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Volume Vl, Nomor 2 Agustus 2009

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Fakultas llmu Sosial dan llmu Politlk Universitas Bengkulu

Bengkulu ISSN AKSES Vol. VI No. 2 Hal. 74 - 140 Agustus 2009 1693 - 8356

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SUSUNAN RTDAKSI

FetindurE Dekan Fakuttas ltmu Smiat dan ltnu Fotitik Universitas Bengkutu

FenanggungJawab PanjiSuminar

Pimpinan Redaltsi WahyuWidiastuti

Dalan Redaki LetyArrianie fuparman 0 Sugeng Suharto A Achmad Aminudin i HajarG. Ramudyasmono fr o I RedakturAhti Susetyo (Universitas Bengkutu ) Samodra Mbawa (Universitas Gadjah tulada) Jusuf lrianto (UniversitasAirtangga)

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Alamat Redaki Fakuttas ltmu Sosiatdan llmu Potitik Universitas Bengkutu Jt. WR. Supratman - Bengkutu 38371 Tetp. (0736) 21170 Psw. 21 2 e-mail : [email protected]

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99t8-t69r: NSS| Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono

THE REFORM AGENDA IN : DECENTRALISATION AND ITS CONSEQUENCES By: Dr. Hajar G. Pramudyasmono Lecturer of Sociology Department, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences Bengkulu University

ABSTRACT Artikel ini membahas tentang agenda reformasi yang bergulir di Riau mulai 1998 hingga 2004 berkaitan dengan pelaksanaan desentralisasi. Ketika itu – bersamaan dengan provinsi-provinsi kaya sumberdaya alam lainnya – para mahasiswa, aktivis LSM, kaum intelektual, pemuka masyarakat dan tokoh adat di (ibukota Provinsi Riau) mendesak Pemerintah Pusat untuk memberikan otonomi daerah (melaksanakan desentralisasi). Mereka mengancam akan memerdekakan diri (memisahkan Riau dari NKRI) apabila tuntutan ini tidak segera dipenuhi. Berdasarkan UU No. 22/1999 dan UU No. 25/1999 akhirnya desentralisasi dilaksanakan di seluruh dengan memberikan kewenangan yang lebih luas kepada kabupaten dan kota untuk mengatur urusannya sendiri (otonomi daerah). Meskipun telah memperkuat posisi Riau dalam bidang politik, ekonomi, dan sosial-budaya, pelaksanaan desentralisasi (pemberian otonomi daerah) terbukti tidak memperlemah integrasi nasional di Indonesia.

INTRODUCTION significant role in hastening the implementation The fall of the New Order regime in mid- of decentralisation in this country. A strong 1998 was accompanied by a change in demand for decentralisation had recently Indonesians’ expectation of their government. emerged particularly from resource-rich Indonesia went from being seen as provinces, like Riau (see Sulistiyanto & Erb authoritarian and centralised to being seen as, 2005, 6). The dispute against the national or at least expected to be, more reformist, government dates from the 1980s. During democratic and decentralised (Sulistiyanto & 1999 to 2001 most Riau students and NGO Erb 2005, 6-7). This change was due to both activists together with other local elites — i.e. internal and external forces. The major internal community and adat (customary) leaders, factor was the loudly expressed public anger intellectuals, and politicians — demanded that about the KKN and the recent economic the central government promptly undertake failures of the Soeharto government. A related decentralisation. external factor was because of global trends The reform period from 1998 to 2004 strengthening the neo-liberal agenda’s had brought a new expectation that Indonesia argument that pro-market economics, local could design a better governmental system. autonomy and democracy are all connected. Several important aspects of governance had These goals were supported by multilateral been identified for reform. As an important institutions, like the IMF (International element in this decentralisation was taken into Monetary Fund), the ADB (Asian Development account since it had been waited for over a Bank), and the UNDP (United Nations long time by the Indonesian people. The Development Program) (see Sulistiyanto & Erb implementation of decentralisation, based on 1 2005, 7; Seymour & Turner 2002, 35; Turner Laws No. 22/1999 and No. 25/1999, was 2003, 2). Instead of just following the global trend, 1 Subsequently on 15 October 2004 replaced by Laws however, domestic forces have played a No. 32/2004 and No. 33/2004.

118 Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono intended to provide more authority and wealth RESEARCH FINDING to the regions “in a bid to satisfy the many who The Implementation of Decentralisation in Riau felt that they had been increasingly disenfranchised in the highly concentrated and Together with other provinces in centralised New Order system” (Sulistiyanto & Indonesia, Riau started adopting the 1999 Erb 2005, 2). Accordingly, the supporters of decentralisation laws from 1 January 2001. the reform movement in Riau expected that the The implementation of such a new policy implementation of decentralisation would allow brought about several issues related to its their region to manage its own governmental motives, goals, expectations, obstacles, affairs and get a larger share of the revenues solutions, and achievements. The Indonesian generated from local economic resources. government had set up the motives and goals The main reason for Riau people in in implementing decentralisation. As stated in demanding decentralisation was the perceived Law No. 22/1999, decentralisation (regional failure of the central government’s strong autonomy) in Indonesia was carried out to deal hegemony upon local political and economic with the domestic political situation and the affairs during the New Order period. This is challenge of global competition. Hence both related to Sulistiyanto and Erb’s statement internal and external forces had contributed to (2005, 1) that many people outside felt shifting the way the Indonesian government that they had never enjoyed the results of manages the country from a centralised to a development programs conducted by the New decentralised political system. Their Order regime with its practicing of corruption, effectiveness were not equal, the internal collusion and nepotism. Accordingly, as forces were stronger than the external. Sulistiyanto and Erb (2005, 6) noted, they As stated in Law No. 25/1999, the main disputed the centre. In addition, the Centre’s goals of the decentralisation implemented in dropping in of Riau governors and other senior Indonesia from 2001 to 2004 were to give officials during the New Order period had opportunities for the regions to boost made Riau people feel politically ‘humiliated’ democracy and improve government (see Rab 2002, 15). The unification of performance in delivering public services as ‘kebudayaan nasional’ (‘national culture’) well as conducting development programs for during the New Order period, wherein the the improvement of people’s welfare. Hence Javanese culture was dominant, had also the implementation of decentralisation in contributed to marginalising the indigenous Indonesia post-New Order period was and ethnicity of Riau (Suryadi 2005, 131). This continued to be intended to achieve two main cultural marginalisation had been used by the objectives; the improvement of government pro-reform camp in Riau as one of the crucial performance and of people’s welfare. issues to demand to be changed, besides the Since the implementation of centre’s domination of political power and the decentralisation was partly driven by the exploitation of natural resources. This ‘national’ demand from the regions, including Riau, it is cultural unification indeed has contributed to a necessary to understand the motives of people revival of ethno-nationalism, not only in Riau in this province in demanding 2 (see Faucher 2005; Wee 2002) but also decentralisation. The Riau provincial elsewhere in Indonesia, such as in (see Biezeveld 2007, 203-223) and in western Flores (see Erb 2007, 247-274). 2 The demand for the reform, including decentralisation, in Riau was initiated by thousands of university Hence the reform period contributed to students, NGO activists, intellectuals, as well as political, economic, and socio-cultural community and customary leaders who lived in transformation in wide areas of Indonesia. Pekanbaru in the form of street demonstrations and going directly to Jakarta. This action was then supported

119 Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono government’s Rencana induk otonomi daerah this demand was that Riau was one of the provinsi Riau (Master plan of Riau province for resource-richest provinces in Indonesia, but regional autonomy) (2005, 1) stated that its more than 40% of its households in 1999 were motive for demanding decentralisation was to still living below the poverty line (see Pola get a wider sphere in making development dasar pembangunan daerah provinsi Riau policies and delivering development programs, tahun 2001-2005, 6 - 7).3 while the main goal given as its justification for The implementation of decentralisation implementing decentralisation was to in Indonesia brought a set of expectations. As accelerate the achievement of people’s with the bureaucrats and politicians, reformist welfare. Hence the formally stated motives and supporters in Riau hoped that decentralisation goal of the Riau government was the same as would improve people’s welfare. From my those formulated by the national government in interviews with thirty four key informants in its regional autonomy laws. June to October 2003, involving Riau Although the Riau government had community and customary leaders, identified motives and a goal in implementing intellectuals, student and NGO activists, as decentralisation, not every aim was visible. well as journalists, the expectations of Riau Several provincial bureaucrats and politicians people in demanding decentralisation can be of Riau stated to me that the motive behind the grouped as follows: (i) generating of more demand for decentralisation was to get wider people’s welfare thereby alleviating poverty; (ii) political authority and larger funds for easier access to key positions in the economic development and people’s welfare government offices; (iii) improvement of public (Interviews with four senior provincial services; (iv) provision of adequate funds for government officials of Riau and the Deputy economic development; and (v) a more just Head of the Riau DPRD, June-August 2003). distribution between Riau and the centre of the From my interviews with sixteen bureaucrats revenue from the exploitation of local and politicians of Riau at both provincial and economic resources. city/district levels during June to October 2003, The motives and goals stated above their stated goals in demanding indicate that the demand for decentralisation decentralisation can be summarised as was mainly for political and economic reasons. follows: (i) to obtain more political power by The demand for socio-cultural reform was only holding the key positions in the government an additional agenda item that could be fulfilled offices; (ii) to gain more authority in utilising through decentralisation when the provincial local economic resources; (iii) to get a larger government had gained wider authorities to proportion of revenue distribution; and (iv) to make policies in managing local affairs. As increase local people’s prosperity. In the early decentralisation in Indonesia post-Soeharto reform period these objectives were those was intended to fulfil the demand for political used by many members of Riau elites, and economic reforms, therefore its including provincial bureaucrats and implementation in the form of a regional politicians, community and customary leaders, autonomy scheme would likely be able to intellectuals, as well as student and NGO satisfy the full range of expectations of the activists, to push the central government under reform movement supporters in the regions. President B.J. Habibie to undertake decentralisation as soon as possible (Interview 3 The Pola dasar pembangunan daerah provinsi Riau with the Deputy Head of Riau DPRD, 17 June tahun 2001-2005 (pp. 6 - 7) noted that based on the 2000 BKKBN survey, the number of households in Riau 2003). An obvious and overt justification for who lived under the official poverty line was 43.9% and the percentage of population who were ‘poor’, based on by the provincial government, both its bureaucrats and the 1999 SUSENAS, was 14% of a total of 4,733,948 the DPRD members. people.

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The implementation of decentralisation implementing decentralisation (Interview with provided wider opportunities for the regions to sixteen bureaucrats and politicians of Riau, exercise political and economic authority in June to October 2003). Even by the third year accordance to local needs and conditions. of decentralisation there was a variety of Although it was clearly stated in Law No. perceptions of the concept of decentralisation 22/1999 that the regions had the due to inadequate guidelines. For example, responsibilities or authority to make policies in some district and city government officials conducting governmental activities and believed that the city and district governments development programs, the centre still were not part of provincial government. They continued to make interventions. There was indicated this by their frequent absence from still a kind of ‘tarik-ulur’ (‘pull and release’) official meetings held by the governor between the central and local governments in (Interview with a provincial bureaucrat of Riau, exercising the authority (Interview with an 23 June 2003). The official visits of the official of Riau Development Planning Board, governor to the districts were also not warmly 16 June 2003). A Pekanbaru bureaucrat used welcomed, and the bupati ignored the role of the proverb ‘dilepas kepalanya, dipegang the governor since the bupati could go directly ekornya’ (‘let go of its head, but caught its tail’) to Jakarta (Interview with the head of a political in his discussion with me as he described the party in Bengkalis, 28 July 2003). As a result, transfer of authority from the centre to the the governor only became a spectator in the region in the early stage of decentralisation process of development (Interview with a (Interview, 30 June 2003) and a similar member of the Bengkalis DPRD, 23 July interpretation was given by a Bengkalis Village 2003). Secretary (Interview, 29 July 2003). This was According to the Provincial Secretary for described as occurring in areas such as the Government, Public Relations and Law Affairs utilising of strategic natural resources, in which of Riau (Interview, 21 June 2003), until 2003 the central government intervened in the the Riau government still faced the problem of regions in managing and utilising such as a low quality of many of its bureaucrats. timber and mining, as well as oil and gas. In Consequently, some key positions in the this case, there were economic and political government offices were filled by incapable interests of the central government in these people, and some districts were not ready to local natural resources indicated by the fact carry out decentralisation. The low quality of that the centre still produced regulations to government staff was indicated by a lack of utilise them. This gave an impression that the experience in dealing with the governmental central government was not fully accepting of a affairs (Interview with the Village Secretary of complete delegation of its authority to the local Bengkalis, 29 July 2003). A ’bad mentality’ of governments. Accordingly, one of my bureaucrats was also considered to be respondents labelled the new scheme of hindering the success of decentralisation decentralisation as ‘otonomi setengah hati’ because it was resulting in the development (‘half-hearted autonomy’) (Interview with a programs not satisfying people’s interests. In bureaucrat in Bengkalis, 28 July 2003). Bengkalis, for instance, the district government Next, different perceptions of local tended to use the budget for starting government office-holders (both bureaucrats developing mega-project infrastructures, such and politicians) of the concept of as an international hospital and an decentralisation, incapable government international harbour. One of my respondents officials, as well as a ‘bad mentality’ of stated that such physical development was bureaucrats and politicians have been other good for generating revenues, but that was not obstacles faced by the Riau government in what the ordinary people wanted. People

121 Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono preferred the government to pay attention to province legalised through Provincial the development programs that directly Regulation No. 36/2001 (see BPDE Provinsi generate people’s welfare rather than the Riau 2002, 7; Pola dasar pembangunan development of mega-project infrastructures daerah provinsi Riau 2001, 26-27). The Vision (Interview with the head of a political party in of Riau is to develop the province by 2020 as a Bengkalis, 28 July 2003). centre of economy and of Malay culture in an One major issue in dealing with the ethos that is religious, physically and morally decentralisation in Riau was the low quality of prosperous in Southeast Asia. Meanwhile, the local government officials and the DPRD Missions of the Riau government in conducting members. The incapability of government development programs are: (i) making Riau officials in performing their duties became an society religious, healthy, smart, skilful and important issue in the province that was deeply prosperous; (ii) turning Riau society into a considered as being the highest priority to democracy, just, obedient to the law, and overcome. Therefore, the provincial respecting human rights; (iii) constructing a government planned to solve this problem by Riau society which practices Malay culture, conducting training and extensions, as well as and has mastered technology and science; (iv) providing scholarships for further study utilising local natural resources optimally, (Interview with the Head of Riau Provincial sustainable, and in environmentally oriented Board for Information, Communication and ways; (v) constructing stable infrastructure National Unity Affairs, 18 June 2003). The facilities; (vi) developing trade-industrial and scholarships were not only given to advanced services supported by agro-industry government bureaucrats but also to members and agro-business; (vii) performing good and of the public. The provincial government clean governance. The Riau government uses allocated 30% of its budget (Anggaran these Vision and Missions as guidelines to Pendapatan dan Belanja Daerah; APBD) for make policies in developing the province. From the development of human resources by both the Vision and Mission it is clear that providing scholarships for those who want to ‘Malay culture’ is a focus of Riau’s continue studying, either in Indonesia or development programs. Accordingly, the Riau abroad (Interview with the Riau Provincial government formulated and implemented Secretary for Government, Public Relations various Perda (Peraturan Daerah; Provincial and Legal Affairs, 21 June 2003). Besides the Regulations) about adopting Malay symbols provincial government, the district government and conceptions. The implementation of of Bengkalis also provided scholarships for its decentralisation has been accompanied by the officials to undertake further study, either for revival of Malay cultural identity as discussed undergraduate or post-graduate programs in the following section. (Interview with the District Secretary of Bengkalis, 1 August 2003). The city The Putra Daerah (‘Native Sons’), Economic government of Pekanbaru, meanwhile, did not Benefits, and the Revival of Riau Cultural Identity provide scholarships because of its inadequate Decreasing the central state’s power in budget (Conversation with a Superintendent of Indonesia during the reform period had Pekanbaru, 11 September 2007). brought several consequences, one of which Decentralisation has been an instrument was an encouragement of people in the to attempt to make development appropriate to regions, including in Riau, to demand political, the aspiration of local people. At provincial economic, and socio-cultural reforms. The level, the Riau government targeted that by demand for political reform in Riau was 2020 it must have achieved certain goals as centred on and symbolised by the stated in the Vision and Missions of the manifestation of the wish of Riau elites to place

122 Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono a putra daerah (son/daughter of the region or through the regional election (Pemilihan member of indigenous ethnic groups)4 as kepada daerah; Pilkada) mechanism. Since governor of the province since the previous the resignation of President Soeharto, Riau governors were always dropped in from has held elections twice to choose its Jakarta. The demand for economic reform was governors; in 1998 and 2003. In the ten years intended to get a larger proportion of revenue after the collapse of the New Order regime, sharing from the local economic resources Riau has had two governors from its putra since during the New Order period these were daerah; Saleh Djasit (1998-2003) and Rusli transferred to Jakarta while a large proportion Zainal (2003 to present).5 This is evidence that of local people remained in poverty. The the political reform in Indonesia has provided a demand for socio-cultural reform, meanwhile, real change for local people to express was intended to preserve the Malay culture freedom, which is an essential element of and tradition that had been almost sunk as a democracy. result of national cultural unification under the Despite its essential role in the process New Order government. of democracy, raising the notion of putra Since the New Order government had daerah in Riau has caused several dominated the local political affairs of Riau by consequences. Firstly, it has increased internal placing its people from Java as the provincial conflict within the districts due to political and governors, the discourse on putra daerah was economic interests. Examples include the case aroused. The notion of putra daerah indicated of Mandau and Meranti (Merbau, Rangsang, the creation of a border in the relationship and Tebing Tinggi) sub-districts in Bengkalis between indigenous people and new-comers district, as well as Rodas (Rokan Darussalam) in this region. Although the meaning of putra sub-district in Rohul (Rokan Hulu) district, daerah is a contested one, some of my Malay which want to form autonomous districts respondents defined the putra daerah of Riau separating from their core districts. Yet, the as someone or people whose ancestors were aspiration of people in those sub-districts in members of native ethnic groups even if those demanding the upgrade of their sub-districts to people were born outside Riau (Interview with be autonomous districts was initiated by the a paramilitary activist of Pekanbaru, 19 July DPR (Dewan Perwakilan Rakyat; House of 2003; Interview with a NGO activist of Representative) in Jakarta. Secondly, it has Bengkalis, 29 July 2003). Another definition of increased regionalism and ethnocentrism. putra daerah refers to local instead of native or Some members of Riau elites have interpreted a particular ethnic group (Interview with the decentralisation as ‘prioritising indigenous Provincial Secretary for Government, Public people.’ Consequently, they insisted that all Relations and Legal Affairs of Riau, 21 June positions of head of a region (governor, mayor, 2003). bupati) be held by a putra daerah. During the Under both the 1999 and 2004 2003 provincial governor’s election, for decentralisation laws, the central government instance, Riau elite members involved in the reduced its role in local political affairs. The FKPMR (Forum Komunikasi Pemuka governors of Indonesia’s provinces are no Masyarakat Riau; Riau Community Leaders’ longer allocated from the centre, as the Communication Forum) produced a regions now have more freedom to decide recommendation that the governor of Riau, their own governor based on local aspirations including his wife, must a person coming originally from the Malay ethnic group 4 The term ‘putra daerah’ can refers to either singular or plural form, where in a certain context it is used to 5 Rusli Zainal is Suko’s son-in-law. Suko (Ismail Suko) address ‘the son/daughter of the region’ while in another was the symbol of Riau’s resistance against Jakarta (the occasion it connotes to ‘indigenous people.’ centre) during the New Order period.

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(Interview with a lecturer of UNRI, 21 June now paid more than ordinary civil servants 2003). (Interview with a provincial government staff, 1 Next, under the 1999 decentralisation September 2007). laws, the heads of regions (governor, mayors, The provincial government also uses its and heads of districts) were responsible to the additional funds for generating people’s provincial, city and district DPRD respectively. welfare through its k2i (kemiskinan, The DPRD members (legislators) were kebodohan, infrastuktur) program, intended to powerful so were arrogant and ready to alleviate poverty, eradicate ignorance, and threaten to impeach the regional heads. To develop infrastructure facilities. Importantly avoid being impeached, the heads of region however, I was told by a civil servant in often used money politics to satisfy the DPRD Pekanbaru that the funds given to the poor members. The money used to do this was families are “only symbolic.” Moreover, the taken from the government budget. As a result, provincial labelling of it as ‘alleviating poverty’ the heads of region were busily paying more is actually misleading as it is actually spent on attention to the welfare of legislators than infrastructure, which is then claimed to be providing better services to the people leading to ‘alleviating poverty’. In eradicating (Interview with a lecturer of Riau, 21 June ignorance, the provincial government provides 2003). Finally, by the implementation of scholarships for outstanding pupils and decentralisation, the cases of corruption have teachers to undertake further study. It also now spread out to the local governments gives incentives to teachers who work in instead of being concentrated in the central remote areas (Conversation with the School government. My respondents pointed out that Superintendent of Pekanbaru, 12 September regional autonomy had been used by the 2007). bureaucrats and politicians as ‘aji mumpung’ In providing infrastructural facilities, the (‘a chance’) to enrich themselves (Interview provincial government of Riau carries out a with a Riau lecturer who was also an NGO number of multiyear projects, such as the activist, 19 June 2003; Interview with the construction of roads (Sei Akar-Bagan Jaya, Deputy Head of the Pekanbaru DPRD, 11 July Bagan Jaya-Enok-Kuala Enok, etc.), the Teluk 2003). Mesjid and Perawang bridges, and a provincial The implementation of decentralisation library (named after the outstanding Riau-born in Riau has brought several consequences. poet Soeman H.S.). For the construction of the The Riau government is concerned about the provincial library, according to the notice-board development of human resources. By the in front of it, the government allocated funds of implementation of decentralisation, more funds Rp 151 billion (Personal observation, 11 in this province have been allotted to provide September 2007). Besides developing school fee exemption for primary to high infrastructural facilities, the provincial school students. The Riau government has government cooperated with district also been increasing the quality of human governments in Riau and in three neighbouring resources available in the province by provinces (i.e. Lampung, Bangka-Belitung, and providing scholarships for government staff, Bengkulu) together with a private investor other civil servants, and members of the public (Bhakti Investastama Group) to establish a (Conversations with three scholarship local airline company, RAL (Riau Airlines).6 receivers, 1 to 15 August 2007). To improve the civil servants’ welfare, more funds have 6 The Riau Airlines (RAL) was established in 2002, with 100% stake held by the provincial and city/district been allotted to increase the salaries of civil governments in Riau (including Riau Archipelago). It is servants in the local administration. The senior the only airline company in Indonesia owned by regional bureaucrats and the members of DPRD are government. The main purpose of establishing this company is to facilitate transportation course amongst

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The above discussion only covers a few compared with before the implementation of examples of what has been done by the decentralisation. provincial government of Riau as part of its At city/district level, the implementation implementation of decentralisation. It is true of decentralisation in Riau has also brought that decentralisation has benefited the general about positive impacts on increasing population of this province as various development funds. The amount of funds development programs have been carried out obtainable depends on whether the region has to generate people’s welfare. Yet, the economic resources that produces revenue. implementation of decentralisation gives great The resource-rich districts, such as Bengkalis benefits to local elites, particularly bureaucrats that produces oil, receive more revenues than and politicians, because they can make the relatively poor-resource ones, such as decisions about their own salaries (Interview Pekanbaru. Consequently, the district with a politician of Bengkalis, 23 July 2003). government of Bengkalis is able to carry out The university students, who were sacrificing more development programs than that of their time and energy during the protests Pekanbaru. Since the reformist version of demanding decentralisation, did not promptly decentralisation was firstly legalised thus could get significant rewards. After graduating from be pragmatically prepared for in 1999, the university, however, some of them gained Bengkalis has been able to develop an positions in the governmental offices international hospital and an international (Conversation with an ex-student activist who harbour. The district government of Bengkalis is now a lecturer in Riau, 5 September 2007). has also been providing scholarships and The Riau government does not give tunjangan school fee exemption for its people. During my kesejahteraan (additional salary) to university visit to this district in 2003, I was told by an lecturers either, though the lecturers7 had official that everyone wherever they are, as played a vital role in demanding the reform long as they can prove by birth or school (Conversation with a lecturer of UIN SUSKA, 1 certificate they have once lived in this district, September 2007). Even though regional was encouraged to apply for district autonomy gives much of the decentralising government scholarships. The city government transfer of authority and powers to the of Pekanbaru, meanwhile, focuses on the k3 district/city level rather than the provincial, the (kebersihan, keindahan, ketertiban; cleanness, provincial government of Riau also receives a beauty, and order) program for the city far larger amount from revenue-sharing (Conversation with a political party staff of Pekanbaru, 11 September 2007). districts/cities, and to support the acceleration of Riau's Since the fall of the New Order economic growth, in order to achieve Riau Vision 2020 introduced by Governor Saleh Djasit on the Guidelines government, shaping local identity has been of Riau Province Development. On April 2, 2004, this occupying the central point in political company invited other investors and the first General discourse everywhere in Indonesia (see Assembly of Shareholders (RUPS) was held (see Faucher 2005, 127). This localism is http://www.riau-airlines.com/about_us.php?id=1). interpreted differently among different regions 7 The lecturers are under the central government administration, and therefore do not get additional salary (Suryadi 2005, 133). In Riau, the elites and from the local government. Ironically, the income of intellectuals supported by university students, primary and high school teachers and other civil NGO activist, and journalists have constructed servants can be twice of the lecturers. As illustration, the local identity by preserving and publicly salary of a lecturer is approximately Rp 2.5 million per expressing Malay culture, which is considered month with no additional salary from the local government. A civil servant with the same rank under as identical with Islam as reflected in the local the provincial government administration, meanwhile, way of life: “Adat bersendi syarak, Syarak gets a salary of around Rp 2 million plus an additional bersendikan kitabullah” (“Custom based on salary of Rp 2.7 million per month.

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Islamic teaching, Islamic teaching based on pemuka adat (customary figures) of this Koran”) (Suwardi 2005, 38). A study by Ford province organised themselves in the LAMR (2003, 132-147) on who are the orang Riau (Lembaga Adat Melayu Riau; Riau Malay (Riau people) reflected the rise of ethnic Customary Institution) which has been actively sentiment in this region after being long ruled promoting Malay norms and values to the by the New Order regime. Rab (2002b, 101) society, such as by writing books and articles, claimed that the indigenous culture of Riau as well as conducting seminars and cultural was lost under this regime. The national displays. television programs broadcasted by TVRI As on example of attempted Malay (Republic of Indonesia Television), for revivalism, in the early stage of the reform instance, were designed by the New Order period there were debates and campaigns on government as media to develop and using the old Malay words Encik and Puan disseminate “the idea of a nation-state among (rather than the standard Indonesian Bapak the numerous ethnic groups in this multiethnic and Ibu) to address an older man and woman country” (Suryadi 2005, 134).8 The post-New respectively. Nevertheless, during my visit to Order implementation of decentralisation has Riau in 2007 these words were not apparently opened the gate for indigenous people of Riau being commonly used in the public sphere. to re-conceive their traditional culture. This is When I conducted an interview with one related to Erb’s statement (2007, 248) that the member of the Riau elites (26 January 2007), implementation in 2001 of decentralisation he refused to be addressed Encik and based on the 1999 laws has significantly preferred to be called Bapak instead. Yet, influenced the institutional revival of adat during the Riau DPRD session in the Lancang (custom) in Indonesia. Kuning building11 on 24 August 2007, Following the fall of the New Order broadcast by the Pekanbaru RRI (Radio of the regime, there was a kebangkitan ke-Melayu-an Republic of Indonesia), besides using Bapak (revival of Malayness) or ‘ethno-nationalism’ and Ibu, the speakers also used Encik, Puan, and ‘atavism’ in Riau (Wee 2002).9 Al Azhar and Tuan to address the audiences (the DPRD and Prof. Dr. Tabrani Rab are among the Riau members). scholars who are concerned with the The revival of atavism and cultural preservation of Malay culture and traditions. identity in Riau is also indicated by the They had already founded the Riau Cultural emergence of paramilitary groups, whose Institute in 1978 almost exactly in the middle of names used the words ‘Melayu’ and/or ‘Riau,’ the New Order era.10 This organisation such as the BMMR (Barisan Muda Melayu provided teaching and published books on Riau; Riau Young Malay Front), LMBR (Laskar Riau Malay culture and literature. Likewise, the Melayu Bersatu Riau; United Malay Troops of Riau), LHM (Laskar Hulubalang Melayu; Malay 8 Although Malay culture was less developed under the Traditional Troops), Ikatan Pemuda Anak New Order regime such that it caused Riau people to Negeri (Indigenous Youth Union), and Banteng feel culturally marginalised, it was not necessarily Riau (Wild-Oxen of Riau).12 During my visit to ignored by the government. Under Governor Imam Munandar, for instance, there was a Congress on Malay the headquarters office of the BMMR in 2003, culture in Riau held from 17 to 21 July 1985 (see for instance, there was a notice: “Kawasan Budisantosa et al. 1986). 9 For further discussion on ‘ethno-nationalism’ see 11 The new building of the Riau DPRD is named after Connor, Walker 1994. the legendary flagship during the Malay sultanate, 10 Al Azhar is currently the Director of the Centre for Lancang Kuning. Malay Studies at the Islamic University of Riau (UIR), 12 The name of ‘Banteng Riau’ corresponds to that of the the Director of the Riau Cultural Institute, and the Banteng Council, the Army division in Central Sumatra Chairman of the FKPMR (Communication Forum for during the 1950s under which the PRRI rebellion was Riau Community Leaders). carried out.

126 Akses Vo. VI, No. 1, Agustus 2009: 118-130 Hajar G. Pramudyasmono wajib berbahasa Melayu” (“Compulsory Malay government offices, and the use of Jawi scripts speaking area”), clearly implying that this (Malay Arabic lettering). As discussed in organisation was intended to preserve Malay Chapter 6, ‘preserving Malay culture’ was one culture and tradition. However, according to a of the reform agendas in Riau. From the early public assertion by the Datuk Panglima stage of decentralisation the provincial Besar13 (‘Commander-in-Chief’) of the LMBR, government of Riau made it compulsory for Syarwan Hamid,14 those paramilitary groups school students and civil servants all over the did not propose to develop a narrow-minded province to dress according to a Malay dress ethnic sentiment. They just aimed to elevate code every Friday and on important occasions; Malay dignity in Riau since the Malay baju kurung cekak musang or teluk belanga for community had been continuously ignored men, and baju kurung labuh/pendek or baju during the 60 years of independence (Kompas, kurung labuh belah dada/kebaya for women.15 8 March 2004). The provincial government of Riau has also The intention to preserve ‘Malay culture’ made and implemented a Local Regulation appears to have been a concocted reason. (Perda) about the architecture of government According to a member of a Riau elite based in offices, with the roof of every government and Jakarta, Alfitra Salamm (Interview, 26 January public building having to be constructed using 2008), the paramilitary groups mushrooming in the selembayung model.16 In 2004, the Riau Riau during the reform period were intended to governor’s and other government offices, obtain personal profit as people involved in including the bus station, were renovated them were generally jobless and opportunists. following this architectural requirement. To During my visit to Riau in 2003, I noticed strengthen Riau-Malay cultural identity, as members of a number of paramilitary groups mentioned previously, the Riau government is with their striped uniforms coming flocking into now developing a six-storey provincial library the provincial government office asking for named after a Riau poet, Soeman H.S., funds by submitting proposals to support their located next to the governor’s office, with an unclear activities as they knew that the local architecture resembling the rehal (a lectern the government had plenty of money as a Koran is placed on). This library, whose consequence of decentralisation. One of my development cost Rp 151 billion, was intended respondents (Interview with a Riau intellectual to give the impression that the Riau community based in Jakarta, 26 January 2008) stated that or Malay culture is identical with Islam. The the issue of preserving Malay culture had been use of the Malay-Arabic Jawi script on public used as a cover by certain groups of Riau boards is also regulated by the Perda at the people to get financial benefits. During my visit city/district level of government. Today, this in 2007, however, those reportedly self- lettering is used all over the province for street interested paramilitary groups had already names and information boards in public areas. disappeared. Reading and writing Jawi is also a part of the In the governmental sphere, the revival school curriculum. of a ‘Malayness’ was manifested by the establishment of various regulations that referred to Malay culture and traditions, such 15 These terms refer to the clothing models, which no as about dress codes, the architecture of English translation. 16 Selembayung (also called sulo bayung or tanduk 13 This term was adopted from one of the noble buang) is the ornament/model of architecture used in positions (the Sultan’s assistant) used in the Malay the top of the roof on the front part of a house or sultanate period. building. A Selembayung placed on the highest part of 14 Syarwan Hamid is a Riau-born, retired Army General the building is called a tajuk rumah (crown of the house), who had been the former Minister of Home Affairs under and is believed as a source of elegance for the building President Habibie. (Budisantoso et al. 1986, 437-440).

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Finally, there are several claims that can the economic benefit, as well as the revival of be made regarding the implementation of cultural identity. It has also explored Riau decentralisation in Riau. Three out of the five people’s experiences of national integration provincial government bureaucrats and under decentralisation using Drake’s concept politicians whom I interviewed in 2003 stated and subjective experiences. Drake (1989) that decentralisation should be implemented at categorised Indonesia’s provinces into four provincial level to ease coordination in groups based on their level of development delivering development programs thereby and integration. Riau was considered as being avoiding conflicts of interests among the most economically developed and highly district/city authorities. On the other hand, nine integrated province besides East Kalimantan, out of eleven government bureaucrats and North and South Sumatra, and North Sulawesi. politicians at the district, city, and lower levels Nevertheless, some people of Riau felt that whom I interviewed supported the their economic resources were exploited by implementation of decentralisation at the the Javanese-dominated government under district/city level to increase the public services the authoritarian New Order regime. When and people’s welfare because of the reasoning Soeharto’s government was pushed over in that this level of government is closer to the 1998, thousands of Riau students, NGO people (grassroots). In regards to the activists, intellectuals, customary and implementation of decentralisation, my community leaders, together with bureaucrats respondents from the civil society category and politicians demanded the central responded that common people (members of government speed up the implementation of the lower levels of society) did not care decentralisation or accept Riau’s whether the policy was for the decentralisation independence, if decentralisation was not being at the level of provinces or of local quickly implemented. In response the districts since the most important point was the Indonesian government implemented welfare of the people (Interviews with five decentralisation. This implies that a main aim journalists and seven NGO activists of of decentralisation during the reform era was Pekanbaru and Bengkalis in 5 June to 27 July to prevent national disintegration. 2003; Interview with a community leader of This article suggests that even though it Bengkalis, 30 July 2003). By 2008 members of does not directly affect all of Drake’s variables, Riau elites, including bureaucrats, politicians, the implementation of decentralisation during and prominent figures, were demanding the the post-Soeharto era has been able to central government give otonomi khusus preserve national integration in Riau. By the (special autonomy) to Riau such as has been implementation of Law No. 22/1999 on implemented in and Papua. By the Regional Government, the indigenous people implementation of special autonomy, the Riau of Riau have been given wider chances to be elites expect that more funds will remain in this the leaders for their own region. The province for generating people’s welfare. The implementation of Law No. 25/1999 on the provincial DPRD of Riau has also asked the Fiscal Balance between the Central and people to support the struggle for this demand Regional Governments resulted in an increase (Interview with a Riau elite member based in in the revenues received by the provincial and Jakarta, 26 January 2008). local government. Riau now receives a far larger share of revenues so that more public CONCLUDING REMARKS facilities and services can be provided. Hence This article has discussed the the implementation of decentralisation in Riau implementation of decentralisation in Riau and has reduced political and economic gaps its consequences on the revival of localism, between the centre and this province.

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