Table of Contents

CHAPTER 1 AN INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF ...... 1 1. Law Defined...... 1 Notes...... 2 2. Tort and ...... 3 Notes...... 4 Review Problem...... 5 3. A Brief History of Tort Law ...... 5 Notes...... 8 4. and Case: A Brief Review of the Case Law ...... 9 Scott v. Shepherd ...... 9 Notes and Questions...... 12 Leame v. Bray...... 12 Williams v. Holland...... 13 Notes and Questions...... 14 Holmes v. Mather ...... 14 Notes and Questions...... 15 Cook v. Lewis ...... 15 Notes and Questions...... 17 5. The Bases for Imposing Liability in Tort...... 17 (a) Absolute Liability ...... 18 (b) Strict Liability ...... 18 (c) ...... 19 (d) Intention...... 19 (e) No Liability...... 19 6. The Functions of Tort Law ...... 20 (a) Compensation...... 21 (b) Appeasement and Vindication...... 21 (c) Punishment...... 21 (d) Deterrence ...... 21 (e) Market Deterrence...... 22 (f) Justice ...... 23 Notes and Questions...... 23 7. The Rights Theory of Tort Law ...... 25 Notes and Questions...... 26 CHAPTER 2 THE BASIC CONCEPTS OF REMEDIES IN INTENTIONAL TORTS ...... 29 1. Introduction ...... 29 2. Judicial and Extrajudicial Remedies ...... 29 Notes...... 30 3. Classifications of ...... 31 Note...... 31 4. Nominal Damages ...... 32 The Mediana...... 32 Notes and Questions...... 32 5. Compensatory Damages...... 33 viii TABLE OF CONTENTS

(a) Assessing Damages for Pecuniary Losses ...... 34 The Mediana...... 34 Notes and Questions...... 34 (b) Assessing Damages for Non-Pecuniary Losses ...... 35 Review Problem...... 36 6. Aggravated Damages...... 36 Notes and Questions...... 37 7. Punitive Damages...... 37 Notes and Questions...... 38 B.(P.) v. B.(W.) ...... 38 Notes and Questions...... 40 (a) The Principles in Whiten v. Pilot ...... 41 Notes and Questions...... 42 8. Disgorgement Damages ...... 44 (a) True Restitution for Unjust Enrichment ...... 45 (b) ‘‘Restitution” for ‘‘Unjust Enrichment” ...... 45 Notes and Questions...... 46 Penarth Dock Engineering Co. Ltd. v. Pounds...... 46 Notes and Questions...... 47 Review Problem...... 48 CHAPTER 3 INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCE WITH THE PERSON...... 49 1. Introduction ...... 49 2. Basic Principles of Liability ...... 49 (a) Volition ...... 49 Smith v. Stone...... 50 Notes and Questions...... 50 (b) Intent ...... 50 (i) Imputed (Constructive) Intent...... 51 (ii) ...... 51 Notes and Questions...... 51 3. Related Issues: Motive, Mistake and Accident ...... 52 (a) Motive...... 52 Notes...... 53 (i) Duress ...... 53 Gilbert v. Stone ...... 53 Notes and Questions...... 53 (ii) Provocation ...... 54 Miska v. Sivec...... 54 Notes and Questions...... 55 (b) Mistake ...... 57 Hodgkinson v. Martin...... 57 Ranson v. Kitner ...... 57 Notes and Questions...... 58 (c) Inevitable Accident ...... 58 Review Problems ...... 59 (d) The Liability of Children and Those with a Mental Illness ...... 59 TABLE OF CONTENTS ix

Notes and Questions...... 59 4. ...... 61 Notes and Questions...... 61 Bettel v. Yim...... 62 Notes and Questions...... 65 5. ...... 67 Notes and Questions...... 67 Holcombe v. Whitaker...... 68 Police v. Greaves ...... 69 Notes and Questions...... 70 Review Problems ...... 72 6. ...... 72 Bird v. Jones ...... 72 Notes and Questions...... 74 (a) False Arrest...... 75 Campbell v. S.S. Kresge Co...... 76 Notes and Questions...... 77 (b) Consensual Restraint ...... 79 Herd v. Weardale Steel, Coal and Coke Co. Ltd...... 79 Notes and Questions...... 80 Review Problem...... 81 7. ...... 81 Nelles v. Ontario ...... 81 Notes and Questions...... 84 (a) The Tort of ...... 88 Review Problem...... 88 8. Intentional Infliction of Nervous Shock (Mental Distress, Psychiatric Harm) ...... 89 Wilkinson v. Downton...... 89 Notes and Questions...... 91 Radovskis v. Tomm ...... 91 Samms v. Eccles...... 92 Notes and Questions...... 94 (a) Broadening of Liability...... 95 Notes and Questions...... 95 (b) The Innominate ...... 97 Notes and Questions...... 97 Review Problems ...... 99 9. Invasion of Privacy...... 99 (a) Introduction ...... 99 Motherwell v. Motherwell ...... 99 Notes and Questions...... 101 (b) The American Privacy Actions ...... 102 Notes and Questions...... 102 (c) Emerging Common Law Privacy Actions in Canada...... 103 Notes and Questions...... 103 x TABLE OF CONTENTS

(d) Established Common Law Tort Actions in Canada...... 106 Jones v. Tsige...... 106 Notes and Questions...... 108 (e) The Statutory Protection of Privacy...... 109 Notes and Questions...... 109 (f) The Provincial Privacy Statutes...... 110 Hollinsworth v. BCTV ...... 110 Notes and Questions...... 112 Review Problem...... 112 (g) ...... 113 Notes and Questions...... 114 Review Problem...... 114 10. Discrimination...... 115 Seneca College of Applied Arts & Technology v. Bhadauria ...... 115 Notes and Questions...... 118 CHAPTER 4 INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCE WITH CHATTELS ...... 121 1. Introduction ...... 121 2. The Development of the Actions...... 121 (a) Trespass...... 121 (b) ...... 122 (c) and ...... 123 Notes and Questions...... 124 3. ...... 127 Fouldes v. Willoughby...... 127 Notes and Questions...... 129 4. Conversion ...... 131 (a) General Principles...... 131 MacKenzie v. Scotia Lumber Co...... 131 Notes and Questions...... 133 Review Problems ...... 140 (b) Conversion of Cheques and Other Unusual Chattels ...... 141 373409 Alberta Ltd. (Receiver of) v. Bank of Montreal...... 141 Notes and Questions...... 144 (c) Remedies for Conversion ...... 148 Aitken v. Gardiner...... 148 Notes and Questions...... 150 5. Detinue ...... 154 Gen. & Finance Facilities Ltd. v. Cooks Cars (Romford) Ltd...... 154 Aitken v. Gardiner...... 156 Notes and Questions...... 157 6. Recaption and ...... 159 (a) Recaption ...... 159 TABLE OF CONTENTS xi

(b) Replevin ...... 159 Notes and Questions...... 161 Review Problems ...... 162 CHAPTER 5 INTENTIONAL INTERFERENCE WITH REAL PROPERTY...... 165 1. ...... 165 Entick v. Carrington...... 165 Turner v. Thorne ...... 165 Notes and Questions...... 167 Review Problems ...... 170 Harrison v. Carswell...... 170 Notes and Questions...... 174 2. Trespass and ...... 177 Kerr v. Revelstoke Bldg. Materials Ltd...... 177 Notes and Questions...... 179 Review Problem...... 180 3. Trespass to Airspace and Subsoil ...... 181 (a) Trespass to Airspace...... 181 Bernstein v. Skyviews & General Ltd...... 181 Notes and Questions...... 183 (b) Trespass to Subsoil ...... 184 Notes and Questions...... 185 Review Problems ...... 185 CHAPTER 6 THE DEFENCE OF ...... 187 1. Introduction to the Defences ...... 187 2. General Principles of Consent ...... 187 (a) Introduction ...... 187 Notes and Questions...... 188 (b) Implied Consent ...... 188 Wright v. McLean...... 188 Notes and Questions...... 189 (c) Exceeding Consent...... 190 Agar v. Canning ...... 190 Notes and Questions...... 191 Review Problems ...... 194 (d) Competency to Consent...... 194 3. Factors Vitiating Consent: , Mistake, Duress, and Public Policy ...... 195 (a) Introduction ...... 195 (b) Fraud (Deceit) ...... 195 Notes and Questions...... 196 (c) Mistake ...... 197 Notes and Questions...... 197 (d) Duress (Coercion)...... 198 Latter v. Braddell ...... 198 Notes and Questions...... 201 (e) Public Policy...... 202 xii TABLE OF CONTENTS

Notes and Questions...... 202 Review Problems ...... 204 4. Consent to Criminal or Immoral Acts...... 205 Notes and Questions...... 205 5. Consent to Treatment, Counselling and Care ...... 207 (a) General Principles of Consent...... 207 Notes and Questions...... 208 (b) Exceptions to the Common Law Principles of Consent ...... 209 Marshall v. Curry...... 209 Malette v. Shulman ...... 211 Notes and Questions...... 213 (c) The Burden of Proof and Consent Forms ...... 215 Notes and Questions...... 215 (d) Competency to Consent...... 216 (i) Minors...... 216 C. v. Wren ...... 217 Notes and Questions...... 218 Review Problem...... 220 (ii) Adults ...... 220 Notes and Questions...... 221 (e) Substitute Consent...... 222 Notes and Questions...... 223 (f) Informed Consent: Battery or Negligence? ...... 225 Note...... 226 Review Problem...... 226 CHAPTER 7 DEFENCES RELATED TO THE PROTECTION OF PERSON AND PROPERTY ...... 227 1. Introduction ...... 227 2. Self-Defence...... 227 Wackett v. Calder ...... 227 Notes and Questions...... 229 3. Defence of Third Parties...... 232 Gambriell v. Caparelli...... 232 Notes and Questions...... 234 4. Discipline ...... 235 R. v. Dupperon...... 235 Notes and Questions...... 237 5. Defence of Real Property ...... 240 MacDonald v. Hees...... 240 Notes and Questions...... 242 Bird v. Holbrook ...... 244 Notes and Questions...... 245 6. Defence and Recaption of Chattels...... 245 Notes and Questions...... 246 Review Problem...... 246 7. Public and Private ...... 247 (a) Public Necessity...... 247 TABLE OF CONTENTS xiii

Surocco v. Geary...... 247 Notes and Questions...... 248 (b) Private Necessity...... 251 Vincent v. Lake Erie Tpt. Co...... 251 Notes and Questions...... 253 8. Apportionment of Fault in Intentional Torts ...... 255 Notes and Questions...... 256 Review Problems ...... 257 CHAPTER 8 THE DEFENCE OF LEGAL AUTHORITY ...... 259 1. Introduction ...... 259 Notes and Questions...... 260 2. The Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ...... 261 (a) Liability Under Section 24(1)...... 262 (b) The Impact of Section 52 on the Defence of Legal Authority ...... 263 Notes and Questions...... 263 3. Authority and Privilege to Arrest Without a Warrant .... 264 (a) Introduction ...... 264 Notes...... 266 (b) A Peace Officer’s Power to Arrest without a Warrant...... 266 Notes and Questions...... 267 (c) Privilege or Justification Under the Criminal Code...... 268 Notes and Questions...... 269 (d) A Private Citizen’s Authority and Privilege to Arrest without a Warrant ...... 270 Notes and Questions...... 271 4. Rights and Obligations in the Arrest Process...... 273 (a) Reasons for the Arrest...... 273 Koechlin v. Waugh and Hamilton...... 273 Notes and Questions...... 276 (b) The Use of Reasonable Force...... 278 Notes and Questions...... 278 5. The Common Law Power to Search Pursuant to a Lawful Arrest...... 280 R. v. Caslake ...... 280 Notes and Questions...... 282 6. A Peace Officer’s Common Law Power of Entry to Search for a Wanted Person ...... 285 Eccles v. Bourque ...... 285 Notes and Questions...... 289 Review Problems ...... 291 CHAPTER 9 INTRODUCTION TO THE LAW OF NEGLIGENCE... 293 1. Negligence: Defining Terms ...... 293 2. The Historical Development of Negligence...... 293 Notes and Questions...... 295 xiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

3. The Elements of a Negligence Action ...... 296 (a) Introduction ...... 296 (i) ...... 297 (ii) The Standard of Care and its Breach...... 297 (iii) Causation ...... 297 (iv) Remoteness of Damages ...... 297 (v) Actual Loss ...... 297 (vi) Defences ...... 298 Notes and Questions...... 298 (b) Negligence: A Case Illustration...... 298 Dunsmore v. Deshield ...... 299 Notes and Questions...... 301 CHAPTER 10 THE DUTY OF CARE ...... 303 1. Evolution of the Duty of Care Test ...... 303 (a) The Classical Approach ...... 303 (b) The General Duty of Care Test ...... 304 M’Alister (or Donoghue) v. Stevenson ...... 304 Notes and Questions...... 308 (c) The Development of the Modern Law of Duty...... 310 Notes and Questions...... 312 (d) Anns and the Supreme Court of Canada...... 313 Cooper v. Hobart ...... 314 Notes and Questions...... 319 (e) Developments Since Cooper v. Hobart...... 321 Notes and Questions...... 324 2. Reasonable Foreseeability ...... 325 (a) Foreseeable Risk of Injury...... 325 Moule v. N.B. Elec. Power Comm...... 325 Amos v. N.B. Elec. Power Comm...... 327 Notes and Questions...... 329 (b) Foreseeable Plaintiff ...... 331 Palsgraf v. Long Island Ry. Co...... 331 Notes and Questions...... 334 CHAPTER 11 SPECIAL DUTIES OF CARE: AFFIRMATIVE ACTION...... 339 1. Introduction to Special Duties of Care ...... 339 2. Introduction to Duties of Affirmative Action...... 339 Notes and Questions...... 340 3. The ...... 342 Osterlind v. Hill ...... 342 Notes and Questions...... 343 Matthews v. MacLaren; Horsley v. MacLaren ...... 345 Notes and Questions...... 350 Good Samaritan Act, 2001 (Ontario) ...... 353 Review Problems ...... 354 4. The Duty to Control the Conduct of Others ...... 354 (a) Liability for the Intoxicated ...... 355 TABLE OF CONTENTS xv

Crocker v. Sundance Northwest Resorts Ltd...... 355 Notes and Questions...... 359 (b) Other Duty to Control Situations ...... 364 Notes and Questions...... 365 (c) The Duty to Prevent Crime and Protect Others ..... 369 Jane Doe v. Metropolitan Toronto (Municipality) Commissioners of Police ...... 369 Notes and Questions...... 372 Review Problems ...... 380 5. The Duty to Perform Gratuitous Undertakings...... 380 Notes and Questions...... 381 Smith v. Rae ...... 382 Zelenko v. Gimbel Bros., Inc...... 383 Soulsby v. Toronto ...... 383 Notes and Questions...... 385 Review Problems ...... 386 CHAPTER 12 SPECIAL DUTIES OF CARE: MISCELLANEOUS CATEGORIES...... 389 1. Introduction ...... 389 2. The Duty of Care Owed to Rescuers...... 390 Horsley v. MacLaren...... 390 Notes and Questions...... 395 Review Problems ...... 399 3. Duties Owed to the Unborn ...... 399 (a) Pre-Conception Wrongs...... 399 Notes and Questions...... 400 (b) Wrongful Birth and ...... 401 Notes and Questions...... 402 (c) Wrongful Pregnancy ...... 404 Notes and Questions...... 406 (d) Pre-Natal Injuries ...... 408 Notes and Questions...... 411 4. Psychiatric Harm ...... 414 (a) Introduction ...... 414 Notes and Questions...... 415 (b) Commonwealth Developments...... 417 Alcock v. Chief Constable of South Yorkshire Police ..... 419 Notes and Questions...... 424 (c) The Canadian Position ...... 427 Mustapha v. Culligan of Canada Ltd...... 428 Notes and Questions...... 436 Review Problem...... 437 5. A Health Professional’s Duty to Inform ...... 438 Haughian v. Paine ...... 439 Notes and Questions...... 441 Review Problem...... 445 6. A Manufacturer’s and Supplier’s Duty to Warn...... 445 Hollis v. Dow Corning Corp...... 445 xvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

Notes and Questions...... 452 Review Problems ...... 458 7. Duty of Care Owed by a Barrister ...... 459 Demarco v. Ungaro ...... 459 Notes and Questions...... 462 CHAPTER 13 SPECIAL DUTIES OF CARE: NEGLIGENT MISREPRESENTATION ...... 465 1. Introduction ...... 465 Notes and Questions...... 467 2. Negligent Misrepresentation Causing Pure Economic Loss...... 472 Hercules Managements Ltd. v. Ernst & Young ...... 472 Notes and Questions...... 480 R. v. Imperial Tobacco Canada Ltd...... 484 Notes and Questions...... 489 3. Negligent Misrepresentation and Contract ...... 490 (a) Concurrent Liability in Tort and Contract...... 490 BG Checo International Ltd. v. B.C. Hydro & Power Authority ...... 490 Notes and Questions...... 496 (b) Pre-Contractual Misrepresentations ...... 497 Queen v. Cognos Inc...... 497 Notes and Questions...... 501 Review Problem...... 502 CHAPTER 14 SPECIAL DUTIES OF CARE: RECOVERY OF PURE ECONOMIC LOSS IN NEGLIGENCE ...... 505 1. Introduction ...... 505 Notes and Questions...... 506 2. New Categories of Pure Economic Loss ...... 506 Martel Building Ltd. v. Canada ...... 507 Notes and Questions...... 511 3. Negligent Performance of a Service...... 516 B.D.C. Ltd. v. Hofstrand Farms Ltd...... 516 James v. British Columbia ...... 518 Notes and Questions...... 519 4. Negligent Supply of Shoddy Goods or Structures...... 521 Winnipeg Condominium Corp. No. 36 v. Bird Construction Co...... 521 Notes and Questions...... 527 Review Problems ...... 532 5. Relational Economic Loss...... 533 Bow Valley Husky (Bermuda) Ltd. v. Saint John Shipbuilding Ltd...... 534 Notes and Questions...... 540 CHAPTER 15 THE STANDARD OF CARE ...... 545 1. Introduction ...... 545 TABLE OF CONTENTS xvii

2. The Common Law Standard of Care: The Reasonable Person Test...... 546 Arland v. Taylor...... 546 Notes and Questions...... 548 3. Factors Considered in Determining Breach of the Standard of Care...... 550 (a) Probability and Severity of the Harm ...... 551 Bolton v. Stone...... 551 Paris v. Stepney Borough Council ...... 553 Notes and Questions...... 555 (b) Cost of Risk Avoidance...... 558 Vaughn v. Halifax-Dartmouth Bridge Comm...... 558 Law v. Simice ...... 559 Notes and Questions...... 559 (c) Social Utility ...... 561 Watt v. Hertfordshire County Council...... 561 Notes and Questions...... 562 4. An Economic Analysis of the Standard of Care ...... 564 United States v. Carroll Towing Co...... 564 Notes and Questions...... 565 5. Special Standards of Care ...... 568 (a) The Standard of Care Expected of the Disabled .... 568 Fiala v. Cechmanek ...... 568 Notes and Questions...... 573 (b) The Standard of Care Expected of Children ...... 574 Joyal v. Barsby ...... 574 Notes and Questions...... 577 (c) The Standard of Care Expected of Professionals.... 578 White v. Turner...... 578 Notes and Questions...... 581 6. Degrees of Negligence ...... 586 Notes and Questions...... 587 7. Custom ...... 588 ter Neuzen v. Korn ...... 588 Notes and Questions...... 591 Review Problems ...... 593 CHAPTER 16 CAUSATION ...... 595 1. Introduction ...... 595 2. The But-For Test ...... 596 Kauffman v. Toronto Transit Commission ...... 596 Barnett v. Chelsea & Kensington Hospital Management Committee ...... 597 Notes and Questions...... 598 3. Established Exceptions to the But-For Test ...... 600 (a) The Multiple Negligent Defendants Rule ...... 600 (b) The Learned Intermediary Rule ...... 601 (c) Informed Consent...... 601 Notes and Questions...... 601 xviii TABLE OF CONTENTS

4. Recent Attempts to Modify the But-For Test...... 602 (a) Materially Increased Risk of Injury Test...... 603 Snell v. Farrell ...... 604 Notes and Questions...... 607 (b) Material Contribution to Injury Text...... 611 Notes and Questions...... 612 Clements v. Clements...... 613 Notes and Questions...... 617 (c) Proportionate Cause and Loss of Chance ...... 618 Notes and Questions...... 618 Review Problem...... 619 5. Multiple Causes ...... 619 Notes and Questions...... 620 (a) Independent Insufficient Causes...... 621 Athey v. Leonati...... 622 Nowlan v. Brunswick Construction Ltee ...... 625 Notes and Questions...... 625 (b) Independent Sufficient Causes...... 626 Lambton v. Mellish ...... 627 Notes and Questions...... 628 Review Problems ...... 628 6. Issues in Assessing the Plaintiff’s Loss ...... 629 (a) Successive Causes of Parallel Injury ...... 629 Penner v. Mitchell ...... 629 Notes and Questions...... 631 (b) Devaluing the Plaintiff’s Loss ...... 632 Dillon v. Twin State Gas and Elec. Co...... 632 Notes and Questions...... 633 Review Problems ...... 634 CHAPTER 17 REMOTENESS ...... 635 1. Introduction ...... 635 2. Directness Versus Foreseeability ...... 636 (a) The Directness Test ...... 636 Notes and Questions...... 636 (b) The Foreseeability Test...... 636 The Wagon Mound (No. 1); Overseas Tankship (U.K.) Ltd. v. Morts Dock & Engineering Co...... 636 Notes and Questions...... 639 Review Problems ...... 640 3. Modifications to the Foreseeability Test ...... 641 (a) The Kind of Injury ...... 641 Hughes v. Lord Advocate...... 641 Notes and Questions...... 643 (b) The Thin-Skulled Plaintiff Rule ...... 644 Smith v. Leech Brain & Co...... 644 Marconato v. Franklin...... 645 Notes and Questions...... 647 (c) The Possibility of Injury ...... 650 TABLE OF CONTENTS xix

The Wagon Mound (No. 2); Overseas Tankship (U.K.) Ltd. v. Miller Steamship Co. Pty ...... 650 Notes and Questions...... 653 Assiniboine South School Division, No. 3 v. Greater Winnipeg Gas Co...... 654 Notes and Questions...... 656 Mustapha v. Culligan of Canada Ltd...... 657 Notes and Questions...... 659 4. Intervening Causes...... 660 Bradford v. Kanellos...... 661 Notes and Questions...... 663 Price v. Milawski ...... 664 Notes and Questions...... 666 Hewson v. Red Deer...... 668 Notes and Questions...... 670 Review Problems ...... 672 CHAPTER 18 THE ASSESSMENT OF DAMAGES ...... 675 1. Introduction ...... 675 (a) The Purposes of Damage Awards in Negligence .... 675 Notes and Questions...... 676 (b) Preliminary Issues...... 678 Notes and Questions...... 680 2. Damages for Personal Injuries ...... 683 (a) Introduction ...... 683 Andrews v. Grand & Toy Alberta Ltd...... 684 Notes and Questions...... 686 (b) Pecuniary Loss: Future Care...... 689 Andrews v. Grand & Toy Alberta Ltd...... 689 Notes and Questions...... 692 (c) Pecuniary Loss: Lost Earning Capacity...... 695 Andrews v. Grand & Toy Alberta Ltd...... 695 Notes and Questions...... 697 (d) Considerations Relevant to Both Heads of Pecuniary Loss ...... 701 Andrews v. Grand & Toy Alberta Ltd...... 701 Notes and Questions...... 703 (e) Non-Pecuniary Loss ...... 704 Andrews v. Grand & Toy Alberta Ltd...... 704 Notes and Questions...... 706 (f) Other Categories of Loss ...... 709 3. Survival of Actions and Dependants’ Claims ...... 710 (a) Survival of Actions ...... 710 Survival of Actions Act (Alberta)...... 710 Trustee Act (Ontario)...... 711 (b) Fatal Accidents Legislation...... 711 Fatal Injuries Act (Nova Scotia)...... 712 Family Law Act (Ontario)...... 713 Notes and Questions...... 713 xx TABLE OF CONTENTS

(i) The Death of the Family Provider ...... 715 Keizer v. Hanna ...... 715 Notes and Questions...... 718 (ii) The Death of a Dependant Family Member .... 719 Notes and Questions...... 720 4. Damages for Property Loss ...... 722 (a) The Assessment of the Damage to the Property Itself ...... 722 (b) The Assessment of Economic Losses Consequent on the Damage to the Property...... 723 (c) The Plaintiff’s Obligation to Mitigate ...... 723 Notes and Questions...... 723 5. Collateral Benefits...... 727 (a) The Doctrine of Subrogation ...... 728 Notes and Questions...... 729 Review Problems ...... 730 CHAPTER 19 DEFENCES IN NEGLIGENCE ...... 733 1. Introduction ...... 733 2. ...... 733 (a) The Development of the Defence ...... 733 Notes and Questions...... 734 (b) Conduct Constituting Contributory Negligence...... 735 Walls v. Mussens Ltd...... 735 Notes and Questions...... 737 Gagnon v. Beaulieu...... 739 Notes and Questions...... 742 (c) Apportionment of Loss...... 744 Negligence Act (Ontario)...... 744 Notes and Questions...... 745 Mortimer v. Cameron ...... 747 Notes and Questions...... 750 Review Problem...... 752 3. Voluntary ...... 752 Dube v. Labar ...... 753 Notes and Questions...... 756 4. Participation in a Criminal or Immoral Act...... 759 Hall v. Hebert...... 759 Notes and Questions...... 762 5. Inevitable Accident ...... 765 Rintoul v. X-Ray and Radium Indust. Ltd...... 765 Notes and Questions...... 767 Review Problem...... 768 CHAPTER 20 PROOF OF NEGLIGENCE...... 769 1. The Burden of Proof in a Negligence Action...... 769 Wakelin v. London & South Western Ry. Co...... 770 Notes and Questions...... 773 TABLE OF CONTENTS xxi

2. Exceptions to the General Principles Governing the Burden of Proof ...... 774 (a) Statutes and Shifting Burdens of Proof ...... 774 MacDonald v. Woodard...... 774 Notes and Questions...... 776 (b) Directly Caused Injury: Unintended Trespass ...... 777 Dahlberg v. Naydiuk...... 777 Notes and Questions...... 778 (c) Multiple Negligent Defendants ...... 779 Cook v. Lewis ...... 779 Clements v. Clements...... 781 Notes and Questions...... 781 3. ...... 787 Fontaine v. British Columbia (Official Administrator) ...... 788 Notes and Questions...... 791 Review Problems ...... 793 CHAPTER 21 THE TORT LIABILITY OF PUBLIC AUTHORITIES... 795 1. Introduction ...... 795 2. Special Rules for Public Authorities ...... 796 (a) Legislative and Judicial Functions...... 796 Bradley v. Fisher ...... 797 Notes and Questions...... 798 (b) Crown Immunity ...... 802 Notes and Questions...... 802 (c) Limitation Periods and Special Procedures...... 805 Notes...... 805 3. The Negligence Liability of Public Authorities...... 806 (a) Introduction ...... 806 Just v. British Columbia ...... 807 Notes and Questions...... 814 (b) The Effect of Cooper v. Hobart...... 817 Notes and Questions...... 818 R. v. Imperial Tobacco Canada Ltd...... 819 Notes and Questions...... 824 4. Misfeasance in a Public Office...... 824 (a) Introduction ...... 824 Roncarelli v. Duplessis...... 825 Notes and Questions...... 827 (b) Modern Developments...... 828 Odhavji Estate v. Woodhouse...... 828 Notes and Questions...... 834 5. Other Torts...... 837 Notes and Questions...... 838 Review Problems ...... 839 CHAPTER 22 STATUTORY PROVISIONS AND TORT LIABILITY...... 841 xxii TABLE OF CONTENTS

1. Introduction ...... 841 Note...... 842 2. Express Statutory Causes of Action ...... 842 Trespass to Property Act (Ontario)...... 842 Competition Act (Canada)...... 843 Notes and Questions...... 844 Trachsler v. Halton ...... 844 Notes and Questions...... 846 Review Problem...... 847 3. The Use of Statutes in Common Law Negligence...... 849 R. in Right of Can. v. Sask. Wheat Pool...... 849 Notes and Questions...... 855 (a) Breach of Statutory Duty and Common Law Standard of Care ...... 858 Ryan v. Victoria (City)...... 858 Marshall v. Annapolis County School Board...... 862 Notes and Questions...... 863 4. A Note on the Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ...... 864 Canadian Charter of Rights and Freedoms ...... 865 Notes...... 867 Vancouver (City) v. Ward...... 869 Notes and Questions...... 873 Review Problems ...... 875 CHAPTER 23 OCCUPIERS’ LIABILITY ...... 877 1. Introduction ...... 877 2. The Common Law Principles of Occupiers’ Liability ..... 879 (a) Who is an Occupier?...... 879 Palmer v. St. John...... 879 Notes and Questions...... 881 (b) Categories of Entrants and Corresponding Duties...... 882 (i) Contractual Entrants ...... 882 Finigan v. Calgary...... 882 Notes and Questions...... 884 (ii) and Licensees...... 885 McErlean v. Sarel ...... 885 Notes and Questions...... 888 (iii) ...... 890 Veinot v. Kerr-Addison Mines Ltd...... 890 Notes and Questions...... 894 3. The Provincial Occupiers’ Liability Statutes ...... 894 (a) Introduction ...... 894 (b) Ontario Occupiers’ Liability Act...... 895 Occupiers’ Liability Act (Ontario) ...... 895 Notes and Questions...... 898 Waldick v. Malcolm ...... 903 Notes and Questions...... 907 TABLE OF CONTENTS xxiii

Review Problem...... 908 CHAPTER 24 NUISANCE ...... 909 1. Introduction ...... 909 Note...... 910 2. Private Nuisance ...... 910 340909 Ont. Ltd. v. Huron Steel Products (Windsor) Ltd...... 910 Notes and Questions...... 914 Antrim Truck Centre Ltd. v. Ontario (Transportation) ...... 919 Notes and Questions...... 924 Hollywood Silver Fox Farm Ltd. v. Emmett ...... 925 Notes and Questions...... 927 (a) Defence of Statutory Authority...... 927 Tock v. St. John’s Metropolitan Area Board ...... 927 Notes and Questions...... 931 3. ...... 935 A.-G. Ont. v. Orange Productions Ltd...... 936 Hickey v. Electricity Reduction Co...... 938 Notes and Questions...... 940 4. Remedies...... 942 Mendez v. Palazzi ...... 943 Notes and Questions...... 944 Miller v. Jackson...... 945 Notes and Questions...... 949 Spur Industries Inc. v. Del E. Webb Development Co. ... 950 Notes and Questions...... 953 Review Problem...... 956 CHAPTER 25 STRICT AND ...... 959 1. Introduction ...... 959 (a) Strict Liability ...... 959 (b) Vicarious Liability ...... 960 Notes and Questions...... 960 2. Strict Liability for Escape of Dangerous Substances: Rylands v. Fletcher...... 961 (a) Introduction ...... 961 Rylands v. Fletcher...... 961 Notes and Questions...... 963 (b) Escape ...... 965 Read v. J. Lyons & Co...... 965 Notes and Questions...... 968 (c) Non-Natural Use...... 969 Gertsen v. Municipality of Metropolitan Toronto...... 969 Notes and Questions...... 971 (d) Defences to the Rule in Rylands v. Fletcher...... 972 (i) Consent ...... 973 (ii) Common Benefit...... 973 xxiv TABLE OF CONTENTS

(iii) Default of the Plaintiff...... 973 (iv) Act of God...... 973 (v) Act of a Stranger...... 974 (vi) Statutory Authority ...... 974 (e) A Comment on Rylands v. Fletcher...... 974 Notes and Questions...... 976 3. Strict Liability for Animals...... 977 (a) Dangerous Animals ...... 977 Cowles v. Balac...... 977 Notes and Questions...... 981 (b) Cattle Trespass ...... 985 Acker v. Kerr ...... 985 Notes and Questions...... 986 4. Products Liability: Negligence or Strict Liability?...... 988 Notes and Questions...... 988 5. Vicarious Liability...... 989 (a) Statutory Vicarious Liability...... 989 Notes and Questions...... 990 (b) Principal-Agent Relationship ...... 991 T.G. Bright & Co. v. Kerr ...... 992 Notes and Questions...... 993 (c) Master-Servant Relationship...... 994 Bazley v. Curry ...... 995 Notes and Questions...... 1001 (d) Independent Contractors ...... 1009 671122 Ontario Ltd. v. Sagaz Industries Canada Inc. .. 1009 Notes and Questions...... 1014 (e) Non-Delegable Duties...... 1016 Notes and Questions...... 1018 Review Problem...... 1019 CHAPTER 26 BUSINESS TORTS...... 1021 1. Introduction ...... 1021 2. Deceit (Fraud)...... 1022 Derry v. Peek...... 1022 Bruno Appliance and Furniture Inc. v. Hryniak ...... 1025 Notes and Questions...... 1027 3. Passing Off...... 1033 Ciba-Geigy Canada Ltd. v. Apotex Inc...... 1033 Notes and Questions...... 1037 4. Intimidation ...... 1040 Central Can. Potash v. Govt. of Sask...... 1041 Notes and Questions...... 1043 5. ...... 1044 Posluns v. Toronto Stock Exchange ...... 1045 Notes and Questions...... 1046 6. Interference with Contractual Relations...... 1052 Lumley v. Gye...... 1054 Notes and Questions...... 1055 TABLE OF CONTENTS xxv

7. The Unlawful Means Tort ...... 1062 A.I. Enterprises Ltd. v. Bram Enterprises Ltd...... 1062 Notes and Questions...... 1069 Review Problem...... 1072 CHAPTER 27 ...... 1075 1. Introduction ...... 1075 Notes and Questions...... 1076 2. Elements of a Defamation Action...... 1078 (a) Defamatory Material ...... 1078 Sim v. Stretch ...... 1079 Notes and Questions...... 1082 (b) Reference to the Plaintiff ...... 1084 Knuppfer v. London Express Newspaper, Ltd...... 1085 Notes and Questions...... 1085 (c) Publication ...... 1087 Notes and Questions...... 1087 3. Defences ...... 1090 (a) Justification ...... 1090 Williams v. Reason...... 1091 Notes and Questions...... 1093 (b) Absolute Privilege...... 1094 (i) Executive Officers ...... 1095 Dowson v. The Queen...... 1095 (ii) Parliamentary Privilege ...... 1098 (iii) Judicial Proceedings...... 1098 Hung v. Gardiner...... 1098 Notes and Questions...... 1102 (c) Qualified Privilege ...... 1104 Hill v. Church of Scientology...... 1106 Notes and Questions...... 1110 (d) Fair Comment ...... 1111 WIC Radio Ltd. v. Simpson...... 1112 Notes and Questions...... 1122 (e) Responsible Communication on Matters of Public Interest ...... 1125 Grant v. Torstar Corp...... 1125 Notes and Questions...... 1134 (f) Consent ...... 1135 Jones v. Brooks ...... 1136 Notes and Questions...... 1137 4. Remedies...... 1138 (a) Injunction...... 1138 (b) Damages...... 1139 Hill v. Church of Scientology...... 1139 Notes and Questions...... 1148 Review Question...... 1149 xxvi TABLE OF CONTENTS

CHAPTER 28 TORT LAW: THEORIES, CRITICISMS AND ALTERNATIVES...... 1151 1. Introduction ...... 1151 2. Theoretical Criticism of Tort Law...... 1151 (a) Introduction ...... 1151 Notes...... 1152 (b) Deterrence ...... 1152 Notes and Questions...... 1154 (c) Compensation...... 1156 Notes and Questions...... 1157 (d) Theories of Tort Law Based on Concepts of Justice ...... 1159 Notes and Questions...... 1162 (e) Feminist Perspectives ...... 1165 Notes and Questions...... 1166 3. The No-Fault Alternatives ...... 1168 (a) Introduction ...... 1168 (b) No-Fault Accident Compensation in New Zealand ...... 1169 Notes and Questions...... 1170 (c) Workers’ Compensation...... 1173 Notes and Questions...... 1174 (d) No-Fault Automobile Insurance in Canada ...... 1174 Notes and Questions...... 1175 Review Problem...... 1177