to 12 inches deep, but a disadvantage in Mountain pine beetle (Dendroctonus pon- high winds. Lodgepole pines are vulnerable derosae) Affects whitebark, lodgepole, and in windstorms, especially individuals that limber pine. The tree defends itself by are isolated or in the open. increasing resin (pitch) production, which can "pitch out" the insect from the tree and Besides reseeding effectively after distur- seal the entrance to others. Look for globs bance, lodgepole pines can grow in condi- of resin, often mixed with wood borings, on tions ranging from very wet ground to very the bark. Adults emerge in mid-summer. poor soil prevalent within the Yellowstone Caldera. This flexibility allows the species Spruce beetle (D. rufipennis) Affects to occur in habitat that otherwise would not Englemann spruce, rarely lodgepole pine. be forested. Larvae feed for two years. Look for reddish dust on the bark and at the base of the tree Because lodgepole pines are dependent on in early summer. sunny situations for seedling establishment and survival, the trees do not reproduce well Douglas-fir beetle (D. pseudotsugae) Affects until the canopy opens up significantly. In Douglas-fir. Larvae also consume outer the Yellowstone region, this allows the bark. lodgepole pine forest to be replaced by Western balsam bark beetle (Dryocoetes shade-loving seedlings of fir subalpine and confusus) Affects subalpine fir. Engelmann spruce where the soil is well- Western spruce budworm (Choristoneura developed enough to support either of occidentalis) Affects Douglas-fir, true firs, these species. In areas of nutrient poor soil, spruce. Larvae defoliate trees and can where Engelmann spruce and subalpine fir destroy cones and seeds. Look for clumps of struggle, lodgepole pines will eventually be chewed needles on branch tips. replaced by more lodgepole pine trees as the forest finally opens enough to allow young Blister rust is a disease caused by a fungus, lodgepoles to become established. Cronartium ribicola. Affects whitebark and limber pines. The disease impacts the tree's ability to transport nutrients and produce cones, and generally kills the tree. Look for cankers (lesions) on the bark. 5

Endemics

Only Here

• Yellowstone is home to three endemic species— plants that grow nowhere else— Ross's bentgrass, Yellowstone sand verbena, and Yellowstone sulfur wild buckwheat.

• Endemics occur in unusual or specialized habitats such as hydrothermal areas.

• Several other unusual species in Greater Yellowstone Area: warm springs

spike rush, which grows in warm water; and Tweedy's rush, sometimes the

only vascular plant growing in acidic hydrothermal areas.

Ross's Bentgrass (Agrostis rossiae) known threat; as they spread in thermal Ross's bentgrass grows only in the geyser areas, they eventually may outcompete Ross's bentgrass. Wildflowers basins along the Firehole River and at Wild/lowers such Shoshone Lake. This species seems to Yellowstone Sand Verbena as lupine and require locations providing the right combi- (Abronia ammophila) arnica often grow nation of moisture and warmth that create a Yellowstone sand verbena (photo above) under the forest natural greenhouse. The temperature with- occurs along the shore of Yellowstone Lake. canopy, but the in an inch of the surface under a patch of most conspicuous Taxonomists debate the relationship of this this grass is usually about 100°F. As a result, wildflower population of sand verbena to other sand this grass is one of the first plants to green displays occur in verbenas. It may be distinct at the subspe- up in warm pockets of geyserite— sometimes open meadows cific level, and is certainly reproductively as early as January. and sagebrush- isolated from the closest sand verbena pop- steppe. The Ross's bentgrass rarely grows taller than six ulations in the Bighorn Basin of Wyoming. appearance of inches and more typically only 2-3 inches. spring beauties, Sand verbenas are a member of the four Another diagnostic characteristic of Ross's glacier lilies, o'clock family. Very few members of the bentgrass is that the inflorescence (flower) and steer's head family grow this far north. Little is known never completely opens up. Flowers may be announce spring about the life history of Yellowstone sand present in February and March, but the in the park. Soon verbena. It was described as an annual in plants typically do not produce viable seed colors splash the the only monograph that has examined this slopes, especially that early. Full bloom occurs in late May genus in recent years, but it is a perennial. It on the northern and early June. As soon as temperatures rise grows close to the sand surface. Some indi- range—yellow in the early summer, the plants dry out due viduals occur near warm ground, so the from arrowleaf to the sun's heat from above and the thermal thermal activity in Yellowstone may be balsamroot, white heat from below. Ross's bentgrass is already helping this species survive. The flowers are from phlox, reds dead and hard to find by July. and orangesfrom white and the foliage is sticky, and bloom paintbrush, and Any plant growing in thermal areas must be from mid-June until a killing frost. bluefrom penste- able to deal with constant change. A suc- Yellowstone Sulfur Wild Buckwheat mon and lupine. cessful plant in the geyser basins must be (Eriogonum umbellatum var. cladophorum) Goldenrod and able to shift location relatively easily as one gentians indicate major thermal change or several changes Several varieties of sulfur buckwheat live in the coming of could eradicate the entire population. the park, but this variety grows along edges autumn. Apparently, Ross's bentgrass deals with this of thermally influenced sites from Madison problem efficiently. Its seed dispersal mech- Junction to the Upper Geyser Basin. It differs from the more common varieties by the Yellowstone Resources anism probably includes traveling on the & Issues 2011 muddy hooves of bison and elk who inhabit densely hairy upper surface of the leaves, 86 thermal areas during the winter. Exotic spe- and by the bright yellow of its flowers. cies, such as cheat grass, pose the only 5 Managing Invasive Plants

The full extent and impact of exotic plants Exotic Species Species include (common names): in Yellowstone is unknown. Many grow in • More than 210 exotic plant Dalmation toadflax disturbed areas such as developments, road species in the park. Spotted knapweed corridors, thermal basins; they also are and • Resource managers target the Canada thistle spreading into the backcountry. Several most invasive species for Ox-eye daisy exotics, such as the common dandelion, control or removal. Houndstongue have spread throughout the park. Leafy spurge

Exotic plants can displace native plant species and change the nature of vegetation most serious threat or those most likely to communities. These changes can profound- be controlled. ly effect the entire ecosystem. For example, The park uses Integrated Pest Management exotics unpalatable to wildlife may replace — chemical, biological, sociological, and preferred native plants, leading to changes mechanical methods—to control some of in grazing activity. In turn, this stresses the exotic plants. The park also cooperates plants not adapted to grazing. with adjacent state and county Weed Dalmatian Controlling all the exotic species, some Control Boards to share knowledge and toadflax well-established, is unrealistic. The park technology related to exotic plant focuses control action on species posing the detection and control.

Dalmation toadflax Linaria dalmatica Houndstongue • Northern portions of the park, especially around Cynoglossum officinale Mammoth. • Primarily Mammoth and East Entrance. • Highly invasive, replacing native plants. • May have been introduced by contami- Spotted knapweed Centaurea maculosa nated hay used by both the National Park Service and concessioners in their • Along roadsides and in the vicinity of Mammoth. horse operations. • Aggressive species that, once established, forms • Highly invasive. a monoculture, which displaces native grasses on • Seeds easily attach to the coats of the ungulate winter and summer ranges. animals, and thus spread along animal • Aggressive control efforts underway to prevent a corridors. catastrophic change in park vegetation.

Canada thistle Cirsium arvense Leafy spurge Euphorbia esula • Small patches in Bechler and along road- • Throughout the park and adjacent national sides, so far being successfully controlled forests. but spreading actively in Paradise Valley • Airborne seed enable it to spread widely through- north of the park and outside Bechler on out the park, invading wetlands. the Caribou-Targhee National Forest. • Forms dense monocultures, thus radically • monoculture, forcing changing vegetation. Becomes a out native vegetation. Ox-eye daisy Leucanthemum vulgare • Extremely hard to control because of • and Madison areas. Mammoth deep underground stems (up to 30 feet) • Can become dominant in meadows, is unpalatable and dense vegetation. to elk and other wildlife. • Control efforts have substantially curtailed infestation; monitoring and evaluation continue.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 5

Restoring Restoring an Invaded Land 2008 and 2009, they fenced four pilot plots totaling 50 acres, where they are controlling In 1932, President Hoover added over non-native plants with herbicides and grow- Native 7,000 acres of land to Yellowstone National ing cover crops to increase soil organic mat- Park to provide low-elevation winter wild- Plants ter and moisture-holding capacity and life habitat near Gardiner, MT. (See Chapter restore soil microbial communities. After 2 1.) The addition included 700 acres of to 3 years, they will seed the plots with irrigated agricultural fields. native species. Park managers stopped irrigating the fields Managers expect the fencing to remain for and planted an exotic perennial grass, 10 to 15 years while the native plants crested wheatgrass (Agropyron cristatum), become established. The fencing prevents that they hoped would tolerate the arid elk and other ungulates from grazing on the conditions and provide wildlife forage. It young plants. thrived for many decades, but was never suitable forage. Eventually another, more Restoration of this area will proceed in aggressive, non-native plant— an annual multi-year phases to allow native plants to mustard, desert alyssum (Alyssum deserto- become established under natural condi- rum) —moved in. Alyssum germinates very tions, to provide time for managers to moni- early and uses up most of the soil moisture tor and refine their methods, and to provide before other species even get started. It also winter wildlife habitat. exudes a chemical that inhibits soil bacteria Some of these restoration plots are adjacent needed by native plants. to the Old Yellowstone Trail, an unpaved Park managers are restoring native vegeta- road that parallels the Yellowstone River tion to this area, following recommenda- west of Gardiner, MT. tions of arid land restoration specialists. In

For More Staff reviewers: Mary Hektner, Supervisory Vegetation Specialist; Jennifer Whipple, Botanist; Roy Renkin, Vegetation Information Management Specialist

www.nps.gov/yell Craighead, John J. et al. 1963. A Field Guide to Rocky Logan, J. A. et al. 2003. Assessing the impacts of global warm-

Mountain Wildflowers from Northern Arizona and New Frontiers in Ecology and the www.greateryellowstone- ing on forest pest dynamics. Mexico to British Colombia. Boston: Houghton Mifflin. science.org/index.html Environment 1:130-137.

Cronquist et al. (ongoing, currently 6 volumes) Intermountain Pauchard, A. and Alaback, P. 2006. Edge types defines alien Yellowstone Science, free Flora. New York Botanical Garden. species invasions along P. contorta burned, highway and from the Yellowstone Despain, Don. 1990. Yellowstone Vegetation: Consequences clearcut forest edges. Forest Eco. & Mgt 223: 327-33S. Center for Resources, in of Environment and History in a Natural Setting. the Yellowstone Research Preston, Richard J. 1968. Rocky Mountain Trees: A Handbook Boulder: Roberts Rinehart. Library, or online at of the Native Species with Plates and Distribution Maps. New www.nps.gov/yell Dorn, Bob. 2001. Vascular Plants of Wyoming. 3rd edition. York: Dover.

Elliot, C.R. and M.M. Hektner. 2000. Wetland Resources of Romme, William H. and Dennis Knight. 1982. Landscape Yellowstone Today, Yellowstone National Park. YNP: Wyoming. Out of print, diversity: The concept applied to Yellowstone National Park. distributed at entrance available at www.nps.gov/yell Bioscience. 32:8. gates and visitor centers.

Hagle, Susan K. et al. 2003. A Field Guide to Diseases & Insects Shaw, Richard J. 1964. frees and Flowering Shrubs of Site Bulletins, published of Northern & Central Rocky Mountain Conifers. U.S. Forest Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks. Salt Lake City: as needed, provide more Service Report R1 -03-08. http://www.fs.fed.us/r1-r4/spf/fhp/ Wheelwright Press. detailed information on field_guide/index.htm Shaw, Richard J. 1992. Wildflowers of Yellowstone and Grand park topics such as wild- Hicke, J. A. et a.. 2006. Changing temperatures influence suit- Teton National Parks. Salt Lake City: Wheelwright Press. flowers. Free; available ability for modeled mountain pine beetle outbreaks in the Sheley, Roger L. and Janet K. Petroff. 1999. Biology and upon request from visitor western United States. J Geophysical Research 1 1 1 :G0201 9. Corvallis: centers. Management of Noxious Rangeland Weeds. OSU Hitchcock & Cronquist. 1974. Flora of the Pacific Northwest. Press.

Seattle: UWashington Press. Whitson, Tom L. et al. 2002. Weeds of the West. Western Teton Hitchcock et al. Vascular Plants of the Northwest (5 volumes). Society of Weed Science. Jackson, WY/Grand Seattle: UWashington Press. Lithography.

Kershaw et al. 1998. Plants of the Rocky Mountains. Lone Pine Publishing.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 88 6

Role of Fire in Yellowstone Fires have always occurred in the Yellowstone ecosystem. Lightning starts many fires each year that go out on their own.

Vegetation in this ecosystem is adapted to

fire. Factors Affecting Size & Severity • Type of vegetation where the fire begins.

• In a forested area, the interval since the last

stand-replacing fire. Extensive, ongoing research is revealing Yellowstone's long and • Fuel moisture in the dead and down logs. complicated fire history. By measuring the amount and age of char- • Length of drought. coal in lake sediments, scientists now have proof that large fires • Temperatures and humidity. have been occurring in Yellowstone since forests became estab- • Wind. lished following the last glacial retreat 14,000 years ago. They have also examined fire scars on old Douglas-fir trees in the northern range, and concluded that fire occurs in there on average every 25 to 30 years. Their study of tree-rings in lodgepole pine forests show different intervals, depending on soil: 150 years or more on andesitic soils; 300 years on rhyolitic soils. In addition, records kept from 1931 show that lightning started an average of 22 fires each year until the 1990s, when fire average began increasing. This may be due, in part, to climate change. (See Chapter 8.)

The vegetation in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem has adapted to fire and in some cases is dependent on it. Some plant communities depend on the removal of the forest overstory to become established; they are the first to inhabit sites after a fire. Other plants growing on the forest floor are adapted to survive at a subsistence A serotinous cone level for long periods of time until fires open the overstory. from a lodgepole pine, opened by fire. Fire can limit trees in the grasslands of Yellowstone, such as the Lamar and Hayden valleys. For example, Douglas-fir seeds require conditions that exist only in rare microhabitats in these grasslands. If a seed reaches such a microhabitat during a favorable year, a seedling may develop. Once the tree is growing, it begins to influence the immediate environment. More tree habitat is created and a small forest island eventually appears. Periodic fire kills the small trees before they have a chance to become islands, thus maintaining the grassland.

Older Douglas-fir trees are adapted to fire by having thick bark that resists damage by surface fires. In the past, in areas like the park's northern range, frequent surface fire kept most young trees from becoming part of the overstory. The widely scattered, large, fire- scarred trees in some of the dense Douglas-fir stands in the northern range are probably remnants of these communities.

Lodgepole pines produce two types of cones, one of which opens — 6 and releases seeds after being heated to at accumulate, and minerals remain locked up least 113°F. These fire-dependent cones or are more slowly released. About Fire called serotinous (photo, previous page)— ensure seedlings become established after Fire Behavior a fire. Lodgepole seedlings need an open The moisture content of dead and down canopy that allows plenty of sun through. lodgepole pines and the year's weather Moisture This happens only if mature trees in a trends are the main factors determining the Content lodgepole stand are periodically thinned by severity of a given fire season. While fires When the moisture disease, insects, fire, or other natural agents. can occur no matter the fuel moisture, many content of down Such disturbances create a landscape more times conditions are too wet for fires to and dead lodgepole diverse in age, which reduces the probability burn. In fact, 85 percent of all lightning- pines is: of disease or fire spreading through large caused fires burn less than one acre. • <13%: areas. However, when fuel moisture falls below 13 fires can spread percent (see at left), fires can grow quickly. If rapidly Fire influences the rate minerals become extreme drought continues, all forest types • 13 to 20%: available to piants by rapidly releasing these and ages are more likely to burn. fires may burn nutrients from wood and forest litter. Fire's actively and heat may also hasten the weathering and Fire managers may be able to predict a possibly spread release of soil minerals. Following a fire, fire's behavior when they know where the rapidly plants absorb this abundant supply of fire is burning (older forest, grassland, etc.)

• 21-24%: soluble minerals. and the fuel moisture content. However, fires may start predicting fire is much more difficult during Fire suppression alters these natural condi- butfew will extreme drought, such as was experienced tions. Landscape diversity diminishes, and spread in 1988 and in the 2000s. plant community structure and composition • >24%: change. Diseases and insect infestations Ongoing research in Yellowstone is also fewfires start spread over greater areas, litter and deadfall showing that forests experiencing stand-

NUMBER OF FIRES IN YELLOWSTONE NATIONAL PARK, 2001-2008, by Size Class

100

uj 80 tc LL. oLL. cc 60 UJ CO

Z 40

A B C D E F G 0.1-0.2 0.3-9.99 10-99.99 100- 300- 1,000- > 5,000 299.99 999.99 4,999.99

SIZE CLASS & ACREAGE

Some fires burn with extreme fire behavior and rapid rates of spread. These large, fast moving fires send air receive of the public's attention. These large Yellowstone Resources plumes of smoke thousands of feet into the and much & Issues 2011 fires (>100 acres) occur less than 11 percent of the time. Seventy-two percent of fires that occur in this park are less than 0.2 acres and another 12 percent range from 0.3 to 9.9 acres. These smaller, less 90 intense fires play a role in this ecosystem by helping to thin out smaller trees and brush and boost the decay process that provides nutrients to the soil. 6 replacing fires can then affect fire behavior for up to 200 years. As a fire encounters the previously burned forest, its intensity and )Out Fire rate of spread decrease. In some cases, the fire moves entirely around the burned area. Thus, fire managers have another tool for predicting fire behavior: They can compare Major Fire Years in Yellowstone Since 2000 maps of previous stand-replacing fires with a current fire's location to predict its ^Managed or intensity and spread. Multiple Objective Suppressed Acres Fires Fires Affected

2001 16 21 7,987

2002 8 38 12,755

2003 7 71 28,849

2006 8 6 4,247

2007 9 18 24,601

2008 1 7 10,381 Fires Visible from Park Roads 2009 13 7 10,898

2010 7 5 6,232 Gallatin National *See page 93 for explanations of changes in fire management and Forest terminology in this decade.

Gardiner ^/™\ Cooke City

Mammoth Compare thefire perimeters on this map with those of the 1988fires 98). So the Antelope Fire Shoshone (p. far, National 2010; 5,510 acres largefires of the 21st Forest century are burn- Broad Fire ing in areas largely 2002; 8,775 acres unaffected by the fires. Ongoing Sulphur Fire 1988 research is showing 2001; 3,976Wes LeHardy Fire that areas ofstand- West 5ft 2008; 9,604 acres replacingfires can Yellowstone affectfuturefire Arnica Fire East Fire behaviorfor up to 2009; 10,659 acres J;47,293 acres 200 years. Grizzly Fire '2003;-3,702 acres Old Faithful 1

Columbine 1 Fire 2007; 18,337 acres

Caribou- Targhee National Forest

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 91 Managing Fire

Fire suppression in Yellowstone National History • Between 1972 and 2005, 397 Park began with the arrival of the U.S. • For the first 100 years of the park's natural, unsuppressed fires burned Army, which was placed in charge of existence, managers believed fires 66,354 acres— mostly in 3 dry protecting the in 1886. had to be extinguished to pre- years: 1979, 1981, 1988. (In 1988, park The Army, serve park resources. natural fires were allowed to burn which was in Yellowstone until 1918, • Scientific research revealed: in early summer. See page 94.) successfully extinguished some fires,

—fires have occurred in Yellowstone • The fires of 1988 brought about though the effect of their efforts on overall for as long as there has been management changes, as did fire frequency or extent of fires cannot be vegetation to burn subsequent major fire seasons in fully determined. Their efforts are detect- —fire plays role in creating the this region. a able on the northern range, where fire vegetation patterns of the land- Current Fire Management suppression allowed more trees to become scape Policy established. —fire is a part of the ecosystem that Yellowstone National Park follows park managers want to preserve guidelines of the 2003 Federal Post World War II —suppressing fires alters the natural Wildland Fire Policy, which allows Reliable and consistent fire suppression landscape and diminishes diversity. firefighters to manage fires for • began when modern airborne firefighting 1972, Yellowstone began using multiple objectives. natural fire management. techniques became available after World War Two. Fire suppression continued until 1972. In that year, Yellowstone and several other national parks initiated programs allowing some natural fires to run their courses. Two backcountry areas in the park totaling 340,000 acres were designated as locations where natural fires could burn.

In 1976, the park's program expanded to 1,700,000 acres. Shortly thereafter, Yellowstone National Park and Bridger- Teton National Forest entered into a cooperative program allowing naturally caused fires in the Teton Wilderness to burn across the boundary between the two federal units.

In the years following, Yellowstone's fire management plan was revised and updated to meet National Park Service guidelines as This old fire truck was research provided new information about pressed into use during the 1988 fires. fire behavior in the park. By 1985, coopera- Fire management tive agreements were in place within the policy, like the equip- greater Yellowstone area to allow natural ment, has been fires to burn across the public land bound- updated many times aries. Yellowstone's fire managers began since that fiery year. revising the park's fire management plan. The new plan permitted some lightning- caused fires to burn under natural conditions; provided for suppressing fires that threatened human life, property, special Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 natural features and historic and cultural sites; recommended prescribed burns 92 and Managing

when and where necessary and practical to reduce hazardous fuels. It was in the final stages of approval in spring 1988.

Late 20th Century Reviews

Yellowstone's "new" fire policy was suspended during the summer of 1988. (See following pages.) After the fires of that summer, a national policy review team examined the national fire policy again, and concluded that natural fire policies in national parks and wilderness areas were basically sound. It also recommended improvements that were incorporated into the National Park Service's fire policy of June 1990 and into Yellowstone National Park's fire management plan of 1992.

Other major reviews occurred after the fire seasons of 1994 and 2000.

Fire Management Today in the A similar strategy was used in the 2009 Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem Arnica Fire, which burned in 300-year-old Today, Yellowstone National Park operates lodgepole pine but threatened visitor travel, under the 2003 Federal Wildland Fire power lines, and Lake Village.

Policy, which continues to evolve with Wildland fire is a great example of inter- experience and new knowledge. For agency cooperation and coordination. example, current guidelines allow fire- Federal agencies, state and local govern- fighters to manage a natural fire for multiple ments, and private contractors all play a role objectives. In the past, fires were required to in managing fire here the park. For example, be categorized as "suppression" or "fire-use the NPS relies on Forest Service smoke- for resource benefit." Now, firefighters can jumpers to monitor or fight the park's suppress fire one flank of a to protect struc- remote fires. In return, the NPS sends its tures and people while allowing another helicopter or engine to the Silver Gate or flank to burn to achieve natural fire Cooke City areas, which are located on or benefits. adjacent to the Gallatin and Shoshone

The LeHardy fire of 2008 was an example of national forests. Since 2009, the park's wild- managing a fire for multiple objectives. It land engine has been staffed by both NPS was suppressed on its west and south flanks and Forest Service firefighters. Program- to protect power lines, the Fishing Bridge mable radios ensure communication area, and to protect people using the roads. between NPS and Forest Service dispatch,

It was monitored, but not suppressed, as it which improves firefighter safety. The NPS moved north away from developed areas. is also working with its partners to develop Backcountry ranger cabins and research Community Wildfire Protection Plans that equipment in its path were wrapped in a help in the pre-planning and preparing for a material similar to a fire shelter to protect wildland fire that may threaten homes. them from the heat. 6

The 1988 Fires

Statistics • 9 fires caused by humans. • 42 fires caused by lightning. • 36% (793,880 acres) of the park was affected. • Fires begun outside of the park burned 63% or approximately 500,000 acres of the total acreage. • About 300 large mammals perished as a direct

result of the fires: 246 elk, 9 bison, 4 mule deer, 2 moose.

• $120 million spent fighting the fires.

• 25,000 people involved in these efforts. The spring of 1988 was wet until June, when hardly any rain fell. Park managers and fire behavior specialists expected that July Fighting the Fires would be wet, though, as it had been historically (see chart below). They allowed 18 lightning-caused fires to after • Until July 15, park managers followed the burn evaluating

policy to let naturally caused fires burn. them, according to the fire management plan. Eleven of these fires

• Beginning July 15, park managers suspended burned themselves out, behaving like many fires had in previous the natural fire policy and began suppressing years. new natural fires. Rains did not come in July as expected. By late July, after almost two • After July 21, park managers began fighting months of little rain, the moisture content of grasses and small all fires, including natural fires that had been levels allowed to burn. branches reached as low as 2 or 3 percent, and downed trees

• The 1988 fires comprised the largest fire- were as low as 7 percent (kiln-dried lumber is 12 percent). (See page

fighting effort in the United States at that 90.) In addition, a series of unusually high winds fanned flames that time. even in the dry conditions would not have moved with great speed.

• Effort saved human life and property, but had Because of the extremely dry conditions, after July 15 no new natu- little impact on the fires themselves. ral fires were allowed to burn except those started adjacent to exist- • Rain and snow in September finally stopped ing fires and that were clearly going to burn into existing fires. Even the advance of the fires. so, within a week the fire acreage in the park doubled to about 17,000 acres. After July 21, all fires —including those started naturally—were fully suppressed as staffing would allow. (Human-caused fires had been sup- THE YEAR THE RAINS FAILED pressed from the beginning.) On July 27, during a visit to Yellowstone, the Secretary Percent of Normal Rainfall Mammoth Hot Springs of the Interior reaffirmed that all fires would be fought, regardless of their origin.

April May June July Aug. Fighting the Fires 1977 10 96 63 195 163 An extensive interagency fire suppression 1978 91 126 42 99 46 effort was initiated in mid-July in the greater 1979 6 17 42 115 151 Yellowstone area in an attempt to control or 1980 33 152 55 143 199 1981 49 176 102 103 25 contain this unprecedented series of wild- 1982 169 74 89 118 163 fires. The extreme weather conditions and 1983 22 29 69 269 88 heavy, dry fuel accumulations presented 1984 44 84 66 297 121 even the most skilled professional firefight- 1985 42 93 44 160 84 ers with conditions rarely observed. Yellowstone Resources 1986 145 47 64 212 75 Accepted firefighting techniques were & Issues 2011 1987 42 144 75 303 122 often ineffective because fires spread long 94 1988 155 181 20 79 10 Fire camp crew jumps into West Thumb Bay to escape flames.

distances by "spotting," a phenomenon in park developments—and a few surrounding which wind carries embers across unburned communities —had been evacuated at least forest to start spot fires ahead of the main once as fires approached within a few miles. fire. In the severe conditions of 1988, fires The fire suppression efforts involved many were spotting up to a mile and a half different federal and state agencies, includ- ahead—jumping bulldozer lines, roads, ing the armed forces. At the height of the rivers, even the Grand Canyon of the fires, ten thousand people were involved. Yellowstone River. This was the largest such cooperative effort ever undertaken in the United States. Fires often moved two miles per hour, with common daily advances of five to ten miles. Confusion in the Media The fast movement, coupled with spotting, The Yellowstone fires of 1988 received more made direct attacks on the fires impossibly national attention than any other event in dangerous, as fire crews could easily be the history of national parks up to that time. overrun or trapped between a main fire and Unfortunately, many media reports were its outlying spot fires. Even during the night, inaccurate or misleading and confused or fires could not be fought. Typically, wild- alarmed the public. The reports tended to fires "lie down" at night as humidity lump all fires in the Yellowstone area increases and temperature decreases. But in together as the "Yellowstone Park Fire"; 1988, the humidity remained low at night, they referred to these fires as part of the and fire fighting was complicated by the park's natural fire program, which was not danger of falling trees. true; and they often oversimplified events Firefighting efforts were directed at con- and exaggerated how many acres had trolling the flanks of fires and protecting burned. In Yellowstone National Park itself, lives and property in their paths. The fire the fires affected—but did not "devas- experts on site generally agreed that only tate"—793,880 acres or 36 percent of total rain or snow could stop the fires. They were park acreage. right: one-quarter inch of snow on A number of major fires started outside the September 11 stopped the advance of the park. These fires accounted for more than fires. half of the total acres burned in the greater By the last week in September, about 50 Yellowstone area, and included most of the lightning-caused fires had occurred in or fires that received intensive media attention. burned into the park, but only eight were The North Fork Fire began in the Targhee still burning. More than $120 million had National Forest and suppression attempts been spent in control efforts on fires in the began immediately. The Storm Creek Fire greater Yellowstone area, and most major started as a lightning strike in the 6 "Black Saturday"— Fires double to more than 480,000 acres. The 1988 Fires

Absaroka-Beartooth Wilderness of the fought. Confusion was probably heightened Custer National Forest northeast of by misunderstandings about how fires are

Yellowstone; it eventually threatened the fought: if crews were observed letting a fire

Cooke City-Silver Gate area, where it burn, casual observers might think the burn received extended national media coverage. was merely being monitored. In fact, in many instances, fire bosses recognized the Additional confusion resulted from the hopelessness of stopping fires and concen- mistaken belief that managers in the Yellow- trated their efforts on protecting developed stone area let park fires continue burning areas. unchecked because of the natural fire plan— long after such fires were being The most unfortunate public and media misconception about the Yellowstone firefighting effort may have been that human beings can always control fire. These fires could not be controlled; their raw, unbridled power cannot be over- emphasized. Firefighters were compelled to choose their fights very carefully, and they deserve great praise for working so successfully to save all but a few park buildings.

Post-fire Response and Ecological Consequences

By late September, as the fires were dimin- ishing, plans were already underway in Yellowstone to develop comprehensive programs for all aspects of post-fire response. These included replacing, rehabilitating, or repairing damaged buildings, power lines, firelines, trails, campsites, and other facilities. Interpretive rangers developed programs to interpret the fires and their effects for visitors and for the general public. Other interpretive specialists developed indoor and outdoor exhibits, publications, and Resources Yellowstone trails to help visitors learn about these his- & Issues 2011 toric fires. The park also cooperated with 96 6

Rain and snow fall. The 1988

SResidents of Mammoth Hot Fires Fire storm blasts Springs evacuated as fire moves Old Faithful area; across Bunsen Peak toward the Inn is saved, no area. one is injured.

Storm Creek Fire burns over Silver Tip Ranch, I north of park; historic ranch survives.

other agencies and state and local govern- tions. In this and many other ways, fires ments in promoting the economic recovery dramatically altered the habitat and food of communities near the park that were production of Yellowstone for the short affected by the fires. term.

Scientists wanted to monitor the ecological The fires of 1988 created a landscape of processes following these major fires. The burns, partial burns, and unburned areas- National Park Service cooperated with called a mosaic. A mosaic provides natural other agencies and independent researchers firebreaks and sustains a greater variety of and institutions in developing comprehen- plant and animal species. Vegetation capa- sive research directions for this unparalleled ble of sustaining another major fire will be scientific opportunity. Observations began rare for decades, except in extraordinary while the fires were still burning, when it situations. was apparent that the fires did not annihi- late all life forms in their paths.

Burning at a variety of intensities, the fires killed many lodgepole pines and other trees, but did not kill most other plants; they merely burned the tops, leaving roots to regenerate. Temperatures high enough to kill deep roots occurred in less than one- tenth of one percent of the park. Only under logs and in deep litter accumulations, where the fire was able to burn for several hours, did lethal heat penetrate more deeply into the soil. Where water was available, new plant growth began within a few days. In dry soils, the rhizomes, bulbs, seeds, and other reproductive tissues had to wait until soil moisture was replenished the following spring. Though animal movements were sometimes affected dramatically by the passage of fires, relatively few animals died. However, portions of the northern range burned, which Yellowstone Resources affected winter survival of grazing animals & Issues 2011 when coupled with summer drought condi- 97 6

The 1988 Fires

This map uses colors only to help you see fire boundaries. The colors do not indicate intensity, duration, or anything else.

Burned Area Within Yellowstone National Park Burn Type Acres Percent of Park

• Crown fire: consuming the forest canopy, needles, and ground cover and debris 323,291 15%

• Mixed: mixture of burn types in areas where most of ground surface was burned 281,098 13%

• Meadows, sagebrush, grassland 51,301 2%

• Undifferentiated: variety of burn types 37,202 2%

• Undelineated: surface burns not detectable by satellite because under unburned canopy 100,988 4%

Total Burned Area 793,880 36% Total Unburned Area 1,427,920 64%

Yellowstone Resources Data from the Geographic Information Systems Laboratory, Yellowstone National Park, 1989; Table & Issues 2011 adapted from Yellowstone in the Afterglow: Lessons From the Fires, Mary Ann Franke, 2000. 98 6

After the 1988 Fires

In 2000, The Yellowstone Center for Resources What Did NOT Happen published Yellowstone in the Afterglow: Lessons Many predictions were made about the 1988 fires' long-term from the Fires, by Mary Ann Franke. Some find- consequences for visitation, wildlife, and vegetation. However, ings are summarized here. the following have not come to pass:

Soils X A long-term drop in park visitation. Fertile soils with good water-holding capac- X Flooding downstream of the park because of increased runoff on ity that have a dense, diverse vegetation bare slopes. before the fire were likely to respond quick- X A decline in fish populations because increased erosion silted up the ly after the fire with a variety of species and water. nearly complete cover. Some soils in X An increase in fish populations in smaller streams where defores- Yellowstone supported little vegetation tation and loss of shade could result in warmer water and higher nutrient levels. before the fires and have continued to have little since then. Areas that appear barren X More rapid invasion of non-native plants into burned areas and corridors cleared as breaks. and highly erosive did not necessarily fire become that way because of fire. X An increase in lynxfollowing a boom in snowshoe hares as a result of changes in forest structure. Trees X An increase in the elk population because of improvedforage. As root systems of standing dead trees decay X A decline in the endangered grizzly bear population because of and lose their grip on the soil, the trees are smaller whitebark pine seed crops. gradually falling down, often with the help X Another bigfire season in Yellowstone because of all thefuel of a strong wind. However, many will provided by so many dead and downed trees. remain upright for decades. What DID Change Many forests that burned in 1988 were These changes have been caused entirely or in part by the fires of mature lodgepole stands, and this species 1988: recolonized most burned areas. Other species — such as Engelmann spruce, subalpine / The replacement of thousands of acres offorest with standing or fallen snags and millions lodgepole pine seedlings. fir, and Douglas-fir—have also emerged. of / The establishment of aspen seedlings in areas of the park where The density of lodgepole pine seedlings in aspen had not previously existed. burned areas after the 1988 fires varied, / A decline in the moose population because of the loss of old growth depending on factors such as fire severity, forest. elevation, abundance of serotinous cones / Shifts in stream channels as a result of debrisflowsfrom burned (which require fire to open), and seedbed slopes. characteristics. Density ranged from 80 y An increase in the public understanding and acceptance of the role seedlings per hectare in a high-elevation offire in wildland areas. stand with no serotinous cones to 1.9 mil- / A program to reduce hazardousfuels around developed areas. lion seedlings per hectare in a low-elevation stand in which nearly half the trees had The most recent research was presented September 2008 at the 9th serotinous cones. (One hectare is approxi- Biennial Scientific Conference, "The '88 Fires: Yellowstone & Beyond." mately 2.5 acres.) Proceedings at www. nps.gov/yell/naturescience/upload/'88fires.pdf About 24 percent of the park's whitebark pine forest burned in 1988. This affects grizzly bears, for which whitebark pine seeds are an important food in fall. Seeds not consumed by grizzlies remain in caches of red squirrels and Clark's nutcracker. 6

After the 1988 Fires

These buried seeds and the hardiness of years after the fires because of the mineral whitebark pine seedlings on exposed sites nutrients in the ash and increased sunlight give this tree an initial advantage in large on the forest floor. Moss an inch or more burned areas over conifers dependent on thick became established in burned soils, wind to disperse seeds. However, this slow- and may have been a factor in moisture

growing and long-lived tree is typically retention, promoting revegetation and more than 50 years old before producing slowing erosion. cones. The young trees may die before Wildlife reproducing if the interval between fires is

too short or if faster-growing conifers over- Most ungulate (hoofed) species were more take them. By 1995, whitebark pine seed- affected by the drought and the relatively lings had appeared in all 275 study plots, severe winter that followed than by the fires. though density was not significantly differ- Although none of their winter range ent between burned and unburned sites. burned, mule deer declined 19 percent and pronghorn 29 percent during the winter of About one-third of the aspen in the north- 1988. ern range burned in the 1988 fires — but the aspen stands were not destroyed. Fire that Elk mortality rose to about 40 percent in the killed adult stems also enhanced aspen winter of 1988-89, but scientists are unsure reproduction. Like other disturbances, fire how much of this was due to reduced forage stimulates the growth of suckers from the because of the fires. (At least 15 percent of aspen's extensive underground root system. the deaths were due to hunting seasons out- (Suckers and root shoots produce clones of side the park.) Even without the fires, sever- the "parent" aspen.) Fire also leaves bare al factors would probably have led to high mineral soil devoid of taller plants— perfect elk mortality that winter: summer drought, conditions for aspen seedlings. After the herd density, hunting harvest, and winter fires of 1988, aspen seedlings appeared severity. The greatest impact of the fires throughout the park's burned areas. All the would therefore be on the quantity and young trees, whether clones or seedlings, quality of forage available to elk in subse- can be heavily browsed by elk and may not quent years. A two-year study following the grow much beyond shrub height. But the fires found that the forage quality of three fires indirectly helped protect some of these types of grasses was better at burned sites young trees: the trunks of fallen trees keep than unburned sites. elk from reaching some young aspen. Of the 38 grizzly bears wearing radio trans- mitters when the fires began, 21 had home Other Vegetation ranges burned by one or more of the fires: The regrowth of plant communities began 13 of these bears moved into burned areas as soon as the fire was gone and moisture after the fire front had passed, three bears was available, which in some sites was with- (adult females without young) stayed within in days. In dry soils, the seeds had to wait active burns as the fire progressed, three until moisture was replenished the follow- bears remained outside the burn lines at all ing spring. New seedlings grew even in the times, and two adult females could not be few areas where the soil had burned intense- located. In a study from 1989-92, bears were ly enough to become sterilized. Within a few found grazing more frequently at burned years, grasslands had largely returned to than unburned sites, especially on clover their pre-fire appearance. Sagebrush also and fireweed. Even though bear feeding Yellowstone Resources recovered rapidly. & Issues 2011 activity in some whitebark pine areas Plant lush in first decreased as much as 63 percent, the fires 100 growth was unusually the The 1988 fires presented an unprecedented opportunity to study the landscape-scale ecological effects of an infrequent natural disturbance—a large, severe fire in this case—in an ecological system After the minimally affected by humans. 1988 Fires Monica Turner, 9th Biennial Scientific Conference, "The '88 Fires: Yellowstone & Beyond"

had no discernible impact on the number of grizzly bears in greater Yellowstone.

Rodents probably had the highest fire-related mortality of any mammals. Although many could escape the fires in burrows, others died of suffocation as the fires came through. They also were more exposed to predators because they had lost the cover of grasses and other plants. But, because of their capacity to have multiple litters with many young per year, rodents quickly repopulated burned areas.

Most birds were not directly harmed by the fires and some benefited. For example, raptors hunted rodents fleeing the fires. But young osprey that were still in their nests died. Post-fire habitat changes helped some birds. Cavity-nesting birds, such as Barrow's Yellowstone's park photographer established "photo points, " or specific locations, to be goldeneye, flickers, and bluebirds had many dead trees for their photographed in 1988 and in subsequent years. nests. Robins and flickers found ants and worms more easily. Boreal This set shows a pond along the road between owls, however, lost some of the mature forests they need. Canyon and Norris junctions, as it appeared in 1988 (above) and 1989 (below). Aquatic Resources

In general, the amount of soil loss and sediment deposits in streams varied greatly, but in most cases were considered normal.

About a quarter of the Yellowstone Lake and Lewis Lake watersheds and half of the Heart Lake watershed burned to some extent, but no significant changes were observed in nutrient enrichment, plankton production, or fish growth afterward. No apparent streambank erosion or other changes occurred that affected cutthroat trout spawning habitat, nor did the number of spawning streams decline. No discernible fire-related effects have been observed in the fish populations or the angling experience in the six rivers that have been monitored regularly since 1988.

In other park watersheds, such as the Gibbon River, massive erosion and mudslides occurred during and after the heavy rains of the summer of 1989. Scientists don't know how much the fires of 1988 facilitated these events. However, by 1991, growth of plants had slowed this erosion.

Conclusion

In the first years after a major fire, new vistas appear while the lush growth of new, young trees emerges from the burned ground. Today, more than twenty years after the 1988 fires, those young trees are renewed forests, once again filling in vistas. Some visitors still feel that the Yellowstone they knew and loved is gone forever.

But Yellowstone is not a museum— it is a functioning ecosystem in which fire plays a vital role.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 101 For More Information

www.nps.gov/yell Staff reviewer: Joe Krish, Fire Management Officer Varley, John D. and Paul Schullery. 1991. Reality and

opportunity in the Yellowstone Fires of 1988. In The Greater www.greateryellowstone- Barbee, Robert and Paul Schullery. 1989. Yellowstone: The Yellowstone Ecosystem: Redefining American Heritage, R. science.org/mdex.html smoke clears. National Parks 62:18-19. Keiter and M. Boyce, eds. New Haven: Yale U Press. Barker, Rocky. 2005. Scorched Earth: How the fires of Yellowstone Science, free Yellowstone changed America. Island Press/Washington. Wallace, Linda L, editor. 2004. After the Fires: The Ecology of from the Yellowstone Blanchard, B.M. and R.R. Knight. 1996. Effects of wildfire Change in YNP. New Haven: Yale U Press. Center for Resources, in on grizzly bear movements and foraging strategies in Proc. the Yellowstone Research Wuerthner, George. 1988. Yellowstone and the Fires of Change. Second Biennial Conf. on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Library, or online at Salt Lake City: Haggis House Publications. www.nps.gov/yell Fairfield, WA: Int. Assoc. Wildl. Fire.

Despain, Don, editor. 1993. Plants & Their Environments: Yellowstone Today, www.fire.nps.gov Proceedings of the First Biennial Scientific the distributed at entrance Conference on www.iawfonlme.org gates and visitor centers. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. NPS, Mammoth, WY. www.nifc.gov Franke, Mary Ann. 2000. Yellowstone in the Afterglow: Lessons Site Bulletins, published from the Fires. YCR-NR-2000-3. NPS, Mammoth, WY as needed, provide more detailed information on Greenlee, J., ed. The Ecological Implications of Fire in Greater park topics such as his- Yellowstone: Proceedings of the Second Biennial Conference tory and geology. Free; on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Fairfield, WA: Int. available upon request Assoc. Wildl. Fire. from visitor centers. Knight, D.H. and Li. Wallace. 1989. The Yellowstone fires:

issues in landscape ecology. Bioscience 39:707-715.

Littell, J.S. 2002. Determinants of fire regime variability in lower elevation forest of the northern Yellowstone ecosystem. M.S. thesis. MSU/Bozeman.

Masters, Ronald et al, eds. 2009. The '88 Fires: Yellowstone &

Beyond. Tall Timbers/Tallahassee, FL.

Millspaugh, S.H. et al. 2000. Variations in fire frequency and

climate over the last 17,000 years in Yellowstone National Park. Geology 28(3): 211-214

Morrison, M. 1993. Fire in Paradise: The Yellowstone Fires and the Politics of Environmentalism. New York: Harper Collins.

Nyland, R. D. 1998. Patterns of lodgepole pine regeneration fol-

lowing the 1988 Yellowstone fires. Elsevier Forest Ecology and Management. 111:23-33.

Pyne, S.J. 1989. Letting wildfire loose: the fires of '88. Montana the Magazine of Western Living. 39(3)76-79.

Renkin, R.A. and D.G. Despain. 1992. Fuel moisture, forest

type, and lightning-caused fire in Yellowstone National Park.

Canadian J. Forestry Research 22(1):37-45.

Romme, W. H. et al. 1997. A rare episode of sexual reproduc-

tion in aspen (Populus tremuloides Michx.) following the 1988

Yellowstone fires. Natural Areas Journal 17:17-25.

Romme, W.H. 1982. Fire and landscape diversity in subalpine forest of Yellowstone National Park. Ecological Monographs 52(2):199-221.

Romme, W.H. et al. 1995. Aspen, elk, and fire in northern Yellowstone National Park. Ecology 76(7):2097-2106.

Turner, M.G., et al. 2003. Surprises and Lessons from the 1988

Yellowstone Fires. Frontiers in Ecology and the Environment. 1(7)351-358. " "

Wildlife Mammals

MAMMALS • Wolverine and lynx, which require

• Yellowstone is home to the largest large expanses of undisturbed concentration of mammals in the habitat, live here. lower 48 states. • Seven native ungulate species-

• 67 different mammals live here, elk, mule deer, bison, moose, including many small mammals. bighorn sheep, pronghorn, and

• >600 grizzly bears live in the white-tailed deer— live here. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. • Non-native mountain goats have • Black bears are common. colonized northern portions of

• Gray wolves were restored in the park.

1995; >100 live in the park now.

ORDER Carnivora Habitat Estimated Population in Park

Family Ursidae

*Black Bear (Ursus americanus) forests, meadows common

*Grizzly Bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) forests, meadows ±150 in the park ±600 in Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem *indicates a species Family Canidae described in the species accounts *Coyote (Canis latrans) forests, meadows, grasslands common that begin on page *Gray Wolf (Canis lupus) forests, meadows ±120 in the park 113, following "Small Mammals. *Fox (Vulpes vulpes) meadows common

Family Felidae **indicates a species described on *Bobcat (Lynx rufus) forests, rocky areas may be widespread pages 106-112 *Cougar (Puma concolor) mountains, rocky areas 14-23 under "Small *Lynx (Lynx canadensis) subalpine forests few Mammals.

Family Procyonidae Species described Raccoon (Procyon lotor) rivers, cottonwoods rare under "Small Mammals" are Family Mephitidae alphabetized by Striped Skunk (Mephitus mephitus) riparian to forest rare their common name on this list. Family Mustelidae

Badger (Taxidea taxus) sagebrush common

Fisher (Martes pennanti) forests rare, if present

**Marten (Martes martes) coniferous forests common

Mink (Mustela vison) riparian forests occasional

**River Otter (Lutra canadensis) rivers, lakes, ponds common

**Long-tailed Weasel (Mustela frenata) willows to spruce/fir forests common Yellowstone Resources **Short-tailed Weasel (ermine) & Issues 2011 (Mustela erminea) willows to spruce/fir forests common

** Wolverine (Gulogulo) alpine, coniferous forests rare 7a ORDER Artiodactyla Mammals Family Cervidae *Elk (Wapiti) (Cervus elaphus) meadows, forests 10,000-20,000 in summer

*Moose (Alces alces shirasi) riparian, forests <200

*Mule Deer (Odocoileus hemionus) forests, grasslands, shrub lands 2,300-2,500

*White-tailed Deer (0. virginianus) forests, grasslands, shrub lands occasional

Family Bovidae

*Bison (Bison bison) meadows, grasslands ±3,900

*Bighorn Sheep (Ov is canadensis) cliffs, mountain slopes 250-275 Mountain Goat (non-native) (Oreamnus americanus) alpine meadows, rocky slopes 175-225

Family Antilocapridae *Pronghorn (Antilocapra americanus) sagebrush, grasslands ±300

ORDER Chiroptera

Family Vespertilionidae

Big Brown Bat (Eptesicus fuscus) roost in buildings, other sheltered areas common

Fringe-tailed bat (Myotis thysanodes) roost in cliffs, large snags uncommon

Hoary Bat (Lasiurus cinereus) roost in trees uncommon

Little Brown Bat (M. lucifugus) roost in caves, buildings, trees common

Long-eared Bat (M. evotis) roost in cliffs, buildings uncommon

Long-legged Bat (M. volans) roost in tree cavities, cliffs, buildings common

Silver-haired bat (Lasionycteris noctivagans)

roost in trees, including snags common

Western small-footed Bat (M. ciliolabrum) roost in rocky areas, caves rare, if present

Townsend's Big-eared Bat (Corynorhinus townsendii) roost in caves uncommon

Yuma Bat (M. yumanensis) roost in caves, buildings, trees rare, if present ORDER Lagomorpha

Family Leporidae

**Snowshoe Hare (Lepus americanus) forests, willows common

White-tailed Jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii) low elevation sagebrush, grasslands common

Desert Cottontail (Sylvilagus audubonii) shrub lands common

Mountain Cottontail (S. nuttallii) shrub lands common

Family Ochotonidae

**Pika (Ochotona princeps) rocky slopes common

ORDER Insectivora

Family Soricidae

Yellowstone Resources Dusky Shrew (Sorex monticolus) moist meadows, forests common & Issues 2011 104 Masked Shrew (S. cinereus) moist meadows, forests common

palustris) forests common Water Shrew (S. moist meadows, Mammals Preble's Shrew (S. preblei) moist meadows, forests rare, if present

Dwarf Shrew (S. nanus) moist meadows, forests rare

ORDER Rodentia

Family Castoridae

*Beaver (Castor candensis) ponds, streams 750

Family Sciuridae

**Least Chipmunk (Tamius minimus) forests common

Uinta Chipmunk (T. umbrinus) forests common

Yellow Pine Chipmunk (T. amoenus) forests common

**Yellow-bellied Marmot (Marmota flaviventris) rocky slopes common

**Golden-mantled Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus lateralis) forests, rocky slopes common

Northern Flying Squirrel (Glaucomys sabrinus) forests occasional

**Red Squirrel (Tamiasciurus hudsonicus) forests common

**Uinta Ground Squirrel (Spermophilus armatus) sagebrush, meadows common

Family Geomyidae

**Northern Pocket Gopher (Thomomys talpoides) sagebrush, meadows, forests common

Family Cricetidae

Deer Mouse (Peromyscus maniculatus) grasslands common

Western Jumping Mouse (Zapus princeps) riparian occasional

Muskrat (Ondatra zibethicus) streams, lakes, ponds common

Heather Vole (Phenacomys intermedius) sagebrush to forests occasional

Long-tailed Vole (Microtus longicaudus) moist meadows common

Meadow Vole (M. pennsylvamicus) moist meadows common **Montane Vole (M. montanus) moist meadows common

Red-backed Vole (Clethrionomys gapperi) dense forests common

Water Vole (M. richardsoni) riparian occasional

Bushy-tailed Woodrat (Neotoma cinerea) rocky slopes common

Family Erethizontidae

Porcupine (Erethizon dorsatum) forests, sagebrush, willows common

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 105 7a Numerous small mammals live in Yellowstone National Park. Small The park's interpretive rangers chose the following species to describe because visitors are likely to see them Mammals or inquire about them. Descriptive photos and illustrations exist in numerous books about these species; see "For More Information" on pages 152-155 for suggested titles.

Species accounts GOLDEN-MANTLED appear in alphabeti- GROUND SQUIRREL Habitat cal order by their • Found throughout Yellowstone at all common name. Spermophilus lateralis elevations in rocky areas, edges of moun- Identification tain meadows, forest openings, tundra.

• 9-12 inches long, • 87% of diet consists of fungi and leaves of 7.4-11 ounces. flowering plants; other foods include buds,

• Adult head and seeds, nuts, roots, bird eggs, insects, and shoulders are carrion.

reddish-brown, • Predators include coyotes, weasels, bad- their "mantle." gers, hawks. • Often mistaken Behavior for a least chipmunk (described below); • Hibernate October to March or April. distinguished by larger size, more robust • Breeding occurs shortly after both males body, shorter tail, and stripes that do not and females emerge from hibernation; one extend onto the sides of the head. litter of 5 young per year.

LEAST CHIPMUNK Habitat Tamius minimus • Prefers sagebrush valleys, shrub Identification communities, and forest openings.

• 7.5-8.5 inches long, 1.2 • Eat primarily plant material, especially ounces. seeds and other fruits, but will also eat

• Smallest member of the conifer seeds and some insects.

squirrel family; one of three • Preyed on by various hawks and probably chipmunk species in the foxes and coyotes. park. Behavior • Alternating light and dark • In Yellowstone, this species hibernates stripes on its back and sides, outermost but also stores some food and probably stripe on the sides is dark; underside tends arouses frequently during the winter. to be white and tail has black-tipped hairs • Breeding begins as snowmelt occurs, with a reddish undertone. usually late March until mid-May; one Often mistaken for golden-mantled litter of 5-6 young per year. ground squirrel (described above); • Little is known about their vocalizations distinguished by smaller size, longer tail, but they do have "chipping" (which may and lateral stripes that extend onto the be an alarm) and "clucking" calls. sides of the head.

• All drawings in this Can be identified by quick darting chapter © Zachary movements and it seems to carry its tail Zdinak vertically when moving.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 106 LONG-TAILED WEASEL Habitat Mustelafrenata • Found in forests, open grassy meadows Identification and marshes, and near water.

• Typical weasel shape: a very long body, • Eat voles, pocket gophers, mice, ground short legs, pointed face, long tail. and tree squirrels, rabbits; to a lesser • 13-18 inches long, 4.8-11 ounces. degree birds, eggs, snakes, frogs, and

• Fur is light brown above and buff to rusty insects. orange below in summer; all white in win- Behavior ter, except for tail, which is black-tipped • Breed in early July and August; one litter all year. of 6-9 young per year. • Males 40% larger than females. • Solitary animals except during breeding Compare to marten (below) and and rearing of young. short-tailed weasel, page 110.

MARTEN Behavior Martes americana • Solitary except in Identification breeding season

• 18-26 inches long, 1-3 pounds. (July & August); implanta- • Weasel family; short limbs and long bushy delayed tion; 1-5 tail; fur varies from light to dark brown or young black; irregular, buffy to bright orange born in mid-March throat patch. to late April.

• • Smaller than a fisher; buffy or orange bib Active throughout rather than white. the year; hunts mostly on the Compare to long-tailed weasel (above) ground. and short-tailed weasel, page 110. • Rest or den in Habitat hollow trees or • Found in conifer forests with understory stumps, in ground of fallen logs and stumps; will use riparian burrows or rock areas, meadows, forest edges and rocky piles, in excavations alpine areas. under tree roots.

• Eat primarily small mammals such as red- backed voles, red squirrels, snowshoe hares, flying squirrels, chipmunks, mice and shrews; also to a lesser extent birds and eggs, amphibians and reptiles, earthworms, insects, fruit, berries, and carrion. 7a

Small Mammals

MONTANE VOLE species in the park; eaten by coyotes, Microtus montanus raptors, and other animals. Identification Behavior • 5-7.6 inches long, 1.2-3.2 ounces. • Active year-round maintaining • Brownish to grayish-brown, occasionally tunnels in the winter; also dig shallow grizzled; ventral side is silvery gray; rela- burrows. tively short tail is bi-colored. • Typically breed from mid-February to Habitat November; up to 4 litters of 2-10 young year. • Found at all elevations in moist mountain per meadows with abundant grass and grassy sagebrush communities; also common in riparian areas.

• Grass is their primary food.

• Probably the most important prey

PIKA Behavior Ochotona princeps • Active year-round; darts around on rocks; travels through tunnels under snow. Identification • Breed in spring; two litters per year. • 7-8.4 in. long, • Often heard but not seen; makes a 5.3-6.2 ounces distinct shrill whistle call or a short (about the size of "mew." a guinea pig). • Scent marks by frequently rubbing cheeks • Tailless, gray to on rocks. brown with • Late summer it gathers mouthfuls of circular ears. vegetation to build "haystacks" for winter Habitat food; defends haystacks vigorously.

• Found on talus slopes and rock falls at • Haystacks often built in same place year nearly all elevations in the park. after year; have been known to become

• Eat plant foods such as grasses, sedges, three feet in diameter.

aspen, lichen, and conifer twigs. • Like rabbits and hares, pika eat their own

• Predators include coyotes, martens, and feces, which allows additional digestion of hawks. food.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 108 POCKET GOPHER • In the top 6-8 inches below the Thomomys talpoides surface they forage for forbs, some grasses and underground stems, bulbs and tubers. Identification Behavior • 6-10 inches long, 2.6-6.3 ounces. • Transport food in cheek pouches to • Very small eyes and ears; brown or tan underground cache. Grizzly bears some- smooth fur; short tail; long front claws times dig up these caches, including an for burrowing; large external pouches for unsuspecting gopher. carrying food. • Do not hibernate, but instead burrow into Habitat the snow; often fill tunnels with soil form- • range restriction seems to be Only ing worm-like cores that remain in the topsoil depth, limits burrowing. which spring after snow melts. • Preyed upon by owls, badgers, grizzly • Breed in May and April; one litter of 5 bears, coyotes, weasels, other and young per year. predators. • Burrow systems are elaborate and often • Snakes, lizards, ground squirrels, deer bi-level; can be 400-500 feet long. mice, and other animals use their • Very territorial; only one per burrow. burrows.

RED SQUIRREL Behavior Tamiasciurus hudsonicus • Breed February through May, typically Identification March and April; one litter of 3-5 young • 11-15 inches long, 6.7-7 ounces. • One of the park's mo st territorial • Brownish-red on its upper half; dark stripe animals; territorial- above white ventral side; light eye ring; ism ensures winter bushy tail. food supply.

• Quick, energetic. • In fall, cuts cones

• Loud, long chirp to advertise presence; from trees and

much more pronounced in the fall. caches them in middens, which are Habitat used for years and • Spruce, fir, and pine forests; young can be 15 by 30 feet; squirrels found in marginal aspen habitat. grizzlies search out • Eat conifer seeds, terminal buds of conifer these middens in trees, fungi, some insects; sometimes steal whitebark pine young birds from nests. habitat to obtain the

• Preyed on by coyotes, grizzly bears, nuts. hawks. 7a

Small Mammals

RIVER OTTER Behavior Lutra canadensis • Active year-round. Identification • Breed in late March through April; one • 40-54 inches long, 10-30 pounds. litter of two young per year.

• Sleek, cylindrical body; small head; tail • Females and offspring remain together nearly one third of the body and tapers to until next litter; may temporarily join other a point; feet webbed; claws short; fur is family groups. dark dense brown. • Can swim underwater up to 6 miles per • Ears and nostrils close when underwater; hour and for 2-3 minutes at a time. whiskers aid in locating prey. • Not agile or fast on land unless they find Habitat snow or ice, then can move rapidly by

• Most aquatic member of weasel family; alternating hops and slides; can reach generally found near water. speeds of 15 miles per hour.

• Eat crayfish and fish; also frogs, turtles, • Mostly crepuscular but have been seen at sometimes young muskrats or beavers. all times of the day. • May move long distances between water bodies.

SHORT-TAILED WEASEL (ERMINE) Mustela erminea

Identification

• 8-13 inches long, 2.1-7 ounces.

• Typical weasel shape: very long body,

short legs, pointed face, long tail.

• Males about 40% larger than females.

• Fur is light brown above and white below in summer; all white in winter except for Behavior tail, which is black-tipped all year. • Breed in early to mid-summer; 1 litter of Compare to long-tailed weasel and 6-7 young per year. 107. marten, page • Can leap repeatedly three times their Habitat length.

• Eat voles, shrews, deer mice, rabbits, rats, • Will often move through and hunt in chipmunks, grasshoppers, and frogs. rodent burrows.

• Found in willows and spruce forests.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 ,

Mammals

SNOWSHOE HARE • Preyed upon by lynx, bobcats, Lepus americanus coyotes, foxes, weasels, some Identification hawks, and great horned owls.

• 14.5-20 inches long, 3-4 pounds. Behavior

• Large hind feet enable easy travel on • Breed from early March to late snow; white winter coat offers camouflage; August. gray summer coat. • Young are born with hair, grow

• Transition in seasonal fur color takes rapidly and are weaned within 30 - about 70-90 days; seems to be triggered in days. part by day length. • Mostly nocturnal; their presence Habitat in winter is only advertised by their abundant tracks in snow. • Found particularly in coniferous forests with dense understory of shrubs, riparian • Docile except during the breeding season areas with many willows, or low areas in when they chase each other, drum on the spruce-fir cover. ground with the hind foot, leap into the air, occasionally battle each other. • Rarely venture from forest cover except to and The white-tailed feed in forest openings. jackrabbit (Lepus townsendii) also lives • Eat plants; uses lodgepole pine in winter. in Yellowstone. In 2008, a scientist raised the alarm that these hares seemed UINTA GROUND SQUIRREL to have disappeared Behavior Spermophilus armatus from the park. Other • Hibernate as early as mid-July through scientists came for- Identification March. ward with evidence of the jackrabbit 's • 11-12 inches long, 7-10 ounces. • Breed in early spring; one litter of 6-8 presence, and he

• Grayish back and rump with fine white young per year. quickly retracted his alarm. spots on back; nose and shoulders are tan • Young, after they leave the burrow, are

to cinnamon; tail is grayish underneath. vulnerable to long-tailed weasels and Habitat hawks. • During cool spring weather, Uinta ground • Found in disturbed or heavily grazed squirrels active at all times of day, as the grasslands, sagebrush meadows, and weather warms activity more limited to mountain meadows up to 11,000 feet. morning, late afternoon, and evening. • Eat grasses, forbs, mushrooms, insects, • During winter, Uinta ground squirrels are and carrion (including road-killed sometimes active near the Albright Visitor members of its own species). Center and hotel at Mammoth Hot • Preyed on by long-tailed weasels, hawks, Springs. Perhaps they are aroused from coyotes, badgers. hibernation due to ground temperatures rising as hydrothermal activity increases in the vicinity. No one knows for sure.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 7a

Small Mammals

WOLVERINE Behavior Gulo gulo • Active year-round, intermittently through- Identification out the day • 38-47 inches long, 13-31 pounds. • Breed April to October; 1 litter of 2-4 • Largest member of weasel family; compact young each year. and strongly built, broad head, short legs; • Den in deep snow, under log jams and black to dark brown with white on chest uprooted trees in avalanche chutes. that may extend as bands onto sides; • Mostly solitary except when breeding. shaggy appearance due to long guard hairs. Research Habitat From 2005-2009, researchers gathered • Found in high-elevation conifer forests information about this species in eastern and alpine tundra; rarely seen. Yellowstone National Park and the adjoin- • Eat burrowing rodents, birds, eggs, ing Shoshone and Gallatin national forests. beavers, squirrels, marmots, mice, and Animals were live-trapped and fitted with vegetation (including whitebark pine nuts); GPS collars to track their movement. chiefly a scavenger in winter, but has also Wolverines were present in the southeast been known to take large prey such as deer corner of Yellowstone and in the Gallatin or elk. National Forest, north of the park.

YELLOW-BELLIED MARMOT • Preyed on by coyotes, grizzlies, and golden eagles. Marmotaflaviventris Behavior Identification • Hibernate up to 8 months, emerging from • 20-28 inches long; 3.5-11 pounds. February to May depending on elevation; • One of the largest rodents in Yellowstone. may estivate in June in response to dry

• Reddish-brown upper body; yellowish conditions and lack of green vegetation

belly; small ears; prominent active tail. and reappear in late summer. Habitat • Breed within two weeks of emerging from hibernation; average 5 young per year. • Found from lowest • Active in morning, late afternoon, and valleys to alpine evening. tundra, usually in open grassy com- • Colonies consist of one male, several munities and females, plus young of the year.

almost always near • Vocalizations include a loud whistle rocks. (early settlers called them "whistle pigs"),

• Feed on grasses a "scream" used for fear and excitement; and forbs in early a quiet tooth chatter that may be a threat.

summer; switch to • Males are territorial; dominance and seeds in late sum- aggressiveness demonstrated by waving tail mer, occasionally slowly back and forth. will eat insects. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 112 . — — 7a

Bear, Black

As of January 2011 . . History Number in Yellowstone • Like grizzlies, used to be fed at common dumps within the park. In Yellowstone, about 50 percent of black • For years, black bears were fed by Where to see bears (Ursus americanus) are black in color, visitors from vehicles. Tower and Mammoth areas, most others are brown, blonde, and cinnamon. • Both of these actions resulted in often. They stand about 3 feet high at the shoulder. bears losing fear of humans and Males weigh 210-315 pounds; females weigh Behavior & Size pursuing human food, which • Males weigh 210-315 pounds, 135-200 pounds. They have fair eyesight resulted in visitor injuries, prop- females weigh 135-200 pounds; erty damage, and the need to and an exceptional sense of smell. adults stand about 3 feet at the destroy "problem bears." Black bears eat almost anything, including shoulder. Management Status grass, fruits, tree cambium, eggs, insects, • May live 15-30 years. • Study began in 2000 to find out fish, elk calves, and carrion. Their short, • Home range: male, 6-124 square how black bears fit into the mix miles, female, 2-45 square miles. curved claws enable them to climb trees, of northern range predators; • Can climb trees; adapted to life in but do not allow them to dig for roots or twelve black bears have been forest and along forest edges. ants as well as a grizzly bear can. (Grizzlies radio-collared. • Food includes rodents, insects, elk have longer, less-curved claws.) calves, cutthroat trout, pine nuts, See "Bear Management" in During fall and early winter, black bears grasses and other vegetation. Chapter 8. spend most of their time feeding, in a pre- • Mates in spring; gives birth the denning period known as "hyperphagia." In following winter to 1-3 cubs. November they locate or excavate a den on • Considered true hibernators. north-facing slopes between 5,800-8,600 feet. There, they hibernate until late March. Birth occurs in mid-January to early Most scientists consider bears to be true February; the female becomes semicon- hibernators. Some hibernating animals scious during delivery. Usually two cubs are experience an extreme drop in metabolism born. At birth, the cubs are blind, toothless, with a cooling of body temperature and and almost hairless. After delivery the near stoppage of respiration and circula- mother continues to sleep for another two tion. Bears undergo these changes less than months while the cubs suckle and sleep. some other species, easily and they can be After emerging from the den, the cubs and roused from hibernation. their mother roam over her home territory. Males and females without cubs are soli- The bears have no regular summer den, tary, except during the mating season, May but they often dig shallow depressions to early July. They may mate with a number day beds—near abundant food sources. of individuals, but occasionally a pair stays In the fall, the cubs den with their mother. together for the entire period. Both genders The following spring, the cubs and mother usually begin breeding at age four. separate.

After fertilization, the barely developed When faced with a threat, black bears are blastocyst (egg) does not immediately likely to retreat up a tree or flee, rather than implant in the uterus, a process called reacting aggressively. However, any bear,

"delayed implantation." If the bear is particularly a female with cubs, may attack healthy when she dens for the winter, when surprised at close range. Black bears implantation and development will begin; occasionally stalk and kill humans if not, her body will abort the blastocyst. although this is rare. Whether it's a grizzly Yellowstone Resources Issues Total gestation time is 200 to 220 days, but or a black bear, always give these animals a & 2011 only during the last half of this period does wide berth. 113 fetal development occur. .

cannot climb trees.

This is not true, especially when the bears are small. As grizzlies grow larger and their claws grow

As of January 2011 . . Food includes rodents, insects, elk longer, they have a calves, cutthroat trout, roots, pine Number in Yellowstone harder time climbing. nuts, grasses, and large mammals. ±150 with home ranges wholly or Stories that bears • Mates in spring; gives birth the partially in park; 541-663 in Greater cannot swim or run downhill are also following winter; typically 1-3 Yellowstone Ecosystem. cubs. untrue. Grizzlies can swim, run up and Where to see • Considered true hibernators. downhill, and sprint up to 40 miles per hour. Dawn and dusk in the Hayden and Status Lamar valleys, on the north slopes The grizzly bear population in the Bears are generally solitary, although of Mt. Washburn, and from Fishing Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem was they may tolerate other bears when food is Bridge to the East Entrance. returned to the federal threatened plentiful. Mating season occurs from mid- species list in 2009; this decision has Behavior & Size May to mid-July, and bears may mate with • 300-700 been appealed. Males weigh pounds, multiple partners during a single season. females weigh 200-400 pounds; Scientists and managers believe the Females do not breed until at least age 4 or adults stand about 3% feet at the grizzly population is doing well. 5. Bears experience "delayed implantation," shoulder. Grizzlies are raising in nearly all cubs meaning that the embryos do not begin to • May live 15-30 years. portions of the Greater Yellowstone until late or • develop November December. Home range: male, 813-2,075 area. They are also dispersing into This appears to be a strategy allowing the square miles, female, 309-537 new habitat. Currently, they occupy square miles. mother bear to save up energy until enter- 22,095 square miles in the GYE. • Agile; can run up to 35-40 mph. ing her winter den, where the cubs are born Current Management • Can climb trees but curved claws in late January or February. A litter of one See "Bear Management" in and weight make this difficult. to three cubs is common, litters of four cubs Chapter 8. • Adapted to life in forest and occur occasionally. Male bears take no part meadows. in raising cubs and may pose a threat to younger bears. A mother grizzly will usually The grizzly bear (Ursus arctos horribilis) is a keep her cubs with her for two winters fol- subspecies of brown bear that once roamed lowing their birth, after which time she (or the mountains and prairies of the American a prospective suitor) chases the subadult West. Today, the grizzly bear remains in a bears away so she can mate again. Female few isolated locations in the lower 48 states, cubs frequently establish their home range including Yellowstone. in the vicinity of their mother, but male The name "grizzly" comes from silver- cubs must disperse farther in search of a tipped or "grizzled" hairs on some animals' home. coats. However, the coloration of black and They can be effective predators, especially grizzly bears is so variable that it is not a on such vulnerable prey as elk calves and reliable means of telling the two species spawning cutthroat trout. They also scav- apart. Particularly when bears are not fully enge meat when available, such as from grown or when seen only briefly or at a long winter-killed carcasses of elk and bison, distance, it can be difficult to correctly from road-killed wildlife, and from wolves Yellowstone Resources identify & Issues 2011 one bear species from another. and cougars. They eat small mammals (such as pocket gophers) and insects (such as ants 114 It is commonly said that grizzly bears Bear, Compare

and army cutworm moths that summer on Black Bear high-elevation talus slopes), both of which rump higher than no hump provide important, high-protein food. A shoulders grizzly's long claws and strong shoulders enable it to efficiently dig for roots, bulbs, corms, and tubers, and rodents and their caches. They also eat a wide variety of plants, including whitebark pine nuts, berries, sedges, grasses, glacier lilies, dandeli- ons, yampas and biscuitroots, horsetails and thistles. They will eat human food and garbage where they can get it. This is why managers emphasize that keeping human foods secure from bears increases the likeli- hood that humans and bears can peacefully co-exist in greater Yellowstone. 4.5 in

Grizzlies have a social hierarchy that determines which bears dominate the best habitats and food sources:

1. adult males rear front 2. lone adult females, females with two- year-old cubs; females with yearlings

3. females with cubs of the year

4. subadults of either sex Grizzly Bear Subadult bears, who are just learning to live rump lower than hump present on their own away from mother's protec- shoulders tion, are most likely to be living in poor- quality habitat or in areas nearer roads and developments. Thus, young adult bears are most vulnerable to danger from humans and other bears, and to being conditioned to human foods. Food-conditioned bears are removed from the wild population.

Like black bears, grizzlies spend most of their time feeding. This effort increases during "hyperphagia," the predenning period in autumn. They locate or excavate dens on densely vegetated, north-facing slopes between 6,562-10,000 feet. Grizzlies enter their winter dens between mid-Octo- Win 5.25 in ber and early December. Although grizzlies are considered true hibernators (see black bear description for more on this), they do sometimes awaken and leave their dens Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 during the winter. front 115 . 7a

As of January 2011 . . Behavior & Size • beavers use willows for construction and Number in Yellowstone Crepuscular: active in evening and morning for food. Where their preferred plants are Minimum estimate: 750 in 116 colonies • If live on rivers, may build bank few or absent, beavers may cut conifer trees dens instead of lodges. and feed on submerged vegetation such Where to see as • 6-13 One lodge may support pond lilies. Beavers often have lodges in Willow beavers that are usually related; Park (between Mammoth and Beavers are famous as dam builders, and this group is called a colony. Norris), Beaver Ponds (Mammoth • 35-40 inches long, including tail. examples of their work can be seen from area), Harlequin Lake (Madison • Weighs 30-60 pounds. the roads in the park. An old dam is visible area), and the Gallatin River along • Average life span: 5 years. at Beaver Lake between Norris and U.S. 191. In the backcountry, they Mammoth. Most dams are on small often have lodges in the upper Other Information • streams where the gradient is mild, and the Yellowstone River (Thorofare Beavers are native to Yellowstone. • Yellowstone's current is relatively placid during much of region), Bechler River, and Slough beavers escaped Creek. They may be seen occasion- most of the trapping that the year. Colonies located on major rivers occurred in the 1800s to the ally in the Lamar, Gardner, and due or in areas of frequent water level fluctua- region's inaccessibility. Madison rivers. tions, such as the Lamar River, den in holes • The most recent survey for in the riverbank. beavers in Yellowstone was alike conducted in 2009. Male and female beavers look —thick brown fur, paddle-shaped tail, weigh 30-60

Since 1979, park staff has periodically pounds, and are 35 to 40 inches long, surveyed riparian habitat in Yellowstone to including tail. When hunched over their determine current presence and distribu- food, beaver can resemble round rocks. tion of beaver (Castor canadensis). These Because beavers are most active in the early surveys confirmed that beavers live morning and late evening, visitors seldom throughout Yellowstone National Park but see them. But these animals do not neces- are concentrated in the southeast sarily avoid areas of moderate to high levels (Yellowstone River delta area), southwest of human use. Several occupied lodges in (Bechler area), and northwest portions Yellowstone are close to popular (Madison and Gallatin rivers) of the park. backcountry trails and campsites. Every They are also making a comeback in the year, beavers are seen along main park northern range due to new willow growth roadways. The twilight habits of beavers and because they were reintroduced nearby seem to be enough to separate them from in the Gallatin National Forest. These areas human use of the same area. are likely important habitat because of their People who wait near known beaver activity waterways, meadows, and the presence of areas may be rewarded with the sight of preferred foods such as willow, aspen, and them swimming smoothly along or clam- cottonwood. bering onto the bank to gnaw at trees and Beavers, however, are not restricted to areas willows. But they may just as likely hear the that have their preferred foods. Essentially sound of a startled or surprised beaver—the no aspen exist in most areas where beaver sharp sound of the beaver slapping its tail

sign is most abundant, such as in the on the water before it submerges to seek Bechler River. The same is true in other safety. areas where beavers periodically live, such as Heart Lake, the lower River and Yellowstone Resources Lamar & Issues 2011 Slough Creek area, Slide Lake, and the 116 lower Gardner River. In these areas, .

• As of January 2011 . . Both sexes have horns. Millions of bighorn sheep (Ovis canadensis) • Feed primarily on grasses; forage Number in Yellowstone once lived in the western United States. By 250-275 on shrubby plants in fall and 1900, though, bighorn numbers were winter. Where to See reduced to a few hundred due to market • Mating season begins in • Summer: slopes of Mount hunting. In 1912, naturalist Ernest T. Seton November. Washburn, along Dunraven Pass. • One to two lambs born in May or reported bighorns in the park had increased • Year-round: Gardner Canyon June. to more than 200, and travelers could find between Mammoth and the North them around Mt. Everts or Mt. Washburn. Entrance. Management • Bighorns exhibit some habituation Also: On cliffs along the Bighorn sheep inhabit high, rocky country. to humans; be alert to them along Yellowstone River opposite Calcite The bottoms of their feet are concave, the road; never feed them. Springs; above Soda Butte; in enabling them to walk and run over rocks • Early reports of large numbers backcountry of eastern Absarokas. very easily. Their tan-colored fur camou- of bighorn sheep in Yellowstone Behavior and Size flages them against cliff rocks. have led to speculation they were • Adult male (ram) up to 300 more numerous before the park Both males and females have horns. For the pounds, including horns that can was established. first two years of its life, the horns of a male weigh 40 pounds. • A chlamydia (pinkeye) epidemic in • Average life span: males, 9-12 are similar to the small, slightly curved 1982 reduced the northern herd years; females 10-14 years. horns of a female. By the time a male is six by 60%. • Adult female (ewe) up to 200 or seven years old, the horns form the better • Other unknown factors may be pounds. part of a circle. The bone interior of the limiting the population now. horn does not extend out very far; the outer parts of the horns are hollow and may be Population and Management damaged during the rut (mating season). (pinkeye) in Broken or splintered tips are never replaced, Before a chlamydia epidemic and the horn continues to grow from the 1982, almost 500 bighorn sheep lived on the northern range. Their population dropped base throughout the animal's life. 60% due to the epidemic, and it has been The rut begins in November. Males chal- slow to recover. Researchers recently con- lenge one another in dramatic battles, cluded that wolf reintroduction has not snorting and grunting and rising onto their affected the bighorn sheep population. hind legs, then racing toward each other Their reasoning includes the fact that the and crashing their heads and horns togeth- population has been increasing by seven er. Their extra thick skull protects their percent annually since 1998. They conclude brain during these jarring encounters. At that other, so far unknown, factors may be the end of the two-month rut, males are limiting population growth. often battered and bruised. Researchers have also studied bighorn Although they are sure-footed in a steep sheep habitat use and the effect of human and rocky environment, bighorns do have activity along the Gardiner-Mammoth accidents. They fall off cliffs, slip on ice, and road. About 65 percent of all sheep observa- can become caught in avalanches. In tions occur atop McMinn Bench of Mt. Yellowstone, they also have been struck by Everts. lightning and hit by automobiles.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 117 .

History

As of January 2011 .. • Yellowstone National Park is the Bison are animals of the grasslands; they eat primarily grasses and sedges. Their massive Number in Yellowstone only place in the lower 48 states approximately 3,900 to have a continuously free- hump supports strong muscles that allow ranging bison population since the bison to use its head as a snowplow in Where to see prehistoric times. winter, swinging side to side to sweep aside • Year-round: Hayden and Lamar • In the 1800s, market hunting, the snow. valleys. sport hunting, and the U.S. Army • Summer: grasslands of the park. nearly caused the extinction of Cows, calves, and some younger bulls • Winter: hydrothermal areas and the bison. comprise a herd. Mature bulls, however, along the Madison River. • By 1902, poachers reduced spend most of the year alone or with other Behavior & Size Yellowstone's small herd to about bulls. The exception is during the rut, or • Male (bull) weighs up to 2,000 two dozen animals. mating season. At this time, in late July and pounds, female (cow) weighs up • The U.S. Army, who administered August, bulls seek out females. They display to pounds. 1,000 Yellowstone then, protected these their dominance by bellowing, wallowing, • May live 12-15 years. bison from further poaching. and engaging in fights with other bulls. • Feed primarily on grasses and • Bison from private herds aug- Once a bull has found a female who is close sedges. mented the native herd. to estrus, he will stay by her side until she is • Mate in late July through August- • For decades, bison were inten- ready to mate. Then he moves on to another give birth to one calf in late April sively managed due to belief that or May. they, along with elk and prong- female.

• Can aggressive, are very agile, l be horn, were over-grazing the park. After a gestation period of 9 to 9 A months, and can run up to 30 miles per • By 1968, intensive manipulative single reddish-brown calves are born in late hour. management (including herd April and May. Calves can keep up with the • Two subpopulations: Northern reductions) of bison ceased. herds about 2-3 hours after birth and they Range and Hayden Valley. Current Issues are well protected by their mothers and See "Bison Management" in other members of the herd. However, Chapter 8. wolves and grizzly bears have killed bison calves. For many years scientists considered Wolves and grizzly bears are the only large Yellowstone's bison to be a subspecies predators of adult bison. Scientists have also known as the mountain bison. Today, recently seen grizzly bears hunting bison most scientists consider all bison to be one successfully. Dead bison provide an impor- species, Bison bison. In North America, tant source of food for scavengers and other both "bison" and The bison is the largest land mammal in carnivores. "buffalo" refer to North America. Bulls are more massive in the American Many insects feed upon the bison, and bison appearance than cows, and more bearded. (Bison bison). bison will rub against trees, rocks, or in dirt For their size, bison are agile and quick, Generally, "buffalo" wallows in an attempt to get rid of insect capable of speeds in excess of 30 mph. Each is used informally; pests. Birds such as the magpie "ride" a "bison" is preferred year, bison injure park visitors who bison to feed on insects in its coat. The cow- for more formal or approach too closely. bird will also follow close behind a bison, scientific purposes. Bison are sexually mature at age 2. Although feeding on insects disturbed by its steps. female bison may breed at these younger ages, older males (>7 years) participate in Migration most of the breeding. In Yellowstone, their Like most other ungulates of the greater life averages 12-15 years; individ- Yellowstone area, bison will move from Yellowstone Resources span a few & Issues 2011 uals live as long as 20 years. Both sexes have their summer ranges to lower winter ranges as snow accumulates and dense snowpacks 118 horns, those of the cow being slightly more curved and slender than the bull's. develop. When and where they migrate " —

depends on a complex relationship between park's bison population was close to 1,500 abundance of bison, quality of summer for- in 1954, and managers became concerned age, and winter snow pack. However, obser- that bison would overgraze their habitat vations of bison movement patterns show so they began culling the animals. By March that a large number of the central herd 1967, the herd was down to 400. migrate north in winter. Bison remain In 1968, managers stopped manipulating along the west boundary well into birthing bison populations and allowed natural season. Research also shows that although ecological processes to operate. As their bison travel on groomed roads, they select these routes because they follow stream courses that connect larger patches of Seasonal Distribution of Yellowstone Bison habitat. (See map at right.) General patterns of movement during fall and winter

History MT From 30 to 60 million bison may have WY roamed North America before the mid 1800s. Their historic range spread from the Pacific to the Appalachians, but their main habitat was the Great Plains where Plains tribes developed a culture that depended on bison. Almost all parts of the bison provided something for the Native American way of life —food, tools, shelter, or clothing; even the dung was burned for fuel. Hunting bison required skill and cooperation to herd and capture the animals. After tribes acquired horses in the 1600s, they could travel farther to find bison and hunt the animals more easily.

European American settlers moving west during the 1800s changed the balance. > Market hunting, sport hunting, and a U.S. 9 5 Army campaign in the late 1800s nearly eliminated bison. Yellowstone was the only place in the contiguous 48 states where Breeding range (July-Aug) Bison movement routes Fall-winter range (Sept-May) Major roads wild, free-ranging bison persisted. The U.S.

Army, which administered Yellowstone at : 2009 University of Oregon. Alias of Yellowstone (in production) that time, protected these few dozen bison from poaching as best they could. The pro- population grew, bison began to move tection and recovery of bison in Yellow- outside the park. Conflicts with humans stone is one of the great triumphs of began to occur. Bison can be a threat to American conservation. (See Chapter 1.) human safety and can damage fences, crops, landscaping, and other private property. Managing Bison And, of significant concern to livestock pro- Despite protection, Yellowstone's bison ducers, some Yellowstone bison are infected were reduced by poaching to less than two with the disease brucellosis. dozen animals in 1902. Fearing the demise Because of brucellosis, bison generally are of the wild herd, the U.S. Army brought 21 not welcome outside the park even though bison from ranches to Yellowstone. In other ungulates that may also harbor the 1906-07, the Buffalo Ranch in Lamar Valley brucellosis organism are. Since the 1980s, was constructed to manage these bison and this issue has grown steadily into one of the increase their numbers. This herd grew to most heated and complex of Yellowstone's more than 1,000 animals; the park's small resource issues. For more information about native bison herd in Pelican Valley also brucellosis and bison management, see slowly increased. In the 1930s, the intro- Yellowstone Resources Chapter 8, "Bison Management. & Issues 2011 duced bison were allowed to move freely and intermingle with the native bison. The 119 7a

Cats: Bobcat & Lynx

The cats of Yellowstone are seldom seen and little known. Of the three living in the park, cougars are better studied and are discussed in their own section. The little information

available on bobcats and lynx is summarized below.

Bobcat Lynx rufus Color ranges from red-brown fur with indistinct markings to light buff with dark Number in Yellowstone spotting; short tail; ear tufts. Unknown, but generally widespread. Distinguish from lynx: has several black

Where to see rings that do not fully circle the tail; no

• Rarely seen; most reports from rocky areas black tip on tail, shorter ear tufts, smaller and near rivers. track (2").

• Typical habitat: rocky areas, conifer Solitary, active between sunset and sunrise. forests. Eats rabbits, hares, voles, mice, red Behavior and Size squirrels, wrens, sparrows, grouse; may take deer and adult pronghorn. • Adult: 15-30 pounds; 31-34 inches long.

Lynx Lynx canadensis • Wide paws with fur in and around pads; allows lynx to run across snow. Number in • Track: 4-5 inches. Yellowstone • Solitary, diurnal and nocturnal. Few; 112 known observations. • Eats primarily snowshoe hares, especially in winter; also rodents, rabbits, birds, red Where to see squirrels, and other small mammals,

• Very rarely seen. particularly in summer.

• Typical habitat: Research cold conifer After a four-year research project to docu- forests. ment the number and distribution of lynx in Behavior and Size the park, completed in 2004, researchers in • Adult: 16-35 confirmed lynx existed and reproduced pounds, 26-33 the central and eastern portions of the park. inches long.

• Gray brown fur In December 2007, Fred Paulsen, a Xanterra with white, buff, employee in Yellow- brown on throat stone, photographed and ruff; tufted ears; this lynx along the short tail; hind legs longer than front. Gibbon River. In 2010, visitors also saw a lynx, Distinguish from bobcat: black rings on which was wearing a tail are complete; tail tip solid black; longer Yellowstone Resources radio collar—indicating tufts; larger track. & Issues 2011 ear it may have come from Colorado. 120 .

As of January 2011 . . small mammals. The cougar (Puma concolor), also called the • Bears frequently displace cougars in Yellowstone mountain lion, is among the largest cats in Number from their kills. 14-23 resident adults on the north- North America. (The jaguar, which occurs • Male cougars may kill other male ern range; others in park seasonally. in New Mexico and Arizona, is larger.) cougars within their territory. to see Cougars live throughout the park in Where • Adult cougars and kittens have Seldom seen. summer, but few people ever see them. been killed by wolves. The northern range of Yellowstone is prime Behavior and size • Litters range from 2-3 kittens; habitat for cougars because snowfall is light • Adult males weigh 140-165 50% survive first year. and prey always available. Cougars follow pounds; females weigh about 100 Interaction with humans pounds; length, including tail, their main prey as they move to higher ele- • Very few documented confronta- 6.5-7.5 feet. vations in summer and lower elevations in tions between cougars & humans • Average life span: males, 8-10 the winter. have occurred in Yellowstone. years; females, 12-14 years. • If a big cat is close by: Stay in a Adult male cougars are territorial and • Preferred terrain: rocky breaks and may group; carry small children; make forested areas that provide cover kill other adult males in their home range. noise. Do not run, do not bend for hunting prey and for escape Male territories may overlap with several down to pick up sticks. Act domi- from competitors such as wolves females. In non-hunted populations, such as nant—stare in the cat's eyes and and bears. in Yellowstone, the resident adult males liv- show your teeth while making • Prey primarily on elk and mule ing in an area the longest are the dominant noise. deer, plus porcupines and other males. These males sire most of the litters within a population; males not established in the same area have little opportunity for In Yellowstone, most kittens are born June breeding. through September. Female cougars den in a secure area with ample rock and/or vegeta- Although cougars may breed and have tive cover. Kittens are about one pound at kittens at any time of year, most populations birth and gain about one pound per week have a peak breeding and birthing season. for the first 8-10 weeks. During this time, In Yellowstone, males and females breed they remain at the den while the mother primarily February through May. Males and makes short hunting trips and then returns females without kittens search for one to nurse her kittens. When the kittens are another by moving throughout their home 8-10 weeks old, the female begins to hunt ranges and communicating through visual over a larger area. After making a kill, she and scent markers called scrapes. A female's moves the kittens to the kill. Before hunting scrape conveys her reproductive status. A again, she stashes the kittens. Kittens are male's scrape advertises his presence to rarely involved in killing until after their females and warns other males that an area first year. is occupied. After breeding, the males leave the female. Most kittens leave their area of birth at 14 to Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 121 7a 18 months of age. Approximately 99 percent Cougars are solitary hunters who face of young males disperse 50 to 400 miles; competition for their kills from other large Cougar about 70-80 percent of young females mammals. Even though a cached carcass is disperse 20 to 150 miles. The remaining harder to detect, scavengers and competi- proportion of males and females establish tors such as bears and wolves sometimes

living areas near where they were born. find it. In Yellowstone, black and grizzly Therefore, most resident adult males in bears will take over a cougar's kill. Coyotes Yellowstone are immigrants from other will try, but can be killed by the cougar areas, thus maintaining genetic variability instead. Wolves displace cougars from approximately 6 percent of their elk carcasses.

Management History In the early 1900s, cougars were killed as part of predator control in the park. By 1925, very few individuals remained. However, cougar sightings in Yellowstone have increased dramatically since the mid 20th century.

In 1987, the first cougar ecology study began in Yellowstone National Park. The research documented population dynamics of cougars in the northern Yellowstone ecosystem inside and outside the park boundary, determined home ranges and habitat requirements, and assessed the role of cougars as a predator.

In 1998, the second phase of research began. Researchers collared 87 cougars, including 50 kittens in 22 litters. Between 1998 and 2005, researchers documented 473 Between 1998 and known or probable cougar kills. Elk com- 2005, researchers documented 473 prised 74 percent—52 percent calves, 36 per- known or probable cent cows, 9 percent bulls, 3 percent cougar kills, which This cougar kitten was photographed by unknown sex or age. Cougars killed about included: researchers under controlled research conditions. one elk or deer every 9.4 days and spent 345 elk almost 4 days at each kill. The study also 64 mule deer across a wide geographic area. documented that wolves detected and may 12 bighorn sheep Yellowstone's cougars are not hunted within 10 pronghorn have scavenged 22.5 percent of cougar- their life 12-14 10 coyotes the park. Thus, span may be killed ungulates. This cougar monitoring 7 marmots years for females and 8-10 years for males. study ended in 2006. 5 porcupines Cougars living in areas where they are hunt- Very few cougar/human confrontations 1 red fox ed have much shorter life spans. 1 mountain goat have occurred in Yellowstone. However, elk 1 blue grouse In Yellowstone, cougars prey upon observations of cougars, particularly those 1 golden eagle (mostly calves) and deer. They stalk the close to areas of human use or residence, animal then attack, aiming for the animal's should be reported. also killed Cougars back and killing it with a bite to the base of six of their own kind, the skull or the throat area. but few were eaten. A cougar eats until full, then caches the carcass for later meals. Cougars spend an average of 3-4 days consuming an elk or deer and 4-5 days hunting for the next meal. Cougars catch other animals—includ- Yellowstone Resources ing red squirrels, porcupines, marmots, & Issues 2011 grouse, and moose— if the opportunity 122 arises. .

wolf coyote

As of January 2011 . . Management Coyotes (Canis latrans) are intelligent and Number in Yellowstone • Like other predators, coyotes were adaptable. Like wolves, they were perceived often destroyed in the early part Total unknown, but numerous. In as threats to the survival of elk and other the northern range, the coyote of the 20th century because they ungulates in the park's early days. Unlike population decreased 30-50% after sometimes preyed on livestock. • thrive wolves, however, coyotes successfully resist- wolves were restored, but their pop- Coyotes continued to ed extermination. Since then, research has ulation seems to have recovered. because their adaptability enabled them to compensate for shown coyotes eat mainly voles, mice, rab- Where to see the destruction efforts. bits, other small animals, and carrion—and Meadows, fields, other grasslands, • Elimination of wolves probably only the very young elk calves in the spring. and foraging for small mammals resulted in high coyote population along roadways. Often mistaken for a wolf, the coyote is densities; wolves' absence opened about one-third the wolf's size with a Behavior & Size a niche that coyotes could par- • Weigh 25-35 pounds, 16-20 inch- slighter build. Its coat colors range from tially occupy in Yellowstone. es high at the shoulder. • tan to buff, sometimes gray, and with some NPS staff monitors coyotes and • Average life span 6 years; up to 13 uses cracker-shell rounds, pepper orange on its tail and ears. Males are years in the park. spray, or other negative stimuli to slightly larger than females. • Home range: 3-15 square miles. discourage coyotes that have lost During the 20th century, coyotes partially • Primarily eat rodents, birds, their wariness of humans. filled the niche left vacant after wolves were insects, carrion, elk calves, some exterminated from the park. In Yellow- adult elk. • 4-8 pups are born in April in stone, they live in packs or family groups of dens; emerge in May. up to seven animals, with an alpha male and • Killed by wolves, mountain lions. female, and subordinate individuals (usually pups from previous litters). This social organization is characteristic of coyotes living in northern range have adapted to wolves and areas free from human hunting. their population has recovered. Coyotes, also known as 'song dogs', com- Coyotes also face threats from humans. municate with each other by a variety of They quickly learn habits like roadside long-range vocalizations. You may hear feeding. This may lead to aggressive behav- groups or lone animals howling, especially ior toward humans and can increase the during dawn and dusk periods. Coyotes risk of the coyote being hit by a vehicle. also use scent-marks (urine and feces) to Several instances of coyote aggression communicate their location, breeding sta- toward humans have occurred here, includ- tus, and territorial boundaries. ing a few attacks. Until 1995, coyotes faced few predators in Park staff scare unwary coyotes from Yellowstone other than cougars, who will visitor-use areas with cracker-shell rounds, kill coyotes feeding on cougar kills. After bear repellent spray, or other negative stim- wolves were restored, however, dozens of uli. Animals that continue to pose a threat coyote pups and adults were been killed by to themselves or to humans are killed. wolves primarily when feeding on other — Signs, interpretive brochures, and park staff animals killed by wolves. On the northern continue to remind visitors that coyotes and range, wolves caused a 30-50 percent reduc- other park wildlife are wild and potentially tion in coyote population density through dangerous and should never be fed or direct mortality and changes in coyote den- approached. ning behaviors success. and Researchers see Yellowstone Resources some evidence now that coyotes on the & Issues 2011 ,23 Mule deer are common in Yellowstone, living throughout the park in almost all habitats; Deer white-tailed deer are uncommon, restricted to streamside areas of the northern range.

Mule deer and Mule deer Odocoileus hemionus • Males grow antlers from April or May white-tailed deer until August or September; shed them in can be told apart Number in Yellowstone late winter and spring. by their coloration, Summer: 2,300-2,500 antler shape, tail, • Mating season (rut) in November and behavior, and Winter: less than 100 December; fawns born late May to early where they live. August. Where to see All species of deer • Lives in brushy areas, coniferous forests, use their hearing, • Summer: throughout the park. smell, and sight to grasslands. • Winter: North Entrance area. detect predators • Bounding gait, when four feet leave the such as coyotes or Behavior and Size ground, enables it to move more quickly cougars. They • Male (buck): 150-250 pounds; female through shrubs and rock fields. probably smell or (doe): 100-175 pounds; V/i feet at the hear the approach- • Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in ing predator first- shoulder. spring. then may raise their • coat: reddish; winter coat: gray- Summer • Predators include wolf, coyote, cougar, heads high and brown; white rump patch with black- stare hard, rotating bear. ears forward to tipped tail; brown patch on forehead; large hear better. If a ears. deer hears or sees

movement, it flees.

White-tailed Deer o. virginianus whitish patches; belly, inner thighs, and in Yellowstone Number underside of tail white. Scarce Waves tail like a white flag when fleeing. Where to see Males grow antlers from May until August; Along streams and rivers in northern part of shed them in early to late spring. the park. Mating season (rut) peaks in November; fawns born usually in late May or June. Behavior and Size Eats shrubs, forbs, grasses; conifers in • Adults 150-250 pounds; V/i feet at the spring. shoulder. Yellowstone Resources Predators include wolf, coyote, cougar, & Issues 2011 • Summer coat: red-brown; winter coat: bear. gray-brown; throat and inside ears with 124 .

of January 2011 . . slightly shorter; calf is about 30 Number in Yellowstone pounds at birth. • Average life span: 13-18 years. • Summer: 10,000-20,000 elk in 6 to • 7 different herds. Bulls have antlers, which begin usually • Winter: <5,000 growing in the spring and drop in March or April. Where to see • Feed on grasses, sedges, other Summer: Gibbon Meadows, Elk Park, herbs and shrubs, bark of aspen and Lamar Valley. trees, conifer needles, burned Autumn, during "rut" or mating bark, aquatic plants. season: northern range, including • Mating season (rut) in September Elk (Cervus elaphus) are the most abundant Mammoth Hot Springs; Madison and October; calves born in May River. large mammal found in Yellowstone. to late June. Winter: migrate south to the European American settlers used the word See "Northern Range" in Jackson Hole Elk Refuge in "elk" to describe the animal, which is the Chapter 8. Jackson, Wyoming, or north to word used in Europe for moose (causing the northern range and around great confusion for European visitors). The Gardiner, Montana; <100 year- Shawnee word "wapiti," which means round along the Firehole and deer" or "white-rumped deer," is "white Madison rivers. another name for elk. The North American Behavior and Size elk is considered the same species as the red • Male (bull) weighs about 700 deer of Europe. pounds and is about 5 feet high Bull elk are probably the most photo- at the shoulder; female (cow) graphed animals in Yellowstone, due to weighs about 500 pounds and is their huge antlers. Bull elk begin growing 70 percent of the antler their first set of antlers when they are about Roughly growth takes place in the last half of one year old. Antler growth is triggered in spring by a combination of two factors: a the period, when the antlers of a 2 depression of testosterone levels and length- mature bull will grow A of an inch day. antlers of typical ening daylight. The first result of this each The a healthy bull are 55-60 inches long, just change is the casting or shedding of the previous year's "rack." Most bulls drop their under six feet wide, and weigh about 30 antlers in March and April. New growth pounds per pair. begins soon after. Bulls retain their antlers through the

Growing antlers are covered with a thick, winter. When antlered, bulls usually settle fuzzy coating of skin commonly referred to disputes by wrestling with their antlers. as "velvet." Blood flowing in the skin depos- When antlerless, they use their front hooves (as do), which is more likely to result its calcium that makes the antler. Usually cows around early August, further hormonal in injury to one of the combatants. Because changes signal the end of antler growth, and bulls spend the winter with other bulls or antlers the bull begins scraping the velvet off, pol- with gender-mixed herds, retaining ishing and sharpening the antlers in the means fewer injuries sustained overall. Also, process. bulls with large antlers that are retained longer are at the top of elk social structure, The antler growing period is shortest for allowing them preferential access to feeding yearling bulls (about 90 days) and longest sites. Yellowstone Resources for healthy, mature bulls (about 140 days). & Issues 2011 125 7a golden eagles. Female elk can live 17-18 years; rare individuals may live 22 years. Elk Habitat

Climate is an important factor affecting the size and distribution of elk herds here. While nearly the entire park provides summer habitat for 10,000-20,000 elk, winter snowfalls force elk and other ungulates to Antler Details leave most of the high elevation grasslands • Are usually of the park. Less than 5,000 elk winter in symmetrical. the park.

• The average, The northern range, with more moderate healthy, mature temperatures and less snowfall than the bull has 6 tines on each antler, Mating Season park interior, can support large numbers of and is known as wintering elk. The northern Yellowstone The mating season (rut) generally occurs a "six point" or herd is one of the largest herds of elk in the "six by six." from early September to mid-October. United States. The herd winters in the area Elk gather in mixed herds— lots of females • Can occur on of the Lamar and Yellowstone river valleys female elk. and calves, with a few bulls nearby. Bulls from Soda Butte to Gardiner, Montana. It bugle to announce their availability and • One-year-old also migrates outside of the park into the bulls grow 10-20 fitness to females and to warn and challenge Gallatin National Forest and onto private inch spikes, some- other bulls. When answered, bulls move lands. times forked. toward one another and sometimes engage • Two-year-old in battle for access to the cows. They crash Only one herd lives both winter and sum- bulls usually have their antlers together, push each other mer inside the park. The Madison-Firehole slender antlers intensely, and wrestle for dominance. While elk herd (less than 100 animals) has been with 4 to 5 points. loud and extremely strenuous, fights rarely the focus of a research study since • Three-year-old cause serious injury. The weaker bull ulti- November 1991. Researchers are examining bulls have thicker how environmental variability effects ungu- antlers. mately gives up and wanders off. late reproduction and survival. Prior to wolf • Four-year-old Calves are born in May and June. They are restoration, the population was naturally and older bulls brown with white spots and have little typically have 6 regulated by severe winter conditions to a scent, providing them with good camou- points; antlers degree not found in other, human-hunted flage from predators. They can walk within are thicker and elk herds. The elk are also affected by high longer each year. an hour of birth, but they spend much of fluoride and silica levels in the water and their first ten • week to days bedded down Eleven- or plants they eat, which affect enamel forma- twelve-year old between nursings. Soon thereafter they tion and wear out teeth quickly—thus bulls often grow begin grazing with their mothers, and join a shortening their lives. The average life span the heaviest ant- herd of other cows and calves. Up to two- lers; after that is 13 years; elk on the northern range live thirds of each year's calves may be killed by age, the size of approximately 18 years. Information gained predators. Elk calves are food for black and antlers generally in this study will be useful in comparing diminishes. grizzly bears, wolves, coyotes, cougars, and unhunted and hunted elk populations.

Researchers also examined elk use of areas Horns vs. Antlers burned in the wildfires of 1988. They found Antlers, found on members of the deerfamily, grow as an extension that elk ate the bark of burned trees. Fires of the animal's skull. They are true bone, are a single structure, and, had altered the chemical composition of generally, arefound only on males. Horns, found on pronghorn, bighorn sheep, and bison, are a two-part structure. An interior portion of lodgepole pine bark, making it more digest- bone (an extension of the skull) is covered by an exterior sheath grown ible and of higher protein content than live by specialized hairfollicles (similar to human fingernails). Antlers are bark. While the burned bark was not the

shed and regrown yearly while horns are never shed and continue to highest quality forage for elk, it is compara- grow throughout an animal's life. One exception is the pronghorn, ble to other low-quality browse species. which sheds and regrows its horn sheath each year. Researchers speculate that elk selected

burned bark because it was readily available Yellowstone Resources above the snow cover in winter. & Issues 2011 For management history of elk, see Chapter 8, 126 "Northern Range." . 7a Fox

wolf coyote

As of January 2011 . . averages 3.75 square miles, with The red fox (Vulpes vulpes) has been males having slightly larger range Number in Yellowstone in Yellowstone since the 1880s. than females. documented Total unknown, but not nearly as Several color phases; usually red In relation to other canids in the park, red numerous as coyotes. Adult foxes weigh fur with white-tipped tail, dark foxes are the smallest. Where to see 9-12 pounds; coyotes average 28 pounds in legs; slender, long snout. • Lamar and Hayden valleys, Canyon Barks; rarely howls or sings. Yellowstone; and adult wolves weigh closer Village area. Distinguish from coyote by size, to 100 pounds. Red foxes occur in several • Typical habitat: edges of sage- color, and bushier tail. color phases, but they are usually distin- brush/grassland and within Solitary, in mated pairs, or with guished from coyotes by their reddish yel- forests. female from previous litter. low coat that is somewhat darker on the Behavior and Size Prey: voles, mice, rabbits, birds, back and shoulders, with black "socks" on • Adult males weigh 11-12 pounds; amphibians, other small animals. their lower legs. "Cross" phases of the red females weigh average 10 pounds. Other food: carrion and some fox (a dark cross on their shoulders) have • Average 43 inches long. plants. been reported a few times in recent years • Average life span: 3-7 years; up to Killed by coyotes, wolves, near Canyon and Lamar Valley. Also, a 11 years in Yellowstone. mountain lions. • In northern range, home range lighter-colored red fox has been seen at higher elevations.

Foxes feed on a wide variety of animal and plant materials. Small mammals such as mice and voles, rabbits, and insects comprise the bulk of their diet. Carrion seems to be an important winter food source in some areas. The many miles of forest edge and extensive semi-open and canyon areas of the park seem to offer suitable habitat and food for foxes. They are widespread throughout the northern part of the park with somewhat patchy distribution elsewhere in the park. Foxes are more abundant than were previously thought in Yellowstone, yet they are not often seen because they are nocturnal, usually forage alone, and travel along edges of meadows and forests. During winter, foxes may The fox was relocated between 10 and 60 increase their activity around dawn and miles away from Tower but twice it dusk, and even sometimes in broad day- returned. Finally the fox came to light. In late April and May, when females Mammoth where it was fed again and as a are nursing kits at their dens, they are result was destroyed. While this story gives sometimes more visible during daylight us interesting information about the hom- hours, foraging busily to get enough food ing instinct of fox, it also points out the for their growing offspring. importance of obeying rules to avoid inad- Foxes can become habituated to humans vertently causing the death of one of usually due to being fed. One fox in the Yellowstone's animals. summer of 1997 was trapped and relocated Yellowstone Resources A little known fact about red foxes is most & Issues 2011 three times from the Tower Fall parking of them in the lower 48 states, especially in area because visitors fed it human food. 127 7a the eastern and plains states, were intro- as Cooke City and the Beartooth Plateau. duced from Europe in the 18th and 19th Recent genetic analyses are beginning to rOX centuries for fox hunts and fur farms. The shed light on this mysterious 'Yellow fox of

foxes that survived the hunt or escaped the the Yellowstone,' and new evidence is fur farms proliferated and headed west- beginning to support the distinctiveness of ward. In addition to this introduced subspe- this high elevation fox. cies of red fox, three native subspecies exist During the past century, especially within at high elevations in the Sierra (V. v. necat- the past few decades, the number of fox ar), Cascade (V. v. cascadensis), and Rocky sightings has increased greatly. This could (V. v. macroura) mountains and are collec- be due to better documentation of sightings tively called mountain foxes. (Yellowstone's through the rare animal sighting reports fox is V. v. macroura.) Little is known about that began in 1986. In addition, an increase any of these subspecies. in visitors means more chances to see foxes. A research project conducted between There may also be a gradual increase in the 1994-1998 determined at least two number of foxes now that the wolf has subpopulations of foxes live in the Greater returned to Yellowstone. Yellowstone Ecosystem. At about 7,000 feet Wolves and coyotes are more closely related in elevation, there seemed to be a dividing both genetically and physically than wolves line with no geographical barriers separat- and foxes, and wolves are successfully coming these foxes. The genetic difference peting with coyotes, causing a decline in the between these foxes was similar to main- coyote population. This may have caused an land and island populations of foxes in increase in the number of fox sightings in Australia and their habitat use was different core wolf areas such as the Lamar Valley. as well. In addition, their actual dimensions, research shows that red fox are more such as ear length and hind foot length, Recent nocturnal than coyotes, strongly prefer were adapted to some degree for colder and environments with deep snow and long forested habitats, while coyotes tend to use winters. sagebrush and open meadow areas. In this way, potential competition between fox and Ever since red fox sightings were first coyotes is minimized. Fox don't seem to recorded in Yellowstone National Park, a actively avoid coyotes during an average novel coat color has been seen at higher ele- day, they just stick with forested habitat, vations. This yellowish or cream color most sleep when coyotes are most active, and often occurs above 7,000 feet in areas such then forage opportunistically. Fox will visit carcasses (like wolf kills) for the occasional big meal, especially during winter, but this

is more rare than the scavenging coyotes that park visitors can expect to see on many days, especially during winter.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 128 .

As of January 2011 . . Behavior & Size Number in Yellowstone • Largest member of deer family. • (bull) close Less than 200. Adult male weighs to pounds; female (cow) Population has declined in last 40 1,000 weighs up to 900 pounds; 514 to years due to a number of factors Th feet at the shoulder. such as loss of old growth forests • surrounding the park, hunting Browses on willows and aquatic outside the park, burning of plants in summer; willows where available in conifers winter habitat (spruce-fir winter or on as high as 8,500 feet. forests) in 1988, and predators. Moose (Alces alces shirasi) are the largest • Usually alone or in small family Where to see members of the deer family in Yellowstone. groups. Marshy areas of meadows, lake A male (bull) moose can weigh nearly 1,000 • Mating season peaks in late Sep- shores, and along rivers. pounds and stand more than seven feet at tember and early October; one the shoulder. Both sexes have long legs that or two calves born in late May or June. enable them to wade into rivers and • Lives up to 20 years. through deep snow, to swim, and to run fast. Despite its size, a moose can slip through the woods without a sound. subalpine fir and Douglas-fir. Moose, especially cows with calves, are Moose can also move easily in unpredictable and have chased people in these thick fir stands because the the park. branches prevent snow from accumulating on the ground. Both sexes are dark brown, often with tan legs and muzzle. Bulls can be distinguished Moose are solitary creatures from cows by their antlers. Adults of both for most of the year, except sexes have "bells"— a pendulous dewlap of during the mating season skin and hair that dangles from the throat or rut. During the rut, both and has no known function. bulls and cows are vocal: the cows may be heard In summer, moose eat aquatic plants like grunting in search of a water lilies, duckweed, and burweed. But mate, and bulls challenge the principle staples of the moose diet are one another with low the leaves and twigs of the willow, followed croaks before clashing with by other woody browse species such as their antlers. A bull on the gooseberry and buffaloberry. An adult offensive tries to knock its moose consumes approximately 10-12 opponent sideways. If such a pounds of food per day in the winter and move is successful, the challenger approximately 22-26 pounds of food per follows through with another thrust of its day in the summer. antlers. The weaker animal usually gives up

Some moose that summer in the park before any serious damage is done; occa- migrate in winter to lower elevations west sionally the opponent's antlers inflict a and south of Yellowstone where willow mortal wound. remains exposed above the snow. But many Bulls usually shed their antlers in late moose move to higher elevations (as high as November or December, although young 8,500 feet) to winter in mature stands of bulls may retain their antlers as late as Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 129 7a Moose

March. Shedding their heavy antlers helps History them conserve energy and promotes easier Moose were reportedly very rare in north- winter survival. In April or May, bulls begin west Wyoming when the park was estab- to grow new antlers. Small bumps on each lished in 1872. Subsequent protection from side of the forehead start to swell, then hunting and wolf control programs may enlarge until they are knobs covered with a have contributed to increased numbers. black fuzz (called velvet) and fed by blood However, forest fire suppression probably that flows through a network of veins. was the most important factor in their pop- Finally the knobs change into antlers and ulation increase because moose depend on grow until August. The antlers are flat and mature fir forests for winter survival. By the palmate (shaped like a hand). Yearlings 1970s, an estimated 1,000 moose inhabited grow six to eight inch spikes; adult prime the park. bulls usually grow the largest antlers — as The moose population declined following wide as five feet from tip to tip. Then the the fires of 1988. old died bull rubs and polishes his antlers on small Many moose during the winter of 1988-89, probably as a trees in preparation for the rut. combined result of the loss of good moose Cows are pregnant through the winter; forage and a harsh winter. Unlike moose gestation is approximately eight months. habitat elsewhere, northern Yellowstone When ready to give birth, the drives off cow does not have woody browse species that any previous year's offspring that may have will come in quickly after a fire and extend wintered with her and seeks out a thicket. above the snowpack to provide winter food. She gives birth to one or more calves, each Therefore, the overall effect of the fires was weighing 25-35 pounds. probably detrimental to moose populations. A calf walks a few hours after birth and Their current population and distribution stays close to its mother. Even so, a moose are unknown. calf often becomes prey for bears or wolves Today, moose are most likely seen in the and less frequently for cougars or coyotes. park's southwestern corner and in the Soda Butte Creek, Pelican Creek, Lewis River, and Gallatin River drainages.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 130 .

Pronghorn

As of January 2011 . . History The North American pronghorn Number in Yellowstone • Prior to European American set- americana) is not a true ante- (Antilocapra ±300 tlement of the West, pronghorn lope, which are found in Africa and south- population estimated to be 35 Where to see east Asia. The pronghorn is the surviving million. • Summer: Lamar Valley; some may member of a group of animals that evolved • Early in the 19th century, prong- be near the North Entrance near during the past 20 million horn abundant in river valleys in North America Gardiner, Montana. radiating from Yellowstone; years. Use of the term "antelope" seems to • Winter: between the North settlement and hunting reduced have originated when the first written Entrance and Reese Creek. their range and numbers. description of the animal was made during Behavior and Size • Park management also culled the 1804-1806 Lewis and Clark Expedition. • Male (buck) weighs 100-125 pronghorn during the first half The pronghorn has true horns, similar to pounds; female (doe) weighs of the 20th century due to over- bison and bighorn sheep. The horns are 90-110 pounds; adult length is grazing concerns. 45-55 inches and height is 35-40 made of modified, fused hair that grows Research Concerns inches at shoulder. over permanent bony cores, but they differ • Pronghorn are designated species • Average life span: 7-10 years. from those of other horned animals in two of special concern in the park. • Young (fawns) born in late May- major ways: the sheaths are shed and grown • During 1991-1995, the population June. dropped approximately are 50%; every year and they pronged. (A number • Live in grasslands. possible causes include predation of other horned mammals occasionally shed • Can run for several miles at 45 and loss of winter range. their horns, but not annually.) Adult males mph. • This small population could face (bucks) typically have 10-16 inch horns that • Eat sagebrush and other shrubs, extirpation from random cata- tips. forbs, some grasses. are curved at the About 70 percent of strophic events such as a severe • Both sexes have horns; males are the females (does) also have horns, but they winter or disease outbreak. average 1-2 inches long and are not pronged. pronged. The males usually shed the horny sheaths in November or December and begin growing the next year's set in February or March. The horns reach maximum development in August or September. Females shed and regrow their horns at various times.

Pronghorn are easy to distinguish from the park's other ungulates. Their deer-like bodies are reddish-tan on the back and white underneath, with a large white rump patch. Their eyes are very large, which provides a large field of vision. Males also have a black cheek patch.

Females that bred the previous fall commonly deliver a set of twins in May or June. The newborn fawns are a uniform grayish- brown and weigh 6-9 pounds. They can walk within 30 minutes of birth and are capable of outrunning a human in a couple Yellowstone Resources of days. young normally stay hidden in The & Issues 2011 the vegetation while the mother grazes close by. After the fawns turn three weeks old 7a

Pronghorn

they begin to follow the females as they for- smaller bands of females, bachelor groups age. Several females and their youngsters of males between 1-5 years old, and solitary join together in nursery herds along with older males. The small nursery and bachelor yearling females. herds may forage within home ranges of 1,000 to 3,000 acres while solitary males Pronghorn form groups most likely for roam smaller territories to 1,000 acres increased protection against predators. (60 in size). Pronghorn, including three-fourths When one individual detects danger, it of the individuals in Yellowstone, migrate flares its white rump patch, signaling the between different winter and summer others to flee. The pronghorn is adapted ranges to more fully utilize forage within well for outrunning its enemies — its over- broad geographic areas. sized windpipe and heart allow large amounts of oxygen and blood to be carried History to and from its unusually large lungs. During the early part of the 19th century, Pronghorn can sustain sprints of 45-50 pronghorns ranked second only to bison in mph. Such speed, together with keen vision, numbers, with an estimated 35 million make the adults difficult prey for any natu- throughout the West. The herds were soon ral predator. Fawns, however, can be caught decimated by conversion of rangeland to by coyotes, bobcats, wolves, bears, and cropland, professional hunters who sold the golden eagles. meat, and ranchers who believed that The pronghorn breeding season begins pronghorns were competing with livestock mid-September and extends through early for forage. Today, due to transplant pro- October. During the rut the older males grams and careful management, prong- "defend" groups of females (called a harem). horns again roam the sagebrush prairies in They warn any intruding males with loud herds totaling nearly 500 thousand animals. snorts and wheezing coughs. If this behav- Pronghorn in Yellowstone have not fared as ior does not scare off the opponent, a fight well. The park's pronghorn population may erupt. The contenders slowly approach declined in the 1960s and again in the one another until their horns meet, then 1990s. Research in 1991 found that the aver- they twist and shove each other. Eventually, age fawn life span that year was about 35 the weaker individual will retreat. Although days and nearly all collared pronghorn the fights may be bloody, fatalities are rare. fawns were apparently killed by coyotes. The most important winter foods are This mortality rate closely followed the shrubs like sagebrush and rabbitbrush; they decline in total fawn numbers measured eat succulent forbs during spring and sum- during weekly surveys of the entire park. In mer. They can eat lichens and plants like 1999 another cooperative study was initiat- locoweed, lupine, and poisonvetch that are ed to determine fawn productivity and mor- toxic to some ungulates. Their large liver tality rates. Other factors include declining (proportionately, almost twice the size of a amount and quality of winter range as pri- domestic sheep's liver) may be able to vate lands are taken out of agriculture. remove plant toxins from the blood stream. Research continues to search for answers to Grasses appear to be the least-used food the population decline. This small popula- item, but may be eaten during early spring tion is susceptible to extirpation from ran- when the young and tender shoots are espe- dom catastrophic events such as a severe cially nutritious. Yellowstone Resources winter or disease outbreak. & Issues 2011 During winter, pronghorn form mixed-sex and-age herds. In spring, they split into 132 . — — 7a Wolf

As of January 2011 . . common; white is usually in the

high Arctic; and black is common Wolves ranged widely throughout North Number in only in the Rockies. America in pre-Columbian times. Yellowstone area • Prey primarily on hoofed animals. • 400-450 wolves in the greater Worldwide, all wolves, except the red wolf In Yellowstone, 90% of their win- Yellowstone area. (Canis rufus) of the southeastern United ter diet is elk; more deer in sum- • ±120 individuals live in the park. States, are the same species (Canis lupus). mer; also eat a variety of smaller Where to see Wolves are highly social animals and live in mammals like beavers. They inhabit most of the park now, • Mate in February; give birth to packs. In Yellowstone, packs contain from 8 look at dawn and dusk. average of five pups in April after to 14 individuals, with some occasionally Behavior & Size a gestation period of 63 days; having twice that number. Pack size varies • 26-36 inches high at the shoulder, young emerge from den at 10-14 based on the size of its main prey. The pack 4-6 feet long from nose to tail days; pack remains at the den for is a complex social family, with leaders (the tip; males weigh 100-130 pounds, 3-10 weeks unless disturbed. female) alpha male and alpha and subordi- females weigh 80-110 pounds. • Human-caused death is the high- nates, each having individual personality • Home range: 18-540 square miles; est mortality factor for wolves traits and roles in the pack. Packs generally varies with pack size, food, outside the park; the leading command territory that they mark by urine season. natural cause is wolves killing scenting and defend against intrusion by • Typically live 3-4 years in wild; can other wolves. other wolves (individuals or packs). live up to 11 years in wild. Current Management • Three color phases: gray, black, See Chapter "Wolf Restoration." Wolves consume a wide variety of prey, 8, and white; gray is the most large and small. They efficiently hunt large prey that other predators cannot usually before, and one bull provides much more Wolves kill each kill. They also compete with coyotes (and, meat than one calf or cow. other and other to a lesser extent, foxes) for smaller prey. In carnivores, such as Wolves may be consuming as many pounds Yellowstone, 90 percent of their winter prey coyotes and of meat each year, but working harder for cougars, usually is elk; 10-15 percent of their summer prey is that food. When such "food stress" occurs, because of territory deer. They also can kill adult bison. disputes or competi- it can lead to increased wolf mortality tion for carcasses. In Many other animals benefit from wolf kills. in (See which was seen 2008. below.) Food 2000, however, the For example, when wolves kill an elk, ravens stress may increase when a large number of subordinate female arrive almost immediately. Coyotes arrive older, unhealthy elk—those easiest to kill wolves of the Druid soon after, waiting nearby until the wolves died during the winter. pack exhibited are sated. Bears will attempt to chase the behavior never seen wolves away, and are usually successful. Population before: they killed their pack's alpha Many other animals—from magpies to From their confined beginnings in a few female; then they foxes—consume the remains. pens, the wolves have expanded their popu- carried her pups to a lation and range, and now are found central den and Changes in Their Prey throughout the Greater Yellowstone raised them with their own litters. From 1995 to 2000, in early winter, elk Ecosystem. While their exact numbers are calves comprised of 50 percent wolf prey not known, scientists know that the wolf bull and elk comprised 25 percent. That population fluctuates. ratio reversed from 2001 to 2007. Scientists Disease periodically kills a number of pups. are examining why this happened and what The first serious outbreak was 1999, then it means. They know that bull elk are enter- six years later in 2005. That year, distemper ing winter in worse condition than before. killed two-thirds of the pups. The next out- bulls Therefore, are easier to kill than Yellowstone Resources break was just three years later, in 2008, & Issues 2011 133 1 7a when all but 22 of the pups died. This short- laws designed to correct the mistakes of the ened interval concerns scientists. Infectious past and help prevent similar mistakes in Wolf canine hepatitis, canine parvovirus, and the future. One such law was the sarcopitic mange also have been confirmed Endangered Species Act, passed in 1973.

among adult wolves, but their effect on The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service is

mortality is unknown. required by this law to restore endangered

species that have been eliminated, if possi- Adult wolves kill each other in territory dis- ble. (National Park Service policy also calls putes. Such disputes happen each year, but for restoration of native species where increase when food is less abundant. This possible.) may have been why so many adult wolves died in fights during 2008. That year, scien- Wolves & Humans tists also found two wolves whose deaths Wolves are not normally a danger to were partially due to starvation. humans, unless humans habituate them by History providing them with food. No wolf has attacked a human in Yellowstone, but a few In the 1800s, westward expansion brought attacks have occurred in other places. Most settlers and their livestock into direct con- were from wolves that had become condi- tact with native predator and prey species. tioned to human foods. Like coyotes, wolves Much of the wolves' prey base was can quickly learn to associate campgrounds, destroyed as agriculture flourished. With picnic areas, and roads with easy food. This the prey base removed, wolves began to prey often leads to aggressive behavior toward on domestic stock, which resulted in humans. humans eliminating wolves from most of their historic range. (Other predators such What You Can Do as bears, cougars, and coyotes were also • Never feed a wolf or any other wildlife. killed to protect livestock and "more desir- Do not leave food or garbage outside able" wildlife species, such as deer and elk.) unattended. Make sure the door is shut on By the mid 20th century, wolves had been a garbage can or dumpster after you almost entirely eliminated from the 48 deposit a bag of trash. states. • Treat wolves with the same respect you Today, it is difficult for many people to give any other wild animal. If you see a

understand why early park managers would wolf, do not approach it. have participated in the extermination of • Never leave small children unattended. wolves. After all, the Yellowstone National • If you have a dog, keep it leashed. Park Act of 1872 stated that the Secretary of • If are a wolf it's the Interior "shall provide against the wan- you concerned about — too close, not showing sufficient fear of ton destruction of the fish and game found humans, etc., not run. Stop, stand tall, within said Park." But this was an era before do the wolf is going to do. If it people, including many biologists, under- watch what stood the concepts of ecosystem and the approaches, wave your arms, yell, flare if it continues, interconnectedness of species. At the time, your jacket, and throw at it or use bear pepper spray. the wolves' habit of killing prey species was something considered "wanton destruction" of the Group up with other people, continue waving and yelling. animals. Between 1914 and 1926, at least 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the 1940s, • Report the presence of wolves near devel- wolves were rarely reported. oped areas or any wolf behaving strangely. See Chapter 2 for how To date, eight wolves in Yellowstone wolves are affecting In the 1960s, National Park Service wildlife National Park have become habituated to the ecosystem and management policy changed to allow popu- humans. Biologists successfully conducted Chapter 8, "Wolf lations to manage themselves. Many sug- aversive conditioning on some of them to Restoration, " for more gested at the time that for such regulation to discourage being close to humans, but two details about their succeed, the wolf had to be a part of the killed. In a wolf had to management. picture. have had to be 2009, be killed because people had fed it, and it Also in the 1960s and 1970s, national Yellowstone Resources began to chase bicyclists at Old Faithful. & Issues 201 awareness of environmental issues and Never feed any animals! consequences led to the passage of many 134 .

Birds

Section Revised

Records of bird sightings have been kept in As of January 2011 . . Current Management Yellowstone since its establishment in 1872; Number in Yellowstone The Yellowstone National Park Bird these records document 322 species of birds focuses three • 322 bird species have been Program on broad to date, of which approximately 148 species programs to monitor the park's documented in Yellowstone. are known to nest in the park. This is diversity of bird species: raptors • Approximately 148 of these remarkable considering the harsh condi- (birds of prey), wetland birds, and species nest in the park. tions of the park. For many decades, the songbirds & woodpeckers. Scientists Species of Concern Yellowstone National Park Bird Program monitor nesting of the species listed • The peregrine falcon nests here. focused on monitoring bird species on or at left to gather natural history Formerly an endangered species, data and to identify trends. They close to being added to the federal list of it was delisted in 1999. also are researching the effects of endangered species. That focus continues; • The bald eagle nests here. climate change on songbirds and plus the program is studying how two envi- Formerly a threatened species, it cavity-nesting birds. And scientists ronmental changes are affecting birds: the was delisted in 2007. and interpretive rangers are collabo- invasion of lake trout into Yellowstone Lake • One endangered bird species rating on the new Raptor Initiative previously occurred in the greater and global climate change. (below). Yellowstone area: the whooping RAPTORS (birds ofprey) crane. Collaborations • Partners in Flight, an international More than a dozen raptor species can be • Species monitored: peregrine program monitoring migrant land seen in Yellowstone. Three—peregrine falcons, bald eagles, osprey, trumpeter swans, loons, colonial birds in the Americas falcons, bald eagles, osprey are carefully — • Fish Wildlife Service nesting birds (American white U.S. & falcon eagle for- monitored. The and were • U.S. Geological Survey pelicans, double-breasted cormo- merly on the federal list of endangered and • Montana State and Eastern rants, Caspian terns), songbirds, threatened species. Their monitoring is woodpeckers Kentucky universities required by law. The fish-eating osprey is • States of Wyoming & Montana being monitored because it is especially vulnerable as the cutthroat trout declines in Park biologists invite Yellowstone Lake. Detailed information on visitors to participate all three species follows. in the Yellowstone WETLAND BIRDS Raptor Initiative by reporting any birds Approximately 30 percent of bird species of prey they see, that breed in the park depend on wetlands. such as this young American kestrel. Scientists are concerned about these species The report forms are because wetlands are expected to diminish available at visitor as temperatures increase. They are moni- centers. toring the trumpeter swan, common loon, and colonial nesting species, such as the double-crested cormorant and American white pelican. Yellowstone has years of data about the rate and success of nesting for some of these species, but not enough information about changes in the timing of their nesting activity, which is an indicator of climate change.

Trumpeter swan: This species is probably most imperiled in Yellowstone National Yellowstone Resources Park. Longterm monitoring, research, and & Issues 2011 management continue. (Seepage 140.) 135 — 7b Common loon: The park's loon population bird survey, and the new forest burn survey.

is one of the most southerly breeding popu- Songbirds & Willows: Willow growth has Birds lations in North America and one of the increased in some parts of the park's north- only populations breeding in Wyoming. (It ern range, for reasons still being studied. is also the largest loon population in (See Chapter 2.) Scientists are studying how Wyoming.) Since 1987, park scientists have this growth might be affecting songbirds collected data on common loon nesting. that use this habitat. They set up study plots Colonial nesting birds (American white in willow areas that are "previously tall," pelican, double-crested cormorant, Caspian where the willows have "released" (grown

tern, California gull): These birds nest much taller recently), and still suppressed. primarily on the Molly Islands in the south- So far, many bird species are using the east arm of Yellowstone Lake. They have willow communities in almost equal been surveyed for more than 30 years, with abundance. However, a few species some data going back to 1890. Currently, willow flycatcher, Wilson's warbler and only the pelicans and cormorants are nest- MacGillivray's warbler—may be colonizing ing, with low success rates. Very wet and the newer stands. cold late spring weather and the declining Breeding Bird Survey (BBS): Yellowstone cutthroat trout population could be factors. National Park participates in these long- SONGBIRDS & WOODPECKERS term surveys conducted throughout North America. They are conducted in Songbirds and woodpeckers comprise the June, during the height of the songbird breeding majority of bird species in Yellowstone season. Yellowstone has three routes: National Park. They are monitored, in part, Mammoth area, Northeast Entrance area through the willow-bird study, the breeding (Tower Junction to Round Prairie), and the interior (Dunraven Pass through Hayden Watching Birds in Yellowstone Valley and Yellowstone Lake). In 2010, Many birds, such as American robins and common ravens, are found surveyors detected 2,079 individuals of 75 throughout the park. Other species live in specific habitats. For exam- different species. The Mammoth route had ple, belted kingfishers are found near rivers and streams while the highest diversity of species, while the Steller's jays are found in moist coniferous forests. interior route had the highest number of individuals counted. The Northeast route Spring is a good time to look for birds. Migration brings many birds had the lowest diversity of species and low- back to the parkfrom their winter journeys south; other birds are est number of individuals counted. Initial passing through to more northern nesting areas. Songbirds are singing inspection of the data showed that cliff to establish and defend their territories; and many ducks are in their swallows and vesper sparrows were fewer, colorful breeding plumages, which makes identification easier. for unknown reasons. Identifying such Watch for birds on early morning walksfrom mid-May through early trends is a primary goal of the BBS. July. At all times, but especially during the nesting season, birds should Forest Burn Survey: Birds that nest in be viewedfrom a distance. Getting too close can stress a bird (as it can cavities depend on forest fires to provide any animal) and sometimes cause the bird to abandon its nest. their habitat— and different species depend Most birds migrate to lower elevations and more southern latitudes on different forest fire effects. For example, beginning in August. At the same time, other birds pass through black-backed woodpeckers use trees that Yellowstone. Hawk-watching can be especially rewarding in Hayden burned low to moderately severe fires for Valley late August through early October. In early November, look for the first few years after the fire; northern tundra swans on the water. flickers move into severely burned areas Birds that stay in Yellowstone year-round include the common raven, three years after a severe burn. The nest Canada goose, trumpeter swan, dusky grouse (formerly blue grouse), cavities by these and other woodpeckers are gray jay, red-breasted nuthatch, American dipper, and mountain used later by chickadees, nuthatches, and chickadee. A few species, such as rough-legged hawks and bohemian bluebirds. Because fire frequency is waxwings, migrate here for the winter. expected to increase with climate change, scientists are studying the different CAUTION: Using audio bird calls is illegal in the park. how bird species use different types of post-burn forests and they are developing monitoring Yellowstone Resources methods for the future. & Issues 2011 Brief descriptions of some of Yellowstone's 136 significant bird species follow. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Identification

In 1962, Rachel L. Carson sounded an alarm • Slightly smaller than a crow. about the irresponsible use of pesticides • Black "helmet" and a black wedge below with her landmark book, Silent Spring. the eye.

Among the dangers she described were the • Uniformly gray under its wings. adverse effects of chemicals — particularly (The prairie falcon, which also summers in DDT—on the reproductive capacity of some Yellowstone, has black "armpits.") birds, especially predatory species such as • Long tail, pointed wings. the bald eagle and peregrine falcon. Her Habitat book raised public awareness of this issue, and was one of the catalysts leading to the • Near water, meadows, cliffs. United States banning the most damaging • Nests on large cliffs overlooking rivers or pesticides. valleys where prey is abundant.

The peregrine falcon was among the birds Behavior most affected by the toxins. It was listed on • Resident in the park March through the endangered species list. Yellowstone October, when its prey—songbirds and National Park was a site for peregrine rein- waterfowl—are abundant. troductions in the 1980s, which were dis- • Lays 3-4 eggs in late April to mid-May. continued when the peregrine population • Young fledge in July or early August. began increasing on its own. The falcon • Migrates to South America. made a comeback in much of its former range, and was delisted in 1999. For 15 years • Dives at high speeds (can exceed 200 mph) after the delisting, the peregrine will be and strikes prey in mid-air. monitored closely, and scientists will watch 2010 Status for threats to their population. • From April to July, biologists monitored Yellowstone National Park's relatively pris- 26 eyries in Yellowstone. tine conditions and long-term monitoring of • 20 were occupied by at least one adult. peregrines provides baseline information to • Nesting occurred in 16 eyries; 12 pairs compare against other U.S. populations. raised 27 young. Continued monitoring is essential, not only for comparisons with other populations, but also because peregrine falcons and other raptors are reliable indicators of contami- nants (such as PBDE—polybrominated diphenyl ether) and climate change. For example, to assess the levels of PBDE, scientists collect eggshell remains after peregrines have left their nests for the season. Bald Eagle Haliaeetus leucocephalus resident eagles may be joined by migrant bald eagles and golden eagles. Monitored since the 1980s, when the bald • Feed primarily on fish and waterfowl, eagle was placed on the federal list of except in winter. threatened species, Yellowstone's popula-

tion of bald eagles is relatively stable. In • In winter, when fish stay deeper in water,

2007, it was removed from the federal they eat more waterfowl.

threatened species list, and monitoring con- • Eat carrion in winter if it is readily tinues. Each year, 40 to 60 percent of nests available.

succeed (produce eggs), with each success- • Form long-term pair bonds. ful nest producing an average of 1.42 • Some remain on their territories year- eaglets. These statistics are slightly lower round, while others return to their nesting than expected for a stable and healthy pop- sites by late winter. ulation, and may be explained by the park's • Two to three eggs (usually two) laid from harsh environment, especially during the February to mid-April. early breeding season (February -April), and the declining cutthroat trout popula- • Both adults incubate the eggs, which hatch in 34 to 36 days. tion in Yellowstone Lake. (See Chapter 8.) • At birth, eaglets are immobile, downy, have Identification their eyes open, and are completely depen- • Large, dark bird; adult (four or five years dent upon their parents for food. old) has completely white head and tail. • When 10-14 weeks old, they can fly from • Females larger than males, as is true with the nest. most predatory birds. • Some young migrate in fall to western • Immature bald eagles show varying Oregon and Washington. amounts of white; they can be mistaken • Many adults stay in the park year-round. for golden eagles. 2010 Status Habitat • Some eagle territories are experiencing Habitat can be a clue to which eagle you are nest instability due to large numbers of seeing: trees that are falling as a result of the 1988

• Bald eagles are usually near water where fires.

they feed on fish and waterfowl. • In 2010, 18 pairs of eagles nested in the

• Golden eagles hunt in open country for park; 9 of these pairs raised 12 young.

rabbits and other small mammals. • Although the population is relatively • Exception: Both feed on carcasses in the stable parkwide, few of the nests in the winter, sometimes together. Yellowstone Lake area succeeded. Behavior • Bald eagles, like osprey, are among the fish-eating wildlife being monitored to • Bald eagles nest in large trees close to determine any effect from the declining water. cutthroat trout population. (See Chapter 8.) • In severe winters, eagles may move to lower elevations such as Paradise Valley, Yellowstone Resources & issues 2011 north of the park, where food is more 128 available. On these wintering areas, Osprey Pandion haliaeetus

Like many other birds of prey, osprey populations declined due to pesticides in the mid-20th century. Its populations rebounded during the latter part of the 20th century. Monitored since the late 1980s,

Yellowstone's population of osprey is considered relatively stable. On average, 50 percent of nests succeed (produce eggs) each year, with each successful nest producing an average of one young. These statistics are slightly lower than expected for a stable and healthy population, and may be explained by the park's harsh environment. As with bald eagles, scientists suspect that declining nest success for osprey around Yellowstone Lake is due, in part, to the decline of cutthroat trout. (See

Chapter 8.) They are testing this hypothesis.

Identification

• Slightly smaller than bald eagle.

• Mostly white belly, white head with dark 2010 Status streak through eye. • In Yellowstone, the osprey population • Narrow wings with dark patch at bend or fluctuates, with 31 nests producing 25 "wrist." young in 2007 and a high of 100 nests and Habitat 101 fledglings in 1994. • Usually near lakes (such as Yellowstone • Overall, osprey reproduction has Lake), river valleys (such as Hayden and increased each year since 2003. Lamar valleys), and in river canyons (such • In 2010, osprey occupied 30 nests; 16 of as the Gardner Canyon and the Grand these breeding pairs successfully fledged Canyon of the Yellowstone River). 36 young. However, none of the nests in Behavior the Yellowstone Lake area succeeded.

• Generally returns to Yellowstone in April • Osprey in Yellowstone are being moni- & leaves in September. tored, along with other fish-eating wildlife,

• Builds nest of sticks in large trees or on to find out if they are affected by the pinnacles close to water. declining population of cutthroat trout. (See • Lays 2-3 eggs in May to June. Chapter 8.)

• Eggs hatch in 4-5 weeks.

• Young can fly when 7-8 weeks old.

• Feed almost entirely on fish.

• Often hovers 30-100 feet above water before diving for a fish.

• In the air, arranges the fish with its head

pointed forward to reduce its resistance to air. Trumpeter Swan Cygnus buccinator Identification

Trumpeter swans in North America neared • Largest wild fowl in North America.

extirpation in the early 1900s due to human • White feathers, black bill with a pink streak encroachment, habitat destruction, and the at the base of the upper mandible. commercial swan-skin trade. Small popula- • During migration, can be confused with tions survived in isolated areas such as the tundra swan, which is smaller, has Yellowstone. Red Rock Lakes National rounder head, lacks pink mandible stripe, Wildlife Refuge, west of the park, was set sometimes has yellow spot in front of eye. aside in the 1930s specifically for the this Habitat species. In the 1950s, a sizeable population of swans was discovered in Alaska. Today, • Slow moving rivers or quiet lakes.

more than 20,000 trumpeters exist in North • Nest is a large, floating mass of vegetation. America. Their population in the Greater Behavior Yellowstone area (GYA) is considered stable, • Feed on submerged vegetation and aquatic but the park's population is declining. In invertebrates. recent years, fewer than 10 swans have lived here year-round. Winter numbers vary from • Low reproduction rates: in 2007, 2009, and 60 to several hundred. Reproduction rates 2010, no cygnets fledged. are low. Scientists suspect that several facts • Can fail to hatch eggs if disturbed by are contributing to this decline: humans.

• Lay 4-6 eggs in cygnets fledge in late • loss of wetlands during an extended June; early drought in the late 20th and early 21st September or October. centuries • Usually in pairs with cygnets in summer; larger groups in winter. • fewer trumpeter swans taking up residence in the park 2010 Status

• competition with swans that migrate to the • Trumpeter swans are increasing in the park for the winter Rocky Mountain region, stable in the

• increased predation by coyotes & wolves Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem, but Information on the GYA resident swan and declining in Yellowstone National Park. wintering swan populations dates back to • Winter population in the region varies 1931 and 1971, respectively. Federal agencies from 2,000-4,000; in the park, varies from conduct two annual surveys: The February less than one hundred to several hundred.

survey counts how many migrant swans • In 2010, only one pair of trumpeter swans winter in the region; the September survey nested in Yellowstone National Park; estimates the resident swan population and their nest failed, perhaps due to early annual number of young that fledge (leave season flooding. the nest). • Limiting factors in Yellowstone appear to Trumpeter swans are particularly sensitive be flooding of nests, predation, competi- to human disturbance. Because of this, park tion with wintering swans, possibly effects managers restrict human activity in known of drought, and less immigration into the swan territories and nesting areas. Scientists park from outside locations. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 are also conducting studies to determine the 140 habitat requirements for the swan's nesting. 7b Sandhill cranes (left) nest in Yellowstone each summer. Their guttural calls announce their presence long before most people see them— their gray Birds feathers blend in well with their grassland habitat. The all-white whooping crane, one of the world's most endangered birds, was the subject of recovery efforts in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem from 1975 until 2002. The last remaining whooping crane frequented the Centennial Valley of

Montana (west of Yellowstone National Park). It was declared dead in the spring of 2002, marking the end of the experimental recovery efforts in Greater Yellowstone.

American white pelicans (right) spend the summer mainly on Yellowstone Lake and the Yellowstone River. These large white birds are often mistaken for trumpeter swans until their huge yellow beak and throat pouch are seen. Their black wing tips separate them from swans, which have pure The dark gray white wings. American dipper (above) bobs beside streams and rivers. Also called the water ouzel, the dipper dives into the water and swims in search Ravens frequent of aquatic insects. Thick feathers parking lots, and have downy learned to unzip and and oil from a preen- unsnap packs. ing gland enable this Do not allow them bird to survive the access to your food. park's cold waters. Some ravens have also learned to follow wolves dur- Several raven live in ing hunts. They relatives Yellowstone, including the wait in trees or on Clark's nutcracker (above) and the ground, until gray jay (right), and black- wolves finish at billed magpie (below). Like the a carcass. Other animals—such raven, they often show up people are eating. as coyotes, where eagles, black- Do not feed them. They have plenty of natural food. billed magpies, and red fox— also may be waiting nearby

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 141 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 142 . "

Yellowstone contains one of the most As of January 2011 . . Status significant, near-pristine aquatic ecosys- Number in Yellowstone • By the 1960s, Yellowstone's trout States. tems found in the United More populations were in poor condi- • Native species: 11 than 600 lakes and ponds comprise approx- tion and the angling experience —3 sport fish: cutthroat trout (two imately 107,000 surface acres in Yellowstone subspecies), Arctic grayling, had declined. • —94 percent of which can be attributed to mountain whitefish By the late 1980s, native trout had recovered in some areas due to Yellowstone, Lewis, Shoshone, and Heart —8 non-game fish: 4 minnows: fish harvest. lakes. Some 1,000 rivers and streams make longnose dace, speckled dace, restrictions in • In 2001, fishing regulations up approximately 2,500 miles of running redside shiner, Utah chub; 3 suck- changed to require the release water. ers: longnose sucker, mountain of all native fishes caught in park sucker, Utah sucker; mottled This may appear to be prime fish habitat, waters. sculpin waterfalls and other physical barriers • Both subspecies of cutthroat trout but • Non-native species: 5 are considered to be species at prevent fish from colonizing the smaller brook trout, brown trout, lake headwater streams and isolated lakes. trout, rainbow trout, lake chub risk. • Threats to the fisheries: When Yellowstone became a national park, History 1) Lake trout illegally introduced approximately 40 percent of its waters were • When the park was established, into Yellowstone Lake and its barren of fish—including Lewis Lake, many of its waters were fishless. tributaries. Shoshone Lake, and the Firehole River • Park waters were stocked with 2) Whirling disease now pres- above Firehole Falls. That soon changed. native and non-native fish until ent in Yellowstone Lake, the the mid-1950s. Early park managers transplanted fish into Yellowstone and Firehole rivers, • Stocking changed the ecology of new locations, produced more fish in and Pelican Creek. many Yellowstone waters as non- hatcheries, and introduced non-native 3) New Zealand mud snails. native fish displaced or interbred Competition and hybridization fish; 4) species. Today, about 40 lakes have with native species. with non-native rainbow trout the others either were not planted or have (Slough Creek) and brook trout reverted to their original fishless condition. (Soda Butte Creek).

The ranges and densities of the park's See Chapter 8, "Aquatic Invaders. native trout and grayling were substantially altered during the 20th century due to National Park Service fisheries managers exploitation and introduction of non-native have focused on the same objectives: to species. Non-native species in the park manage aquatic resources as an important include rainbow trout, brown trout, brook part of the park ecosystem, preserve and trout, lake trout, and lake chub. restore native fishes and their habitats, and Despite changes in species composition and provide anglers with the opportunity to fish distribution, large-scale habitat degrada- for wild fish in a natural setting. tion has not occurred. Water diversions, water pollution, and other such impacts on aquatic ecosystems have rarely occurred here. Consequently, fish and other aquatic inhabitants continue to provide important food for grizzly and black bears, bald eagles, river otters, mink, ospreys, pelicans, loons, grebes, mergansers, ducks, terns, gulls, kingfishers, and herons.

The U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service main- Yellowstone Resources tained an aquatic research and monitoring & Issues 2011 program in the park until 1996. Since then, 143 — 7c Fishing in • To protect fish, park waters may be tem- Yellowstone National Park porarily closed to fishing when water levels Fish are low and water temperatures are high. About 75,000 of the park's three million visitors fish each year. Angling is an anoma- Changes in Yellowstone Waters ly in a park where the primary purpose is to • Historically, only Yellowstone cutthroat preserve natural environments and native trout and longnose dace populated species in ways that maintain natural condi- Yellowstone Lake. Today, these two tions. Yet fishing has been a major visitor species are still present, but the longnose activity here for more than 100 years. Volunteer sucker, lake chub, redside shiner, and lake Fishing is a major industry in the Greater Angler Report trout have been introduced into the lake. Yellowstone Ecosystem, and park anglers Anglers contrib- • Most of the Firehole River historically was spend more than $4 million annually on ute to the park's fishless because Firehole Falls blocked fish their sport. Angler groups have supported fisheries database from moving upstream. Today, anglers can management actions, such as closing the byfilling out the fish for rainbow trout, brown trout, brook Volunteer Angler Fishing Bridge to fishing in the early 1970s, trout, and Yellowstone cutthroat trout in Report card that and have helped fund research on aquatic the thermally influenced stream and its is issued with each systems. tributaries. fishing license. This Observing fish in their natural habitat is information helps • Historically, the Madison and Gibbon also a popular activity for visitors. In managers monitor the rivers (below Gibbon Falls) were inhabited 1980s and 1990s, fisheries biologists moni- the status offisher- by westslope cutthroat trout, Arctic gray- ies throughout the tored non-consumptive use of aquatic ling, mountain whitefish, mottled sculpin, park. resources for about a decade at Fishing mountain sucker, and longnose dace. Bridge and LeHardys Rapids. In 1994, Today, some of those species survive approximately 176,400 visitors watched fish (some in extremely depleted numbers) and at LeHardys Rapids, where spawning cut- brown trout, rainbow trout, and brook throat can be observed jumping the rapids. trout have been added to the mix. At Fishing Bridge, approximately 167,000 • When Heart Lake was first sampled for people watched cutthroat trout in the fish, Yellowstone cutthroat trout, moun- waters below the bridge. tain whitefish, speckled dace, redside Fishing Regulations shiner, Utah sucker, Utah chub, and the mottled sculpin were found. Lake trout are Strict regulations allow ecological processes present. to function with minimal interference from now humans and preserve fish populations for • Lewis and Shoshone lakes were historical- the animals that depend on them. Complete ly fishless because of waterfalls on the regulations are at all ranger stations and Lewis River. Today, the lakes support lake visitor centers. In summary: trout, brown trout, brook trout, Utah chub, and redside shiner. • Fishing is allowed only during certain • The lower Lamar River and Soda Butte seasons (usually late May through early November). Creek historically were home to Yellow- stone cutthroat trout, longnose dace, • A permit is required (revenue stays in the longnose sucker, and mountain sucker. park to support park programs). Today, those species persist, but native • tackle must lead-free (lead Terminal be trout are threatened by hybridization with is a serious threat to waterfowl). poisoning rainbow trout and competition with brook • All native sport fish—cutthroat trout, trout. Arctic grayling, and mountain whitefish must be released.

• Lake trout must be killed if caught in

Yellowstone Lake and its tributaries.

• Certain waters may be closed to protect rare or endangered species, nesting birds, or to provide undisturbed vistas. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 144 —

Cutthroat Trout Oncorhynchus clarkii In the greater Yellowstone ecosystem, cutthroat trout are considered a keystone species, upon which many other species depend. For example, they spawn in shallow water, where they become an important food resource for other Yellowstone wildlife, including the grizzly bear. They are at great risk from hybridization and competition with non-native trout, and predation by non-native lake trout.

Yellowstone Cutthroat While the Yellowstone cutthroat trout is Trout historically a Pacific drainage species, it has (naturally) traveled across the Continental Oncorhynchus clarkii bouvieri Divide into the Atlantic drainage. One • Includes two forms of the same possible such passage in the Yellowstone (large subspecies:Yellowstone cutthroat area is Two Ocean Pass, south of the park in

spotted form) Snake River cutthroat (fine the Teton Wilderness. Here, it's possible for spotted form) a fish to swim across the Continental Divide

• Yellowstone cutthroat is native to the at the headwaters of Pacific Creek and Yellowstone River, its tributaries, the Atlantic Creek and, thus, swim from the Snake River, and the Falls River. Pacific to the Atlantic watersheds and vice

• Snake River cutthroat is native to Snake versa. River drainage in and beyond Yellowstone Management and Grand Teton national parks. See Chapter 8 Yellowstone Lake and Yellowstone River for information • Require cold, clean water in streams or together contain the largest inland popula- about fisheries lakes. tion of cutthroat trout in the world. For management. • Spawn in rivers or streams in early May many years, the fish in Yellowstone Lake through mid-July. have been intensively monitored and

• Most important foods are aquatic insects studied. In the 1960s, fisheries managers —mayflies, stoneflies, caddisflies, etc. determined that angler harvest was exces- and other small aquatic animals, plus sive and negatively impacting the fishery. terrestrial insects that fall into the water. Increasingly restrictive angling regulations

• Also eat smaller fish, fish eggs, small were put into place, which helped restore rodents, frogs, algae and other plants, and cutthroat trout population numbers and age plankton. structure. Whirling disease and illegally introduced lake trout in Yellowstone Lake now pose a serious threat to the cutthroat trout population.

Westslope Cutthroat Management

Trout This subspecies is at risk through inter-

Oncorhynchus clarkii lewisii breeding with non-native rainbow trout and transplanted Yellowstone cutthroat • Evolved from a common ancestor of the trout. genetically pure populations of Yellowstone and Snake River forms of the Two westslope cutthroat trout have been found species, and shares their food and habitat in Yellowstone: Last Chance Creek, a tribu- requirements. (See above.) tary of Grayling Creek in the Madison River • Originally throughout the Madison and drainage, and the Oxbow/Geode Creek Gallatin river drainages in Yellowstone complex in the Yellowstone River drainage. National Park. An intensive effort is underway to restore • Currently reduced to small headwater westslope cutthroat trout in Specimen populations to competition due and Creek, a tributary of the Gallatin River. interbreeding with non-native fish.

• Habitat loss and pollution negligible in the park. 7c Arctic Grayling Management Thymallus arcticus montanus Native Current efforts on behalf of the grayling • Used to share similar habitat with west- include habitat surveys in the upper reaches Fish slope cutthroat trout and whitefish (with of Grayling Creek to determine if a restora- which it is sometimes confused). tion project is possible in that location. • Displaced by non-native species. Yellowstone National Park, Gallatin • Native, river-dwelling form (fluvial) National Forest, and Montana Fish, extinct in the park. Wildlife and Parks are working together on Whirling disease is a • Because of stocking in the 1920s, grayling this project. parasitic infection of live in Grebe, Wolf, and Cascade lakes. fish caused by a microscopic proto- • In these lakes, grayling spawn in June.

zoan that destroys • Like trout, grayling eat mostly insects. the cartilage of juvenile trout. Seriously infected fish have a reduced Mountain Whitefish ability to feed or Prosopium williamsoni Generally feeds along the bottom, eating escape from preda- aquatic insect larvae. tors and mortality is • Slender silver fish, sometimes confused high. See Chapter 8 with grayling. Compete with trout for the same food. for details. The whitefish has persisted in its native • Lives in Yellowstone's rivers and streams. waters, unlike grayling. • Requires deep pools, clear and clean water,

and is very sensitive to pollution.

• Unlike other native fish, the whitefish

spawns in the fall.

Native Nongame Fish Minnows Suckers: longnose, mountain, and Utah • Small fish living in a variety of habitats and • Bottom-dwelling fish that use ridges on eating a variety of foods. their jaws to scrape aquatic flora and fauna • All four species eaten by trout. from rocks. Utah chub Gila atratria: Largest of the • Eaten by birds, bears, otters, and large cut- minnows (12 inches); native to Snake throat trout. River drainage; seems to prefer slow,

• Habitat distinguishes species: warm waters with abundant aquatic vegetation. Mountain sucker Catostomus platyrhyn- chus: cold, fast, rocky streams and some Longnose dace Rhinichthys cataractae: lakes. Most often found behind rocks and in Longnose sucker C. catostomus: eddies of cold, clear waters of the Yellowstone River drainage below the Yellowstone and Snake river drainages.

Grand Canyon; Yellowstone Lake and its Redside shiner Richardsonius balteatus: surrounding waters (introduced). Equally Minnow of lakes; native to the Snake River at home in warm and cold waters, streams drainage; has been introduced to Yellow-

and lakes, clear and turbid waters. stone Lake, where it might compete with

Utah sucker C. ardens: Snake River native trout because its diet is similar to drainage. that of young trout.

Mottled sculpin Cottus bairdi Speckled dace Rhinichthys osculus: Lives

• Lives in shallow, cold water throughout in the Snake River drainage. Yellowstone except in the Yellowstone River above Lower Falls and in Yellowstone Lake.

• Eats small insects, some fish and plants.

• Eaten by trout. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 146 . 7d

Reptiles & Amphibians

Yellowstone is home for a small variety of As of January 2011 . . Status reptiles and amphibians. Glacial activity Number in Yellowstone • Spotted and chorus frogs are are and current cool and dry conditions widely distributed with • Reptiles—six species: prairie many likely responsible for their relatively low sites in the park. rattlesnake, bull snake, valley breeding species diversity. However, they are wide- • garter snake, wandering garter Tiger salamanders are common spread in the park and often abundant at snake, rubber boa, sagebrush and abundant in some portions of the Yellowstone, such as the breeding or wintering sites. lizard. northern range and Hayden To monitor amphibians in Yellowstone, • Amphibians—four species: boreal toad, boreal chorus frog, Valley. researchers are collecting data on the num- • Boreal are in Columbia spotted frog, tiger sala- toads abundant ber of wetlands that are occupied by breed- mander. some local areas. ing populations of each amphibian species. • None of the parks reptiles or Current Research If occupancy (the proportion of suitable amphibians are federally listed as 2000: Researchers begin inventory- wetlands occupied) decreases, that species threatened or endangered. ing reptiles and amphibians. has probably declined. To implement moni- • Scientists are concerned about the 2004: NPS Greater Yellowstone toring, researchers randomly selected boreal toad, which has declined Network selects amphibian occur- watershed units, as catchments, sharply in other parts of the West. known rence as a Vital Sign for monitor- • In 2008, a scientist reported from within the four main drainage basins ing ecosystem health. drastically declined amphib- of Yellowstone (see map). Field crews search 2006: Long-term, Vital Sign ian populations in the northern potential amphibian habitat within the amphibian monitoring begins in range, but the study is in ques- catchments in and to document Yellowstone. June July tion. the presence or absence of amphibians. Researchers study the results to determine occupancy trends and factors that may be driving them.

Yellowstone provides a valuable study area; information about the status and trends of amphibians and reptiles here may shed light on declines documented in other high- elevation protected areas of the western U.S. Population declines may be caused by factors such as disease, drought or climate change, chemical contamination, non- native species, and habitat loss and frag- mentation. In addition, because many amphibians and reptiles congregate to breed or overwinter, they can be adversely affected by disturbance or loss of key sites.

Amphibian Monitoring Sites

Monitored every year Monitored every 5 years — 7d VALLEY GARTER SNAKE Thamnophis sirtalis fitchi Habitat Reptiles • Thought to be common in the past, now in Identification decline for no apparent reason. • Subspecies of the common garter snake. • Closely associated with permanent surface • Medium sized snake up to 34 inches long. water. • Nearly black background color with three • In Yellowstone area, observed only in the bright stripes running the length of the Falls River drainage in the Bechler region body; underside is pale yellow or bluish and three miles south of the south gray. entrance along the Snake River. • Most distinguishing characteristics of this Behavior subspecies in our region are the irregular • Generally active during the day. red spots along the sides.

• In the Yellowstone area it eats mostly toads, chorus frogs, fish remains, and earthworms; can eat relatively poisonous species.

• Predators include fish, birds, and carnivorous mammals. WANDERING GARTER SNAKE T. elegans vagrans Identification • Most common reptile in the park. * " -

• 6 to 30 inches long.

• Brown, brownish green, or gray with three light stripes —one running the length of the back and a stripe on each side. Habitat

• Usually found near water in all areas of the park.

• Eats small rodents, fish, frogs, tadpoles, salamanders, earthworms, slugs, snails, and leeches. Behavior

• May discharge musk from glands at the base of the tail when threatened.

• Gives birth to as many as 20 live young in

late summer or fall.

BULL SNAKE Pituophis catenifer sayi Habitat Identification • In Yellowstone, found at lower elevations; • A subspecies of the gopher snake, is drier, warmer climates; and open areas Descriptive photos Yellowstone's largest reptile, ranging from and illustrations such as near Mammoth. 50 to 72 inches long. exist in numerous Behavior books about these • Yellowish with a series of black, brown, or • Lives in burrows and eats small rodents species; see "For reddish-brown blotches down the back; behavior that gave the gopher snake its More Information" the darkest, most contrasting colors are name. on pages 150-154 near the head and tail; blotches are shaped

for suggested titles. as rings around the tail. • Often mistaken for a rattlesnake because of its appearance and its defensive behav- • Head resembles a turtle's in shape, with a ior: when disturbed, it will coil up, hiss Yellowstone Resources protruding scale at the tip of the snout and & Issues 2011 loudly, and vibrate its tail against the a dark band extending from the top of the ground, producing a rattling sound. 148 head through the eye to the lower jaw. RUBBER BOA Charina bottae Habitat & Behavior Identification • Eats rodents. • Infrequently encountered in Yellowstone, • May spend great deal of time partially perhaps due to its nocturnal and burrow- buried under leaves and soil, and in rodent ing habits. burrows. • One of two species of snakes in the United • Usually found in rocky areas near streams States related to tropical boa constrictors or rivers, with shrubs or trees nearby. and pythons. • Recent sightings have occurred in the • Maximum length of 24 inches. Both reptiles and Bechler region and Gibbon Meadows. amphibians are • Back is gray or greenish-brown, belly is ectothermic ("cold- lemon yellow; scales arc small and smooth, blooded"), meaning making it almost velvety to the touch. they derive body heat from outside sources rather than generate

it internally. Reptiles PRAIRIE RATTLESNAKE have scaly, dry skin. Some lay eggs; Crotalis viridis viridis Habitat & Behavior others bear live • Only dangerously venomous snake Identification young. Amphibians in the park. have thin, moist glan- • Can be more than 48 inches in length. • Lives in the lower Yellowstone River areas dular skin permeable • Greenish gray to olive green, greenish to water and gases. of the park, including Reese Creek, brown, light brown, or yellowish with dark The young must pass Stephens Creek, and Rattlesnake Butte, through a larval brown splotches down its back that are where the habitat is drier and warmer than stage before chang- bordered in white. elsewhere in the park. ing into adults. Amphibious means • Usually defensive rather than aggressive. "double life" and • Only two snake bites are known during the reflects the fact that history of the park. salamanders, toads, and frogs live in water as larvae and on land for much of the rest of their lives. Habitat

• Usually found below 6,000 feet but in Yellowstone lives up to 8,300 feet.

• Populations living in thermally influenced areas are possibly isolated from others.

• Most common along the lower portions of the Yellowstone River near Gardiner, SAGEBRUSH LIZARD Montana and upstream to the mouth of Sceloporus graciosus graciosus Bear Creek; also occurs in Norris Geyser Basin, Shoshone and Heart Lake geyser Identification basins, and other hydrothermal areas. • Only lizard in Yellowstone. Behavior • Maximum size of five inches from snout to • tip of the tail; males have longer tails and Come out of hibernation about mid-May may grow slightly larger than females. and active through mid-September.

• Diurnal, generally • Gray or light brown with darker brown observed during warm, stripes on the back set inside lighter stripes sunny weather in dry rocky habitats. on the sides, running the length of the • During the breeding season males do body; stripes not always prominent and push-ups on elevated perches to display may appear as a pattern of checks down their bright blue side patches to warn off the back; underside usually cream or other males.

white. • Feed on various insects and arthropods.

• Males have bright blue patches on the • Eaten by bull snakes, wandering garter Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 belly and on each side, with blue mottling snakes, rattlesnakes, and some birds. on the throat. • May shed tail when threatened or grabbed. 149 7d Habitat

Amphibians • Breeds in ponds and Ashless lakes.

• Widespread in Yellowstone in a great variety of habitats, with sizable populations in the Lamar Valley. Behavior

• Adult salamanders come out from

In the winter in hibernation in late April to June, depend- Yellowstone, some BLOTCHED TIGER SALAMANDER ing on elevation, and migrate to breeding amphibians go into Ambystoma tigrinum melanostictum ponds where they lay their eggs. water that does not Identification • Mass migrations of salamanders crossing freeze (spotted frogs), others enter • The only salamander in Yellowstone. roads are sometimes encountered, underground bur- particularly during or after rain. • Adults range up to about 9 inches, rows (salamanders including the tail. • After migration, return to their moist and toads), and homes under rocks and logs and in others (boreal • Head is broad, with a wide mouth. chorus frog) actually burrows. • Color ranges from light olive or brown to tolerate freezing • insect nearly black, often with yellow blotches or Feed on adult insects, nymphs and and go into a heart- larvae, small aquatic invertebrates, frogs, stopped dormancy streaks on back and sides; belly is dull tadpoles, and even small vertebrates. for the winter in lemon yellow with irregular black spots. leaf litter or under • Preyed upon by a wide variety of animals, • Larvae, which are aquatic, have a uniform woody debris. including mammals, fish, snakes, and birds color and large feathery gills behind the such as sandhill cranes and great blue head; they can reach sizes comparable to herons. adults but are considerably heavier.

BOREAL TOAD Bufo boreas boreas Toad or Frog? Habitat Toads can easily Identification • Once common throughout the park, now be distinguished • Yellowstone's only toad. appears to be much rarer than spotted from frogs by their • Adults range up to about 4 inches, frogs and chorus frogs; scientists fear this warty bodies, thick juveniles just metamorphosed from species has experienced a decline in the waists, and promi- tadpoles are only one inch long. Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. nent glands behind • their eyes. Stocky body and blunt nose. • Adults can range far from wetlands • Brown, gray, or olive green with irregular because of their ability to soak up water black spots, lots of "warts," and usually a from tiny puddles or moist areas.

white or cream colored stripe down the • Lay eggs in shallow, sun-warmed water, back. such as ponds, lake edges, slow streams,

• Tadpoles are usually black and often and river backwaters. congregate in large groups. Behavior

• Tadpoles eat aquatic plants; adults eat insects, especially ants and beetles, worms and other small invertebrates.

• Sometimes active at night.

• Defends itself against predators by secret- ing an irritating fluid from numerous

glands on its back and behind the eyes.

• Eaten by snakes, mammals, ravens, and large wading birds.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 150 black spots; skin is bumpy; underside is white splashed with brilliant orange on Amphibians the thighs and arms on many but not all individuals.

• Tadpoles have long tails and may grow to 3 inches long. Habitat

• Found all summer along or in rivers, streams, smaller lakes, marshes, ponds, and rain pools.

• Lay eggs in stagnant or quiet water, in

globular masses surrounded by jelly. COLUMBIA SPOTTED FROG Behavior Rana luteiventris • Breeds in May or early June, depending on Identification temperatures. • Abundant and best known amphibian in • Tadpoles mature and change into adults Yellowstone. between July and September. • Maximum length is 3.2 inches, newly • Tadpoles eat aquatic plants, adults mostly metamorphosed juveniles less than one eat insects but are highly opportunistic in inch long. their food habits (like many other adult • Upper surface of the adult is gray-brown amphibians). to dark olive or even green, with irregular

Habitat

• Common, but seldom seen due to its small size and secretive habits.

• Live in moist meadows and forests near wetlands.

• Lays eggs in loose irregular clusters attached to submerged vegetation in quiet water. Behavior

• Breeds in shallow temporary pools or BOREAL CHORUS FROG ponds during the late spring.

Pseudacris maculata • Calls are very conspicuous, resemble the Identification sound of a thumb running along the teeth of a comb. • Adults reach 1 to 1.5 inches in length, and females are usually larger than males; • Males call and respond, producing a loud newly metamorphosed juveniles are less and continuous chorus at good breeding than one inch long. sites, from April to early July, depending on elevation and weather. • Brown, olive, tan, or green (sometimes bi-colored) with a prominent black stripe • Usually call in late afternoon and evening. on each side from the nostril through the • Tadpoles eat aquatic plants; adults mostly eye and down the sides to the groin; three eat insects.

dark stripes down the back, often incom- • Eaten by fish, predacious aquatic insect plete or broken into blotches. larvae, other amphibians, garter snakes, mammals, and birds. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 151 MAMMALS and movements in the GYE. Ursus. 13: 29-37.

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in Central Yellowstone. Elsevier Academic Press-Terrestrial Predators: Ecology and Conservation in a Changing Landscape. Ecology Series. Proc, third biennial conference on the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. Jackson, Rockies Smith, D.W. and E.E. Bangs. In press. Remtroduction of wolves WY: Northern Conservation to Yellowstone National Park: History, values and ecosys- Cooperative.

tem restoration in M. Hayward and M. Somers, editors, Sheffield, L. M. et al. 2001. Response of American kestrels and

Remtroduction of Top-order Predators. Blackwell Scientific. gray-tailed voles to vegetation height and supplemental perch-

es. Can. J. Zoology 79: 380-385. Smith, D.W. et al. 2006. Wolf restoration in Yellowstone

National Park. Pgs. 242-254 in D.R. McCullough, K. Kaji, and Skinner, M.P. 1925. The Birds of Yellowstone National Park. Yellowstone Resources Roosevelt Wildlife Bulletin. & Issues 2011 M. Yamanaka, editors, Wildlife in Shiretoko and Yellowstone 3(1).

Saab, V. et al. 2007. Birds and burns of the interior National Parks: Lessons in Wildlife Conservation from Two West: 155 7 descriptions, habitats, and management in western forests. Gen. Tech. Rep. PNW-GTR-712. Portland, OR: U.S. Department For More of Agriculture, Forest Service, Pacific Northwest Research Station. Information Smucker, K.M., and R.L. Hutto, B.M. Steele. 2005. Changes in bird abundance after wildfire: importance of fire severity and

time since fire. Ecological Applications. 15: 1535-1549.

U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 2003. Monitoring plan for the

American Peregrine Falcon, a species recovered under the

Endangered Species Act. U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific Region, Portland, OR.

FISH

Staff reviewer: Todd M. Koel, Supervisory Fishery Biologist

Koel, Todd et al. Annual. Yellowstone Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences Report. National Park Service: Yellowstone.

Lilly, Bud and Paul Schullery. 2000. Bud Lilly's Guide to Fly Fishing the New West. Portland, OR: Frank Amato Publications.

Mathews, Craig and Clayton Molinero. 1970. The Yellowstone Fly Fishing Guide. New York: Lyons.

Parks, Richard. 1998. Fishing Yellowstone National Park. Helena, MT: Falcon.

Schullery, Paul. 2008. Vaguely disquieting scenes: Fishing bridge & the evolution of American sport fishing. Yellowstone

Science. 16(3): 24-33.

Varley, John and Paul Schullery. 1998. Yellowstone Fishes. Harrisburg, PA: Stackpole.

Yellowstone National Park. Fishing Regulations. Annual. REPTILES & AMPHIBIANS

Staff reviewer: Jeff Arnold, Ecologist

Koch, Edward D. and Charles R. Peterson. 1995. Amphibians and Reptiles of Yellowstone and Grand Teton National Parks.

Salt Lake City: U Utah Press

McMenamin, Sarah et al. 2008. Climatic change and wetland

desiccation cause amphibian decline in Yellowstone National

Park. PNAS. 105: 16988-16993.

Patla, D A. 2000. Amphibians in native fish restoration areas,

Yellowstone National Park. Part II, Greater Yellowstone Amphibian Monitoring and Survey Project. Mammoth Hot Springs, WY. Herpetology Laboratory, Dept. of Biological

Sciences, Idaho State Univ., Pocatello.

Patla, D. A. 1997. Changes in a population of spotted frogs in YNP between 1935 and 1995: the effects of habitat modifica-

tion. Master's thesis. Idaho State Univ., Pocatello.

Patla, D.A. and Charles R. Peterson. 2004. Amphibian and

reptile inventorying and monitoring: Grand Teton and Yellowstone National Parks 2000-2003. Report.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 156 Park Issues 8

Issue: Aquatic Invaders

During the late 1880s when the Army The Issue Clean, Inspect, Dry! administered Yellowstone National Park, Aquatic invaders can irreversibly Read and follow the instructions the U.S. Fish Commission (a predecessor of damage the park's ecosystems. provided in the fishing regulations, today's U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service) Current Status which include: stocked non-native fish in some park waters. • Remove all plants, animals, mud, • In the U.S. currently, more than These stockings comprise the first known, sand, and other debris from your 250 exotic (from another conti- deliberate introductions of non-native fish boat and equipment. nent) aquatic species and more • Do not dump water from other to Yellowstone. Four trout species were than 450 non-native (moved out- sources into Yellowstone waters. widely introduced—brook, brown, lake, side their natural range) aquatic • Drain your boat bilge area, live and rainbow. Rainbow trout hybridize with species exist. well, and other compartments native cutthroat trout, thus diluting genetic • At least 7 invasive aquatic species away from park waters. diversity. All four compete with and prey exist in Yellowstone's waters: • Dry all equipment in the sun for upon native fish. 2 mollusks 5 days or use high-pressure, hot 4 fish Other invasive aquatic species, such as (>140°F) water (available at car 1 exotic disease-causing washes outside the park) to clean the New Zealand mud snail and the micro- microorganism (whirling) your boat, trailer, waders, and organism causing whirling disease, probably • Park staff continues to educate equipment. arrived via unaware boaters and anglers visitors about preventing the carrying the organisms from other fishing spread of aquatic invasive species. locations around the country.

Angler and boater introduction of aquatic invasive species remains a serious threat to Yellowstone's aquatic ecosystem because exotic aquatic species occur in waters all across the United States. We may never know exactly how whirling disease or mud snails were introduced to the park's waters, but anglers can help prevent other species from arriving.

Yellowstone For this reason, Yellowstone is publicizing this issue through a National Park brochure and other information available to anglers and boaters in the park. The park's efforts join those of other agencies around the country working to protect the nation's aquatic ecosystems.

Mud Snails About one-quarter inch long (photo below), the New Zealand mud snail forms dense colonies on aquatic vegetation and rocks along streambeds. The snails crowd out native aquatic insect communities, which are a primary food for fish. They also consume Positive for New Zealand Mud Snails a large amount of algae, which is a primary food for native aquatic invertebrates. Strategies for dealing with this invader are being developed.

Yellowstone Resourcesources & Issues 2011 157 8

Aquatic Invaders: Lake Trout

Lake Trout the grizzly bear and bald eagle, Non-native lake trout in Yellowstone may depend on the cutthroat Lake threaten the survival of native trout for a portion of their diet. Yellowstone cutthroat trout and • Most predators can't catch lake structure, maturity, and potential new

species that depend on if. trout because the trout live in spawning areas—leading to more effective History/Background deep water, spawn in the lake, control. For example, scientists have and are large. • During the time the park stocked discovered lake trout spawning areas. • In 2009 & 2010, Yellowstone fish, lake trout were introduced to National Park contracted with a Anglers contribute to lake trout manage- Lewis and Shoshone lakes. commercial gill-netting company ment—they are encouraged to fish for lake • In 1994, an angler caught the first to increase the catch of lake trout. trout, and are required to kill all lake trout verified lake trout in Yellowstone caught in Yellowstone Lake and its tributar- Lake. Current Status ies. They have the most success in catching • Lake trout probably were intro- • Gill-netting has removed more duced into Yellowstone Lake than 600,000 lake trout since the lake trout 15-24 inches long, which are several decades ago. mid-1990s. found in shallow, near-shore waters in June • One mature lake trout can eat • Recreational anglers catch approx- and early July. Anglers have taken approxi- approximately 41 cutthroat trout imately 9,000 lake trout each year. mately 30 percent of the lake trout removed per year. Outlook from Yellowstone Lake. • The cutthroat trout population With continued aggressive control Cutthroat trout comprise about 80 percent in Yellowstone could fall Lake to efforts, fisheries managers expect to of a mature lake trout's diet. Biologists esti- 10% of historic highs. reduce lake trout numbers and • wildlife species, including mate 41 cutthroat trout are saved each year Many lessen impacts to cutthroat trout. for every mature lake trout caught.

Increasing Suppression About the photo: The lake trout is a large and aggressive Erinn Hasselgren predatory fish that can decimate cutthroat In August 2008, a scientific review panel holds a 26.25 pound trout populations in Yellowstone Lake. If overwhelmingly agreed that the Yellowstone lake trout—the this happens, the impacts will reach far Lake cutthroat trout population is in serious largest caught in beyond the cutthroat trout population; it trouble, but that suppression efforts could Yellowstone Lake so could be an ecological disaster. restore this population to healthy levels. far. Erinn was a They believe very little time remains to turn volunteer with the Hydroacoustic work (using sonar-based fish the situation around, and recommended Student Conservation finders) confirmed lake trout concentra- park managers increase lake trout removal. Association, www. tions in the western portion of Yellowstone To accomplish this, the park has contracted thesca.org Lake. These surveys also revealed medium- with a commercial gill-netting company to sized (12-16 inches) lake trout tended to increase the take of lake trout. In 2010, reside in deeper water (greater than 130 working cooperatively with NPS crews, they feet) than Yellowstone cutthroat. Now biol- removed over 34,000 additional lake trout ogists can more easily target lake trout with- from Yellowstone Lake during June. In 2011, out harming cutthroat trout. Hydroacoustic the park hopes to expand commercial gill- data also provides minimum abundance netting and to test deep-water trap nets that estimates of both cutthroat and lake trout, have been successful in other large lakes. which is invaluable information for long- term evaluation of control efforts. Lake trout probably can't be eliminated from Yellowstone Lake. However, ongoing Controlling Lake Trout management of the problem can control

Lake trout gill-netting begins as ice is leav- lake trout population growth and maintain Yellowstone Resources ing the lake and continues into October. the cutthroat trout population, which is a & Issues 2011 Since the mid-1990s, more than 600,000 lake critical ecological link between Yellowstone 158 trout have been caught. Gill net operations Lake and its surrounding landscape. also provide valuable data —numbers, age 8

Aquatic Invaders: Whirling Disease

Whirling Disease firmed in 25 states and appears to

Whirling disease is caused by a be rapidly spreading throughout parasite attacking the developing the western United States.

cartilage of young fish, resulting in • Recent laboratory tests suggest skeletal deformities and sometimes cutthroat trout are highly sus- whirling behavior. Affected fish can- ceptible. Lake trout and grayling not feed normally and are vulnera- appear immune to the disease, ble to predation. and brown trout are resistant, but History/Background can be infected and can carry the parasite. • The disease was first described in • There is no treatment. In 1998, whirling disease was detected in Europe more than 100 years ago.

Yellowstone's cutthroat trout. This disease It was detected in the U.S. in the Current Status • for whirling disease is caused by a non-native microscopic para- mid-1950s, and in Yellowstone in Testing continues throughout the park. site that can infect trout and salmon; it does 1998. • It most likely to the U.S. in • Pelican Creek's migratory cut- not infect humans. The parasite attacks the came frozen fish products. throat trout population is almost developing cartilage of fish between 1-6 • Whirling disease has been con- gone. months old and causes deformities of the bony structures. An infected fish may have a nity to study whirling disease in native deformed head and tail, blackened areas of trout. Park staff have been working with the tail, and whirling swimming behavior. Montana State University's Department of It may be unable to feed normally and is Ecology to measure how the infection rate vulnerable to predation. might vary in different stream conditions. Studying the Disease They are also investigating if certain fish- eating birds help to disperse the parasite. Yellowstone National Park's cutthroat trout Research has shown that the parasite can spawning streams, which vary widely in pass through the gastrointestinal tract of thermal, hydrological, and geological char- some birds, such as great blue herons, and acteristics, provide an exceptional opportu- remain alive.

Myxobolus infected trout cerebralis TAMs

Myxobolus cerebralis Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 Tubifex tubifex myxospores 159 8 No effective treatment exists for wild trout page 157 and instructions in the park's fishing infected with this disease or for the waters regulations.) Anglers should not transport Aquatic containing infected fish. Therefore, the fish between drainages and should clean Invaders park is emphasizing prevention by educat- fish in the body of water where they were ing people participating in water-related caught. activities —including anglers, boaters, or swimmers—to take steps to help prevent the spread of the disease. This includes thoroughly cleaning mud and aquatic vegetation from all equipment and inspecting footwear before moving to another drainage. (See

Remember: CLEAN, INSPECT, DRY!

More Invaders On Their Way? Several exotic aquatic species are spreading through the United States, among them the species shown here. Fisheries biologists believe they are moving toward Yellowstone. Their arrival might be

avoided if anglers remember:

• It is illegal to use any fish as bait in Yellowstone National Park.

• It is illegal to transport fish among any waters in the Yellowstone Round goby region.

• It is illegal to introduce any species to Yellowstone waters.

• To clean all of their gear properly. (See page 157.) Eurasian water-milfoil Eurasian water-milfoil (below) has spread to 46 of the 48 contigu-

ous United States. In 2007, it was found in Montana. Wyoming and Bighead carp Maine are the only states still free of this aquatic invader.

This exotic aquatic plant lives in calm waters such as lakes, ponds,

and calm areas of rivers and streams. It grows especially well in water that experiences sewage spills or abundant motorboat use, such as Bridge Bay.

Eurasian water-milfoil colonizes via stem fragments carried on

boating equipment, which is another reason why boats should be thoroughly cleaned, rinsed, and inspected before entering Yellowstone National Park.

Zebra mussels (above) clog water intakes, crowd out bottom invertebrates, and reduce lake productivity.

Not shown: three zooplankton species that can displace native zooplankton that are important food for cutthroat trout. These exotic zooplankton have long spines, which make them difficult for young fish to eat.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 160 Bear Management • All garbage cans in the park Feeding Bears convert to a bear-proof design. • Garbage dumps close within and • Late 1880s: Bears begin gather- During its first century, Yellowstone adjacent to the park. ing at night to feed on garbage National Park was known as the place to see behind park hotels. Current Status and interact with bears. Hundreds of people • 1910: First incidents of bears seek- • Decrease in human injuries from gathered nightly to watch bears feed on ing human food along park roads. 45 injuries per year in the 1960s to in the park's Enthusiastic garbage dumps. • 1916: First confirmed bear-caused 1 injury per year in the 2000s. visitors fed bears along the roads and human fatality. • Decrease in property damage behaved recklessly to take photographs. claims from 219 per year in the Early Management 1960s to an average of 15 per year Beginning in 1931, park managers recorded • 1931: Park begins keeping detailed in the 2000s. an average of 48 bear-inflicted human records of bear-inflicted human • Decrease in number of bears that injuries and more than 100 incidents of injuries, property damage, and must be killed or removed from bear control actions. property damage each year in Yellowstone. the park from 33 black bears and • 1931-1969: average of 48 bear- 4 grizzlies per year in the 1960s to In 1960, the park implemented a bear inflicted human injuries and an average of 0.34 black bear and management program— directed primarily more than 100 incidents of prop- 0.2 grizzly bear per year in the at black bears—designed to reduce the num- erty damage occurr annually in 2000s. ber of bear-caused human injuries and Yellowstone. • Decrease in bear relocations away property damages and to re-establish bears Changes in Management from the front country from more state. included • a in a natural The plan 1970: Yellowstone implements than 100 black bears and 50 griz- program expanding visitor education about bear new bear management zlies per year in the 1960s to an behavior and the proper way to store food to restore bears to subsistence on average of 0.4 black bear and 0.6 natural foods and to reduce prop- and other bear attractants; using bear-proof grizzly bear per year in the 2000s. erty damage and human injuries. garbage cans; strictly prohibiting feeding of For details about grizzly bear • Strictly enforcing regulations bears; and removing potentially dangerous management, see the next page. prohibiting the feeding of bears bears, habituated bears, and bears that and requiring proper storage of damaged property in search of food. human food and garbage. After 10 years of this program, the number of bear-caused human injuries decreased 1972, though, the number of bear-human only slightly, to an average of 45 each year. conflicts decreased to an annual average of Consequently, in 1970, Yellowstone initiated 10 each year. Bear removals also decreased. a more intensive program that included In 1983, the park implemented a new grizzly eliminating open-pit garbage dumps inside bear management program that emphasized the park. The long-term goal was to wean habitat protection in backcountry areas. bears off human food and back to a natural The park established "bear management diet of plant and animal foods. areas" that restricted recreational use where Drs. John and Frank Craighead, who were grizzly bears were known to concentrate. brothers that had studied grizzly bear ecolo- The goals were to minimize bear-human gy since 1959, predicted bears would range interactions that might lead to habituation more widely and come into more conflict of bears to people, to prevent human-caused with humans. This indeed occurred in the displacement of bears from prime food first three years when an annual average of sources, and to decrease the risk of bear- 38 grizzly bears and 23 black bears were caused human injury in areas with high moved to backcountry areas, and an annual levels of bear activity. This program Yellowstone Resources average of 12 grizzly bears and 6 black bears continues today. & Issues 2011 were removed from the population. After 161 Bear Management Grizzly

Yellowstone, Bureau of Land Management The Issue lands, and state and private lands in Idaho, The grizzly bear was listed as a threatened species in 1975, which required Montana, and Wyoming). recovering the species to a self-sustaining population. • Began the Interagency History Grizzly Bear Study Team (IGBST) to coordinate bear manage- 1993: A recovery plan is implemented with three specific recovery goals that

have to be met for six straight years. ment among the federal agencies and state

2000: The Draft Conservation Strategy for the Grizzly Bear in the Greater wildlife managers; the team monitors bear

Yellowstone Ecosystem is completed. populations and studies grizzly bear food 2000-2002: Public comment periods included meetings held in Montana, habits and behavior. Wyoming, and Idaho; total number of comments: 16,794. • Established the Interagency Grizzly Bear 2002: The Conservation Strategy is approved; will be implemented when the Committee (IGBC) to increase communi- grizzly is removed from threatened species list. cation and cooperation among managers in 2003: The recovery goals are met for the sixth year in a row. all recovery areas, and to supervise public 2005: The USFWS proposes removing the grizzly bear from threatened education programs, sanitation initiatives, species list. and research studies. 2006: The Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan is modified to update methods of estimating population size and sustainable mortality. • Developed and implemented a recovery 2007: The grizzly bear population in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem is plan and a conservation strategy.

removed from the threatened species list and the Conservation Strategy is implemented. On the List =

2009: The population is returned to the threatened species list; manage- The Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan ment continues under the 2006 revision of the recovery plan. The Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan was estab-

lished in 1993 and revised in 2006. It has four demographic and sustainable mortality On July 28, 1975, under the authority of the goals, listed on the next page, for grizzly Endangered Species Act (ESA), the U.S. Fish bears in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. and Wildlife Service (USFWS) listed the This plan guides management when the grizzly bear in the lower 48 states as threat- grizzly is on the threatened species list. ened under the Endangered Species Act, in When the grizzly is off that list, as it was part, because the species was reduced to recently, managers follow the Conservation only about two percent of its former range Strategy, as described next. south of Canada. Five or six small populations were thought to remain, totaling 800 Off the List = to 1,000 bears. The southernmost—and The Grizzly Conservation Strategy most isolated — of those populations was in Bear managers use the conservation greater Yellowstone, where 136 grizzly bears strategy when the grizzly is off the threat- were thought to live in the mid-1970s. The ened species list. It is the long-term guide goal of ESA listing is to recover a species to for managing and monitoring the grizzly self-sustaining, viable populations that no bear population and assuring sufficient longer need protection. habitat to maintain recovery. It emphasizes To achieve this goal, federal and state coordination and cooperative working agencies: relationships among management agencies, landowners, and the public to ensure public • Stopped the grizzly hunting seasons in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem (GYE). support, continue application of best scientific principles, and maintain effective • Established the Yellowstone grizzly bear actions to benefit the coexistence of Yellowstone Resources recovery area (Yellowstone National Park, & Issues 2011 grizzlies and humans. It incorporates exist- John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Park- ing laws, regulations, policies, and goals. 162 way, portions of Grand Teton National Park and national forests surrounding Grizzly Bear Recovery Plan: New Population Monitoring Criteria

Population Objectives Was the objective achieved? 06 07 08 09 10

1 Estimated percent of total mortality of independent aged females not to exceed 9%. A

2 Estimated percent of total mortality of X X independent aged males not to exceed 15%.

3 Estimated percent mortality from human causes for dependent young not to exceed 9%.

4 Demographic objective of 48 females producing cubs annually.

Flexibility in the Strategy Current Status & Outlook

• Grizzly/human conflict management and Scientists and managers believe the grizzly bear habitat management are high priori- population has grown robustly since 1986. ties in the recovery zone, which is known Grizzlies are raising cubs in nearly all por- as the Primary Conservation Area (PCA). tions of the recovery area, and cub survival

Bears are favored when grizzly habitat and is high. They are also dispersing into new other land uses are incompatible; grizzly habitat. Of the estimated 603 grizzlies bears are actively discouraged and con- living in the area, approximately 150 have trolled in developed areas. home ranges wholly or partially in

• State wildlife agencies have primary Yellowstone National Park. Other bears responsibility to manage grizzly bears out- range south into the Wind River Range, side of national parks, including bears on north through the Gallatin Range, and east national forests; national parks manage of the Absarokas onto the plains. bears and habitat within their jurisdictions. For these reasons, the Yellowstone grizzly • The grizzly bear population will be population was removed from the threat- sustained at or above 500 bears in the ened species list in 2007. This decision was Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. challenged in several courts, and some cases

• State and federal wildlife managers will are pending. continue to monitor the grizzly population In 2009, U.S. District Judge Donald Molloy and habitat conditions using the most returned the grizzly to the federal threat-

feasible and accepted techniques. ened species list, saying the Conservation • Managers will remove nuisance bears Strategy was not enforceable and insuffi- conservatively and within mortality limits ciently considered the impact of climate outlined above, and with minimal removal change on grizzly food sources. The USFWS of females; they will emphasize removing and the Department of Justice have the human cause of conflict rather than appealed. A ruling is expected in 2012. removing a bear. Meanwhile, management of the bears in the • Outside the PCA, states develop manage- GYE changes little whether it is listed on the ment plans, with input from affected threatened species list or not. Scientists groups and individuals, that define where will continue to monitor the long-term grizzly bears are acceptable. recovery goals for grizzly bears and strive to ensure the criteria are met. — 8

Issue: Bioprospecting & Benefits- sharing

The Issue 1997: The park signs a benefits- Should researchers who study mate- sharing agreement with Diversa

rial obtained under a Yellowstone Corporation, ensuring a por- National Park research permit be tion of their future profits from

required to enter into benefits- research in Yellowstone National Dr. Thomas Brock sharing agreements with the Park will go toward park resource Yellowstone's extremophiles National Park Service before using preservation. — especially their research results for any 1999: A legal challenge puts on hold thermophiles— have been the subject of commercial purpose? implementation of this agree- scientific research and discovery for more until than years. Definitions ment an environmental 100 One of these discoveries— of analysis (EA or EIS) is completed. the uses for Thermus aquaticus—has led to Bioprospecting is the search for use- 2006: Draft EIS released. ful scientific information from scientific and economic benefits far beyond 2006: Draft EIS released. genetic or biochemical resources. what anyone could have imagined. Today, 2009: Final EIS completed. It does not require large-scale several dozen scientific research projects- resource consumption typical of Current Status sponsored by universities, NASA, and cor- extractive industries associated • NPS expects to enter into bene- porations—are underway in the park to with the term fits-sharing agreements "prospecting," such soon. investigate extremophiles. (See Chapter 4 for as logging and mining. • Approximately 40 research more information on these life forms.) Some Benefits-sharing is an agreement permits are granted annually to of their discoveries have been used for com- between researchers, their insti- scientists to study microbes in mercial purposes, which is the heart of the tutions, and the National Park Yellowstone. benefits-sharing issue. Service that returns benefits to • Research microbiologists con-

the parks when results of tinue to find microorganisms in research History have potential for commercial Yellowstone that provide insights

development. into evolution, aid in the search Careful scientific study of these curious life forms began in earnest in History for life on other planets, and 1966, when Dr. reveal how elements are cycled Thomas Brock discovered a way to grow 1966: The microorganism Thermus through ecosystems. one of the microorganisms living in the aquaticus is discovered in a Yellowstone hot spring. See Chapter 4, "Life in Extreme extraordinarily hot waters (more than Heat." 1985: An enzyme from T. aquaticus, 158°F/70°C) of Mushroom Pool in the

which is synthetically reproduced, Lower Geyser Basin. This bacterium, T. contributes to the DNA finger- aquaticus, proved essential to one of the printing process that has earned most exciting discoveries in the 20th hundreds of millions of dollars for century. the patent holder. Until the 1980s, our ability to study DNA was limited. Things we take for granted today such as DNA fingerprinting to identify criminals, DNA medical diagnoses, DNA- based studies of nature, and genetic engineering were unimaginable. But in 1985, the polymerase chain reaction (PCR) was invented. PCR is an artificial way to do something that living things do every day replicate DNA. PCR is the rocket ship of

replication, because it allows scientists to make billions of copies of a piece of DNA in Yellowstone Resources a few hours. Without PCR, scientists could & Issues 2011 not make enough copies of DNA quickly 164 enough to perform their analyses. An enzyme discovered in T. aquaticus— called Taq polymerase—made PCR practical. Controversy Because it came from an extremophile, Along with this exciting new dimension in Taq polymerase can withstand the heat of understanding park resources through the PCR process without breaking down research, questions have been raised about like ordinary polymerase enzymes. Many whether or not bioprospecting should be versions of this enzyme are now laboratory allowed. Bioprospecting is biological used and have allowed DNA studies to be research associated with the development of practical and affordable. commercial products. Bioprospecting does Many other species of microbes have been not require the sort of grand-scale resource found in Yellowstone's thermal areas since consumption required by the kinds of 1966. Each of these extremophiles produces extractive industries typically associated enzymes that operate under conditions too with the term "prospecting," such as logging harsh for most proteins, and a few of these and mining. In this case, the "prospecting" enzymes are proving to be useful. is for new knowledge. As required by law, Researchers estimate more than 99 percent research is encouraged in Yellowstone if it of the extremophiles present in Yellow- does not adversely impact park resources stone's hydrothermal features have yet to be and visitor use and enjoyment. Importantly, identified. only research results, i.e. information and insight gained during research on park Science specimens, may be commercialized —not the Genetic studies important to medical, specimens themselves. Nonetheless, some agricultural, and environmental research people question the appropriateness of use hundreds of enzymes developed from allowing scientists to perform research in a the study of microbes, like Taq polymerase. national park if they are bioprospectors. In addition, many industrial processes The most famous commercial applicationfor require the use of enzymes in biochemical Yellowstone-related research was the inven- reactions. Because some enzymes developed tion of the polymerase chain reaction (PCR), through study of extremophiles can with- discussed above. PCR generated stand harsh manufacturing processes better significant profits for Cetus Corporation, than inorganic catalysts, they can improve which had patented the processes. In 1991, efficiency which saves energy. In some — Hoffman-La Roche, a Swiss pharmaceutical cases, using enzymes also contributes to company, purchased the U.S. patents for a reducing pollution. reported $300 million. Ten years later, Yellowstone's geology provides a wide vari- annual sales of Taq polymerase reportedly ety of high-temperature physical and chemi- were $100 million. Yellowstone National cal habitats that support one of the planet's Park and the United States public have greatest concentrations of extremophilic received no direct benefits even though this biodiversity. Research on these extremo- commercial product was developed from philes can contribute to further advances. the study of a Yellowstone microbe. Hoffman-La Roche and the researchers Ongoing Research acted lawfully throughout the development Approximately 40 research studies are being and sales of Taq polymerase. At issue is conducted in Yellowstone on the ecological whether or not the National Park Service roles and community dynamics of micro- (NPS) should require researchers who study organisms, and how to search for traces material obtained under a research permit of similar life forms in the inhospitable to enter into benefits-sharing agreements environments of other planets. Research with the NPS before using their research on park microbes also has proven useful results for any commercial purpose. in producing biofuels, treating agricultural and industrial waste, bioremediating chlori- Benefits-Sharing nated hydrocarbons, recovering oil, bio- Federal legislation authorizes the National bleaching paper pulp, improving animal Park Service to negotiate benefits-sharing feed, improving detergents, and a host of agreements that provide parks a reasonable other processes. share of profits when park-based research yields something of commercial value. 8

Bioprospecting Similar agreements have been used by other Into Court allow the host nation to benefit countries to Shortly after the Yellowstone-Diversa commercial discoveries that depended & Benefits- from CRADA was signed, opponents sued its natural heritage. In 1997, Yellowstone on the NPS in federal court arguing that the sharing National Park became the first U.S. national policy put into play a new commercial activ- park to enter into a benefits-sharing agree- ity and was illegal and inappropriate in ment with a commercial research firm. The parks. In 1999, the judge ordered the NPS to Yellowstone-Diversa Cooperative Research prepare an environmental analysis of the and Development Agreement (CRADA) potential impacts of benefits-sharing agree- provided that Diversa Corporation would ments and suspended the CRADA pending pay Yellowstone $100,000 over five years completion of the analysis. In 2000, the (even if research resulted in no commercial- court dismissed the remainder of the case, ly valuable discoveries) included provi- and ruling: sions of no-cost scientific analyses and labo- 1) the CRADA was consistent with the NPS ratory equipment, plus a royalty based on mission of resource conservation; 2) any sales revenues related to results from bioprospecting did not constitute a con- research in the park. The CRADA did not sumptive use; 3) bioprospecting did not rep- authorize Diversa to collect specimens or resent a "sale or commercial use" of park conduct research in the park. Permission to resources; and 4) Yellowstone fell within the conduct research can only be acquired by definition of a federal laboratory and appro- applying for research permit. In a priately implemented the CRADA. Yellowstone, an interdisciplinary team requires research permit applicants to abide Outlook by strict resource protection standards. NPS has finished a Final Environmental Diversa, which had research sites around Impact Statement that examined the the world, was collecting DNA samples potential impacts of benefits-sharing directly from nature and screening the agreements. Yellowstone expects to enter genes for the ability to produce enzymes. In into a few benefits-sharing agreements its labs, scientists spliced the most useful soon. genes into microbial "livestock," and these The study of natural resources has long microbes then produced the compound or been a source of knowledge that benefits enzyme. (Diversa has since merged with humanity. For example, more than half of another company to form Verenium the pharmaceuticals used in the United Corporation.) As with all NPS research States contain at least one major active com- specimens, the Yellowstone microbes and pound derived from or patterned after natu- DNA collected in the park remain in federal ral compounds. As global biodiversity ownership and are never sold. declines, national parks and other preserves become increasingly important as sources of More information, genetic diversity for scientific study to dis- including the 2000 cover knowledge to develop new solutions court decision, is at to the problems faced by humanity. www. nature, nps.gov/ benefitssharing

The final EIS is at park- planning. nps.gov: select "Washington Office" from the menu and follow the benefits-sharing links.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 166 Issue: Bison Management

The Issue Current About half of Yellowstone's Yellowstone National Park is the one place Status bison test positive for exposure to • The bison management plan in in the nation where bison are preserved as brucellosis, a disease that can cause effect since December 2000 has wildlife with all the features of a naturally bison and domestic cattle to abort been revised. functioning system. Genetically, these their first calf. Because Yellowstone • A vaccine used in cattle, RB51, is bison are one of the few populations free of bison migrate into Montana, their being used for Yellowstone bison. cattle genes. They experience natural com- exposure to brucellosis concerns the • Untested bison are now tolerated petition among themselves and among state's cattle industry. outside the west boundary other species for food. They are preyed History/Background Nov. 1-May 15. upon by the same predators that hunted • Some of Yellowstone's bison now (See also timeline on pages 168-171) have access to 80,000 acres in them two centuries ago. And their herds • Bison probably contracted brucel- Montana. increase and decrease based on all of these losis from cattle raised in the park • Fewer cattle graze private and factors —plus annual human intervention to provide milk and meat for park public lands near the park than in through hunting and management. visitors in the early 1900s. 2000. • Brucellosis has little impact on the The story of bison restoration in Yellow- • The state of Montana is manag- growth of the bison population. stone is told in Chapter 7; here, we focus on ing a bison hunt on public lands • The disease may be contracted by bison management that occurs because of outside the park. contact with infected tissue and • A few tribes are conducting the disease these wild icons carry. birth fluids of infectious cattle or bison hunts north of Yellowstone bison that are shed at the end of Brucellosis according to their 1855 treaties About pregnancy. with the United States. Brucellosis, caused by the bacterium • The human form of the disease,

Brucella abortus, can cause pregnant cattle, called undulant fever, is no longer Agencies Involved

elk, and bison to abort their calves. It is a public health threat in the U.S. National Park Service (NPS) transmitted primarily when susceptible • Bison have not been known to Animal Plant Health Inspection animals directly contact infected birth transmit brucellosis to cattle Service (APHIS) under natural conditions although U.S. Forest Service (FS) material. No cure exists for brucellosis in transmission has occurred in Montana Department of Livestock wild animals. All cattle that use overlapping captivity. (DOL) ranges with bison are vaccinated for brucel- • The state of Montana, like other Montana Department of Fish, losis when they are calves. states, has spent much time, Wildlife & Parks (FWP) In Humans effort, and money attempting to eradicate brucellosis in cattle. Although rare in the United States, humans • Elk in the greater Yellowstone can contract brucellosis by consuming area also carry brucellosis. unpasteurized, infected milk products or

contacting infected birth tissue. It cannot be contracted by eating cooked meat from an infected animal. In humans, the disease is called undulant fever. Since the advent of milk pasteurization, people in developed countries have virtually no risk of contracting the disease. And if they do, they can be treated with antibiotics. In Yellowstone

Brucellosis was discovered in Yellowstone Yellowstone Resources bison in 1917. They probably contracted the & Issues 2011 disease from domestic cattle raised in the 167 Bison managed in various £ U I? U I I 00 I oo I c I in ^ ways to keep them the I ->< I : I O I 8 I park. flit Brucellosis Montana Almost 600 Montana ends Montana files found in bison receives bison killed in hunt due to lawsuit against Bison that live in brucellosis-free public hunt. public outcry. NPS to keep Yellowstone. status; begins NP5 prepares bison out of the Management public hunts for EA enabling state; settle- bison. park staff to ment requires haze and shoot EIS preparation. bison outside the park.

park to provide milk showed up in two herds. Both herds were and meat for visitors. slaughtered; the ranchers lost money and Now about 50 per- the bloodlines they had developed over sev- cent of the park's eral generations. Following a scientific bison test positive review of the risk and extensive testing of for exposure to the cattle close to the infected herds, the U. S. brucella organism. Department of Agriculture re-classified However, testing Montana as brucellosis free in 2009. positive for exposure Both of these herds were within 50 miles of (seropositive) does Yellowstone National Park, but bison were not mean the animal not implicated as the source of the infection. is infectious and Nevertheless, the state of Montana remains capable of transmit- concerned that bison migrating outside of So far, research ting brucellosis. (For example, people who shows that bison Yellowstone National Park present a risk to received smallpox immunization during calves pose no risk to cattle. Therein lies the need for bison cattle. The risk of their childhood will test positive for small- management. brucellosis transmis- pox antibodies even though they are sion in the wild not infected with the disease and cannot The Interagency Bison occurs only during transmit it.) Research indicates less than the time afterbirth Management Plan (IBMP) half of seropositive female bison are infec- and its residue Developing a long-term management plan remain on the tious at the time of testing. Male bison do took twelve years because of a wide variety ground. Bison not transmit the disease to other bison. of agency perspectives and missions. consume most of (Transmission between males and females these materials. Interim plans were used to manage bison as during reproduction is unlikely because of the various lawsuits, environmental assess- the female's protective chemistry.) Bison ments, and environmental impact state- have a very low probability of transmitting ments proceeded. (See list on page 1 71.) brucellosis to cattle under natural condi- Through court-appointed mediation, the tions because management strategies pre- state and federal agencies found common vent bison from commingling with cattle. ground in managing bison. The resulting Brucellosis Management in Cattle Final Environmental Impact Statementfor the Interagency Bison Management Plan for Federal and state agencies and the livestock Yellowstone industry have spent much time and money the State of Montana and National Park was released in August 2000; to eradicate brucellosis from cattle. States the federal government and the state of accomplishing this task receive "brucellosis Montana released separate Records of class-free" status and can export livestock Decision in December 2000 describing the without restrictions and costly disease test- negotiated settlement. ing. Until recently the rules governing this status were strict— one cow infected among The IBMP identified two common goals: one herd meant the entire herd had to be • maintain a wild, free-ranging bison quarantined or slaughtered; two herds in population two years in one state meant the entire state • prevent transmission of brucellosis from would lose its brucellosis class-free status. bison to cattle surrounding Yellowstone There is a minimum one year time period National Park. before a state can regain class-free status. It also envisioned progressively greater Yellowstone Resources Montana first attained class-free status in tolerance for bison outside Yellowstone in & Issues 2011 1985 and lost it in 2008 when infected cows three steps: 168 Interim Bison Unusually severe 94 bison died in No bison die in manage- Management Plan winter. More management ment actions. begins. than 1,000 actions. August: Almost 8,000 acres Bison bison shot or Draft EIS released. winter wildlife habitat along shipped to Receives 67,500+ north boundary become Management slaughter. public comments. protected. December: Federal agencies withdraw from agreement with Montana to produce an EIS.

Step One: Up to 100 seronegative bison can to modify the plan as scientists and manag- occupy one management area outside the ers learn more about bison behavior and west boundary, November to mid-May. migration, and about brucellosis.

Step Two: Up to 100 seronegative bison can The IBMP also allows natural processes to be outside the north boundary from occur throughout most of the bison conser- November to May once cattle no longer vation area (see map below) and accounts for graze on the Royal Teton Ranch during the the migratory nature of bison. But as bison winter (initiated March 2008). approach the park boundary, more intensive Step Three: Up to 100 untested bison can be management actions can occur to keep in both of these defined management areas bison from commingling with cattle. during winter. The IBMP was in use without major changes During all steps, areas outside park bound- until the end of winter in 2008, and aries provide habitat for unlimited bison remained in Step One. Managers had the year-round: the Eagle Creek/Bear Creek authority each winter to capture and remove area outside the north boundary and the all bison, regardless of disease status, out-

Lee Metcalf Wilderness and Cabin Creek side the west boundary or north boundary if Wildlife Management Area outside the west the bison population was above 3,000. boundary. Removal meant capturing bison and send- To achieve these goals and move up the ing most of them to slaughter. This situation steps, the IBMP uses adaptive management occurred twice in three winters (see time- 8 I i February: Federal judge FWP & APHIS open Approximately 1,000 orders state & federal quarantine facility; bison removed from agencies into mediation During years 2-5 several dozen bison the park via manage- Bison to work out differences. of the Bison calves taken from ment actions, trans- August: Final EI5 Management Plan, Yellowstone for project. fer to quarantine, or Management released. approximately 840 DOL& APHIS begin hunting. December: Records of bison are shipped vaccinating captured Decision signed by to slaughter or bison. federal and state killed. FWP begins bison hunt governments. on November 15.

Bison line), and was a catalyst for changes in the pioneer suitable habitats and respond to Management IBMP. In addition, the Government environmental changes, human manage- Objectives Accountability Office (GAO) released an ment needs, and evolutionary processes that

• Maintain genetic audit that recommended the IBMP be function at time scales of centuries. While integrity of the revised. brucellosis prevalence has not declined in bison population. this time period, managers now can reach Revising the Plan • Maintain a wild, disease management goals using the IBMP December the free-ranging Between August and 2008, as an effective brucellosis risk management bison population. agencies met seven times to revise the IBMP. program. • Maintain and Their adjustments included: preserve the Other Recent Developments • Establish www.ibmp.info to provide bison ecologicalfunc- tion that bison management documents to the public. Bison hunting

provide in the • Provide greater tolerance for untested Since 2005, approximately 270 bison have Yellowstone area, bison on the Horse Butte peninsula, which been killed during the winter hunt in such as their role is outside the park beyond West Montana. Several of the winters have been as grassland grazers and as a Yellowstone. mild and bison have had good forage inside

source offoodfor • Allow bison beyond the northern bound- the park. The hunt continues to generate carnivores. ary in additional, limited area to learn how revenue for the state. In addition the state • Lower brucel- bison may use this new winter range. now allows some untested bison to roam losis prevalence outside the park. In addition, four tribal • Allow adult male bison outside the west because it is not a groups—Nez Perce, Confederated Salish- native organism. boundary, with management based on Kootenai, Shoshone-Bannock, Umatilla— minimizing private property damage and • Reduce risk of hunt bison on public lands outside the park brucellosis trans- providing public safety. in treaties with mission accordance with their 1855 from • Work with private land owners to prevent bison to cattle. the United States. or resolve wildlife conflicts.

• Consider fencing outside the national park Vaccination as a tool to help create separation between The overall goal of a bison vaccination plan

cattle and bison. is to increase the number of bison not

Two years later, slow and steady progress infected with the bacteria. continues. The website is available; some Since 2004, as part of capture operations, bison range has expanded outside the park; calves and yearlings that tested negative for and more than 700 bison were tolerated out- brucellosis have been vaccinated. side the park's west boundary during late In 2010, the NPS released the draft environ- winter in 2010. mental impact statement (DEIS), Remote Looking Back Over 10 Years Vaccination Program for Bison in Yellow- Overall, the NPS considers the IBMP suc- stone National Park. It evaluates vaccinating cessful at preventing brucellosis transmis- bison in the field, using remote delivery sion from wild Yellowstone bison to domes- methods that do not require handling indi- tic cattle. Scientists have learned that bison vidual bison. Because scientists now know populations grow faster than they estimated more about bison movement patterns, group ten years ago. This balances the fact that dynamics, and habitat distribution, they management actions reduce adult female better understand where and when remote survival by about 10 percent. They have also field vaccination could succeed. The NPS is expects to Yellowstone Resources seen that bison migration is being restored evaluating public comments and & Issues 2011 to this landscape. This will benefit longterm release the final EIS in late 2011. 170 herd survival by providing a way for bison to Approximately 1700 bison removed, mostly by hunt- DEIS for remote vaccination released for public ing & capture operations; more than 500 die due to comment. winter conditions. APHIS proposes revising zones for brucellosis-free Bison State and federal agencies revise the management status from states to geographic regions around risk plan: more bison will be tolerated outside park areas such as Yellowstone. Management boundaries in winter.

Quarantine Two Decades of Lawsuits Montana Fish, Wildlife and Parks and 1984: Fund For Animals sues NPS to stop bison from crossing the park are conducting a bison quarantine APHIS boundary into Montana, where they are shot. (Suit dismissed.) feasibility study. Bison calves that would 1989: Memorandum of Understanding (MOU): the state of Montana, otherwise be sent to slaughter have been NPS, and U.S. Forest Service (FS) agree to develop a long-term used to develop and test a protocol to certify management plan to cooperatively manage bison. disease-free bison. From the first group, 87 adults and offspring cleared the protocol 1992: Another MOU between Montana, NPS, Forest Service, & and were relocated to a private ranch in APHIS defines each party's roles and responsibilities in developing a 2010. They will be monitored for five more long-term bison management plan. years. The second, and last, group of bison 1995: Montana files lawsuit against NPS & APHIS because the federal (39 adults plus calves) are expected to com- agencies are asking the state to implement conflicting management plete the quarantine protocol and be relo- actions. The settlement includes preparing an interim bison manage- in far cated 2011. Thus the protocol has ment plan to be in effect until the EISfor long-term management is proven successful because calves have been completed. born in quarantine for three years plus they 1996: Sierra Club Legal Defense Fund sues NPS to stop capturing and their mothers have remained free of bison inside the park. brucellosis. If the five-year monitoring period proves successful, quarantine could pro- 1997: Fund For Animals files lawsuit to stop all road grooming in the vide a way for Yellowstone bison to be a part park unless scientific evidence shows that it does not harm wildlife. of bison conservation in other places. (Settled.) For the nextfew years, bison-related lawsuits become more about Changing the rules winter-use management, which is discussed later in this chapter. The U.S. Department of Agriculture has 1999: Federal agencies withdraw 1992 with Montana to proposed revising the rules that define from MOU produce an EIS. Soon thereafter, the state Montana sues the federal brucellosis-free status, eliminating the of government. state-by-state designations and focusing on Yellowstone-area cattle populations. This 2000: Federal judge orders state &federal agencies into mediation to rule may become effective in 2011 and help work out differences. In August, the final EIS is released; federal & ease concerns of cattle producers state governments issue separate Records of Decision. nationwide. 2003: Several groupsfile a lawsuit against the state ofMontana and Outlook thefederal government to stop using helicopters to haze bison outside the west boundary it is disrupting nesting bald eagles. (Rejected.) Brucellosis is not a major factor in deter- 2009: Several groups a lawsuit against to stop their mining herd survival for either elk or bison, file NPS & FS participation in the IBMP, to stop "lethal bison removals," and to but will remain a cause of concern to the begin the process plan. (In court.) livestock industry. State and federal agencies for a new management will continue to work together using the 2010: Several groups sue to stop the state ofMontanafrom moving Interagency Bison Management Plan as quarantine bison to private lands. (In court.) their primary tool to prevent bison to livestock transmission. Each agency plays a separate role in managing this population that now has approximately 80,000 acres of habitat in Montana outside Yellowstone National Park.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 171 — 8

Issue: Climate Change L

The Issue Predictions for the

The global climate is changing, and Western United States

is already affecting the Greater • This region will warm more than Yellowstone Ecosystem. the global average. History • Summer temperatures will In recent years, natural events in increase 5-7°F in 50 years. 1700s: The Industrial Revolution is Yellowstone associated with weather • Precipitation will stay the same or underway; manufacturing begins seemed to come two to three weeks early- increase. producing greenhouse gases such including the peak snowmelt. Was this • Overall moisture available to the as carbon dioxide and methane. unusual weather or global climate change? ecosystem will decrease because 1827: Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier To answer this question, you need to under- evaporation will increase as the describes what is later termed the stand the difference between weather and region warms. "greenhouse effect." climate (defined the next page), • Ecosystem changes will be affect- on and you 1896: Savre Arrehnius calculates that ed by land forms, microclimates, need data spanning several decades, ideally increasing atmospheric green- and other local factors, and will centuries or even millennia. Scientists now house gases will cause global in all directions— that establish warming. occur north, have data, which our global south, lower elevations, higher 1958: Charles David Keeling begins climate is changing rapidly and the change measuring atmospheric carbon elevations. is unprecedented in the last several thou- What is already happening: dioxide from Mauna Loa, Hawaii. sands of years. However, understanding • Since the mid 1970s, the wildfire 1957-58: International Geophysical global climate change dates to the 1700s. season increased by 11 weeks, Year with fires lasting an average of 5 In the 1700s, scientists began trying to 1963: Keeling warns of 10.8°F weeks. understand how the ice ages had occurred. temperature rise in next century. • Snowpack is decreasing and melt- At the same time, the Industrial Revolution 1965: First Global Climate Models (GCM) developed. ing 2 to 4 weeks earlier. began, powered by fossil fuels. These two 1969: Weather satellites begin Predictions for the Greater events combined to begin understanding providing atmospheric data. Yellowstone Ecosystem global climate change. 1978: Satellites begin measuring • Alpine habitat will decrease, Scientists studying the ice ages developed sea ice in both the Arctic and affecting almost all alpine flora some of the first climate theories. For exam- Antarctic. and fauna. ple, Jean-Baptiste Joseph Fourier compared 1988: The Intergovernmental Panel • Grizzly bear alpine food sources Earth's atmosphere to a glass box, which on Climate Change (IPCC) is estab- (whitebark pine, army cutworm

lished. moths) will decrease. allows heat in but not out—which later sci- 1997: The Kyoto Protocol sets targets • Wolverine, lynx, and pika may entists called "the greenhouse effect." James for greenhouse gas emissions for lose habitat in the park. Croll noted that ice and snow reflect heat most industrialized nations. • Sagebrush-steppe conditions, such back into the atmosphere —and if the 2007: IPCC begins its 4th report, as on the northern range, will amount of heat changed, winds would "Warming of the climate system increase. change, which would affect ocean currents, is unequivocal." What is already happening: which could sustain cold temperatures 2009: Director's Order 3289 man- • Growing season has increased by and thus create a feedback loop. dates a department-wide strategy two weeks. to address climate change. • Willows are growing 3 times the In 1896, a Swedish scientist connected

2009: Copenhagen Summit held; an average recorded in the 1980s, in climate with pollution. Savre Arrehnius accord reached for nonbinding part due to the longer growing wanted to know how carbon dioxide (CO2) actions to address climate change. season. might have affected the ice ages. He calcu- 2000s: Warmest decade on record. lated the amount of CO2 emitted by industry, then doubled that amount and calculat-

ed it would raise global temperatures 9-ll°F. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 During the first 50 years of the 20th century, 172 scientists continued to research the ice ages, developing methods and data essential to —

During the 20th century, scientists refine analysis

and dating techniques to study Earth's past, ocean & i I-j atmospheric chemistry, and climate systems.

Scientists win Nobel Peace Prize for work on climate change. Climate Arrehnius predicts global warming. Kyoto Protocol sets goals for Change reducing C02 emissions.

Croll identifies Intergovernmental Panel on Climate atmospheric feedback loop. Change forms; includes 2000 scientists.

Global Climate Models are developed. Fourier compares Earth's atmosphere to a greenhouse. International Geophysical Year The Terms of Scientists studying Earth's icp ages. Keeling begins long-term recording of C02 Climate Change concentrations in the atmosphere. Industrial Revolution begins. Weather: the state of the atmosphere future understanding of climate change. For IPCC's work, more than 60 countries con- at a given time and example, scientists began studying pollen vened in 1997 to draft the Kyoto Protocol, place, andfor the found in sediment layers. Based on the vege- which set mandatory targets for greenhouse nextfew days to a tation types represented, the scientists could gas emissions for most industrialized month. assume climate conditions in the past would nations. In 2007, the IPCC shared the Nobel Climate: long- resemble climate conditions where such Peace Prize with Al Gore, and published its term meteorologi- vegetation is found today. Similarly, they fourth report, which began: "Warming of cal conditions that developed a method to measure ancient the climate system is unequivocal." prevail in a region, ocean temperatures by studying shells of Climate-Change Science with a decade as plankton laid down over centuries in the sea the minimum span bed. By 1955, scientists had ocean tempera- The IPCC, in its 2007 report, explains: of averages. ture records going back 300,000 years. "Projecting changes in climate due to greenhouse gases 50 years from now is very dif- Global Climate In the 1950s, scientific attention began ferent and much more easily solved problem Models (aka focusing on Earth's systems. Roger Revelle than forecasting weather patterns just Global found the oceans could not absorb all the weeks from now." Weather systems are Circulation CO2 humans were emitting. He wanted to chaotic and hard to predict; longer-term Models): GCMs know where the CO2 would go. Revelle changes, however, can be measured and use established hired Charles Keeling to gather baseline predicted because we have the necessary physical laws (such data on atmospheric CO2 from a lab on instruments and understanding. However, as water expands Mauna Loa, Hawaii, far from industry. when you average weather data, "the fact as it warms) and Keeling saw the opportunity to begin long- that the globe is warming emerges clearly." enormous amounts term CO2 analysis, and so began the first of data to show data set confirming atmospheric was Two basic physical factors are at work in CO2 how variables rising far beyond that caused by natural climate change: water expands when heated; any (such as increases mechanisms. (See chart next page.) open water and bare ground absorb thermal in carbon dioxide) energy, thus warming the sea, land, and air. Additional research begun during the will affect climate. 1957-58 International Geophysical Year Evidence Phenology: equally interesting results, produced and Since the end of the last glaciations, 13,000 relationship the general public began to take notice. to 14,000 years ago, Earth's snow and ice between periodic Newspapers began reporting evidence of cover has remained relatively consistent. biological changes climate change, such as of the thinning These highly reflective surfaces bounce — like the budding Arctic sea ice. During the 1960s, the first thermal radiation back into the atmosphere, of trees or arrival Global Climate Models (GCMs) were and as long as this reflection remains steady, of migratory birds developed and weather satellites began so do world temperatures. Satellite and mili- in the spring— and gathering data about the atmosphere's tary data during the past few decades show seasonal changes chemical composition. Arctic ice is thinning and melting; and much such as tempera- During the ensuing decades, scientists con- evidence shows annual snow cover is dimin- ture. tinued to refine instruments and models, ishing worldwide, but especially in the and to gather data. To assemble and review northern hemisphere. As snow and ice this data, the United Nations established the coverage decrease, less thermal radiation is Yellowstone Resources Intergovernmental Panel on Climate reflected, and more heat is absorbed by the & Issues 2011 Change (IPCC) in 1988, which is comprised increasing amounts of open water and bare of 2000 scientists. Based in part upon the land. This increased absorption increases 173 surface and air temperatures. 8 Ocean temperature is measured every day Current Effects Around the World from thousands of ships; this record com- Climate • Since the 1950s, in most mid- to high- bined with air temperature records provide latitude regions, the number of very cold the estimated global average temperature Change days and nights has decreased; the each month. As oceans warm, they expand extremely hot days and nights have their levels rise. collected since the and Data increased; and the length of the frost-free 1990s show oceans are rising 0.12 inches per season has increased. year—50 percent due to water expanding • In 2006, the average mean temperature in from increased temperatures and 50 percent the United States was 55 F— 2.2 F higher Climate changes in due to melting ice. Until the 20th century, than the 20th century mean. the past were caused, global sea levels had been stable for thou- • The 2000s were the hottest decade on in part, by changes in sands of years. the Sun's activity. record. Scientists have As scientists predicted in the 1800s, carbon • Temperatures in Alaska are rising almost detected no such dioxide build-up in the atmosphere is caus- twice as fast as elsewhere. changes in the Sun ing this extreme and rapid change in Earth's • Permafrost is melting across the Arctic during the past few temperature. Ice core records show that regions, reducing habitat for birds, decades. after the last glacial period ended, CO2 con- destroying buildings that used permafrost centration gradually rose 80 ppm (parts per as a foundation, collapsing roads. million) over 5,000 years. During the past 100 years alone, the concentration has risen • Glaciers have decreased 95 percent.

79 ppm— an unprecedented rate. • The area of melting Arctic sea ice is greater than two Montanas. More than three-fourths of the CO2 in the atmosphere comes from burning fossil fuels. • The extent of regions affected by droughts Scientists know this because carbon atoms has doubled since the 1970s. released during combustion are chemically • Since 1970, category 4 & 5 hurricanes have distinguished from carbon released by natu- increased by about 75 percent.

ral causes, and thus can be measured. • Since 1995, worldwide sea level has risen almost 2 inches—twice the rate of the previous 100 years.

The Mauna Loa Record, aka Keeling Curve (begun by Charles Keeling in 1958) This version of the Monthly Carbon Dioxide Concentration Keeling Curve by the C0 Program of the 2 parts per million Scripps Institute of Oceanography, scrippsco2. ucsd. edu 380

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320 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011

i i 174 310 i 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 tt 1 r~i n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 n 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 1 r i i i i i i i i i i i 1960 1970 1980 1990 2000 2010 Predictions increase, evaporation rates increase. So even if precipitation remains the same or If we continue the current rates of CO2 increases, less water will be available in the Climate emissions, scientists predict the following: ecosystem. Global Change Less water means wildfires will increase in • oceans will increase hurricane Warming frequency, intensity, and duration in most intensity. western regions. In the last 30 years, the • By 2030, CO2 emissions will grow 40-110 wildfire season has increased more than percent. two months, and individual fires last five

• In this century, sea level will rise 15.8-27.6 times longer. In addition, the increasing inches. levels of CO2 may change the atmosphere's so that lightning a prime cause • Increased ocean acidity (from increased chemistry — CO2) may stop growth of coral reefs. of natural wildfire —will increase and thus, begin fires more frequently. • By 2100, global surface temperatures will

be from 2.5 to 10.4°F higher . GCMs generally show changes by latitude— they cannot account for variations in topog- • Heat waves and heavy precipitation will become more frequent. raphy that affect regional climate, local weather, and ecosystems. Therefore, the • Of the species whose sensitivity to climate GCMs cannot predict what changes will change has been assessed, 20-30 percent likely occur at different elevations and will face greater risk of extinction. within small pockets of habitat. Western United States In general, plants are especially vulnerable Much of the western United States will to rapid climate changes because they likely become more arid according to the change locations by generations— at best. GCMs. Temperatures could increase Even then, they face landscapes already 4-13°F, with the increases higher in the fragmented by humans that will become mountains and greater during winter. The even more fragmented by climate change. resulting smaller snowpacks will reduce surface and groundwater supplies, affecting Plants adapted to live in cold environments, all species in the region. As temperatures such as the Rocky Mountains, often require

Global Mean Temperature IPCC published this graph in their 2007 report. An industrial- ization boom in the northern hemisphere

after World War II contributed to cooler temperatures. Carbon dioxide and other greenhouse gases are the main cause of warming after the mid-1970s. The steeper slope in recent decades indicates accelerated warming.

1860 1880 1900 1920 1940 1960 1980 2000 This and other graphs Period Rate available at www. Annual mean Years °C per decade 25 0.177±0.052 ipcc.chlgraphicsl Smoothed series 50 0.128±0.026 gr-ar4-wg1.htm 5-95% decadal error bars 100 0.074±0.018 150 0.045±0.012 Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 175 8 Two climate regimes Climate Yellowstone National Park is bisected by two climate regimes that will influence how Change summer-wet/winter-dry and what changes here. (Map, left.) These regimes—summer-wet/winter-dry and summer-dry/winter-wet— are remarkably stable, as shown by pollen records extracted from lake sediments throughout the region. By painstakingly examining and identifying summer-dry/winter-wet pollen from these cores, scientists have X < determined that Yellowstone's climate regimes have retained approximately the The boundaries of same boundaries since the end of the last Yellowstone's two glaciation, 13,000 to 14,000 years ago. They regimes have climate remained steady even when temperatures remained stable for increased 12,000 to 6,000 years ago. This 14,000 years. temperature increase equals what we are experiencing now, but over millennia extremely cold temperatures. For example, instead of decades. young Douglas-fir must be exposed to cold The northern part of the park, roughly fol- for a certain length of time while they are lowing the southern limit of the northern dormant to promote maximum growth. range (see map), is in a summer-wet/winter- They will face competition from trees and dry climate regime. Moisture comes in the other plants that don't need chilling. summer via monsoon systems that move Throughout the intermountain western north from the gulfs of Mexico and United States, spring runoff is 20 days earlier California, wrapping around the Absarokas than in the 20th century. Because of this, into the northern range; and winter storms scientists predict the following: come from the Pacific. Sagebrush-steppe

• By 2050, the Columbia River system- and grasslands characterize the habitat including the Snake River—will lose within this regime. Global climate change 35 percent of its snow pack. may increase summer precipitation within this area, but this may be offset by more • Coldwater fish habitat will be reduced 25-30 percent. rapid evaporation, resulting in a net decrease in moisture available to the • Aquatic insects and other invertebrates ecosystem. living in streams will be reduced or die out. The rest of the park is in a summer-dry/ Climate Change in Yellowstone winter-wet regime, influenced by the Pacific Yellowstone is not considered by many to sub-tropical high-pressure system in sum- be a "climate change" park that will have mer and westerly storms in winter. Higher obvious changes in the next few decades. winter moisture used to translate into high However, higher temperatures and changes snowpack, which provided conditions suit- in precipitation patterns can greatly change able for forests and their inhabitants. With its ecosystems. The alpine zone, which climate change comes warmer winters and begins at 9500 feet, may migrate higher, with more rain, which will alter the habitat over habitat for important species like whitebark time. pine substantially reduced. Changes in Although the climate regime boundaries snowpack and timing of spring runoff may might not change, the vegetation within disrupt native fish spawning and increase these regimes will change due to the speed exotic aquatic species expansion. Changes of change and increasing disturbances such in precipitation and temperature regimes as fire and insect infestations. will likely disrupt vegetation growth that in turn would seriously disrupt wildlife migra- Fire for tions, one of the key resources which The general prediction for wildfire in the Yellowstone Resources Yellowstone National Park is globally western United States calls for more intense & Issues 2011 treasured. fires, similar to those of 1988. However, the 176 charcoal in lake sediment cores is telling a different story in Yellowstone. These records extend back 17,000 years, and were increase occurs at a time most beneficial to taken from Cygnet Lake on the Central their growth. Plateau. Charcoal from 8,000 years ago, Climate Wildlife when temperature increases equal what we Climate-change effects on large are now experiencing, shows more frequent mammals Change are hard to determine and predictions are but smaller fires than today. Fuels, along not easy to find. In general, scientists seem with fire weather, determine fire size and to think ungulates depending on grasslands severity: the stand-replacing fires of today will be able to find open up the forests where stands have been suitable habitat. burned, limiting fuels for the next fire. As a Other species might Change in result, areas with frequent fires also tend to not be so fortunate. Other Western have small fires. Whether this holds true for National Parks the future remains to be seen. Grizzly bear males North Cascades: 70 to 90% of the snowpack are tending to den Insect infestations could disappear by the end of this century, later, which exposes threatening winter sports and water supplies. In the past, insect infestations were cyclical, them to risks associ- following changes in weather. For example, Olympic: Warmer winters and more extreme ated with elk hunting trees defend themselves from pine bark storms could increase winterflood risk. outside park beetles exuding sap that traps or prevents Yosemite: Warming and drought have made by boundaries. them from lodging in the tree. During a wildfire season longer and more damaging, drought, a tree cannot produce enough sap Canada lynx will and increased insect damage. have less habitat and to defend itself, and so insects infest it. Once Sequoia/Kings Canyon: Warmer tempera- the drought ends, the tree successfully food as snow cover tures will worsen smog; increasing wildfires decreases in amount defending itself again and the infestation willfurther worsen air quality. and duration. diminishes. In the previous decade, all four From Unnatural Disaster: Global Warming and pine bark beetles and the spruce budworm Wolverines will have Our National Parks by the National Parks & attacked trees — a circumstance never seen less deep snow for Conservation Association. before. Scientists suspect climate change at dens where they find work. Currently, all four infestations are shelter and give birth. declining. (See also Chapter 5.) Foxes have to adapt to harder snow sur- Wetlands faces, which decrease access to rodents but increase carcasses. Wetlands in Yellowstone are few and far access to between, and include small lakes and kettle An ironic twist ponds, which are already drying up. (See Yellowstone's thermophilic plants may pro- Chapter 5.) Scientists don't know how much vide clues to how other plants will respond ground-water recharge they will need to to global climate change. Scientists are recover. However, precipitation and studying them to understand how they snowpack will likely continue to decrease, withstand high amounts of carbon dioxide. which will continue to decrease surface and ground water—and thus the lakes and Action in Yellowstone ponds may not recover. Park employees and residents are reducing As wetlands diminish, sedges, rushes, and their emissions contributions through land- other mesic (water-loving) plants will lose mark recycling efforts, using biodiesel and habitat. In turn, amphibians and some birds ethanol in vehicles, and other changes. In will also lose habitat. 2006 alone, park employees reduced the CO2 emissions from vehicles by 575.4 tons Willows, however, seem to be thriving. by using alternative fuels. (See "Sustainable Their growth since 1995 has been three Practices," in this chapter.) times the average recorded in the 1980s.

In part, this is due to the changes in precipi- At the policy level, park scientists and tation, snowmelt, and growing season. With resource managers have collaborated with a longer growing period to produce energy, other federal agency staff, scientists from willows can meet their essential needs the U.S. Geological Survey and from univer- earlier in the season and thus produce more sities, to develop a science agenda that will defensive chemicals earlier. They also now build a foundation for understanding how Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 have more water earlier in the year because the ecological system will change as the snowmelt occurs sooner, and rain has climate changes and how management can 177 increased in May and June. This moisture mitigate these effects. (See Chapter 2.) 8 In addition, the National Park Service, Impacts of Climate Change on America's Forest Service, and U.S. Fish & Wildlife Water, Land, and Other Natural and Climate Service have inventoried the amount of Cultural Resources," which establishes a Change greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions they pro- "department-wide approach for applying duce in the Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem. scientific tools to increase understanding of Yellowstone National Park emissions are climate change and to coordinate an effec- higher than others because its operation is tive response to its impacts." the largest. The park inventory revealed: Also in 2009, more than 100 countries • More than 60 percent of the GHG emis- participated in the United Nations Climate sions come from producing the electricity Change Conference in Copenhagen, (coal mines, power plants, etc.) we use Denmark. They agreed to a long-term goal

• Heating and cooling park buildings con- of limiting global temperature rise to less tributes 27 percent to GHG emissions than2°C. • Cars, trucks, heavy equipment, and other Outlook vehicles directly emit almost 13 percent of More than 2000 scientists agree: Earth's Yellowstone's greenhouse gases climate is warming 40 times faster than any In December 2010, the three agencies other period in the planet's history. approved an action plan to reduce GHG Vegetation cannot keep up with this rapid emissions in their operations across the rate of change. Many animals will not be entire ecosystem. They also are beginning to able to either. And the vast majority of coordinate climate change employee humans, who live within three meters of sea education and adaptation efforts. level, will find their homes and livelihoods Other Developments at risk in the coming decades. Scientists are developing new small-scale Many scientists believe we have a chance to models that more accurately predict climate slow climate change — if we stop increasing S.O. 3289 & related CO2 emissions by 2017. The technology for information at USGS change effects at local levels. This kind of this change exists, as does the technology to National Climate new data will help Yellowstone's managers Change and Wildlife better prepare for the future. produce climate-safe energy and power. Science Center, In 2009, the Secretary of the Interior issued nccwsc.usgs.gov Secretary's Order 3289, "Addressing the

Yellowstone National 7,000 Park is planning to Greater Yellowstone Ecosystem reduce its GHG Greenhouse Gas Emissions emissions approximately 43% by 2020. Purchased Electricity

Electricity purchased to power lights, computers, and other equipment. Emissions generated at the source of power, such as power plants.

Stationary Combustion

Energy-use on site, such as heating & cooling buildings. Emissions generated at the source of power.

This chart adapted Mobile Combustion from report the a by Emissions caused by motorized vehicles. National Renewable Energy Laboratory Department of Energy. USFS 6 National Forests

Yellowstone Resources GRTE Grand Teton National Park & Issues 2011 YELL Yellowstone National Park 178 USFWS 2 national wildlife refuges USFS GRTE YELL USFWS The Issue affect the overall diversity of Some scientists believe the park has native animals and plants. more ungulates (hoofed mammals) Current Status than the northern range can sustain. • In 1998, Congress called for the They blame elk and bison for ero- National Academy of Sciences to sion and declines in willows, aspen, review management of the north- and beaver, ostensibly due to over- ern range. Results were released grazing. Other scientists have found The northern range refers to the broad in March 2002. park's grass- no evidence that the • Despite scientific conclusions to grassland that borders the Yellowstone and lands are overgrazed. the contrary, some people con- Lamar rivers in the northern quarter of the History/Background tinue to claim the northern range park (map next page). This area sustains one • For decades, the park intensively is overgrazed. of the largest and most diverse populations managed elk, bison, and prong- • In response to recent controversy of free-roaming large animals seen any- horn. about the impact of wolves on where on Earth. Many of the park's ungu- • The park discontinued wildlife the elk herds of the northern lates spend the winter here. Elevations are reductions in the late 1960s to range, numerous researchers have lower and the area receives less snow than restore natural dynamics and been studying this elk population elsewhere in the park. Often the ridge tops minimize human intervention. and the impact of wolf restora- and south-facing hillsides are clear of snow, • In the 1970s and early 1980s, tion. • concerned a result of wind and sun. Animals take scientific and public concerns Some people are now because elk counts have declined advantage of this lack of snow, finding easy grew about the increasing population of ungulates on the north- approximately 60% since 1994. access to forage. ern range. History • In 1986, Congress mandated a major research initiative to answer The northern range has been the focus of these concerns. Results found that one of the most productive, if sometimes the northern range was healthy bitter, dialogues on the of a management and that elk did not adversely wildland ecosystem. For more than 80 years this debate focused on whether there were counts from approximately 12,000 to 4,000 too many elk on the northern range. animals. Although early censuses of the elk in the park, especially on the northern range, are As the result of public pressure and chang- highly questionable, scientists and managers ing National Park Service (NPS) conserva- in the early 1930s believed that grazing and tion philosophy, park managers ended elk drought in the early part of the century had removals in the late 1960s and let a combi- reduced the range's carrying capacity and nation of weather, predators, range condi- that twice as many elk were on the range in tions, and outside-the-park hunting and 1932 as in 1914. Due to these concerns about land uses influence elk abundance. Without over-grazing and overbrowsing, park man- any direct controls inside the park, elk counts increased to approximately 12,000 agers removed ungulates—including elk, bison, and pronghorn—from the northern elk by the mid-1970s, 16,000 elk by 1982, and range by shooting or trapping from 1935 to 19,000 elk by 1988. This rapid population the regarding the late 1960s. More than 26,000 elk were increase accentuated debate culled or shipped out of the park to control elk grazing effects on the northern range. their numbers and to repopulate areas The restoration of wolves into Yellowstone where over-harvesting or poaching had and their rapid increase changed the debate Yellowstone Resources eliminated elk. Hunting outside the park from concerns about "too many" elk to & Issues 2011 removed another 45,000 elk during this speculation about "too few" elk because of period. These removals reduced the elk wolf predation. Elk are the most abundant 179 8 ungulates on the northern range and com- evidence of overgrazing. In 1986, continu- prised more than 89 percent of documented ing concern over the condition of the north- Northern wolf kills during winters from 1997 to 2008. ern range prompted Congress to mandate Range These data cause some people to think more studies. This research initiative, one of wolves are killing off elk, despite the fact the largest in the history of the NPS, encom- that elk continue to populate the northern passed more than 40 projects by NPS biolo- range at relatively high density compared to gists, university researchers, and scientists areas outside the park. from other federal and state agencies. Results found that the northern range was Another set of statistics also alarm some healthy and elk did not adversely affect the hunters, outfitters, and state legislators: overall diversity of native animals and From 2002 to 2008, elk calf survival (recruit- plants. It was also determined that ungulate ment) and total number of the northern elk grazing actually enhances grass production herd declined. Many factors (e.g. predators, in all but drought years, and grazing also drought, winterkill, hunting) contributed to enhances protein content of grasses, yearly the low recruitment and decreased elk numbers. growth of big sagebrush, and establishment of sagebrush seedlings. No reductions in Research Results root biomass or increase in dead bunchgrass Studies of the northern range began in the clumps were observed. However, studies on 1960s and have continued to the present. aspen and willows and their relationship to These studies reveal some overbrowsing of ungulates on the northern range are not so riparian plants, but no clear clear-cut and are continuing. Despite these results, the belief that elk grazing is damaging northern range vegetation and that grazing accelerates erosion persists among many people, including some scientists.

Continuing Controversy In 1998, Congress again intervened in the controversy, calling for the National Academy of Sciences to review management of the northern range. The results, published in Ecological Dynamics on Yellowstone's Northern Range (2002), concluded that "the best available scientific evidence does not indicate ungulate populations are irreversibly damaging the northern range." Studies investigating the responses of elk populations to wolf restoration continue.

In part, the controversy is likely due to the personal or scientific background of each person. Many urban dwellers live among intensively managed surroundings (community parks and personal gardens and lawns) and are not used to viewing wild, natural ecosystems. Livestock managers and range scientists tend to view the landscape in terms of maximizing the number of animals = Yellowstone's northern range that a unit of land can sustain. Range science has developed techniques that allow intensive human manipulation of the landscape for this goal, which is often economi- cally based. Many ecologists and wilderness Yellowstone Resources managers, on the other hand, have come to & Issues 2011 180 —

believe that the ecological carrying capacity population that migrates outside the park of a landscape is different from the concept during winter and limit depredation of of range or economic carrying capacity. crops on private lands. During 1996-2002, They believe variability and change are the approximately 5-19 percent (mean -11 per- only constants in a naturally functioning cent) of the adult female portion of this wilderness ecosystem. What may look bad, population was harvested each year during in fact, may not be. the late hunt. However, the hunt has not been held in the last couple years due to Change on the Northern Range decreased elk During the 1990s, the ecological carrying numbers. capacity of the northern range increased as The complex inter- elk colonized new winter ranges north of dependence of these the park that had been set aside for this pur- relationships results pose. Summers were also wet while winters in fluctuations in the were generally mild. The fires of 1988 also elk population had opened many forest canopies, allowing when there are lots more grasses to grow. of elk, predator num- Many scientists believe that winter is the bers increase, which, major factor influencing elk populations. in part, helps reduce Mild winters allow many more elk to sur- elk numbers and vive until spring, but severe winters result in recruitment. significant levels of winter kill for many animals, not just elk. In severe winters (like the Outlook Some sections of the winter of 1988-89 or 1996-97), up to 25 per- National Park Service policies protect native northern range are cent of the herd can die. The northern species and the ecological processes that fenced, as shown Yellowstone elk herd demonstrates the eco- occur naturally across the landscape. above, to study the long-term effects of logical principle of density-dependence: Whenever possible, human intervention is grazing by fencing over-winter mortality of calves, older discouraged. While controversy continues out large herbivores. females, and adult bulls all increase with about the northern range and NPS manage- The results were higher elk population densities. ment practices, many research projects complex: Animals continue in an effort to more accurately prune shrubs Elk are subject to predation by other species outside the fence describe what is happening on Yellowstone's in the ecosystem, including bears, wolves, but shrubs stay northern range. coyotes, and mountain lions. Also, the healthy. Apparently northern Yellowstone elk population is the herds are not destroying the subject to several hunts each year. Elk that unprotected migrate out of the park may be legally vegetation. hunted during an archery season, early season backcountry hunt, general autumn hunt, and sometimes a Gardiner late hunt, all of which are managed by the Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife and Parks. The primary objective of the Gardiner late hunt is to regulate the northern Yellowstone elk

See Chapter 2 for more about wolves affecting the ecosystem; and "Climate Change" in this

chapter for its effects on this area.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 181 8

Issue: Sustainable & Greening Practices

The Issue housing receives LEED designation. Demonstrating and promoting 2006: 70% of all garbage in the park -:,r:li{H sound environmental stewardship is diverted away from a landfill through recycling & composting. through regional and national 1996 and May 1998. Participants developed partnerships. 2007: Park completes a greenhouse a vision for sustaining the park's values and gas inventory, leading to initiatives History: improving environmental quality. They con- to reduce greenhouse gas emis- 1995: Biodiesel truck donated to sidered strategies such as developing a sions; interns begin gathering data park to test alternative fuel. regional facility, operating for sustainability efforts. composting 1997: Park celebrates 125th anni- 2010: 80% of the park's waste alternatively fueled vehicles, replacing toxic versary and "greening" efforts stream is diverted from landfills. solvents, using more environmentally-sound increase. products, and modifying the energy infra- 1998: Old Faithful wood viewing 2010 recycling in the park: structure to make it more environmentally platform replaced with recycled newspapers, magazines, office friendly. In 2003 and 2007, Yellowstone plastic lumber; employee Ride- paper: 8 tons begins. hosted additional greening conferences that Share Program aluminum & steel: 14 tons 1999: highlighted environmental stewardship and Yellowstone National Park glass: 117 tons using janitorial begins nontoxic plastics: 41 tons successes in the region, and identified supplies and offers ethanol cardboard: 269 tons future initiatives. blended fuel to visitors. small propane canisters: 25,000 2002: The park's diesel fleet con- food waste & other garbage Walking on Sustainability verts to biodiesel; the Greater composted: 1395 tons Yellowstone has more than 15 miles of wood Yellowstone/Teton Clean Energy boardwalk, most of which are several Coalition receives federal designa- Fuel Efficiency: decades old. As these walkways age, toxic tion. • 300 vehicles use more than chemicals from wood preservative leach 2003: Regional composting facility 156,000 gallons of biodiesel fuel into the ground and water. To reduce this opens; park demonstrates the first • 350 vehicles use more than pollutant, the park has replaced some wood fuel cell in a national park; park 193,000 gallons of ethanol begins testing prototype alterna- blended fuel walkways with boards made of recycled tively fueled multi-season vehicles. plastic. This effort began in 1998 when 2004: Park employees begin using Lever Brothers Company donated plastic hybrid vehicles; Xanterra employee lumber for the viewing platform around Old Faithful geyser. The lumber used the equiv- In 1997, when Yellowstone National Park alent of three million plastic milk jugs. Now celebrated its 125th anniversary, one of the visitors receive an educational message questions asked was what can we do to about recycling while waiting for the world's preserve and protect this national treasure most famous geyser eruption. for the next 125 years? The result was Driving Sustainability "The Greening of Yellowstone." Some National Park offers an oppor- "green" projects had already begun, such as Yellowstone tunity to demonstrate alternative fuels in an demonstrating biodiesel fuel. Since then, the environmentally sensitive and extremely park and various partners have addressed a cold area. Beginning in 1995, the National variety of sustainable and greening issues to Service, the Department of increase environmental conservation in the Park Montana park and surrounding communities. Environmental Quality (DEQ), DOE, and the University of Idaho began testing a bio- Meeting to "Green" Yellowstone diesel fuel made from canola oil and Yellowstone National Park, the states of ethanol from potato waste. Dodge Truck Yellowstone Resources Inc. donated a new three-quarter ton 4x4 & Issues 2011 Montana and Wyoming, the U.S. Depart- ment of Energy (DOE), and private groups pickup to the project. The truck has been 182 hosted three-day conferences in October driven more than 200,000 miles on 100 percent biodiesel. It averages about 17 miles designed to increase fuel efficiency and to per gallon, the same as with petroleum- last longer than other tires. Sustainable based diesel fuel. Emissions tests showed Building Sustainability reductions in smoke, hydrocarbons, nitro- & Greenim gen oxides, and carbon monoxide. Tests also Yellowstone's buildings present opportuni- showed bears were not attracted by the ties for incorporating sustainable building Practices sweet odor of biodiesel exhaust, which had materials and techniques as they are main- been a concern. In September 1998, the tained, remodeled, or replaced. The park truck's engine was analyzed, revealing very and its partners have: little wear and no carbon build-up. The • drafted an architectural and landscape truck is still being used in the park. design standard based on national green The park also provides ample opportunity building standards and Yellowstone to test and use alternative fuels because its Design Guidelines. employees drive almost four million miles a • planned and constructed the new Old year. All diesel-powered vehicles used by Faithful Visitor Education Center to meet park employees plus many used by conces- LEED certification requirements. (See this sion operations use a 20 percent blend of and next page.) canola oil and diesel. Gasoline-powered • retrofitted several maintenance facilities vehicles in the park use an ethanol blend with sustainable heating systems, insula- (E-10). This fuel is also available to visitors tion, and high-efficiency lighting. at park service stations. • encouraged concessioners to retrofit facili- In 2004, the park's hybrid fleet began with ties and ask guests to conserve energy and four models donated by Toyota USA. They water in the hotels and lodges. operate with electricity generated by the "Green" Cleaning Products gasoline engine and its braking system. the U.S. Environmental They conserve gas, reduce emissions, and In August 1998, Protection Agency helped Yellowstone run quietly when using electricity. The park its cleaning products. now operates 17 hybrid vehicles. National Park assess They found some products with slightly In 2008, Michelin North America donated toxic ingredients and others with potentially $50,000 worth of tires for the Yellowstone significant health hazards. As a result, the National Park fleet to test. These tires are park switched from more than 130 risky

Greening the new Old Faithful Visitor Education Center

The Old Faithful Visitor Education Center, which opened August 2010, achieved Gold level LEED certification (see below). Its features include: • a design that reduces heated space in winter • water-conserving fixtures • displays and programs about sustainable practices • unobtrusive, down-directed exterior lighting

LEED Certification

The U.S. Green Building Council (USGBC), a building industry group, developed national standards for environmentally-sound buildings. Called LEED (Leadership in Energy and Environmental Design) Green Building Rating System®, these standards have been met in the Yellowstone Park areafor an employee housing project completed in 2004. The National Park Service partnered with concessioner Xanterra Parks & Resorts to build two housesfollowing LEED certification standards. The project Yellowstone Resources earned LEED certification—thefirst in Montana, and thefirst single-family residence in the country. & Issues 2011 The homes included energy efficiency and passive solar design, state-of-the-art heating & cooling systems, and were landscaped with Yellowstone-produced compost. 183 8 products to less than 10 safe products. The Employee Ride-Share Program assessment expanded to include park con- In January 1998, Yellowstone National Park Sustainable cessioners, who also switched to safer prod- initiated a Ride-Share Program at the sug- ucts. This switch to safer and more environ- gestion of park employees living north of & Greening mentally sound cleaning products has the park—some more than 50 miles away. expanded into many other national parks. Practices They were willing to help finance the pro- Renewable Energy gram. Benefits of the program include: Yellowstone managers are testing and • reducing fuel consumption and air Geothermal energy installing alternative renewable energy pollution may seem like an sources for various uses in the park. The • improving safety by decreasing traffic obvious resource in Lamar Buffalo Ranch meets 80 percent of its • easing parking constraints in the park the Yellowstone energy needs with a solar array. The Lewis area—but its use • saving employees money could destroy the Lake Contact Station/Residence also uses • improving employee morale, recruitment, geysers and other solar energy, reducing the use of a polluting and retention hydrothermal propane generator. Fuel cells, which convert features protected Approximately 45 participate hydrogen into power and don't need battery employees in here. Other geysers the Ride-Share Program, a significant storage, have been tested as a source of elec- dem- in the world have onstration of the National Park Service been destroyed by tricity to the West Entrance Station. The commitment to public transportation. geothermal energy park is also experimenting with producing development. biofuels from food waste. In 2007, it demon- Clean Energy Coalition strated a generator that produced electricity The Greater Yellowstone/Teton Clean using 100 percent vegetable oil. Energy Coalition, which is part of the Recycling and Composting federal Clean Cities Coalition, promotes alternative, cleaner fuels. Its goals include: In 1994, a study was done in

Yellowstone National Park • substantially reducing particulate matter showing 60-75 percent of solid entering the atmosphere (the stream) waste waste could • educating and promoting the advancement be composted. Large-scale com- of renewable fuels posting becomes even more eco- • reducing dependency on fossil fuels nomical when compared to haul- • setting an example of environmental ing the park's solid waste more stewardship than 150 miles to landfills. Projects include: The Southwest Montana Composting Project — a partner- • expanding the use of renewable fuels Bear spray canisters ship among area counties, municipalities, • developing partnerships to foster are now recyclable in Yellowstone. and the National Park Service — built an sustainable efforts

industrial-grade composting facility near • converting all stationary applications West Yellowstone. It began operating in July (heating boilers, generators, etc.) to 2003 and today transforms 60 percent of renewable fuels park's solid waste into valuable soil • creating a tour district to promote a shuttle conditioner. service within the Yellowstone region Another regional partnership that includes Greening of Concessions Yellowstone National Park is the Head- Yellowstone National Park's major conces- waters Cooperative Recycling Project, sioners have made corporate commitments which is expanding recycling in the park and surrounding communities. For exam- to an environmental management system (EMS) that meets international business ple, it has placed recycling bins for glass, standards for sustainability. plastic, paper, aluminum, and cardboard throughout the park. Ecologix: Xanterra Parks & Resorts In 2005, Yellowstone became the first Xanterra, which provides lodging and national park to recycle small propane cyl- other guest services in the park, calls its Yellowstone Resources inders, such as those used for lanterns and EMS "Ecologix." It encourages employees & Issues 2011 some camp stoves. Now, more than 25,000 to develop and implement sustainable 184 cylinders are crushed and redeemed as steel. practices such as: • Replacing thousands of incandescent bulbs • Conserve energy by bringing hybrids into with efficient compact fluorescent lighting. its fleet of vehicles.

• Replacing two-stroke engines of rental • Conserve water by installing low flow Sustainable boats and snowmobiles with cleaner burn- showerheads, kitchen sprayers, waterless & Greening ing and more efficient four-stroke engines. urinals, and toilets.

• Recycling used motor oil, cooking oil, elec- • Eliminate the use of hazardous materials Practices tronics, automotive batteries, antifreeze, and waste where possible. For example, and paint solvents. chemical film processing was replaced with digital photo pro- • Using bleach-free paper products contain- ^^^^^^^^^^^^^ ing 100 percent post consumer content and cessing, eliminating SUSTAINABILITY SCORECARD the use of soy-based inks for most printed materials. many PRODUCT NAME ADOmOfUL INFORMATION chemicals and the ABC Product, XYZ Company Company provides paid time • Serving organic fair-trade coffee (pesti- generation of haz- off for employees to volunteer cide-free, grown and harvested in a man- PRODUCT ATTRIBUTES ardous waste. weekly at local schools. supporting wildlife and bird habitats, ner CTOOOCT ORIGINATION Hi! materials Wyoming purchased local farmers at a fair • Operate an aggres- from if vivi Montana sive recycling assembly Montana price). [Hi DisTRiBunoK Montana program, annually EMVWONHEMTAl hpact • Serving sustainable foods including pork ii§ V collecting over 120 from pigs and beef from cattle raised with- tons from over 22 out hormones or antibiotics in humane different types of facilities. materials. In 2010, Xanterra • Offering a variety of environmentally- transformed the gift • Incorporate environmentally friendly friendly products in its retail outlets as part shop in the Mammoth materials and practices when remodeling Hot Springs Hotel into of its "Sustain the Earth Campaign," the stores, while maintaining the integrity a shop that sells including products made from recycled of historic structures. appealing "green" fabric, glass, paper, and wood. products. • Partner with the NPS, other concessioners, In 2008, Xanterra began supplying guests in nonprofit organizations, and others to its lodging facilities with more sustainable improve environmental efforts in the toiletries, including products packaged in a greater Yellowstone area. corn-based biodegradable material, which annually diverts an average of 280,000 • Train seasonal associates to carry out the plastic bottles from the landfill. program and educate visitors at each store.

Xanterra and the NPS collaborated on The YES! Initiative building two new employee housing units to In 2008, in concert with the Yellowstone LEED standards. (See page 183.) The homes Park Foundation, the park launched the are constructed to reduce energy consump- "Yellowstone Environmental Stewardship tion (such as using R38 walls, Energy Star (YES!) Initiative." YES! is a multi-year plan appliances, double pane windows, solar to elevate the park as a worldwide leader in panels) and water consumption (two-button advancing environmental stewardship low-flush toilets, efficient fixtures), and to practices. This program enables Yellowstone use post-consumer content materials. The to build upon its sustainability successes to solar panels produce 5 million btu in elec- further minimize the environmental tricity annually. impacts of its operations and decrease GreenPath: Delaware North consumption of natural resources. Delaware North Companies, which operates YES! intends to reach these milestones by twelve general stores in the park, calls its 2016, using 2003 figures as the baseline: Path." EMS "Green This EMS was the first • reduce greenhouse gas emissions by 30% in Yellowstone to attain ISO 14001 • reduce electricity consumption by 15% Registration, which means it exceeds strict • reduce fossil fuel consumption by 18% environmental standards recognized inter- nationally. Practices include: • reduce water consumption by 15% • divert 100% of solid waste from landfills • Purchase responsibly wherever possible. For example, using biodegradable dish- Yellowstone Resources ware and cutlery in food service operations, which are then composted at a local facility. 185 A wilderness, in contrast with those areas where man and his own

works dominate the landscape, is . . . an area where the earth and its

community of life are untrammeled by man, where man himself is a visitor who does not remain ... an area of undeveloped federal land

retaining its primeval character and influence, without permanent

improvements or human habitation, which is protected and managed

so as to preserve its natural condition. . . . The Wilderness Act of 1964

Wilderness in the The Issue Backcountry Statistics In 1972, 90% of Yellowstone • Approximately 1,000 miles of trail. National Park System National Park was recommended for • 72 trailheads within the park; 20 Congress specifically included the National federal wilderness designation. trailheads on the boundary. Park Service in the Wilderness Act and Congress has not acted on this rec- • 301 designated backcountry directed the NPS to evaluate all its lands for ommendation. campsites. suitability as wilderness. Lands evaluated • Approximately 13% of back- History and categorized as "designated," "recom- country users travel with boats 1964: Wilderness Act becomes law. mended," "proposed," "suitable," or "study and 17% travel with stock. 1972: National Park Service area" in the Wilderness Preservation System • In 2010, approximately 40,000 recommends 2,016,181 acres in visitors camped in the backcountry must be managed in such a way as to 1) not Yellowstone as wilderness. diminish their suitability as wilderness, and 1994: YNP writes a draft Backcountry Areas of Concern for Park apply the concepts of "minimum require- Management Plan (BCMP) and Wilderness 2) all environmental assessment, which • Accommodating established ments" to management decisions affecting those lands, regardless is never signed. The BCMP begins amount of visitor use. of the wilderness to provide management guidance • Protecting natural and cultural category. even though not official docu- resources. Director's Order 41 ment. • Managing administrative and 1999: Director's Order 41 (DO 41) scientific use. Director's Order 41, issued in 1999, provides issued to guide NPS efforts to • Monitoring & implementing Limits accountability, consistency, and continuity meet the letter and spirit of the of Acceptable Change (LAC). to the National Park Service's wilderness 1964 Wilderness Act. It states that • Educating users in Leave No Trace management program, and guides the NPS recommended wilderness must be practices. efforts to meet the letter and spirit of the administered protect wilderness to Current Status 1964 Wilderness Act. Instructions include: resources and values. Yellowstone does not yet have a wil- 2003: NPS Intermountain Region • "... all categories of wilderness derness plan to manage wilderness implements a Minimum (designated, recommended, proposed, etc.) within the park. Requirement Policy to evaluate must be administered by the NPS to pro-

proposed management actions tect wilderness resources and values, i.e.,

within proposed wilderness areas. all areas must be managed as wilderness."

• "Park superintendents with wilderness resources will prepare and implement a Yellowstone National Park has always man- wilderness management plan or equivalent aged its backcountry to protect natural and integrated into an appropriate planning cultural resources and to provide visitors document. An environmental compliance the opportunity to enjoy a pristine environ- document, in keeping with NEPA requirement within a setting of solitude. Yet none ments, which provides the public with the of the park is designated as federal wilder- opportunity to review and comment on the ness under the Wilderness Act of 1964. park's wilderness management program, In 1972, in accordance with that law, the will accompany the plan." Secretary of the Interior recommended Minimum Requirement Analysis 2,016,181 acres of Yellowstone's backcountry Intermountain Regional Director said be designated as wilderness. Although The "all management decisions affecting wilder- Congress has not acted on this recommen- ness be consistent with the minimum dation, these lands are managed so as not to must requirement concept." This concept allows preclude wilderness designation in the managers to assess: future. The last Yellowstone wilderness Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 recommendation sent to Congress was for • if the proposed management action is 2,032,721 acres. appropriate or necessary for administering 186 the area as wilderness and does not impact 8 wilderness significantly character of the park's backcountry.

• what techniques and type of equipment are • Managing administrative and scientific use needed to minimize wilderness impact. to provide the greatest contribution with Wilderness Superintendents apply the minimum the minimum amount of intrusion in the requirement concept to all administrative wilderness.

practices, proposed special uses, scientific • Monitoring Limits of Acceptable Change activities, and equipment use in wilderness. (LAC) to develop and enact long-range They must consider potential disruption of strategies to better protect wilderness wilderness character and resources before, resources and enhance visitor experiences. and give significantly more weight than, • Minimizing visitor wilderness recreation economic efficiency and convenience. If impact by educating users in Leave No wilderness resource or character impact is Trace outdoor skills and ethics that unavoidable, the only acceptable actions are promotes responsible outdoor recreation. those preserving wilderness character or having localized, short-term adverse Outlook impacts. Yellowstone will continue to manage its backcountry to protect park resources and Wilderness Designation and provide a wilderness experience to park Current Practices in Yellowstone visitors. Park managers are developing a wil- As managers develop a wilderness plan for derness plan to best manage and preserve Yellowstone, they must determine how the wilderness character that Yellowstone's current practices in the park will be handled backcountry has to offer. Yellowstone will within the proposed wilderness areas: then wait for the time when Congress will act upon the recommendation to officially • Protecting natural and cultural resources designate Yellowstone's wilderness. while also maintaining the wilderness

Proposed wilderness area, in dark gray 90% of the park is recommended for federally designated Northeast

Entrance , wilderness. Areas near roads, around major visitor areas, around backcountry ranger cabins, and in previously disturbed areas are not included. The Issue snowcoach-only transportation. We have debated appropriate winter 2000, December: Snowmobile group use in Yellowstone for over 75 years. files suit challenging the ban. Winter Use Goals 2001: NPS settles with snowmobilers' group by agreeing to prepare a • Provide a high quality, safe and supplemental EIS (SEIS). educational winter experience. 2002: Draft SEIS released; ±357,000 • Provide for visitor and employee comments received. Background health and safety. 2003, December 11: Final rule pub- Winter use in Yellowstone has been the • Preserve pristine air quality. lished in Federal Register to allow • Preserve natural soundscapes. subject of debate for more than 75 years. 950 Best Available Technology • Mitigate impacts to wildlife. At least twelve times since 1930, the (BAT), guided snowmobiles daily. • Minimize adverse economic National Park Service (NPS), its interested 2003-2004: Federal court decisions impacts to gateway communities. observers, and park users have formally void previous decisions. NPS writes History debated what Yellowstone should look and a new EA, allowing 750 BAT, (See also timeline on pages 190-191) be like in winter. guided snowmobiles daily; 95,000 1932: First request to park managers comments received. Beginning in the early 1930s, communities to plow roads year-round. 2004-2007: Winter use proceeds per around the park began asking the NPS to 1949: First visitors using motorized the 2004 EA. plow Yellowstone's roads year-round so oversnow vehicles (snowplanes). 2007: Winter Use Plans EIS released, tourist travel and associated spending in 1955: Snowcoaches enter the park. which allows 540 BAT, guided their communities would be stimulated. 1963: First snowmobiles (six, total) snowmobiles in the park daily; enter the park. Each time, the NPS resisted, citing non- 122,000 comments received; final 1967: Congressional hearing held winterized buildings, harsh weather rule published in December. on plowing park roads year-round. conditions, and roads too narrow for snow 2008, September-December: 1968: Yellowstone managers decide Federal court decisions cancel the storage. Meanwhile, snowbound entrepre- to formalize over-snow use instead new winter plan. neurs in West Yellowstone began experi- of plowing. 2008, December 15: Winter menting with motorized vehicles capable of 1971: Managers begin grooming season opens with a modified ver- traveling over snow-covered roads. In 1949, roads and Yellowstone Park Co. sion of the winter plan followed in they drove the first motorized winter visi- opens Old Faithful Snowlodge. 2004-2007, allowing 720 BAT, tors into Yellowstone in snowplanes, which 1990: NPS issues first winter-use guided snowmobiles daily. consisted of passenger cabs set on skis and environmental assessment (EA) for 2009, Interim winter-use plan for the Yellowstone and Grand Teton. blown about (without becoming airborne) next two winters allows 318 BAT, 1997: NPS is sued by groups who with a rear-mounted airplane propeller and guided snowmobiles and 78 snow- believe bison used groomed roads engine. In 1955, they began touring the park coaches daily. to leave the park, which led to on snowcoaches (then called snowmobiles), 2010, NPS begins preparing the next their slaughter. NPS must develop vehicles long-term plan for winter use enclosed oversnow capable of a new winter-use environmental in America's first national park, carrying about ten people. Finally, in 1963 impact statement (EIS). which should take effect in the the first visitors on modern snowmobiles 1999: Draft EIS released; ±46,000 winter of 2011-12. entered Yellowstone; not long after, snow- public comments received. mobiling became the dominant way to tour 2000: Final EIS released, banning Upda tes: www. nps. govlyelllplanyour the park in winter. snowmobiles and converting to visitlwinteruse.htm Still, pressure to plow park roads persisted, and Yellowstone authorities knew that they could not accommodate both snowmobiles Yellowstone Resources and automobiles. The matter culminated in & Issues 2011 a congressional hearing in Jackson, 188 Wyoming, in 1967. By this time, park making it difficult to experience natural managers felt plowing would dramatically silence in the Firehole Valley on many days. alter the look and feel of the park's winter Visitors traveling by snowmobile lacked the wilderness. They thought snowmobiles experience necessary to pass bison and offered a way to accommodate visitors while other wildlife without causing harassment. preserving a park-like atmosphere. Thus, an Complaints about these conditions became oversnow vehicle program was formalized. common. In 1971, park managers began grooming snowmobile routes to provide smoother, more comfortable touring, and also opened Old Faithful Snowlodge so visitors could stay overnight at the famous geyser.

Throughout the 1970s, 80s, and early 90s, visitation by snowmobile grew consistently. This brought unanticipated problems such as air and noise pollution, conflicts with other users, and wildlife harassment.

In 1990, recognizing that in solving one problem, others were developing, park managers completed the Winter Use Plan Environmental Assessment for Yellowstone and Grand Teton national parks and the

John D. Rockefeller, Jr. Memorial Parkway. This plan formalized the park's existing winter use program and included a commit- A Decade of Planning & Litigation ment to examine the issue further if winter The winter of 1996-1997 was one of the visitation exceeded certain thresholds. The three harshest winters of the 20th century, threshold of 143,000 visitors was exceeded with abundant snow, cold temperatures, and in the winter of 1992-1993, eight years a thick ice layer in the snowpack. Unable to earlier than the plan predicted. access the forage under the ice, more than According to the 1990 plan, then, the NPS 1,000 bison left the park and were shot or began an analysis of all types of winter shipped to slaughter amid concerns they recreation on all and Forest Service NPS could transmit brucellosis to cattle in (FS) lands in the greater Yellowstone area. Montana. (See the section on bison manage- Park and forest staff used scientific studies, ment in this chapter.) Concerned that visitor surveys, and public comments to groomed roads increased the number of analyze the issues or problems with winter bison leaving the park and being killed, the use. The final report, Winter Use Manage- Fund for Animals and other groups filed ment: A Multi-Agency Assessment, published suit in the U.S. District Court for the in 1999, made many recommendations to District of Columbia against the NPS in park and forest managers and summarized May 1997. The groups alleged that the NPS the state of knowledge regarding winter use had failed to examine the environmental at that time. impacts of winter use. In 1999, Bluewater Unfortunately, the assessment did not Network filed a legal petition with the NPS change conditions in the parks. By the late to ban snowmobiles from all national park 1990s, an average of 795 snowmobiles units nationwide. These two actions inaugu- entered the park each day. All were two- rated a decade of winter use planning and stroke machines, which used a mix of oil associated lawsuits, and catapulted the issue and gas for combustion, resulting in high into one of the NPS's most visible and levels of pollution. Carbon monoxide pollu- enduring environmental controversies. tion was especially severe, coming close to The table on the next page summarizes violating the Clean Air Act's standards at the winter-use environmental documents the West Entrance in one event. Particulate produced by the NPS since 1998, along with and some hydrocarbon levels were also the decisions, the number of comments high. Two-stroke machines were also loud, o 8 o T Winter visitation NPS begins to Fund for Animals Draft EIS released. Final EIS released Draft SEIS exceeds thresh- evaluate files lawsuit; Bluewater Network and Record of released; old of 140,000 winter recreation results in NPS and other organi- Decision signed. >350,000 Winter people per year, in the greater agreeing to zations petition to Snowmobile comments 8 years earlier Yellowstone develop a new prohibit trail group sues to received. Use than expected. area. winter use plan grooming and stop this winter and EIS. plan. snowmobile use in Snowmobilers all national parks. lawsuit settled, which requires NPS to prepare SEIS. Concerns received from the public, the associated problems using a combination of new tech- Raised by the litigation, and the legal outcomes. Each nologies, limits on vehicle numbers, manda- Public document was a product of its era, reflect- tory guiding, and monitoring winter-use overcrowding ing the state of scientific knowledge, tech- impacts on park resources. All documents visitor impacts on nology, and sociopolitical climate. The first proposed allowing a combination of snow- natural resources draft EIS (in 1999) proposed plowing the mobiles and snowcoaches, with the snow- road Yellowstone to Old Faithful. mobile noise & air from West numbers decreasing from plan to pollution Public comment did not favor plowing, and plan and snowcoach numbers remaining unmanaged snowmobile use was deemed to consistent. By 2002, BAT snowmobiles were availability of impair park resources. Therefore, park commercially available; these machines facilities and services managers opted to ban snowmobiles and used new technologies to dramatically allow only snowcoaches in the final EIS. At reduce emissions and somewhat reduce restricting snow- the time, Best Available Technology (BAT) noise. Requiring visitors to tour with snowmobiles, including requiring guides snowmobiles were not commercially mobile guides or in commercially guided available. snowcoaches reduced the conflicts with restricting snow- wildlife. Resource monitoring allowed the mobiles on side Since that EIS, environmental documents NPS to gauge the effects of these actions roads have proposed addressing the winter-use importance of winter visitation Year Action: Decision Number Lawsuit Brought By Legal Outcome to the local and of Public regional economy Comments wildlife using 1998 EA: Do not close Hayden 2,742 Fund for Animals (FFA) Upheld by U.S. District groomed roads Valley to study bison use Court for the District of of groomed roads Columbia (D.C. Court) displacing wildlife health & 2000 EIS: Ban Snowmobiles in 46,000 State of Wyoming, Vacated by U.S. District human safety favor of snowcoaches International Snowmobile Court for the District of Manufacturer's Association Wyoming (Wyoming Court) (ISMA), and BlueRibbon Coalition (BRC)

2003 SEIS: Allow 950 357,000 Greater Yellowstone Coalition Vacated by D.C. Court

Snowmobiles (all Best (GYC) and FFA Available Technology

[BAT]; all guided)

2004 EA: Allow 720 95,000 ISMA, State of Wyoming, Upheld by Wyoming Court;

Snowmobiles (all BAT; Wyoming Lodging and not ruled upon in D.C;

all commercially guided) Restaurant Association, and reinstated in 2008 and still (valid only through 2006- FFA being challenged 2007)

2007 EIS: Allow 540 122,000 State of Wyoming, ISMA, Vacated by D.C. Court.

Snowmobiles (all BAT; all GYC, and National Parks Wyoming court would commercially guided) Conservation Association have upheld the EIS; the NPS reinstated 2004 rule to provide certainty for winter

visitation in the winter of 2008-09. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 2008 EA: Allow 318 snow- 27,000 State of Wyoming, ISMA, and Upheld in Wyoming court; 190 mobiles (all BAT; all Park County, Wyoming appealed to U.S. District commercially guided) Court. March: Record of Feb: Another federal March: Draft Courts stop Dec. 15: New winter Decision signed. judge stops phase- FEIS released; new winter Winter season use EIS process out; requires tempo- 122,000 com- plan. begins. Dec 1 1: Final rule opens under published in Federal rary rules for rest of ments. Dec. 15: Interim Winter Register. winter. Dec: Final rule Winter season Use Plan.

Dec 16: Federal Aug: EA for tempo- published in opens using judge directs YNP rary winter plan Federal modified plan to begin phasing released. Register. from 2004- out snowmobiles. Nov: Plan approved. 2007.

and take further protective actions. These changes largely eliminated the problems of the past.

Each of the winter use plans was litigated. The Fund for Animals, the Greater Yellow- stone Coalition, and other environmental groups consistently sue in the U.S. District Court for the District of Columbia. The International Snowmobile Manufacturer's Association, the State of Wyoming, the BlueRibbon Coalition, and others consistently file their lawsuits in the U.S. District Court for the District of Wyoming. Litigants have found some traction in each of their courts, with varying degrees of success on any given environmental document.

Certainly, the litigation is one of the factors accounting for the ongoing nature of the winter use debate. In each decision against it, the NPS has responded by addressing the concerns of the courts. increased from an average of 40,000 to over 50,000 each winter. Improving Conditions in the Parks Levels of carbon monoxide and particulates With the conversion to BAT snowmobiles, fell dramatically with conversion to BAT guiding, mandatory and limited numbers snowmobiles and reduced vehicle numbers. of snowmobiles, conditions in the park Hydrocarbon and air toxic concentrations dramatically improved. The number of are also no longer a concern, with the possi- snowmobiles per averaged day 296 for the ble exception of formaldehyde and benzene winters of 2006-07 and 2007-08, the while levels, which are being closely monitored. daily average of snowcoaches increased BAT snowmobiles and snowcoaches pro- from 15 in the late 1990s to 35 for these two duce a similar amount of air pollution on a winters. (Peak use those winters was 557 per passenger basis. snowmobiles and 60 snowcoaches.) In Noise levels also have fallen somewhat. 2008-2009, with legal uncertainties and the Although snowmobiles and snowcoaches economic downturn, use dropped to an are commonly heard during certain periods average of 205 snowmobiles and 29 snow- of the day, their noise is absent during other coaches per day. times — even in developed areas like Old When measured in commercially-guided Faithful and along busy corridors like the groups, snowmobile and snowcoach use West Entrance Road. Oversnow vehicles are levels are similar. In 2007-2008, for example, audible 67 percent of the day at Old Faithful there was an average of 36 snowmobile and 54 percent of the day at Madison groups per and 9.3 people day per group. Junction, on average. (NPS vehicles account Snowcoaches averaged 35 per day and 8.8 for approximately one-fourth of this noise.) people per coach. In a new long-term plan, the NPS hopes to

Overall, the number of oversnow visitors is implement BAT requirements for snow- lower than historic levels, though visitors coaches, which will reduce noise even more. entering the North Entrance by car have Snowcoaches account for 94 percent of the loud oversnow vehicles. Guided snowmobile have been for the past five winters, both groups and snowcoaches contribute nearly modes of transportation provide opportuni- Winter equally to the percent of time oversnow ties for visitors to enjoy the park. Each can Use vehicles are heard. offer different experiences for visitors, just as cross-country skiing, snowshoeing, and Making all visitors use a commercial guide walking offer different opportunities for has nearly eliminated wildlife harassment. visitors to enjoy the park in the winter. Guides enforce proper touring behaviors, such as passing wildlife on or near roads Current Situation & Outlook without harassment and ensuring that wild- In the 2009-2010 and 2010-2011 winter life do not obtain human food. Monitoring seasons, the Interim Winter Use Plan for indicates that snowcoaches have a slightly Yellowstone National Park was in effect. higher probability of disturbing wildlife The plan allows up to 318 commercially than do snowmobiles. guided, BAT snowmobiles and up to 78 With commercial guiding has come a commercially guided snowcoaches a day in 50 percent reduction of law enforcement the park. The interim plan also continues to incidents, even when accounting for the provide for motorized oversnow travel over drop in visitation. Arrests have virtually Sylvan Pass and the East Entrance Road. disappeared. Calls for medical assistance Yellowstone National Park and the are the only statistic that has increased since National Park Service have begun a new the conversion to mandatory guiding. long-term plan for managing winter use in The recent science on winter use indicates America's first national park. The plan will park resources are in very good condition. take effect in the winter of 2011-12, when For each topic monitored, the NPS now the present two-year interim plan expires. understands that both snowmobiles and For more than a decade, the question of snowcoaches are contributing similarly to snowmobile and snowcoach use in the the measured impacts of winter use. The park has provoked intense discussions and perception that snowmobiles are contribut- debates, as well as numerous lawsuits and ing to the vast majority of observed effects, court decisions. To stay current on winter- and that those effects would greatly dimin- use planning, go to www.nps.gov/yell/ ish with snowcoaches only, is not supported planyourvisit/winteruse.htm.To stay by the research. When managed, as they current on winter planning, go to www.nps. gov/yell/planyourvisit/winteruse.htm. Visitor Survey Results

The University of Montana conducted a survey of winter visitors in 2007-2008:

• Almost 90% of those surveyed agreed that Yellowstone is a place for natural quiet and to hear natural sounds. • 83% were somewhat or very satisfied with their experience of natural sounds. • 71% indicated that they found the level of natural sound they desired for

half or more of the time they desired it. • 87% were "very satisfied" with their overall experience. • The remaining 13% were "satisfied." • 71% considered the opportunity to view bison to be extremely important. • 87% reported that this aspect of their Yellowstone winter experience was very satisfying.

• 99% who saw bison in winter were able to see them behaving naturally. • 21% witnessed an encounter where the bison were hurried, took flight, or acted defensively. • More than 72% largely considered the bison-human interactions they witnessed and the park setting as a whole as "very" appropriate and/or acceptable.

Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 192 Issue: Wolf Restoration

The Issue the removal of the reintroduced

The wolf is a major predator that wolves in Yellowstone, but had been missing from the Greater stays his order, pending appeal.

Welcoming the wolves on January 12, 1995. Yellowstone Ecosystem for decades (Decision reversed in 2000.)

until its restoration in 1995. 1995-2003: Wolves prey on live- History stock outside Yellowstone much The gray wolf (Canis lupus) was present in less than expected: 256 sheep, 41 Late 1800s-early 1900s: predators, Yellowstone when the park was established cattle including wolves, are routinely in 1872. Predator control, including poison- 2005: Wolf management transfers killed in Yellowstone. ing, was practiced here in the late 1800s and from the federal government to 1926: The last wolf pack in at least the states of Idaho and Montana. early 1900s. Between 1914 and 1926, Yellowstone is killed, although 2008: Wolf populations in Montana, 136 wolves were killed in the park; by the reports of single wolves continue. Idaho, & Wyoming removed from 1940s, wolf packs were rarely reported. 1974: The gray wolf is listed as the endangered species list, then An intensive survey in the 1970s found no endangered; recovery is mandated returned to the list. evidence of a wolf population in Yellow- under the Endangered Species stone, although an occasional wolf probably Act. Current Status 1975: The long process to restore • As of January 2011, 400-500 wandered into the area. A wolf-like canid wolves in Yellowstone begins. wolves live in the greater was filmed in Hayden Valley in August 1992, 1991: Congress appropriates money Yellowstone area. and a wolf was shot just outside the park's for an EIS for wolf recovery. • ±120 wolves live in Yellowstone southern boundary in September 1992. 1994: EIS completed for wolf reintro- National Park. However, no verifiable evidence of a breed- duction in Yellowstone and central • The leading natural cause of ing pair of wolves existed. During the 1980s, Idaho. More than 160,000 public mortality in Yellowstone National wolves began to reestablish breeding packs comments received—the largest Park is wolves killing other wolves. in northwestern Montana; 50-60 wolves number of public comments on • Researchers are studying the inhabited Montana in 1994. any federal proposal at that time. impact of wolf restoration on 1995 and 1996: 31 gray wolves from cougars, coyotes, bears, and elk.

Restoration Proposed western Canada relocated to • Wolf populations in Montana, NPS policy calls for restoring native species Yellowstone. Idaho & Wyoming Idaho have 1997: 10 wolves from northwestern been relisted on the federal when: a) sufficient habitat exists to support Montana relocated to Yellowstone endangered species list. a self-perpetuating population, b) manage- National Park. ment can prevent serious threats to outside U.S. District Court judge orders interests, c) the restored subspecies most nearly resembles the extirpated subspecies, and d) extirpation resulted from human on grizzly bears and cougars; and their activities. presence might cause the decline of coyotes and increase of red foxes. The U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (USFWS) 1987 Northern Rocky Mountain Wolf In 1991, Congress provided funds to the Recovery Plan proposed reintroduction of USFWS to prepare, in consultation with the an "experimental population" of wolves into NPS and the U.S. Forest Service, an envi- Yellowstone. (An experimental population, ronmental impact statement (EIS) on resto- under section 10(j) of the Endangered ration of wolves. In June 1994, after several Species Act, is considered nonessential and years and a near-record number of public allows more management flexibility.) Most comments, the Secretary of the Interior scientists believed that wolves would not signed the Record of Decision for the final greatly reduce populations of mule deer, EIS for reintroduction of gray wolves to pronghorns, bighorn sheep, white-tailed Yellowstone National Park and central Yellowstone Resourcessources & Issues 2011 deer, or bison; they might have minor effects Idaho. 193 States begin Day-to-day wolf March: Wolves process to management removed from removed from Wolf EIS process for 31 wolves remove wolves transferred to endangered endangered wolf restoration from Canada from the Montana and Idaho. species list. species list in in Yellowstone relocated to endangered Montana & Restoration Population in park July: returned and central Yellowstone. list. species drops by 1/3 due to the list. Idaho, but not Idaho. More Wyoming. mostly to disease Disease kills all than 160,000 killing 2/3 of the but 22 of the comments pups. year's pups. received.

together in each release pen. On January 23, 1996, 11 more wolves were brought to Yellowstone for the second year of wolf restoration. Four days later they were joined by another 6 wolves. The wolves ranged from 72 to 130 pounds in size and from approximately nine months to five years in age. They included wolves known to have fed on bison. Groups included breeding adults and younger wolves one to two years old.

Each wolf was radio-collared as it was captured in Canada. While temporarily penned, the wolves experienced minimal human contact. Approximately twice a week, they were fed elk, deer, moose, or bison that had died in and around the park. They were guarded by law enforcement Released from the Staff from Yellowstone, the USFWS, and rangers who minimized how much wolves cage into the pen. participating states prepared for wolf saw of humans. The pen sites and surround- restoration to the park and central Idaho. ing areas were closed to visitation and One of the reintro- The USFWS prepared special regulations marked to prevent unauthorized entry. duction pens outlining how wolves would be managed as Biologists checked on the welfare of wolves remains standing. Park managers are an experimental population. twice each week, using telemetry or visual

discussing if it observation while placing food in the pens. Park staff completed site planning and should be left as a Although five years of reintroductions were archeological and sensitive plant surveys for historic site or taken predicted, no transplants occurred after down to return the the release sites. Each site was approximate- 1996 because of the early success of the site to its natural ly one acre enclosed with 9-gauge chain-link reintroductions. condition. fence in 10 x 10 foot panels. The fences had a two-foot overhang and a four-foot skirt at Some people expressed concern about the bottom to discourage climbing over or wolves becoming habituated to humans digging under the enclosure. Each pen had a while in captivity. However, wolves typically small holding area attached to allow a wolf avoid human contact, and they seldom to be separated from the group if necessary develop habituated behaviors such as scav-

(i.e., for medical treatment). Plywood boxes enging in garbage. Captivity was also a neg- provided shelter if the wolves wanted isola- ative experience for them and reinforced tion from each other. their dislike of humans.

Relocation & Release Lawsuits In late 1994 and early 1995, and again in Several lawsuits were filed to stop the 1996, USFWS and Canadian wildlife restoration on a variety of grounds. These biologists captured wolves in Canada and suits were consolidated, and in December relocated and released them in both 1997, the judge found that the wolf reintro- Yellowstone and central Idaho. In mid- duction program in Yellowstone and central January 1995, 14 wolves were temporarily Idaho violated the intent of section 10(j) of in Yellowstone; the first 8 wolves the Endangered Species Act because there Yellowstone Resources penned on & Issues 2011 January 12 and the second 6 on January 19, was a lack of geographic separation between 194 1995. Wolves from one social group were fully protected wolves already existing in — 8 Montana and the reintroduction areas in livestock depredations, and human-caused which special rules for wolf management wolf deaths. A coalition of natural resource apply. The judge wrote that he had reached professionals and scientists representing Wolf his decision "with utmost reluctance." He federal and state agencies, conservation ordered the removal (and specifically not organizations and foundations, academia, Restoration the killing) of reintroduced wolves and their and land owners are collaborating on a offspring from the Yellowstone and central comparative research program involving Idaho experimental population areas, but three additional wolf-ungulate systems in immediately stayed his order pending the western portion of the GYE. Results to appeal. The Justice Department appealed date indicate the effects of wolf predation See Chapter 2 for the case, and in January 2000 the decision on elk population dynamics range from more information was reversed. substantial to quite modest. on changes to the ecosystem. Results of the Restoration On & Off the Preliminary data from studies indicate that Endangered Species List wolf recovery will likely lead to greater The biological requirement for removing the biodiversity throughout the Greater Yellow- wolf from the endangered species list has stone Ecosystem (GYE). Wolves have preyed been achieved: Approximately 300 wolves primarily on elk and these carcasses have and three years of 30 breeding pairs across provided food to a wide variety of other ani- the three recovery areas. The USFWS also mals, especially scavenging species. They has approved the wolf management plans of are increasingly preying on bison, especially Idaho and Montana. As a result, in 2008, the in late winter. Grizzly bears have usurped USFWS delisted the wolves in these two wolf kills almost at will, contrary to predic- states, and in Yellowstone and Grand Teton tions and observations from other areas national parks. Several environmental where the two species occur. Wolf kills, groups sued to stop the delisting. They then, provide an important resource for argued that a genetically viable wolf popula- bears in low food years. Aggression toward tion had not developed in the GYE beyond coyotes initially decreased the number of the national park, and that the Wyoming coyotes inside wolf territories, which may wolf management plan was flawed because benefited have other smaller predators, it allowed wolves outside the GYE to be shot rodents, and birds of prey. on sight as predators. A court decision

So far, data suggests wolves are contributing required the wolf be listed again as an to decreased numbers of elk calves surviv- endangered species. In 2009, the USFWS ing to adulthood and decreased survival of again delisted the wolf populations in adult elk. Wolves may also be affecting Montana and Idaho, but not in Wyoming. A where and how elk use the habitat. Some legal challenge to this delisting has resulted of these effects were predictable, but were in the wolf population being relisted to the based on research in relatively simple federal endangered species list. As of systems of one to two predator and prey January 2011, the wolves in the GYE are species. Such is not the case in Yellowstone, considered an endangered population. where four other large predators (black and Outlook grizzly bears, coyotes, cougars) prey on elk—and people hunt the elk outside the The wolves' future is secure. Approximately 1700 live park. Thus, interactions of wolves with elk wolves in the three-state area well the delisting require- and other ungulates has created a new above minimum ments. Yellowstone National Park's wolf degree of complexity that makes it difficult to project long-term population trends. population declined in 2008 and 2009, likely a natural adjustment to the available food The effect of wolf recovery on the dynamics supply. The Yellowstone wolf population is of northern Yellowstone elk cannot be not in danger. generalized to other elk populations in the GYE. The effects depend on a complex of factors including elk densities, abundance of other predators, presence of alternative Yellowstone Resources ungulate prey, winter severity, and— outside & Issues 2011 the park— land ownership, human harvest, 195 Aquatic Invaders and G. E. Davis, eds. Tucson: U Arizona Mattson, D.J. et al. 1996. Designing Press. and managing protected areas for Staff reviewer: Todd M. Koel, grizzly bears: how much is enough? Supervisory Fishery Biologist Varley, J. D„ and P. Schullery, eds. 1995. The Yellowstone Lake crisis: confronting In R. G. Wright, ed. National Parks www.100thmeridian.org a lake trout invasion. A report to the and Protected Areas: Their Role in 8 nas.er.usgs.gov director of the NPS. Mammoth, WY: Environmental Protection. Cambridge: www.sgnis.org NPS. Blackwell Science.

R.J. 1992. Native Trout Vincent, E.R. 1996. Whirling disease and Benhke, of Podruzny, S R. et al. 2002. Grizzly bear For More wild trout: the Montana experience. Western North America. Monograph denning and potential conflict areas in 32-33. Information 6. Bethesda, MD: American Fisheries Fisheries 21(6): the GYE. Ursus. 13:19-28. Society. Bear Management Schwartz, C.C. et al. 2002. Distribution of Crait, J. R. and M. Ben-David. 2006. River grizzly bears in the GYE, 1990-2000. otters in Yellowstone Lake depend on a Staff reviewer: Kerry Gunther, Bear Ursus. 13:203-212. Management Biologist declining cutthroat trout population. J Servheen, C, M. et al. 2004. Yellowstone Mammalogy. 87: 485-494. Anderson, C. et al. 2005. Reassessing mortality and conflicts reduction. methods to estimate population size Crait, J. R. etal. 2004. Influence of Report. Missoula, MT: U.S. Fish and and sustainable mortality limits for www.nps.gov/yell biopollution on ecosystem processes: Wildlife Service. the Yellowstone grizzly bear. Report. the impact of introduced lake trout www.greateryellowstone- Varley, N., and K.A. Gunther. 2002. Interagency Grizzly Bear Study Team. on streams, predators, and forests in science.org/index.html Grizzly bear predation on a bison calf in Bozeman, MT: MT State U. Yellowstone National Park. Progress YNP. Ursus. 13:377-381. Yellowstone Science, free report. Environmental Protection Blanchard, B.M. and R.R. Knight. 1995. Wyman, T. 2002. Grizzly bear predation from the Yellowstone Agency. Biological consequences of relocating Center for Resources, in grizzly bears in the Yellowstone ecosys- on a bull bison in YNP. Ursus. 13:375- Crait, J. R. and M. Ben-David. 2003. The the Yellowstone Research 377. tem. J. Wildl. Manage. 59:560-565. impact of introduced lake trout on river Library, or online at otters in Yellowstone National Park. Cole, G. F. 1974. Management involv- www.nps.gov/yell. Bioprospecting Progress report. National Park Service. ing grizzly bears and humans in Staff reviewers: Ann Deutch, Enviro. Yellowstone Today, Yellowstone National Park, 1970-1973. Elle, Steven. 1997. Comparative infection Protection Assistant; Sue Mills, Enviro. distributed at entrance rates of cutthroat and rainbow trout Bioscience 24:6. Protection Specialist gates and visitor centers. exposed to Myxobolus cerebrate in Big Felicetti, L.A. et al. 2003. Use of sulfur www.nature.nps.gov/benefitssharing Site Bulletins, published Lost River, Idaho during June, July, and and nitrogen stable isotopes to deter- as needed, provide more August. Whirling Disease Symposium, mine the importance of whitebark pine Bison Management detailed information Logan, UT. nuts to Yellowstone grizzly bears. Can. Staff reviewer: Rick Wallen, Bison on park topics such as Gunther, Kerry. Grizzly bears and cut- J. Zool. 81:763-770. Ecology & Management bioprospecting and wolf throat trout: Potential impact of the Felicetti, L.A. et al. 2004. Use of natu- www.ibmp.info restoration. Free; available introduction of non-native trout to rally occurring mercury to determine upon request from visitor Lake. www.nps.gov/yell Yellowstone Bear Management the importance of cutthroat trout to centers. Office Information Paper. Number Yellowstone grizzly bears. Can. J. Zool. Cheville, N.F. et al. 1998. Brucellosis BMO-9. 82(3):493-501. in the Greater Yellowstone Area.

Koel, Todd et al. Yellowstone Fisheries Washington, DC: National Academy & Gunther, K.A. et al. 2004. Grizzly bear- Press. Aquatic Sciences. Yellowstone National human conflicts in the GYE, 1992-

Park. Annual. 2000. Ursus. 15(1)10-22. Gates, C. Cormack et al. editors. 2010.

MacConnell, E. al. 1997. American Bison Status Survey & et Susceptibility Gunther, K.A., and D.L. Smith. 2004. Conservation Guidelines. IUCN. of grayling, rainbow, and cutthroat Interactions between wolves and female trout to whirling disease by natural Geremia, et al [citation needed] grizzly bears with cubs in YNP. Ursus. exposure to Myxobolus cerebrate. 15(2):232-238. Irby, L. and J. Knight, eds. 1998. Whirling Disease Symposium, Logan, Gunther, K.A. et al. 2004. Management International Symposium on Bison UT. of habituated grizzly bears in North Ecology and Management in North Mahony, D.L and C.J. Hudson. 2000. America in: J. Rahm ed., Trans, of America. Bozeman, MT: MT State U. Distribution of Myxobolus cerebra- the 69th North American Wildlife Meagher, M. and M. E. Meyer. 1995. te in Yellowstone cutthroat trout and Natural Resources Conference. Brucellosis in captive bison. J Wildl. Dis. Oncorhynchus clarki bouvieri in Washington: Wildlife Management 31(1):106-110. Yellowstone its tributaries. Lake and Institute. Meagher, M. and M. E. Meyer. 1994. Whirling Disease Symposium, Coeur Gunther, K.A. et al. 2002. Probable griz- On the origin of brucellosis in bison of d'Alene, Idaho. zly bear predation on an American Yellowstone National Park: A review. Martinez, PA. et al. 2009. Western lake black in National Park. bear Yellowstone Conserv. Biol. 8(3):645-653. trout woes. Fisheries. 34(9): 424-442. Ursus. 13:372-374. Meyer, M. E. and M. Meagher. 1995. Mattson, D. J., and D. P. Remhart. 1995. Haroldson, et al. 2005. Changing M.A. Brucellosis in free-ranging bison (Bison Influences of cutthroat trout on behav- numbers of spawning cutthroat trout bison) in Yellowstone, Grand Teton, and ior and reproduction of Yellowstone in tributary streams of Yellowstone Wood Buffalo National Parks: A Review. grizzly bears 1975-1989. Can. J. Zool. Lake and estimates of grizzly bears 73:2072-2079. Letter to the Editor in J. Wildl. Dis. visiting streams from DNA. Ursus. 32(4):579-598. Nickum, D. 1999. Whirling disease in the 16(2):167-180. Nishi, John. 2010. Review of Best United States: a summary of progress in Haroldson, M.A. et al. 2002. Grizzly bear Practices & Principles for Bison Disease research and management. Arlington, denning chronology and movements in Issues. ABS Working Paper #3. Wildlife VA: Trout Unlimited. 13:29-37. the GYE. Ursus. Conservation Society.

Reinhart, D.P. and D.J. Mattson. 1990. Herrero, S. et al. 2005. Brown bear

Bear use of cutthroat trout spawning habituation to people—safety, risks,

streams in YNP. Int. Conf. Bear Res. and and benefits. Wildlife Society Bulletin. Manage. 8:343-350. 33(1)362-373. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 Varley, J. D. and P. Schullery. 1996. Kieter, Robert B. 1991. Observations

Yellowstone Lake and its cutthroat trout on the future debate over 'delist-

196 in Science and Ecosystem Management ing' the grizzly bear in the GYE. The

in the National Parks. Halvorson, W. L, Environmental Professional. 13. Climate Change Bear. Conservation Biology. 5:3(364+). Stott, Peter et al. 2000. External control of 20th century temperature by natural McMenamin, Sarah et al. 2008. Climatic Staff reviewers: Kevin Schneider, change and wetland desiccation cause and anthropogenic forcings. Science. Acting Chief, Yellowstone Center for amphibian decline in Yellowstone 290(5499): 2133-2137. Resources; Roy Renkin, Vegetation Management Specialist; P.J. White, National Park. PNAS. 105: 16988- Tercek, Michael et al. 2010. Bottom- Supervisory Wildlife Biologist 16993. up factors influencing riparian willow recovery in YNP. Wesfem North www.cllimatescience.gov Meyer, Grant and Jennifer Pierce. 2003. Climatic controls on fire-induced sedi- American Naturalist. In press. For More www.ecoclim.org ment pulses in Yellowstone National U.S. Climate Change Science Program. www.epa.gov/climatechange Park and central Idaho: a long-term 2008. The Effects of Climate Change Information www.ipcc.ch perspective. Forest Ecology and on Agriculture, Land Resources, Water ww.nps.gov/climatechange/ Management. 178:89-104. Resources, & Biodiversity in the United States, www.sap43.ucar.edu Arndt, D. S., M. 0. Baringer, and M. Millspaugh, Sarah and Cathy Whitlock, R. Johnson, eds. 2010: State of the Patrick Bartlein. 2000. Variations in Weart, Spencer. 2003. The Discovery of Climate in 2009. Bull. Amer. Meteor. fire frequency and climate over the Global Warming. Harvard University Soc. 91:7 (S1-S224) www.ncdc.noaa. past 17,000 yr in central YNP. Geology. Press/Cambridge, MA. gov/bams-state-of-the-climate/NOAA 28(3):21 1-214. Westerling, A. L. et al. 2006. Warming Bartlein, Patrick and Cathy Whitlock, Murphy, Sue Consolo and Kevin and earlier spring increase western Sarah Shafer. 1997. Future climate in Schneider. 2002. Reading History U.S. forest wildlf ire activity. Science. the Yellowstone National Park Region through Crevice Lake sediment records. 313(5789): 940-943. and its potential impact on vegetation. Yellowstone Science. 10(1):2-7. Whitlock, Cathy et al. 2007. A 2650-year- Conservation Biology. 11:5 (782-792). National Academy of Sciences. 2000. long record of environmental change Burns, Catherine and Kevin Johnston, Ecological Indicators for the Nation: from northern Yellowstone National Oswald Schmitz. 2007. Global Executive Summary. Park based on a comparison of multiple Climate change and Mammalian National Park Service. Climate Friendly proxy data. Quaternary International Species Diversity in US National Parks. Program, www.nps.gov/climatefriend- (author's proof). Proceedings of the National Academy lyparks — et al. 1995. Stability of Holocene of Sciences of the United States of Climate Regimes in the Yellowstone North American Bird Conservation America. 100:20 (11474-11477). Region Quatenary Research. 43: Initiative, U.S. Committee, 2010. The Cicerone, Ralph. 2005. Climate Change 433-436. State of the Birds 2010 Report on Science & Research: Recent & Upcoming — 1993. Postglacial vegetation and Studies from the National Academies. Climate Change. Washington, DC: climate of Grand Teton and Southern Report to Congress. July 20 & 21. USDOI. www.stateofthebirds.org Yellowstone national parks Ecological Climate Change Action Committee. 2007. Rennicke, Jeff. 2007. A Climate of Monographs. 63(2)173-198. Report. State of Montana. Change. National Parks & Conservation — and Patrick Bartlein. 1993. Spatial EPA. 1999. Climate Change and Public Association. Variations of Holocene Climatic Change Lands: National Parks at Risk. Romme, William and Monica Turner. in the Yellowstone Region. Quatenary 1991. Implications of global climate Evanoff, Jim. 2006. YNP Environmental Research. 39:231-238. change for biogeographic patterns in Management System Review. Report, the greater Yellowstone ecosystem. draft. Northern Range Conservation Biology. 5:3(373-386). Gonzalez, Patrick et al. 2007. Potential Staff reviewer: P.J. White, Supervisory impacts of climate change on habitat Saunders, Stephen and Maureen Wildlife Biologist and conservation of priority areas for Maxwell. 2005. Less Snow, Less Water: Houston, D.B. 1982. The Northern Lynx Canadensis. Report to The Nature Climate Disruption in the West. Rocky Yellowstone Elk: Ecology and Conservancy. Mountain Climate Organization. Management. New York: Macmillan Hoffman, Jennie and Eric Mielbrecht. September. Publishing Co. 2007. Unnatural Disaster: Global Saunders, Stephen et al. 2006. Losing Huff, D. E. and J.D. Varley. 1999. Natural Warming and Our National Parks. Ground: Western National Parks regulation in Yellowstone National National Parks Conservation & Endangered by Climate Disruption. Park's Northern Range. Ecol. Appl. Association. Rocky Mountain Climate Organization 9(1)17-29. IPCC. 2007. Climate Change 2007: The and NRDC. July. Krauseman, P. R. 1998. Conflicting views Physical Science Basis (FAQ). Schweiger, Larry. 2009. Last Chance: of ungulate management in North for Policymakers Preserving Life on Earth. Golden, Co: —Summary of the America's western national parks. Synthesis Report of the IPCC Fourth Fulcrum. Wildlife Soc. Bull. 26(3): 369-371. Assessment Report. November 16. Shafer, S. L, P. J. Bartlein, and C. National Research Council. 2002. www.ipcc.ch/index.htm Whitlock. 2005. Understanding the Ecological Dynamics on Yellowstone's spatial heterogeneity of global environ- —Summary for Policymakers. Working Northern Range. Washington: National mental change in mountain regions. Group 1. October. Academy Press. Pages 21-30. In: U. M. Huber, H. K. M.

—Summary for Policymakers. Working Bugmann, and M. A. Reasoner (eds.), Yellowstone National Park 1997.

Group III. Global Change and Mountain Regions: Yellowstone's Northern Range:

Kilham, al. Susan et 1996. Linking plank- An Overview of Current Knowledge. Complexity and Change in a Wildland tonic diatoms and climate change in Springer, Dordrecht. Ecosystem. NPS: Mammoth, WY. the large lakes of the Yellowstone Shafer, Sarah, and Patrick Bartlein, Robert Ecosystem using resource theory. Thompson. 2001. Potential Changes Sustainability Limnology and Oceanography. 41:5 in the Distributions of Western North Staff reviewers: Jim Evanoff, Mary (1052-1062). America Tree and Shrub Taxa under Murphy Lynch, Heather et al. 2006. Influence of Future Climate Scenarios. Ecosystems. www.nps.gov/yell Previous Pine Beetle Activity on the 4:200-215. www.ypf.org 1988 Yellowstone Fires. Ecosystems. 9: Yellowstone Resources Singer, Frances. 1999. Is there a connec- 201' 1318-1327. & Issues tion between El Nino and global tem- Mattson, David and Matthew Reid. 1991. peratures? The Science & Environmental 197 Conservation of the Yellowstone Grizzly Policy Project. Wilderness Wolf Restoration Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas W. Smith. 1998. Gray wolves and private Staff reviewers: Ivan Kowski, Staff reviewer: Douglas W. Smith, Backcountry Program Manager; Dan Senior Wildlife Biologist landowners in the GYA. Trans. 63rd Reinhart, Supervisory Resource Mgt. North American Wildlife and Natural Bangs, E. E., and S. H. Fntts. 1996. Specialist Resources 8 Reintroducing the gray wolf to central Conference. www.wilderness.nps.gov Idaho and YNP Wildlife Soc. Bull. Phillips, Michael K. and Douglas For More www.wilderness.net 24(3):402-413. W. Smith. 1996. The Wolves of www.LNT.org Bangs, Edward et al. 2001. Gray wolf Yellowstone. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur

restoration in the northwestern U.S. Press. Information National Park Service. 1972. Wilderness Endangered Species Update. 1 8(4): 147- Ruth, T.K. 2000. Cougar-wolf interac- Recommendation: Yellowstone National 152. tions in Yellowstone National Park: Park. Competition, demographics, and spatial Carbyn, Ludwig et al. 1995. Ecology and National Park Service. 2003. NPS Annual relationships. Wildlife Conservation Conservation of Wolves in Wilderness Report 2002-2003. a Changing Society. August:1-28. World. Edmonton: U. Alberta. Wilderness Act of 1964. U.S. Code, 16: Smith, D. W. 2005. Meet five, nine, and 1131-1136. Creel, S. et al. 2002. Snowmobile activity fourteen: Yellowstone's heroine wolves. and glucocorticoid stress responses in Wilderness Preservation and Manage- Wildlife Conservation. 108(1):28-33. wolves and elk. Cons. Biology. ment: NPS Reference Manual 41. www. 16(3): 809-814. Smith, D.W. 2005. Ten years of nps.gov/policy/DOrders/RM41 .doc Yellowstone Wolves. Yellowstone Eberhardt, L.L. et al. 2003. Assessing the Winter Use impact of wolves on ungulate prey. Science. 13(1)7-33.

Staff reviewer: John Sacklin, Ecol. App. 13(3): 776-783. Smith, D.W. and Gary Ferguson. 2005. Management Assistant; Vicki Regula, Ferguson, Gary. 1996. The Yellowstone Decade of the Wolf: Returning the Wild Planning Assistant to Yellowstone. Guilford, CT: Lyons. Wolves: The First Year. Helena, MT: Bishop, Gary A., et al. August, 2009. Falcon Press. Smith, Douglas and Michael K. Phillips. Portable Emission Measurements 2000. Northern Rocky Mountain wolf in Fischer, Hank. 1995. Wolf Wars. Helena, of Yellowstone Park Snowcoaches Endangered MT: Falcon Press. Animals. Greenwood Press. and Snowmobiles. J Air & Waste Fritts, S.H. 2000. Review of Carnivores Smith, Douglas et al. Yellowstone Wolf Management Association 59: 936-942. in Ecosystems: the Yellowstone Project Annual Report. Annual. Bissegger, Jeffrey. 2005. Snowmobiles Experience. Ecology. 81(8): 2351-2352. Smith, Douglas et al. 2004. Winter prey in Yellowstone: Conflicting Priorities Gunther, K. A. and D.W. Smith. 2004. selection and estimation of wolf kill in Setting National Parks Policy and Interactions between wolves and female rates in YNP. J Wildlife Mgt. 68(1): the Paradox of Judicial Activism grizzly bears with cubs in YNP. Ursus. 153-166. for Recreational Business. J Land,

15(2):232-238. Smith, Douglas et al. 2003. Yellowstone Resources, & Enviro. Law. 25:109-118. Halfpenny, James C. 2003. Yellowstone after wolves. Bioscience. April, 53(4): Borkowski, J.J. et al. 2006. Wildlife 330-340. responses to motorized winter recre- Wolves: In the Wild. Helena, MT: Riverbend Press. Smith, Douglas et al. 2001. Killing of a ation in Yellowstone National Park. Ecol. bison calf by a wolf and four coyotes in App. 16:1911-1925. Kauffman, M.J. et al. 2007. Landscape heterogeneity shapes predation in a YNP. Can. Field Nat. 115(2): 343-345. Bruggerman, J.E. et al. 2006. Temporal newly restored predator-prey system. Smith, Douglas et al. 2000. Wolf-bison variability in winter travel patterns of Ecology Letters. 10:1-11. Yellowstone bison: the effects of road interactions in YNP. J Mammalogy. 81(4): 1128-1135. grooming. Ecol. App. 16:1539-1554. Lopez, Barry. 1978, 2004. Of Wolves and

Smith, Douglas et al. 1999. Wolves in the Burson, Shan. 2009. Natural SoundScape Men. New York: Scribners. GYE: Restoration of a top carnivore in a Monitoring in Yellowstone National MacNulty, D R. and L.D. Mech, D.W. complex management environment in Park December 2008-March 2009. Smith. 2007. A proposed ethogram www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/ of large-carnivore predatory behavior, Carnivores in Ecosystems. New Haven: Yale U. Press. upload/10_2009_winter_soundscape_ exemplified by the wolf. J Mammalogy. monitoring.pdf 88:595-605. Stahler, Daniel R. et al. 2002. The acceptance of breeding male Dustin, Daniel L. Ingrid E. Schneider. a new and MacNulty, D.R. et al. 2001. Grizzly bear

into a wild wolf pack. Can. J. Zool. 2005. The Science of Politics/The usurps bison calf captured by wolves in Politics of Science: Examining the 80:360-365. YNP. Can. Field Nat. 115:495-498. Snowmobile Controversy in Yellowstone U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. 1994. Final Mclntyre, Rick, ed. 1995. War against National Park. Environmental Mgt. EIS: The Reintroduction of Gray Wolves 34:761-767. the Wolf: America's Campaign to to YNP and Central Idaho. Exterminate the Wolf. Stillwater, MN: Freimund, Wayne, et al. 2009. Voyageur Press. Varley, John D. and Paul Schullery. 1992. Winter Experiences of Old Faithful Wolves for Yellowstone? A Report to Visitors in Yellowstone National Mclntyre, Rick. 1993. A Society of the United States Congress. Park, www.nps.gov/yell/parkmgmt/ Wolves: National Parks and the Battle VonHoldt, B.M. et al. 2008. The genealo- upload/8_2009final_winter_expen- over the Wolf. Stillwater, MN: Voyageur. and genetic viability of reintroduced ences.pdf gy Mech, L. David et al. 2001. Winter sever- Yellowstone grey wolves. Molecular Layzer, Judith. 2006. The Environmental ity and wolf predation on a formerly Ecology. 17:252-274.

Case: Translating Values into Policy. wolf-free elk herd. J. Wildlife Mgt. Wright, G.J. et al. 2006. Selection Washington: CQ Press. 65(4):998-1003. of northern Yellowstone elk by

Yochim, Michael J. 2009. Yellowstone Peterson, R.O. et al. 2002. Leadership gray wolves and hunters. J Wildlife and the Snowmobile: Locking Horns behavior in relation to dominance and Management. 70:1070-1078. reproductive status in gray wolves, over National Park Use. Lawrence: UPress Kansas. Canis lupus. Can. J. Tool. 80:1405- 1412. Yellowstone Resources & Issues 2011 198

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