Kaempferia Galanga L

Scientific Name: Kaempferia galanga L. Synonym: Alpinia sessilis J.König, Kaempferia humilis Salisb., Kaempferia latifolia Donn ex Hornem., Kaempferia plantaginifolia Salisb., Kaempferia procumbens Noronha. Family: Zingeberaceae Genus: Kaempferia Species: galanga English Name: Galanga, Resurrection lily, Sand ginger, Kencur, Aromatic ginger, Cutcherry, Lesser galangal Parts used: Rhizome Plant description: The plant is a highly useful and is grown for medicine and as a spice. It is an almost stemless plant that develops its few short-lived leaves and the flower at ground level. It does not have stem and has dark brown rounded rhizomes. The plant reaches a height of 8" when grown in the shade. K. galanga has thick rounded leaves that lay flat on the ground. New leaves start growing in mid spring from the small dormant rthizomes. In summer, one or two flowers produced successively from the centre of the growi ng tip. Flowering lasts over a two month period. The white flowers (with a purple spot on the lip), are fugacious, appear singly in the center of the plant and attain approximately 1 in. (2 1/2 cm) in breadth.The leaves die down in late autumn and rhizomes remain underground through winter. Chemical constituents: The rhizome contains cineol, borneol, 3-carene, camphene, kaempferol, kaempferide, cinnamaldehyde, p-methoxycinnaamic acid, ethyl cinnamate and ethyl p-methoxycinnamate. K. galanga rhizome contains about 2.5 to 4% essential oil, whose main components are ethyl cinnamate (25%), ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate (30%) and p-methoxycinnamic acid; furthermore, 3-carene-5-one was found. It also contains 4-butylmenthol, β-phellandrene, α-terpineol, dihydro- β-sesquiphellandrene, pentadecane and 1, 8-cineol. Ethyl p-methoxycinnamate was reported to inhibit monoamine oxidase. The methanol extract of K. galanga contains ethyl cinnamate, ethyl p-methoxycinnamate and p-methoxycinnamicacid. It has Cd, Cu, Fe, Mn, Ni, Pb and Zn. Isolated chemical constituents of K.galanga

289

Action of Herb: stimulant, carminative, diuretic, anti-oxidant, larvicidal, anti-carcinogenic, anti- bacterial, anti-depressant and expectorant. Medicinal Uses: Galanga strengthens the stomach. It takes away the pains of colds. Its smell strengthens the brain. It relieves the faint heart. The tuberous rhizome has camphoraceous odour and aromatic bitter taste. It is used in cough with honey. It has anti-inflammatory activity. Rhizomes in the form of powder or ointment are used for wounds and bruises and reduce swelling. Its gargle relives sore throat. Decoction of rhizomes relives dyspepsia. Hot roasted rhizomes treat rheumatism. Rhizomes boiled in oil and apply externally as nasal decongestant. It has monoamino oxidase inhibitory effect and insecticidal activity. Microscopic examination of K. galanga powder Microscopic examination of K. galanga powder was carried out according to WHO specifications. Following microscopic characters were observes, parenchyma, periderm, starch grain, parenchyma containing starch grain, reticulate vessel, annular vessel and spiral vessel.

Starch grains Parenchyma containing starch grain Parenchyma, transverse view

Reticulate vessel Annular vessel Spiral vessel Periderm

Figure: Microscopic Characters of K. galanga Tunsaringkam T, Palanuvej C, Rungsiyothin A, Issaravanich S, Vipunngeun N, Chuthaputti A, Ruangrungsi N 2007. Pharmacognostic specification of Kaempferia galanga L. rhizome in Thailand. J Health Res., 21(3): 207-214.

290 Histological Examination of K. galanga Transverse section of K. galanga rhizome revealed the presence of epidermis, periderm, secretory sac containing volatile oil, parenchyma containing oleoresin, parenchyma of cortex, starch grain in reserved parenchyma, endodermis and xylem vessel.

1. Epidermis, 2. Periderm, 3.Secretory sac containing volatile oil, 4.Parenchyma containing oleoresin, 5.Parenchyma of cortex, 6.Starch grain in reserved parenchyma, 7.Endodermis, 8.Xylem vessel. Tunsaringkam T, Palanuvej C, Rungsiyothin A, Issaravanich S, Vipunngeun N, Chuthaputti A, Ruangrungsi N 2007. Pharmacognostic specification of Kaempferia galanga L. rhizome in Thailand. J Health Res., 21(3): 207-214.

Chemical Identification Tests Phytochemical screening was performed using standard procedures. The reactions showed positive results for the presence of triterpenes, tannin, alkaloids, carbohydrate and sterols while the Salwaski test for sterol and test for protein is negative indicated the absence of these components.

Table: An overview of chemical constituents identified by reaction with various chemical reagents Crude extract Triterpenes Tannins Alkaloids Carbohydrates proteins Sterols Aconitum ferox ++ + + + + + SwertiaChirata + + + + - + Tirbulusterristris + - ++ + + + Kaempferia + + + + - - galangal Lavandulastoechas + + ++ + + - Fumariaindica + + + + - -

291 Thin-layer Chromatography Thin-layer Chromatography was performed using two solvent systems.The TLC plates were observed under UV light at 254 and 366 nm. The distances of spots were measured after spraying with Vanilline-Sulphuric acid reagent.

Table 1: R f values of crude extract of Kaempferia galanga Solvent system Rf value 254 Rf value 366 Chloroform-Methanol-Water 0.048, 0.47, 0.59 0.042, 0.38, 0.62, 0.72 (80:20:2) Ethyl acetate-Methanol- 0.31,0.47, 0.69 0.20, 0.31, 0.45, 0.63, 0.71 Water (100:16.5:13.5) Anti-inflammatory and Analgesic activity Leaves and rhizomes of K. galanga are used in traditional medicine to treat swelling, headache, stomachache, toothache and rheumatism. When given subcutaneously in doses of 30, 100 and 300 mg/kg, the aqueous extracts of K. galanga leaves show significant anti-nociceptive and anti- inflammatory effect in rats in a dose-dependent manner. When it is given orally at a dose of 200 mg/kg, the antinociceptive effect of K. galangal rhizome extracts is more potent than aspirin using 100 mg/kg, but lesser than morphine using 5 mg/kg subcutaously. This anti-nociceptive effect is reversed by naloxone in a dose of 10 mg/kg. The capacity of the extracts to block abdominal constriction, hot plate and formalin tests indicates that analgesic activity has both central mechanism, involving opoid receptors, and peripheral mechanism that involves cyclooxygenase pathway. Table: Acetic acid induced writhing test Treatment Dose(mg/kg) Mean No. of writhes % of inhibition Control 0.5ml saline 131±3.38 - Crude Extract 500 75.2±3.36 42.6 Crude Extract 300 46.3±2.16 64.7* Crude Extract 200 79.9±1.96 39.0 Aspirin 300 40.4±1.27 69.1 Each value is the mean ± S.E.M. of five determinations; * p < 0.05; Dunnet test as compared to control Table: Hot plate activity of crude extract of Kaempferia galanga L. variation flicking time (s) Group 0 1 2 3 Control 0.19±0.014 >0.22 >0.22 >0.22 500 0.19±0.04 0.36±0.05 0.48±0.06 0.43±0.01* 300 0.20±0.03 0.33±0.02 0.39±0.04 0.22±0.04* 200 0.19±0.06 0.32±0.04 0.30±0.04 0.28±0.07 100 0.19±0.04 0.26±0.03 0.22±0.02 0.19±0.05 50 0.20±0.03 0.23±0.03 0.22±0.03 0.18±0.02 Aspirin 0.18±0.02 0.39±0.03* 0.44±0.04* 0.33±0.08 Each value is the mean ± S.E.M. of five determinations. * P < 0.05, Dunnet test as compared to control

292 Behaviour Profile and Neuro-pharmacological Activities In open field activity the mean number of squares crossed by the mice with all the four paws were159.8 for control group, 91, 115 and 121 for 500 mg/kg, 300 mg/kg and 200 mg/kg of crude extract of K. galanga are respectively whereas 31and 166 for Diazepam and Imipramine respectively. This showed that the open field activity was decreased in 500 mg/kg but the effect was less significant in 300 and 200 mg/kg. In exploratory activities (head dip and cage cross and rearing) data represented in table 3b.The results showed that the crude extract of K. galanga are induced the activity in mice at500mg/kg (from: 34 to 15; 35.7 to 15 and 39.1 to 15.17 respectively) but less significant CNS depressant effect was observed in 300 and 200 mg/kg as compared to Diazepam (05, 09 and 14 respectively for head dip, cage cross and rearing. The mean mobility time of animals treated with K. galanga . At the dose of 500 mg/kg mobility time was 2.41 minutes, for 300 and 200 mg/kg the mobility time was 2.56 and 2.34 respectively where as in negative control group (treated with 0.5 ml orally saline solution) it was 3.45 minutes. In positive control group Diazepam (2mg/kg) and Imipramine (15mg/kg) the mobility time was 2.1 and 4.4 respectively. Time taken to travel iron rod was slightly increased at the dose of 500 mg/kg, whereas 300 mg/kg showed more significant decreased in rod traveling time and showed muscle relaxant and passive activity of K. galanga. The mean time taken to travel iron rod by control group was 22 sec, which was increased to 28, 50 and 33 seconds respectively at 500, 300 and 200 mg/kg oral dose. Diazepam was taken 180 second and mice were fall while Imipramine taken 06 seconds.

Table: Behavioral profile of Kaempferia galanga

Parameters Dose mg/kg Diazepam Imipramine 500 300 200 100 2mg/kg 10mg/kg Nystagmus - - - - +1 - Vocalization ------Piloerection +2 +2 - - - + Micturition + + + - - + Irritability +2 + - - - - Disorientation/Staggeringgate + - - - - + Aggressiveness ++ + + - - +s Motor activity(Decrease) +2 + + + + - Pain response + + + + + + Ataxia - - - - - + Tail erection ++ ++ - - - + Tremor +1 - - - - +2

Table: Assesment of neuropharmacological activities Kaempferia galanga Treatment Dose mg/kg orally Open field Head dip Cage cross Rearing test Mobility Traction time (min) test (sec) Control 0.5ml 141.8±4.6 33.1±3.75 31±1.54 41.17±0.93 5.02±1.12 25 ±0.05 CE 500 122±3.85 15±2.56 14±2.56 11.17±1.51 4.21±1.45 33± 0.07* 300 96±2.34 12±2.24 35± 2.58 34± 0.51 3.2±1.03 18±0.02 200 90±2.34 13± 1.14 24±1.71 28±1.52 4.16±1.01 21±1.13 Diazepam 2 51±2.12 08±0.09 09±1.12 12±1.12 2.3±1.3 98±3.12 Imipramine 15 166±3.2 45±1.42 39±1.6 43±2.5 4.91±2.1 12±0.09 Mean number of observation ± SEM* significant, ** highly significant

293 Fourier Transform Infra-red Spectroscopy Prominent C-H, aromatic and C=C peaks were observed in the spectra.

Figure: FT-IR Spectra of K. galanga extract Nematicidal activity K. galanga has potent nematicidal effect. Crude extracts have shown 100% mortality in male, female and juvenile pine wood nematodes. Bursaphelen chusxylophillus at a dose of 1000 g/ml. Ho et al . (2006) have isolated ethyl-trans cinnamate and ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate from the crude extracts and have demonstrated that these constituents have 100% mortality in pine wood nematodes even at dose of 60 g/ml. Crude methanolic extract of rhizomes has shown considerable nematicidal activity against Meloidogyne incognita juveniles and eggs that is greater than that of carbofuran and metham sodium but lesser than fosthiazate. Ethyl – cinnamte and ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate from K. galanga rhizome extracts are proven to be responsible for this killing effect on M. incognita juveniles and eggs. Median lethal dose (LC50) value (48 hrs) of ethyl-cinnamate and ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate shows 81% hatch inhibition that rises to a maximum of 93% at a dose of 125 g/ml. This hatch inhibition dose is lesser that is more efficient than carbofuran and metham sodium. Hong et al. 2011 have further demonstrated that the efficiency of ethyl-cinnamate and ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate in steam phase mortality bioassay is greater in closed container than in open container which suggests that mode of delivery of these constituents is partly through vapour phase. Mosquito repellent and larvicidal activity Essential oils extracted from the rhizomes of K. galanga have shown considerable repellent and larvicidal activity against a number of mosquito species including Aedesa egypti , Aedes togoi , Armigeres subalbatus , Anopheles barbiostris, Anopheles aconitus, Mansonia uniformis, Culex quinquefasiatus, Culex gelidus, Culex tritaeniorhynchus and Culex pipenspallens . These essential oils exert repellent effect against A. aegypti (effective dose (ED 50) = 30.73 g/cm 2)

294 with a complete protection time of about 3 hours without irritating human skin. This protection time increases further by the addition of 10% vanillin. The extracts have shown remarkable larvicidal activity even against pyrethroid resistant strains of A. aegypti . Methanolic extract of A. galangal showed 100% mortality against A. aegypti , A. togoi and C. pipenspallens at a concentration 100ppm that reduced up to 78% at the concentration of 50 ppm. The larvicidal activity is mainly due to ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate, ethyl-cinnamate, 3-carene, 2- propionic acid and pentadecane. Ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate has shown more larvicidal activity (LC = 12.3 to 20.7 mg/L) against A. aegypti , O. togoi and C. pipenspallens . However, ethyl- cinnamate and 3-carene have more larvicidal activity (LC 50 = 24.1 and 21.6 mg/L respectively) against C. pipenspallens but less activity (LC50 = 40 to 60 mg/L) against A. aegypti and O. togio . HPLC of K. galanga extract

Vaso-relaxant activity Extracts of K. galanga exhibit significant anti-hypertensive activity. Intravenous administration of K. galangal extracts to rats has shown dose related reduction of basal mean arterial pressure with maximum effect seen to 5 – 10 minutes after injection. Ethyl-cinnamate isolated from the extracts of rhizomes as colorless oil inhibits tonic contractions induced by increased potassium influx and phenylephrine in a concentration dependent manner. However, this vaso-relaxant effect is reversed by pretreatment of aorta with methylene blue and indomethacin which indicates that the mechanism of this vaso-relaxation may involve inhibition of calcium influx in to vascular cells and release of nitric oxide and prostaglandins from endothelial cells. Ethyl-p- methoxycinnamate is also isolated from K. galangal rhizomes as white needles, but it does not exhibit relaxant activity on pre-contracted thoracic rat aorta. Sedative activity Inhalation of hexane extract of K. galangal at doses ranging from 1.5 to 10 g has shown considerable decrease in locomotor activity in rats. This sedative activity is due to ethyl trans-ρ- methoxycinamate and ethyl-cinnamate that inhibits locomotor activity in doses of 0.0014 and 0.0012 mg, respectively. Antineoplastic and apoptotic activity Extracts of K. galanga have already been reported as anti-neoplastic. It is one of those herbs that have inhibitory effects on the tumor-promoting stage of neoplasia. When assessed by indirect

295 immunofluorescent assay and western blot, it is proven that the methanolic extracts of K. galanga inhibit TPA – induced activation of Epstein bar virus early antigen in Raji cells and thus, it inhibits tumor promoting stage. However, this inhibitory effect on tumor-promoting stage is partial and not complete. At a dose of 320 g/ml, 80% inhibition is seen which is increased up to a maximum of 90% at 640 g/ml. methanolic extracts of K. galanga have also shown inhibitory effect on human cardiac fibroblast and human T cell leukemia only at doses more than 250 g/ml by colorimetric tetrazolium salt assay. Recently, it is reported that this inhibitory effect of the plant is due to ethyl-ρ- methoxycinnamate. This chemical constituent of galangal extracts inhibits proliferation of human hepatocellular liver carcinoma in a dose dependent manner. Annexin-fluorescein isothiocyanate and propidium iodide staining shows an increased early apoptotic population in human hepatocellular cells. It is believed that ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate induces trans locatiln of phosphatidylserine of Hep G2 cells to cell surface, resulting in an increase in sub-G cell population. Anti-oxidant activity K. galangal extracts have weak anti-oxidant activity. Total phenolic content of ethanolic extracts of leaves and rhizomes is found to be 146 mg galic equivalent (GAE)/100 g and 57 mg GAE/ 100g, respectively whereas the anti-oxidant activity of leaves and rhizome extracts is 77 mg ascorbic acid (AA)/100 g and 17 mg A/100 g. This anti-oxidant activity is further reduced by drying using different thermal and non-thermal drying methods; however, this decrease is prevented if the plant is subjected to freeze-drying. This anti-oxidant activity is mainly due to the total phenolic content and flavonoids, including luteolin and apigenin. Anti-microbial activity Ethyl-ρ-methoxycinnamate isolated from extracts of K. galanga has considerable activity against Mycobactrium tuberculosis and Candida albicans . More recently, this ethyl-ρ- methoxycinnamate by resazurinmicrotitre assay has shown to inhibit drug susceptible and multi- drug resistant clinical isolates of M. tuberculosis with minimum inhibitory concentration of 0.242 – 0.485 mM. K. galanga extracts have also been found to exhibit anti-microbial activity against a number of organisms including Staphylococcus aureus , Streptococcus pyogenes , Candida albicans , Escheriachia coli , Klebsiella pneumonia , Salmonella typhi , Seratia marcescens , Vibrios cholera , Vibrio sparahaemolyticus , Enterococcus faecalis , and Pseudomonas aeruginosa with MIC of 0.81, 3.25, 25, >6.5, >6.5, >6.5, >6.5, >6.5, >6.5, 1.625 and >6.5 g/ml respectively. Gas chromatography-mass spectrometry analysis of K. galanga The GC-MS analysis of isolated oil of K. galanga was performed on a Shimadzu QP-2010 gas chromatograph coupled to a mass spectrometer (GC-MS) instrument (Shimadzu Corporation, Japan). The individual components of the essential oil were identified by computerized matching of their mass spectra of peaks with those gathered in the NIST 08, FFNSC 1.2 and WILEY 8-Mass Spectral library of the GC-MS data software system.

296 Table: The retention data and chemical composition of essential oil of K. galanga rhizomes using GC-MS RT % Area Compound 2.110 0.25 Ethyl acetate 2.226 0.77 Sec-Butyl ethyl ether 2.289 0.19 Benzene, Hexahydro- 2.330 0.04 Iso-Butyrate, isoamyl- 2.448 0.06 Ethyl-n-propyl ketone 2.514 0.21 Acetoin 2.631 0.24 Cyclohexane, Methyl 2.882 0.08 Amyl acetate 2.980 0.09 Benzyl salicylate 3.022 0.28 Pentane, 3-Ethyl-3-methyl- 3.265 0.15 2-sec-Butoxybutane 3.333 0.06 Heptan-2-ol 6.620 1.32 Α-Pinene 7.062 1.58 Camphene 8.079 0.83 (-) β-Pinene 8.707 0.40 β – Myrcene 9.376 6.19 δ- Carene 10.004 0.74 ρ-Cymene 10.275 6.54 1,8-Cineole 13.241 0.31 Dispiro [2,1,2,4] undecane, 8-Methylene 15.573 0.44 2,4-Cyclohexadiene-1-methanol, α,α,4-Trimethyl- 15.892 5.21 Borneol 16.220 0.60 p-Meth-1-en-4-ol 16.334 0.74 Benzenemethanol, α,α,4-Trimethyl- 16.548 0.71 p-Cymen-8-ol 16.825 0.65 α- Terpineol 17.218 0.15 Berbenone 17.327 0.66 Eucaevone 18.724 0.28 Verbenon 19.027 0.24 Benzaldehyde, p-Methoxy- 20.922 0.30 2-Pinen-4-one 21.588 0.37 Methyl geranate 23.821 0.35 β- Elemene 24.147 0.69 Azulene 24.381 0.53 Octadecyl chloride 24.720 0.24 Caryophyllene 25.897 0.26 α-Humulene 26.745 29.48 Ethyl cinnamate 27.053 0.20 β – Selinene 27.872 9.81 γ - Cadinene 28.069 0.66 δ - Cadinene 28.966 0.34 α - Elemol 29.193 0.27 γ - Elemene 32.053 0.73 Hedycaryol 32.311 2.15 Ethyl-m-methoxycinnamate 32.693 0.22 Cyclodoecene (E) - 32.944 1.35 Linoleoyl chloride 33.662 0.44 n-Hetadecane 35.288 18.42 Ethyl-p-methoxycinnamate 40.358 0.37 Epimanool 97.19 Total Identified Constituents

297 Kumar A. 2014. Chemical composition of essential oil isolated from the rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga L. Int J Pharm Bio Sci . 5(1): 225-231. Acute toxicity studies of K. galanga in rats No fatality was observed in control group and K. galanga (5g/kg) treated group. The male and female rats revealed no changes in gross behavior or physiological activities. On histopathological examination of the control and treated groups, no significant pathological changes were observed in the treated group as compared with control.

Table: Acute Toxicity studies of Kaempferia galanga ethanolic extract on rats

298 Table: Sub-acute toxicity studies of K. galanga alcohol

299 count was observed in male rats. Further more significant reduced levels of BUN, protein and alkaline phosphatase were observed in male rats and pronounced decrease in AST level was observed in female rats. Table: Hematological evaluation of K. galangal ethanolic extract in sub-acute toxicity studies on rats

Table: Differential white blood cells count of ethanolic extract of K. galanga in sub-acute toxicity studies on rats

300 Table: Biochemical parameters evaluation of ethanolic extract of K. galanga rhizome in sub-acute toxicity studies on rats

Kanjanapothi D, Panthong A, Lertprasertsuke N, Taesotikul T, Rujjanawate C, Kaewpinit D, Sudthayakorn R, Choochote W, Chaithong U, Jitpakdi A, Pitasawat B (2004). Toxicity of crude rhizome extract of Kaempferia galanga L. (ProhHom). Journal of Ethnopharmacology, 90: 359-365. References Bhamarapravati S, Pendland SL, Mahady GB. 2003. Extracts of spice and food plants from Thai traditional medicine inhibit the growth of the human carcinogen H.pylori . In vivo ; 17(6):541-4. Chirangini P, Sharma GJ, Sinha SK. 2004. Sulfur free radical reactivity with curcumin as reference for evaluating antioxidant properties of medicinal Zingiberales. J Environ Pathol Toxicol Oncol .; 23(3):227-36. Choochote W, Kanjanapothi D, Panthong A, Taesotikul T, Jitpakdi A, Chaithong U, Pitasawat B. 1999. Larvicidal, adulticidal and repellent effects of Kaempferia galanga . Southeast Asian J Trop Med Public Health . 30(3):470- 6. Chopra RN. 1982. Indigenous Drugs of India, Academic Publishers, Calcutta. Chu DM, Miles H, Toney D, Ngyuen C, Marciano-Cabral F. 1998.Amebicidal activity of plant extracts from Southeast Asia on Acanthamoeba spp. Parasitol Res;84(9):746-52. Huang L, Yagura T, Chen S. 2008. Sedative activity of hexane extract of Keampferia galanga L. and its active compounds. J Ethnopharmacol . 30; 120(1):123-5. Insun D, Choochote W, Jitpakdi A, Chaithong U, Tippawangkosol P, Pitasawat B. 1999. Possible site of action of Kaempferia galanga in killing Culexquinque fasciatus larvae. South east Asian J Trop Med Public Health; 30(1):195-9. Janssen AM, Scheffer JJ., Acetoxychavicol Acetate, an Antifungal Component of Alpinia galanga1. Planta Med.; 51(6):507-11.Dec (1985). Kanjanapothi D, Panthong A, Lertprasertsuke N, Taesotikul T, Rujjanawate C, Kaewpinit D, Sudthayakorn R, Choochote W, Chaithong U, Jitpakdi A, Pitasawat B. 2004. Toxicity of crude rhizome extract of Kaempferia galanga L. (ProhHom). J Ethnopharmacol ; 90(2-3): 359-65. Khare CP. 2004. Indian herbal remedies: rational Western therapy, ayurvedic, and other traditional usage botany. Publisher Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg New York: 275. Kiuchi F, Nakamura N, Tsuda Y, Kondo K, Yoshimura H. 1988.Studies on crude drugs effective on visceral larva migransII.Larvicidal principles in Kaempferia rhizoma. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin 36, 412–415. Lu Y, Zheng Q, Zhang S, Chen Y. 1998.X-ray diffraction Fourier Pattern Analysis of the Chinese Materia Medica "shannai" ( Kaempferia galanga L.). Yao Xue Xue Bao; 33(8):587-90.

301 Mustafa RA, Abdul Hamid A, Mohamed S, Bakar FA. 2010. Total phenolic compounds, flavonoids, and radical scavenging activity of 21 selected tropical plants. J Food Sci .; 75(1):C28-35. Nadkarni KM. 1976. The Indian Materia Medica, 3 rd Ed., Vol. 1, Popular Prakashan, Bombay. Noro T, Miyase T, Kuroyanagi M, Ueno A, Fukushima S. 1983. Monoamine oxidase inhibitor from the rhizomes of Kaempferia galanga L. Chemical and Pharmaceutical Bulletin; 31, 2708–271. Othman R, Ibrahim H, Mohd MA, Awang K, Gilani AU, Mustafa MR. 2002. Vaso-relaxant effects of ethyl cinnamate isolated from Kaempferia galanga on smooth muscles of the rat aorta. Planta Med; 68(7):655-7. Othman R, Ibrahim H, Mohd MA, Mustafa MR, Awang K. 2006. Bioassay-guided isolation of a vaso-relaxant active compound from Kaempferia galanga L . Phytomedicine; 13(1-2):61-6. Seidemann J. 1992. Kentjur--a little-known asiatic spice and medicinal plant. Pharmazie.; 47(8): 636-9. Sutthanont N, Choochote W, Tuetun B, Junkum A, Jitpakdi A, Chaithong U, Riyong D, Pitasawat B. 2010. Chemical composition and larvicidal activity of edible plant-derived essential oils against the pyrethroid- susceptible and -resistant strains of Aedesaegypti (Diptera: Culicidae). J Vector Ecol ; 35(1):106-15. Takeatsu K, Ji-Xian G, Chung KS. 1997. International collation of traditional and folk medicine. Northeast Asia, Part II.Editor-in-chief, Paul P.H.But. World Scientific Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Singapore: 209-210. Vimala S, Norhanom AW, Yadav M. 1999. Anti-tumour promoter activity in Malaysian ginger rhizobia used in traditional medicine. Br J Cancer ; 80(1-2):110-6. Xue Y, Chen H. 2002. Study on the anti-carcinogenic effects of three compounds in [ Kaempferia galanga L . Wei Sheng Yan Jiu; 31(4):247-8. Yu JG, Yu DL, Zhang S, Luo XZ, Sun L, Zheng CC, Chen YH. 2000. Studies on the chemical constituents of Kaempferia marginata . Yao Xue Xue Bao; 35(10):760-3. Zhou Z, Yu MG, Xiao JY, Wang GY, Xie BW, Hu SX, Zhao SQ, Zhang MQ. 1989. Studies on the intro and cultivation of Kaempferia galanga L. Zhongguo Zhong Yao Za Zhi;14(2):11-4, 61.

302