I LOC MEMBERS

BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND PROCEEDINGS OF THE FIFTEEN INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCES OF THE SOCIETY OF COMMONWEALTH SCHOLARS IN RESEARCH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (SCWRSD)

PROF. LAMBI CONELIUS MBIFUNG EDITOR-IN-CHIEF FORMER VICE CHANCELLOR, UNIVERSITY OF BUEA CAMEROON, CHAIRMAN OF EDITORIAL BOARD

CONSULTING EDITORS: PROF. S.K. GARG PROF. AMADI O. IHUNWO DEPARTMENT OF CIVIL ENGINEERING/ENVIRONMENTAL DEPARTMENT OF ANATOMICAL SCIENCE ENGINEERING, UNIVERSITY OF DELHL INDIA UNIVERSITY OF WITWAITERSRAND. SOUTH AFRICA.

PROF. RANDRIAMITANTSOA PAUL AUGUST PROF. RAZAFIMADIMBY JOSVAH \ DEAN SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF UNIVERSITY OF FIANARANTSOA MADAGASCAR FIANARANTSOA, MADAGASCAR

PROF. UCHE JACK OSIMIRI PROF. G.O. UNAKA FACULTY OF LAW, RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY DEPARTMENT OF POLITICAL SCIENCE & SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY, PORT HARCOURT ADMINISTRATION, IMO STATE UNIVERSITY NIGERIA. OWERRI, NIGERIA.

PROF. S.C. TEME PROF. IKE AKUDE DIRECTOR INSTITUTE OF GEOSCIENCES & SPACE DEPARTMENT OF CURRICULUM STUDIES TECHNOLOGY, RIVERS STATE UNIVERSITY OF SCIENCE AND &EDUCATION TECHNOLOGY, FACULTY OF TECHNOLOGY, PH EDUCATION NIGERIA. IMO STATE UNIVERSITY OWERRI, NIGERIA.

DR. C.F. IGWE DR. WANIE CLARKSON MVO HEAD OF DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY AND DEPARTMENT OF GEOGRAPHY ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT UNIVERSITY OF PORT UNIVERSITY OF BUEA CAMEROON. HARCOURT, NIGERIA.

KEY NOTE ADDRESS TO BE DELIVERED BY ENGR. DR. GEORGEWILL, ONENGIYEOFORI MOSES (BSC, COMPUTER SCIENCE UNN, MSC APPLIED GEOPHYSICS RSUST, M.ENG. COMPUTER ENGINEERING FUTO, MSC, COMPUTER SCIENCE UNIPORT, PHD COMPUTER SCIENCE UNIPORT, MNSE, MNCS, MCPN, JP RECTOR KEN SARO WIWA POLYTECHNIC, BORI RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA.

st 2 LEAD PAPER PRESENTER 1 LEAD PAPER PRESENTER ENGR. DR. TAMUNO K. JINYEMIEMA ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ISAAC OGUNDU B.Eng. Uniport, M.Eng. Uniport Ph.D NCE, RSUOE PH, B.Ed Ibadan, M.ED RSU, PhD UNN, Uniben, Miirda, MNSE, R. Coren Acting Director Siwes Ignatius Ajuru Lecturer in School of Engineering University of Education, Port Harcourt Ken Saro Wiwa Plytechnic, Bori.

COORINATING EDITOR Dr. Orime, Okechukwu C.N. IIERSD Coordinating Editor P.M.B 5080, Rivers State University Port Harcourt.

LOC MEMBERS Engr. Ledogo Barine Augustine Uyoh Francis Udofia Chief Lecturer, Department of Survey & Geoinformatics, Department of Civil Engineering, Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori. Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, email: [email protected] 08035514585 07036755599 Dr. Wosu, Emma Ogbonda Owhonda Collins Department of Business Administration Department of General Studies, & Management, Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori. Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori. email: [email protected] email: [email protected] 08033418999 08036654125 i

PUBLISHED BY INTERNATIONAL INSTITUTE FOR EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (HERSD)

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PROF. RANDRIAMITANTSOA PAUL AUGUST DEAN SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATES STUDIES UNIVERSITY OF FIANARANTSOA, MADAGASCAR

All Right Reserve: this publication shall not in any way be stored, transmitted in any form of electronic storing medium, or in any other means, without the due permission of IIERSD. This is an international research institute which also has a legal backing under Reg. RC 122765, the Federal Ministry of Education of Nigeria and Ghana, National University Commission; the research institute are regulated and supervised by other Affiliate Educational Institute and centres abroad e.g. Canada and in academic relationship with faculty of social and management sciences, university of Buea in Cameroon, also in institute of education. University of cape coast Ghana and using such knowledge in solving all problems facing the Global Nation for sustainable Development. Printed and bound by international institute for empirical Research and sustainable Development Press, Contact office of the institute Worldwide: 1 Agwecams Printers B’ DA Portonovo Benin Republic. 2 C/o Prosper Deku, Department of Education Foundation University of Cape Coast Ghana.

3. C/o Prof. Cornelius Lambi M. Department of Geography, Faculty of Social and Management Sciences University of Buea Cameroon.

CONTENTS PAGE QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: A VERITABLE APPROACH IN REPOSITIONING 3-11 VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FOR ACCELERATED SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.

ENGINEERING AND REPOSITIONING ACADEMIC RESEARCH FOR ACCELERATED

SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT: TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL 12-31 EDUCATION APPROACH THE VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL RESEARCH APPROACH

THE USEFULNESS OF ECONOMIC PLAN IN A RECESSED ECONOMY ON SMALL 32-41 SCALE BUSINESS OPERATORS IN PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS

THE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS OF ADOLESCENCE DELINQUENT 42-56 BEHAVIOUR FOR SOCIAL REFORMATION

ACOUSTIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SEA FLOOR SEDIMENTS IN 57-73 “EMOBS” FIELDS OFFSHORE, WESTERN NIGER DELTA: IMPLICATIONS ON OIL FIELD

DEVELOPMENT. RESEARCH AND INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY 74-82 ERADICATION: ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND THE WAY FORWARD

IMPACT OF TERRORISM ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF INSURGENCY IN NORTHERN NIGERIA 83-95 RE-COLONIZATION OF NIGERIAN STATES AND HERDSMEN CONSPIRACY IN GRAND STYLE: ST EXPLORING IMPERIALISTIC AND HEGEMONIC AGENDA IN THE 21 CENTURY. 96-109

RE-ENGINEERING RESEARCH ON PERCEPTIONS OF NON-TECHNICAL EDUCATORS ON TECHNICAL EDUCATION PROGRAMS FORBETTER SKILL DEVELOPMENT AND ACQUISITION 110-123

IN HIGHER VOCATIONAL INSTITUTIONS

REPOSITIONING VOCATIONAL AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION (VTE) FOR MASSIVE 124-132 WEALTH CREATION AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION IN NIGERIA.

RETOOLING EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: 133-139 THE CASE OF RIVERS STATE OF NIGERIA

THE NIGERIAN STATE AND NON-CONSENSUAL CREATION: THE DILEMMA OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION 140-152 STRATEGIES REQUIRED FOR ENHANCING STUDENTS’ SKILL ACQUISITION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN TECHNICAL COLLEGES IN RIVERS STATE. 153-172 INFLUENCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE STYLES AND OFFICE STAFF PERFORMANCE IN PRIVATE COMPANIES IN RIVERS STATE 173-192 SECURITY INFORMATION LITERACY FOR POLITICAL LEADERS IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 193-197 INVIGORATING THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF RETIREES IN NIGERIA: FOR SUSTAINABLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT 198-199

MEASURING AND EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL OPERATIONS IN LABORATORIES IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA. 200 INSURANCE PRODUCT INNOVATION AND SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 201

DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATED DESIGN TOOL FOR OPTIMUM DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND COUPLING MS EXCEL IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES 202 ENTREPRENEURSHIP COMPETENCIES AND GOVERNMENTEMPOWERMENT: THE SILVER BULLET TO REPOSITION NIGERIA AS GIANT OF AFRICA 203 A STUDY ON THE EVALUATION OF WATER UPTAKE CAPACITY OF CISSUS POPULNEASTEM BARK (CPSB) MEMBRANE 204-213

iii

AUTHORS/CONTRIBUTORS PAGE

OGUNDU, ISAAC Ph.D 3-11

ENGR. DR. TAMUNO K. JINYEMIEMA 12-31

AKOMAS UWOMA CHARLES 32-41

1SULEIMAN FH Ph.D &2AMINU SANI (Ph.D) 42-56

CHUKU, HOPE CHIBUZOR¹ AND ODIGI, MINAPUYE ISAAC² 57-73

1WADA UMAR, 2DIMAS B. MAKKA, 3WAFUDU J. SATUMARI & 4HELLON M. JUSTIN 74-82

ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA 83-95 ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA 96-109 1 TANEH ANTHONY N., 2FESTUS .U. CHIMEZIE &3CHARITY .M. KPABEP 110-123 1 2 WORDU, CHIDUHIEGEM C.R. & IGRUBIA, VICTOR

1IHEANYI OSONDU OBISIKE, &2RICHARDUNWOBUESOR ILOMA 124-132

ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA 133-139

1 2 OBED.O.O . AND ENYICHE C. E. 140-152

1NWEKE, EMMANUEL ONYEKACHI, 2 IDORNIGIE, EVELYN& 3 EVANGEL ONUOHA 153-172 173-192

OMEHIA, A. E. PH.D 193-197

FIIWE, JAMES LEEKAAGA 198-199 1 2 ORIME, OKECHUKWU C. N. (PH.D), NJOSI, JUSTINA A., 200 3 NMEAKOR LETAM D. 1GBERESUU, B.B, MACFUBARA, M.S. &2NORTEH, D. 201

1 2 LEDOGO, AUGUSTINE BARINE ; UGO, KINGSLEY CHUKUEMEKA ; 202 NWOKA JUSTICE CHIMKA3; WEST WESLEY4

1WOSU, EMMA. O. (Ph.D), 2IKPE G. IKPE (Ph.D), 3OWONDA COLLINS 203 AND 4CLIFFORD AYONE

AMINA AMINU 204-213 iv

PROGRAMME OF EVENTS AND BOOK OF ABSTRACTS AND PROCEEDING

DAY 1 - Arrival and Registration 8.30am - Wed. 8th Wed. Aug., 2018 9.00am - Registration Continues 10.30am - Conferees get seated 10.45am - Arrival of the Chief Host, Co-ordinating Editor Keynote Paper Address Presenter, Lead Paper Presenters and Principal Officers of the Polytechnic.

11.00am - Opening Ceremony Proper: Introduction of Chief Host.

Rector Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State.

11.30am Introduction of Keynote Paper Presenters Engr. Dr. Georgewill, Onengiyeofori Moses Rector Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State.

11.35am Recognition of the Lead Paper Presenters 1st LEAD PAPER PRESENTER ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ISAAC OGUNDU NCE, RSUOE PH, B.Ed Ibadan, M.ED RSU, PhD UNN, Acting Director Siwes Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt

2nd LEAD PAPER PRESENTER ENGR. DR. TAMUNO K. JINYEMIEMA B.Eng. Uniport, M.Eng. Uniport Ph.D Uniben, Miirda, MNSE, R. Coren Lecturer in School of Engineering Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori

11.40am * Opening Prayers * Chairman’s Opening Remarks * Chief Host’s Address- Engr. Dr. Georgewill, Onengiyeofori Moses Rector: Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, Rivers State. v

Welcome Address by the co-ordinating Editor, Dr. Orime, Noble Chikweri .O. of Rivers State University Port Harcourt. 11.50am 1stLead Paper Presentation Ass. Professor isaac ogundu Department of Industrial and Vocational Education Ignatius Ajuru University, Port Harcourt.

2nd Lead Paper Presentation Engr. Dr. Tamuno K. Jinyemiema Lecturer in School of Engineering Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori.

1.00pm Questions and Discussion * Vote of thanks by the LOC Chairman, Engr. Ledogo Barine A. Department of Civil Engineering Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori.

Closing Prayers

DAY 2: Thur. 9th Aug., 2018 9.00am to Registration Continues 1.29pm Presentation/Technical Session Environmental Sciences, Science & Technology Management and Social Sciences Education, Languages and Arts/Humanities.

1.30pm - Short break 2.00pm - Presentation Continues Paper Presentation Closing Prayers & Thanks.

A WELCOME ADDRESS OF THE 15TH INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF THE SOCIETY OF COMMONWEALTH SCHOLARS IN RESEARCH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT A SUBSIDIARY INSTITUTE OF EMPIRICAL RESEARCH AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT (IIERSD), AN OPERATING EDUCATIONAL RESEARCH UNIT IN (IIERSD), HELD ON 8TH AUGUST, 2018, AT CONVOCATION ARENA OF KEN SARO WIWA POLYTECHNIC BORI, RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA.

Dr. Orime, Okechukim C.N. COORDINATING EDITOR OF IIERSD, Rivers State University Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria.

GOOD Morning Rector, Ken Saro wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, Principal Officers of the Polytechnic, Invited Guest Speaker/Lead Paper Presenters, Distinguished Professors of High repute in several endeavour, The Deans, Directors of Institutes, Head of Departments, Academic Staffs and Non-Academic Staffs, Our Dear Paper and Co-paper presenters, students, Observers, men of the press and meaningfulAudience.

It is with a singular honour and privilege to use this favourable academic atmosphere to welcome you to this esteem institution of learning in Nigeria. This is ascertained from the obvious research fact that knowledge and learning is a continuous issues, since education depends on innovation for a society to grow. It is therefore one of the aim and objective of this Researching Institute/organization, which came into existence on 28th May, 1999 at University of Ghana, Legon Accra, with a total take off strength of eight persons, who are fully and purely dedicated into researching, initiating research and sustainable development, which later gave birth to De-Common Wealth/Research and Manpower Development and Capacity Education Journal in 2010, seek the efforts of the Common Wealth Organization for support to accord all her member states the opportunity of putting down ideas in papers and also gain the right to free will exchange of ideas as a team work, to enable them accomplish the content of the Millennium Development Goals Agenda at the Global World. This research body as detailed by one of the pioneer member, who also was addressed as Dr. Amadi Ihunwo is now Prof. Amadi Ihunwo of the great Department of Anatomical sciences of the University of Witwaterstrand in South Africa, Dr. B.J. Ayorinde of Department of Agricultural Education, Tai Solarin University of Education Ijabuode, Ogun Statenow a Professor, Dr. Garuba Usman of Department of Physics, Faculty of Science Bayaro University Kano now a Professor and Prof. Uche Jack Osimiri, of the Faculty of Law, Engr.Barine Ledogo Augustine of the department of civil Engineering now a chief lecturer Kenpoly here in Rivers state Nigeria, others are Prof. L.O. Amus, Prosper Deku of the Department of Educational Foundation in other universities, have all benefited from this Academic Research Institute .

The research union is also willing to aid many scholars who have that similar intention to grow in academic, therefore the task and challenges is yours as gone are the days when professorial ranks are given to scholars with seven papers. 1

However, to ascertained to the authencity and credibility of this research network, every outcome of our scholarly conference debate and academic materials are compulsorily demanded to be a referencing materials in the following institutions library: university of Ghana Legon Accra Library, University of Buea Special collection point, University of Venda for Science and Technology TolhoyanduSouth Africa, Universities, De-Lome in Togo, University of Ibadan school library, Hezekiah Oluwafemi library in Obafemi Awolowo Univeristy IIe-Ife, University of Abuja in the Federal Capital Territory of Nigeria. University of Port Harcourt library, Rivers State University Library in Port Harcourt,Federal University of Technology, Owerri, the Petroleum Training Institute in Effurum Warri, where this research body have also organized our 4thInternational Conference, and many othes not mentioned. This Research body is very open to any good will scholars with genuine intention, but however is never considered a fund sharing organization rather an “Academic Meeting Forum” designed for knowledge sharing. This is based on the fact that no man can be described as encyclopedia of knowledge, therefore not friendly with an |introvert psychologist”, who seeks to acquire knowledge and wisdom and hide it for his or her personal uses, but in the call of death, as a natural phenomenon, they die with it, it is not a sustainable practice. This research body also calls for update of traveling documents ranging from international passport, vaccination (yellow card), and good visa relationship with embassies, however members who cannot make any of our international trips can seek the consent of his Dear Colleagues, which though may be possible while demanding for a group visa application during the following International Conferences, University of Buea in Cameroon, Queen mary University, British Columbia University, University of Sierreleone Furah Bay, Gambia and Liberia etc. Where the institute members are ready to welcome us and interact meaningfully for a sustainable educational development, hence membership is free.

However, it is the culture of this research organization, to issue academic merit research award to the following category of persons. a) A scholar with good journal paper. b) A scholar who have been presenting paper. c) A scholar who have been participating in our African independent Television media Research Teaching, which he or she may support the programme financially and at the end of our annual conference- where prize may be given. d) Good lead paper presenters, after or before conference stage. e) Old members.

This is quite explanatory, with an open truth that promotion in recent time depends on what you have and not on what they shall give you, therefore whoever that wants to grow shall write; as you share knowledge together, I pray for God safety and protection in Jesus name Amen.

The Rector Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori Dear Sir,

A willful Donation of Journals and Conference Books of Abstract and Proceeding to Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori on 8th August, 2018.

With a deep sense of charity and support, we member of the SCWRSD Research institute humbly present this copies of Books materials to the polytechnic as part of our annual research programme.

Thesocietyprayfor maximum and sustainable utilization of this materials, which shall aid students research work and others generally.

Yours faithfully,

Dr. Orime Okechukwu C.N. Co-ordinating Editor, P.M.B. 5080 Rivers State University Port Harcourt. Email: global [email protected] Phone: 07037519907

ABSTRACT OF THE FIRST LEAD PAPER

FIRST LEAD PAPER

QUALITATIVE RESEARCH: A VERITABLE APPROACH IN REPOSITIONING VOCATIONAL AND TECHNICAL EDUCATION FOR ACCELERATED SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA.

A lead paper presented at 15thAnnual International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWSRSD) on August 8th 2018 at Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori Rivers State

OGUNDU, ISAAC Ph.D, ASSOCIATE PROFESSOR ISAAC OGUNDU NCE, RSUOE PH, B.Ed Ibadan, M.ED, Ph.D UNN,

Acting Director Siwes Departmentof Industrial Technical Education Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni, Port Harcourt, [email protected] 08064239095 Abstract Sustainable development of any nation can only be achieved through acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills by the citizen to enable them participate as effective citizens using and exploiting environmental resources in a sustainable manner for themselves and generations to come. The paper therefore examined how the application of qualitative research approach in vocational and technical education can help address the problem of sustainable economic development in Nigeria.Qualitative research is an approach that is best suited to address a research problem in which you do not know the variables and need to explore. The literature might yield little information about the phenomenon of study, and you need to learn more from participants through exploration. At this point you may be asking how quantitative research is similar and different from qualitative research. Read more from the paper and find out. Equally note the recommendations.

Keywords: Qualitative, Research, Approach, Repositioning Vocational, Technical Education, Sustainable and Economic Development Introduction Despite the importance of research, we need to realistically evaluate its contributions. Sometimes the results show contradictory or vague findings. An education aid to the Education and Labor Committee of the U.S. House of Representatives for 27 years expressed this confusion: “I read through every single evaluation. . . looking for a hard sentence—a declarative sentence—something that I could put into the legislation, and there were very few” (Creswell 2012). Not only are policy makers looking for a clear “declarative sentence,” many readers of educational research search for some evidence that makes a direct statement about an educational issue. On balance, however, research accumulates slowly, and what may seem contradictory comes together to make sense in time.

Another problem with research is the issue of questionable data. The author of a particular research report may not have gathered information from people who are able to understand and address the problem. The number of participants may also be dismally low, which can cause problems in drawing appropriate statistical conclusions. The survey used in a study may contain 4

questions that are ambiguous and vague. At a technical level, the researcher may have chosen an inappropriate statistic for analyzing the data. Just because research is published in a well-known journal does not automatically make it “good” research.

To these issues we could add unclear statements about the intent of the study, the lack of full disclosure of data collection procedures, or inarticulate statements of the research problem that drives the inquiry and restricting respondents to particular options. Research has limits, and you need to know how to decipher research studies because researchers may not write them as clearly and accurately as you would like. We cannot erase all “poor” research reported in the educational field. We can, however, as responsible inquirers, seek to reconcile different findings and employ sound procedures to collect and analyze data and to provide clear direction for our own research.

Definition of Research Research is a process of steps used to collect and analyze information to increase our understanding of a topic or issue. When researchers conduct a study, they proceed through a distinct set of steps. Years ago these steps were identified as the “scientific method” of inquiry (Ary;Jacobs& sorensen, 2010). Using a “scientific method,” researchers:

 Identify a problem that defines the goal of research  Make a prediction that, if confirmed, resolves the problem.  Gather data relevant to this prediction  Analyze and interpret the data to see if it supports the prediction and resolves the question that initiated the research

Applied today, these steps provide the foundation for educational research. Although not all studies include predictions, you engage in these steps whenever you undertake a research study. As shown in Figure 1.1, the process of research consists of six steps: Ogundu, Isaac Ph.D, Identifying a research problem 1. Reviewing the literature 2. Specifying a purpose for research 3. Collecting data 4. Analyzing and interpreting the data 5. Reporting and evaluating research

Figure 1.1

The Research Process Cycle

Reporting and Evaluating Identifying a Research Problem Reviewing the Literature Research  Specifying a problem  Locating resources  Deciding on audiences  Justifying it  Selecting resources  Structuring the report  Suggesting the need to study it  Summarizing resources  Writing the report for audiences

Analyzing and Interpreting Collecting Data Specifying a Purpose for Data Research  Selecting Individuals to  Breaking down the data study  Identifying the purpose  Representing the data  Obtaining permissions statement  Gathering Information  Explaining the data  Narrowing the purpose 5 statement to research

What is Qualitative Research? Qualitative research is an approach that is best suited to address a research problem in which you do not know the variables and need to explore. The literature might yield little information about the phenomenon of study, and you need to learn more from participants through exploration. For example, the literature may not adequately address the use of sign language in Basic Technology because of the newness of both sign language and Basic Technology course. A qualitative research study is needed to explore this phenomenon from the perspective of Basic Technology students. Unquestionably, using sign language inteaching Basic Technology maybe complex and may not have been examined in the prior literature. A central phenomenon is the key concept, idea, or process studied in qualitative research. Thus, the research problem of the difficulty in teaching children who are deaf Basic Technology requires both an exploration (because we need to better know how to teach these children) and an understanding (because of its complexity) of the process of teaching and learning.

Characteristics of Qualitative Research In qualitative research, we see different major characteristics at each stage of the research process:  Exploring a problem and developing a detailed understanding of a central phenomenon  Having the literature review play a minor role but justify the problem  Stating the purpose and research questions in a general and broad way so as to the participants’ experiences  Collecting data based on words from a small number of individuals so that the participants’ views are obtained  Analyzing the data for description and themes using text analysis and interpreting the larger meaning of the findings  Writing the report using flexible, emerging structures and evaluative criteria, and including the researchers’ subjective reflexivity and bias

Similarities and Differences between Quantitative and Qualitative Research At this point you may be asking how quantitative research and qualitative research are similar and different. In terms of similarity, both forms of research follow the six steps in the process of research. There are minor differences, as well, in the introduction to a study—the research problem section—in that both sections need to establish the importance of the problem. In quantitative research the research problem section is used to direct the types of questions or hypotheses asked in the study, whereas in qualitative research the research problem discussion is typically used to establish the importance of the central idea(Shelden, Angell, Stoner, & Roseland, 2010).

Another similarity exists in the data collection procedures. Both quantitative and qualitative data collection may employ similar approaches, such as interviews or observations. However, quantitative approaches use more closed-ended approaches in which the researcher identifies set 6

response categories (e.g., strongly agree, strongly disagree, and so forth), whereas qualitative approaches use more open-ended approaches in which the inquirer asks general questions of participants, and the participants shape the response possibilities (e.g., in an interview with a teacher, a qualitative researcher might ask: What does professional development mean to you?).

There are distinct differences that go beyond the forms of gathering data. In data analysis, the procedures are quite different. In quantitative research, the investigator relies on statistical analysis (mathematical analysis) of the data, which is typically in numeric form. In qualitative research, statistics are not used to analyze the data; instead, the inquirer analyzes words (e.g., transcriptions from interviews) or images (e.g., photographs). Rather than relying on statistical procedures, the qualitative researcher analyzes the words to group them into larger meanings of understanding, such as codes, categories, or themes. The reporting formats are also typically different, with the quantitative structure following the typical introduction, literature review, methods, results, and conclusion sections. In qualitative research, some of these sections may be missing ( Shelden et al., 2010), and the format may be more of a literary opening with a personal vignette or passage, an unfolding story, the use of extensive quotes from participants, and personal reflections from the researcher.

It should also be mentioned that rather than viewing quantitative and qualitative as two end points in a dichotomy, but rather as different points on a continuum. Studies may contain some elements of the characteristics of quantitative research and some elements of qualitative research. However, studies do tend to lean toward one approach or the other, and knowing the characteristics associated with each type of research enables a researcher to assess whether a particular study favors either quantitative or qualitative research. How do you choose whether to use a quantitative or a qualitative approach? Three factors are important. First, match your approach to your research problem. Remember that the problems best suited for quantitative research are those in which trends or explanations need to be made. For qualitative research, the problems need to be explored to obtain a deep understanding. Second, your approach needs to fit the audience(s) for the research report. Educators write for several audiences, such as policy makers, faculty and graduate committees, editors and review boards, evaluators of grant proposals; and individuals in schools or educational settings. It is important that the audience(s) be familiar with the approach used in a study. Third, relate your approach to your personal experience and training. A quantitative researcher typically has taken some courses or training in measurement, statistics, and quantitative data collection, such as experiments, correlational designs, or survey techniques. Qualitative researchers need experience in field studies in which they practice gathering information in a setting and learning the skills of observing or interviewing individuals. Coursework or experience in analyzing text data is helpful, as well as in research designs such as grounded theory, ethnography, or narrative research. Some individuals have experience and training in approaches to research that combine both quantitative and qualitative methods, such as mixed methods research or action research towards solving vocational and technical education problems.

TABLE 1.2: TYPES OF QUALITATIVE RESEARCH Type Major Question

Basic interpretative studies How are events, processes, and activities perceived by the participant? Case studies What are the characteristics of this individual, organization, or group? Document analysis What can be learned about this phenomenon by studying certain document? Ethnography What are the culture and perspectives of this group of people in its nature setting? Grounded theory What theory can be derived inductively about a phenomenon from the data collected in a particular setting? Historical studies What insights or conclusions can be reached about this past event? Narrative inquiry What insights and understandings about an issue emerge from examining life stories? Phenomenological study What does this experience mean for the participants in the experience?

Meaning of Vocational and Technical Education The confusion surrounding the meaning of the terms “Technical” and “Vocational” education can easily be traceable to the different interpretations attached to them. It is common to find the terms used compositely when they should be used in a restricted sense and vice versa. Sometimes, where the terms are used conjointly, some individuals (including intellectuals) interpret ‘vocational’ to mean business subjects or studies, and ‘technical’ to mean technical subjects or studies, or that which has to do with engine or metals. When used in relation to school, ‘vocational school’ is taken to mean where only business subjects are taught, while technical school is taken to mean where only technical subjects are taught. This goes to support the general notion that ‘vocational’ means that which has to do with business studies, while ‘technical’ stands for that which has to do with technical studies. In fact this mistaken notion was carried even further in a Nigerian University where the titles ‘Vocational education’ and Technical Education’ were used in the certificates of students who qualified in business and technical education, respectively. It was only through series of protests by the affected (business education) students of the programme that the nomenclature of the certificate could later be amended by the university authorities. However, as it is an accepted practice to seek solution to a problem by first of all defining it, we shall try to determine what the concepts we have mentioned actually stand for. Such clarification should guide our understanding as to the contexts we have used and will continue to use technical and vocational education.

UNESCO and Federal Government Definitions Within the past couple of years, the problem surrounding the meaning of technical-vocational education has attracted international attention, in view of lack of consensus by authorities in the field of technical-vocational education. Hence the UNESCO in 2013 published a set of working definitions of those concepts, which usually constitute problems in the field of education. Technical Vocational Education and Training (TVET)were not left out.

The UNESCO (2013) defined ‘technical and vocational education’ as: “A comprehensive term referring to the educational process when it involves, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skill and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life”. The UNESCO document further stated that:

The broad goals of technical and vocational education distinguish it from ‘vocational training’ which is directed to developing the particular skills and related knowledge required by specific occupations or group of occupations. The composite term when taken separately takes on a restricted meaning. The UNESCO (2013) for instance, defined ‘technical education’ as: “Education designed at upper secondary and lower tertiary levels to prepare middle level personnel (technicians, middle management etc.); and at university level, to prepare engineers and technologists for higher management positions. Technical education includes general education, scientific and technical studies and related skill training. The components of technical education may vary considerably depending on the type of personnel to be prepared and the education level concerned” Vocational education, on the other hand, is defined by the UNESCO as: “Education designed to prepare skilled personnel at lower levels of qualification for one or a group of occupations, trades or jobs. Vocational education usually provided at the upper (senior) secondary, technical school (or technical college) includes general education, practical skills, and related theories required by the chosen occupation. The proportions of these may vary considerably but their emphasis is usually on practical skills training”. In the National Policy on Education (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 1981:280) technical education is defined as: “That aspect of education which leads to the acquisition of practical or applied skill as well as scientific knowledge”. In its 2004 edition the National Education Policy document (Federal Republic of Nigeria, 2004); the authors seem to have taken solace in the UNESCO comprehensive definition of vocational and technical education as cited earlier in this paper. A run through the relevant sections of chapter 7 of 2004 NPE document shows a rather haphazard treatment of key concepts. For instance, rather than clarify the comprehensive definition as proffered by the UNESCO (1987), the authors of the Policy report to the production of a list of statements which it considers to be adjuncts to the UNESCO definition Let us examine the relevant elements of the three definitions. One interesting feature of the definitions is that ‘vocational’ or ‘technical education cannot be complete without some aspects of general education. This goes to dispel the general mistaken notion that technical courses, because they emphasize the practical aspect of living, are not intellectual, a point that we must be taken seriously. The Concept of Sustainability in Achievement of MDGs According to the World Bank (1997) statistics, about 9.2 billion people in the world subsist on less than one dollar a day. In September, 2000, the concern about global poverty brought together the members of the United National for the purpose exploring ways by which poverty could be eliminated globally. The United Nations summit eventually set up what has been referred to as Millennium Development Goals (MDGs), eight in number, for the purpose of fighting poverty worldwide. The goals are summarized as follows:

1) Eradicate extreme poverty and hunger. 2) Achieve universal primary education 3) Promote gender equality and empower women 4) Reduce child mortality

5) Improve maternal health 6) Combat HIV/AIDS, malaria and other diseases. 7) Ensure environmental sustainability; and 8) Develop global partnership for development.

By arrangement, United Nations set 2015 when a set of Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) is to succeed the MDGs as reference goals for international development for the period 2015- 2030. The goals were expanded from eight to seventeen as follows: 1. End poverty in all its forms everywhere 2. End hunger, achieve food security and improved nutrition and promote sustainable agriculture. 3. Ensure health lives and promote well-being for all at all ages. 4. Education. 5. Achieve gender equality and empower all woman and girls. 6. Ensure availability and sustainable management of water and sanitation for all. 7. Ensure access to affordable, reliable, sustainable and modern energy for all. 8. Promote sustained inclusive and sustainable economic growth, full and productive employment and decent work for all. 9. Build resident infrastructure, promote inclusive and sustainable industrialization and foster innovation. 10. Reduce inequality within and among countries. 11. Make cities and human settlement inclusive, safe, resilient and sustainable. 12. Ensure sustainable consumption and production patterns. 13. Take urgent action to combat climate change and its impacts. 14. Conserve and sustainably use the oceans, seas and marine resources for sustainable development. 15. Protect, restore and promote sustainable use of terrestrial eco-systems, sustainably manage forests, combat desertification, half and reverse land degradation and half biodiversity loss. 16. Promote peaceful and inclusive societies for sustainable development, promote access to justice for all and build effective, accountable and inclusive institutions at all levels. 17. Strengthen the means of implementation and revitalize the global partnership for sustainable development.

The concept of sustainability with reference to environment was highlighted by Ogundu (2017) thus: sustainable development of any nation can only be achieved through acquisition of relevant knowledge and skills by the citizen to enable them participate as effective citizens using and exploiting environmental resources in a sustainable manner for themselves and generations to come. From another perspective, Adegoke (2004) defined sustainable development goals as the enhancement of an enduring socio-economic and political development capable of improving gross national product (GNP) of any given nation. He postulates that the indices of sustainable national economy are stable political and socio- economic values. Ogundu (2017) maintained that sustainable national development is essentially “a people-oriented economy paradigm. He argues that, it is neither the presence of skyscrapers nor the mere physical ride of Gross Domestic Products (GDP) and per capital income.” But it relates to the maintenance of improved real wages to stable, non-inflationary price cost structure. Hence, it relates to the functional and fulfilled health of the citizenry. He further states that it relates to the growth in “mental horizons of the population, curtailment, if not eradication of unemployment and under employment. qualitative research if given the desired attention and well implemented in vocational and technical education for both school and non-school settings can lead to accelerated sustainable economic development in Nigeria. 10

Conclusion For accelerated sustainable economic development of Nigeria, certain national questions must be asked and answered using qualitative research approach: what is Nigeria greatest problem? Some may answer- unemployment. How do we tackle unemployment? Answer- through education. What type of education? Answer- vocational and technical education. Therefore we must all embrace vocational and technical education via qualitative research for accelerated sustainable economic development of Nigeria.

Recommendations The paper recommended the following for the re-engineering and repositioning of academic research for accelerated sustainable economic development of Nigeria:

1. Emphasis should shift from quantitative to qualitative research Approach by scholars in the field of vocational and technical education 2. Government at all levels should declare a state of emergency on Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria.

3. Vocational and technical education should nationally be used as a vehicle to combat unemployment for sustainable economic development.

4. The current technical colleges should be re-named vocational colleges with each local government having at list one.

References Adegoke A.A (2004) Counselling curriculum for schools in Nigeria.A publication of the Counselling Association of Nigeria (CASSON). Ilorin: Goshen Print Media Ltd. Ary, D,Jacobs,L.C& Sorensen,C (2010). Introduction to Research in Education. Canada: Wadsworth. Creswell,J.W (2012). Educational Research; Planning, Conducting and Evaluating Quantitative and Qualitative Research. Boston: Pearson. Ogundu, I. (2017). Organization and Administration of Vocational Education in Nigeria. Port Harcourt: Emeks Enterprises. Shelden, D.L, Angell, M.E, Stoner, J.B, & Roseland, B.D (2010).School principles’ influence on trust: Perspectives of mothers of children with disabilities. Journal of Education Research, 103(159-170) World Bank (1997) Taking Action and Reduce Poverty in Sub- Saharan Africa. Washington, DC: The World Bank.

2nd LEAD PAPER

-Engineering and Repositioning Academic Research for Accelerated Sustainable Economic Development: Technical and Vocational Education Approach The Vocational and Technical Research Approach

Engr. Dr. Tamuno K. Jinyemiema Dean, School of Engineering Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori. Rivers State

Abstract: One serious problem facing Nigeria today is graduate unemployment and if not checked it could serious threat to the economic development of the country. Though, few other factors may affect economic sustainability, none commercialisation of research findings coupled with poor research into technical and vocational education has created high poverty level to unemployment among others which can only be met through re-engineering and repositioning vocational and technical education. It is strongly believed that no nation can developed without investing and developing vocational and technical education. In addition, Nigeria has neglected the aspect of creative research into this sector of education, and that is why we are into this present situation of economic breakdown. This paper opines that all major projects be attached to technical institutions for training and research, review curriculum regularly to meet present day realities and the introduction of joint venture programs to repositioning vocational and technical education research for economic sustainability. Other concepts suggested includes incentives for innovative researchers, linkage special research institutes and though appraisal of technical and vocational institutions and the research process in particular. Keywords: technology, creative, institutions, commercialisation, innovative, unemployment

1.0: INTRODUCTION 1.1: Background of the Study Vocational and technical education has always been one of the most vibrant and vital aspects of economic development of any nation, because, it provides opportunity for creativity of recipients which results into job creation and poverty reduction. UNESCO (2000) defined VTE as the aspects of educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of economic and social life. According to Salabson (2018), it is a kind of education, if fully implemented will solve the problem of poverty and unemployment among the youths of any nation, and it is one of the most valuable treasure any nation can invest on. Daso (2012) noted that under critical examination vocational and technical education have been an integral part of national development strategies in many societies because of the impact on human resources development, productivity and economic growth.FGN (2004) conceptualized TVTE as education given in institution as providing both scientific knowledge and practical skills required for a specific trade, employment or profession as craftsman, technicians/technologists and scientist of similar levels in business field of engineering and applied science. Based on this conceptualisation much is expected from this aspect of education to trigger development of the nation, but this will only be possible, if

enough research work is given to this aspect of education. Development is seen as process by which a type (social, economic, scientific, or technology) change is introduced into a system in order to produce a better production method and improved social arrangement, (Aluko, 2015). Therefore, for society to develop, a constant improvement of all sectors are essential and technology is one powerful instrument of transformation, improving technology automatically improves other aspects of society. However, this very important aspect of education was not given its pride of place and support to generate the much needed incentives for technological development from the very beginning. According to Sir Ahmadu Bello (1962: 35-36) and Michael & Odinchezo (1989: 39-41) cited in Dickkson (2010) affirm that:(i) Manual workers should be excluded from intellectual training and (ii) Intellectuals excluded from manual work: Which in the earlier 60s to the late 80s, took a new format as the less intelligent to be sent to Trade and Technical Schools and the intelligent to Grammar, Colleges and Secondary Schools. This is because the earlier curricular and policies of Nigerian school was typical (NPE 2009), because the economic mainstay then needed people with differentiated type of training, preparing them either for either Intellectual work or Manual labour (Dickkson, 2010). This policy as postulated by our fathers has not changed much and it introduced the neglect TVET suffers today. Presently, academic research is focused on fields considered as more intellectual than technical and vocational education. Until now, the admission process of tertiary institutions still upholds this concept, even the approach to teaching and learning have continue to indirectly support this line of thinking. How can a nation yearning for technological development direct her less intelligent folks to technical and vocational education, and expect quality researches and innovative technologies that will foster economic transformation. Based on the foregoing, our education policy (NPE, 2009), is on faulty educational foundation that requires overhaul. In fact, the very essence of our quest for technological development was compromised with this policy and to enhance technology advancement, a new paradigm shift is imperative, because, the building blocks are too weak for the demands placed on it.

1.2: Importance of Repositioning Technical and Vocational Education The wealth and prosperity of any nation depends on effective utilization of her natural and human resources, which requires education skills of her citizens. Resourceful coordination of both natural and human resources will definitely lead to industrialisation and Nigeria is in dire of industrialisation to solve her enormous unemployment problems, poverty and youth restiveness. It is on this backdrop that re-engineering and repositioning technical and vocational 13

education becomes absolutely necessary. The present state of TVE in Nigeria is a far outcry from pursuing its initial mandate. It will fair at this point to remind us of the mission of technical and vocational education globally and Nigeria in particular

At the 2nd International Conference on TVE organised by UNESCOin Korea 1999, it sets out the mission for all nations under the body to use VTE to address unemployment and or other socioeconomic challenges of the 21st century. These challenges include globalization, political integration, trade liberalization, an ever changing technological scenario, ICT revolution and the consequent rapid pace of social change. In conclusion, UNESCO (2000) seeks to produce more job creators through TVE than job seekers. The missions of the TVE are as follows:

1. To eliminate unemployment by equipping the generality of out of school youths and adults with saleable skills. 2. To infuse into all adequate vocational efficiency for effective living. 3. To enhance and sustain national economic and technological development. 4. To engender national economic prosperity. In order to that fulfill the mission, the Federal Government of Nigeria (2004) set out the following: Expand the productive base of the economy through increased agricultural and industrial production. 1. Develop new infrastructural facilities and rehabilitate existing ones to provide conducive environments for private investment. 2. Lay a solid foundation for self-reliant economy through technological development; and reduce the level of unemployment through the creation of ample opportunities for gainful employment.

Re-Engineering Vocational and Technical Education is a process of applying scientific knowledge into vocational and technical education sub-sector in Nigeria with a view of identifying, studying, analyzing, evaluating and continuing or terminating vocational and technical education programme (Ukuma and Ochedikwu, 2013). Application of scientific knowledge to TVE will trigger research consciousness early and attract more intelligent scholars into this field of endeavour. Until now, the order has been to separate mental work or scientific research from manual work. Keeping these two important aspects of learning at two ends creates a serious quest for re-engineering and repositioning. A research model that links scientific findings to manually produced devices or machines as well as testing such research finding of laboratories with machines will improve the learning process. This form learning

which is experiential produces mental pictures of the activities that canculminate into creative thinking. Based on the objectives outlined above, the approach to technical and vocational education in the country has not produced the much needed results, hence, a new approach is canvassed in this paper.Okonjo-Iwuala (2013), opines that one of the biggest challenges facing the country today is the growing number of job seekers with unemployable majority among its young population. According Pamdoff (2013), Reports indicate that there is a huge mismatch between young people graduating from higher educational institutions and what the labour market needs. Repositioning and re-engineering the system may require concerted efforts from stakeholders in various ways, which may include designing feedback mechanism, curriculum review, train the trainer and commercialisation findings.

1.3: Dimensions of Technical and Vocational Education The national policy on education (NPE, 2004), places emphasis on technical education as the source to provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial, and economic development through the provision of well-trained sub- professional grade and middle level manpower (section 5, subsection 49). From the above statement the engine room for economic and technological development of the country is pegged on middle level and sub-professional artisans, technicians and technologist. The policy places a limitation not only on the recipients but also on the country at large. No wonder most of our leaders have not trusted Nigerians to handle major engineering projects. It is like father placing a limitation on his children. Based on this policy, the following dimensions of TVE were created;

The Comparative Technical Education (1963) recommended three levels of vocational and technical education as follows:

1. Pre-vocational and pre-technical training usually offered in secondary schools.

2. Craftsmen training usually offered in technical colleges, trade centres and vocational schools.

3. Technical training usually offered in polytechnics and colleges of technology. In 1987, the National Council on Education (NCE) approved National Board for Technical Education (NBTE) for further classification of vocational and technical institutions into:

(i) Vocational Schools – These are made up of vocational/artisan training centres toproduce artisans. These are post-primary level institutions that pursue courses leading to the award of the Federal Ministry of Labour and Productivity Trade Test Certificates Grades.

III, II and I.

(ii) Technical Colleges – Institution that produces craftsmen at the craft level and master craftsmen at the advanced craft level. They are post-junior secondary school institutions taking courses that lead to the award of the National Technical Certificate/National Business Certificate (NTC/NBC) and Advanced National Technical Certificate/Advanced National Business Certificate (ANTC/ANBC) for technical and business studies respectively.

(iii) Polytechnics/Monotechnics/Colleges of Technology: These are post-senior secondary school institutions, which produce technicians and higher technicians/ technologists. The courses offered by these institutions are of two years duration, each leading to the award of National Diploma (ND) and Higher National Diploma (HND) respectively. FGN (2004) identified range of courses to be offered at VTE as mechanical trades, computer craft practice, electrical engineering trades, building trades, wood trades, hospitality, textile trades printing trades, beauty culture trades, business traders and leather goods manufacture. It is obvious that Nigeria has a faulty pursuit for technological advancement from independence, much like Singapore, Malaysia, South Korea, Indonesia and many other third world countries. Taking a cue from the South East Asian countries, who identified this faulty start can help Nigeria to reposition technical education for sustainable development. At the moment, it will be difficult to sustain any innovation in our system. In fact, insisting on innovative thinking might be considered as an over bearing influence on students. The different dimensions of TVE never gave room for improvement beyond middle level, a country that wishes to compete at global level must overhaul such a limiting policy to create avenue excellent as quick as possible.

2.0: OVERVIEW OF NIGERIA TECHNICAL AND VOCATIONAL EDUCATION 2.1: Origin of Technical and Vocational Education The origin of vocational and technical education in Nigeria could be traced to the pre-colonial era when traditional education was the practice. During this period, the child was trained in the family trade through direct apprenticeship scheme either by the parents or relations. According 16

to Ogunmila (2006), during this period, traditional education took in the various ethnic nationalities with practice of arts and crafts making, pottery, local manufacture farm implements and weapons of war at various levels where the expression of vocational training; while traditional agricultural practices were developed to support cultivation of the agricultural different crops for predominantly for local consumption in the different eco-geography areas of the country.

In the early part of the colonial period, vocational training was not encouraged. Schools were built primarily for the purpose of evangelism and produce interpreters to enhance trade intentions of the early missionaries. The early missionary was characterized by literacy type of education which was geared towards winning converts and producing clerks and interpreters (Ajayi and Ayodele, 2002). It was 1908 that government department started to organize some form of vocational training schools. The first marine training school was established in 1928 and the public works, the post and telegraph and railway training school in 1931(Adegbile, 2000). Government’s active participation in the provision of technical education became obvious between 1930 and 1960. Yaba Higher College was officially opened on January 19, 1934. Technical colleges were established by various regional governments in Enugu (1950), Ilorin (1951), Kano (1953), Bukuru (1953), Sapele (1955), Ijebu-ode (1959), Osogbo, Oyo (1961), Owo (1963), Aba (1964) and Abakaliki (1966). These colleges were not fee paying and they were adequately funded by the government, Sofoluwe (2013). Technical colleges established before independence were fully funded by the regions, this showcasesthe premium the founding fathers placed on these institutions. Thus, there is need to research into the collapse of this policy in recent years and subsequent review of technical institutions for the production of sub-professionals and middle level manpower. There is also the need to direct our attention to the progresses made then as well as major contributors to such progresses.

Recently, the national policy on education (2013) defines vocational and technical education as a compressive term referring to those aspects of educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies, and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of the economic and social life. This agrees with UNESCO’s definition of (2013) that sees vocational and technical education as a deliberate intervention to bring about learning which would make people more productive or simply adequately productive in designated areas of economic

Book of Abstract and Proceeding of 15th International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWRSD) Held in Ken Sarowiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State, Nigeria, On 8th-10th August, 2018. activities (e.g. economic sectors, occupations, specific work task).Such an enormous task can only succeed in open environment without any form limitation. Nigeria needs to define her area of economic activities that require the invention of TVE and direct her energy appropriately to achieve desired goals.

2.2: The Need for Repositioning Vocational and Technical Education in Nigeria Youth unemployment in Nigeria has become a major problem because the youths lack employable skills. Uya (2014) opines that, studies have shown that most graduates of technology and vocational institutions lack requisite skills and entrepreneurial acumen owing to inadequate resources in the schools as well as lack of commitment on the part of the students. According to the International Labor Organization ILO (2007) definition, youth unemployment is the number of economic active population who is without work but available and seeking for work, including people who has lost their jobs and those who have voluntarily left work.In essence, a person becomes unemployed, if he/she is absolutely idle for up to 20hours a week. Even though, youth unemployment is a global phenomenon, it is alarming in developing countries and Nigeria in particular.

The National Bureau of Statistic (2016) report, stated that the economic active population or working age population (persons between ages 15-64) increase from 105.3million in the fourth quarter of 2015 to 106.0 in first quarter of 2016. In the first quarter of 2016, the labour force population (i.e. those within the working age population willing, able and actively looking for work) increase to 78.4million from 76.9million in the fourth quarter of 2015, representing an increase in the labour force by 1.99%, Salabson (2018). This depicts an increase of 1,528,647 economically active persons within 15-64 entered the labour force, such persons that able and willing accept available job placement between January 1st and March 31st 2016. The data shows that the unemployment rate has grown from 10.4% in the fourth quarter of 2015 to 12.1% in the first quarter of 2016, at the same time underemployment rate

LABOR FORCE STATISTIC, FIRST QUARTER 2016 Labor work Work Work Work Total Unemployment‟s rates Under force 0 unemployed employment 40hrs+ 20-39hrs 1-19hrs population hr rates did nothing Full Under Unemployed Unemployed Old new Inter employed national employed Nigeria Nigeria ALL 78,486,570 53,977,958 15,023,327 4,436,077 5,049,207 9,485,284 31.2 12.1 6.4 19.1 GROUPS Educational group s Never 23,576,409 15,552,910 5,107,269 1,504,911 1,411,320 2,916,231 34.0 12.4 6.0 21.7 attended Below 524,719 396,034 45,423 34,525 48,736 83,261 24.5 15.9 9.3 8.7 primary Primary 15,484,657 11,975,243 2,199,767 651,169 658,478 1,309,647 22.7 8.5 4.3 14.2 Secondary 28,103,917 18,779,729 5,678,588 1,671,108 1,974,493 3,645,601 33.2 13.0 7.0 20.2 Post- 10,796,868 7,274,043 1,992,281 574,364 956,180 1,530,545 32.6 14.2 8.9 18.5 secondary Age group 15-24 15,490,365 6,807,207 5,357,069 1,585,160 1,740,929 3,326,089 56.1 21.5 11.2 34.6 25-34 22,759,263 15,285,836 4,530,458 1,332,861 1,610,109 2,942,970 32.8 12.9 7.1 19.9 35-44 19,020,568 15,051,788 2,436,887 719,958 811,935 1,531,894 20.9 8.1 4.3 12.8 45-54 13,534,033 10,845,011 1,654,791 489,250 544,981 1,034,232 19.9 7.6 4.0 12.2 55-64 7,682,340 5,988,177 1,044,123 308,848 341,252 650,101 22.1 8.5 4.4 13.6 Gender Male 40,297,137 29,625,211 6,537,190 1,929,861 2,204,876 4,134,737 26.5 10.3 5.5 16.2 Female 38,189,433 24,352,748 8,486,138 2,506,216 2,844,331 5,350,547 36.5 14.0 7.4 22.2 Place of residence Urban 24,421,712 18,437,784 2,328,943 721,934 2,933,051 3,654,985 24.5 15.0 12.0 9.5 Rural 54,064,858 35,540,175 12,694,384 3,714,144 2,166,156 5,830,300 34.3 10.8 3.9 23.5 Table 1.Employment and Unemployment Statistics

Source: NBS unemployment/ underemployment watch first quarter 2016. (Extracted from Salabson, 2018) has grown from 18.7% in the fourth quarter of 2015 to 19.1% in the first quarter of 2016, which means that 31.2% of the total labour force of 78,486,570 where either unemployed or underemployed in the first quarter of 2016. The data further indicates that youth unemployment also rose to 42.24% as 15.2million youths remain unemployed in the economy. Accordingly, out of the total youth labour force of 38.2million (representing 48.7% of the total labour force in Nigeria of 78.48million) a total of 15.2million of them were either unemployed or underemployed in the first quarter of 2016 representing a youth unemployment rate of 42.24%. From table 1, it is observed, that out of the total labour force of 10,796,868million those with post-secondary qualification of 3,522,826 are either unemployed or underemployed in the first quarter of 2016 representing 32.6% compare to 30.9% in the fourth quarter of 2015. The table below shows the full statistic of the labour force in the first quarter of 2016. Looking at the above statistic from the National Bureau of Statistic, there was a rapid increase in the labour force population and the unemployment rate, which signals a very serious problem in the country and the solution lies is to empower the youths through functional and qualitative

education especially in the area of vocational and technical education that has enough impetus for job creation not job seekers. In his view Olajide (2015) believes that, if the curriculum in the Nigerian educational system is reviewed in favour of vocational and technical education, it will go a long way in either eradicating or at least alleviating to very large extent unemployment, especially among the youths. While Alhasan and Abdullahi (2013) opined that vocational and technical education is the missing link in Nigeria’s developmental policy. Obviously, it has a major role to play in our quest for technology advancement.

3.0: CHALLENGES OF TECHNOLOGY AND INNOVATIVE RESEARCH IN ACADEMIC INSTITUTIONS Vocational and technical education in Nigeria and globally is a unique area in educational sector that should teach not only occupational clusters and general conceptual knowledge but can also foster adaptability, build technical literacy and provide leisure skills through experience, Ukuma and Ochedikwu (2013). Consequently, researches in this sector have special features that possess some problem to stakeholders resulting in low participation from many quarters, but as ukuma (2009) suggests, it is at this critical time that research in vocational and technical education is important in Nigeria, various questions are being asked why government funds and international partner agencies continue to channel resources rounds after rounds on the entire vocational and technical education programme and no reasonable result is coming out. It is believed that research into vocational and technical education, will generate new ideas, identify, interpret and organize these ideas of scholars from other fields that will lead to the improved practice of vocational and technical education for economic empowerment, technology advancement and create jobs. However, there is so much research constraints despite few investments from government, development partners and private sector. Some level has become imperative because, whereas the goals and targets for TVE were almost achieved in the 1950s and 1970s, a reflection of the present state of affairs shows a clear departure from defined goals, hence, sustainability in policy is canvassed. Wikipedia (2011) defines sustainable development is a pattern of resource use that aims to meet human needs while pressuring the environment so that these needs can be met not only in the present but also for generations to come. United Nation (1987) used the term sustainable development as to meet the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generation to meet their own needs, social development, environmental protection and cultural development. The International Union for the Conservation of Nature (IUCN) Sahel Studies (1989) sees sustainable development as involving the maximization of the net benefit of economic development, subject to maintaining

or enhancing the service and quality of natural resources over time. Akorede and Onuka (2008) defines sustainable development as a way by which the society is managed in an effective and efficient manner such that it benefits all and sundry, with enough resources still available for the continuation of the human race. Most equipment and machines acquired between 1960s and 1970s for the teaching of technical and vocational courses have not been replaced in some institutions of higher learning. Most of which were acquire for running technical colleges, now converted to polytechnics and monotechnics are in dire need of replacement. The programmes of technical colleges run in-line with then policies, but sustainability requires an upgrade of equipment and facilities to meet present demands. If technology and vocational education is all about problem-solving, to what extent has this been achieved and are there available alternatives as well as prospects for the future? These are pertinent a good research into TVE may answer. Key players have shown some level frustration in conducting in this very important field of education, which includes;

a) Poor Funding of Research: Fund is one of the major requirements for execution of programmes (research inclusive), especially in TVE. Studies have shown that inadequacy and misappropriation of fund has been a serious challenge to Nigerian educational sector, Bamiro(2012). Until recently, funding of research is a major constraint in tertiary institutions, all government agencies and private firms are either indifferent or not interested in undertaking such venture. Recent development in the Tertiary Education Trust Fund (TETFUND) has raised a little hope in some quarters, but is grossly inadequate for the numerous universities, polytechnics and colleges of technology. As at 2017 National Board of Technical Education (NBTE) has registered;

i. Federal Polytechnics 28 ii. State Polytechnics 41 iii. Private Polytechnics 44 iv. Monotechnics 26 v. Colleges of Health Sciences 6 vi. Specialist Institutions 15 Source: NBTE website post November, 2017

All these institutions compete for funds from TETFUND as technology institutions besides the universities of technology. Second, even in the administration of funds non-technical 21

departments equally compete within the same institutions, sometimes, they become the dominant party.

b) Demand for Quick Breakthrough: Globalisation has placed a strong desire among African countries for immediate breakthrough in research and development, especially from sponsors. Technology changes so rapidly that what appears to a breakthrough in a particular can become obsolete in another region of the world in matter of weeks. This trend has given rise to higher expectations from researchers in Nigeria, not regarding the differences in the economies and terrain. This has become a source of discouragement to some researchers to apply for certain grant to execute would be researches. On the order hand, agencies saddled with the responsibility of sponsorship, having such perception show little or no confidence in the ability of local researchers to deliver, especially in technical and vocational research become hesitant to release funds. c) Weak Building Blocks for Academic Research: Nigeria inherited a faulty foundation for TVE at independence, an educational system that places emphasis on training students through a narrow syllabus to apply for paid, without the ingredient of proffering solutions to national economy. Incidentally, after several curriculum reviews, this concept still persist, as teaching objective in our institutions is to prepare our students for paid job with little incentives for research efforts. In fact, the mission of most African universities is still to teach and confer degrees, whereas much of the world is experimenting with new models that focus on transforming the economies of the regions in which they are located, Trencher et al (2014).Second, our system favours scientific teaching to research based learning. Hence, besides funding equipment and devices to support research based are inadequate. Again, there is an infrastructural decay and sustainability problems, a system without necessary tools for research requires so much effort for individuals undertaking research. It is quite frustrating. d) Lack of Coordination in Innovative Research: Innovative research is quite different from conventional and scientific researches, it is targeted at developing something, capable of solving societal problems and add value to the economy. A country that encourages innovative ideas will provide avenue for coordination of such laudable research efforts. This shall create for the following;

i) Create linkages with similar research efforts to develop workable prototypes and methods.

ii) It will the patent process easy iii) It will improve existing technologies and generate modern approaches for enhance their global competitiveness iv) It shall galvanise easy support for research and generate new and better solutions for our socio-economic system. v) It will disseminate finding and create commercial values for innovative findings. e) Absence of Linkage between Research Institutes and Schools

Tertiary education in African is curriculum based though they still engage in pockets of researches, whereas the research institutions were create with specific objectives. One way to bridge the gap is to link these institutions together, that are kept separate in the interim. Hence, activities of research institutions are kept secret as corporate property without benefiting society. According to Juma (2016), research institutes lack the means to disseminate findings to the public through practical business or community outreach without students. These functions need to be pursued in an integrated way under one institutional structure. Such linkages under single coordination will encourage cross pollination of ideas, and eventually improve research effort.

4.0: SUGGESTED WAYS IMPROVING TVE RESEARCH The challenges facing Africa economies, especially Nigeria will require fundamental changes in the way technology institutions and universities train their students and conduct research. Part of the problem arises from the traditional separation between research carried out in Research institutes and teaching in technology institutions with little connections between the two institutions. Some of suggested approaches to reduce the near dearth to research are as discussed. a) Adopt New Creative Procedures; A closer look at most research methods in institutions shows no deviation from the traditional approaches known several years ago. The present arrangement for research and developments shows no reasonable improvement from the 1960s, as adopted from the colonial matters, such as use of structure hypothesis that leads to acceptance or rejection. There is need to search and research hypothesis without definite statements in view, but with a desire to accept interpret all outcomes. Such an approach widens the research environment. Second, is to adapt foreign approaches and technologies to solve local problems, the technology transfer options, which has continued to fail. Any technology adapted to solve local problems without enough local input may not be sustain on the long run. 23

b) Re-Appraisal of Existing Institutions and Research Methods; A thorough assessment of institutions and methods adopted is hereby canvassed, because, such will give insight on areas of lack and derailment, identify issues and re-strategize to solve them. It is easier to blame the system, but most institutions are to gain public confidence in research areas. In addition it will;

i) Identify areas that threaten functional academic research and even the continued existence of innovative studies. Some technical institutions have become conventional, but still exist in names. Atsumbe, Raymond, Igwe and Atsumbe (2012) in one of their suggestion to reposition vocational and technical education in Nigeria stated that “as much as possible vocational and technical education should be organized outside the direction of general education. They emphasizes that they would be separated from general education schools, colleges and programs, this is because the goal of vocational and technical education differ reasonably from the goals of general education. A circumstances where those from general education (science, curriculum, social science etc.) are posted to head vocational and technical education is not a good development. Records abound in this country that such vocational and technical institutions die natural death or they arewill completely stunted in growths, loss focus and converted to general education programs. These are some of the problems thorough appraisal of the system will expose. In fact, it appears to be a sound research topic for stakeholders. ii) To positively transform our socio-economic status TVE must target specific areas of interest and assign task to competent individuals for the development of the sector. c) Government to Encourage Private Joint Venture in TVE In as much as funding has remain a major constraint to research efforts in TVE, involvement of joint venture arrangement can be a source on government as the role sponsor of all academic activities in public schools. If joint venture arrangements can work amongst oil industries, extending it to technology institutions will bring promises in areas of research. As funding constraints are drastically reduced, more innovative ideas with particular interest to these partners will enhance research efforts and generate enough innovations in the system. Besides joint venture arrangement with institutions, major companies can also establish joint venture institutions or research centresto support TVE research in Nigeria. While the private sector provide funds for students in form of scholarships, government shall link research scholars to projects for innovative research. 24

d) Attaching technical and vocational Institutions to Majors Infrastructural Projects Major infrastructural projects are serious avenues for research. Adding technology institutions to such large infrastructural projects could be justified as part of the cost of long term maintenance. In fact any such projects should provide higher technical training from the onset, Juma (2016). Nigeria has lost several opportunities for training of undergraduates and research scholars for not adopting this model. Lessons learned and ideas developed from such projects will become major tools for teaching and development of future designs. It will promote innovation in technological institutions, and also reduce poor performance of students. Nigeria has wasted enough opportunities to encourage research and development in TVE through this source, this is a wakeup call.

e) Linking Technology Institutions to Research Centres The present arrangement that separates research institutes and their findings from other institutions limits research, lessons to gain and the commercial values of such findings.

As stated earlier, a link between these two sectors is imperative. It will increase participation in research and development in technology and promote innovation solutions to national problems.

f) Provision of Incentives for Innovative research One way of strengthen technology based research in existing institutions is to provide incentives for performing researchers. If those with innovative ideas and inventions are given incentives, more candidates will show interest in research in our institutions than mere teaching and graduating students. One aspect that will encourage innovative s making the patent process easy. Once an innovative invention is developed, it attracts automatic patent with prospect of commercialisation. Commercialisation of research finding enriches the inventor by moving the invention from workshop or laboratory to the market place.

g) Regular Interactions with Entrepreneurs and Captains of Industries Presently, the approach to research in virtually all universities and other tertiary institutions is to generate ideas through imaginative thinking and start a solutions process without commercialisation of the end product in view. This approach is both discouraging and frustrating. However, where regular interactions exists with entrepreneurs and captains of industries, researches will be guided through that process into solving immediate socio-

economic problems. This approach will sustain the development of such research works, which the present method is yet to achieve.

h) Adjustment of Existing Curriculum All tertiary institutions in Nigeria are mere systems that produce job seekers without job creators. The question one may asked, is who will the jobs for our graduates. Worse still, the present approach cannot and will never sustain economic development, because, it exposes the economy into the hands of foreigners. The present curriculum is overdue for review, with a view to introduce ingredients for creative thinking and research that are capable of producing young entrepreneurs. Otherwise, the much expected improvement in the economy shall remain elusive.

5.0: Conclusion Sustainable economic development is a wider subject that encompasses several factors, but in the circumstance, focus in on re-engineering academic to enhance economic development. The key elements as canvassed in this paper suggest a clear departure from most approaches adopted for research. Present day research needs to leave laboratories and workshops and begin to seek commercial values in the market place, through linkage with research institutes, joint venture formations, and regular interactions with entrepreneurs. This will provide appropriate for researchers, so that the end product will lose it commercial, since there is a ready market. Nigeria has lost so much for not adding technology institutions to major infrastructural projects which littered all over the nation, government must thinking in this direction to improve our technology based through these projects. Both students and researchers from the institutions stand to gain from experience and subsequently the nation at large. Finally, the current curriculum in our institutions does not encourage creative research, as such it is no longer in tandem with modern developmental stride of any nation. Therefore, a review is necessary to enhance capacity of graduates in pursuance of sustainable economic development.

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THE USEFULNESS OF ECONOMIC PLAN IN A RECESSED ECONOMY ON SMALL SCALE BUSINESS OPERATORS IN PORT HARCOURT METROPOLIS

AKOMAS UWOMA CHARLES GSM: 08035522097 or 08023021028 [email protected]

Surveying and Geoinformatics Department Faculty of Environmental Technology Kenpoly Bori

Abstract The study was conducted to ascertain the usefulness of economic plan in a recessed economy on small scale business operators. This is important because small scale businesses are everywhere and are the easy way for youth empowerment and economic recovery growth plan. To achieve this broad objective, the research questions were developed and administered while two research hypothesis was formulated and tested. Survey research design was used to carryout this study. The sample population for the study consisted of two hundred and forty six (246) with a focus on managers of small business operators in Port Harcourt metropolis who are expected to be knowledgeable in business, were the respondents. The instrument was subjected to face and content validity as well as reliability test which result revealed that for small scale business operators to succeed in a recessed economy they must plan their economy very well and analyzed their budget within their limited resources, since recession has made the cost of goods unsteady. It was recommended that small scale business operators should exposed to budgetary and succession approach in business. Keyword: Economic Plan, Recessed Economy, Small Scale Business.

INTRODUCTION Economic plan is the focus or projection of every business that seek to create wealth for a suitable future, stakeholders such as government, corporate organizations and educational institutions have different vision of economic plan. They view it in different perspectives like economic growth plan, developmental plan etc.Eboh and Nwoaha (2009) viewed it as a design to increase the level of employment opportunities, efficient technology and to promote a steady rate of economic growth they further emphasized that it helps to prevent inflation and achieve price stability and equitable distribution of income. Robbins and Coulter (2013), posed that 31

Economic planning depends on factors affecting the choice of plan in the organizational level, the degree of environment and length of future commitments.In this assertion economic planning depends mostly on availability of resources be it money, human, or raw material resources, according to the size of the business and futuristic purposes. This agreed with Onuoha (2016), who argued that wealth creation is the abundance of valuable resources or material processions, an individual, community region or country that possesses an abundance of such possessions or resources is known as economic planning. Infact, wealth is when small efforts produce large result as a means of effective economic plan. (Allen, 2006). According to Ama (2009) posed that the main link between economic planning and control is provided by enough flexibility so that manager can seize opportunities unforeseen at the time the plan is formulated. Barnard (1961), cited in Sapru (2013) pointed that economic planning is based on uncertainties, the planner have usually ignored the realistic of behavior in complex organization.As a process of developing and applying knowledge and intelligence to our affairs. He asserted that each plan represent much more than which may be expressed in formal documents. It is not plan until it is accepted as a basis of action.Man struggled every moment to meet his needs, to satisfy these needs. There must be usefulness of his struggles leading to the development of maximum, utilization of those resources. The activities in which man engages enables him to process, utilize and develop his own resources.

According to Mbalisi (2009) many in his bid to achieve maximum satisfaction of his needs embarks on maximum exploitation and utilization of environmental resources. Hormby (2000) saw usefulness as the fact of being useful or possible to use. Usefulness of economic planning is often regarded as technique of managing an economy when the structure of an economy becomes complex and subject to rapid changeand transformation due to discovery of resources or lack of discovery in business (www.economicdiscus).Usefulness of economic planning is the efficient utilization of resources and control economic activities and the making of major economic decision by the authorities.The usefulness of economic plan varied from organization to organization or country to country. Therefore some major usefulness of economic planning are:

(a) To improve the standard of living of the people through sustainable programme. (b) To create large expansion of employment in order to eliminate unemployment. (c) To reduce corruption and crime and all type of socio-economic inequalities. (d) To reduce the level of poverty and hunger and increase income per head.

(e) To promote the use of local made good instead of importation. (f) To reduce inflation (g) To reduce high interest rate and exchange rate. (h) To improve high rate of economic growth and productivity of Gross Domestic Product (GDP) (i) To improve infrastructural development and power supply. (j) To promote capital formation on export goods more than importation. (k) To encourage labour force and free enterprise among the youths.

For economic planning to be useful there must be diagnosis of the following;

(a) Survey the current economic conditions of the country. (b) Understand the nature of public expenditure. (c) Analyse the existing economic system to confirm the diagnosis. (d) Identify the weaknesses in the problem areas of the economic system. (e) Identify unnecessary operations in the system and eliminate them to reduce delay. (f) Discuss the proposed changes with those concerned. (g) Take note of the constraints in the proposed changes, what will hinder the proposed changes from succeeding. (h) Gradually implement change to allow for correction and prepare a new economic system operation of need.

Budgetary provides a mechanism in the trend of economic control and meet the need for which it is designed Amaewhule (2015), suggested that a budget is an action plan of an organization representing its blue print segmented in periods and quantified monetarily. It is a financial plan of action which results from an organizational decision in respect of the programme for the future. a budget when in utilized acts as a benchmark or provides the basis on which comparisons can be made and acts as a working tool in determining whether financial goals have been achieved or not. Therefore economic planning is necessary if budgets are to succeed. Budgeting gradually began to be identified with weighing of priorities and alternatives in an environment where inflation and unemployment are in place. This could referred tobusiness fluctuation.Recessed economic is a period of general downturn in any economy. A recession is associated with high product and high inflation.

According to Bent (2018), a recession is a general economic decline and is typically accompanied by a drop in the stock market, an increase in unemployment and a decline in the housing market. Central Bank of Nigeria CBN (2012) defines economic recession as a business cycle contraction and a general slowdown in economic activity for two consecutive quarter. Economic recession has adversely affected the standard of living and increased tension on many businesses, trend currently being experienced of structural distortions in the economy which will require the usefulness of economic planning to tackle the situation. The recent economic recession has caused many changes in the business performance across the country.To include high rate of unemployment, high rate of inflation high rate of corruption, kidnapping and insurgency, loss of jobs and oil vanderlization, (https//phys.org/new).Many Nigerians resort to free money like scan,the popular MMM and the cooperate armed robbery that is the rave of the moment, executive bargaining for contracts, the easy money generating short-cuts that hurt the country economy. Though from economic recession, many small scale businesses are created (Thomas, 2012). This did not agree with Onuoha (2016), who argued that Nigerians like to share free money instead of investing into profitable businesses.Hence, kidnapping, vanderlization of oil pipe line and militancy are the business of the moment. Thus putting fear on the minds of investors not to invest in any meaningful businesses. Enyekit, Amachule and Enyekit (2017) observed that small scale business are not flourishing as hunger and poverty have creep in the country. Economic recession are caused by increase in loss of business and consumer confidences, therefore, endangering the defensive mode of business owners mostly on the small scale business operators in Niger Delta. Creating the sign of panic and destructive downward in wholesalers and retailers further increasing layoff reactions on manufacturers. These however, increase the chance of infant mortality among the small scale business operators in Nigeria.

The sudden loss of confidence in sales affects investors and loan givers Onuoha (2016) pointed that the country’s’ capital market should be well develop to ensure easier entry and exit of funds through financial vehicles and instruments. In this assertion the capital market should have confidence of the based economy of the country. Amaechule (2005) opened that, understand our economic system services provides a place of the consumer’s confidence.The question is: How could small business operators understand the economic system when federal government has increase the interest rate and exchange rate unsteadly? This however, was an indicator of 1990 recession of massive swindles on loan crisis. When Depontory institutions act was passed to remove restrictions on loan to value ratio for banks.Central Bank of Nigeria (2012) 34

defineeconomic recession as business cycle contraction and a general slowdown in economic activity for two consecutive quotas, a period of relative stagnation or decline in business. During recession there is a decline in certain macroeconomic in the country and not all aspect of the economy will suffer recession. Therefore, plan should be made to use the segment of economy where economy recession did not affect to settle the aspect of economy that are suffering economy recession.

According to Amaewhule (2014), small scale business refers to any business processing or servicer industry with capital investment not more than N150,000 in machinery and equipment and with not more than 50 workers and with annual turnover between N1,000.00 TO n50,000 and restricted to local operational area. It is a business enterprise whose goals among others is to satisfy its customers and make profit by providing solution to their needs they may employ from 2 to 20 workers (Isaac, 2013).

Statement of Problems The evidence of lack of economic planning implementation makes economic planning not being useful. The utilization of economic planning will control the present economic recession in the country. Majority of economic plans in Nigeria lack the managerial competency among the stakeholders to handle the complexities pose by the dynamic nature of our economic. The problem is not making the plan but the negligence on the economic plan that will improve small scale business that the strategy leads to economic recession. It is upon this premise that the researcher deemed it necessary to examine the usefulness of economic plan in a recessed economy on small scale business operators in Port Harcourt metropolis. Purpose of the Study The purpose of the study is to examine the usefulness of economic plan in a recessed economy in a recessed economy exam whether recessed economy affects small scale business operators. Research Questions Two basic questions guided the study? How can economic plan be useful in a recessed economy? What effect does recession has on small scale business operators? Hypothesis The study was guided by the following hypotheses. (a) There is no significant difference in the mean responses between usefulness of economic plan and recessed economy. (b) There is no significant difference in the mean responses between recession and small scale business operators.

Methodology The study employed descriptive research design. The design enables collection of data through the use of questionnaire title usefulness of economic plan in a recessed economy on small scale business operators. (UEPREASSBOQ). The population of the study was 240 small business owners. Where a sample of 144% representing 60% of the population was selected using the stratified random sampling technique. Respondents of the study responded to validate 13 items, instrument with reliability index of 0.84 determined using Cronbach Alpha statistic and designed by the researcher in the modified 4-point rating scale. Mean and standard deviation were used on answering the research questions, while the z-test statistics was used in testing the hypotheses at 0.05 level of significance. Result The results of the study were derived from the answers to the research questions and the results of hypothesis.

Research Question I: Mean score of the z-test analysis of usefulness of economic plan and recessed economy.

S/NO Items Mean SD1 Decision Mean SD2 Decision X 1. Economic planning increase 3.08 0.96 Agreed 3.14 1.03 Agreed Layoff reaction in business, 2. Economic planning reduces 3.12 0.99 Agreed 3.15 0.89 Agreed unemployment. 3. Economic planning reduces 3.28 0.99 Agreed 3.12 0.77 Agreed inflation. 4. Economic planning increases 3.13 0.84 Agreed 3.15 0.94 Agreed standard of living. 5. Raising the causes of 3.13 0.98 Agreed 3.23 0.87 Agreed security. 6. The quality of policy 3.33 0.75 Agreed 3.28 0.78 Agreed implementation increases.

Source field survey 2018 n-120SD =Standard Deviation

>2.5 andabove Agree

< 2.5 Disagree Data in table 1 showed the distributions of respondents based on usefulness of economic plan and recessed economy.

The result show that 99 percent of the respondents agreed on the view that there are usefulness of economic plan on recessed economy. Research Question 2 What effect does recession has on small scale business operators

S/NO Items Mean SD1 Decision Mean SD2 Decision X 1. Economic recession creates 2.9 1.07 Agreed 2.84 1.01 Agreed profit cutoff from goods and services. 2. Inaccessible credit facility 2.87 1.01 2.87 1.06 to small scale business operators. 3. High exchange rate affects 2.88 1.07 2.89 1.07 small scale business operators. 4. Production capacity 2.89 0.99 2.79 1.10 reduction of small business operators. 5. Wrong conception of 2.92 1.05 2.82 1.08 successions of small scale business operators. 6. Decline on sustainable 2.68 1.11 2.64 1.09 programmes and standard of living. 7. Loss of confidence by 2.87 1.05 2.83 1.08 investors. Criterion Mean = 2.50 2.87 1.05 2.83 1.08

Data in table 2 shows that the distribution of respondent’s base on effect economic recession

has on small scale business operator is on a high side. The result indicated that economic

recession presently has an adverse effect on small business operator.

Table 3: Z-TEST OF There is no significant difference in the mean responses between usefulness of economic plan and recessed economy.

N Mean S.D Std error Z-cal z-tab 72 3.19 1.62 0.02 0.61 1.96 Accepted 72 3.18 1.73

Significant at 0.05 level of the analysis in table 3 show the z-test of no significant difference in the mean responses between usefulness of economic plan and recessed economy. Value of 0.61 is less than the z-table value of 1.96 which is indication that the null hypothesis is accepted. 37

Table 4: z-test of There is no significant difference in the mean responses between recession and small scale business operators. N Mean S.D Std error Z-cal z-tab 72 2.87 1.59 0.09 0.43 1.98 Accepted 72 2.83 1.68

Significant at 0.05 level of the analysis in table 4 show the z-test of no significant difference in the mean responses between recession and small scale business operators. Value of 0.43 is less than the z-table value of 1.98 which is indication that the null hypothesis is accepted.

Discussion of Findings Result in Table 1 showed that economic plan is needed for small scale business operators to perform in an environment of economic recession. This is obvious since economic plan will help a businessman to successfully execute his job task very well. It could be noted that most small scale business operators close down early or that has higher mutuality was as a result of lack of economic plan. Therefore effective performance in business required extensive economic plan be it in economic recessed environment or not. The findings were in line with Allen, Ndukwe and Orike (2017) who observed that financial skill as part of planning is needed by small business operators to ascertain the financial position of the business which includes the following: the knowledge of accounting, budgeting, ability to interpret financial statement, understanding of pay role and various documents.This assertion agreed with the study since many small scale business are closedown of high level of corruption in the country.The similarities of the findings of the present study with those of the former ones could be explained from the fact that Economic planning could be useful and expected a positive result both in recessed economy and economic boom period.

Result in Table 2 indicated that the respondent agreed that economic recession has affected most aspect of Nigerian economy. This agreed with Bupo and Abam-Smith (2017) who posed that with the rate of inflation, high level of poverty, uncertainties in government policies, individuals had to seek other means of livelihood, they further argued that present economic recession and the desire for fast wealth led many small businesses into a close. Since, some were duped and some couldn’t pay their debts.

Conclusion Premised on the findings of the study, it is evident that economic planning is more useful during the period of economic recession for a sustainable strategy. Small scale business men and 38

women should perceived economic plan useful though neglected over the years by most small scale businesses in Port Harcourt. Small business operators also agreed that economic plan reduces borrowing and discouragement therefore sustaining their businesses as Nigeria presently in economic recession. Recommendations The following recommendations were made base on the findings of the study. (1) Small scale business operators should include annual budgetary of their business in their financial records. (2) Small scale business operators should avoid the desire of fast wealth syndrome which always leads to a collapse of business. (3) The government of Nigeria should build a strong financial institution that will control the economic system and confidence on small business operators.

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THE THERAPEUTIC INTERVENTIONS OF ADOLESCENCE DELINQUENT BEHAVIOR FOR SOCIAL REFORMATION

SULEIMAN FH (PHD) E-mail: [email protected] GSM: 08035861255

AND

AMINU SANI (Ph.D) E-mail: [email protected] GSM: 07032923736

DEPARTMENT OF EDUCATIONAL FOUNDATIONS KOGI STATE UNIVERSITY, ANYIGBA

BEING A PAPER PRESENTED AT THE 43RD INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE OF COUNSELLING ASSOCIATION OF NIGERIA (CASSON) AT FCT EDUCATION RESOURCES CENTRE ABUJA

DATE: 6TH – 10TH AUGUST 2018.

Abstract The study examines the therapeutic interventions of adolescence delinquent behavior for social reformation. It looks at few delinquent theories-Individualistic theory, Norton theory of Anomic, conflict theory, labeling theory, self-conflict theory, choice theory, Biological theory, psychodynamic theory, Behavioral theory, social and cognitive theory. It also examines to effects of family, home background, peer group influence, mass media and environment on adolescence delinquent behavior. Some adolescence needs and problems were identified, such as physiological needs-security, love, approval, need for freedom, self-expression as well as some psychological needs-somatic variation, childhood-adulthood conflict, adjustment problem, ideal and reality, conflict, physical changed, emotional changes, behavioral changes, substance use and abuse, educational challenges and the like. The adequate therapeutic interventions to be taken by parents, teachers, counselors and social workers to reform the erring adolescence delinquent behavior were discussed. The study recommends that, the parents should be courageous enough to report any noticed delinquent child to the appropriate authorities without feeling embarrassed and stigma it might cause, Guidance Counselors should be posted is all schools, the parents and teachers should partner with the school counselors and social workers for immediate correctional methods and schools and parents should not impact unquestionable obedience that could hinder the growth of adolescence toward true independence.

Keywords: Adolescence, Delinquency, intervention, social reforms therapy. Introduction Guidance and counseling is a discipline that concerns itself with every part of man’s affairs by trying to look into every problems facing humanity with attempt to aid him/her achieve self- actualization through different techniques. Therefore, intellectual captivation is not a primary function of education objectives rather the conceived in terms of a broader realization of any faced of human personality and adjustment. Hence guidance and counseling assisting the adolescence(youth) to understand themselves better in term of intellectual, potential, aptitudes, attitude, talent, educational, and vocation interest as well as helping the youth to become psychologically well adjusted, emotionally, healthy, moral sound and capable of making wise

decision. All these laudable philosophes could hardly be achieved without adequate therapeutic techniques to reform the beneficiaries (Adolescence) Adolescences which are refer to the period following the onset of puberty during which a young person develop from child into adult begins at around age 9- 17 year. This period is characterized by biological growth and

Development, on undefined status increase decision making, increase pressure and the search for self which makes it (adolescence) a period of turbulence and that need the adequate therapeutic attention for reformation in order to enable them fully adjusted in to the norms of the society thereby, be able to contribute quota and benefit from the society

Theories of delinquency Individualistic Theories of Delinquency Individualistic theories, seeks to explain delinquency by evaluating children conditions or circumstance uniquely affecting the individual, such as biological inheritance or early family experiences. The theories based on individual choices largely disregard both the process through which people learn delinquent norms and group and cultural factor in delinquency. Marshall, (1998) express that some scientists and practitioners claim to trace certain forms of delinquent and antisocial behaviour to specific, physical anomalies, body chemistry compositions, or hereditary characteristics (Fishbein,1990). These beliefs, in turn, have important consequences for suggestions about prevention and treatment programs. Some observers, for example, express a biological view of human nature in advocating sterilization for certain types of delinquents. Some biologists believe that specific, biologically inherited traits account for instances of alcoholism, crime, drug addiction, certain types of mental disorders, and certain sexual deviation. Only limited and mixed evidence supports conclusions about such a view, although researchers actively studied such questions. Work in the fields of alcoholism and crime illustrates the large positions (Lopez 2006).

Merton’s Theory behaviour probably owe their popularity to the distinguished U.S sociologist Robert Merton. In of Anomie Strain theories on delinquent 1938, Merton proposed a revised version of the concept of anomie that has proven to be one of the durable theoretical concepts in twentieth century social thought (Marcus 2004).

French sociologist Emile Durheim had first employed the concept of anomie to describe the social malaise that accompanies the breakdown of existing social rules and values brought about by rapid social change (Durkheim 1950). When established norms, customs, and practices are made obsolete, the result is collective sense of social insecurity and normlessness. Anomic conditions arise when the rule of law becomes weakened and powerless to maintain social control. Under these conditions, crime can be considered a “normal” response to existing social conditions.

Conflict Theory The conflicts theories of delinquent focus their explanations more on delinquency than on delinquent behavior. That is, these theories address the origins of rules or norms rather than about the origins of behaviour that violates established standards. Most writings about deviance within the conflict perspective have related to criminality, but this set of theories appears to cite explanations relevant to a number of other forms of delinquency, as well (Satorra and Bentler, 2006). The theory view stresses the pluralistic nature of society and the differential distribution of power among groups; some groups wield social power, according to this body of theory, so they can create rules, particularly laws that serve their own interests. In the process, they often exclude the interests of others from consideration. In this respect, the conflict perspective conceives of society as a collection of groups with competing interests in conflict with one another; those with sufficient power create laws and rules that protect and promote their interests. Self-Control Theory The general theory of crime (Gottfredson & Hirschi, 2000) has attracted a lot of attention and controversy Pratt & Cullen, (2000); vold et al., (2002). This theory is based on the assumption that crime provides gratification that is easy and immediate. This theory also suggests that people who tend to commit crimes partake in other gratifying behaviours that are analogous behaviours to crime like drinking, gambling and smoking. This theory uses the term ‘low self- control’ to describe the enduring criminality. Gottfredson and Hirshi (2000) suggest that the lack of self-control is found in childhood. Weak control exerted by parents resulted in weak self-control in their offspring. Parents who show good attachment to their children are more likely to monitor, recognize and punish wayward behaviour, so these children develop self- control to resist easy gratification (Pratt & Cullen,2000). Measures of low self-control have been linked to law violation; self-reported delinquency, future criminal convictions, and other 43

analogous behaviours Pratt & Cullen, (2000). Low self-control is also a significant predictor of negative life outcomes like poor social bonds, lifestyles and low socioeconomic status (Pratt & Cullen, 2000). Many studies have supported that low self-control in the chief predictor of involvement in crime and in behaviours corresponding to crime Gottfredson &Hirschi (2000), Pratt, (2000), Blair, (2001), Hare, (1998).

Choice Theory The first formal explanations of crime and delinquent behaviour held that human behaviour was a matter of choice, because it was assumed that people had free will to choose their behaviour, those who violated the law were motivated by personal needs, greed, revenge, survival, hedonism. More than 200 years ago, utilitarian philosophers benefit consequences of their future actions before deciding on a course of behaviour Wikipedia (2007). Their writings found the core of what is today referred to as classical criminology.

The classical view of crime and delinquency holds that the decision to violate the law comes after a careful weighing of the benefits and cost of criminal behaviours. Most potential law violators would cease their actions if the potential pain associated with behaviour outweighed its anticipated gain; conversely, law-violating behaviour becomes attractive if the future rewards seem far greater than the potential punishment. Ellis (1989) according to the classical view, youths who decide to become drug dealers weigh and compare the possible benefits, such as cash to buy cars, cloths, and other luxury items, with the potential penalties, such as arrest followed by a long stay in a juvenile facility.

Biological Theory Several theorists have argued that there are two motivational systems that underlie behaviour (Patrick, Cuthbert, & Lang, (1994) and Hare, 1998). A behavioural activation system (BAS) is believed to regulate appetitive motives, in which the goal is to move away from something unpleasant. It has been suggested that people showing psychopathy show a low behavioural inhibition system Frick (2006), and Kerlinger (1973). Low BIS activation causes a lack of potential danger and harm, and abnormal processing of affective stimuli. Frick (2006).

Modern biological theorists of crime do not believe that all determinants of criminal activity are biological. Most theories posit that biological factors do not cause the person to engage in crime but rather increase the probability that a person will engage in violent and antisocial behaviours. Biological theories are part of a multiple factor approach which includes neurotransmitters, hormones and behaviour system (Vold et al.2002).

Psychodynamic Theory One long-held psychological view on delinquency is based on the pioneering work of the Austrian physician Sigmund Freud (1856-1939). Freud’s views are today referred to as psychodynamic or psychoanalytic theory. The theory argues that the human personality contains three major components. The id is the unrestrained, primitive, pleasure seeking component with which each child is born. The ego develops through the reality of living in the world and helps manage and restrain the id’s need for immediate gratification. The superego develops through interactions with parents and other significant people and represents the development of conscience and the moral rules that shared by most adults. Psychodynamic theory suggests that unconscious motivations for behaviour come from the id’s compulsion to account for two primary need-sex and aggression. Human behaviour is often marked by symbolic actions that reflect person’s unconscious need for shelter and mobility to escape from hostile enemies (aggression) or perhaps to urge to enter a closed, dark, womblike structure that reflects the earliest memories (sex). All three segment of the personality operate simultaneously. The id dictates need and desires, the superego counteracts the id by fostering feelings of morality and righteousness, and the ego evaluates the reality of position between these two extremes.

Behavioural Theory Not all psychologists agree that behaviour is control by unconscious metal processes determined by parent relationships developed early in childhood. Behavioural psychologists argue that a person’s personality is learned throughout life during interaction with others. Based primarily on the works of the American psychologist (John B. Waston 1878-1958) and popularized by Harvard professor B. F. Skinner (1904-1990), behaviorism concerns itself solely with measurable events, not the unobservable psychic phenomena described by psychoanalysts (Larry and Joseph, 1997).

Behaviorists suggest that individuals learn by observing how people react to their behaviour. Behaviour is triggered initially by a stimulus or change in the environment. If a particular behaviour is reinforced by positive reaction or event, that behaviour will be continued and eventually learned. However, behaviours that are not reinforced or are punished will be extinguished or become extinct (Lynns 2007). For example, if children are given a reward (ice cream for dessert) for behaving properly while eating dinner, eventually learn to behave properly as a matter of habit. Conversely, if children are punished for some misbehavior, they will eventually learn to associate disapproval with the act and avoid it. 45

Social-Cognitive Theory One area of delinquent behaviour that has receives increasing recognition in recent years has been cognitive theory. Psychologist with a cognitive perspective focus on mental processes, the way people perceive and mentally represent the world around them, and how they solve problems. The pioneers of the school were Wilhelm Wundt (1832-1920), Edward Titchener (1867-1927), and William James (1842-1920). Volt et al (2002). The social-cognitive theory posits that learning can take place through direct interactions with the environment and society via operant conditioning and social learning (Vold et al., 2002). Social learning, or modeling, occurs when people observe the consequences that behaviours have for other people. The initial participation of the individual in criminal behaviour is explained by differential association, definitions (the meaning you attach to your own behaviour), imitation and social reinforcements. After the person has begun to commit crimes differential reinforcements determines whether the behaviours are continued or not (Vold et al., 2002). This is caused by rewards and punishments directly experienced by the individual and also vicariously experienced by observation of others criminal experiences.

Factors Promoting Delinquent Behaviour among Adolescent Certain social factors within the society have been founded to contribute to delinquent behaviour among adolescents generally. A few of these factors shall be the subject of consideration. On the one hand, not necessary all persons affected by these factors commit crime, on the other hand, there are individuals who commit crime; even they have not experience such influence. The presence of the factors determining criminal and delinquent behaviour only indicates the higher probability of crime. Before discussing these social factors, it is important to note that social life is rather complicated and diverse. Respectively the factors that decide criminal and delinquent behaviours work only in the complex way. However, (Marshall and Robert 1998) identify the family, the school, peer group, the media and environment as factors promoting delinquent behaviour among the adolescents. The Family Influence -* Research findings abound on the relationship between parental acceptance/rejection, socio- economic status and adolescent delinquent behaviour. Different researches have been carried out to find some of the causes of adolescent delinquent behaviour both locally and abroad. However, the result of these studies remains inconsistent. Researches ranges from favoring a family deviant acts (Brass, 2007). Regardless of the diversity of findings, much research

mentions the combined impact of gender, ethnicity, socio-economic status, age, demographic and race. Home Background The influence of home in delinquent behaviour is very enormous. There are two types of homes. Complete homes and separate homes. A complete home is one, which both parents live together with their wards under the same roof. Stealing in this area, could emanate a result of deprivation (Kristen-Zolten and long,1998). Landis (1975) remarked that, generally in polygamous homes, parent do not plan the size of children produced. The result of this he concluded is poverty and homes filled with quarrelling and competition. Thus, the father might find it difficult to meet the needs and aspirations of both the children as well as that of the wives. This singular factor leads to petty stealing habit and other delinquent behaviour among the uncompromising children. The Peer Group Influence Peer group is a group of people (young or adults who are relatively equal in age, rank, and worth). In secondary school, it is a group of students who work together and form a group in which the group may be geared towards achieving certain motives. Though, the child’s personality characteristics are being developed from home, contemporary authorities in developmental psychology have however found considerable evidence to show that the child’s peer is more or less his true world. Since it is from the peer culture and group that the child and the adult individual comes to discover and to defend him (Nwoye 1990). Peers can also teach a young person delinquent behaviour. This is because such peers can exact influence on their mates by labeling them so that they can actually participate in crime and delinquent behaviour and if the young person’s funds a sense of self-esteem by doing so, then he or she can be influence to fully participate in crime and delinquent activities.

Mass media influence How Media Influence People’s Perceptions of Delinquent is more readily availability today than ever before. Television, radio, newspapers, and news magazines provide a daily flood of information about delinquent acts and actors. Some serial reports giving graphic details as the reporters eagerly follow the unfolding cases. These reports reach even people who do not receive the directly, for example those who do not subscribe to newspapers or watch television news, because others who encounter media reports of delinquency repeat them in local conversation. Media outlets also provide extremely timely information on delinquent events, particularly television news with its emphasis on live reporting. Highly competitive local organizations gain high prestige and viewer approval when they report stories before rival 47

outlets. Furthermore, because national organizations or networks back most local news organizations, local media can report on dramatic events-such as spectacular crimes-in distant locations. Rural residents regularly hear about crimes that occurred thousands of miles away on the other side of the world (Marshall 1998). Environmental Influence The demographic characteristics of a person’s living environment can also be a contributing factor of delinquent behaviour patterns. Adverse living conditions and a crime prone neighborhood can lead to criminal activities among adolescents. In essence, the living environmental conditions existing in a particular society can be a major cause of delinquent as this individual tends to be vulnerable to particular negative influences from such environment. Delinquent behaviour has also been attributed to social disorganization in the society. A society where there is disruption in social cohesion, breakdown in social control, misalignment among various elements in the society and poor social community integration can all lead to delinquent behaviour(Ekpe and Mamah 1997). Young persons who now live in such societies where there is little education, residents live in poor housing units, low income and surrounded by physical decay tend to develop antisocial and delinquent behaviours as a result of their long exposure to these varying conditions that could be inimical towards their proper upbringing. Problems and needs of adolescence An individual needs and problems influence his development to a great extent. Sajid,(2017) remarks that adolescence is a crucial period in the life of an individual with its characteristics, needs and problems of adjustment. Every adolescent has certain needs and satisfaction of which is essential of his continued physical and other aspects of development. A need is a tension within any organism which must be satisfied for the wellbeing of organism, such needs are hereby broadly classified into physiological needs and psychological needs. Primary or physiological: needs according to (Sajid, 2017), is the fulfillment of physiological needs are inevitable because they are concern with the very existence of the individual. This include the need for oxygen, need for water and food, need for rest and sleep, need for sex gratification etc. while the secondary or socio-psychological environment of an individual. These needs are acquired through social learning and their satisfaction is necessary for the psychological wellbeing of the individual. Need for security: Need for security. Adolescents however, need emotional, social and economic security in addition to physical security, lacking in this might lead to maladjustment among the adolescent.

Need for love: Need for love or affection is one of the most basic psychological needs of the adolescents. Every adolescent have a strong desire to love and to be loved. The individual who is not loved will not deep proper attributes and concepts concerning his own worth because proper will strengthen the individual feelings of security. Need for approval: There is a carving for recognition in adolescents. This ego according to (Sajid, 2017) gets satisfaction when he is recognized to approved, the adolescent desire that he should be a center of attraction for the opposite sex and his abilities, intelligence and capacities should be recognized by others. Need for freedom and independence: Adolescence is a time when he individual is striving to wean himself away from the control of parents and elders. He wants the right to give expulsion to his feelings, emotions and ideas. He feels annoyed and unpleasant when restriction is imposed on him. Need for self-expression and achievement: Every adolescent has an inherent desire for the expression of his potentialities. He may have a brief, musician, painter etc. hidden within him and he wants to get adequate opportunities for the expression of his potentialities. He experiences satisfaction when he succeeds in them and failure makes him depressed and disappointed. Perplexity with regard to Somatic Variation: Every adolescent has more or less difficulty task of adjusting to somatic variation which may occur in connection with puberty. The follow of blood during menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys create worries and give birth to so many fears and anxieties. Since ours in a conservative society, youngsters are less inform about physical changes that are occurring during puberty. Lack of scientific information about sex hygiene and philosophy make them to be satisfied with crude and perverted knowledge about sex related matters. It creates guilt feeling and so may complexes in the mind of the children which makes them introverted and secretive. Perplexity with regard to somatic variation: Every adolescent has more or less difficulty task of adjusting to somatic variation which may occur in connection with puberty. The flow of blood during menstruation in girls and nocturnal emission in boys create worries and give birth to so many fears and anxieties. Since ours in a conservative society, youngsters are less inform about physical changes that are occurring during puberty. Lack of scientific information about sex related matters. It creates guilt feeling and so many complexes in the mind of the children which makes them introverted and secretive.

Problems related with intensification of sex consciousness. The sudden awakening of sex instinct during adolescents results in intensification of sex consciousness. Adolescents are curious of knowing about sex related topic and are seeking answers to their inerrable doubts in sexual matters. In Nigeria, most parents are illiterate and they do not have scientific knowledge of sex problems. More so, Nigeria social values are different from that of Western Countries, and hence parents hesitate to discuss sex problem with their children. So the adolescents resort to socially unacceptable ways to quench their curiosity and to satisfy their sexual needs, there is also the misguiding of print and electronic media. This finally results in sexual maladjustment in adolescents- interest in all phonographic and branded films. Distant difficulties with parents: Adolescents have a strong for freedom or independence, but often it is obstructed by parental opposition. In Nigeria context, parental opposition may extend to such a chore of friends, choice of education, recreational interest, dress, life style, our of going from and coming to the home, mode of behavior etc. the conflict between parental norms of behavior and peer groups relationship often lead to friction in the relationship and adolescents find it difficult to adjust to the needs and demand of parents. Failure to adjust with the parents may result in revolting against parents and authority. Childhood-Adulthood Conflicts: In our society, the adolescent is considered as neither as a child nor an adult. He has to depend on his parents and elders for his physical and emotional needs. But at the same time, he wants to hold independent views and opinions like an adult. He can very well manage his own affairs and resist any unnecessary interference for the part of elders. He begins to feel ashamed and embarrassed for the protection and care shown by the parents. He is often treated in an ambiguous manner by parents and teachers. Sometimes they expect him to behave as an adult and at other times, they treat him as a child. The poor adolescent is caught between the role of the child and the adult, which push him to confusion and tension. Adjustment difficulties with school discipline: Most of the adolescents face a great problem in adjusting to the school discipline. Sometimes schools expects too much from students who must submit to teachers who may be tyrannical sometimes. Adjustment difficulties with community: Adolescents are expected to find their place in a society marked by increasing social isolation and rapid technological changes. This changing world makes it difficult to anticipate and plan for adolescent life. They have difficulty in adjusting their capacity to the demand of the community. At this critical phase, most adolescents react by withdrawing into a non-demanding and non-working world of pleasure and satisfaction.

The Ideal and Reality Conflicts: It is during adolescence an adolescent move from been a children to adult-perhaps the single most important and grinded set of changes-others may not know how they feel about themselves, but we should. The disparity between ideal and actual can produce confusion and maladaptation, or this disparity can be a source of motivation as aspiration for adolescents who are searching for identity. As the adolescence represents a fascinating transitional period, marked by the emergence of new found cognitive capacities and changing societal expectation. Therapeutic interventions techniques In order to avert and adequately reform the adolescents of all such of delinquent behavior among these youngsters, the following therapeutics interventions would be more appropriate. Physical Changes In order to effectively handle the physical changes in adolescent is to make them aware of these changes by letting them aware that it is normal for the body to change as every teenager goes through such a change. More so, the counselor should assist them to adapt to these charges- acknowledge the change and help them to accept it as a normal phenomenal. Enable the adolescent stay healthy and fit through as nitrous diet and exercise. Emotional Changes The counselor should share his personal experience of puberty with them and let them talk to an older siblings who have gone through the same experience and try to emphasize that it is okay to the feel the way they do. They should equally be encouraged to exercise as physical activity that will help the serotonin (create good feelings and happiness) level up. They should be encouraged to talk and you listen to them without judging and avoid given them advice when they are not ready for it. They should be counseled that puberty can be an emotional rather coaster ride and it is normal and indulging them in creature activity that can help them channelize their emotion in a positive way. They should be assisted in taking proper care of themselves and let them be aware that it is normal for every teenagers to feel the way they are feeling. Substance Use or Abuse Since teenagers are vulnerable and can easily be swayed to the wrought side, particularly through peer pressure, efforts should be made to alienate them from keeping bad company. Do not totally condemn or spy on them nor accuse them of any wrought doing rather encourage them to talk and be honest. Tell them your concerns and discuss privately (individual counseling) with them. If by peradventure they are not willing to open up with you, they could

be referred to doctors who could confidently ask questions to ascertain the levels of substance abuse. As much as possible, avoid going as far as confrontational and threaten. If necessary, get the involved adolescent the appropriate treatment and keep open eyes on their abnormal behavior. Look for erratic behavior and change in his/her apatite, sleep patterns, and moods. Educational challenges Pressure to perform academically and obtain university admission can be stressful and make adolescence moody. However, high school is not all about fashion, friends and parties. Adolescents also have a lot of educational activities which needs to support their aspiration for college education by encouraging them. If possible, their household choice could be cut down (with caution) to enable them focus on their schools activities. Nutrition and exercise however, can help them get the strength and endurance they need to get through the hectic high school pressure. Addiction to cyber space It is a fact that the advent of social media has changed the way the adolescents interact with one another. It has affected teenagers lifestyles the most, they spend hours on phone, texting, talking, or simply playing but do not assure that they are addicted to the internet just because he/she spend a lot of time in front of computer. They could be doing more productive things on the system other them surfing the net. Parental controls could be used, but that may not be taken well by your teen- member that they are not kids anymore (Sagari 2017). At the same time, they may also have the judgment make the right choice. So guide them as a parent, but never decide for them. They could be enrolled in activities that encourage them to interact with others. Have family activities at the computer.

Aggression and violence Aggression is especially a concern with adolescent. The boys start to develop muscles, grow tall and have a coarser, mainly voice, lead to bulling, intimidation, violence. The adolescent need to be counseled in the need to be kind and considerate because nurturing relationship at home can help them become less aggressive. Expose them to life skills and the importance of compassion, led by being their model. They should be exposed to rational emotive therapy and movies because at this age should be guided and edited because they could hardly distinguish between right and wrong. Conclusion Through the few theories examined cum the contributing factors that promote delinquent behavior among the adolescence, it is established that adolescence needs among the other things 52

as security, love, approval, freedom, somatic variation, adjustment difficulties, and the like which are highly perpetrated by other variables like family types, peer group influence, mass media, and environmental influence. All these attest to the fact that every adolescent often faced crises in one way or the other as a result of the turbulent nature of that particular developmental stage. However, if this sensitive period is adequately managed, they would be more productive and useful to themselves and the society at large. This could only be achieved through the therapeutic intervention to reform them as early as possible. The reformation intervention as the storage demands conservative efforts of the parents, Teachers, Counselors, Community members and social workers. Their roles include deliberate expression of affection, concern about adolescents problems, show emphatically feelings for them, harmony in the home, participation in the family and school activities, availability to give an organize help to them when headed or asked for, selling cluck and fair rules, understanding peer influence on self esteem Recommendations  Adolescence with delinquent behavior should be referred to children correctional Centre for immediate rehabilitation where they could be easily reformed. They should be made to participate in viable programmed and activities that may be put in place from time to time to enhance their self-control levels  The children correctional Centre should be fully equipped, well stuffed with qualified social workers who will be exposed to series behavioural modification techniques is a harness total reformation among the adolescence. Such Centre should be made homely for the adolescence  Qualified Guidance and Councilor should be posted to all schools to handle all sorts of delinquent before getting out of hands.  The parents and teachers should partner with the school Counselors, and social workers to instill correctional measures as observed.  The teachers should find out the field in which the adolescence could shine very well and which help him to earn adoration from others. Therefore, the school curriculum should be appropriate for every student so as to permit achievement for them.  The school and the parents should not impart habit of unquestionable obedient that hinders the growth of adolescence towards true independence.

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ACOUSTIC AND SEDIMENTOLOGICAL INVESTIGATIONS OF THE SEA FLOOR SEDIMENTS IN “EMOBS” FIELDS OFFSHORE, WESTERN NIGER DELTA: IMPLICATIONS ON OIL FIELD DEVELOPMENT.

Chuku, Hope Chibuzor¹ and Odigi, Minapuye Isaac²

¹Department of Geology, University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Email Address: [email protected], [email protected],+23408037802180 ²Center for Petroleum Geosciences, Institute of Petroleum Studies,University of Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Email Address [email protected] All Correspondence should be sent to Chuku, Hope Chibuzor (Author one)

Abstract The transport and fate of sediments is a critical factor affecting the geological health of estuaries, coastal embayments, riverine, lacustrine, and continental shelf environments. Sedimentary processes of the sea floor are integral in oil field development within offshore province. The geophysical and sedimentological study of the “Emobs” Fields in the inner shelf environment of western Niger Delta Nigeria, was done through the measurements of high fidelity onboard instrumentation and well cutting data, to determine the implications of sediments and sedimentary processes of the seafloor on oil fields development and safety. The instruments are echo sounder, side scan sonar, sub bottom profiler and magnetometer. Bathymetry ranges between 5m- 31m water depth, with a deepening trend from the north to south end, topography generally is undulating in the north to gently flat in the south due to the interaction between wave and current regimes. The sediments from the sea bed scan vary from silty clayey sand through clayey silty sand to sandy silty clay. Sub-bottom profiling reveals a consistent upper unit overlying a hard reflector allowing unit thickness (isopachs) to be defined. Gas charged sediments of 15m-20m thick occurs between the seabed and the lithified layer occurred. The strong seismostratigraphic interface (lithified sediments-competent bed) depth below the seabed ranges: 4.0m-6.0m as corroborated by the sediment analysis of the well cuttings. The sea floor scan also shows existence of genetically related depressions and surrounding rings of sand called pock marks which vary between 0.4m-10m in diameter. Based on the findings, a number of recommendations have been formulated for the safe and cost effective development of these Oil Fields.

Keywords: Seafloor, Sediments, Bathymetry, Lithified Layer and Oil Field Development. 55

Introduction The understanding of the sediments and sedimentary processes of the sea floor is critical to oil field development in the offshore province to obviate problems related to instability and drifting of drilling rigs, collapse of offshore subsea facilities including production platforms, grounding of operations vessels and pipeline ruptures, with concomitant spillages[4].The seafloorsediments and sedimentary processes studiesare high-fidelity information tools used to identify the sedimentological state of the seabed offshore[4]. Routine application of multibeam sonar bathymetry and backscatter has revolutionized our understanding of continental shelf morphodynamics[5]. The research will consider western Niger Delta in Nigeria, in view of Sea bed lithofacies, Sea bed prominent seismic profiles, Seismic layers below the sea bed, Sedimentary Structures, Depositional settings, Competent beds, Sea bed topography, boreholes logs correlative features, other geomorphologic features(natural and anthropogenic),existing subea facilities, etc.

AIM AND OBJECTIVES OF THE STUDY The aim of this research is to determine the sediments and sedimentary processes of the seafloor, to determine their implications on subsea facilities installation and safety in the western Niger Delta Nigeria. The objectives include: 1. Determine sea bed sediments 2. Determine the sedimentary processes of the sea bed. 3. Determine shallow subsurface profile 4. Identify the various sedimentary structures. 5. To Identify the existing sea floor features and subsea facilities.

STUDY AREA AND LOCATION

Figure 1: Map of the Study Area, offshore Western Niger Delta Nigeria[8].

Figure 2: Map of the Study Location, 25.82km offshore Western Niger Delta Nigeria[4].

MATERIALS AND METHODS From April 2014 until January 2018, 85 km of along track side scan sonar data, sub-bottom profiler, echo sounder and magnetometer data were collected from four fields within a 15 km long of each field of the Western Niger Delta for the purpose of determining the sediments and sedimentary processes of the sea floor and their implications on subsea facilities installations and safety. The total area of geophysical data coverage was 8.93 km2.Sidescan sonar and seismic sub-bottomprofiler data were collected simultaneously in a dual display. The instruments were towed at speeds of 3kts. Surveys took place at high tide and ended asthe tide was receding. The water depths during the survey ranged from 0.5–6m.The vessel used for this research survey was the M.V. Rektar, a Towing and Anchor Handling Tug. She is 44.4m long, with a draft of 3.2m and beam of 11.3m, capable of a top speed of 15 knots. Positioning was accomplished by means of a Kongsberg Seapath 330 DGPS/DGLONASS, NR 203 MDGPS and Trimble 5700 with 0.5-1m accuracy. Navigation data was logged (with bathymetric signal) through Eiva Navipack software to a computer hard disk. The survey used side-scan sonar to map the seabed, elucidating bedforms that are suggestive of sediments and sediments mobility, sedimentary structures and inferring sediment types.The GeoAcoustic dual frequency side scan sonar provided mapping of the seabed and consist of a pair of dual frequency (100 kHz to 500 kHz). The unit includes standard controls such as: Gain, Time varying Gain (TVG), automatic Gain Control (AGC) with duplicated control for Port and Starboard transducer. The GeoPulse 57

Model 5210A Receiver functions as a transceiver in a GeoPulse "pinger" profiling system provides a powerful transmit pulse at an operator selected frequency which then converts the electrical pulse to an outgoing acoustic signal. This acoustic signal is reflected off sub-bottom layers. The returning echoes are converted by the transducers to an electrical signal which is inturn passed on to the GeoPulse Model 5210A Receiver to provide stratigraphic data, processed with Coda Octopus software. Bathymetric data was collected using a Multi-Beam Echo Sounder Model 400 (710 kHz) echo sounder. Online survey guidance, and simultaneous logging of bathymetric and positioning data were handled through a PC running the Coastal Oceanographics Eiva survey program. Valeport CTD probe profiler was used to measure the speed of sound in the water column to provide calibration data for the echo sounder.The G-880 and G-881 marine Cesium magnetometer was used to provide reliable detection of geological features and manmade objects by magnetic anomalies. Tidal levels were recorded at Ogidigbe Port with a time correction of –10 minutes applied for data reduction at the working site.

FIGURE 2: ECHO SOUNDER (ES)[1][3].

FIGURE 3: Side Scan Sonar (SSS)[6][7].

FIGURE 4: Sub Bottom Profiler (SBP)[9][2]. METHODO PETROLEUM LOGYGEOLOGIST EQUIPME EQUIPME EQUIPME

SEA DATA DATA DATA ACQUISIT PROCESSI INTERPRET CHARTING AND REPORT GENERATION

FIGURE 5: Work Flow Chart [4]

DATA ACQUISITION [10] RESULTS AND INTERPRETATIONS These consist basically of five sets of data: bathymetric data, sub bottom data, side scan data, magnetometer data and well cutting data with respect to sedimentary processes, lithology, sea floor topography, subsurface stratigraphy, observed features, environment of deposition and sedimentary structures.

BATHYMETRIC SOUNDING DATA OF E-FIELD Water depth along the pipe route increases gradually from 5m to 18m. Generally, the seabed slopes gently from north towards the south. The range of water depths within each alignment sheet are listed in the table below: Table1: Water Depths within E-FIELD

From KP to KP Water Depth Range(m) KP 9.50 to KP 12.00 5 - 6 KP 12.00 to KP 14.50 6 - 8 KP 14.50 to KP 16.00 8 -10

KP 16.00 to KP 18.50 10 - 13 KP 18.50 to KP 21.40 13 - 18

North Sea bed Water column

A B FIGURE 8:Section A-B: Undulating sea bed. Water Depth ranging between 5-6m Drawing Scale 1:1000

SEA BED SEDIMENTS OF Emobs-FIELD.

Generally the seabed within the field is characterised by the presence of low to moderate reflective sediments interpreted as sandy silty clay. However scattered patches of high reflective sediments interpreted as clayey silty sand were also observed within the field.

North SSS Image showing Area of Possible Interferences

Arrow Position: 291905E, 170441N

Distance from the as found

Clayey Silty SAND

Figure 9: SSS Data Extract showing Scar Marks (area of possible interferences) near Export Pipeline

SHALLOW GEOLOGY OF E-FIELD The seismic profiles of the surveyed area suggest the presence of strong seimostratigraphic interface at 4.5m to 5.5m below the seabed. The acoustic backscatter properties of this layer indicate that the layer is composed of lithified sediments or calc-arenite formations. The acoustic penetration was found to be limited at the top of this layer.Intermittently occurring weak seismostratigraphic layers were also observed just below the seabed and the area between seabed and strong seismostratigraphic interface. No occurrence of shallow gas was observed within the seismic profiles of the surveyed area. The seismic profile was found to be devoid of any faults till the extent of the acoustic penetration.

BOREHOLE LOG FOR THE FIELD E.

PROJECT TITLE: SEDIMENTS AND SEDIMENTARY PROCESS OF THE SEA

FLOOR IN “EMOBS” FIELDS OFFSHORE WESTERN NIGER DELTA NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS ON SUBSEA FACILITIES.

BOREHOLE NO. 1 DEPTH :0m to 100m WATER DEPTH : 5.0 m

START OF DRILLING: 02/10/16END OF DRILLING 10/10/16

LOCATION : WESTERN DELTA COORDINATE : 297568.18E, 170331.57N

DRILLING EQUIPMENT/METHOD : DODO PERCUSSION/ ROTARY DRILLING RIGS

Strong Seimostratigraphic Interface North (Lithified Sediments)

Water Column

Figure 11: SBP Data Extract showing strong Seimostratigraphic Interface/ Lithified Sediments.

SEISMIC ANOMALIESOF O-FIELD WELL CUTTING DATA FOR E-FIELD The buried pipelines, manifested as Parabolas on seismic records, were detected during the survey campaign and details of these anomalies are provided in table 4.7 below:

WELL CUTTING DATA/LITHOLOGY

Figure 12: SBP Data extract showing Burial Depth at M-Field

DEPT THICK GRAIN SIZE LITHOFACIES FACI INTERPR H(M) 0 NESS MUD SAND DESCRIPTION ES SEQUE ETATION (M) GRAVEL COD NCE E …… Clayey Silt, Very A FLOOD 4 Soft, Dark Gray. PLAIN …… 5 Silty Sand, with B CHANNEL ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; shell fragments at FILL ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; 10 11 6.75m to 8.5 m ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; depths. Soft, ;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;;; gray– brownish, 15 ;; Lithified. ---- Clay, Silty C 20 ---- Soft,Dark- ---- Grayish ---- Clay, Silty, , dark FLOOD 25 ---- grayish D PLAIN 30 -- Clay , Silty E Soft ,dark grayish 35 ……

…… 40 45 Clay , Silty with F …… shell fragments, 45 …… 50 firm, dark grayish …… …… Clay , becoming G 55 60 …… Sandy, very firm, ;;;;; grayish to 65 ;;;;; brownish ;;;;; Sand , Silty, H CHANNEL 5 ;;;;; Dense - Very FILL 70 ;;;;; Dense, Dark- Brown.

Clay, Sandy, Very I Firm. FLOOD

75 PLAIN

Clay, Silty with J 80 30 Sand intercalations 90 Very firm, gray. 95 5 Sand, silty, firm K CHANNEL grayish. FILL 100 END OF BORING

PREPARED BY : CHUKU, HOPE CHECKED BY: PROFESSOR ODIGI, CHIBUZORFIGURE 13: Graphic sedimentary Log of wellMINAPUYE cuttings at the ISAAC E-Field. (Modified after Chuku and Ibe,

LEGEND

= Clay

;;;;;;;;;;;; = Silt ;;;;;;;;;; = Shell fragments/peat/Debris SEA BED SEDIMENTARY STRUCTURE FOR E-FIELD = Sand FUS= Fining Upward Sequence

Megaripples on sand wave flanks

Troughs of sand waves

Megaripples on bottom of sand ribbons

Figure 14: SSS Data extract showing sand waves, ripples and ribbons.

SEA BED FEATURES

The seabed within the field corridor was found to exhibit smooth texture.Numerous scar marks, were observed all over the area.Many Pockmarks of varied diameters were observed within the surveyed corridor. Some of these pockmarks are found very near to the as-found Export Line. The pockmarks may pose threats to the mechanical integrity of the existing pipelines since they are actually shallow gas vents.Since the origin of the scar marks is not understood they were considered as the area of interest. Survey lines were run across the scar marks with the deployment of all the sensors (magnetometer, side scan sonar and subbottom profiler) to determine any objects that are associated with the scars. However no such anticipated objects were found with the scars.

North Export Pipeline Buried Stretch

The Position of the Pipeline reconstructed by

Seismic Records and Magnetometer Records.

Scar Marks near Export Line

Arrow Position: 288506E, 167615N

Note: These long scars are

Interpreted to be originated by

Fishing activities

Figure 15: SSS Data Extract showing Scar Marks interpreted to be originated by Fishing Activities.

Figure 23: SSS Data extract showing Area of Spud depression at edge of survey corridor 967m distance west of M-Field

North High Reflective Sediments

Mattress at 294870E, 172296N Mattress at 294892E, 172297N

Mattress at 294853E, 172300N

Long Range Acoustic Reflection generated by Hull of the Survey

Mattress at 294872E, 172312N

Figure 24: SSS Data Extract showing Mattresses near O-Field

MAGNETIC ANOMALIES FOR E-FIELD The localised magneticanomalies were discerned for the survey lines running perpendicular to the Line since the magnetic record of these survey lines were found to be dominated by the magnetic field of the Export Line

SUMMARY AND CONCLUSION The sea bed sediments from the scan in the study area support a composition consistent with sand, silt and clay deposits. There are indications that sediments have moved across the sea bed in “emobs”fields. The sonar records of the survey area infer the dominant presence of Low Reflective Sediments, interpreted to be composed of silty clayey sand. The high reflective sediments, interpreted to be composed of clayey, silty sand was observed as pockets around all the platforms and Jackets of the corridor.The bed form structures in the scanned sea bed data gives credence to this assertion and at the same time brings into focus the kind of sedimentary processes occurring in the fields.The current ripples are located in the north western part while the wave ripples occur in the south western part. The structure and texture of these bed forms clearly divides the shore face profile of the area surveyed into two distinctive grain size provinces:-An upper shore face consisting of fine, sea ward fining sand occurring in water depths of between 5m-31m with current ripple structures; And lower shore face of coarse sand in water depths of above 5m within the limits of study having wavy bed forms that is suggestive of sand waves.Bathymetry:water depth ranges between 5m-18m, with a deepening trend from the north to south end and topography generally is undulating in the north to gently flat in the south caused by ripple currents and storm processes.Thus, it can be established that the shore face texture and bed forms of the study area fits into that of a retrograding coast. Two basic processes cooperate to maintain the shore face profile: waves under fair weather and storm

events that may have occurred in the past. The strong seismostratigraphic interface(lithified sediments-competent bed) depth below the seabed ranges:4.5m-5.5m as corroborated by the sediment analysis of the well cuttings which show the presence of sandstone at 2m-6m,and two paleo-channels separated from each other by flood plain deposits, marked by a coarsening upward facies sequence. It is concluded that the prominent seismostratigraphic interface refers to the lithified sedimentary sequence within the survey area.The sea floor scan also shows existence of genetically related depressions and surrounding rings of sand called pock marks which vary between 0.5m-9m in diameter. The long scar features found on sonar records in all survey location is indicative of disturbances within the survey area that are believed to result from anthropogenic activities.The location of existing pipelines within the “Emobs” fields were based on subbottom and magnetometer data reconstruction as detected pipelines on most routes were found to be buried due to the transient nature of sediments. All existing pipelines and cable systems at the proposed pipeline route crossing points are found to be buried below the seabed. Burial depth for most detected pipelines at crossings ranges from 0.20 to 1.8m.

RECOMMENDATIONS 1) Slippers and supports to be installed due to the existence of pockmarks/gas vents within the fields which have great potential for free span during pipelay and post lay consequent to pipe line integrity. 2) Avoid areas with pock marks/ gas vents within the study area due to great potential for the collapse of subsea facilities, if situated on them.

3) Seafloor sedimentary processes study should be carried out at least in every six (6) months, to ascertain the integrity of the subsea installation.

4) The lithified bed, found between 4m-6m below sea bed is the competent bed for subsea facilities installation.

5) The bathymetry profile shows planar section and undulating section. The undulating section will require good supports for any facility in order to safe guard it from storm and wave current processes.

References 1. Anderson, J.T, Holliday, R. Kloser, D.G. (2008). Acoustic seabed classificationCurrent practice and future directions.ICES J. Mar.Sci., 65, 1004-1011. 68

2. Awosika, L.F. and Ibe, A.C. (1995). Geomorphic Features of the Gulf ofGuinea Shelf and Littoral Drift Dynamics. In Proc. International Symposium on the Results of the First IOCEA Cruise in the Gulf of Guinea, Victoria Island 17– 29May 1994. Paris: IOC- UNESCO.

3. Babangida J.(2015).SeismiImaging of Seabed MorphologyOffshoreNiger Delta. Universal Journal of Geoscience 3(2): 25-70.

4. Chuku, H.C. And Ibe A.C., (2015) .Topography and Lithofacies of the sea floor in Meren field, offshore western Niger Delta. Ijsit, 2015, 4(6), 524-551.

5. Emery, K.O., (1976), Reflection coefficients and azimuthal AVO analysis in anisotropic media: Geophysical Monograph Series Number 10 (series editor D. V. Fitterman; volume editors K. Larner and I.Tsvankin): Tulsa, Society of Exploration Geophysicists, 189 p.

6. Fisher,D.(1996) iterative optimization and simplification of hierrarchial clusterings and shadows Vol.4,pp 147-178.

7. Gerry D.S., Andrew J. W. and Jim W.(2001).Seabed mapping and seafloor processes in the Kish, Burford,Bray and Fraser Banks area, south-western Irish Sea Irish Geography, Volume 34(2), 2001, 194-211.

8. Ibe, A.C. (1985). A Study of Currents and Possible Scouring Effects at Proposed Davy Banks Location in OML 14.A Report for Shell Petroleum Development Co. Ltd. 64p. + Charts.

9. Michael Z. L., Christopher R. S. and Philip R.H.,(2012). Sediments,Morphology and Sedimentary Processes on Continental Shelves.Special Publication Number 44 of the International Association of Sedimentologists by Blackwell Publishing.

10. Tesmi, J., (2008). Seabed pockmark sand seepages Impact on Geology, Biology and Marine Environment, Graham and Trotman, London. pp 6-20.

APPENDICES

Vessel Offset Measurements

Kongsberg Sea path 330 Receiver (DGPS)

Echo Sounder /Sub-bottom Profiler/ Data acquisition/Survey Vessel Sidescan Sonar Hangers

Geology Team Approaching the Vessel

Preliminary on Board Charting 71

RESEARCH AND INNOVATIVE TECHNOLOGY FOR EMPOWERMENT AND POVERTY ERADICATION: ISSUES, CHALLENGES AND THE WAY FORWARD

1Wada Umar 08167375853 [email protected], 2Dimas B. Makka 08031140512 [email protected], 3Wafudu J. Satumari 07039273355, &4Hellon M. Justin 08022494733. Adamawa State College of Education, Hong

Abstract One of the basic strategies for eradicating poverty in the society is by harnessing technology which has been the bane of growth and development of developed countries of the world. Thus, if Nigeria is to make any meaningful progress in improving the living conditions of its citizens, the utilization of research and innovative technology is the prerequisite. However, regardless of efforts put in place by successive governments to eradicate poverty, due to some prevalent issues and challenges this vision is yet to be fully achieved. This study examines how research and innovative technology can equipped a society by empowering the people thereby, eradicating poverty, through issues and the challenges involve and the way forward.

Keywords: Research, Innovative Technology, Eradication and Empowerment. Introduction Poverty is a cankerworm that has eaten too deep into most African countries and Nigeria in particular. In Nigeria, different successive governments come up with different policies and programmes aimed at eradicating poverty in the country however, these policies and programmes are yet to achieve their desired objectives. An examination into policies and programmes of developed societies like Europe and even Asia one is made to believe that the yardstick for their continued development is research and innovative technology.as it (Research and innovation) contribute to making Europe and Asia a better place. This is because research and innovative technology helps to improve their competitiveness, boost growth and create jobs. At the same time, research and innovation technology help make people’s lives better by improving healthcare, transport, digital services and countless new products and services. The European Union (EU) is a major player in international science and technology, and a clear leader in many areas such as renewable energy and environmental protection. Europe’s future is connected to its power to innovate: to turn great ideas into products and services that will bring growth to economy and create jobs. Statement of the Problem Innovation is the process by which new products, processes, methods or services are created and offers added value for end users by providing better and/or cheaper functionality than previous options. As it combines changes in technology, business models, organization etc. Innovation is usually promoted through research, which helps to bring the new ideas and ways of doing in other to obtain better result or output. In Nigeria today poverty is on daily increase as the 72

citizens and government continue to adopt old method of doing things especially in production of goods and services. As the population increase it becomes obvious that old ways of production is no longer yielding maximum result hence most of its citizens are unproductive. This paper therefore is geared toward discovering research and innovative technology so as to empower and as such eradicate poverty, the issues, challenges and the way forward. Objectives of the Study The aim of this paper is to examine research and innovative technology in empowering and eradicating poverty, the issues and challenges. The paper also has the following to achieve: • Determine the impact of research and innovative technology in empowering and poverty eradication. • Assess how research and innovative technology can be better utilize for effective poverty eradication • Examine ways in which the issues and challenges in empowerment and poverty eradication can be better overcome Issues in Innovative Technology Some of the issues in research and innovative technology in Nigeria includes; • Derogatory Attitude Towards Technology Nigerians have since imbibed the culture of showing respect only to those with white collar jobs in the society. Most craftsmen and artisans who practice vocations are usually seen as school drop outs or never do wells. This attitude has discouraged a lot of young people from venturing into vocations. • Low income Research especially in the area of technology requires time knowledge and talents, based on this in developed countries researchers’ welfare are well iremunerated, but in Nigeria the story is sad. This usually discourages them from doing their work effectively. • Inadequate Training Facilities Most units or departments of research lack the necessary training facilities to train people in research and innovative technology. This mostly affects those involved in undertaking the research and also in the area of implementation especially if it has to do with technical education. For instance, most tertiary institutions lack the skilled manpower and equipment to impart knowledge into their students. For example, some Nigerian students in fields like computer science and electronic engineering go through university and never have the experience of writing a workable computer program. The inadequate facilities make it almost

impossible for students to gain knowledge and skill in even the most basic practical application of their course of study. • Inadequate Funding for Research and Technology Government at all levels do not provide adequate fund for research and technological developments which makes such agencies to complain bitterly .They have argued that insufficient funds is primarily responsible for them not carrying out their statutory responsibilities as they ought to. • Lack of Standards In developed climes, government agencies are usually set up to standardize the services rendered by technologists, engineers, and all other vocational and technical practitioners. They are usually given licenses, without which they cannot practice. This ensures that a uniform standard is maintained across board. • Lack of Implementation of Research outcomes Most businesses set up by those who have learnt some vocational and technical skills are often suffocated by the unhealthy business environment in Nigeria. Challenges such as unstable power, multiple taxation and unavailability of affordable credit adversely affect most small business. For example if an individual sets up a hair dressing saloon, such person is faced with the challenge of providing power, water, paying taxes to local and state government agencies. THE WAY FORWARD Despite the avalanche of problems facing vocational and technical education in Nigeria, there are still some prospects attached to it. Some of these are; i. Changing Mind-set Towards Vocational and Technical Education There has been a remarkable change in the way people see and regard research and innovative technology in Nigeria, due to the shortage of white collar jobs. A significant number of organizations both private and government have research units or departments which can go a long way to handle growth and development. ii. Improvement in the Awareness about Regulatory Agencies Significant amount of Nigerians are now aware of the agencies that regulate vocational and technical education. This has enabled them to become certified in their chosen technical field, such their level of skill and proficiency can be ascertained and guaranteed. iii. Improved Government Participation The government has come to the realization that encouraging research and innovation technology can go a long way in empowering the citizens thereby eradicating poverty in the

country. Not only that vocational and technical education is a sure and sustainable way to pull citizens out of poverty, hence delivering on the dividends of democracy. This renewed belief has been displayed through government interventions using agencies like NABTEB, Bank of Industry and other small and medium scale funds which develop entrepreneurial skills. Role of Research and Innovation in Eradicating Poverty According to Innovation Analysis Bulletin, (2002) It has been ascertained that there is a direct positive connection between research and development (R&D) investment and levels of economic development and growth. The significance of research and innovation in attaining vital economic growth in developed nations has been resolutely recognized by a number of theoretical and empirical studies such as those of Adam Smith (1776), Schumpeter (1934), Solow (1957). The essential relationship between innovation and development has also been demonstrated by a number of researchers inter-alia, Allen (1967), Rothwell and Robertson (1973), Mansfield (1977), Ebadi and Utterback (1984), Jaffe et al (1986) and Stratmann (2005).

As early as 1776, Adam Smith recognized the hypothetical linkages between innovation and economic development. He states in An Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the Wealth of Nations, that: “Many improvements have been made by the ingenuity of the makers of the machines, when to make them became the business of a peculiar trade; and some by that of those who are called philosophers or men of speculation, whose trade it is not to do anything, but to observe everything; and who, upon that account, are often capable of combining together the powers of the most distant and dissimilar objects. In the progress of society, philosophy or speculation becomes, like every other employment, the principal or sole trade and occupation of a particular class of citizens... and the quantity of science is considerably increased by it. ” (Smith, 1776).Schumpeter (1934) was the first economist to highlight the significance of innovation as a driver of economic development. He states: “the introduction of new or improved products, production techniques and organization structures as well as the discovery of new markets and the use of new input factors” are important considerations.

He maintained that competition via innovation is the driving force of economic development and thus promoted innovation as a critical factor(Schumpeter, 1934).It was however Robert Solow (a Nobel laureate in Economics in 1987) who in 1957, first brought innovation per se, into the domain of formal economic growth models. He stated that technological improvements are the foremost drivers of economic growth, thus promoting an externality perspective or 75

exogenous notion as to the value of human capital. He characterized technological improvements or developments as the improvements in diverse business processes or products and maintained that these improvements turn out to be the innovations which facilitate economic growth. So low also showed that technical advancement is essential for there to be continued growth in output per hour worked. Growth was defined by him as the enlargement in GDP per hour of labour per unit time. In the 1950s, it was postulated that the amassing of capital was the primary determinant of development.

Given this environment, he measured the portion of growth that was in reality attributable to increases in capital accumulation, including inter alia investments in machinery and other requisite equipment. Solow in a sense oversimplified the situation and was not entirely certain but hypothesized that new technologies drive economic growth and lead to “technical change”.

The relationship between innovation and development has been further developed by Paul Romer (1990) and Robert Lucas (1988). Romer (1990) explained that endogenous growth is created by accumulating technology (or knowledge), and by ascertaining a relationship between the level of human capital and economic development. Human capital leads to technological growth and is thus viewed as „knowledge‟ and „ideas‟ that are not in opposition to each other. Lucas theorised that it is human capital formation alone that, by non- decreasing minor returns, creates growth without any external cause. He modeled human capital as having continuous rather than moderate returns, and proffered valuable insights into the significant role of having a highly skilled workforce for long-term development.

Romeron the other hand, believed that innovation has no external cause in the Development model by introducing “knowledge spill overs”, which ultimately gave birth to profound implications as to how intellectuals conceive of development.

Basically then, when a company increases its investment in capital, it is not only increasing its own production levels, but also those of neighbouring companies. Romer and Lucas handled some empirical incongruities by altering their ideas about how capital and labour are combined to produce economic output (Romer, 1994). They both proposed that technology, human capital and knowledge in national economies make productive ones even more productive. Knowledge is essential for productivity because it is freely accessible and knowledge production invariably leads to more knowledge production. By means of 76

contrast, companies need to pay often huge sums of money for labour and technology needed to produce goods. Gaillard (2008) asserts that research and innovation comprises all fields of Science and Technology including the natural sciences, social sciences, engineering and humanities. Cooperation and Development (OECD) in1963, meeting in Frascati, Italy, defined R&D as “creative work undertaken on a systematic basis in order to increase the stock of knowledge, including knowledge of man, culture and society, and the use of this stock of knowledge to devise new applications” (Frascati Manual 2002). Knowledge is vital to development since it can be used by many companies at the same time and generally it is free to access. Consequently, knowledge reduces production costs for companies in the same industry and productivity grows. Countries with greater levels of knowledge production invariably develop relatively faster than nations in which there is less knowledge production. Companies generally support R&D as it leads to greater financial bottom lines and thus also enables them to consider the triple-bottom-lines of profits, people and planet and enhances their abilities to become effective corporate citizens. When companies provide funds for R&D they expect a return on their investment (ROI). Methods The researchers adopted the descriptive survey for the study. This was applied so as to determine the use of research and innovative technology can help to empower and eradicate poverty, the target population of the study is the vocational education centers on Adamawa state. The sample consists of vocational education centers in higher institutions totaling four (4): Adamawa State College of Education, Hong, Federal Polytechnic Mubi, Modibbo Adama University of Technology Yola and Adamawa State Polytechnic Yola all in Adamawa State. The researchers selected higher institutions because it is believed that in such institutions better research and innovation is promoted and carried out. The researchers used a structured validated questionnaire as instrument for the study. Thus, items on the questionnaire stressed the information as stated in the literature review on research and innovation for poverty eradication and empowerment. the instrument is divided into two parts: A and B. part A is concerned with the Bio data of the respondents while Part B consist of research and innovation for empowerment and poverty eradication, the responses are in the format of (4 point liken scale). SA- strongly agree A- Agree D- Disagree

For validity and reliability of the instrument, four experts in the field of vocational and technical education, research and methodology vetted it. All necessary corrections were made before the adoption of the instruments for use. The questionnaire was administered directly to the respondents by the researchers. The items returned were used for analysis. Analytical The data for the analysis was collected from a sample population of 30 respondents randomly selected among staff and students of technically oriented higher institutions. The sample questions were six in number which were grouped into two (research and innovation technology and poverty eradication). The result of the study conducted on research and innovative technology as shown below: The perceptible levels of research and innovative technology in Nigeria, three items were developed in this regard the perceptible ranks agreed, strongly disagreed were employed. Table 1:Research and innovation technology.

S/N Questions Agreed Undecided Disagreed 1 Research and innovation are very 26 2 2 important in empowering people 2 Research and innovative technology is the 30 - - best strategy for eradicating poverty in Nigeria

Discussions of Findings 1: The data presented on table one above showed the number of respondents and their perceptions within the sample population size (30) for the respective perceptive rankings where the respondents for agreed rankings show those that agreed that research and innovation are very important in empowering people. While those for undecided show those that may not be aware of research and innovation technology are important and disagree are respondents who are insensitive to the importance of research and innovative technology. Thus, from the analysis it is clear that research and innovative technology are very important in empowering people and as such will be effective in eradicating poverty in the country.

Table 2:Eradicating Poverty S/N Questions Agreed Undecided Disagreed 1 Research and innovative technology can help 20 7 3 eradicate poverty

2 Empowering people technologically is the best 27 3 - way of eradicating poverty 3 There are challenges in poverty eradication 26 - 4

Discussions of Findings 2: The data shown on table 2 above showed the number of respondents and their perceptions within the sample population size (30) for the respective perceptive rankings where the respondents for agreed rankings show those that agreed that research and innovative technology can help eradicate poverty. While those for undecided show those that they may not be aware of research and innovative technology helping to eradicate poverty and disagree are respondents who are indifferent to the fact that research and innovative technology helping to eradicate poverty. Thus, from the analysis it is flawless that research and innovative technology can help eradicate poverty in the society. However, in Nigeria there are issues and challenges in research and innovative technology. Conclusion Innovation integrates knowledge from a number of different fields: technology, market, design, economics etc. It is hard to collect all the necessary competences in a single organization. The costs are high, competence quickly become outdated, and organizations misses opportunities to learn from a broader set of experiences. Base on this it is obvious to observe that research and innovative technology are vital ingredients for national development if adequately utilized. Thus, with current situation of Nigeria’s poverty level the need to harness this method is the best option for Nigeria government and the Nigerians at all levels. However, issues of poor funding, lack of implementation of research outcomes and the like hampers growth especially research in areas of economic development. Recommendations For Nigeria to eradicate poverty the following must be taken into consideration: • All higher institutions especially polytechnics that do not have research and innovative technology department should establish one and ensure it functioning. • All the difficulties that hinder institutions’ research centres from effective functioning should be removed by the sections responsible. • Poverty is a cankerworm that destroys human setting, therefore concerted efforts should be made by government, private individuals and nongovernmental organizations in combating it head on, this can be achieve through promoting research and innovative technology

References Agrawal, A. (2002). Innovation, growth theory, and the role of knowledge spillovers.Innovation Analysis Bulletin, 4 (3). Statistics Canada – Catalogue No. 88-003-XIE Allen, J. A. (1967). Studies in Innovation in the Steel and Chemical Industries, Manchester: University of Manchester Press.

Altbach, P.G. (2013). “Advancing the National and Global Knowledge Economy: The role of research universities in developing countries”, Studies in Higher Education, Vol. 38, Issue 3, 316-330.

Creswell, J. W. (2008). Educational Research: Planning, conducting, and evaluating quantitative and qualitative research (3rd ed.). Upper Saddle River: Pearson.

Dewey, J. (1911). Epistemology. In The middle works (1899-1924) Vol. 6, Ed. J.A. Boydston. Carbondale and Edwardsville, Southern Illinois University Press.

Ebadi, Y.M. and Utterback, J.M “The Effects of Communication on Technology Innovation,” Management Science, Vol. 30, No. 5.

Fagerberg, J.(1994).Technology and international differences in growth rates, Journal of Economic Literature, Vol. 32, 1147–1175.

Frascati Manual 2002. Proposed standard practice for surveys on research and experimental development (OECD. 2002), Frascati, Italy.

Gaillard, J. (2008). The Characteristics of R&D in Developing Countries.Measuring R&D in Developing Countries, UNESCO Institute for Statistics (UIS).

IMPACT OF TERRORISM ON NATIONAL DEVELOPMENT: A CRITICAL ASSESSMENT OF INSURGENCY IN NORTHERN NIGERIA By ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA Department of Political Science University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria Phone: +234 803 550 2812 | E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract Terrorism has become a global phenomenon, which national governments across the world are battling to curtail. In our time, the war against terrorism has been legitimized and justified in the international community basically because governments consider it an obligation to sustain and maintain global peace and security, and protect humanity from the scourge of war and avoidable violence. Despite this commitment, the menace of terrorism has continued to cast an ominous pall of darkness upon our civilization. Even as Nigeria has been battling to get its name off this black list, the continued terrorist activities by Islamic extremists in the north have put serious question marks on her global standing. These evil deeds have been of very adverse impact on the country’s development. It is therefore the interest of this paper to examine this. The paper has made elaborate use of secondary data and has adopted content analysis as its tool of methodological analysis. It argues that increasing acts of terrorism domestically have drastically affected national development. Furthermore, it contends that these acts have been on the increase because of the frustration engendered by the high rate of youth unemployment, bad governance and endemic corruption. Essentially, insurgency has stalled the prospects of foreign investments. And massive capital flight has also been its consequence; all against the economy.

Keywords: Terrorism, National Development, Security, Investments, Economy Introduction Since the end of World War II and the Cold War, the world has been subjected to many serious threats to its peace and stability that have pushed it into the era of war against terrorism. From Africa to Asia, Europe and America to the Middle East, there is no end to the tale of woes brought to mankind by terrorists. According to Ojukwu (2011), the issues of global terrorism have remained problematic to the international community and national governments because of its increasing negative impact on the development of their economies. Terrorism, no matter how we define it, is commonly denominated by acts of large-scale violence and bloodshed, usually perpetrated through suicide bombings, hostage-taking, kidnapping and wanton destruction of lives and property. These variants of terror activities have gained much attention in Nigeria.

Much as national leaders today are aware that certain factors drive and sustain acts of terrorism, they are concerned with strategies on how best to tackle this monster. Herzog (1976) has robustly argued that if humanity does not put an end to terrorism, terrorism will put an end to human existence. The significance of this assertion becomes very visible if we take into consideration the brutal terrorist attack on the World Trade Centre (WTC) in the United States of America on September 11, 2001. The consequent declaration of war against terror by the USA and her allies in other countries that want a peaceful world has naturally gained legitimacy in the international community because every state has come to recognize the potent danger posed by global and national terrorism to human existence. One disturbing trend of terrorism is the availability of sophisticated weapons of war and destruction at the disposal of terrorists. It would be recalled that at the time of the 9/11 attacks, and the consequent declaration of war on international terror, the major pre-occupation of the U.S. has been to deny terrorists access to weapons of war and destruction or at least limit such access to the barest minimum. It is this policy of diminishing access to weapons that informed America’s war in such places like Afghanistan, Iraq and Libya. Access to these assault weapons in countries like Nigeria actually presents the most difficult problems to national and international security. The reason is not far-fetched. In a country like Nigeria where acts of terrorism are rife and the citizenry is fed up with government tactics and approach to problems, there is always a proliferation of arms among a diffuse segment of the population, which is very difficult to identify and track. The availability of such weapons to these terrorist groups creates panic and tension in government circles. It also creates a sense of general insecurity, and escalates political instability and uncertainty in the country. This trend has impacted hugely but negatively on Nigeria’s economy and national development through a drastic reduction in capital stock in terms of human and material resources. The reduction of such capital stock in Nigeria, especially in many parts of the north where activities of insurgents are concentrated is enormous. This has consequently increased government expenditure in counter-terrorism measures by diverting resources away from other productive sectors of the economy. Acts of terrorism in Nigeria have affected the overall investment position of the country and have caused massive movement of fiscal and human resources out of the country especially by expatriates. Nigerians in the north are also fleeing in droves and closing or relocating their businesses. With the increase in abductions by terrorists, their incessant and sporadic suicide bombings, all constituting threats to national stability and development, the attraction of foreign investments have reduced drastically while the existing ones are relocating to peaceful and

stable neighbourhoods. The task of this paper is to examine in detail the impact of terrorism, i.e. how insurgency in northern Nigeria has affected the nation’s development. Conceptual Clarification Terrorism According to Sandler (2006), and Lutz (2008), terrorism can be described as a deliberate and systematic murder, maiming and menacing of innocent people with a view to inspiring fear, and compelling government or other constituted authority to grant the needs of the terrorists. Variously, the concept of terrorism has been associated with politics and conflicts where a dissatisfied faction of the national community would adopt terrorist measures to achieve its goals. Harmon (2000) argues that the concept of terrorism is used by individuals, narrow-minded small groups, even state agents or broad-based insurgent groups to seek political gains, which will not be possible to achieve in a normal political setting. As Walter (1972) notes, terrorism may not only be confined to isolated circumstances, but rather it is a possibility in any given political situation or contest for environmental resources. This explains why Merari’s (1994) conceptualization of terrorism as the excessive and evil use of force or violence by a sub-national group or clandestine organization to achieve political, social or religious goals especially when the violence is intended to distort, through fear, the emotions, attitudes and behaviours of the victims of terrorism. Terrorism, in its strictest terms, is an unconventional warfare. Wilkinson (1974) also subscribes to this concept of terrorism. According to him, terrorism is a form of unconventional warfare designed to weaken or supplant existing political landscapes through capitulation, acquiescence or radicalization as opposed to subversion or direct military action. Ojukwu (2011) contends that terrorism is a fundamentally compulsive strategy of the relatively disadvantaged, the weak who seeks reversal of authority; an efficacious use of violence or force to achieve a desired goal; a theatrical warfare whose drama involves the actors who actually carry out the violent act; the group against whom the violent act is targeted and the authority due to be influenced or compelled to act. Incidentally, no terrorist group has ever owned up to being a terrorist group, and insurgents in Nigeria are no exceptions. These terrorist groups rather choose to identify themselves with terms that tend to portray their ideological orientation whether it is right or wrong. Hence, we are assailed by such typologies as ‘rebels’, ‘militants’, ‘Islamic Jihadists’, etc. The reference to terrorist groups by whatever name does not explain the ease with which they unleash terror on harmless members of the society. This paper acknowledges the fact that terrorism is not a new phenomenon. As a matter of fact, it is rooted in history and has at different periods of human civilization assumed various dimensions. What has become worrisome in our time is the internationalization of terrorism and its sophistication, especially in planning and executing acts of violence with a view to drawing attention to their objective. In our time, terrorism has become more diffused; more loosely organized with a massive financial layout at their disposal, and organized across national boundaries. Current trends of terrorism include especially its Nigerian variant that is religiously motivated in the sense that due to the endemic corruption in our system, the group seeks to establish a pure theocratic society that would have zero-tolerance for corruption. Hence, radical Islamist or fundamentalist groups especially in northern Nigeria have always used the puritanical pretensions of their religion to unleash violence and bloodshed on other people. 82

National Development The concept of development is in itself difficult to define. Gboyega (2003) conceives of development as all attempts made by those in positions of leadership to improve the human and material conditions of society. The implication of this conceptualization is that development is a thorough-going process, which is aimed at improving the quality of life in a sustainable way, in such manner that the future is not imperiled. Development in this context is not anchored on economic growth in a country but according to Naomi (1995), it involves equitable distribution of resources in such a way that no section of society is alienated or marginalized.

This equitable distribution relates to provision of accessible and quality healthcare system, education, housing and other services, which would enhance the quality of human existence in society. Development can also be conceived at 2 levels: the individual level and the society level. At the individual level, Rodney (1973) writes that it implies increased skills and capacity, greater freedom, creativity, self-discipline, responsibility and material well-being. At the society level, it is Rodney’s view that it implies the application of individual capacity for dealing with the environment in relation to their understanding of the laws of nature and application of science and technology, and also the manner in which society is organized. This explains Chinsman’s (1995) assumption that development is a process of societal advancement where improvements in the well-being of people are generated through strong partnerships between all sectors of society. This societal advancement according to Lawal and Oluwatoyin (2011) is not restricted to economic development but also involves socio-political issues, which pervade all aspects of social life. If the foregoing is put in proper context, then the question, “What is national development?” can come up. Longman Dictionary of Contemporary English defines national development as a process that involves a whole nation. According to Lawal and Oluwatoyin (2011), national development can be descried as the overall development or a collective socio-economic, political as well as religious advancement of a country or state, which is best achieved through development planning under a stable and threat-free political environment. National development, therefore, is the ability of a country or state to improve the spiritual, material and socio-political welfare of members of society through the provision of what has come to be referred to in Nigeria as “democracy dividends” in a transparent and inclusive democratic process. Insurgency in Northern Nigeria Jihad runs on a core principle: a group of intending jihadists should withdraw themselves from the corrupt environment to a secluded area to prepare for the jihad, which will lead to the establishment of the “pure” society that they crave.

This was the philosophy behind the withdrawal of Islamic youths into the ancient town of Kanama in Yobe state, near Nigeria’s border with Niger Republic. Desirous of running a puritanical society devoid of corruption, collapsed institutions and poor leadership, which they had identified in Maiduguri, the group established a separatist community, which was run on pure hard-line Islamic principles. The group’s leader, Mohammed Ali, according to Walker (2012) espoused an anti-state ideology and called on other Muslims to join the group and return to a life under true Islamic laws, with the aim of making a more perfect society away from the corrupt establishment.

This group continued to exist on its own, propounding its ideology undisturbed until 2003 when events took a different dimension with a development that occurred between the group and its host community. A serious disagreement arose over fishing rights in a local pond. The conflict that ensued left many casualties and attracted police attention. The group overpowered a police team and seized their weapons. Angered by the effrontery of the group, the police reinforced and besieged the group’s mosque in Kanama. The siege did not go unchallenged by the group; its resistance resulted in a massive shoot-out. In the aftermath of the crisis, about 70 members of the group including its leader, Mohammed Ali were killed. The inhabitants of Kanama had called the group “Nigerian Taliban”. According to media reports in 2003, it was assumed, though not substantiated that members of the group were children of the wealthy and influential people in the north. Survivors returned to Maiduguri and reintegrated with other youths from Ndini mosque under the leadership of a certain Mohammed Yusuf. Within a short period after this reintegration, the group was able to build its own mosque essentially because the authorities of Ndini mosque had become uncomfortable with the extremist and anti-state ideology which the group was propounding, and consequently barred the group from using the mosque. Having established its own mosque, the group kept recruiting and indoctrinating new members. It kept spreading its tentacles and reach to other parts of the north. As a matter of fact, it began to expose Salafist ideology, which is the anti-West ideology of a radical Islamist group in Saudi Arabia. This Saudi Arabian group was the financier of the Nigerian insurgents then. David (2011) observes that the group became a Salafist Jihadist group in 2009. According to Christopher (2011), the group proposes that interaction with the western world is forbidden. They fight opposition to Muslim establishments and also fight against the Nigerian government. To the group, other Muslims outside their fold are tainted with western education. Thus, its members do not interact with the local Muslim population. A British Broadcasting Corporation (BBC) news bulletin in 2009 said it is a shame that this group publicly promotes its ideology of rejection of western education and civilization, when in fact its founder and leader, Mohammed Yusuf was well-educated, lived a lavish life and drove a Mercedes Benz. Sani (2011) observes that the expression “Boko Haram” is an amalgam of Hausa and Arabic words – “Boko” meaning “Western Education” while “Haram” is Arabic, figuratively meaning “sin” but literally meaning “forbidden”. Thus, “Boko Haram” simply means “Western Education is Sin” or “Western Education is Forbidden”. Farouk (2012) opines that the group earned its name “Boko Haram” because of its strong violent opposition to anything western, which it sees as potentially corrupting Islam and Muslims. David (2011) suggests that during its early existence, the group conducted its affairs peacefully but following government’s interest and consequent investigations into its activities especially in 2009, it became violent. Nwankwo (2012) disagrees with this suggestion but believes rather, that Boko Haram is fundamentally violent because of its orientation and desire to force Islamism down the throat of unbelievers. Despite the disagreement among scholars over the reason for its terrorist credentials, it is generally agreed that the blossoming of the group and its expanding scope of activities have been as a result of government’s nonchalance to security warnings about the increasing militant character of the group, and the suspicion that some security personnel were sympathetic to the group’s ideology. When government eventually swung into action, the group had metamorphosed into a monster. During its deadly clashes with security forces in Bauchi, July 2009, hundreds of lives were lost 84

including its leader, Mohammed Yusuf. Yusuf’s painful death (the second time the group lost its leader) brought the group to the unfortunate conclusion that government had declared war against it. Consequently, it graduated to a terrorist group, and its operations changed. Evidently, its methodologies gradually became sophisticated and this became manifest in its frequency and intensity of assault, as well as its sophistication in weaponry. In January 2011, it launched a brutal attack on the police and people of Borno state. Violence and Terrorism in Nigeria There is no doubt that Nigeria’s history has been inundated with ugly incidents of internecine conflicts, which very often border on ethnic and religious factors. In 1966, for example, following the January 15th, 1966 coup and the consequent counter-coup, Nigeria recorded a genocidal pogrom targeted against the Igbo ethnic nation. Lately, the Middle Belt region, notably Benue and Plateau states, have suffered many unchecked and unbridled bloody communal clashes. Such religion-based conflicts have rocked most parts of the north. The Niger Delta has been virtually consumed by violence stemming from agitations over resource control and environmental degradation caused by oil spilling.

Though most of these misunderstandings are blamed on religion, a closer look into their nature and causes reveal that they are actually more of clamour for control of government patronage. A clear example is the horrifying bloodshed in the aftermath of the 2011 general elections. The nation also has a dirty history of extremist Muslim sects popping up and gradually establishing in the north. In the 1980s, the extremist and militant Islamic sect, the Maitatsine unleashed large-scale violence, bloodshed and terror on the nation. The virtual collapse of state institutions according to Nwankwo (2012), as well as her lax security services has “created a disturbing security situation where threats to the country’s stability are not dealt with until they develop into full-scale violence that borders on terrorism. The security services are not able to identify potential conflict triggers in order to deal with them. The Nigerian situation is truly tragic because even when such potential dangers are identified, insofar as such threats can be manipulated to the advantage of the few in authority, no proactive action would be taken to forestall them.” It is from this perspective that we can glean the weakness… is it actually ‘weakness’? From this perspective, the nonchalance of the nation’s security outfits is glaring! This lethargy and crass insensitivity that birthed security breaches created very fertile soil for terrorism in Nigeria. Boko Haram is driven by the assumption that northern Nigeria’s politics and leadership have been hijacked by a group of corrupt politicians who do not profess the true tenets of Islam. To the corrupt politicians, the terrorists are false Muslims. The former is thus leveled on a warpath with their so-called “corrupt and infidel establishment”. And then by extension, the Nigerian state, which it believes is a creation of western civilization. Boko Haram’s core objective for this war is to establish an Islamic state under the guidance of Shari’a in Nigeria. Walker (2011) writes that since 2009, the Boko Haram sect has been driven by a desire for vengeance against politicians, the police and Islamic authorities for their roles in the deaths of its leaders. The group has been responsible for the assassinations in the north, bank robberies and entire violence. Thus this religious vendetta against perceived enemies of Islam informed their bombing of Abuja Police Headquarters, in June 2011, an attack which the then Inspector- General of Police survived by the whiskers.

Propelled by this hatred for negligence of its faith, the group also bombed the United Nations office in Abuja; a suicide bombing attack which recorded 23 deaths and many injured persons; one that launched the group into global prominence. As they made global headlines, the West named it a terrorist organization and acknowledged its technical and doctrinal capacity to produce suicide bombs. It has been argued that Boko Haram is no longer a naïve group. Having become more sophisticated and audacious with the capacity to produce and utilize improvised explosive devices (IEDs), its global outreach and effective attraction and utilization of various (including digital) mass media channels, it is a force to reckon with and a major national cum sub-regional (if not global) concern. Its involvement in communal clashes in Benue and Plateau states have increased, have actually escalated into what is now dubbed “farmers-herders clashes,” which has gulped lives and properties of innocent, harmless, law-abiding Nigerians. Churches have not been spared the assault, religious intolerance and wanton destruction by this terror group. I also note here, the attacks on schools and media houses, kidnappings and general threats to the notary public. Franco Lamolinara and Chris Macmanus, expatriates were abducted for ransom in May 2011, held hostage for 10 months, and eventually murdered by the group after collecting an estimated £1 million. The Impact of Terrorism on Nigeria This paper may not be sufficient to capture the evils of the dreaded Boko Haram sect, but the truth remains that the group has caused Nigeria many religious, economic, social and psychological pains. Businesses have shut down. Foreigners have fled. The nation’s leaders seized the situation as another opportunity to perpetuate their corrupt tendencies and continuously loot state’s coffers. Nigeria is hardly considered a preferred investment destination by foreigners again. After the group posted martyrdom videos made by the driver whose car was used in bombing the Abuja UN office, and that of the murdered expatriates, Nigeria became a loathsome pack in the world’s view. Boko Haram has over time, succeeded in posing its threat to the Nigerian state through the diffuse nature of its activities and tendency to propagate the absurd. Mohammed Yusuf once told BBC Hausa Service that “the earth was flat and that which evaporated from the ground was not the reason for rainfall.” This kind of abstract and absurd philosophy exacerbated public opprobrium against the group. It further drew the conclusion that the sect is a bunch of fickle-minded extremists, intent on unleashing terror on the Nigerian state. In truth, the group’s connection to some foreign (major) terror groups has enabled its sophistication. It is highly organized; a truth no sane person should sway from. Leading Nigerian politicians exhibit crass incompetence and character flaws that has continuously been the devil’s paw in the baker’s yeast. And this keeps undermining efforts at understanding the core dynamics of the sect. An irrational acknowledgment by former President Goodluck Jonathan in January 2012 shocked a bewildered nation. He said, “The Boko Haram sect has infiltrated the highest levels of politics and the military.” With such discouraging statement, ‘young’ Jonathan’s impression was that the sect was a puppet group being used by disgruntled northern politicians to pull down his government. 2 key observations from that statement raise critical questions. One: where was the place of integrity in the President’s remarks? (Since he could not explain the group’s sophistication and his government’s apparent inability to contain its excesses) 86

Two: what emotional state did he foresee (or rather, intend/prepare) for Nigerians with such terribly discouraging remarks? His attitude was not different from the stereotype characterization which his government used to define militancy in the Niger Delta and the rested Bakassi Vigilante group in southeastern cities. It was that same unbecoming flaw of a fledging leader that failed to address fundamental security challenges, and enabled these groups to metamorphose into full-scale violent, lawless and murderous organizations. It is noteworthy that the Nigerian government’s response to Boko Haram’s activities has been counter-productive. Rather than being proactive, government has resorted to reprisal attacks and extra-judicial killings of the sect’s members. But these tactics have only succeeded in proving government’s inability to deal with the menace. It has also bared its rump, and boosted the sect’s morale and audacity to expand its scope of operations and continue its onslaught on the nation. The prevailing and pervading atmosphere from the foregoing does not and can hardly allow any form of development in the nation especially in the northeast. The dastardly consequences of insurgency in this region have been terribly gross ruins, that another format for the continued dissipation of the nation’s resources has been birthed – the Northeast Development Commission. Notably, this body will serve as a fresh avenue for the extension of the unnecessary competition between the South (Niger Delta in particular) and the North. United Nations Educational Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Report 2009 indicates that northern Nigeria has high rates of both infant and maternal mortality, while poverty and deprivation levels are high. Evidently, insurgency has worsened these now. Human Rights Watch (HRW) Report 2007 reveals that political power in the region is highly concentrated in the hands of very few individuals who constitute a group of religious and political godfathers and determine the level of political participation of the majority. For disgruntled elements and all such societal nuisance counting street urchins, uncouth and unscrupulous wayfarers, these have created fertile grounds for the continual perpetration of their vices. Nigeria has lost her international prestige to Boko Haram’s wickedness. Her relevance in the comity of nations is greatly endangered. So also are her bilateral relations with most other countries owing to the sect’s notoriety as one of the world’s deadliest terrorist organizations. The nation’s economy is continuously wrestling against mass exodus of business owners. And the general insecurity across the nation has consequently amounted to an equally general emotional unease, a catastrophic tension which leaves no one in doubt as to its potential results should the trend be allowed to mature to manifestation. There is no end to the counting of the nation’s immediate and potential losses. If Boko Haram terrorists are so short-sighted that they could allow their activities to help the corrupt government they seek to dethrone and overtake, to perpetuate its corruption, then their objective is all confirmed balderdash. And everyone, I mean every Tom, Dick, Harry, Boko Haram or not heads for the waterloo. Think about this! US$1 billion earmarked for fighting insurgency in the northeast, even months after serving President Muhammadu Buhari proudly and boastfully declared, “We have defeated Boko Haram!” The Impact of Porous Borders on the Nation’s Security The Nigerian government accepted the nation has about 1,479 illegal borders. With the rate at which illegal aliens, contraband, arms and ammunition swiftly waltz in and out of the country through such illegal routes; one is left to wonder about the fate of her citizens. Trans-border criminals beat security agencies at the borders using footpaths and other clandestine methods. 87

They smuggle weapons – arms and ammunition – and drugs like cocaine into the country with the aid of camels, donkeys and cows. Research findings show that the collapsible nature of such weapons make them possible to conceal and tie to the body of camels in a specially designed crafted skin or thatched bags making it impossible for security agents to detect.Security agencies have been alleged to gleefully look elsewhere once liquid cash exchanges hands.

National Daily, July 13, 2017 states that though without official declaration, locals revealed that over 250 footpaths exist between the Damaturu (Yobe State) and Maiduguri (Borno State) axis with direct link to Cameroon, Chad or Niger. It was also reported that virtually, these paths are mostly unknown by security agencies. Therefore, the question of being manned and/or protected is relative. Without doubts, such routes might have served as conduits for arms and ammunitions trafficked into Nigeria for insurgents’ use against the nation. The newspaper wrote: “In the northeastern part, which before now was a veritable hub to Boko Haram terrorists, serve as locus for trafficking of arms as well as centres for stolen goods, drugs and hostages perpetrated by criminals, terrorists and their collaborators. With significant concentration of security men, their influx has been largely curtailed. No compliment to the recent kidnap of a French family at a border town between Nigeria and Cameroon.”

The proliferation of small arms and light weapons are increasingly and dangerously becoming a transnational conundrum galvanizing into organized crime in Nigeria; especially since Boko Haram’s insurgency and the emergence of herdsmen, which has escalated wanton killings, abduction for ransom, communal crisis and armed robbery in the Southeast, Southwest, Northeast and other regions serving as hubs or impetus for arms trafficking. Since Nigeria shares about 87km of border with Chad, a stretch of 1,049km with Niger Republic and 1,690km with Cameroon, the nation’s security outfits are faced with an uphill task to be extra- diligent in dealing with the recent upsurge of trans-border crimes along these lines.

Nigerian Customs Service Boss, Hameed Ali put the blame of Nigeria’s border porosity on the country’s interconnectivity with adjoining nations. In an article entitled Why Nigeria’s Borders are Porous – Customs Boss, posted November 29, 2018 on The Nation, Ali said: “There is no line demarcating Nigeria from her neighbouring countries to show specifically the end of the country.” According to him, Nigerians’ kinsmen living across the borders in neighbouring countries speak the same language with the nation. And this situation makes it difficult to claim that a border is well secured in Nigeria. In his words:

“As it regards to porous borders like Mark Shaw said, it is across the nation, everywhere is porous and you can’t say this is a border that is well secured. Ours is porous because we have borders that are virtually interconnected. Our brothers and kin are living across the borders. If you take Benin Republic for instance, some of us speak the same language, we live within the same border. There is no line where there is Nigeria. These are parts of the problems we have, and for us this is a security problem. We must address this. We must be able to find a solution to it.”

In a Daily Post publication of July 15, 2017, entitled Porous Borders Responsible for Frequent Fulani/Farmers Attacks – Miyeti Allah, Amos Tauna wrote that Miyetti Allah Cattle Breeders Association of Nigeria, MACBAN, has identified that the porous nature of Nigerian borders was responsible for the free entry and exit of the foreign killer Fulani herdsmen attacking parts of Nigeria. While addressing newsmen, MACBAN Assistant National Secretary General, Dr. Ibrahim Abdullahi, said,

“In Nigeria, our borders are porous; people come in anytime and go out anytime they want. In fact it is a shameful thing today that we don’t even know those that are indigenous Fulanis or the trans-human Fulanis.

“We don’t know and that is why people mixed things up, you begin to suspect the Fulani man that you grew up with when anything happens. He has not traveled far, where did he get the AK 47?

“It is either Nigeria opts out of the ECOWAS protocol or we should apply the conditions. We should ensure that anybody coming into the country, we know when he is coming, where he is going and control what they are coming with.

“Another problem we have that you people don’t know is that, these migratory Fulanis that come into the country with all forms of weapons, many at times they come in with less than 50 cattle, but when going back they go with thousand cattle rustled from our own Fulanis here. So our economy is also affected.

“One other issue we need to know again is that, some of these countries that Fulanis come from in Africa have crises, like Chad or Central African Republic where there is rebellion. Weapons have become like pure water or bread, so people from there see it as normal to hang AK 47.

“So it is left for the government to do the right thing, let us decide who comes in because it is our country, let us decide the terms for the person coming, let us not because of ECOWAS protocol leave everything to fate, that is not going to help us.

“The truth is that when you go to your village today you will see Fulanis that have been there since, apart from the knife and the stick that they have and maybe Dane gun for hunting they don’t have AK 47. The truth is that these people coming from other countries we have to control them.”

It is noteworthy that the cattle breeder spoke of the Economic Community of West African Countries’ (ECOWAS) treaty that permits every member country’s citizens to engage in trade and other legal activities within the sub-region. However, this has never been interpreted to mean that any citizen of such member countries that engages in acts inimical to peace; acts that constitute security threat to any member country should not to be restrained.

In his 2017 Eid-el-Kabir message, the Sultan of Sokoto, Alhaji Sa’ad Abubakar III said that the armed herdsmen perpetrating violence in the country were foreign terrorists. In his words, 89

“All those so-called Fulani herdsmen, moving with guns, causing violence, fighting with farmers are not Nigerians. These are foreigners coming into Nigeria to cause a breach of the peace of the nation. They are, therefore, terrorists and should be treated as such by the Nigerian security agencies. The Nigerian herdsmen are very peace-loving and law-abiding.”

The Sultan said, however, that “bad eggs” had infiltrated the Nigerian Fulani herdsmen, and challenged the security agencies to fish them out for prosecution.

Virtually every top Nigerian leader blames porous borders for the upsurge in insurgency, and identifies especially the killer herdsmen as foreigners. Even the nation’s number one soldier, Chief of Army Staff, Lieutenant General Tukur Buratai… If the answer to the question, “How do they infiltrate the nation?” is actually “Through our porous borders”, like our leaders claim, then, what are we doing about these porous borders? Conclusion and Recommendation There is no doubt that Boko Haram is a major threat not just to the peace and stability of Nigeria but to foreign nationals and nations. The sect’s avowed intent to target and exterminate westerners puts Nigeria at such an inexplicable difficult point with her development and hopes of continued progressive existence continuously eroded.

This paper thus concludes and emphatically states that Nigeria has a long history of extremist and sometimes, heretical religious movements, which intermittently had unleashed mayhem against her citizens. It also observes that these groups often arise as a response to unfavourable political or religious forces. Apparently, Boko Haram’s existence is sustained by 2 factors: first, its links with al-Qaeda, al- Shabaab and other major terrorist organizations outside the country; two, the woeful state of the nation where her government pretends to be battling burning national issues while her disenchanted citizens are frustrated beyond scale, impoverished to stupor, and wailing in every ghetto. The palpable anger and frustration of Nigerians continues to bolster Boko Haram’s courage and feed its desire to see the nation blown to oblivion. The sect has an intrinsic yearn to see Nigeria smitten to limbo, and having sworn on its blood, its fangs are always poised for an all-time showdown on the altar of bloodbath. Yet, the truth remains that Nigeria’s leaders should brace up to the challenge now and battle the faceless Boko Haram to its knees. Should the nation’s leadership be wise enough to acknowledge its incompetence, it should discard every item of political agenda, tribal vendetta and religious insensibility, and utilize every available and accessible weapon of wisdom to save not just its face but the Nigerian destiny. The war against terror is not a war of words. It is a war of courage, right-timing, sophistication, competence and in-depth wisdom. This war will never be won on the altar of semantics. It is this paper’s contention that while government seems to be making efforts at disarming and containing Boko Haram’s excesses, it should opt for constructive engagement of the sect rather than brutish and extra-judicial killings of suspected members and cohorts. Government should desist from witch-hunting, alleging and arbitrary arrest of suspected members and sponsors of the sect. It should also steer clear from using allegations of bias and demeaning suspicions of membership or support as a weapon of political vendetta against the opposition.

Should the nation’s leadership restructure its security services? A grand yes! Is there a need for transparency in governance and eradication of corruption? Another grand yes! And I won’t fail to recommend a restructuring of the entire country such that constituting constitutional federating units would earn a defined method of devolution of powers. Since Boko Haram’s clamour and fight is against corrupt governance and its desire for an Islamic state, restructuring the nation along the lines of a confederation would significantly address the grievances of the group. Not that any sane person would think of pacifying or placating them, the point here is that restructuring could serve as a veritable weapon of victory against the sect. And surely, it would rekindle international confidence in the country, rekindle the drive for foreign investment and re-launch Nigeria onto the progressive path of national development. REFERENCES Christopher, B, (2011), “Terrorism in Nigeria: The Rise of Boko Haram”, The Whitehead Journal of Diplomacy and International Relations, Vol. 7, No. 5.

David, C, (2011), “The Rise of Boko Haram” New York: Paper Presented at the Centre for Combating Terrorism.

Gboyega, A, (2003), “Democracy and Development: The Imperative of Local Governance” University of Ibadan: Inaugural Lecture. Harmon, C.C, (2000), Terrorism Today. London: Routledge Herzog, C, (1976), “Submission of the State of Israel to the United Nations Security Council on Israel’s Rescue Mission in Entebbe, Uganda in 1976”, in William Stevenson and Uri Dan, 90 Minutes at Entebbe, New York: Keler Publishing House Lawal, T. and Oluwatoyin, A, (2011), “National Development in Nigeria: Issues, Challenges and Prospects”, Journal of Public Administration and Policy Research, Vol. 3, No. 9 Merari, A, (1994), “Terrorism”, Encyclopedia of Human Behaviour, Vol. 4. Naomi, O, (1995), “Towards an Integrated View of Human Rights”, Hunger Teaching Network, Vol. 6, No. 3. Nwankwo, A. A, (2012), “Nigeria: Bemoaning the Eclipse of the African Possibility”, Speech Delivered at the Birthday Celebration of Arthur Nwankwo at the Conference Hall, Bridgewaters Hotel, Enugu. Ofikhenua, J, (2018), Why Nigeria’s borders are porous – Customs Boss.The Nation November 29, 2016. thenationonlineng.net/nigerias-borders-porous-customs-boss. Okosun, D, (2017), Porosity of Border: Why Nigeria must tighten border security.National Daily Newspaper, July 13, 2017. nationaldailyng.com › News Ojukwu, C, C, (2011), “Terrorism, Foreign Policy and Human Rights Concerns in Nigeria”, Journal of Sustainable Development in Africa, Vol. 13, No. 4. Rodney, W, (1973), How Europe Underdeveloped Africa.Dar es Salaam: L’Ouvreture Books.

Sandler, T, (2006), “The Impact of Trans-National Terrorism in USA Foreign Direct Investment”, Political Research Quarterly, Vol. 54, No. 4. Sani, U, (2011), The discourses of Salafi Radicalism and Salafi Counter-Radicalism in Nigeria: A Case Study of Boko Haram. California: Northwestern University Press. Tauna, A., (2017), Porous borders responsible for frequent Fulani/farmers attacks – Miyetti Allah. Daily Post, July 15, 2017.dailypost.ng › News. Walker, A, (2012), Boko Haram: Special Report. Washington D. C.: United States Institute of Peace (USIP), No. 308. Walter, E. V, (1972), terror and Resistance: A Case Study of Political Violence. New York: Oxford University Press.

RE-COLONIZATION OF NIGERIAN STATES AND HERDSMEN CONSPIRACY IN GRAND STYLE: EXPLORING IMPERIALISTIC AND HEGEMONIC AGENDA IN THE 21ST CENTURY

ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA Department of Political Science University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria

Phone: +234 803 550 2812 | E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The year 2016 marked the beginning of the sad and steadily rising development of clashes believed to be between farmers (the oppressed, victims) and herdsmen (the oppressors) in Nigeria. One is left to wonder what necessitated this evil. Another puzzle is: what is the objective of these dissidents who have sent many innocent Nigerians to their untimely graves. The rising spate of unwarranted killings across the nation signals an attempt by a conspicuous few to re-colonize the nation and turn a detested section into slaves or chase them away entirely. The conspiracy apparently signals the distaste of the perpetrators of these nefarious crimes for their victims. Such is the manner through which the obvious hegemonic agenda of the ruling north seeks to be accomplished. This paper seeks to spotlight issues surrounding northern quest to perpetuate her leadership of the nation through ruthless extermination of undesired perceived enemies. It also seeks to unravel the rationale, if any, behind the imperialistic agenda of Nigeria’s core north, as well as establish its effects on the nation now, with a view to baring a premonition of the potential stock of these iniquities for both the oppressed and the oppressors in future. It is the finding of this paper that there will never be a justification for the subtle Gestapo missions of these impudent murderers of sleep. And these unnecessary exercises can only force the nation into global extinction.

Keywords: Hegemony, Imperialism, Re-colonization, Herdsmen

Introduction I often wonder why the inimical demonic quest to re-colonize Nigeria. I keep pondering: why the nocturnal nefarious agenda to Islamize the Nigeria? The world’s so-called ‘wise men,’ Nigeria’s former colonial masters, Britain… I always wonder if in their self-styled wisdom, they (even their diviners) were so short-sighted that they had no premonition of these dark times. Did it never occur to them that they are sojourners in this world just like other tribes and races? Did it never occur to them that they, never to be omniscient, knew not about a great percentage of God’s endowments in the lands and territories they would eventually grab, yearn and muscle to own?

Truly, it never did occur to them that natural endowments are never man-made. And the One who put them there in the first place can always site more (fresh, unseen, unknown) resources both there and in other places. It’s His ability and not mankind’s!

I keep wondering why insurgents, parochial ethno-religious militiamen are frantically pursuing such horrible, ignoble and inglorious cause – to annex lands and territories, which by whatever measure had never been, and may never be theirs. You may notice and begin to wonder why I said, ‘annex lands…’ and not people or both. It is obvious that a quest to annihilate a people- 93

race, tribe or religion-a quest to jet them into global extinction is an imperial demeaning mission to overrule their lands, and possess same. It’s so sad and saddening because we all know who owns the land.

Could this be as a result of the culture of bloodshed which seems to be the bedrock of Islam? We’d remember that in the days of Mohammed against Meccans, even after he fled Mecca to Medina to avoid persecution, he continued to assault and massacre Meccans, bullying them into surrendering to his will.

[Muhammad's strategy in the developing conflict with Mecca was to attack Meccan trade caravans returning from Syria and thus economically weaken the city. In 624, the first major battle occurred, in which the Muslims, despite their inferiority in numbers and weapons, soundly defeated the Meccans. In the next major battle, the following year, the Meccans had the advantage but were unable to achieve a decisive victory. A Meccan army of 10,000 besieged Medina in 627 but failed to take the city. Muhammad meanwhile eliminated his enemies within Medina. After each of the first two battles he expelled a Jewish tribe, and after the third major battle he had the males of the remaining tribe massacred for collaborating with his opponents. In 630, the Meccans, unable to conquer Medina and crippled by the severing of their trade routes, finally submitted peacefully to Muhammad, who treated the city generously, declaring a general amnesty. Tribal delegations arrived from throughout Arabia, and their tribes were soon converted to Islam. Muhammad, now the most powerful leader in Arabia, enforced the principles of Islam and established the foundation of the Islamic empire.] (Microsoft ® Encarta ® 2009).

Imperialism is not new to the Nigerian system, nor is hegemony fresh news. Perhaps, what is amazing is the new dimension of these experiences at play today as well as the avenues through which they are being employed in governing the geographical expression called Nigeria.

This work seeks to re-evaluate Nigeria’s existence under the various attempts to dominate, alienate and eventually, exterminate some parts of the nation. In focus is the demonic hegemonic agenda of the ruling north–her recent efforts to claim Nigeria through the massacre of citizens by trained guerilla fighters branded ‘herdsmen’.

Statement of the Problem Nigeria is currently faced with a myriad of problems chief of which is the invasion of sections of the country by ethnic militiamen, trained guerilla fighters who are out to recover what no one knows when they lost. This paper will attempt to view this malady in the face of the severe economic hardship ravaging the nation. An attempt will also be made to unravel the rationale behind the invasions, with a strong belief that the imperial mindset of the north as well as its hegemonic agenda are behind the conspiracy by avarice-driven northern elements to usurp the ‘common wealth’ of the nation.

Objectives of the Study

Currently, most Nigerians are fast losing faith or rather have lost faith in the nation’s present democratic government. This paper seeks to establish the very strong (if any) bond-the grand conspiracy between the APC-led federal government, the Nigerian security forces and the Hausa-Fulani ethnicity of the president against other ethnic groups in their ignoble quest to take over Nigeria, especially the arable lands of the eastern and north-central regions for whatever selfish reasons.

Research Questions The following questions were posed to a group of willing respondents in an attempt to find clues to this discourse:  Are these murderers actually herdsmen (from whatever tribe)?  Do you think there’s a conspiracy between the federal government, Nigerian army (and other security outfits especially the Nigerian Police Force) and the marauders?  Is imperialism still at play in the nation?  Is the north Nigeria’s hegemon?  Will there ever be any justification for the hegemonic agenda of northern Nigeria? Conceptual Review It is needful that I review the key concepts in this discourse.

HEGEMONY

The government of the United States doesn't want peace. It wants to exploit its system of exploitation, of pillage, of hegemony through war. It wants peace, but what's happening in Iraq? What happened in Lebanon? Palestine? What's happening? What's happened over the last hundred years in Latin America and in the world? - Hugo Chavez[1] Straubhaar (1991) defined hegemony as the power or dominance that one social group holds over others. This can refer to the "asymmetrical interdependence" of political-economic-cultural relations between and among nation-states or differences between and among social classes within a nation. According to Hall (1985), it is "dominance and subordination in the field of relations structured by power"; a method for gaining and maintaining power. While in prison, Italian intellectual Antonio Gramsci to whom the term hegemony is attributed emphasized society's "super structure," its ideology-producing institutions, in struggles over meaning and power (1971; 1973; 1978; Boggs, 1976; Sassoon, 1980; and Simon, 1982).

According to Gramsci's theory of ideological hegemony, mass media are tools that ruling elites use to "perpetuate their power, wealth, and status (by popularizing) their own philosophy, culture and morality" (Boggs, 1976:39). Hall (1985) expressed that hegemony is not a direct stimulation of thought or action, but a "framing (of) all competing definitions of reality within (the dominant class's) range bringing all alternatives within their horizons of thought. [The dominant class] sets the limits-mental and structural within which subordinate classes 'live' and make sense of their subordination in such a way as to sustain the dominance of those ruling over 95

them" (1977: 333). In the words of Colombian communication theorist Jesus Martin-Barbero, "one class exercises hegemony to the extent that the dominating class has interests which the subaltern classes recognize as being in some degree their interests too" (1993: 74).

Resistance is feasible even for those who are not heroes by nature, and it is an obligation, I believe, for those who fear the consequences and detest the reality of the attempt to impose American hegemony. - Noam Chomsky[2]

IMPERIALISM

Like a cyclone, imperialism spins across the globe; militarism crushes peoples and sucks their blood like a vampire. - Karl Liebknecht[3]

Imperialism: "Political expansion of rule over foreign countries". This seems to have been accepted as the most predominant definition of the term. But it is also referred to as a domain that can be political, economic or geographical in nature. Imperialism is also defined as "aggressive extension of authority". Merriam-Webster defines it as the policy, practice, or advocacy of extending the power and dominion of a nation especially by direct territorial acquisitions or by gaining indirect control over the political or economic life of other areas; broadly: the extension or imposition of power, authority, or influence. It also represents any kind of expansion, either political or economic in nature. The word is coined from the Latin word imperare roughly translated as 'to command'. It is believed that the word came into use in the 16th century, and was derived from the Roman concept of imperium. Prominent dictionaries, give three significant definitions.

The first definition refers to conquest, annexation and dominance of one nation over another nation or nations by either diplomatic excellence or military prowess. This definition is normally used when referring to the expansionist and colonist activities that the European nations carried out after the discovery of trade routes to Asia, Africa and the New World (present day American continent). Though the concept was in existence even before Europe started their expansion, imperialism came into global view in the late 18th century when Europe capitalized on its early technological prowess over the rest of the world to enslave Asia, Africa and America. And it became prominent in ancient Chinese and Roman Empire, as well as the golden horde of Genghis Khan.

Russia’s insistence on communism and United States’ promotion of democracy during the Cold War are two most prominent examples of imperialism. It has also been witnessed in religion– the promotion domain of faith or religious belief. A key example is Spain's promotion of Catholic faith in England, during the rule of 'Bloody' Mary (1516 to 1558, predecessor of Elizabeth I).

In the 21st century corporate world, major competitive market forces centre on monopoly. As companies develop the best possible highly-branded, low-price products and services, they strive to dominate competitors while simultaneously embarking on aggressive promotion. The U.S. joined the league of the world’s most notorious imperialists when it led the Gulf War 96

because of her interests in Iraqi oil. Today, as the world’s third largest oil producer, she is in absolute control of the oil in the Gulf region. And the continuous Iraqi War is a visible ploy to perpetuate her stranglehold over the embattled state’s major natural resource–oil.

The Roman Empire and Britain are the two largest imperialistic powers through history. In Africa especially, the evils of British imperialism remain the bane of most administrations till date. British imperialism in Africa came with a prime motive–to spread Christianity, which the new colonies were not eager to welcome. This quest was joined by the expansionist competition between Britain and other European countries like Belgium. And the negative impact of this was unchecked bloodshed and crisis which they generated in their quest to amass more colonies. The worst effect of British imperialism on Nigeria remains the heavy drain on its resources, which continues till date. Their policy of ‘Divide and Rule’ remains another major negative impact of their incursion into Nigeria. Generally, colonies were made, actually forced to be dependent and continuously dependent on their imperial masters. The downside of imperialism includes slavery, mass murder (genocide especially of those opposed to imperial masters), general increase in other crimes–rape, etc.

So long as there is imperialism in the world, a permanent peace is impossible. - Hassan Nasrallah[4]

RE-COLONIZATION OF NIGERIAN STATES The reasons for the colonization of Nigeria are believed to be the quest to bring a primitive people to light, bring them up-to-date, and accord them self-governance. But on the contrary, the reverse became the results. Same as the effects of imperialism on the nation–enslavement, draining the nation’s resources, political tussles and leadership quagmire and general underdevelopment became a daily feed on the nation’s staple. So, at 57, Nigeria remains proudly described as a third world country even by her imperial masters whose colossal failure should woefully impact upon.

Why the attempts to re-colonize Nigeria? The nation’s enviable cultural diversity... Her expansive natural resources… Her unmatchable spirit of resilience in the face of innumerable daunting challenges… Her enviable position on the world map… Her notoriety corruption-wise… Her dexterity with the knife of creativity… Her culture of impunity and crass bureaucratic and financial recklessness… Neglect for the sanctity of human life… economic and moral disdain… perennial woes and misfortunes (though, more self-imposed lately)… Her former imperial master’s avarice… What? What? What?

Who can preserve Nigeria’s cultural heritage better than its citizens? Till date, issues surrounding the invasion of ancient Benin Kingdom in 1897 which led to the deposition, exile and death of Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi[5] are yet to be resolved. The nation’s oil is believed by many to be a curse on her citizens. Many of those who have pledged to serve Nigeria with all my strength actually show and keep showing that to serve Nigeria is not by force. And captains

who have pledged to defend her unity and uphold her honour and glory, continually and deliberate seek to see her buried perpetually in the blackness of darkness.

The nation has lost whatever honour and glory she may have enjoyed in the days of yore. And her unity remains a contemporary subject of global discourse. The statement, “Nigeria’s unity is not negotiable’ has become a cliché for its unashamed leaders whose stinking records portray their guilt and colossal incompetence in administering such a generously and maximally endowed nation. On August 21, 2017, Buhari said it. Others who said it include Vice President Yemi Osinbajo, members of the National Assembly and a few other prominent Nigerians according to media reports.

Some of these are leaders whose dark agenda for the nation can never be hidden even with all their intense efforts at masking them. Else, why would a self-styled angel of redemption stare wide-eyed while those he swore to protect are massacred daily? Nigeria’s ethnic and religious diversity were in existence before Britain came on their subtle mission. They’ve never succeeded in hiding their greed. Nigeria’s spirit of resilience is a sure marvel to many across the globe. By siphoning her vital oil, Britain and her co-imperial masters keep steering the nation’s ship towards a visible iceberg. And the nation’s leaders unwittingly keep dancing to their discordant tunes. Yet, none of these will qualify for a just reason behind the attempts to re- colonize the nation. It is obvious that solution to her endemic corruption has become paramount in the nation’s affairs. Yet, it is nothing that her citizens cannot resolve without foreign assistance or influence.

Often, I have asked the question: after more than a century of British imperialism and colonialism, what did Britain forget in Nigeria when they left after her independence? Again, is Britain proud that many years after Nigeria’s golden jubilee, she remains proudly identified and addressed as a Third World country even as she is continually and mockingly labeled the Giant of Africa? It is obvious that the Nigerian state has failed.

Nigeria truly needs to be sanitized, but not by sword. Even if it would ever be by sword, it shouldn’t be the butcher’s sword but the sword of justice.

HERDSMEN Herdsmen are people, especially men, who own or breed cattle or other livestock. They exist in many African countries. Often, they are described as nomads. And many Nigerian northerners especially the Hausa/Fulani stock belong here.

DISCUSSION Feelers from across the polity point to a clear conspiracy between the Federal Government, the Police and herdsmen in the attacks on innocent, law-abiding citizens. In a press statement entitled Taraba Killings: We Smell Conspiracy among FG, Police, Herdsmen – CAN, released 98

on January 16, 2018, and published by Vanguard Newspaper, the leadership of the Taraba State chapter of the Christian Association of Nigeria (CAN) disclosed that there was a grand conspiracy among the Federal Government (FG), the Police and killer Fulani herdsmen over the recent killings across Nigeria.

This body accused the FG of playing double standard with security issues in the country. If the FG could declare the Indigenous People of Biafra (IPOB) a terrorist group and proscribe same, if the President could launch ‘Operation Python Dance’ and ‘Crocodile Smile’ against IPOB and the Niger Delta Avengers, why is he foot-dragging in nullifying Boko Haram and “killer herdsmen’?

The body noted that, “For now, Mr. President seems to be sympathetic to his kinsmen going by his handling of herdsmen killings in the country.”

Herdsmen (of whatever tribe, religion or race, we know who nomads are) are executing deliberate well-calculated plans at decimating perceived enemies. It is a clear case of attempts at systemic annihilation of perceived ethnic minorities and undesired religious denominational foes. These parochial unfortunates believe that some humans are by-gotten sons of by-gotten fathers. The truth is: God who created all created us all for a reason, for His own great reason. And only Him can judge, assess and establish who is who, who is legit or not.

These herders (formerly, because we now know that they are imported ethnic militiamen who operate in the same guerilla style used against South Sudan’s Daffur region during the Sudanese Civil War) are cruel, barbaric sadists. Joined to their assault weapons and being deft at cold- blooded murder, their dexterity with machetes are unmatched. It is apparent that they seek to bully people into kowtowing to their frivolous, senseless and baseless demands.

I still keep wondering and pondering if the perpetrators of these heinous crimes against humanity are suffering from an atavistic vampirical craving for blood. History has never identified them as cannibals. So, why the wanton blood-letting… What’s their ultimate objective? If there’s any such epidemic in their blood, I wouldn’t be surprised in the least because in Nigeria today, it is no different from the days of Mohammed against Meccans.

Imperial masters steal our gold, silver et al but one thing is certain: they can never steal our colour and culture. We’ve believed and still believe their religions – Christian and otherwise, good. But our colour, culture and style are our heritage. We appreciate them for bringing us into awareness of the Light. But they need not continually strive to keep us subdued or relegate us into the dark ages. They need not begin to regret ever bringing us into the Light. Now that we know the truth, we can sift the wheat from the chaff. They always come up with a well- disguised propaganda. Their aim: to keep us divided, never united, never one, never together. They know that a house divided against itself can never achieve good success. They know that where there’s disunity, progress remains a mirage. Imperial masters are behind this evil.

But we must realize that a fundamental question awaits our positive reasoning: must we always dance to their drums of woes?

These beasts have never had a foretaste of the messy junk they continually force innocent, harmless, loving and beloved divine creatures – tribes and religions of such a blessed nation as Nigeria to gulp down daily. If they had, it would have been very clear to them what the losses and unbearable pains amount to.

At the maiden convocation of Taraba State University in Jalingo on Saturday 24th March, 2018, former Nigerian Army Chief and Defence Minister, T.Y. Danjuma called on all Nigerians particularly members of the Christian faith in the Northeast, North-Central and Southern parts of the country to arm themselves and resort to self-defence against the on-going widespread massacres across the country by radical Islamic groups such as Islamic herdsmen and Boko Haram. He further made a strong and irrefutable indication that the Nigerian Armed Forces are complicit in the killings. The Nigerian Armed Forces have been variously accused by many Nigerians of protecting the attackers particularly, the Jihadist ‘herdsmen’, and aiding their atrocities.

In a swift reaction, the Supreme Council for Shari’a in Nigeria called for his prosecution. Premium Times of 27 March 2018 reports that:

“The Supreme Council for Shari’ah in Nigeria has called on the federal government to prosecute a former Minister of Defence, Theophilus Danjuma, for calling on Nigerians to take arms to defend themselves against killers. In a statement on Tuesday signed by the Kaduna State Chairman of the council, Yusuf Rigachikun, and Secretary, Abdulrahman Hassan, the group described the comment as unfortunate. The group in the statement read by Mr. Hassan at a press briefing in Kaduna said prosecuting the retired General will serve as deterrent to others like him.

“The council calls on the federal government to invite, investigate and prosecute the General for such a most unfortunate statement in the presence of students who are known to be volatile and prone to youthful exuberance.

“His action poses a threat to the peace and stability of the state and is a crime against the state. The prosecution of the General will go a long way for the culture of impunity not to threaten the corporate existence of Nigeria.”

The north is actually Nigeria’s hegemon. 3 major reasons attest to this truth:

 Their undying Born to Rule philosophy: Incessant efforts to perpetuate the region in power any time they control it.

 Their extremist religious intolerance and recklessness: Flagrant disregard for other religions and ceaseless efforts to impose Islam on the entire nation, which lately, has the added objective to annihilate other religions and ethnic groups through insurgency and guerilla warfare dubbed ‘farmers-herders clashes’. 100

 Their incessant unnecessary struggle for economy (resource) control: Why fight for resource control? The raging fight has all too clearly become a grand plot to take over both land and resource from its domain.

If the north desires to successfully dispute their hegemony status, why the debate over ranching? Why not accept it as the best means of animal (especially cattle) rearing in tune with global best practices. If they are not Nigeria’s hegemon, there won’t be any attempts at sustaining open-grazing, opposing anti-open-grazing laws, and targeting the elimination of proponents and endorsers of that law.

They keep fighting to re-colonize Nigeria with external assistance from their foreign ally who pronounced them the Husband in the first place, and the south, the Wife. Their baseless disregard for other ethnicities spurs them continuously onto spurious attempts at accomplishing their blind objective of gaining eternal control of Aso Rock, Nigeria’s seat of power.

Yet, a sharp glance at the following 4 indices for measuring power disqualifies them totally from that demeaning desire:

1. Population: Demographically, the south is greater than the north. Issues and controversies surrounding Nigeria’s census results till date have never been resolved. Agreed, census results give a higher population to the north. After the 2006 census, Kano state with 44 local government areas got over 9 million, a result which is still in contention. But should that figure be correct by any yardstick, the state’s human population constitutes many foreigners. A good percentage of that figure would be made up of ubiquitous Igbos who sure knows how to find and locate themselves in all nooks and crannies of the world. Obviously, national censuses are no longer meaningful to development planning (if they ever were), due to their politicization in order to increase access to public funds.

2. Natural Resources: By divine arrangement, Nigeria’s oil-rich Niger Delta plays host to the nation’s major income earner and economic mainstay – oil and gas. All states in the Niger Delta Development Commission (NDDC) are from the south. These are: Abia, Akwa Ibom, Bayelsa, Cross River, Delta, Edo, Imo, Ondo and Rivers. These states have a total land area of about 75,000 square kilometres (which is equivalent to 7.5% of Nigeria’s land mass) and 185 local government areas. The Commission itself was set up in 2000 with the sole mandate of developing the oil-rich Niger Delta region of Nigeria. Today, there are about 606 oil fields in the Niger Delta, of which 360 (60%) are onshore and 246 (40%) are off-shore. Delta, Rivers and Bayelsa States make up about 80% of the Niger Delta Region. Together, they produce about 75% of Nigeria’s oil and over 50% of federal revenue. Apart from the oil sector, industrial development is virtually non-existent. Nigeria’s oil, the London Brent is in global demand, and has since 1971 placed Nigeria among the major oil producers of the world, in the Organization of Petroleum Exporting Countries (OPEC). Nigeria’s oil earnings since the discovery of the black gold in Oloibiri, present day Bayelsa state (1956) has been the sole target of every national leader since drilling began in 1958 and the oil boom of 1973. The composition 101

of GDP shows that Nigeria’s economy heavily depends on the oil sector. Between 1960 and 1973 oil output exploded from just over 5 million to over 600 million barrels. Government oil-revenues in turn accelerated from 66 million naira in 1970 to over 10 billion in 1980. Nigeria’s energy reserves include 34 billion barrels of oil, 5.3 trillion cubic meters of gas, 639 million tons of coal and hydro resources. Daily crude oil and gas production were, respectively, 2.46 million barrels and 165 million cubic meters in 2004. At that rate, oil reserves would last 40 years and gas reserves 100 years. Being the largest industry as a percentage of GDP (44.7% in 2003), the oil sector contributed around 81.2% of total public revenue (in the form of crude oil and gas exports, petroleum profits taxes and royalties). The energy sector is export-oriented: more than 90% of oil production and 50% of gas production are exported, with the oil sector constituting over 97% of total exports. And control of this resource, a major global commodity of interest, has been the major bone of contention between the nation’s 2 major regions. Nigeria’s other natural resources are spread across the states. Proceeds from our oil dubbed ‘Our National Cake’ absolutely dominate that from all other mineral deposits. And every annual national budget is based on an oil benchmark. It is noteworthy that Nigeria’s vital oil has been the major reason for her continued imperialistic subjugation, and the north’s hegemonic agenda (the others being imposition of Islam on the entire nation, and usurping the southern arable lands for pastural interests).

3. Proximity to the Sea: The south enjoys the gracious endowment of playing host to the Atlantic Ocean and the River Niger. The latter which flows from the Guinea Highlands in southeastern Guinea, runs in a crescent through Mali, Niger, on the border with Benin and then through Nigeria, where it meets in a confluence with River Benue in Lokoja, Kogi state, from where it empties (through its many tributaries), discharging through a massive delta, known as the Niger Delta or the Oil Rivers, into the Gulf of Guinea in the Atlantic Ocean. The Atlantic Ocean spreads across the coastal states of Lagos, Rivers, Cross River, etc. Nigeria’s first Inland Dry Port established in Kakuri, Kaduna state in 2017 (inaugurated January 4th, 2017) was ostensibly established to reduce the congestion in Lagos ports and provide relief for the busy Apapa road. But apparently, it was conceived and borne out of the north’s hegemonic agenda. Apart from this Port, about seven other approved locations of Inland Dry Ports around the country are already concessioned to private sector operators by the ICDs Implementation Committee of the Federal Ministry of Transportation. The ports are located in Isiala Ngwa in Abia state, Erunmu, Ibadan in Oyo state, Heipang in Plateau state, Zawachiki in Kano state, Zamfarawa, Funtua in Katsina state and Maiduguri in Borno state. Notably, only 2 of these are in the south.

4. Ability to Harness the First Three (i.e. Population, Natural Resources and Proximity to the Sea): In education, technology, innovation, etc., Nigeria owes its unquenchable glow in the global scene to the south. There is no comparing between feats achieved so far by its southern and northern citizens. With Things Fall Apart, late renowned novelist and erudite scholar, Chinua Achebe[6] put the nation in global limelight. Nobel Laureate, 102

Prof. Wole Soyinka[7] extended this feat when he won the Nobel Prize for Literature in 1986. So did Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie[8] with her accolades over Purple Hibiscus and Half of a Yellow Sun. Philip Emeagwali’s[9] developmental works in Information Technology have been unparalleled global feats and a major technological game- changer since he won the 1989 Gordon Bell Prize ($1,000) for price-performance in high-performance computing applications, in an oil reservoir modeling calculation using a novel mathematical formulation and implementation. The latest winner of the Nigerian LNG Prize for Literature Ikeogu Oke, and the joint winners of the Nigeria Prize for Science,Ikeoluwapo Ajayi, Ayodele Jegede, Bidemi Yusuf, Olugbenga Mokuolu and Chukwuma Agubata are southerners. The north regrettably broods continually over their educational backwardness.

CAUSES Issues surrounding attempts to re-colonize Nigeria are informed by two key factors: ethno- religious inequality mindset and avarice. Like I stated earlier, the average Nigerian Hausa/Fulani has been so indoctrinated with their Born to Rule philosophy (based on their falsely perceived religious and tribal superiority) that they view other tribes as ragtag dolls. Then, the issue of unchecked greed comes to play often. Often, these people feel cheated and actually fight against inferiority complex in their dealings with other sections of the nation. Several times, I have heard of their resolve to overtake the south education-wise. And such could be their resolution concerning other areas of human endeavour.

CONSEQUENCES The potential consequence of these attacks on innocent citizens of the country is another civil war. Already, the immediate consequences are felt in: 1. Loss of human capital due to rise in death, maternal and infant mortality. 2. Rise in rape and other forms of sexual assault. 3. General insecurity across the nation. 4. Adverse effects on the socio-economic growth and infrastructural development of the nation. 5. Bad international image. SUGGESTED REMEDIES  National and ethical re-orientation.  Possibly outright de-amalgamation, i.e. disintegration of the country along ethnic divides. Conclusion 21st century Nigeria should be for grand excellence, technological achievements, unbridled innovations and sureties of longevity for not just its citizens but the world. It should never be for sorrows, tears and blood. It is the finding of this paper that these murderers are not herdsmen of any kind. Apparently, there’s a conspiracy between the federal government, Nigerian army (and other security outfits especially the Nigerian Police Force and the Army) and the marauders. 103

And because imperialism is still at play in great dimensions in and around Nigeria, the north is Nigeria’s hegemon. Until all issues surrounding attempts at re-colonizing Nigerian states are positively resolved no matter whose ox is gored, this pre-colonial mindset of tribal domination will continue to generate chaos across the nation unabated. Also, there will never be any moral justification for the north’s hegemonic agenda. This paper should be able to provide a solid platform for further studies on the subject. It should also serve as a guide to proper analysis of the situation where and when solutions to this malaise are desired.

NOTES [1] Hugo Rafael Chávez Frías was a Venezuelan politician who was President of Venezuela from 1999 to 2013. Chávez was also leader of the Fifth Republic Movement political party from its foundation in 1997 until 2007, when it merged with several other parties to form the United Socialist Party of Venezuela (PSUV), which he led until 2012. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hugo_Chávez) [2] Avram Noam Chomsky (born December 7, 1928) is an American linguist, philosopher, cognitive scientist, historian, social critic, and political activist. Sometimes described as "the father of modern linguistics," Chomsky is also a major figure in analytic philosophy and one of the founders of the field of cognitive science. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Noam_Chomsky) [3] Karl Liebknecht was a German socialist and a co-founder with Rosa Luxemburg of the Spartacist League and the Communist Party of Germany. He is best known for his opposition to World War I in the Reichstag and his role in the Spartacist uprising of 1919. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Karl_Liebknecht) [4] Hassan Nasrallah is the third and current Secretary General of the Lebanese political and paramilitary party Hezbollah since his predecessor, Abbas al-Musawi, was assassinated by the Israel Defense Forces in February 1992. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Hassan_Nasrallah) [5] Oba Ovonramwen Nogbaisi, born in circa 1857, ruled 1888 – 1897. He was also called Overami, and was the Ọba (king) of the Kingdom of Benin up until the British punitive expedition of 1897. He was the son of Ọba Adọlọ, and he took the name Ovọnramwẹn Nọgbaisi at his enthronement in 1888. He died January 1914, Calabar, Southern Nigeria [now Cross River state, Nigeria]. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Ovonramwen) [6] Chinua Achebe (/ˈtʃɪnwɑː əˈtʃɛbɛ/, born Albert Chinụalụmọgụ Achebe; (16 November 1930 – 21 March 2013) was a Nigerian novelist, poet, professor, and critic. His first novel Things Fall Apart (1958), often considered his best, is the most widely read book in modern African literature. He won the Man Booker International Prize in 2007. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chinua_Achebe)

[7] Akinwande Oluwole "Wole" Babatunde Soyinka is a Nigerian playwright, poet and essayist. He was awarded the 1986 Nobel Prize in Literature, the first African to be honoured in that category. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Wole_Soyinka)

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[8] Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie is a Nigerian writer of novels, short stories, and non-fiction. She has written the novels Purple Hibiscus (2003), Half of a Yellow Sun (2006), and Americanah (2013); the short story collection The Thing Around Your Neck (2009), and the essay We Should All Be Feminists (2014). In 2008, she won the MacArthur Fellowship Award. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Chimamanda_Ngozi_Adichie) [9] Philip Emeagwali is a Nigerian computer scientist. He has been living in the United States for many years. An Igbo, he won the 1989 Gordon Bell Prize ($1,000) for price- performance in high-performance computing applications, in an oil reservoir modeling calculation using a novel mathematical formulation and implementation. (https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Philip_Emeagwali)

References

Gitlin, T. (1979). Prime-time ideology: The hegemonic process in television entertainment. Social Problems, 26, 251-66.Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull. Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press

Gramsci, A. (1971). Selections from the Prison Notebooks.New York: International. Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull. Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press

Gramsci, A. (1978). Selections from Cultural Writings.Cambridge, MA: Harvard University Press

https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Imperialism.

https://www.merriam-webster.com/dictionary/hegemony.

https://www.premiumtimesng.com/news/...news/263257-shariah-council-calls-for-t-y-...

https://www.vanguardngr.com › News. Martin-Barbero, J.(1993). Communication, Culture and Hegemony.Newbury Park, CA: Sage. Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull.Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press.

Nordenstreng, K. (1977). From mass media to mass consciousness.In G. Gerbner (ed.), Mass Media Policies in Changing Cultures.New York: Wiley. Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull.Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press. 105

Straubhaar, J. (1991). Beyond media imperialism: Asymmetrical interdependence and cultural proximity. Critical Studies in Mass Communication, 8, 39-59. Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull.Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press.

Williams, R. (1976). Key Words: A Vocabulary of Culture and Society. New York: Oxford University Press. Quoted in Media, Communications and Culture: A Global Approach, by James Lull.Copyright © 1995 Columbia University Press.

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Re-engineering Research on Perceptions of Non-technical Educators on Technical Education Programs forBetter Skill Development and Acquisition in Higher Vocational Institutions

1 TanehAnthony N., 2Festus .U. Chimezie&3Charity .M. Kpabep 1School of Engineering, Department of Electrical /Electronics; 2 &3 Department of Mechanical Engineering, Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic, PMB 20 Bori, Rivers State, Nigeria. E-mail:[email protected], [email protected][email protected] Phone: 08033454765, 08064115083 & 08037049720

Abstract The study investigated non-technical educators’ perceptions on technical education programs. Descriptive survey research design was used. The sample size is 320 non-technical educators drawn from two Polytechnics in Rivers State who are currently teaching in the Department of Mechanical engineering. Three RQs and Three null hypotheses guided the study. A 5-pointlikert scale rating questionnaire was the only data collection instrument used for the study. The instrument was face validated by three Experts from Vocational and Technology Education Department, Rivers State University, Nkpolu-Oroworukwo, Port Harcourt. The instrument has a reliability coefficient of 0.89. The RQs were analyzed using mean and standard deviation, while the null hypotheses were tested using t-test statistical tool at 0.05 level of significance. The following findings were made in the study; technical educators’ qualifications are recognized as producers and contributors to technological skill development, curricula of technical education programs are controlled by non-professionals, technical education does not deny students’ benefit of understanding basic principles of mathematics and other science related subjects. Based on the findings, the following recommendations among others were made:Non-technical educators and the entire society should change their perceptions on technical education programs for students’ better vocational skill development and acquisition in higher vocational and technical institutions. The government should provide incentives to students in vocational and technical education institutions as an encouragement to win more students’ enrollment into technical education programs; and ministry of education should provide appropriate and adequate material resources like equipment, consumable and textbooks to justify the establishment of vocational and technical education programs.

Keywords: Re-engineering Research, Non-Technical Educators, Technical Education Programs and Vocational Skill Development.

Introduction Technical education was introduced in Nigeria in 1946 to develop vocational skill competencies among youths so that they can contribute positively to the national economic growth; and develop in various occupational activities (Lawal, 2013). Technical education produces technicians for all types of industries and it is true that the progress of a country much depends upon its industrialization without which a wealthy nation would not be actualized (Obioma, 2010). Technical skills are knowledge gained from technical education. These skills are essential to generate job employment for a productive economy (Heraty, Morlery and McCarthy, 2000; Jakubowski, Patrinos, Porta and Jerzy, 2010). Generation of job through technical education implies that right steps need to be taken towards developing standards in technical education.

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Vocational and technical education institutions are established to train and graduate artisans and middle level manpower forvocational skill acquisition in related areas of engineering and science education. The technical education institutions play a vital role in the scientific and technological progress of a nation. They are established to train and produce the technical manpower necessary for the execution of the nation’s development plans, goals and strategies (NBTE, 2001).In order to actualize these functions, the players at the establishment and management ends of the institutions must possess balanced professional perceptionstowards the stakeholders for better vocational skill development and acquisition.

There are quite some unprofessional perceptions about graduates of vocational and technical education by non-technical educators, such as; doubts about their performance ability even within a vocational and technicalprogram. The non-technical educators in the context of this study are those without certificates in technical education, not specialist by qualification and training in the teaching of technical skills that are involved in directing, supervising, teaching, and heading technical related departments and institutions. Nneji, (2002) asserted that in most cases, non-curriculum experts in technical and vocational education are mostly contracted for development and review of vocational technical education curriculum in Nigeria. The poor perception of Technical-educatorsin Nigeria is detrimental to the technological growth of the nation; which is linked to the attitude of non-technical educators in technical institutions. Before now,non-technical educators’ regards technical educationas a form of education meant for people who are backward academically; this has branded a poor image of the profession. Hence, most people only enroll in vocation technical education program as the only last option.

Furthermore, there are many challenges that schools trying to implement Technical and Vocational education and Training (TVET)program face particularly in developing countries. For instance, Immaculate (2006) postulatedthat technical education has been considered as a career path for the less academically endowed, and this perception been fuelled by the low academically requirements of admission into TVET programs; and the limited prospect for further education and professional development.Zendera (2013) maintained that what worsenedthis perceptions is the government policy on employment of non-technical educators in operation and management of TVET institutions. These lead to the challenges of TVET program competing with academic subjects rather than practical oriented subjects. In another study, Immaculate (2006) reported that the perceptions about technical education graduates among some non-technical educatorsis that the programs are only for people who are meant to teach in the secondary schools and the colleges of educations. But technical and 108

vocational education program according to the United Nations Education and Scientific Cultural Organization UNESCO (2002) encompasses all forms and levels of educational processes involving, general knowledge, study of technologies, and related sciences, acquisition of practical skills, know-how, attitudes and understanding relating to occupations in the various sectors of economic and social life. Isayku, Nwaokolo, Akinseinde and Uwameiye, (2001) opined that technical and vocational education training are targeted for specific skills in the areas of; electrical installation, welding and fabrication, auto-mechanics and other related field of engineering technology and sciences for industrial consumptions. In another opinion, Boateng (2012) suggested in his studythat technical and vocational education is simply studies in the areas of technology, applied sciences, agriculture, business studies, industrial studies and visual arts. While Harder (2009) concluded that vocational technical education is occupational education that helps an individual in a particular profession in the world of work.

Going by the assertions stated above, it means that re-engineering the perceptions of the non- technical educators in technical education institutions implies bringing about better collaboration for technological and vocational skills transfer; that will aid provision and utilization of infrastructuralfacilities, and increased funding for the realization of skills through formal training by both non-technical and technical educators that are stakeholders in educational policies. The Federal Government of Nigeria is interested in keying into the global vision and match towards technological and industrial development. For this, stakeholders as researchers, educators, policy makers and the private sectors have beganthe struggle for successful industrial and technological break-through in the 21st century. This leads to the quest for science and technical education in Nigeria in the year 2000. Emenyonu, as cited by Jude (2010) stated that such an education in Nigeria must therefore; aim at producing the practical technicians and technologist as opposed to theoreticians. This implies that technical education should not only prepare the students for the National Technical Certificate (NTC) examinations as presumed by the non-technical educators, but provide the students with saleable skills in vocational areas to enhance self-reliance after graduation based on local needs.

In support of the argument presented by the researchers above, the indispensability of the technical education in the industrial development effort in the country is made explicit in the following aims of technical education as stipulated in the National Policy on Education (NPE) (Federal Republic of Nigeria, FRN, 2013): a) To provide trained manpower in applied science, technology and commerce particularly at sub-professional grades. 109

b) To provide the technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, industrial, commercial and economic development. c) To provide people who can apply scientific knowledge to the improvement and solution of environmental problems for the use and convenience of man. d) To give an introduction to professional studies in engineering and other technology. e) To give training and impart the necessary skills leading to the production, of craft man, technicians and other skilled personnel who will enterprising and self-reliant. f) To enable our young men and women to have an intelligent understanding of the increasing complexity of technology. This lofty initiative of the federal government is always destroyed by the negative perceptions of the non-technical educators in the business of technical education. Hence, there is need to positively re-engineer and re-orientate the perceptions of the non-technical educators to bring about a balanced view about technical education that will lead to the development and realization of specialized skills for the industry according to the aims and objectives of technical education as stipulated in the NPE.

Statement of the Problem Technical education as a program meant to develop and facilitate the acquisition of practical and applied skills as well as basic scientific knowledge as contained inNational Policy on Education (2013). The principles and operations of this program are not supposed to be polarized by the operators. But unfortunately, the non-technical educators are the one managing the administration of the programs and policies of TVET as noticed by Ibeneme (2007); which situation is still the same till date. These non-technical educators are not vocationally trained; in other words are not technically certified persons to manage the affairs of technical education, and therefore do not seem to understand the workings of the program.These has resulted into negative and unprofessional perceptions on colleagues that are dully certified as technical educator for the program. Also these perceptions haveaffected funding, infrastructural provisionsand other serious components that might have led to the successful implementation of technical education program in higher vocational institutions. Hence, there is need to re- engineer perceptions of non-technical educatorsto enhance better skill development and acquisition in higher vocational and technical education institutions.

Purposeof the Study

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The main purpose of this study is re-engineering research on perceptions of non-technical educators on technical education programs for better skill development and acquisition in higher vocational and technical education institutions. Specifically, the study intends to: 1. Determine perceptions of non-technical educators on technical education certificates. 2. Determine perceptions of non-technical educators on the establishment of technical educationprograms. 3. Determine perceptions of non-technical educators on enrollment into technical education programs. Research Question The following Research Questions (RQ) guided the study; 1. What are the perceptions of non-technical educators on technical education certificates? 2. What are the perceptions of non-technical educators on the establishment of technical education programs? 3. What are the perceptions of non-technical educators on enrollment of students’ into technical education programs? Hypotheses The following null hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance.

HO1: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on technical education certificates.

HO2: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on the establishment of technical education programs.

HO3: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on students’ enrollment into technical education programs. Research Methodology The study adopted a descriptive survey design.The population for the study comprised of male and female non-technical educators’ in the Department of Mechanical Engineering Technology of two higher vocational and technical education institutions (Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori and Captain Elechi Amadi Polytechnic, Rumoula Port Harcourt) all in Rivers State, Nigeria. The total population for the study is 320 respondents.There was no sampling because the entire population (320) was studied since is of manageable size. The questionnaire was the only data collection instrument for the study.The research instrument was developed by the researcher with the title“Perceptions of Non-technical Educators on Technical Education Programs(PNETEP)’’. The instrument was developed in a five point Likert scale with response

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categories: Strongly Agree (SA), Agree (A), Undecided (UD), Disagree (D) and Strongly Disagree (SD). These were assigned scores as follows: SA=5, A=4, UD= 3, D = 2, and SD=1 respectively. The instrument was face-validated by three experts in the Department of Vocational and Technology Education, Faculty of Technical and Science Education, Rivers State University, Port Harcourt, Nigeria. Their suggestions and comment were used to modify the instrument. Fifty (50) copiesof the questionnaire was trial tested at Abia State Polytechnic, Aba, Abia State.The reliability coefficient (r) of the instrument was found to be 0.89using the Cronbach Alpha technique. The administrationof the instrument was facilitated with the help of two research assistance. Out of the 320 copies distributed, only 301copies were retrieved which represent 94% return. The RQs were analyzed using means and standard deviations. Meanscore of 3.00 and above was accepted; while mean below 3.00 was rejected. The hypotheses were tested at 0.05 level of significance using t-test statistical tools. Presentation and Analyses of Data The analyzed data presented on Tables 1-6are for the stated RQs and the tested hypotheses that guided the study.

Research Question 1 What are the perceptions of Non-technical Educators on technical education certificate?

Table 1 below shows data for answer to RQ1on the perceptions of Non-technical educators on technical education certificate. Table 1: Mean responses on perception of Non-technical Educators on Technical Education certificate S/N ITEM STATEMENT SD REMARK 1. Technical educators’ qualifications are 2.18 1.21 Disagree inferior to other qualifications. 2. Conditions of service of technical 3.55 1.213 Agree educators are the same with their counterparts’ in the industries. 3. Technical educators’ are irrelevant to 2.20 1.01 Disagree higher vocational education programs. 4. Technical educators’ qualifications are 3.19 1.21 Agree recognized as producers and contributors to technological development. 5. Technical educators’ develop apathy to 2.90 1.06 Disagree

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workshop practice due to lack of motivation. 6. Lack of professional training in the 2.67 1.11 Disagree teaching affects technical educators’ performance. 7. There is need for re-training of technical 3.48 1.20 Agree teachers. Table.1revealed that the respondents disagreed on items 1, 3, 5 and 6. Their mean scores are below 3.00. While items 2, 4 and 7 has mean scores of 3.55, 3.19 and 3.48 respectively; this indicate that they agreed with the statement items. This implies that opinion of the respondents differ on technical educators’ qualifications. It aligns more to saying that technical educators are not inferior to other qualifications; and they are recognized as producers and contributors to technological development.

Research Question 2 What are the perceptions of non-technical educators on the establishment of technical education related programs?

To answer RQ2, five items were used to elicit the opinions of the respondents as presented on Table 2 below.

Table 2: Mean responses on Perception of Non-technical Educators on Establishment of Technical Education related program S/N Item Statement SD Remark 1. The 6-3-3-4 system of education is a 3.73 1.37 Agree program to revolutionize technical education. 2. Theestablished VTE programs 2.25 1.31 Disagree equipped with adequate tools and equipment. 3. The curricular of technical education 2.86 1.22 Disagree are designed by technical educators. 4. The established technical institutions 2.18 1.21 Disagree are enough to provide technical know-how to the youth. 113

5. The government is highly interested 2.49 1.20 Disagree with the production of graduates through related technical program.

Table 2showed that respondents agree with item 1 with mean value of 3.73 and disagree with other items with mean values below 3.00. This implies that technical education has not been properly cared for in terms of establishment of related technical programs.

Research Question 3 What are the perceptions of non-technical educators on enrollment of students’ into technical education related programs?

Table 3 shows data for answering RQ3 on the perceptions of non-technical educators on enrollment of students’ into technical education related programs. Table 3: Mean Responses on the Perceptions of Non-technical Educators on Enrollment of Students’ into Technical Education programs

S/N ITEM STATEMENT SD REMARK 1. Technical education is only for low 3.19 1.21 Agree intelligent people. 2. Technical education is a specific 3.19 1.21 Agree education. 3. Students of technical education are for 3.22 1.01 Agree school drop outs. 4. Technical education only offers on the 3.40 1.26 Agree job training opportunities. 5. Enrollment into technical education 3.40 1.26 Agree program denies students benefits of understanding basic mathematics and other science related subjects. 6. Skilled labor are disrespected and undue 3.16 1.15 Agree importance is placed on academic secondary education 7. People undervalue the experience 3.31 1.09 Agree gathered through practical skill application in favor of classroom lesson.

Table 3indicates that respondents have the same opinion on all the 7 items of the questionnaire

relevant to RQ3. All the items have mean score above 3.00. This shows that non-technical educators have negative perception onstudents’ enrollment into technical education programs.

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Test of Hypotheses

Hypotheses 1

HO1: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on technical education certificates. Table 4 belowpresents analyzed hypothesis for male and female non-technical Educator’s perception on technical education certificate. Table 4: T-test Analyses of Mean Responses of Non-technical Educators’ Perception on Technical Education Certificates Respondents N SD t-cal t-critical Decision Male 181 3.27 1.138 .080 1.96 Not Female 120 3.26 1.134 significant Significant level = 0.05, df = 299

Table 4 revealed analyses for HO1. It showed that the hypothesis was accepted with t-calc. value .080 less than t-critical of 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance. This implies that the respondents upheld the opinion that the certificates obtained from technical education institution are good enough to deliver needed technological skills.

Hypothesis 2

HO2: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on the establishment of technical education related programs.

Table 5 showed t-Test result analyzed for HO2. Table 5: t-test of the Mean Responses of Non-technical Educators’ Perceptions on Establishment of Technical Education programs Respondents N S.D t-cal t-critical Decision Male 181 3.84 1.260 Not 1.170 1.96 Female 120 3.82 1.256 significant Significant level = 0.05, df = 229

Result on Table 5 revealed that HO2 was accepted. The calculated t-value is 1.170, while the t- critical value is 1.96 at 0.05 level of significance. This indicates that the respondents have similar perceptions on establishment of technical education programs.

Hypothesis 3

HO3: There is no significant difference between male and female non-technical educator’s perception on students’ enrollment into technical education programs.

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Data analyzed for HO3 is presented on Table 6 below.

Table 6: T-test Analysis on Responses of Male and Female Non-technical Educator’s Perception on Students’ Enrollment into Technical Education Programs Respondents N S.D t-cal t-critical Decision Male 181 3.27 1.172 Not 0.603 1.96 Female 120 3.26 1.164 significant Significant level = 0.05, df = 299

Table 6 showed that HO3 was accepted because the calculated t-value is 0.603 which is less than critical t-value of 1.96 at 0.05 significant values. This indicates that the opinion of thenon- technical educators was upheld on student’s enrollment into technical education programs.

Discussion of Findings

Table 1 showed results for RQ1. The respondents supported that technical educators’ qualification are recognized as producers and contributors to technological skill development. This is in line with the opinion of Akamobi (2005) who posited that the lack of occupational skills would limit the chances of an individual to be employed in the present modern technological age. The respondents also agreed that the conditions of service of technical teachers are the same with that of their counterparts in the industries. This is contrary to Asuguo (2006) who stated that technical schools are not getting qualified teaching staff because of poor condition of service of technical teachers due to the fact that most qualified technical teachers prefer the industrial sector which offers them better condition of service.

Table 2 indicated investigation for RQ2on perceptions of non-technical educators on establishment of technical education related programs. The respondents disagree that there are adequate tools and equipment for technical education. Findings also revealed that respondents disagreed that there are enough technical institutions. This corresponds with the opinion of Wonacott (2000) that lamented that it is unfortunate that the importance of vocational technical education has diminished over the years.

Table 3 Presents RQ3. It showed that the respondents disagreed with responses such as “technical education is for low intelligent people and denies one the benefit of understanding the basic principle of mathematics and other related science subjects”. This conforms with the view of Yoleyen (2006) that maintained that technical education requires an outstanding knowledge of the fundamental laws and basic principles of mathematics, science and technology supported by general courses.

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Table 4 is T-test result for HO1. It revealed that there is no significant difference in opinions of male and female non-technical educators’ perception on the certificate obtained from technical education institutions. This is in conformity with the fact that National Business and Technical Examination Board, certificates are accepted as entry requirement into tertiary institutions in the country placing the certificate at par-with WAEC and NECO certificate.

Table 5 tested HO2. It indicated that there is no significant difference between non-technical educators’ perception on the establishment of technical related programs. The finding is not a surprise as the respondents disagree to 60% of the items indicating that the technical institutions are ill-equipped and only very few of such schools are in the state which is not encouraging for technological development of the state.

Table 6 tested HO3. It is to ascertain the significant difference between non-technical educators’ perception on students enrollment into technical education institutions. The null hypothesis was accepted. It was discovered that the technical education has low students enrollment which may not be unconnected with the fact that it is perceived to be the means for school dropouts. Summary of Findings The result of the data analyzed showed that: 1. Technical education certificates are treated and accepted as well as those of general education. 2. Proper attention has not been paid to technical education programs in higher vocational and technical education institutions to justify its skill need establishment. 3. Technical education institutions have low students enrollment. Conclusion The study concludes from the opinion of non-technical educators, that technical education qualifications are not inferior as they serve the same purpose as those from general education. Technical education qualifications are recognized as producers and contributors to technological development. The curricula of technical education are left in the hands of non-technical professionals. There are few technical institutions in the state with inadequate tools and equipment. The existing technical schools have low students enrollment caused by public perceptions of technical education as the school for drop-outs and those of low intelligence. There was no statistical difference between non-technical educators perception on the establishment of

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technical education related program. There was no significant difference between non-technical teachers’ perception on technical education and its effect on the funding of technical education. Recommendations The following recommendations were made based on the findings of the study; 1. Non-technical educators and the entire society should change their perceptions on technical education programs for students’ better vocational skill development and acquisition. 2. The government should employ the services of the private sectors in thefunding and provision of tools and equipment in technical education institutions. 3. There should be incentives like student bursary payment to students in vocational and technical education institutions as an encouragement to win more students’ enrollment into technical education programs. 4. The ministry of education should provide appropriate and adequate material resources like equipment, consumable and textbooks to justify the establishment of vocational and technical education institutions.

References Boateng, C. (2012). Restructuring vocational and technical education in Ghana. The role of leadership development. International journal of humanities and social science.2(4).108-114.

Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013).National policies on education. Federal ministry of information, Lagos: Lagos state press.

Harder, R. P (2009).Advantages of educational technology. Paper presented at advanced seminar on educational policy at California State University, Sacramento. www.csus.edu. Retrieved February 3rd 2012.

Heraty, N., Morley, M.J.,& McCarthy, A. (2000). Vocational education and training in the Republic of Ireland: Institutional reform and policy developments since the 1960s. Journal of vocational education and training, 52(2), 177-199.

Ibeneme, O.T. (2007). Vocational and technical education: Nigeria’s imperative for achieving the first millennium development Goal Initiative.Journal of Research and Development.2 (1).

Immaculate, E.E. (2006). The founding needs vocational and technical education program in Nigeria school system. JONATT, 6(2),18-21.

Isayaku, K., Nwaokolo., P.O., Akinseinde, S.I., &Uwameiye,R. (2001). New directions to quality technical and vocational education in Nigeria: perception of technical and vocational teachers. Paper presented at the Fourth International Conference of Technical and Vocational Education, University of Wolverhampton, U.K 16-18 July. 118

Jakubowski, M., Patrinos, H.A., Porta, E. E., & Jerzy, W. J. (2010). The impact of the 1999 education reform in Poland. Warsaw, Poland: Faculty of Economic Science (University of Warsaw).

Jude, J. O. (2010). Interaction of sex with career day on the career decision making of secondary school adolescent student.Educational research journal, vol.1 (9) pp. 333-339.

Lawal, A.W. (2013).Technical and vocational education, therefore national development in Nigeria. Mediterranean Journal of Social Science (4(8), 85-89 National Board forTechnical Education (NBTE),(2001).Academicprogramsin Nigeria Polytechnic.Retrieved August 10, 2014 from http://www.nbte.gov.ng/inst_01.html a12:14Am.

Nneji, G.N. (2002). The impact of the theoretical knowledge on practical skill acquisition.Journal of Teacher Education, (2).

Obioma,G.(2000). Nigeria’s experience in technical and vocational education and training (TVET),religions, challenges and opportunities for global competitiveness. Key note Address Presented at the 23rd Annual National Conference of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT). UNESCO, (2002).Establishing partnership in technical and vocational education. Berlin: UNESCO.

UNESCO & ILO (2002). Technical vocational education and training for the twentieth century. Position paper presented in Bakor 2000 conference: Vocational school: The benefits that vocational technical education provides.

Zendera,E.(2013). Technical and vocation education and training policy implantation in secondary schools Harare: Zimbabwe Open University.

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REPOSITIONING VOCATIONAL AND TECHNOLOGY EDUCATION (VTE) FOR MASSIVE WEALTH CREATION AND EMPLOYMENT GENERATION IN NIGERIA

1Wordu, Chiduhiegem C.R. &2Igrubia, Victor 1Department of Technical Education Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port Harcourt. & 2 Department of Technical Education Isaac Jasper Boro College of Education, Sagbama, Bayelsa State.

Correspondence email & Phone No.: [email protected] +234(0)8037808940

Abstract The study was conducted to determine how to reposition vocational and technology education for massive wealth creation and employment generation in Nigeria. Hence, tomeet the challenges of technological change that can support massive wealth creation, employment generation, economic growth and to guarantee equal access to employment opportunities, VTE must be available to a substantially greater proportion of young people and adult alike. Major constraints to vocational and technical education such as historical legacy from Colonia rule, societal attitudes, government lip service to vocational education, lack of adequate teaching man power, problems of management and organization of VTE, relevance of curriculum, poor state of infrastructures and training equipment amongst others. The paper also made a number repositioning strategies for quality manpower production. These include a general re-orientation of the concept of vocation; re-organization and management of vocational education; new capacity building strategy for vocational teachers, new funding approach, collaboration with employers, accreditation and automatic streaming of students etc.

Key Words: Repositioning, Vocational and Technical Education, Wealth Creation and Employment Generation

Introduction Exploiting the potentials of VTE for technological and socio-economic liberation has been in the front burner of many developing nations. Thus, from global perspective, arguments, claims and counterclaims over the potential of VTE in fostering brighter future and sustainable economy has been laid to rest (Moore & King, 2014). However, studies have it that many technologically advanced nations of the world realized their potentials and maintained firm footings through adaptation and practice of VTE (UNESCO 2006). This implies that technological advancement of any nation depends enormously on its ability to transform her resources into practical reality, which guarantees its self-sustenance and capability. It is evident that most of the advanced or developed countries such as China, the USA, France, inter alia 120

practiced a unique but home-tailored VTE capable of utilizing their resources to meet its socio- economic needs with a view of creating jobs. These enhance the income/revenue disposition of the citizens by making them self-reliant and invariably generate employment.

According to Gbenedio (2012) the contents of VTE syllabuses in context should reflect organized effort to ensure that the adolescent students are able to demonstrate their mastery of certain minimum skills (at Senior Secondary level) needed to perform task they will routinely confront in adult life. Gbenedio further argued that prominent among some of the multifarious observed today in Nigeria include aggravation of existing social inequalities and the emergence of new ones, which concurs to the vision of Nigerian secondary education postulated by Sir Ahmadu Bello and Michael & Odinchezo cited in Dickkson (2010) affirming that:(i) Manual workers should be excluded from intellectual training and (ii) Intellectuals excluded from manual work: Which in the earlier 60s to the late 80s, took a new format as the less intelligent to be sent to Trade and Technical Schools and the intelligent to Grammar, Colleges and Secondary Schools. This is because the earlier curricular and policies of Nigerian school was typical (FRN, 2009) because the economic mainstay then needed people with differentiated type of training, preparing them either for either Intellectual work or Manual labour(Dickkson, in Atsumbe, Emmanuel, Igwe, & Atsumbe, 2012).

Following-up this, Okoye (2013) opines that VTE require steady revision and updating in order flow with the current practices in engineering and technology. This would go a long way to enhancing capacity building via intellectual training and ability to solve problems pragmatically. By implication, all VTE streams should contain humanistic and technological component on one hand, and training opportunities geared toward problem –solving on the other. This combination will also ensure that beneficiaries/students of VTEto learn how to think and do better, since the two types of learning are mutually supportive in terms of quality. This would make it possible to find new solutions to problems as they emerged; reawaken manpower development to bridge the yeaning gap in industrial manpower need for economic growth of Nigeria and thereby create wealth and generate employment.

Concept of Vocational and Technical Education (VTE) In a broad sense, UNESCO (2002) defined VTE as a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of the educational processes involving, in addition to general education, the study of

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technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. VTE provides the foundation for productive and satisfying career by offering the learner thorough and specialized preparation for paid or self-employment via its broad training programme which offers broad knowledge and generic skills applicable to a number of occupations within a given field (Okoye & Okwelle, 2014). One of the goals of VTE as contained in Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN) (2013) is to give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who shall be self-reliant economically.

Skills acquisition in VTE is very paramount for the achievement of sustainable entrepreneurship development of polytechnic students including those studying electrical/electronic engineering technology. This is because when students receive quality skilled training both in technical, vocational education and entrepreneurship courses, they would develop competencies necessary to start and manage their own businesses successfully. This assertion is supported by Gasper (2014) who described VTE as the type of education that provides the much needed technical activities for industrial transformation and promotion of local technologies and entrepreneurial activities across all regions. So training in VTE prepares people who could apply relevant practical skill to make positive changes within their society and afford a self-dependent life. VTE holds the key to training the skilled and entrepreneurial workforce needed for the changing technological work environment (Afeti, 2010). Unfortunately, the present state of VTE in Nigeria shows that the country is not taking it seriously. Regrettably, this neglect and highhandedness about VTE has saturated various articulated skill acquisition programmes of the government. According to Friedman in Sofoluwe (2013),remarked that the neglect of VTE is socially injurious as it robs the nation of contribution the graduates would make to national development.Moore and King (2014) concludes therefore it is imperative to reposition VTE to turn out graduates with requisite skills and competencies to fill the gap in manpower need in order to arrest unemployment and its attendant poverty. Perhaps, studies have shown that most graduates of VTE institutions lack requisite skills owing to inadequate resources in the schools as well as lack of commitment on the part of the students (Uya, 2014). Also, Okonjo-Iwuala (2013) opined that it has been well documented that Nigeria’s higher institutions lack the tools to give students the skills employers’ need and as a result the issue of youth unemployment appears to be shooting up the sky. This is because most of the graduates lack “employability” skills that are often acquired from vocational schools (Ani, & Ani-Ofoegbu, 2011). This could still be the reason many of the

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so-called “expatriate engineers, who are being paid huge sum of money in dollars to build the roads and bridges in Nigeria are graduates of VTE yet, most engineers and technologists of Nigerian institutions are labeled unemployable (Okoye, 2014).

VTE for Wealth Creation and Employment-Generation VTE is defined as education for living, being an education that learners are provided with knowledge, skills and competences needed for an occupation (Ekpenyong, 2011; NTI, 2000). To Audu, Karim and Balash, (2013), vocational education is any programme of specializes education designed to prepare interested individuals for entrance into specific occupations. It is usually conducted to prepare students for semi-skilled and skilled employment in recognized occupation or prepare them for enrollment in advanced technical education programmes. Urama and Ndidi (2012) averred that vocational education and training prepares learners for jobs that are based on manual or practical activities, traditionally non-theoretical and totally related to a specific trade, occupation or vocation. According to Ekpenyong (2016),courses that are meant to prepare artisans are classified as vocational as in technical colleges. When the offering is at the lower tertiary level, the course offering is to prepare middle-level personnel (technicians and middle management personnel), and at the university level to prepare engineers and top management personnel, and at the polytechnics to prepare technologists and their management equivalent. From the foregoing discussion, VTE according toUNESCO(2002) is said to be a comprehensive term referring to those aspects of educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupations in various sectors of economic and social life. VTE is further understood by Federal Republic of Nigeria (FRN)(2013) as a means of preparing for occupational fields and for effective participation in the world of work; an instrument for promoting environmentally social sustainable development; an aspect of lifelong learning and a preparation for responsible citizenship, as well as a method of alleviating poverty. The goals of VTE, as enshrined in the National Policy on Education (FRN, 2004) are to: • provide trained manpower in applied sciences, technology and business, particularly at craft, advanced craft and technical levels • provide technical knowledge and vocational skills necessary for agricultural, commercial and economic development • give training and impart the necessary skills to individuals who should be selfreliant economically. 123

The central objectives of VTE revolves on the advancement of socio-economic, industrialized and technological objectives that will eventually manifest themselves in improved standards of living for the citizen as well as an economic stability, industrial harmony and technological advancement (Adenle & Olukayode, 2007). Unarguably, efficientVTE will be an effective solution to unemployment, poverty and reliance among others. Therefore, there is need to motivate interest, ensure practicality and competence in VTE thereby generating employment initiatives and in turns creating wealth.

Repositioning VTE forMassive Wealth Generation in Nigeria VTE is defined by UNESCO (2001) as that aspects of educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, understanding and knowledge relating to occupation in various sectors of economic and social life.This implies thatVTE is the process and product of investigation and research, since it relates to science. This process involves research while the product involves ideas, theories and principles which make up the various bodies of knowledge (Akaneme, 2004). Thus, a highly developed education and research programme in VTE is needed by any country that would want a secure and stable society including Nigeria. Knowledge of the basic science, such as physics, chemistry and biology are of indispensable value because it is through their research effort that technological growth can take place. A stable society should be one where industrialization, public health care, advanced agriculture, etc, can flourish (Chikaire, Orusha, Onogu, & Okafor 2011). The term technology is mostly used in three different contexts, viz, where referring to a tool or machine, a technique, a cultural artifact or a combination of the three. According to the National Teachers Institute (NTI, 2000), technology could simply be referred to as things people device to accomplish particular ends. It also refers to different categories of human productive effort and the processes people use to change various aspects of their world. Technology, therefore, has economic, social, ethical and aesthetic dimensions which depend on the use to which it is put, where it is used and the circumstance that prevails at the time it is used. VTE is therefore defined Ogbuanya and Okoye, (2015) as the application of scientific knowledge and research with the aim of developing products or processes for the use of man. It consists of practical knowledge of what can be done and how. It is not a body of theoretically related law and principles. It is characterized by techniques, devices, procedures, processes and materials. It is more of a collection of particular information that can be used to do something. Unarguable, the by-products of science and technology are littered everywhere, around us. The most easily 124

recognizable ones are the material ones: hospitals, industrial firms, electricity, refrigerators, radio and television, banks, transport system, computer and the Global System of Mobile Telecommunication (GSM). Inyang in Atsumbe, Emmanuel, Igwe and Atsumbe (2012) observed that many materials which are products of science and technology are widely used in everyday life. These materials include plastics, biro, paper, glass, dyes, detergents, petrochemicals and ceramics. Plastics, for instance, are widely used in medicine for plastic implants and for housing. They largely replace metals for pupils; and they provide sheeting for electrical cables, as well as polythene bags for packaging.There productions could be engaged by VTE institutions. Hence, VTE institutions engaging her students in acquiring the skills in the production of these products would help to a large extent to generate massive wealth and create employment.

Conclusion VTE revolve around the advancement of technological and industrial objectives that will eventually manifest in creating wealth through employment generation, poverty eradication and self reliance. No nation can make any meaningful socioeconomic stride without functional vocational-technical institutions. What is required now is to begin to empower our students for self-employment through VTE.Conclusively, repositioning VTE is a sine qua non that would promote employment creation cum enterprising potentials of VTE as well as encourage allocation of adequate resources and administration of all-inclusive reform to equip people with skills to be self reliant, which in turn reduces poverty and engenders sustainable development of Nigeria.

Recommendations Several problems beset the delivery system of vocational-technical education in Nigeria, militating against the fight against poverty and unemployment in the country. These problems include paucity of (material and human) resources, paltry funding, falling short of threshold encouragement and motivation, and thereby making the programme of vocational-technical education an unattractive venture. Among the several steps that should be taken in order to resolve these problems are: 1. VTE programmes should be overhauled in a direction that will guarantee preparation of students for the world of employment. 2. Relevant books, well equipped laboratories and workshops for practical teaching- learning purposes should be provided.

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3. Government should promote and popularize the study of VTE and production of adequate number of scientists to inspire and support technology and self-reliance through awareness campaign. 4. The Nigerian economy is largely dependents on small scale industries especially in the rural areas. The training of tradesmen and technicians for these small industries should be taken cognizance of in drawing up VTE programmes. 5. There should be less emphasis on certificates/examinations in implementing the curricula content of various programmes. Acquisition of practical skills should be stressed on the final outcome. 6. VTE programmes should be repositioned to allow the students to continue their studies up to post graduate level by removing apparent discontinuities in the structure.

References Adenle, S. O. & Olukayode, S. I. (2007).Technical and vocational education for productivity and sustainable development in Nigeria. A paper presented at the 20th Annual National Conference of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology (NATT), at Kaduna Polytechnic, Kaduna, Nigeria.

Afeti, G. (2010). Technical and vocational education and training for industrialization. Retrieved May 23, 2017, from http://www.arrforum.org/publication/occasional- papers/40/95-technical-andvocational-education-andtrainig-for-industrialisation.html Akaneme, F. I. (2004). History and philosophy of science. Lagos: National Open University of Nigeria Press. Ani, G. A. & Ani-Ofoegbu, P. (2011).Manpower development in TVET and the challenges of local content in industrial development. A Paper Presented at the 24th Annual National Conference of the Nigeria Association of Teachers of Technology, Held at F.C.E (T). Umunze, 27th October. Atsumbe, B. N., Emmanuel R., Igwe, C.O.& Atsumbe, J. A. (2012). Repositioning vocational and technical education for effective manpower production in Nigeria. IOSR Journal of Mechanical and Civil Engineering (IOSRJMCE), 1(4), 1-6. Audu, R., Karim,Y.B. & Balash, F. (2013). Technical vocational education as a veritable tool for eradicating youth unemployment.Journal of Humanistic and Social Sciences 8 (2), 10-17. Chikaire, J., Orusha, J.O., Onogu, B. & Okafor, O. E. (2011). Technical and vocational education and training: Vehicle for sustainable development in Nigeria. Academia Arena,3(12), 18 – 24. Retrieved on August 28, 2017 from http://www.sciencepub.net. Dickkson, L.G. (2010). Vocational Education in America’s Schools: major issues of the 1970’s. Chicago: American Technical Society.

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Ekpenyong, L. (2006). Technical and vocational education as a strategy for accelerated economic growth and development of Akwa Ibom State. A Lead Paper Presented at the First Akwa Ibom State Education Summit, Held at Ibom Hall, Uyo, March 14 – 16. Ekpenyong, L. (2006). Technical and vocational education as a strategy for accelerated economic growth and development of Akwa Ibom State. A Lead Paper Presented at the First Akwa Ibom State Education Summit, Held at Ibom Hall, Uyo, March 14 – 16. Ekpenyong, L. E. (2011). Foundations of technical and vocational education: New directions and approaches. Benin City: Supreme Ideal Publishers. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2009).National Policy on Education (5th Ed). Lagos: NERDC press. Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013).National policy on education (6thed) Lagos: NERDC Press. Gasper, O.A. (2014).Exporting the gains of technical and vocational education and training and local technologies for sustainable industrial transformation in a developing economy.Journal of Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology,9 (4), 1-8. Gbenedio, .U.B. (2012).Education for national transformation: Institutional Innovation challenges and prospects. Being a keynote address presented at the 2012 National conference organized by the faculty of education Nnamdi Azikiwe university, Awka, from the 1st to 4th of August, 2012. Moore, A.B & King, S.J. (2014).Vocational Education as perceived by Different Segments of the Population. Cooperative Research Project. 11(5), 126-156. National Teachers Institute (NTI) (2000). Basic science and technology: A millenium development goals project. Kaduna: National Teachers Institute Press. Ogbuanya,T. C. &Okoye, P. I. (2015).Repositioning technology and vocational education and training for poverty reduction in Nigeria.International Journal of African Society Cultures and Traditions 2(3), 1-12. Okonjo-Iwuala, N. (2013). Entrepreneurship in higher and further education: Nigerian Model. Retrieved online on December 15, 2014 from http://fededusec.gov. Okoye, K.R.E. & Okwelle, P.C. (2014). Technical vocational education and training (TVET) as intervention mechanism for global competitiveness: Perspectives from Nigeria. Journal of Developing Country Studies 4 (4), 85-91. Okoye, K.R.E. (2014). Enhancement and Innovation in Higher Education in Nigeria.Being a Keynote Address presented on 9th September, 2014 during the 13th Annual National Conference of National Association for Research and Development (NERD), at Federal College of Education, Okene, Kogi State, 8th-12th September, 2014. Okoye, P.I. (2013). Entrepreneurship through Technical and Vocational Education and Training (TVET) for National Transformation.Unizik Orient Journal of Education (7)1, 53-58. Sofoluwe, A. O. (2013). Re-engineering vocational and technical education (VTE) for sustainable development in North Central Geo-Political Zone, Nigeria.Educational Research and Reviews,8(19), 1842-1849

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UNESCO (2001).Revised recommendation concerning technical and vocational education.Paris: UNESCO Press.

UNESCO (2002). Technical vocational education and training for the 21st century. UNESCO and ILO Recommendations, Paris. UNESCO (2002). Technical vocational education and training for the 21st century. UNESCO and ILO Recommendations, Paris. UNESCO (2006).Technical and vocational education and training report. Paris: UNESCO Press. Urama, M. S. and Ndidi, O. (2012). Manpower development in technical and vocational education (TVE): A Prerequisite for the technological development of Nigeria. Knowledge Review: A Multidisciplinary Journal, 26(4)129-135. Uya, E.A. (2014). Plans, Programmes and Poverty Alleviation in Nigeria: Integration of Poverty Alleviation Strategies into Plans and Programmes in Nigeria. Ibadan: NCEMA.

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RETOOLING EDUCATION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT: THE CASE OF RIVERS STATE OF NIGERIA

Iheanyi Osondu Obisike [email protected] +234 7062527544 School of Foundation Studies Rivers State College of Health Science & Technology, Port Harcourt

Richard Unwobuesor Iloma [email protected] 08037736670 School of Environmental Health Technology Rivers State College of Health Science & Technology, Port Harcourt

A Paper Presented at the 15th Annual International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWSRSD)

Theme: Re-Engineering and Repositioning Academic Research for Accelerated Sustainable Economic Development: The Vocational and Technical Research Approach

Date: 8th – 10th August, 2018 Venue: Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, Rivers State.

Abstract This paper examined the link between education and sustainable development; how education, as a process, can bring sustainable development in Rivers State. The following issues were the concerns of this paper: what education is, what sustainable development means, sustainable development in Rivers State, the link between education and sustainable development. Data was obtained through secondary source. The ideas and opinions on education and sustainable development obtained were analysed qualitatively leading to the conclusion that education, as a process for social development, remains one veritable tool for actualization of sustainable development with the suggestion that Nigeria’s educational system should be retooled to promote environmental literacy, giving the fact that countries all over the world depend on education for social change.

Key words: Education, Sustainable Development

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Concept of Education and Preliminary Suppositions The term education has wide-ranging definitions arising from its indispensability in society as all facets of life are navigated through the course of education. Consequently, the survival of a society is dependent on its nature of education with regard to acquisition of good character and skills for the overall interest of society. This means that education is the mirror through which a society sees, beautifies and reshapes itself. Hence, different societies have different systems of education geared towards addressing their peculiar needs and aspirations. This line of thought gave rise to the definition of education as a process of acquiring knowledge through any method (Ikeh & Essien, 2018). Singh, Sharma and Upadhya (2008) see education as a process for social development of an individual which helps him to adapt and modify his experiences in a changing world. This definition succinctly admits the fact that education is a veritable tool for sustainable development in society in order to assuage its social maladies. The indispensability of education in society is also succinctly captured by Haralambos and Holborn (2004, p. 690) in these words: “education is simply one aspect of socialization: it involves the acquisition of knowledge and the learning of skills”. This means that education is used as a process of shaping individuals to play certain expected roles and exhibit behaviour that would bring co-existence and survival of the society. The foregoing concepts of education have given us a broad canvass upon which one can make any graphic on the relationship between education and sustainable development. Here, we intend to focus on formal education which connotes a package of learning made available by established places of learning based on approved curriculum. Adiele (2010) sees formal education as an organised education which has curriculum contents, subjects, teachers and planned programmes and activities. At end of such programmes, successful students are certificated to proof that they have been educated, and prepared for engagement in society. We make further attempt here to isolate public institutions, that is, government-owned institutions. This isolation is deliberate because a critique on education centres more on public schools. Beyond this insinuation, our educational system has consistently maintained a characteristic aptly captured in the words of Ibeanu (2006): … to understand society what we should look at are the processes through which society produces and distributes the means of its material existence and struggles, usually among social classes, that are integral to the process. In other words, it is about how human societies produce and how they distribute work and rewards. In societies divided into classes, the dominant classes do less work, but appropriate most of the rewards. This exploitative relation gives rise to the class struggle, which sometimes entails open/objective violence, such as violence by state agencies like the armed forces against underprivileged groups, but most times entails covert/structural violence. This latter form of violence is not immediately perceived as violence. It is expressed in such conditions as poverty, inequality, psychological violence, oppression and social exclusion (p.7). He made this exposition based on the analysis of dialectical materialism postulated by Karl Marx. The structural-functionalism analysis requires society to maintain equilibrium by giving effective education to its citizens, produce goods, good governance and justice through schools, industries, parliament, etc. The inference here is that the state of underdevelopment and other social injustices is a reflection of our educational disposition with regard to public schools. No wonder Ritzer (2008, p.106) states that “Durkheim’s most consistent attempts to reform society 130

in order to enable a modern morality was directed at education”, because Durkheim sees education as the “process by which the individual acquires the physical, intellectual, and moral tools needed to function in society”. From the perspective of a formal education, the classroom is a miniature society which is influential enough to instill the needed behaviour in society. Education is seen as a reformation and moral guide, as an empowerment tool, among others. Under the label, all-round development, education provides a child with the aggregate of all the processes by means of which a person develops abilities, attitudes, and other forms of behaviour that are of positive values in the society in which he lives. Based on this line of thought, an educated person should be morally sound. According to Nwafor and Nwogu (2014, p.5), “people generally seem to be disillusioned about the concept of the “educated man”, since the expected moral results are far from being achieved. Education is a continuous process of moderating social behaviours, and as the society becomes more complex, new strategies and concepts are evolved to tackle new challenges that seem to render old systems of education ineffective. It is in this connection that the concept of retooling education comes as a paradigm shift for the realization of sustainable development. In order to ensure that the right education is given to citizens, government establishes schools with minimal cost on the part of students. Some states in Nigeria go as far as running tuition- free education at primary and secondary levels. The Federal Government of Nigeria is at present giving free meals to pupils in some states in order to attract them to school.

In Rivers State, since the declaration of a state of emergency in the education sector in 2008, significant progress has been recorded in the areas of infrastructure and staffing in public schools. Primary and secondary schools got some facelift with the building of model primary schools across the state. The present administration in the state has sustained the transformation agenda by renovating some secondary schools across the state with the intention of reintroducing boarding system. Some government-owned tertiary institutions like Port Harcourt Polytechnics, Rumuola; Rivers State University, Nkpolu and Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumeni have received some boosts. This is an indication of government’s commitment towards ensuring that “education is an instrument for national development and social change” (Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council, 2014, p.10). Education is always restructured to meet the prevailing needs of society. In the recent past, educational institutions were made to adjust their programmes to accommodate the concept of entrepreneurship. And the revolution has yielded the desired results as graduates of different levels of education have one form of skill or the other as a source income. Entrepreneurship education is not enough to guarantee sustainable development in society. Education should be retooled to see how it can interface with other social structures to shape societies for sustainable development.

Concept of Sustainable Development The concept of sustainable development can be viewed from different angles depending on the issue on which an author seeks to address, but its overall intention is to create balance in nature so that approaches to actualizing human needs do not result in far-reaching environmental consequences. Succinctly put, it focuses on creating awareness for safe environmental, social and economic activities. Sustainable development is “development that meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of future generations to meet their own needs" (Scott & Marshall, 2005, p.652). They further state that economic growth and modernization have

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been pursued vehemently by countries as “a means not only of satisfying basic material needs, but also of providing the resources necessary to improve quality of life more generally”.

The global community under the umbrella of United Nations’ General Assembly at its 64th session reiterated that sustainable development in its economic, social and environmental aspects is a key element of the overarching framework for United Nations activities, and that there is the need to ensure a balance among economic development, social development and environmental protection as interdependent and mutually reinforcing pillars of sustainable development. It further states that sustainable development is an indispensable requirement for eradication of poverty especially in developing countries, including Nigeria, and that concerted efforts are required at all levels of government to achieve sustainable development.

Naturally, development is driven by one particular need, without fully considering the wider or future impacts. We are already experiencing the damage this kind of approach can cause, from large-scale environmental pollution crises caused by irresponsible industrialization, to changes in global climate. The longer we pursue unsustainable development, the more frequent and severe its consequences are likely to become, which is why we need to reeducate the society.

It is necessary for us to focus on sustainable development because of its broad advantages of meeting the diverse needs of all people in communities, promoting personal well-being, social cohesion and creating equal opportunities. Sustainable development provides an approach to making better decisions on the issues that affect all of our lives. By incorporating health plans into the planning of new communities, for instance, we can ensure that residents have easy access to healthcare.

Sustainable Development in Rivers State It is paradoxical that Rivers State is one of the states that have the highest rates of unemployment in Nigeria. According to recent unemployment data by the National Bureau of Statistics (NBS) at the end of the third quarter 2017, only 1.91 million out of 4.3 million people in Rivers State’s labour force were engaged full time, meaning that they worked 40 hours a week during the period. Rivers State is one of the oil wealth states in Nigeria with heavy influx of people and materials from neighbouring states especially, Imo and Abia states. The capital city of the state, Port Harcourt, is witnessing effects of over-population as a result of rural-urban migration of indigenes whose villages have been affected by communal conflicts, militancy and environmental pollution arising from oil exploration.

The above revelation describes a picture of neglect and lack of sustainable development. It was this scenario that insinuated The Green Niger Delta Initiative (The Niger Delta Report to the RIO+20 Summit: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. The report unequivocally asserts: In many cases, the conditions of rural communities where crude oil is produced are deplorable, with severe environmental degradation, and no access to safe drinking water, electricity, health services and other social amenities. What an irony of fate? Therefore, considering the historical nature and magnitude of marginalisation and neglect of the region in the Federal Republic of Nigeria, it is the view of the BRACED States that there are currently

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insufficient precincts upon which to enthrone peace and sustainable development in the Federation (Fubara, 2012, p.5). BRACED means Bayelsa, Rivers, Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Edo, Delta States. Six years after the submission of the above report, Rivers State has not seen any appreciable project towards ameliorating its endangered environment, especially, the Ogoni axis of the state, despite the release of the assessment of the area by United Nations Environment Programme (UNEP) in August 2011. The report was commissioned by and delivered to the Federal Government of Nigeria. It makes recommendations to the government, the oil and gas industry and communities to begin a comprehensive cleanup of Ogoniland, restore polluted environments and put an end to all forms of ongoing oil contamination in the region. In the light of the foregoing thesis, the need to have conscience-driven approach towards realization of sustainable development in Rivers State has become inevitable, and it is achievable if education is retooled towards it. Interface between Education and Sustainable Development A system is an organised method in which a set of things are made to work together, that is, to form a whole. A society is viewed as a system because it is made up of interconnected and interrelated parts such as the family, school, peer groups, church, women unions, council of chiefs, legislature, judiciary, etc. These parts work harmoniously for the survival of society (Haralambos & Holborn, 2004). The school, for example, builds its curriculum on the needs of the society such as skills and attitudes. These needs are also replicated in the activities of other social institutions, by this arrangement; the society creates a web for itself, which is known as social system. It embodies one of the most important sociological principles: that if the society must survive, its various parts must integrate and complement each other. That is, every segment of the society must perform its expected role to achieve orderliness and growth. This means that when a segment is affected, others will feel the impact. For example, if a country has a weak system of education, other aspects of life in that country will be affected.

The Way Forward Retooling our education towards ethics has become imperative. Ethics is concerned with moral principles and values, explaining what ought to be the case and how people ought to live their lives in society. It principally revolves around thoughts of what is good and what is bad in relation to humanity. It tries to create a balance between advantages and disadvantages of our actions. So, when we talk about the ethics of a profession, we are referring to the standards that guide the conduct of persons in that profession. That is what the professional should do in order to maintain the dignity of man and his environment. From this perspective, it is obvious that every profession has ethics. Banks, for example, do not divulge the account details of customers to other persons because they would like to protect their customers. Again, in the medical profession, patients’ information is handled with confidentiality. The best approach to the issue of ethics is cost-benefit analysis (Baron, Branscombe & Byrne, 2009; Scott & Marshall, 2005). Cost-benefit analysis helps us to consider the advantages and disadvantages of actions before they are carried out. Remember that every action has a disadvantage; we are propelled to take actions based on their overwhelming advantages to humanity.

Given the numerous environmental issues confronting society today a sound ethical background can be applied in an attempt to reach a compromise between conflicting interests, like infrastructural development, religious values, economic development, exploration of natural resources, and public health. According to Resnik (2012), a principle-based method of moral reasoning that appeals to human rights, utility, justice, animal welfare, stewardship, 133

sustainability and precaution can be applied by environmental health practitioners and government on key issues like pest control, food policy, pollution and waste, disaster preparedness, climate change, energy, etc.

The implication here is that ethical disposition would drive environmental education, which is a process that allows individuals to explore environmental issues, engage in problem solving, and take action to improve the environment. As a result, individuals develop a deeper understanding of environmental issues and have the skills to make informed and responsible decisions. The components of environmental education are:  Awareness and sensitivity to the environment and environmental challenges  Knowledge and understanding of the environment and environmental challenges  Attitudes of concern for the environment and motivation to improve or maintain environmental quality  Skills to identify and help resolve environmental challenges  Participation in activities that lead to the resolution of environmental challenges

Environmental education does not advocate a particular viewpoint or course of action. Rather, environmental education teaches individuals how to weigh various sides of an issue through critical thinking and it enhances their own problem-solving and decision-making skills (United States Environmental Protection Agency, 2018).

Conclusion Challenges of countries are multifaceted especially, developing nations; problems ranging from poor infrastructure, corruption, terrorism, unemployment to environmental degradation. Sustainable development has been suggested as one far-reaching approach to solving socio- economic problems of nations. This paper holds this view hence advocates that education can be a veritable tool for achieving sustainable development in Rivers State.

Suggestions The foregoing discourse has established the interface between education and sustainable development. This paper therefore affirms that education can be retooled for achievement of sustainable development, and suggests that:

1. schools should be galvanized to help students develop practical concept of environmental education, giving it the same attention which entrepreneurship education received.

2. government should create awareness to increase environmental literacy in the state.

3. the National Environmental Standards and Regulations Enforcement Agency (NESREA) should collaborate with relevant state agencies to ensure environmental protection and sustainable development.

References Adiele, E.E. (2010). The concept of education.In E.E. Adiele; M.B. Leigha & L.N. Abraham (Eds.).Teaching profession. Port Harcourt, Nigeria: Havey Publications.

Baron, R.A.; Branscombe, N.R. & Byrne, D. (2009).Social psychology (12th ed.). Boston: Pearson Education.

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Fubara, D.M.J. (Ed.) (2012). The green Niger Delta initiative: The Niger Delta report to the RIO+20 Summit: United Nations Conference on Sustainable Development. Port Harcourt: Rivers State Economic Advisory Council. Haralambos, M., Holborn, M., & Heald R. (2004).Sociology: Themes and perspectives (6th ed.). London: HarperCollins Publishers Limited. Ikeh, F. & Essien, M.A. (2018). Legal education in Nigeria: Need for change in paradigm. In C.A.J. Chinwo (Ed.).Opening and enriching the channels of justice in the Nigerian society. Port Harcourt: Life, Law and Grace Bookhouse. Nigeria Educational Research and Development Council (2014).National policy on education 2008. Lagos: NERDC Press Resnik, D. (2012). Environmental health ethics. New York: Cambridge University Press. Ritzer, G. (2008).Sociological theory (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill. Sadker, M.P. & Sadker D.M. (2005).Teachers, schools, and society (7th ed.). New York: McGraw-Hill Scott, J. & Marshall, G. (2005).Oxford dictionary of sociology. New York: Oxford University Press. Singh Y.K., Sharma T.K. & Upadhya B. (2008).Educational technology: Teaching learning. New Delhi: APH Publishing Corporation. United States Environmental Protection Agency (2018). What is environmental education? Retrieved from: https://www.epa.gov/education/what-environmental-education

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THE NIGERIAN STATE AND NON-CONSENSUAL CREATION: THE DILEMMA OF NATIONAL INTEGRATION

ABONYI NICHODEMUS NNAEMEKA Department of Political Science University of Maiduguri, Borno State, Nigeria

Phone: +234 803 550 2812 | E-mail: [email protected]

Abstract The Nigerian state has been perennially plagued by the dilemma of national integration. This abstract creature of selfish imperial powers constitutes of diverse ethnic groups with different histories, languages, cultures and traditions. Unfortunately, these ethnicities still languish under the perilous consequences of British colonial invasion which changed the faces of their existence. In decades past, Nigerians have sought to build a stable multi-ethnic nation. But painfully, this quest has often been marred by the nation’s tremendous ethnic diversity and uneven distribution of resources. Yet, it remains a core necessity for the nation’s leadership if her National Pledge would be successfully upheld. This paper identifies four approaches to nation-building as authoritarian, inclusionary, exclusionary and democratic. It examines each of these approaches, and notes the absence of the democratic approach in the nation’s leadership system; an approach which is crucial for the promotion of a stable multi-ethnic nation. Furthermore, the paper x-rays the problems of the Nigerian state and argues that national integration can be achieved by applying the Federal Character principle, boundary adjustment policies and revenue allocation formulae.

Keywords: National Integration, Politics, Democracy, Representation, Leadership

Introduction The political independence gained by Nigeria in 1960 has been challenged by the stability of her multi-ethnic arrangement. One factor prevailing against national integration has been her tremendous ethnic diversity and uneven distribution of resources. The Nigerian state is plagued with political instability, coup d’états, threats of secession, Civil War, and outbreaks of ethnic violence (Maier, 2000). Despite these setbacks, the nation has not disintegrated, and there are efforts to design institutions like the Federal Character Commission (FCC), Boundary Adjustment Commission, and the National Orientation Agency (NOA) to promote national integration.

Painfully, the nation’s efforts to achieve this noble objective remain unrealized. The crisis bedeviling the nation majors in a manifest of the minority question, religious conflicts, ethnic politics and struggle for resource control, which triggers youth restiveness. The nation is thus in a dire need for a Sovereign National Conference (SNC). It has also generated terrific inflammable emotions among the various constituent ethnic groups with the consequence that the entire social matrix of the nation is disjointed. Another consequence is the emergence of ethnic militia and pressure groups in every geo-political region making one or more demands from the Federal Government. Democratization is associated with national integration. Global ethno-national conflicts contend that self-government arrangement reduces the likelihood of conflicts (Kynlicks, 1999:185). And as political liberalization allows for open expression of dissent in unusual forms, the beauty

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of the democratic environment embraces negotiated resolution of conflicts (Babawale, 2000).

Ake cited in Kukah (2000:1) states that the beauty of democracy is:

The military addresses the extreme and the extraordinary while democracy addresses routine, military values: discipline and hierarchy. Democracy values freedom and inequality, the military is oriented to law and order while democracy is diversity, contradictions and competitions. The method of the military is violent aggression, but democracy is persuasion, negotiation and consensus building.

Conceptual Clarification National Integration National integration is a cultural phenomenon tied to the development of a state. British colonial powers laid the foundation for the Nigerian state and were the arrow-heads behind the formation of our national identity (Mamdani, 1996). The problem of consensus results in numerous political problems that pitched one ethnic group against another. National integration in this post-colonial era is a deliberate effort to create a conducive political community that will foster peace and unity (Anderson, 1991).

Over the years, Nigerians have known that peace and unity will not be achieved on the foundation of inequitable political representation from all ethnic groups and 50-50 distribution of the national cake. Consequently, nation-building is centred on designing institutions that embrace the idea of the Federal Character Principle as enshrined in Article 14(3) of the 1979 and 16(3) of the 1999 Constitutions of the Federal Republic of Nigeria as follows:

There shall be no predominance of persons from a few states or a few ethnic groups in the government or in any of its agencies.

Article 15(2) of the Constitution prohibits discrimination on the grounds of place of origin, sex, religion, status, ethnic or linguistic association or ties. The problem of the realization of these principles as stipulated in the Constitution promotes a stable multi-ethnic nation. Iweriebor (1990) identified 6 criteria for measuring the national integration process as follows: leadership, transportation and communication networks, economic development, national education, pedagogical nationalism and civil society. Suberu (1999) distinguishes between specific functional public policies on national unity on one hand, and broad political ideologies which shape such policies and impact on national integration on the other hand. He argues that:

These policies have been characterized as poorly conceived, contradictory, ineffective, counterproductive and repressive, even when well-intentioned. Today, the result is general agreement. Nigeria is in the throes of political stage to manage the crisis of national unity.

Despite the recurring nature of electoral fraud, all civilian governments in the post-colonial era gained their mandate through multi-party elections (Linz and Stepan, 1996). The institutional setup has not supported democratic values (Diamond, 1988; Joseph, 1991). Their approach to

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nation-building has been exclusionist in party patronage and exclusion of contestants from opposition political parties. In the Nigerian political process, the contest for power is a zero-sum game where the winner takes it all and the loser stands so small.

This approach ranges from cases in government process to cases where political leaders behave in ways that weaken democratic values. The democratic approach refers to cases in which elected governments operate under inclusionist institutions and the leaders behave in tandem to strengthen democracy. This approach has the greater potential for creating a stable nation especially in a multi-ethnic state like Nigeria.

Colonialism and National Integration The problem of national integration in Nigeria is not different from that of other colonized African nations. Africa was a victim of the industrial revolution in Europe which saw the colonial masters expanding their mercantilist interests to Africa. This came on the heels of four centuries of slave trade. The abolition of slave trade paved the way for the introduction of legitimate trade on agricultural produce and raw materials to feed the colonial masters’ home industries. This peripheral attitude gave way for the partitioning of Africa into areas of influence among European powers. And thus, the era of effective occupation without resort to the people’s culture, religion and language began. Many ethnicities that had nothing in common were merged into one political entity as a sovereign nation by Europe, and consequently, many African states evolved.

These states had the problem of national integration even at the point of decolonization. Their nationalist movements were overwhelmed by primordial sentiments anchored on backgrounds. The Rwandan genocide of 1994 which gulped about 800,000 lives is a clear case. So also is the Nigerian Civil War of 1967-1970, which claimed about 3 million lives.

There has been perpetual subversion among the elite of these ethnicities. In Nigeria, the process of decolonization was not spared. The emergence of the Northern Peoples Congress (NPC) with the motto “One North One Destiny” was a declaration of distrust in the National Council for Nigeria and the Cameroons (NCNC), which was dominated by Igbo elite.

This followed the formation of Egba Omo Oduduwa, Action Group, as the Yoruba’s political platform. It was the same pattern in many African states–Congo, Sudan, Algeria, Ghana, etc. Nigeria was not spared in this thorny path of political development as the process of her decolonization was the same with that of other African states. The elite groomed by the colonial masters accepted modernization as a development, and displayed unbridled enthusiasm in importing western values– institutions, technology, manpower and policies.

They failed to institute an indigenous and independent economic base. Consequently, the transition from colonialism to independence impacted little economic gains because the vestiges of the colonial economy were intact, and were transferred to the post-colonial era.

In 1899, the British revoked the Charter of the Royal Niger Company. The 1914 process was completed by bringing together several ethnic, linguistic and cultural groups and communities which had already attained different levels of economic growth and political development. 138

These strategies produced a state structure subservient to imperialism and all the metropolitan interests (Ekekwe, 1986:26).

The emergent state structure laid emphasis on integration which encouraged specialized regional production to meet the needs of the metropolitan economy. Shively (2003:62) states that Nigeria like other colonies was not constructed for internal cohesion, but for the administrative convenience of the British. The state assumed the status of a supreme institution capable of intervening forcefully in the three major regions of North, East and West.

The ruling class met a structure without modification. And they pre-occupied themselves with the use of state paraphernalia for accumulating surplus without going through the process of producing same. The contradiction was an institutionalized ethnic-centred leadership with particularized political outlook (Nnoli, 2000).

Ake (1981:145) observed that:

So have indigenous leaders who are in political offices but with little economic base. This contradiction between economic and political power becomes a source of interesting development as the rulers try to use the only tool they have, political power, to create an economic base in order to consolidate their economic power.

Violence spread from rural areas to urban centres. Anarchy eroded the legitimacy of the state and gave impetus to the Coup of the five Majors – Nigeria’s first military coup in January 1966. The collapse of the First Republic demonstrated the inability of the Nigerian elite to integrate her citizens. The NPC that lacked legitimacy in the West could not restore social and political order within the West. The Nigerian National Democratic Party (NNDP) which won the elections in the West was legitimate in the area as a result of the manner in which it won and lost the elections.

The Deputy Leader of the NNDP and Deputy Premier of the West said before the elections that whether the electorate voted for the NNDP or not, it would win the elections (Dudley, 1998:72). It operated over and above members of the civil society and as well, raised legitimacy questions for the state and created a gully between ordinary citizens and their leaders.

Political Representation, Resource Distribution and National Integration The post-colonial era experience indicates the mandate, institutions and actions of the various governments. The first distinction is between elected civilians and military governments. Though the institutions of the military governments undermine democracy, they differ in their conduct. Despite their shortcomings, Gowon, Murtala/Obasanjo and Abdulsalami regimes conducted themselves in a way to promote inclusion and democracy. Their approach to national integration was close to the inclusionary model. In contrast, the Ironsi, Buhari, Babangida and Abacha regimes brought division to the nation, undermined democracy and adopted authoritarian approach (Ali, 2000; Iweriebor, 1990).

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Civilian governments differ in their design. The First Republic of Tafawa Balewa was a parliamentary government with a decentralized federation that emphasized regional autonomy, representation and territorial division; the federation was broken into small ethnic groups (Diamond, 1988). The 2nd Republic of Shehu Shagari was a presidential style that had a centralized federation, and became biased against minorities (Oyovbaire, 1984).

The 4th Republic headed by Obasanjo lacked institutional arrangements to improve the position of marginalized ethnic groups in spite of calls for decentralization (Ogunbanjo and Ayandiji, 2001). Yar’Adua’s administration did not deviate from the democratic approach. All the three regimes were plagued with favoritism on the part of the nation’s leaders. These administrations failed to represent the ethnic diversity which results in exclusionary national integration.

In Nigeria, boundary adjustment and Federal Character Principle are the primary mechanisms for fostering national integration; it is a vision to ensure that no ethnic group is excluded from the conduct of national affairs. Boundary adjustment refers to the division of the federation into various political and administrative units, since ethnic groups are clustered in specific geographic areas. It is a key mechanism to ensure proper ethnic representation at the local, state and federal levels of government, and a factor for sharing revenue allocation. The Ironsi and Buhari governments neither created states nor local government councils. Ironsi almost turned Nigeria into a unitary state while Buhari banned proposals for state creation, and all local government councils created in the 2nd Republic failed to address grievances of the marginalized especially minority groups.

The link between ethnic identity and voting behaviour allowed the three major ethnic groups to wield disproportionate power (Mackintosh, 1966). The Babangida and Abacha regimes created more new states, local government councils and affirmed the Federal Character Principle. But they failed to make positive contributions to nation-building. The Babangida regime created 2 states in 1987 and 11 more in August 1991 with more than 200 LGAs, which also failed to address the grievances of the minority ethnic groups. On 1st October, 1996, the late dictator, Sani Abacha created 6 more states which brought a near balance to the 6 geo-political zones with 774 LGAs.

Politics of Inclusion and National Integration Most institutional innovations in Nigeria made by progressive military governments have pursued the inclusionist approach to national integration. In 1967, Gowon tried to create a balanced federal arrangement by dividing the country into 12 states. Boundary adjustment continued during the succeeding Murtala/Obasanjo era. In 1976, the government increased the number of states to 19 and 301 LGAs. The 3-regional consensus arrangement did not represent the interests of the ethnic groups with boundary adjustment.

The Gowon regime watered down the principle of derivation formula for horizontal revenue allocation and reduced the proportion of DPA allocated to states on the basis of derivation.

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Fiscal centralization continued during the Murtala/Obasanjo era; the 1977-1978 Aboyade Committee recommended that all federal revenue should be in a single account of which 60% allocation went to the Federal Government (FG), 30% to States and 10% to LGAs (Suberu, 1999). This recommendation was rejected but later incorporated into the 1979 Constitution which strengthened the power of the FG in the exclusive list among other levels of government.

In ethnic representation and resource distribution, the record of governments that pursued the exclusionist approach is mixed. The Balewa government took a bold step in 1963 to adjust the federal structure. It created one more region – the Mid-Western region – from Western Nigeria. The restructuring did not balance the federation but an attempt by the Hausa-Fulani to weaken the Yoruba in the Western region. The Mid-Western region was seen as the home of the southern minorities believed to be under the influence of the Yoruba. It became very important to excise them from the Yoruba mainstream politics and whittle down the political strength of the Yoruba people. But even at that, boundary adjustment failed to address the hegemonic position of the northern region basically because Balewa’s boundary adjustment ignored the grievances of the minorities in both the Northern and Eastern regions (Nwankwo, 1992).

In the spirit of the Federal Character Principle, the National Party of Nigeria (NPN) led by Shehu Shagari in 1979 devised some structural arrangements to make the government of the 2nd Republic more representative of the country’s ethnic diversity. In Article 21 of the NPN Constitution, “Zoning shall be understood by the party as a convention in recognition of the need for adequate geographical spread.” (Iweriebor, 1990)

Federal Character Principle and the Federal Character Commission (FCC) The Federal Character Principle is aimed at ensuring fair and equitable distribution of posts, socio-economic amenities, and infrastructural facilities amongst the Federating units nationwide. It has been enshrined in Nigeria's Constitution since 1979, to ensure that appointments to public service institutions fairly reflect the linguistic, ethnic, religious, and geographic diversity of the country.

The Federal Character Commission (FCC) is a Federal Executive body established by Act No 34 of 1996 to implement and enforce the Federal Character Principle. The provisions of the 1999 Constitution in Sections 14 and 153 consolidated the establishment of the FCC for operation in a democratic system of Government. Its Vision Statement is: Achieving sustainable national consciousness to which all Citizens can subscribe with conviction. And its Mission Statement reads: Channeling public investments towards sustainable development. Functions of the Commission

According to its Establishment Act, (1) The functions of the Commission shall be:-

(a) to work out an equitable formula, subject to the approval of the President, for the distribution of all cadres of posts in the civil and public service of the Federation and of the State, the armed forces, the Nigerian Police Force and other security agencies, bodies corporate owned by the Federal or a State Government and Extra-Ministerial Departments and Parastatals of the Federation and States;

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(b) to promote, monitor and enforce compliance with the principles of proportional sharing of all bureaucratic, economic, media and political posts at all levels of government;

(c) to take such legal measures including the prosecution of the heads or staff of any Ministry, Extra-Ministerial Department or agency which fails to comply with any Federal Character Principle prescribed or adopted by the Commission; (d) (e) to workout (i) an equitable formula, subject to the approval of the president, for distribution of socio-economic services, amenities and infrastructural facilities; (ii) modalities and schemes, subject to the approval of the President, for redressing the problem of imbalances and reducing the fear of relative deprivation and marginalization in the Nigerian system of federalism as it obtains in the public and private sectors;

(f) to intervene in the operation of any agency of the Federal Government, subject to the approval of the President, where in the opinion of the Commission the function of the agency concerned is relevant to the functions of the Commission, and the Commission is of the opinion that it is not being effectively implemented;

(g) to advise the Federal, State, and Local Governments to intervene and influence providers of services, goods and socio-economic amenities to extend such services, goods and socio-economic amenities to deprived areas of the country; (h) to ensure that all Ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments, agencies and other bodies affected by this Act have a clear criteria indicating conditions to be fulfilled and comprehensive guidelines on the procedure for- (i) determining eligibility and the procedure for employment in the public private sectors of the economy; (ii) the provision of social services goods and socio-economic amenities in Nigeria;

(j) to ensure that public officers shall, in the performance of their functions, adhere strictly to rules and regulations made pursuant to this Act; (j) to advise the Federal Government of Nigeria on the structure and rationalization of any Ministry, Extra-Ministerial Department or agency; and (1) carry out such other functions as the President shall, from time to time, assign to it.

(2) For the avoidance of doubt:- (a) the posts mentioned in paragraphs (a) and (b) of subsection (10) of this section shall include those of the Permanent Secretary in the Civil Service of the Federation or the State Civil Service, Directors-General in Extra-Ministerial Departments and Parastatals, Directors in ministries and Extra-Ministerial Departments, senior Military Officers, senior Diplomatic Posts, Managerial Cadres in the Federal and State Parastatals, Bodies Corporate, Agencies and institutions; and

(b) socio-economic services, amenities and facilities mentioned in paragraph (d) of subsection (1) of this section include those in the sectors of education, electricity, transport and youth development.

(3) Any person who fails to comply with the guidelines issued under paragraph (h) of subsection (1) of this section is guilty of an offence under this Act and liable to penalties specified in section 15 (1) of this Act. 142

(4) Notwithstanding any provision in any other law or enactment, the Commission shall ensure that every public company or corporation reflects the federal character in the appointment of its directors and senior management staff.

Since inception in 1996, the Federal Character Commission (FCC) saddled itself with observing recruitment exercise to allow MDAs willingly apply the approved guidelines and formulae in staff distribution amongst the States of the Federation. This observer status has to a large extent prevented officials of the Commission to interfere in the proceeding of the exercise even when the wrong things were observed to be done ab initio.

Boundary Adjustment Act The CREATION OF STATES AND BOUNDARY ADJUSTMENTS (PROCEDURE) ACT is an Act to regulate the procedure for the creation of new States and boundary adjustment and for matters connected therewith 1982 No.9 made 15th November, 1982. PART I Reads: Request and proposal 1. Requests (1) A request for the creation of a new State or boundary adjustment within the Federal Republic of Nigeria shall be in writing and shall be submitted to either the President of the Senate or the Speaker of the House of Representatives or the Clerk of the National Assembly. (2) A request shall be deemed to be supported by at least two-thirds majority of members representing the area demanding the creation of a new State in- (a) The Senate and House of Representatives; (b) The House of Assembly in respect of the area; and (c) The local government councils in respect of the area, only if those members append their signatures or right-hand thumb impressions to the request.

(3) The request shall contain the following particulars- (a) The name of the proposed State; (b) A full and clear description of the area covered by the request; and (c) The names of all elected members for the time being of the local government councils, House of Assembly, House of Representatives and the Senate representing the area covered by the request and supporting the impressions appended thereto directly opposite their names. (4) Notwithstanding the foregoing provisions, a request for the creation of a new State received prior to the commencement of this Act and accepted by the National Assembly as having satisfied the requirements of the Constitution shall be deemed to have been made in accordance with the provisions of this Act. 2. Directions to Independent National Electoral Commission (1) The National Assembly shall, where it is satisfied that a request so received has complied with section 8(1) (a) of the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999, direct the Independent National Electoral Commission by resolution to conduct a referendum of the area (where the demand for the creation of the new State originated) with respect to the said proposal. 143

[Cap. C23.] (2) The proposal shall, within thirty days after it has been accepted by resolution of both Houses of the National Assembly, be published in the Gazette. (3) The Clerk to the National Assembly shall communicate the directives of the National Assembly within thirty days to the Independent National Electoral Commission as prescribed in Form 1 and the manner prescribed in the Schedule to this Act. Revenue Allocation Formulae: The Allocation of Revenue (Federation Account, etc.) Act is an Act to prescribe the basis for distribution of revenue accruing to the Federation Account between the Federal and State Governments and the Local Government Councils in the States; the formula for distribution amongst the States inter se; the proportion of the total revenue of each State to be contributed to the State Joint Local Government Account; and for other purposes connected therewith 1982 No.1 Commencement 22nd January, 1982. Part of the Act reads:

1. Distribution of the Federation Accounts, etc: The amount standing to the credit of the Federation Account, less the sum equivalent to 13 percent of the revenue accruing to the Federation Account directly from any natural resources as a first line charge for distribution to the beneficiaries of the derivation funds in accordance with the Constitution shall, be distributed among the Federal and State Governments and the Local Government Councils in each State of the Federation on the following basis, that is to say-

A the Federal Government 56.00 per cent B the State Governments 24.00 per cent C the Local Government Councils 20.00 per cent [1992 No.106.S.I.9 of 2002.]

2. Formula for distribution between the Federal and State Governments (1) The 56.00 percent specified in section 1 (a) of this Act shall be allocated to the Federal Government and utilized as follows- A Federal Government 48.50 per cent B General Ecological Problems 2.00 per cent C Federal Capital Territory 1.00 per cent D Development of Natural Resources 3.00 per cent

[1992 No.106.S.I. 9 of 2002.]

(2) The 24.00 percent standing to the credit of all the States in the Federation Account as specified in section 1 (b) of this Act shall be distributed among the States of the Federation using the factors specified in this Act.

[S.1. 9 of 2002.]

(3) For the purpose of subsection-

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(a) Land mass of a State or local government shall be the proportional areal size (PAS) of the State or the local government to the total areal size of Nigeria, and shall be obtained as follows- (i) for each State - (PAS) = Areal size of State x 100 Total areal size of Nigeria (ii) for each Local Government- (PAS) = Areal size of Local Government Area x 100 Total areal size of Nigeria (b) The allocation due to terrain is made on the basis of the proportional areal size of the three identified major terrain types present in the State or Local Government area respectively, which are- (i) wetlands / water bodies; (ii) plains; and (iii) highlands;

(c) (i) education as a parameter for allocation to Social Development Factor (SDF) shall be measured in terms of primary school enrolment which attracts 60 percent of the allocation to education while the remaining 40 percent is made using secondary/commercial school enrolment; and allocation on the basis of primary school enrolment is made solely on direct proportion. 50 percent of the allocation on the basis of secondary/commercial school enrolment is made in direct proportion while the remaining 50 percent is made in inverse proportion. School enrolment refers to public funded schools only;

(ii) health as a parameter for allocation to social development factor shall be measured in terms of the number of State/Local Government hospital beds there are and 50 percent of the allocation to health shall be made in direct proportion to the number of the State hospital beds, while the remaining 50 percent shall be made in inverse proportion;

(iii) water as a parameter for allocation to social development factor shall be represented by mean annual rainfall in the State headquarters and territorial spread of State: 50 percent of the allocation to water shall be made in direct proportion to the State's territorial spread, while the remaining 50 percent shall be made in inverse proportion to the mean annual rainfall in each State headquarters, using the most current live year figures, the same year for all the States.

(4) For the avoidance of doubt, a sum equivalent to the difference between the amounts standing to the credit of the Federation Account in any one year, less the aggregate of the sums specified in section 1 of this Act shall revert to the Federation Account to be allocated and distributed in accordance with the provisions of this Act.

3. Formula for distribution between Local Government Councils Subject to the provisions of this Act, the amount standing to the credit of Local Government Councils in the Federation Account shall be distributed among the States of the Federation for the benefit of their Local Government Councils using the same factors specified in this Act. In this Act, unless the context otherwise requires-

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"Constitution" means the Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria 1999; "Federation Account" means the Federation Account established under section 162 (1) of the Constitution.

Theoretical Perspectives This paper is anchored on the theory of national and social integration, which came to be in vogue among historically-oriented political scientists in the 1950s and 1960s. The proponents include Karl Wolfgang Deutsch (21 July 1912 – 1 November 1992), a social and political scientist from Prague; American sociologist, political scientist, and historian, Charles Tilly (May 27, 1929 – April 29, 2008) and German American sociologist, Reinhard Bendix (February 25, 1916 – February 28, 1991).

The National Integration theory describes the process of national integration that led to the establishment of the modern nation-states as distinct from various forms of traditional states such as feudal states, dynastic states, church states, empires, etc. According to Friedrich (1963):

“National integration is an architectural metaphor which strictly speaking implies the existence of consciously acting agents such as architects, engineers, carpenters and the like. However, as used by political scientists, the term covers not only conscious strategies initiated by state leaders but also unplanned societal changes that would ultimately ensure national integration.”

Anthony D. Smith (1986) opines that national integration has four analytical aspects as follows:

1. The phase that results in economic and cultural unification at the elite level.

2. The phase that brought larger sections of the masses into the system through conscription into the army and enrolment in compulsory schools. The burgeoning mass media created channels for direct contact between the central elites and peripheral populations, generated widespread feelings of identity with the political system at large.

3. The phase that brought people to active participation in the political system.

4. The administration apparatus of the state expanded public welfare services where established and nationwide policies for the equalization of economic conditions were designed.

In the Nigerian state, these processes had commenced before its contact with western civilization but it is impossible to indicate the point at which it took her national integration as a modern state.

Recommendation and Conclusion This paper recommends as follows: 1. Entrenching and sustaining democracy in Nigeria: The best way to entrench and sustain democracy in Nigeria is to ensure national integration built on equity and justice. It is difficult to pursue a democratic reform without arresting internal unrest. 146

2. Constitutional review: The 1999 Constitution has failed to address the structural imbalance of the federation, and the inception of Civil Rule in both the governments of former President Obasanjo and late Yar’Adua resisted calls for a Sovereign National Conference. None of them made any commitment to the recommendations of the Presidential Committee on the Review of the 1999 Constitution, which called for decentralization and protection of minority rights.

3. Government’s commitment towards eradication of corruption: The march to national integration in Nigeria came in tandem with poor accountability in governance, poor state of the economy, transparency and electoral fraud.

Finally, national integration can be designed by national institutions that are prone to equal representations of various ethnic groups and as well promote a culture that inculcates tolerance and inclusion. Nigeria needs a transparent mechanism for power transfer in a more decentralized federation.

References Babawale, T. and Olasupo, B. (eds) (2000), Devolution of Powers in a Federal State. Frederick Elbert Foundation Diamond, D, (1988), Class, Ethnicity and Democracy in Nigeria: The Failure of the First Republic. New York: Syracuse University Press

Dudley, B, (1998), Introduction to Nigerian Government and Politics. Ibadan-Nigeria: Macmillan Ekekwe, E, (1986), Class and State in Nigeria.Lagos: Longman

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1999), Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria. Abuja: Federal Government Press

Federal Republic of Nigeria, (1999), Report of the Presidential Committee on the Review of the 1999 Constitution, Volume 1, February, 2001

Iweriebor, E, (1990), “Nigerian National Integration since Independence.”Nigerian Journal of Policy and Strategy.Volume 5, Numbers 1&2. JACON

Joseph, R, (1991), Democracy and Prebendal Politics in Nigeria: The Rise and Fall of the Second Republic. Ibadan: Spectrum Books Limited.

Kukah, M. H, (2000), “Religion and the Democratic Impulse: Hopes and Impediments.” Paper presented at the Annual Catholic Institute of West Africa (CIWA) Thomas Aquinas Lecture

lawnigeria.com/.../CREATION-OF-STATES-AND-BOUNDARY-ADJUSTMENTS-%...

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Maier, K, (2000), This House Has Fallen: Nigeria in Crisis. NY: Penguin Books Mamdan, M, (1996), Citizen and Subject: Contemporary Africa and the Legacy of Late Colonialism. Princeton: Princeton University Press Nnoli, O, (2000), Ethnic Pluralism, Ethnicity and Ethnic Conflicts in Nigeria. Ibadan, Nigeria: Shaneson C. I. Ltd

Ogunbanjo, M. and Aina, D. (2001), “Issues in the 1999 Constitution of the Federal Republic of Nigeria” in Recall, Number 2 Oyovbaire, E, (1984), Federalism in Nigeria: A Study in the Development of the Nigerian State. New York: St. Martin’s Press. Shively, W. P, (2003), Power and Choice: An Introduction to Political Science. 8th Edition. New York: McGraw-Hill Higher Education. Smith, A. D, (1986), The Ethnic Origins of Nations. Oxford: Blackwell

Suberu, R. T, (1999), Public Policy and National Unity in Nigeria.Ibadan: Development Policy Centre.

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Strategies Required for Enhancing Students’ Skill Acquisition for Sustainable Development in Technical Colleges in Rivers State.

Obed.O.O1. and ENYICHE C. E.2 Faculty of Technical and Science Education, River State University, Port-Harcourt, Nigeria.

Faculty of Vocational and Technical Education.Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Port-Harcourt Rivers State.

Abstract The study investigated the strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Three research questions and hypotheses guided the study. This study adopted a survey research design. The study was carried out in Rivers State. The population for the study was 96 respondents, comprising 71 technical college teachers and 25 instructors in technical colleges in Rivers State. There was no sampling since the entire population was of manageable size. This indicates that the entire population was used for the study. A structured questionnaire instrument was used to collect data for this study titled ‘Students’ Skill Acquisition Questionnaire (SSAQ)’. The instrument was structured on four point response options of Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent (HE), Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent (VLE) with values of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively for each one. The instrument was face-validated by three experts. 30 copies of the questionnaires were administered on technical institutions in Imo state, hence this did not form the part of the main population of the project. On the return of the instrument, crunback alpha was used to determine the reliability of the instrument with the aid of SPSS. This gave a reliability coefficient of 0.78. The finding of the study revealed that to a high extent school-industry partnership as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. The finding of the study also revealed that to a high extent Work-Based Learning Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Based on the above findings, the following recommendations were made: Educational institutions offering technical education programmes and stakeholder should include workplace skills and attributes required in the 21st century workplace in technical education curriculum and Educational institutions should form a strong working partnership with employers, organizations and industries to ease the transmission of workplace skills.

Keyword: Strategies, Sustainable Development, Technical Colleges

Introduction TVET refers as those aspects of the educational process involving, in addition to general education, the study of technologies and related sciences and the acquisition of practical skills, attitudes, knowledge and understanding related to occupations in various sectors of the economic and social life. According to Okoye and Okwelle (2013) TVET is the form of education that emphasizes pragmatic attitude as a priority and advocates the development of the head (knowledge), training of hand (dexterity) and enrichment of the heart (consciousness and painstaking). The authors posited that TVET emphasizes the 3Hs (head, hand and heart) as a total deviation to the form of education that emphasizes the 3Rs (reading, writing and arithmetic) which serves as a credential for entry into elite status with the graduates roaming the streets in search of non-existing white collar jobs. Okoye and Okwelle (2013) further defined TVET as a diversified form of education that focuses on suitable manpower production relevant to the needs of the industry, society and the changing technological work environment.

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Citing UNESCO, Maigida (2014) defined TVET as the form of education and training designed to inculcate practical skills, knowledge and understanding necessary for employment in particular occupations or trades. In the context of this study, TVET is an integration of the vocational and technical education programmes covering agricultural education, business education, home economics education and technical education offered in Universities and Colleges of Education in Nigeria for the preparation of individuals that will take up teaching in the field at the secondary and tertiary levels of the education system, be employed in the industry or become entrepreneurs. The programmes are generally located in the faculty or school of education and can be housed in the department of vocational education, vocational technical education or technology and vocational education in the two levels of tertiary institutions. Generally, the programmes focus on impartation of knowledge, development of relevant practical skills and attitudes needed by individuals to actively participate and contribute to the welfare of their communities at all times.

According to Maigaji and Bankole (2014), the 2001 UNESCO recommendations on TVET for sustainable development had the following three objectives: 1. To contribute to the achievement of the societal goals of greater democratization and social, cultural and economic development while at the same time developing the potential of all individuals both men and women for active participation in the establishment and implementation of the goals regardless of religion, race and age; 2. To lead to an understanding of the scientific and technological aspects of the contemporary civilization in such a way that people comprehend their environment and are capable of acting upon it while taking a critical view of 3. The social, political and environmental implications of scientific and technological change and 4. To empower people to contribute to environmentally sound sustainable development through their occupations and other areas of life. In line with the above, the Federal Government of Nigeria (FRN, 2013) outlined the objectives of TVET in the country as: 1. To acquire technical and vocational skills 2. To expose recipients to career awareness by exploring useable options in the world of work. 3. To enable youths develop intelligent understanding of the complexity of technology 4. To stimulate creativity

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However, these objectives can be achieved throughWork-Based Learning Strategies, Workplace Skills Strategies and school-industry partnership as a strategy. Ojimba (2013) emphasized the need for school and industry to partner in science education to reform the programme and help students acquire skills and suitable work habits for the 21st Century. Maigida (2014) used the term public private partnership as a relationship formed between the public and private sectors to introduce private sector resources and expertise to deliver public services. In the context of this study, school-industry partnership is a mutually beneficial relationship between TVET institutions and relevant industries where the students will serve on graduation. Maigida affirmed that this relationship is the only means to make TVET meaningful and successful in Nigeria because the government cannot bear the high cost of providing equipment and infrastructure for TVET programmes and industry involvement will greatly enhance government provision. Furthermore, Maigida asserted that a well articulated partnership strategy covering curriculum development/reviews, student industrial attachment, training and retraining of lecturers and replication of equipment used in industries in training institutions will solve the problems that are negating the success of TVET in Nigeria and transform the programmes for the 21st Century. Amu and Offei-Ansah (2011) highlighted the need for vocational and technical education (VOTEC) department of the University of Cape Coast to link students to industries as a requirement for the curricula to prepare students to adequately fit into the world of work. Muchemi et al. (2013) observed that teaching staff industrial attachment was a novel idea in Kenya which helped relate teaching and learning processes to the latest development in technology and systems as well as improve staff and students’ competence among others. Supporting, Triki (2013) affirmed that TVET partnership with industry is essential for curriculum development, access to modern equipment, more effective supervision of programme implementation, improved skills acquisition by students and enhanced competency of staff and leads to Work-Based Learning.

Work Based Learning is defined as an institutional arrangement in which learners are concurrently exposed to both work and learning environments (scorecardforskills.com2011). WBL literally is an attempt to expand the walls of classroom to include the community as a learning resource. It therefore, extends the frontiers of the classroom to the work-world (National centre on secondary education and training (NCSET, 2011). WBL affords learners ample opportunities to learn a variety of skills that guarantee synergistic relationship between the school and the world-of-work. It is an attempt to narrow the gap existing between theory and practice thereby, making meaningful learning possible. Okon (2011) defines WBL as

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experiential learning programmes that use the work environment as an important component of the curriculum. Through WBL, structured learning experiences are provided to the learners through the collaborative efforts of employers of labour and the school. This arrangement avails learners opportunities to acquire a variety of skills upon exposure to rigorous academic engagements simultaneously with hands-on career development experiences.

WBL forges a formidable link between classroom instruction, the world of work and failure career opportunities, as neither school-based learning nor involvement of a learner in professional work alone (i.e. apprenticeship) guarantees the occurrence of appropriate learning to the extent of satisfying the qualification requirements of the work-world (Jarrad & Jefsioutine, 2006). As reported by Schrenko (2011), what could be taken as curriculum standard is a recommendation by the University of the State of Georgia, United States of America that ‘a work-based learning programme must include work experience opportunities, job training and work experiences coordinated with both academic and occupational learning in school-based programmes that are relevant to students’ programme of study. In this regard, instruction and activities in academic and occupational work-place competencies, positive work attitudes, employable practical skills, instructions in all aspects of industry -business decision, planning, management, financing, labour matters, community issues as well as health, safety and environment must be given a place of prominence (Institute of Community Integration (ICI, 2011).

Suffice to state that WBL offers students the critical opportunity for experience how a classroom instruction connects to the work-world and future career prospects as well as job opportunities. In specific terms WBL makes it possible for active collaborative participation of students, educators, employers, parents and appropriate agencies and community representations; development of learning and work-place competencies, motivation of students to stay in school, improvement of students’ performance, improvement of graduate employability, increased awareness of non-traditional career opportunities as well as students ability to identify career pathways (Elom, 2006).

Although WBL programmes are presented in a variety of ways, they aim at the common goal of providing learners with experiential exposure is the work-world as to guaranteeing eventual smooth transition to the world-of-work upon graduation. Some of the WBL programmes relevant to TVET include industrial training, field trips, excursion, job shadowing, school-based enterprises and school entrepreneurial ventures, internship/practicum, clinical work experiences,

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cooperative work experiences, youth apprenticeship career fours guest and career days (Schrenko, 2010).

Notably, each of these WBL experiences has its own mode of operation in that respect therefore,allowance for work-based experience may be for hours, days or weeks as the case may be. In whatever form WBL is provided to the learners, it needs to be emphasized that such learning experiences must follow a progressive path that can be initiated at early schooling and continue through secondary to post-secondary levels. WBL programmes vary in the way they are structured and operated as well as in their intensity and duration, and for the purpose of their study, a brief explanation of each programnme would be presented as follows: Field trips are generally exploratory strategy that offers career awareness to learners at their very formative stage. Specifically, planned field trips to industries and the business avail the students enough opportunities to explore different work places (Amu & Offei-Ansah, 2011).

Career exploration is a component of WBL that exposes learners to a variety of work settings to assist them in making decisions about future career directions and occupations. It involves examination of interests, values, beliefs and strengths in relation to the demands and other characteristics of work environment (Schrenko, 2011). Cooperative work experience programme consists of an arrangement between the school and employers that make use of work-place and its environment to create links between learning in school and skills required in the work place (Bernstein, 2005).

Youth Apprenticeship Programme (YAP) is a school-to-work initiative designed to afford learners the opportunity to be simultaneously engaged in both school-based and work-based exposures. And while the school-based is a highly structured curriculum integrating both academic and occupational experiences, the work-place component offers the learners paid on- the-job intensive training experiences that are relevant to the curriculum offering. This feature conforms to the theory of vocational education which states that “effective learning and skill acquisition in vocational education is only possible if training takes place in the work-place or its replica (Amadi, Orikpe & Osinem, 2007).

Internship, also known as practicum is a one-time, short-term placement of learners in a students’programme of study. It is designed to ensure intensive observation of how the intern performs tasks on specific job areas (Schrenko, 2011). School-based Entrepreneurial Ventures are designed to encourage students to produce goods and services as part of their educational programme of study, thereby assisting learners to develop competencies requisite to ownership

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and management of business outfits. Under this structure, students plan, implement programmes, conduct feasibility studies, evaluate business operations including marketing services. Job shadowing implies a student keenly observing and modeling one employee or worker as a workplace for one or more days to learn a particular occupation or industry. This enables learners to refine their career objectives, select a career focus area for the latter part of high school and participate in a more advanced level of Work Based Learning and improve workplace skills (Johnson, Sword & Habbeger, 2008).

Workplace skills are those basic skills necessary for getting, keeping, and doing well on a job. Workplace skills are foundation skills that apply across the board, no matter what the specific job may be. These are skills given utmost importance in job interviews and in the world of work, and are required not only to gain employment, but also to progress within an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potentials and contribute successfully to enterprise strategic directions. They are also sometimes referred to as generic, employability or soft skills, capabilities or key competencies (Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry & Business Council of Australia 2002). Workplace skills include thinking skills such as logical and analytical reasoning, problem solving and intellectual curiosity; effective communication skills, teamwork skills and capability to identify, access and manage knowledge and information, personal attributes such as imagination, creativity and intellectual rigour and values such as ethical practice, persistence, integrity and tolerance (Hager, Holland & Beckett 2002). Workplace skills are important because jobs today require flexibility, initiative and the ability to undertake many different tasks. They are not as narrowly prescribed and defined as in the past and generally they are more service oriented, making information and social skills increasingly important (Australian Chamber of Commerce and Industry and Business Council of Australia, 2002).

Workplace skills are generally divided into three skill sets: basic academic skills; higher-order thinking skills; and personal qualities (Ottawa: The Conference Board of Canada, 2000). According to Confederation of British Industry (1998), workplace skills are those relevant to a person’s learning, career and to personal life, with a strong emphasis on their application to employability. They are: communication, numeracy or the application of numbers; use of information technology; adaptability; career management; commitment to lifelong learning. Employability skills necessary for getting, keeping, and doing well on a job include: reading, writing, science, mathematics, oral communication, listening, learning, reasoning, thinking creatively, decision making, problem solving, responsible, self confidence, self control, social skills, honest, have integrity, adaptable and flexible, team spirit, punctual and efficient, self 154

directed, good work attitude, well groomed, cooperative, self motivated, and self management. According to The Conference Board of Canada (2000), Employability Skills includes: i. fundamental skills (communicate, manage information, use numbers, think/solve problems); ii. personal management skills (demonstrate positive attitudes and behaviours, be responsible, be adaptable, learn continuously, work safely); iii. teamwork skills (work with others, participate in projects and tasks); and iv. an orientation to values and attitudes with references to self-esteem, integrity, responsibility.

O‟Neil, Allred & Baker (1997) asserted that the common elements are of generic skills: basic/foundation skills (literacy, numeracy, communication); higher order thinking skills (adapting to change, problem-solving, creativity, decision-making, learning how to learn); interpersonal and team skills (communication, co-operation, negotiation/conflict resolution, leadership, and dealing with diversity); and personal characteristics and attitudes (including politeness, perseverance, goal-setting, positive self-worth). Saravanan (2009) classified soft skills into communicative skills; critical thinking and problem Solving skills; team work; long learning and information management skills; entrepreneurship skills; ethics, moral and professional; and leadership skills (Saravanan, 2009). The following are sub-skills of each workplace skill: Communication Skills: Has to do with the ability to: deliver ideas clearly, effectively and with confidence either orally or in writing; practice active listening skills and response; and present clearly and confidently to the audience. Critical Thinking: The sub-skills under this category are: ability to identify and analyze problems in difficult situation and make justifiable evaluation; ability to expand and improve thinking skills such as explanation, analysis and evaluate discussion; ability to find ideas and look for alternative solutions; and ability to build a good rapport, interact and work effectively with others. Teamwork: This is a workplace skill which is indispensable for technical education graduates who would like to work in industries. The sub-skills of Teamwork are: ability to understand and play the role of a leader and follower alternatively; and ability to recognize and respect others attitude, behaviour and beliefs. Teamwork involves working confidently within a group, contributing your own ideas effectively, taking a share of the responsibility, being assertive - rather than passive or aggressive, accepting and learning from constructive criticism and giving

positive, constructive feedback to others. Statement of the Problem 155

To enhance productivity, stimulate competitiveness, and bring about economic growth, skill development is the ultimate goal of technical vocational education and training. However, the current TVET institutions lack Work-Based Learning Strategies which has the critical opportunity to connects to the work-world and future career prospects as well as job opportunities. Ugochukwu (2013) stated that work based learning makes it possible for active collaborative participation of students, educators, employers, parents and appropriate agencies and community representations; development of learning and work-place competencies, motivation of students to stay in school, improvement of students’ performance, improvement of graduate employability, increased awareness of non-traditional career opportunities as well as students ability to identify career pathways. Further-more TVET institutions have little or no room for School-industry partnership. Ojimba (2013) emphasized the need for school and industry to partner in science education to reform the programme and help students acquire skills and suitable work habits for the 21st Century. Consequently, there is a general concern as Nigeria is not reaping the gains of TVET like other countries of the world and that the graduates are not fit into the workplace of the 21st Century. The above gave rise to assess the Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Purpose of the Study The general purpose of the study is to assess the Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Specifically, the study explored the following: 1. School-industry partnership as a strategy required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. 2. Work-Based Learning Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. 3. Workplace Skills Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Research Questions Three research questions were formulated to guide the study 1. To what extent would school-industry partnership as a strategy enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State?

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2. To what extent would Work-Based Learning Strategies enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State? 3. To what extent would Workplace Skills Strategies enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State?

Hypotheses

Three hypotheses were formulated to guide the study and were tested at 0.05% level of significance.

HO3 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which Workplace Skills Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Materials and Methods Design of the Study This study adopted a survey research design. According to Gall, Gall and Borg (2007), a survey research is a method of data collection in which questionnaire or interview is utilized in collecting data from a sample that has been selected to represent a population to which the findings of the data analysis can be generalized. The survey research design was considered suitable because the study elicited data/information on Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Area of the Study The study was carried out in Rivers State. Rivers State is one of the States in South-South Geopolitical Zone. Rivers State has boundary with Abia, Akwa-Ibom, Delta and Imo States. The State has 23 local government areas with eight ethnic groups. The state has more technical and oil servicing industries that can make use of these technical colleges. The technical colleges

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in the state have instructors and teachers who formed the population used in the research. There are only four technical colleges in the state. The study was conducted in the four technical colleges in the State. The Technical Colleges are Government Technical College Ahoada, Government Technical College Port-Harcourt, Government Technical College Tombia and Government Technical College (GTC) Eli-Ogu in Ogu/Bolo Local Government Area. Population of Study The population for the study was 96 respondents, comprising 71 technical college teachers and 25 instructors in technical colleges in Rivers State (Source: Field Survey, 2017). Sample and Sampling Techniques There was no sampling since the entire population was of manageable size. This indicates that the entire population was used for the study. Instrument for Data Collection A structured questionnaire instrument was used to collect data for this study titled ‘Students’ Skill Acquisition Questionnaire (SSAQ)’. The instrument contains four sections A-D. Section A elicited information on personal data of the respondents. Section B elicited data on School- industry partnership as a strategy required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Section C sought for information onWork-Based Learning Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State and Section D elicited data on Workplace Skills Strategies required for enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. The instrument is structured on four point response options of Very High Extent (VHE), High Extent (HE), Low Extent (LE) and Very Low Extent (VLE) with values of 4, 3, 2, and 1 respectively for each one. Validation of the Instrument The instrument was face-validated by three experts. Two from the Department of Industrial Technology Education, Rivers State University and the last expert is from Mechanical Department, Technical College Ahoada. The validates were requested to read through the questionnaire items in terms of clarity and appropriateness based on the research questions for the study under investigation. The expert’s comment and suggestions were utilized in the final draft of the instrument. Reliability of the Instrument To establish the reliability of the instrument, test re-test method was adopted, 30 copies of the questionnaires were administered on technical institutions in Imo state, hence this did not form

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the part of the main population of the project. On the return of the instrument, crunback alpha was used to determine the reliability of the instrument with the aid of SPSS. This gave a reliability coefficient of 0.78. Method of Data Collection The researcher administered the questionnaire personally together with the help of two research assistants. The researcher informed the research assistants on the procedures required in administering the questionnaire. The completed copies of the questionnaire was retrieved by the researcher and the two research assistants within a two days to help maximize the return rate of the questionnaire for data analysis. Method of Data Analysis Data collected from the respondents were analyzed on four point rating scale using mean and standard deviation to answer the research questions. t-test was used to test the null hypotheses at 0.05 probability level of significance. Decision Rule for the research questions was taken as follows: Lower Limit Upper Limit Very High Extent (VHE) 3.50 4.00 High Extent (HE) 2.50 3.49 Low Extent (LE) 1.50 2.49 Very Low Extent (VLE) 0.50 1.49 Decision rule for the hypotheses was taken as follows: if the calculated value is greater or equal to the table value, the null hypothesis was rejected. On the other hand if the calculated value is less than the table value, the null hypothesis was accepted. Results

Research question 1: To what extent would school-industry partnership as a strategy enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State? Table 1: Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers and Instructors on the extent school- industry partnership as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development.

Teachers Instructors S/NO ITEMS X SD REK X SD RMK 1 Acquisition of modern skills 3.68 0.56 HE 3.21 0.79 HE 2 Production of qualified and competent HE HE TVET graduates 3.59 0.69 3.82 0.38 3 Patronage of TVET institutions by HE HE members of the society 3.26 0.78 3.39 0.79 4 TVET personnel will be innovative and HE HE technology driven 3.57 0.67 3.76 0.42 159

5 Manpower development 3.11 1.01 HE 3.00 0.83 HE 6 Sustainable development and wealth HE HE Generation 3.49 0.70 3.31 0.83 7 Improved knowledge, skills and HE HE attitudes of TVET personnel's 3.29 0.85 3.15 0.84 8 TVET graduates will possess HE HE employable and sellable skills 3.57 0.60 3.37 0.63 Grand Mean 3.44 0.73 HE 3.37 0.69 HE

Data in table 1 revealed that technical college teachers had a mean range of 3.11-3.68 and

standard deviation range of 0.56-1.01 while the instructors had a mean range of 3.00-3.82 and

standard deviation range of 0.38-0.83. The closeness of the standard deviation showed the

homogeneity of the respondents. This indicated that the respondents agreed to a high extent that

school-industry partnership as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for

sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Research Question 2: To what extent would Work-Based Learning Strategies enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State? Table 2: Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers and Instructors on the extent Work-Based Learning as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development.

Teachers Instructors S/NO ITEMS X SD REK X SD RMK 1 Exploring students to state-of-the-art HE HE practices and technology 3.48 0.76 3.42 0.78 2 Improving scholastic student workplace HE HE motivation 3.57 0.57 3.65 0.65 3 Helping students understand workplace HE HE expectations 3.31 0.71 3.29 0.83 4 Helping students make better decisions HE HE and plans 3.59 0.53 3.43 0.72 5 Allows students to observe the work HE HE world so as to develop workplace Skills 3.37 0.92 3.21 1.07 6 Allows students to learn work HE HE terminology, work environment and 3.53 0.61 3.86 0.40 business and industry protocol 7 Offering a source of skilled and HE HE motivated future employees 3.29 0.73 3.11 0.94 8 Provide opportunity for individualized HE HE instruction 3.63 0.66 3.43 0.60

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9 Keeping academic and occupational HE HE circular up-to-date through regular 3.15 0.90 3.34 0.72 integration between school and industry. 10 Ensures cooperation and understanding HE HE between education, barriers/industry and 3.57 0.70 3.45 0.75 community Grand Mean 3.45 0.71 HE 3.50 1.15 HE

Data in table 2 revealed that technical college teachers had a mean range of 3.15-3.63 and

standard deviation range of 0.53-0.92 while the instructors had a mean range of 3.11-3.65 and

standard deviation range of 0.40-1.07. The closeness of the standard deviation showed the

homogeneity of the respondents. This indicated that the respondents agreed to a high extent that

Work-Based Learning as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable

development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Research question 3: To what extent would Workplace Skills Strategies enhancing students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State? Table 3: Mean and Standard Deviation of Teachers and Instructors on the extent Workplace Skills as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development.

Teachers Instructors S/NO ITEMS X SD REK X SD RMK 1 Self-management 3.75 0.62 HE 3.71 0.57 HE 2 Planning 3.31 0.75 HE 3.23 0.53 HE 3 Organizing 3.55 0.54 HE 3.75 0.61 HE 4 Communication 3.75 1.03 HE 3.31 0.66 HE 5 Working with others 3.43 0.72 HE 3.76 0.70 HE 6 Problem-solving 3.26 0.76 HE 3.23 0.65 HE 7 Initiative and enterprising 3.59 0.60 HE 3.63 0.72 HE 8 Applying numeracy, design and HE HE technology Skills 3.24 0.86 2.94 0.40 9 Learning 2.95 0.87 HE 3.05 0.60 HE 10 Tolerance 3.25 0.91 HE 2.81 0.75 HE Grand Mean 3.34 0.77 HE 3.34 0.61 HE

Data in table 3 revealed that technical college teachers had a mean range of 2.95-3.75 and

standard deviation range of 0.54-1.03 while the instructors had a mean range of 2.81-3.76 and

standard deviation range of 0.40-0.75. The closeness of the standard deviation showed the 161

homogeneity of the respondents. This indicated that the respondents agreed to a high extent that

Workplace Skills as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable

development in technical colleges in Rivers State.

Hypotheses

HO1 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which school-industry partnership as a strategy wouldenhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Table 4: The t-test analysis of teachers and instructors on the extent in which school-industry partnership as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development.

Respondents N X SD P-value DF t-Cal t-Crit RMK

Teachers 71 3.44 0.73

0.05 94 -2.25 1.96 Sig

Instructors 25 3.37 0.69

Result in table 4 revealed that t-cal (-2.25) is higher than t-crit (1.96) which indicates

that the hypothesis stated was rejected. Therefore there is a significant difference in the mean

ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which school-industry

partnership as a strategy wouldenhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development

in technical colleges in Rivers State.

HO2 There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which Work-Based Learning Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. Table 5: The t-test analysis of teachers and instructors on the extent in whichWork-Based Learning as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development.

Respondents N X SD P-value DF t-Cal t-Crit RMK

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Teachers 71 3.45 0.71

0.05 94 -2.32 1.96 Sig

Instructors 25 3.50 1.15

Result in table 5 revealed that t-cal (-2.32) is higher than t-crit (1.96) which indicates

that the hypothesis stated was rejected. Therefore there is a significant difference in the mean

ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which Work-Based Learning

Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical

colleges in Rivers State.

Table 6: The t-test analysis of teachers and instructors on the extent in whichWorkplace Skills as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development. Respondents N X SD P-value DF t-Cal t-Crit RMK Teachers 71 3.34 0.77

0.05 94 -3.44 1.96 Sig

Instructors 25 3.34 0.61

Result in table 8 revealed that t-cal (-3.44) is higher than t-crit (1.96) which indicates

that the hypothesis stated was rejected. Therefore there is a significant difference in the mean

ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which Workplace Skills

Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical

colleges in Rivers State.

Discussion of Findings The finding of the study revealed that to a high extent school-industry partnership as a strategy would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which school-industry partnership as a strategy would enhance

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students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. This finding is agreement with Ojimba (2013) who emphasized the need for school and industry to partner in science education to reform the programme and help students acquire skills and suitable work habits for the 21st Century. The finding of the study also revealed that to a high extent Work-Based Learning Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which work-based learning Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. This is in line with (Jarrad & Jefsioutine, 2006) who stated that work-based learning forges a formidable link between classroom instruction, the world of work and failure career opportunities, as neither school-based learning nor involvement of a learner in professional work alone (i.e. apprenticeship) guarantees the occurrence of appropriate learning to the extent of satisfying thequalification requirements of the work-world. Finally, the study showed that to a high extent Workplace Skills Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. There is no significant difference in the mean ratings of technical college teachers and instructors the extent in which Workplace Skills Strategies would enhance students’ skill acquisition for sustainable development in technical colleges in Rivers State. This finding is in line with Oviawe and Adeola, (2017) Workplace skills are foundation skills that apply across the board, no matter what the specific job may be. These are skills given utmost importance in job interviews and in the world of work, and are required not only to gain employment, but also to progress within an enterprise so as to achieve one’s potentials and contribute successfully to enterprise strategic directions.

Conclusion Forming an effective synergy between the work-world and the school through work-based learning contacts can be improved upon by first reviewing the National Education Policy and curricula to embody the work base learning and school/industry partnership component. It is believed that this is the first successful step to be taken in improving the situation, and it has to take cognizance of the secondary level of education which is a critical stage in the career development of the child. Also despite the variations in the nomenclature of workplace skills, there is a wide-ranging understanding of the qualities, characteristics, skills and knowledge that represent employability in general and for school leavers in particular. Graduates are expected 164

to possess technical and academic skills and competencies; and also demonstrate a range of broader skills and attributes that include: communication, critical thinking, team working, problem-solving and managerial abilities among others required in the 21st century workplace.

Recommendation Based on the above findings, the following recommendations were made:

1. Educational institutions offering technical education programmes and stakeholder should include workplace skills and attributes required in the 21st century workplace in technical education curriculum 2. Educational institutions should form a strong working partnership with employers, organizations and industries to ease the transmission of workplace skills. 3. TVET curriculum should be restructured to accommodate work base learning Reference Aguba, C.R. (2012). Managing education in Nigeria through information and communication technology (ICT): Gains, threat and the way forward. Lead paper presented at the Association for encouraging quality education in Nigeria (ASSRQEN), held at Ebonyi State University, Abakiliki.

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Barnett, D. (2011). Partnering industry and education for curricular enhancement: A response for greater educational achievement.Online Journal of Workforce Education and development 5 (2).

Bernstein J (2005). The 21st Century workplace. Accessed from www..cp.org/…/webfeatures- viewpoints-21st century-manager-needs/ar/ on 12/2/2014.

Conference Board of Canada (2000).Employability skills 2000+.Conference Board of Canada.Retrieved 29th June, 2009 from http://www.conferenceboard.ca/nbec/pdf/esp2000.pdf.

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Ezenwafor JI, Okeke BC (2006).Strategies for training competent teachers for effective implementation of business education curriculum in Nigerian tertiary institutions.UNIZIK Orient J. Educ., 2(1): 228-234.

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Federal Republic of Nigeria (2013).National policy on education (5th Ed.) Lagos: NERDC Press.

Hager, P., Holland, S., & Beckett, D. (2002).Enhancing the learning and employability of graduates: The role of generic skills. The Business/Higher Education Round Table, Melbourne.

Jarred, R. & Jefsioutine, M. (2006).Reflection on Using Online Contact for Work-Based Learning and Teaching in Art and Design.Art, Design and Communication in Higher Education 5 (1).

Johnson, D, Sword, C. & Habhegger, B. (2004).Essential Tools: A Handbook for Implementing a Comprehensive Work- Based Learning Programme according to Fair Labour Standard Act 3rdEdition: The University of Minnesota. Mentoring Youth for Success downloaded from scorecardforkskills.com 21/10/2011.

Maclean R (2011). Key issues and research challenges for TVET: Bridging the gap between TVET research and the needs of the policy makers. NORRAG NEWS, Towards a new global world of skills development: TVET’s turn to make its mark, 46(9):125-127.

Maigaji JO, Bankole T (2014). TVET and local technologies for sustainable youth empowerment in Nigeria.Proceedings of the First International Conference of the Nigerian Association of Teachers of Technology. Ado Ekiti: Green Line Publishers.

Maigida JF (2014). Building and sustaining partnerships through public private partnership for effective TVET program in Nigeria. Paper presented at the International Vocational Education Association (IVETA) Conference held in Nashville, Tennessee, USA on 18th to 19th November.

Muchemi AK, Muthoni DM, Mutahi IW, Gunga SO, Origa JO (2013). The implications of collaborative industrial attachments for Kenya vision 2030 development programmes. Afri. J. Educ. Technol., 3(1): 57-67.

National Centre on Secondary Education and Training (NCSET) (2005): Work-Based Learning Programme. Downloaded from scorecardforkskills.com 21/10/2011.

Netherlands International Corporation in Higher Education (NICHE, 2010).Strategy on technical and vocational education and training (TVET). Netherlands:Nuffic.

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O‟Neil, H.F., Allred, K., & Baker, E. (1997).Review of workforce readiness theoretical frameworks. In: Workforce readiness: Competencies and assessments. O‟Neil, H.F. (ed.) New Jersey: Erblaum Associates.

Ojimba DP (2013). Enhancing school-industry partnership in science education: Implications for Nigerian secondary schools.European Sci. J., 9(13): 162-167.

Okon, U.E. (2011). Work-Based Learning initiatives. Paper presented at Step-B/World Bank- assisted TVET Teachers Upskilling workshop held at the University of Nigeria, Nsukka from 23rdOctober – 4th November, 2011.

Okoye KRE & Okwelle PC (2013). Technical and vocational and training (TVET) in Nigeria and energy development, marketing and national transformation. J. Educ. Pract., 4(14): 134-138.

Saravanan, V. (2009).Sustainable employability skills for engineering professionals. The Indian Review of World Literature in English 5 (II), 1 – 8.

Schrenko, L.C. (2010). Standards and Guidelines for Work-Based Learning Programmes in Georgia.State of Georgia Department of Education.

Triki NM (2013). Higher technical and vocational education and training programmes and its impacts on the Libyan manufacturing industry.Literacy Information and Computer Education Journal (LICEJ) 2(2): 1287-1293.

UNESCO (2002).Information and communication technology in teacher education. Retrieved on November 10, 2007, from http://www.unesdoc.ogr/images/0012/001295/129533epdf

UNESCO ILO (2002). Technical vocational education and training for the 21st Century: UNESCO and ILO recommendations. UNESCO-UNEVOC publications assessed from http://unescodoc.unesco.org/images/0012/001260/126050e.pdf on August 14, 2012.

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INFLUENCE OF ADMINISTRATIVE STYLES AND OFFICE STAFF PERFORMANCE IN PRIVATE COMPANIES IN RIVERS STATE

NWEKE, EMMANUEL Onyekachi. Department of Office Technology & Mgt Captain Elechi Amadi Polytechnic Rumuola, Port Harcourt Rivers State Phone: 08038783758 e-mail: [email protected]

Idornigie, Evelyn Office of the Registrar Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori

Evangel Onuoha Department of Educational Management Ignatius Ajuru University of Education Rumuolumeni Port Harcourt

Being Paper presented 15th Annual Int’l Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars, Ken Saro Wiwa Polytechnic Bori. 8th to 10th Aug. 2018

Abstract This work looked into administrative style in office environment and office staff performance in organizations in private companies in Rivers State. Administrative and leadership have been used interchangeably in this work. The work identified various leadership styles and application modus operandi in the literature review adopting the pros and cons approach for each style. The work studied a sample population of 50 in a population of 100 of the Ecobank branches in Rumuola, GRA Junction and Nnamdi Azikiwe Road branches in Port Harcourt, Rivers State, Nigeria. Three Research Questions and three Research Hypotheses were posed. The Research Hypothesis were tested using SPSS version 20 to test the returned/administered questionnaires. The findings showed that staff do not fair optimally when leaders display harsh leadership styles. The study also found that staff do not bother about any style of leadership provided their interest is considered in which case productivity is not negatively affected. It was also found that staff would prefer their managers pay attention to how they the staff react to their leadership styles especially if it does not capture their human-worker needs. Based on the findings the study recommended that managers should pay attention to the human needs of the staff as much as they want them to achieve organizational set goals. That humans are the principal assets and resources of the organization that must handle and implement the policy resource. Conclusion was drawn on the fact that no leadership style may be the best but situations and contingencies should determine the type leadership style to adopt in the office environment with aim of satisfying the workers and the orgnanizations objectives.

Keywords: leader, organisation, management, leadership style, office. Introduction This work centres on influence of administrative styles on office staff performance. Leadership style is the manner and approach of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. As seen by the employees, it includes the total pattern of explicit and implicit actions performed by their leader Newstrom (1993). Leadership styles in organizational management 168

are oriental management theories in organisational management. Apart from Laissez-faire leadership style, autocratic, bureaucratic, and democratic leadership styles have roots in ancient Greek terminology and ideals of rulership. Laissez-faire is drastically different because it is a French ideal that originated not as a form of management, but as a counter action to French rulers during the 18th century. Leadership according to Moorhead & Giffin (1995) defined leadership as both process and property. As a process, it is non-coercive influence directed at coordinating the activities of group members toward goal achievement. As a product influence others towards achieving goals of group. Leadership is interpersonal influence towards the attainment of specific goals in specific situation. From the foregoing, though not totally sacrosanct shows that leadership is a social influence existing in a group process and it aimed at the achievement of the group’s objective. Organizational management is the entity or structure that provides leadership. There are many theories regarding the best leadership styles in the workplace but this paper shall concentrate on classical approaches with basic reference to school administration. Much like parenting, no particular leadership style is better or worse than another. In truth, the type of leadership style that fits best for a company or organization is dependent on the culture of the organization, the manner in which employees and leaders interact, and the type of business the organization functions within. Different leadership styles exist because people by nature are wondrously diverse in their traits, characteristics, and communication abilities. It is therefore important for a leader to understand when a particular leadership style must be exhibited---or avoided (Kreitner (1986). A leadership style is the leader strategy that a person exhibits through verbal and non verbal communication. This includes a team-oriented or individual employee approach. Each leadership style is also an outlet for a particular leader’s personal characteristics. Type-A personalities are likely to be more autocratic or bureaucratic in their leadership style, while a type-B personality may be more democratic or laissez-faire in approach. Most leaders will exhibit several of the standard characteristics of any combination of leadership styles. This is normal, as few people are an extreme of one leadership style or another (Tailor, 2010). A leadership style is a leader's style of providing direction, implementing plans, and motivating people. Various authors have proposed identifying many different leadership styles as exhibited by leaders in the political, business or other fields. Studies on leadership style are conducted in the military field, expressing an approach that stresses a holistic view of leadership, including how a leader's physical presence determines how others perceive that leader. The factors of

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physical presence in this context include military bearing, physical fitness, confidence, and resilience. The leader's intellectual capacity helps to conceptualize solutions and to acquire knowledge to do the job.A leader's conceptual abilities apply agility, judgment, innovation, interpersonal tact, and domain knowledge. Domain knowledge encompasses tactical and technical knowledge as well as cultural and geopolitical awareness. Daniel Goleman (2000) in his article "Leadership that Gets Results" talks about six styles of leadership.This style involves the leader including one or more employees in the decision making process (determining what to do and how to do it). However, the leader maintains the final decision making authority. Using this style is not a sign of weakness, rather it is a sign of strength that your employees will respect.

This is normally used when you have part of the information, and your employees have other parts. A leader is not expected to know everything—this is why you employ knowledgeable and skilled people. Using this style is of mutual benefit as it allows them to become part of the team and allows you to make better decisions. Even if you have all the answers, gaining different perspectives and diversity of opinions normally provide greater creativity than insularity. Phillips (2000) asserts that people think about diversity and its effects in organizations during this tough economic time recognize that the most robust practical value of diversity is that it challenges everyone in an organization. We are more thoughtful, and we recognize and utilize more of the information that we have at our disposal, when diversity is present. That is diversity’s true value.

Literature Review Theoretical framework of Leadership Style The relationship between the leaders and the followers is one of the several forms of interpersonal relationship which is formed to satisfy some of the defined needs of the leaders and the followers belonging to the same social system. Thus, the behaviour of one person is generally influenced by the behaviour of the other, on the other hand, while the behaviour of both is determined by the nature and structure of social system in which they interact. It can be said that leadership is the function of double situational phenomenon: (1) his personality traits, (2) his manner of communication with the followers as the satisfier of their needs and goals. The leader-follower relationship varies along an authoritarian and democratic continuum and either goes to one pole or maintain an equalitarian, between two.1 While dominance or authority is the influence of somebody whose position in a hierarchy, or whose structural and 170

strategic superiority over others, has neither been freely chosen nor voluntarily accepted by those he influenced, but who nevertheless wields a degree of compulsion on them. The means of exercising influence in this instance are formal or structural, i.e., the authority, power, status and office of the influencer, and the involuntary dependence of the influenced.

The need for leadership in the human society has been felt in all stages of human history and in all epochs of development of human civilization. Of course, the modus oprandi of recruitment of leaders, the basics of their legitimacy and their style of articulating and aggregating people’s interests have varied from time to time. However, the subject of leadership has been studied extensively by psychologists, social anthropologists, sociologists, political scientists and social workers. Some have tried to understand leadership through “a process of natural stimulation” of leader-follower behaviour as a result of social interaction. Some have understood it through individual’s characteristics, bases of authority and power. It is an eternal and universal phenomenon.4 But it is true that a leader always has the authority and power of decision making which at times is held up when the community comes under the influence of outside world or when there is an irregular contact. It is based on relations between an individual and a group which is built around some common interest and which behaves in a manner directed or determined by him. The development of leadership depends on studying situations and on acquiring skills in controlling them. In order to claim leadership, a person has to analyze situations and develop appropriate techniques of controlling them. Leadership grows out of personal achievement recognition of it by the group. The idea that leaders are born and not made is slowly disappearing in Indian politics. For centuries, leadership was in monopoly of aristocracy. Oyet (2017) sees the “term” leader as been used to designate many different positions and functions. It is used to indicate a position in an organisation or an individual who has been designated as leader by voluntary action of the group. When conceived in terms of the dynamics of human social behaviour, leadership is a function of needs existing in a given situation, and consists of a relationship between an individual and a group. The functional relationship which is leadership exists when a leader is perceived by a group as controlling means for the satisfaction of their needs. The Concept of Leadership Style This work attempted to outline various leadership styles adoptable by any leader ranging from classical leadership styles, behavioural, paternalistic to modern trend of leadership style such as the transformational and transactional leadership styles.

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The following have been identified as classical leadership styles in organizational management: The approaches shall be examined in the pros (advantage) and cons (disadvantage) basis). The autocratic leadership style is the classical management approach. In this leadership style, the manager is power-retentive, decision-based, and authoritarian. The autocratic leader maintains the majority of power in any team (or individual) oriented organization. The term autocratic traditionally means ‘self-rule.’ An autocratic leadership style is developed from a power structure that is dependent on the hierarchy of management which allows the autocratic leader to accumulate a larger portion of organizational impact (Aamodt 2007). The autocratic leadership style allows for decisions to be based on the ability of the manager in a peerless environment. In this leadership style it is important to note that the manager does not ask for consultation or input from staff. Instead, the autocratic leader’s style is to delegate orders and requests. Often there is a specific and unbending structure of rewards and punishments. Rewards are often monetary in value rather than verbal or recognition-based. Punishments are often write-ups, warnings, demotion or dismissal without strong verbal communication. This is because the autocratic style demands staff obedience rather than staff input. Pros of Autocratic Leadership Style Bamgboye (2001) asserts that though the autocratic leadership style sounds harsh, but it is not entirely negative in the approach. This leadership style works best when the organization’s staff is new and untrained. New and untrained staff, especially in a newer organization, may not know which tasks to undertake or the time frame in which they must be completed. The autocratic leadership style is especially effective when detailed procedures, instructions, and policies are necessary for the job to be completed accurately. This is can also be seen in a situation where a school head considers to employ this approach on newly recruited teachers. Another benefit of the autocratic leadership style is seen when staff does not respond to alternative leadership styles. This includes times when the team or individual staff members challenge management power by showing up late or generally not respecting policies and procedures. For example, when the organizational culture is lacking in respect and coordination, it may be time to alter the leadership style to a more autocratic approach. The tight structure of the autocratic leadership style is not negative, in fact it may assist to keep employees on-task and following necessary policies. Cons of Autocratic Leadership Styles

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Autocratic leaders often rely on threats of punishment (write-ups, demotion, and dismissal) rather than reward and recognition. This leads to staff mistrust. Furthermore, the foundation of autocracy as being inherently self- ruling often removes or diminishes the ability of the staff to give valuable input, either out of fear or lack of opportunity Schaeffer (2005). Therefore, a type of stalemate in the organization may be reached—nothing new is created. A situation where a school head does not listen to his or her subordinates’ reasons for carrying out any action, say coming late to class. It could be a contingency of ill-health or baby being sick. This could lead to stalemate in the school or the teacher’s psyche or work (Nweke, 2017). Schaeffer (2005) in his work states that the biggest con of autocratic leadership style occurs when the staff reacts to the negative aspects of autocratic leadership. The staff may become fearful and tense around the manager, often exhibiting signs of resentment. In general people have a need to communicate in an open and safe manner. Autocratic leadership is marked with threats of punishment, and therefore employees are not heard. The one-way communication may also create a form of staff dependency. The staff may become overly needy and reliant solely on the manager’s capability to make decisions for them, rather than think creatively about a situation. Bureaucratic Leadership Style The bureaucratic leadership style is based on a political concept. In this leadership style, administrative procedures and policies are administered to the staff in a ‘by the book’ format. Unlike the hierarchy of autocratic leadership, the defining characteristics of bureaucratic rule are: division of administration; linear career paths; differential patterns of authority; the existence of patterns of information dissemination. The division of administration is the most noticeable characteristic of bureaucratic leadership style. In the extreme, each task and decision making process is defined and acted upon through administrative policy. This creates linear career paths. For example, a teacher or lecturer may begin at the base floor of the grade level and retire at the highest grade level. After a specific time line or activity, he is promoted to middle management and then to management. This means that there are different positions of authority that a ground floor employee can reach, but the positions of authority are reached only by adhering to a set of administrative guidelines. Thus, there is a specific pattern of information that disseminates from the top-down management approach. Upper management instructs middle management, middle management instructs coaches (or team leaders) and these people in turn instruct the base employee Kreitner (2004).

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Each action in bureaucratic leadership style is dictated by a specific policy. Therefore, management’s responsibility is to behave like a police officer. They ensure that employees follow procedure and adhere to the administrative rule as well as top-down authority. Oyet (2016) designed the Mnemonics (DIEHAR) to encapsulate features of Bureaucratic leadership style standing for: D - Division of Labour I - Impersonality E - Expertise H - Hierarchy A - Authority R - Rules Pros of Bureaucratic Leadership Bureaucratic leadership style works best in situations where there are routine tasks and specific goals that must be used consistently for the business (especially large business concerns) to excel. For example, a university needs a concentrated effort to maintain the same task over and over throughout a work day. There is not room for differentiation in procedure because this may lead to inferior quality. Therefore, the ability of management to unite employee’s ability with certain procedures is paramount for effective standards to be met. This bureaucratic leadership style is also vastly important when safety and security training is conducted. In this manner predetermined functions that could develop dangerous situations are removed from the procedures that employees carry out in their day to day tasks.Another strong benefit of bureaucratic leadership style is apparent when the organization handles or manages money or properties. The administration of policies, such as the Sarbanes-Oxley Act, protects the organization’s employees from legal complications as well as protects clients from financial loss. Cons of Bureaucratic Leadership Oyet (2016) opines that bureaucratic leadership style has a tendency to form specific habits. This causes distress when the traditional work method must be changed to allow for new or innovative styles to be incorporated in the day to day task. For example, introducing newer machinery or changes to a functional job role may be met with resistance, especially in tenured employees. This is because the bureaucratic leadership style constricts the flow of innovation--- each new item must be approved by administrative policy, then it must be taught to employees, and then it must be continuously promoted by management.

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Asika (1995) argues that interest in the functional job role may be lost under bureaucratic leadership style. Employees may find there is no room for new and interesting changes, and this creates a type of stale environment. Too much bureaucratic policy and administrative rule actually constrict the employee’s ability to be inventive and entrepreneurial in their approach to daily tasks. This constriction and lack of interest can result in a freezing of employee functions. The employee who feels constricted, bored, and uninterested will not commit to tasks beyond their functional job role. They will only do what is expected of them through administrative procedure. Democratic Leadership Style Democratic leadership style is sometimes referred to as the participative style. The characteristics of this leadership style are that it encourages staff to be self-motivating, self- dependent, and to make their own decisions as well as participate in decision making for the entire team. This leadership style works well when the staff is continuously apprised of information necessary to their job as well as occurrences that impact their job. For example, a democratic leader in a secondary school business would inform teachers of a resumption of a new session and the inherent competition. In this manner, employees are able to make decisions towards the harvest of new students, for the benefit of the entire organization. The democratic leadership style is more informative than controlling. It requires that employees understand how to interpret information and make their own decisions in a knowledge-based environment. The democratic leadership style is based on development rather than power or administration. This promotes the ability of staff to commit to personal evaluation and responsibility. In this style, the leader allows employees to create and reach their own goals based on the information at hand. Rewards as verbal recognition are often given in a public manner. In Nweke (2017) when employees are encouraged to make personal goal and personal growth plans innovation will be a highly desired trait that often leads to the employee being promoted. The democratic leadership style will encourage goal-setting and value employee achievement with as little autocratic management influence or bureaucratic administration as ethically possible. Pros of Democratic Leadership Democratic leadership style allows for open and revolving communication. This is especially important in a knowledge-based environment where staff must be kept informed. The democratic leadership style allows the staff to develop decision-making strategies which enhances the employee’s ability to function in an environment where decisions must be made

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on an individual manner. This also increases the possibility of employee’s solving their own problems, which in turn allows for management to have more time for other tasks. Another strong benefit of the democratic leadership style is that it provides the employee with the opportunity to develop personal growth and find satisfaction in accomplishing goals and tasks. This boosts employee morale and creates a positive, growth-oriented environment. The democratic leadership style encourages individual participation and team building through knowledge and development. Cons of Democratic Leadership Democratic leadership functions when there is time for information and communication. In highly intense situations, there simply may not be enough time to gain all input and from all employees. There are also times when it is simply more cost-effective or legally necessary for one person to make the decision or policy. For example, when making a purchasing decision not all employees are able to give their input or legally sign the payout cheque. This also applies when making policy decisions that have a educational, moral, or ethical implication to the organization.

The democratic leadership style is great for the employees, and it is also a relationship-builder. However, a strong hindrance to this method occurs when the manager feels threatened by this form of leadership. A manager may feel threatened because there is not the centrifugal power play seen in autocratic leadership and there is not a high amount of structural administration seen in bureaucratic rule. This may cause the manager to feel inadequate or discouraged in employee to manager communication. Lastly, it is important to note that in business situations where safety and legally adherence is wholly necessary for the organization and employee’s functionality, the democratic leadership style may not be the best method to employ. This leadership style allows employees to make their own decisions based on their personal decision making skills and knowledge-base. For example, fire fighters have a bureaucratic style rule and hierarchy simply because the primary concern is the safety of the crew and the public. Without a single person committing to a decision making strategy, the fire crew could spend necessary minutes (or worse, hours) debating on the best route of action. Laissez-Faire Leadership Style Laissez-faire is an interesting leadership style. Laissez-faire is drastically different because it is a French ideal that originated not as a form of management, but as a counter action to French

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rulers during the 18th century. The idea of laissez-faire is sometimes hard to grasp because it varies greatly from the traditional management mindset. Laissez-faire does not seek to establish rule. Instead, laissez-faire originates from opposing government (or management) intervention (Henslin, 2010).

In Hodson R. & Sullivan T. (1995), Laissez-faire is a ‘hands-off’ approach that removes the power of managerial rule. In this leadership style, managers offer little or no guidance. Employees are allowed free reign to determine their own goals, accomplishments, and decision making processes. The manager in laissez-faire leadership style does not act as an authority, but rather as a guiding hand with as little intervention as possible. For example, many game design and game testing facilities allow employees to explore their personal creativity and create their own goals and timelines to develop and release a video game product. Employees work on a commission basis, so they often do not receive compensation unless an effective product is produced (Tailor, 2006). This works in companies where creativity and innovation are necessary to develop a product. The employee is a self-manager, and the actual manager is a person to come to when the employee needs some assistance.

Pros of Laissez-Faire Laissez-faire leadership style encourages highly developed staff to have a strong sense of personal accomplishment and pride in their work activities. It does not constrict employees from gaining self-education and self-experience, rather it promotes the staff to be personally responsible for their own success. Lahey (2000) affirms that Laissez-faire leaves room for outside innovation from multiple sources, such as specialists or consultants. It also develops a significant amount of trust within the organizational culture. Cons of Laissez-Faire: There are several cautions in this type of leadership style. First, the staff may feel insecure or unattended because they do not have consistent manager attention. In general, it can be said that most people in the modern world are used to having specific administrative policies that are delivered by an influential and knowledgeable manager in a meticulous manner. That being said, when the traditional element of managerial rule is removed, employees may feel ignored or neglected (McShane, 2008). This is especially true when the laissez-faire manager seems highly unconcerned with the employee’s state of accomplishments and does not deliver consistent recognition and verbal feedback to the employees.

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It is also important to understand that laissez-faire can have a negative impact on employee morale. In the description of autocratic leadership style, it was explained that too much dictation from a manager causes employees to feel unmotivated. In laissez-faire, the opposite action of too little managerial communication has the same impact on employees. The staff may feel that the laissez-faire manager does not take her job seriously and is not meeting the responsibilities of a manager.

Paternalistic: The way a paternalistic leader works is by acting as a parental figure by taking care of their subordinates as a parent would. In this style of leadership the leader supplies complete concern for his followers or workers. In return he receives the complete trust and loyalty of his people. Workers under this style of leader are expected to become totally committed to what the leader believes and will not strive off and work independently. The relationship between these co-workers and leader are extremely solid. The workers are expected to stay with a company for a longer period of time because of the loyalty and trust. Not only do they treat each other like family inside the work force, but outside too. These workers are able to go to each other with any problems they have regarding something because they believe in what they say is going to truly help them Tailor (2006).

One of the downsides to a paternalistic leader is that the leader could start to play favorites in decisions. This leader would include the workers more apt to follow and start to exclude the ones who were less loyal. In today’s market paternalism is more difficult to come by according to Padavic and Earnest who wrote “business dimensional and Organizational Counseling.” They believe this because there have become more lay-offs and stronger unionization. This affects paternalistic leaders because the co-workers may not believe that their jobs are 100% ensured. When this happens, workers begin to look for bigger and better job opportunities instead of staying at one company for a longer period of time. Because of this, the leader may be thinking that you could be leaving and not fully believe you when you tell them something about a job opportunity. This could put the workers and leader at risk for a bad situation.

According Bass (2009) Leadership and Performance Beyond Expectations, workers who follow paternalistic leadership also have better organization skills. The leader encourages organization because they allow the workers to complete tasks so that they can stay on top of their work. The workers complete tasks this boosts self-confidence and it makes them work harder to reach a goal and exceed the goal to prove to their boss they are working hard. Having this style of

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leadership can also help implement a reward system. This system will allow their workers to work even better because there is something for them at the end of the tunnel. While doing this they will also be able to accomplish more work in a set time frame.[4]

Transactional Transactional leaders focus their leadership on motivating followers through a system of rewards and punishments. There are two factors which form the basis for this system, Contingent Reward and management-by-exception.

 Contingent reward provides rewards, materialistic or psychological, for effort and recognizes good performance.  Management-by-exception allows the leader to maintain the status quo. The leader intervenes when subordinates do not meet acceptable performance levels and initiates corrective action to improve performance. Management by exception helps reduce the workload of managers being that they are only called-in when workers deviate from course.

This type of leader identifies the needs of their followers and gives rewards to satisfy those needs in exchange of certain level of performance Robbins (2001). Transactional leaders focus on increasing the efficiency of established routines and procedures. They are more concerned with following existing rules than with making changes to the organization. A transactional leader establishes and standardizes practices that will help the organization reach:  Maturity  Goal-setting  Efficiency of operation  Increasing productivity.

Effect on Work Teams Kreitner (2004) in a Survey done on the correlation of transactional leadership and how innovations can be affected by team emotions. The research was composed of 90 work teams, with a total of 460 members and 90 team leaders. The study found that there is a relationship between emotions, labor behavior and transactional leadership that affect for the team. Depending on the level of emotions of the team; this can affect the transactional leader in a

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positive or negative way. Transactional leaders work better in teams where there is a lower level of emotions going into the project. This is because individuals are able to

 Think freely when setting their emotions aside from their work.  Have all of their focus on the given task.

A transactional leader is:

1. Negatively affected when the emotional level is high. 2. Positively affected when the emotional level is low.

Transactional leadership presents a form of strategic leadership that is important for the organizations development. Transactional leadership is essential for team innovativeness.

Transformational A transformational leader is a type of person in which the leader is not limited by his or her followers' perception. The main objective is to work to change or transform his or her followers' needs and redirect their thinking. Leaders that follow the transformation style of leading, challenge and inspire their followers with a sense of purpose and excitement.[11] Transformational leaders also create a vision of what they aspire to be, and communicate this idea to others (their followers). Schultz and Schultz identify three characteristics of a transformational leader:

 Charismatic leadership has a broad field of knowledge, has a self-promoting personality, high/great energy level, and willing to take risk and use irregular strategies in order to stimulate their followers to think independently  Individualized consideration  Intellectual stimulation.

Research Methodology and approach. This work is empirical, implying that instrument (questionnaire) was administered and hypotheses tested. Statement of the Problem The need for leaders and organizational managers to adopt the most effective leadership style in their various offices in order to impart staff productivity and engender motivation gave rise to this work. So many employers who run offices do not understand which right leadership style to adopt and its impact in staff productivity is what is being investigated in this work.

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Purpose of the Study The purpose of this study includes: 1. Find out if there is a relationship between leadership style and performance in the office. 2. To determine if perceived faulty office leadership style affects staff performance. 3. To find out if managers pay attention to how their staff react to their leadership style.

Research Question The following research questions have been posed in order to generate variables for research questionnaire for target respondents: 1. Is there any relationship between leadership style and performance in the office? 2. To what extent does faulty leadership style affect staff performance? 3. Do managers pay attention to how their staff reacts to their leadership styles? Research Hypotheses The following research null hypotheses have been posed for the purpose of testing variables generated in the instrument: H1. There is no relationship between leadership style and performance in the office. H2. Perceived faulty office leadership style does not affect staff performance. H3. Managers do not pay attention to how their staff react to their leadership style. Data Analysis Technique To satisfy this investigation, a number statistical analysis were conducted using SPSS version 20. Chi-square was employed to test relationship between variables and respondents demographic information. The Chi-square was used find statistically significant relationships among the variables. Statistical significance was set at P<0.05 to assess if the researcher level of confidence observed in the sample also existed in the general population.

Population and Sample Size The target population for the study was 100 (i.e. staff of Ecobank Rumuola Branch, Ecobank branch G.R.A Junction and Ecobank brank Nnamdi Azikiwe Road Branch all in Port Harcourt and Sample size of 50 was adopted for this study. Data Analysis and Research Procedure The following variables were generated and responses obtained using Likert 4-Scale Analysis: 1-SD (Strongly Disagree), 2-D (Disagree), 3-A (Agree), 4-SA (Strongly Agree) Table 1: Summary Statistics of Demographic Variables

GENDER STAFF_CATEGORY EDUCATION MARITAL_STATUS AGE

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Valid 50 50 50 50 50

Missing 0 0 0 0 0

Table 2: Statistics of Demographic Variables Respondents

GENDER Frequenc Percent Valid y Percent male 17 34.0 34.0 fema 33 66.0 66.0 le Total 50 100.0 100.0 Staff Designation

Frequenc Percent Valid y Percent Service 14 28.0 28.0 staff ND/NCE 9 18.0 18.0 Teller

graduate 24 48.0 48.0 staff Mgt cadre 1 3.0 3.0 Total 50 100.0 100.0 MARITAL_STATUS Frequency Percen Valid t Percent SINGL 8 16.0 16.0 E MARR 42 84.0 84.0 IED Total 50 100.0 100.0

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AGE Frequenc Percent Valid y Perce nt 25- 5 10.0 10.0 35 36- 20 40.0 40.0 44

45- 25 50.0 50.0 55 Tota 50 100.0 100.0 l SPSS version 20 Generated (June, 2018 From the table of demographic data above a total of 14 service staff representing 14%, 9 ND/NCE Teller representing 18%, 24 graduate staff representing 48%; 1 management staff representing 3%, age bracket of 25-35, (5) representing 10%, age bracket of 36 to 44 (20) representing 40%, age bracket 45 – 55 (25) rep. 50%. Eight (8) rep. 16% out of the investigated group were single, while 42 rep. 84% were married.

Testing of Research Hypotheses, Data Presentation and Result Testing of Research Hypothesis 1, 2 &3:

Table III: Chi-Square Analysis of H1 – There is no relationship between leadership style and performance in the office

Test Statistics H1 O1 O2 O3 O4 O5 Chi-Square 9.200a 22.000a 4.080a 4.960b 72.520b Df 3 3 3 2 2 Asymp. Sig. .027 .000 .253 .084 .000 SPSS V. 20 GENERATED JUNE (2018)

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The cumulative P-value of 0.337 > 0.05 ( ) of the table 1 above shows there is no significant relationship between office leadership and staff productivity. Hypothesis 1 is therefore accepted. The respondents aligned to the fact that leadership style of any leader does not necessarily influence staff productivity. In order words, staff can go on with their targets without minding the leadership style meted out. The position of the respondents is in line with Aamodt (2007) stating that leaders including autocratic ones impart on the staff to go ahead to be productive provided his approach is not ultimately demeaning in the human person and welfare of the concerned staff.

Table IV: Chi-Square Analysis of H2 – Perceived faulty office leadership style does not affect staff performance.

Test Statistics H2 M6 M7 M8 M9 M10 Chi-Square 23.280a 22.840b .420c 4.680b 15.520b Df 3 2 1 2 2 Asymp. Sig. .000 .010 .011 .010 .000

SPSS V. 20 GENERATED JUNE (2018)

From Table iv able given cumulative p.value of 0.0062 <0.05 indicates that there is a significant relationship between perceived faulty office leadership style and staff performance. Hypothesis 2 is therefore rejected. The respondents toed the path that perceived faulty office leadership style affects staff performance. The respondents were of the opinion that if a leader decides to adopt a perceived faulty leadership style on staff, that staff performance would definitely drop and thereby impacting on the company’s bottomline. This is in line with Schaeffer (2005) asserting that unfair leadership style leads to mistrust between the worker and their leader. This buttresses the stance of the respondents that they do not border to put in their best when a manager turns harsh to complaints or issues concerning them (staff).

Table V: Chi-Square Analysis of H3: managers do not pay attention to how their staff react to their leadership style.

Test Statistics H3 R11 R12 R13 R14 R15

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Chi-Square 41.440a .720b .080b 18.760a 41.440a Df 2 1 1 2 2 Asymp. Sig. .000 .396 .777 .000 .000 SPSS V. 20 GENERATED JUNE (2018) From Table V above, given the cumulative p.value of 0.2346 > 0.05 shows there is no significant relationship between how managers not paying attention to their leadership style and how their staff react to such styles. Hypothesis III is therefore accepted. The respondents opined that their managers do not bother how their react to certain policies or rules or directives of the organization. That the leaders are only concerned about unquestioned compliance. Austin (2013) aligned with the respondents when he argued that the 21st century managers are more concerned about the bottomline, profit and less of how staff react to policies. That the policies in most cases tailor towards greater profit generation and less human worker attention.

Summary and Discussion of Findings This work deployed questionnaires to gather responses from respondents. A total of 55 questionnaires were distributed and 50 were retrieved representing 100% of the target sample population. Three research hypotheses were tested and it was found in RH1 that leadership style if well applied does not negatively affect the productivity of staff. That staff can do their work without any consideration of leadership style. In RH2 it was found that staff/workers of the three Ecobank branches investigated do not perform to optimum when their managers or supervisors dispose harsh leadership styles. They were of the unanimous consent that staff who perceive their leaders showing harshness relax effort in achieving set goals even though they will still be at work but not with enthusiasm. RH3 tested if managers pay attention to how their staff react to policies or rules in other words the leaders management style. It was found that leaders do not bother to assess their staff reaction to their managerial styles. The respondents responses showed that they are not usually happy with such managers who do not pay attention to their issues.

Conclusion

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The fact that no administrative style may be the best but situations and contingencies should determine the type leadership style to adopt in the office environment with aim of satisfying the workers and the orgnanizations’ objectives. Recommendation Based on the findings the following are hereby recommended: i. that managers should pay attention to the human needs of the staff in as much as they want them to achieve organizational set goals. ii. That humans are the principal assets and resources of the organization that must handle and implement the policy resources. iii. That staff productivity will improve if they are given the best attention and policies drafted with human face. References Aamodt, M. (2007).Industrial/Organizational psychology: an applied approach (5th edition) California, Thomson Wadsworth Publishers. Asika, N. (1995). Leadership in organizations”, in Ejiogu, Achumba, and Asika, (eds), Readings in organizational behaviour in Nigeria. Ikeja Lagos: Malhouse Press Ltd Bamgboye, I. O. (2001).Organizationa behaviour, Akure, Adeyemo publishing house. Henslin, J. (2010). Sociology: A down-to-earth approach (10th edition), Boston, Person International.

Hodson, R. & Sullivan, T. (1995).The Social organization of work (2nd edition) California: Wadsworth publishing company.

Kreitner, R. & Kinicki, A. (2004).Organizational behaviour (6th edition) New York: McGraw- Hill Irwin.

Lahey, B. (2004). Introduction to psychology New York, McGraw Hill Higher Education. McShane, S. & Judge, T. (2009).Organizational behaviour New York, McGraw-Hill Irwin. Nweke, E. O. (2017). The Digital office, Port Harcout, Minson Publishers Ltd. Oyet J. (2016). Class notes in NTI PGDE class, 2016. Robins, S. & Judge T. (2009). Organizational behaviour New Jersy: Person Educational International.

Schaeffer, R. (2005). Sociology (9th edition) New York, McGraw-hill, Higher Education.

Taylor, S. Peplau, L. & Sears, D. (2006).Social psychology (12th edtion) New Delhi, Pearson Education.

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SECURITY INFORMATION LITERACY FOR POLITICAL LEADERS IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION FOR SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA Omehia, A. E. Ph.D Department of Library and Information Science Ignatius Ajuru University of Education [email protected]

Abstract Security challenges are on the increase in Nigeria especially in the Niger Delta Region. The genesis of this problem may not be far from poverty, unemployment, poor leadership amongst others which cause underdevelopment of the region. The paper examines the synopsis of crises in the Niger Delta region these past three decades, the insensitive role of political leaders in the region, the consequences of insecurity in the region, loss of lives and property, high crime rate, migration and relocation from the region, poverty, reduction in oil and gas production, high unemployment rate, drop in commercial business amongst others. The paper also proffers suggestion on how political leaders can address these insecurity challenges by acquiring lifelong learning skills like information literacy skills to help guide, use, understand locate accurate information for decision making and policy implementation for the actualization of sustainable development goals in the region.

Keywords:Security, information literacy, political leaders, sustainable development, Niger Delta, Nigeria. Introduction Nigeria security situation has worsened over the years especially in the Niger Delta region which is attributed to poverty, hunger, high unemployment rate and poor leadership at all strata of governance. The incessant conflicts and crises contributed to the underdevelopment of the region, which Ewetan (2013),refers to as bane to sustainable development. Ewetan and Urhie (2014), argued that there can be no meaningful or appreciable development without peace and security; that for nations to develop, there must be effective leadership to guide and develop critical infrastructure for sustainable development. In the same vein, Chandler (2007), had earlier opined that no nation can achieve socio-economic development in an environment of socio-physical 187

In the light of this, the agitations for effective leadership in the region which are informed, dynamic, and conscientious cannot be overemphasized. Simply puteffective leadership is crucial to achieving sustainable development. Scholars have long identified leadership ,information, security, and development that as interwoven or dependent on one another for sustainability. Domer (1987) in Ewetan (2014), opined that development is an outcome of economic growth, which stems out of structural changes, savings and investment in an economy. The same way, Nwanegbo and Odigbo (2013), strongly affirm that development cannot be achieved in the corridors of conflicts, war and crises. Therefore, development can be said to be a process of empowering people to maximize their potential, as well asimproving physical infrastructure for the well being of the people or system. Similarly, Ake (2001) argues that development is the creation of an economy with relevant, social, economic and physical infrastructure for business operations and industrial growth which leads to gainful employments, high level of educational facilities and good medical care for the people. While sustainable development,according to Wikipedia, is that development which meets the needs of the present without compromising the ability of the future generation to meet their own needs,the crux of this definition lays emphasis on the present and future development approach which leaders must be made to balance.

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Still on security, the meaning given by Websters Encyclopedia Dictionary makes it inextricably related to development. according to the Encyclopedia Dictionary, it simply means the state of being free from danger or threat. This, therefore, compels the need for adequate security in any environment to attract development as development can only be engendered in an environment that is devoid of threat and danger. On the heels of this, the clarion call for effective leadership is the African continent is not an exaggerated demand, rather a reawakening call for credible, conscientious and intellectual leaders who are better informed to promote peace and security of lives and property so as to attract development to the continent. Arising from this, there is burning need to enforce information literacy skill for leaders to get timely security information.

Furthermore, African Leaders need to realize the importance of lifelong learning skills like IL because increasing attention is being paid to information literacy globally. Indeed some countries are ahead of the United States in linking information literacy to economic development. Leadership is a quintessential requirement for sustainable development especially in volatile regions like the Niger Delta. According to Iftakha and Bahauddin (2018), leaders must manage resources, be visionary, ethical and focus on long-term goals without compromising values and principles. So there is need for information literacy skills to enable leaders knows how to coordinate, plan, monitor and implement strategies, when and how to locate relevant security information. This will enhance the leadership role to achieve the sustainable development goals.

SYNOPSIS OF INSECURITY IN THE NIGER DELTA REGION

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The Niger Delta region is faced with lots of developmental and environmental challenges. The area occupies over 70,000 sq km, with over 34 million people, living in few large cities and over 3,000 small and often remote communities and villages in the mangrove, swamp, and lowland rain forests. The Niger Delta region is made up of Akwa Ibom, Cross River, Rivers, Bayelsa, Delta and Edo State, but three other states that include Ondo, Abia and Imo are among the oil producing states. The Niger Deltans are strategically located in the Gulf of Guinea. 83 percent of the federal government revenue comes from oil and gas in the region. According to Babatunde (2012), 95 percent of export earnings and 40 percent of Nigeria GDP are from the region’s oil and gas.

Unfortunately, the Niger Delta people suffer from environmental degradation, pollution, poor infrastructure, high crime rate, teeming youths’ unemployment, violence, communal crisis, poverty, diseases, amongst others. These social vices have led to agitations for better living and resource control since the 1930’s when oil exploration started. The poor and repressive leadership style of the Nigeria state and the multinational companies led to full blown crises in the region such as piracy, oil bunkering, armed struggles, violent crimes, militancy which stagnated development in the region. Although it attracted the 13% derivatives which did little or nothing in terms of development because of the difficult terrain in the region. Abdulrahma (2014) attributed insecurity to corruption and poor leadership, he suggested that effective leadership will tackle insecurity by eliminating corruption and poverty, creating employment, building critical infrastructure, accountability, proactive in improving the socio-economic well being of the citizens in areas like education, good health care, employment for the teeming youths, skills acquisition, food and shelter for all.

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The spark of violence pre-dates the Nigeria independence when the colonial masters first found oil in commercial quantities. Instead of blessing the people, it rather became a curse, these agitations continued into the 1990’s when the MOVEMENT FOR THE SURVIVAL OF OGONI PEOPLE started as a peaceful movement to end gas flaring and environmental pollution in Ogoni land. The Nigeria state, instead, applied repressive force. The Late Ken Saro-Wiwa, an environmentalist, human rights activists, author and renowned scholar was intimidated, arrested, accused of treason and the murder of five Ogoni elders by the youths. These charges were brought on him and eight others they were consequently charged and killed by the military Head of State, the Late Brig. Gen. Sanni Abacha. These murderous killings did not deter the region from demanding for their rights.

The multinational companies like their colonial fathers: Agip, Shell, Mobile, Total adopted the divide and rule style on the Niger Delta leaders against their people which further heightened the insecurity and communal disturbances. This repressive force and window dressing palliative measures failed to pacify the people.The rich oil resources became a curse rather than a blessing (Watt’s 2004 in Elemanya 2016). So many communities suffered similar fate, the Twon Brass community in Bayelsa state counted their losses, Eket crises against Exxon Mobile oil exploration corporation, Umuechem community in Etche local government area of Rivers State was completely razed down by the Nigeria state, where over 200 people and the traditional ruler of the community were killed,which heightened the poverty, hunger level and outright displacement of the poor people. Another painful episode was the Odi community in Bayelsa state that was razed down by the order of President Olusegun Obasanjo.Again many lives and properties were destroyed. Several other agitations from other minorities sprang up and led to full blown crises in the region. 191

These restiveness led to many dangerous groups operating in the region like Niger Delta Militants (NDM), Niger Delta Avengers (NDA), Niger Delta Red Squad (NDRS), Adaka Boro Avengers, all were agitating through piracy, Kidnapping, blowing up oil pipeline, oil bunkering, vandalizations of oil installations. The Nigeria state witnessed high casualty on both the military and innocent Nigerians. The Musa Shehu Yaradua government of 2007 granted the militants amnesty because the oil derivation was below expectation, and initiated a reintegrating programme through skills training and payment of stipends and scholarship grants for students in the region, both home and abroad.

CONSEQUENCES OF INSECURITY

The consequences of insecurity witnessed in the Niger Delta region is unimaginable, the casualties on civilians, military, Naval and the agitators were awful. The crises led to general atmosphere of mistrust, fear and anxiety because of incessant assassination, kidnapping of expatriates, multinational corporation staff, and the rich in the region. This resulted in mass migration and relocation from the Niger Delta region. Most of the companies moved their headquarters to either Lagos or Abuja, both local and international businesses especially oil servicing companies were thrown out of business and private and corporate businesses were halted. Piracy at the high sea increased, Vessels were redirected to the Lagos port, while activities in the Port Harcourt and Onne Port reduced. The business hub gradually shut down and discouraged local and foreign investment to the region. The consequences were not far-fetched, the region witnessed collapsed community peace, high crime rate, proliferation of armed and arms gang, reduction in oil and gas exploration, hunger and poverty worsened, frustration of the teeming unemployed or retrenchment heightened, estate business crumbled, and general businesses came to

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LEADERSHIP CHALLENGES

The insensitivity of the Nigeria state and the Nigeria leaders to the quality of lives of its citizenry is replicated in the quality of leadership provided. Poor leadership styles are mostly mirrored in intolerance, greed, insincerity, poor infrastructural development and basic amenities for the people. Osaghae (1985) in Elemanya (2016) argued that the actions of political leaders are deliberate attempts to underdevelop the Niger Delta region, because the control of political and military power rests in the Northern part of Nigeria, which is continually in control and interested in the oil and gas resources in the region.

On the other hand, the Niger Delta leaders lack the moral justification because of corruption, greed, and power tussle. The blame game continues among the political leaders who arm the youth gangs for political benefits and relevance for election purposes. This affirms that credible leaders are a mirage in the region especially the political leaders. It is imperative to mention that leaders without timely and accurate information are vulnerable, because wrong information can escalate crises and war.

The assertion that most Niger Delta political leaders do not have access to information on how to tackle youth restiveness and insecurity in their domain is right, because some leaders are not literate which further compounds the problems. While some leaders do not have access to information in whatever formats because of power outages, some lack computer skills, some have never seen a library or use library information center amongst others in this 21st century where 193

Book of Abstract and Proceeding of 15th International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWRSD) Held in Ken Sarowiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State, Nigeria, On 8th-10th August, 2018. information has inundated every facet of life. It is therefore imperative that leaders need to be information literate, intellectually alert, proactive to get necessary information in whatever formats because insecurity challenges cannot be tackled in this age without constant information and information devices. The rich Niger Delta region needs proactive, dynamic, intellectual ICT compliant leaders who can secure the region and invite developments that are sustainable for present and future development.

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THE ROLE OF LEADERS IN SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT GOALS IN THE REGION

It is a known fact that there can be no development without effective leadership especially in volatile regions like the Niger Delta. The leaders at every level must be intellectually capable of embarking on projects or attracting sustainable development projects for the well being of the people through effective policy formulation and implementation.The security of lives and property is one basic role of political leaders in the Niger Delta. Iftakha and Bahauddin (2018) assert that effective leadership must translate to prudent public policy formulation and implementation as well as good public service delivery to meet the needs and aspirations of its citizenry. Therefore, for leaders to meet these criteria, they need to be information literate, intellectually capable of learning new skills to assist them in locating security prone areas, identify the needs of its citizenry, health care problems, shelter, food, hunger and so on, especially recognizing their needs, locating and evaluating the source of information, ability to retrieve stored information for use, apply the information to either create wealth or secure the citizens.

Leaders must key into the change dynamics that the world has moved from analog to digital age, where information is transmitted instanteously. Currently, the world is shifting to artificial intelligence AI to solve human problems. Ozioma (2017) suggests that A. I which is a by-product of information literacy will impact on jobs and employment opportunities, data analysis, budgeting, marketing, recruitment and banking. These activities mentioned are in constant control by leaders through policy making. This again challenges the leaders to be in tune with the happening of the 21st century and acquire the lifelong

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Book of Abstract and Proceeding of 15th International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWRSD) Held in Ken Sarowiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State, Nigeria, On 8th-10th August, 2018. information literacy skill because any leader who is not information literate will find it difficult to lead the 21st century minds.

With information literacy skills Niger Delta leaders would be able to formulate policies to guide the region on these sustainable development goals: to

- Provide security and protection of lives and property. - For skills acquisition and create employment. - Establish the zero hunger. - Environmental protection policies in the region. - Safe drinking water - Protect marine life which is their major source of livelihood. - Quality education and free health care. - Justice and equality.

With the above key factors, leaders will be able to achieve the sustainable development goals in crisis free zone.

Political leaders who acquires these lifelong learning skills will be able to use a wide range of sources, processes, and understand basic security information, which are quite complex especially the reading, listening, analyzing and decision making, in areas like injustice, inequality, poverty, denial, negotiate complex security lapses, locate crime areas, communicate with other leaders on the same leadership platform, and access security information timely for leaders to actualize sustainable development in the region.

BENEFITS OF SECURITY INFORMATION LITERACY TO LEADERS AND SUSTAINABLE DEVELOPMENT IN THE REGION.

Inculcating information literacy skills by leaders in the region will obviously enhance and attract development because information is a key

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Book of Abstract and Proceeding of 15th International Conference of the Society of Common Wealth Scholars in Research and Sustainable Development (SCWRSD) Held in Ken Sarowiwa Polytechnic Bori, Rivers State, Nigeria, On 8th-10th August, 2018. player in security and sustainable development. The America Library Association (ALA) definition of information literacy reiterated the need for individuals to acquire the skills that will enable them recognize when information is needed and have the ability to locate, evaluate and use effectively the needed information in whatever formats. Essienberg, Lowe and Spitzer (2004) assert that the benefits of information literacy include capacity building for leaders because they need to be abreast of current information to pilot the affairs of its citizenry, by increasing leaders awareness, intelligence and knowledge gathering for decision making. Etim and Nissien (2007) relate the importance of information literacy to include skills in visual literacy, media literacy, computer literacy, digital literacy and others, these skills though intertwined with technology skills demand the Information and Communication Technology (ICT) compliance for leaders to enhance retrieval and understanding of available information. These benefits are highlighted below:

- Having access to information especially security information - Timely information - Unprecedented amount of digital information - Broaden the scope of leaders in investigating crimes using ICT devices. - Accurate information from verifiable sources - Accurate information for strategic policy formation. - Effective implementation of sustainable development goals. - Leaders striving to meet the sustainable development goals for the region. - Promotes literacy in all spheres (media, visual and digital) - Helps leaders to monitor and supervise development within the region. - Develop global partnership in security matters 197

- Extracting crime investigation using the internet - Utilization of web search engines. - Visual, digital and computer literacy skills.

In view of the above, strategies must be put in place to inculcate this information literacy skills in leaders, there should be re-orientation for those taking up leadership positions in the region, organize seminars for leaders on how to acquire these skills, build information infrastructural devices or information centers or mini-libraries for information storage and dissemination for sustainable development.

CONCLUSION

From the foregoing, it is clear that leaders in the region especially political leaders need to acquire necessary skills to help them monitor, supervise, track security information for prompt decision making and policy formulation. These skills are no other than the elements of information literacy, which are media, visual, computer and digital literacy. All these will enhance leaders’ use of various apps, web search engines, identify and use appropriate search terms and evaluate sources related to search. The success of a leader in the 21stcentury, obviously would depend on the level of information literacy skills acquired.

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REFERENCES

Abdulrahman, D. (2014). Nigeria and her security challenges.Harvard Int. review.June 13 2014 on line.Hir.harvard.edu.

American Library Association, https://en.m.wikipedia.org.

Ake, C. (2001). Democracy and Development of Africa Ibadan: Spectrum Books Ltd.

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Elemanya, V. A. (2016). The politics of resource control: the Bane of Nigeria federalism and a Conspiracy – against the oil-producing minorities: Port Harcourt; Journal of History and Diplomatic Studies. Vol. 3 No. 1 March 2016.

Etim, F and Nssien (2007).Information literacy for library search.Uyo; Abaam Publisher.

Ewetan, O.O. (2013). Insecurity and socio-Economic Develop-perspectives on the Nigeria Experience. A lecture delivered at St. Timothy Anglican Church Sango. Otta Ogun State.

Ewetan, O. and Urhie, E. (2014).Insecurity and Socio-Economic Development in Nigeria, Journal of sustainable develop-studies.Vol. 5 No. 1 2014 p. 40-63.

Essienberg, M. Lowe, C. and Spitzer, K. (2014). Information literacy: Essential skills for the information age. 2nd edition Littleton: libraries ltd.

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INVIGORATING THE ECONOMIC LIFE OF RETIREES IN NIGERIA: IMPLICATIONS FOR SUSTAINABLE SOCIO-ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT

Fiiwe, James Leekaaga Chief Lecturer, Dept. of Insurance Kenule Beeson Saro Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori, Nigeria

Abstract It is not just adjusting to the loss of stable work routine and its associated sense o purpose that can be hard. Retirement brings new relationship issues, and for those who do not find new meaningful activities to replace work, there is the risk of boredom and sense of purposelessness that can lead to depression and health problems that lead to depression and health problems. This paper therefore considers options that can actionably invigorate the economic life of retirees for a viable economic venture which has implication for the socio-economic development of Nigeria. Using a theoretical approach to analyze relevant themes that are associated with boasting the economic life of retirees, it is the paper position that putting the retiree into further meaningful engagements, especially, in the entrepreneurial circle where they can be economically viable and be further productive are the necessary tonic to invigorate the economic life of retiree. The essence of the foregoing is to pull back proceed of the economic viability of the retiree into the economic gird of the nation. This paper among other things recommends that: Concerted effort by the government should take the idea of invigorating this class of citizens very serious. A unit should be createdinthePensionDirectoratetohandletheentrepreneurialdevelopmentamong workers in active service so that when they are retired, they can explore and utilize these entrepreneurial training they acquired while in service.

Keyword: Invigorate, retirement, pension, investment and economy.

Nigeriaasanindependentnationiscurrently57yearsold(1960-2017). Somehow this is quite a young age in terms of pension accrued liability and administration, yet, complains of administrative ineptitude, poor funding, starvation and untimely death is prominent among pension beneficiaries.

Between1960-1974Nigeriaoperatedaskeletalpensionsystemwhichwas inherited from the colonial master. In 1979 Nigeria enacted the first indigenous pension law (Decree 102 of 1979) which was a Defined Benefit Scheme and had retrospective effectiveness from 1974 to 2004. The year 2004 saw the birth of another pension system (contributory pension scheme) for both public service and the private sector. The application of the contributory pension scheme can be described as experimental as more regulations and instructions are still pouring in.

The public service rules in Nigeria recommends 60years of age or 35years of service (whichever comes first) for retirement. Yet it is obvious that human capital development is low in Nigeria. Most persons according to Nweke (2015) and Olatomide (2014) still undergo one training or the other and become employable in his/her profession when they are above 30years of age. This implies that many persons retire from work when they are neither self-fulfilled

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ortired. Worst still, some are still engaged in one training programme or the other at the age close to retirement and get disengage with unutilized professional knowledge. Meanwhile, medical development the as made it such that people can live longer after retirement.

Sadly, Nigeria does not have an effective, vibrant social scheme that takes care of the vulnerable elderly who are retired; the economy is not making much progress, and thereby making it receptive to viable suggestions that can add impetus to the dwindling economy. Invigorating the retired but not tired group can be another favourable option to boast the Nigerian economy.

It is from the foregoingperspectivethatthispaperconsidersoptionsthatcanactionably invigorate the economic life of retirees for a viable economic venture which has implication for socio- economic development of Nigeria.

CONCEPTUALIZING THE MEANING OF RETIREMENT Retirement is the act of stopping from active work either because one has reached a particular age or worked for a specified period of time or could no longer perform effectively as are sult of health challenge (Iyortsuunand Akpusugh, 2013).

Retirement as we know it today is a very recent development, specifically a product of 19th

century or fall-out from the industrial revolution. Indeed it emanated as a result of the migration from the agrarian society to the industrial. Labour economist has it that man is most productive within 35years of its life span. This 35years according to this concept should terminate when the person is about 60years of age. Where this concept applies, one should retire from active labour at the age of 60years.

There is no singularly and universally accepted retirement age. What is considered as retirement age is relative to the organization and the country. In Nigeria even government employee are not subjected to a singular retirement.

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MEASURING AND EVALUATING THE EFFECTIVENESS OF HEALTH SAFETY AND ENVIRONMENTAL OPERATIONS IN LABORATORIES IN HIGHER INSTITUTIONS IN RIVERS STATE, NIGERIA.

1Orime, Okechukwu C. N. (Ph.D), Lecturer, Centre for Consultancy, Health, Safety and Security Management, Ignatius Ajuru University of Education, Rumuolumini, Port Harcourt - Email: [email protected]

Njosi, Justina A., Department of Industrial Safety and Environmental Technology, PTI Warri.

Nmeakor Letam D. Department of Community Health, Rivers State College of Health Science and Technology Rumueme, Port Harcourt.

Abstract The study is primarily aimed at viewing and assessing the effective practice of health, safety and environmental management education compliance among secondary schools students using workshops and laboratory in Rivers State, Nigeria. The study adopted the descriptive survey design. The population of the study comprised all the Tertiary institutions in Rivers State duely approved by the government, the study also covers the supervisory roles of technologists in Rivers State, who are both science and workshop technology instructors. However Tertiary institutions in Rivers State was arranged in zones, based on its natural arrangement in a form of educational authority in term of district, mainly to satisfy its cluster and stratified sampling techniques, hence students who uses the workshops and laboratory were in one side the bulk of the respondents in a representative capacity. Two research questions guided the study and two hypotheses were also tested. A 30-item structured questionnaire which was validated with a determined reliability coefficient of 0.88 was the instrument used for data collection. Mean was used to answer the research questions while t-test was used to test the hypotheses at 0.01 level of significance. The findings of the study identified that there is need to train and retrain the workshop and school laboratory users (the staffs and students) on health, safety and environmental management education to ensure good compliance to reduce the level of risk hazards, injury, accident and death, arising from unsafe act, unsafe condition. Horses play, near misses and other unhealthy operability errors, for the compliance of occupational health and safety operational standard established by NEBOSH, OSHA, NISPON etc based on that the study further recommended that workshop and laboratory users in higher institutions, should be given a pretest, good orientation, seminars on the basic first step of first aid, safety principle and application, and if possible, HSE should be encorporated into the school curriculum; hence, education through short term and long term training bring about total changes and transformation of attitude and behaviours/skills development early hazard identification reduces accident, if safety education and communication is given a priority, noting muster point, eco labeling of toxic, corrosive and flammable liquid in the laboratory and workshop, then a free or a minimal accident occurrences will be noticed.

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INSURANCE PRODUCT INNOVATION AND SUSTAINABLE ECONOMIC DEVELOPMENT IN NIGERIA 1Gberesuu, B.B, MacFubara, M.S. &2Norteh, D.

INSURANCE AND RISK MANAGEMENT DEPARTMENT KEN SARO-WIWA POLYTECHNIC, BORI Abstract The traditional insurance policies such as fire, accident, burglary has been innovated to include other products savings and investment schemes. This study investigated the relationship between insurance product innovation and sustainable economic development in Nigeria using time series data sourced from the publications of Central Bank of Nigeria Statistical bulletin, annual reports of quoted insurance firms and Nigeria Bureau of Statistics. The ordinary least square method of cointegration, unit root test; Granger causality test and vector error correction model was used as data analysis methods. Human capital development and growth of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises was used as dependent variables while insurance investment in family scheme benefits, child deferred assurance, school fees policy; capital redemption and pension scheme was used as explanatory variables. The short run regression result from model one proved that family benefits, child deferred assurance, capital redemption policy have positive and significant relationship with human capital development while school fees policies and capital redemption have negative relationship with human capital development. Model two found that the independent variables have positive relationship with the growth of small and medium scale enterprises except capital redemption policies. Unit root test found that the variables are stationary at first difference; cointegration test found long run relationship between the dependent and the independent variables, results from the causality test justified bi-directional and uni-directional relationship while the error correction model proved adequate speed of adjustment. From the regression summary, we conclude that insurance product innovation have significant relationship with sustainable economic development in Nigeria. We recommend that adequate policies should be implemented to increase product innovation among insurance firms in Nigeria and the regulatory authorities should partner with the insurance firms for product innovation.

Keywords: Product Innovation, Insurance, Sustainable Economic Development, Human Capital Development, Growth of Small and Medium Scale Enterprises.

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DEVELOPMENT OF AUTOMATED DESIGN TOOL FOR OPTIMUM DESIGN OF STRUCTURAL ELEMENTS AND COUPLING MS EXCEL IN REINFORCED CONCRETE STRUCTURES

Ledogo, Augustine Barine1; Ugo, Kingsley Chukuemeka2; Nwoka Justice Chimka3; West Wesley4

1, 2, 3, 4.Civil Engineering Department, Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic, Bori Rivers State, Nigeria

Abstract Conventional manual method of carrying out analysis and design of structural elements like slab, beam, column, etc. is cumbersome and time consuming, as it is characterized by many iterative procedures and long processes of manipulation. This therefore, necessitates the development of computer program that can do the job under knowledge based operation. However, many of the structural designer’s packages found around are patented and the programming algorithm used hidden from the user which makes the package rigid and uneasy to make correction or manipulates where need be. This paper is aim at developing and programmes a user friendly structural designer’s package for easy usage in the design of building structural elements and coupling of the designed members. Microsoft Excel was used in the program development. The fundamental principles of strength and reliability of materials were used in the program modeling. The program was designed to accept inputs through an assisting wizard in windows (window XP, Vista, window7, 8, and 10). Simple and complex problems were used to test the program and obtained results which were in agreement with the exact solutions of the manual analysis.

Keyword: Structural analysis, Structural design, Excel spreadsheet, Automation, Structural element.

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ENTREPRENEURSHIP COMPETENCIES AND GOVERNMENTEMPOWERMENT: THE SILVER BULLET TO REPOSITION NIGERIA AS GIANT OF AFRICA 15TH ANNUAL INTERNATIONAL CONFERENCE (SCWSRSD) A PAPER PRESENTED BY

WOSU, EMMA. O. (Ph.D) E-mail: [email protected] Tel.: 08036654125 Department of Business Administration and Management Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic Bori Rivers State

IKPE G. IKPE (Ph.D) Tel.: 08070329361 Department of management University of Port Harcourt rivers state

OWONDA COLLINS School of foundation studies Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic Bori Rivers State

CLIFFORD AYONE Department of office and technologymanagement School of Management Sciences Ken Saro-Wiwa Polytechnic Bori Rivers State

ABSTRACT It has been observed that lack of entrepreneurial zeal, ability to create and develop creative thinking into meaningful ventures, weak technological intermediate and capital goods, unethical behaviours toward work and services to the nation did throw the country into high cost of living, object poverty, crises, and low industrialization. Hence the study was to explore the impact of entrepreneurship competencies on sustainable development of the country.The study employed field survey which adopted triangulation method that involved quantitative and qualitative techniques to sample our respondents’ views. The simple random sampling technique was used to select one hundred and seventy eight respondents from three hundred and twenty population for the study. The findings reviewed that knowledgecompetency, technical competency, and ethical competency have positive and significant relationship with economic, social, and environmental sustainability. Also, that empowerment had moderating influence on entrepreneurship competencies and sustainable development of the country. The work recommended that the individuals both in private and public sectors should possess knowledge, technical, ethical competencies so that the tripple bottom line of economic, social, environmental sustainability will be achieved for the country to maintain her lead in the committee of nations. Government should exhibit a legalize concern on financial, technical, and ethical considerations to public/private entrepreneurs so that they can unleash their potentials and enhance prosperity.

Keyword:Entrepreneurship competencies, knowledge, technical, ethical, empowerment, sustainable development.

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A STUDY ON THE EVALUATION OF WATER UPTAKE CAPACITY OF CISSUS POPULNEASTEM BARK (CPSB) MEMBRANE

AminaAminu Department of Chemistry, Federal College of Education, Yola. Adamawa State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

Abstract This study investigated some physical properties of CissusPopulnea membrane (CPSB) by determining the water uptake under different conditions (concentration, temperature, pH, contact time, and ionic strength). The modified tea bag method was used to determine the water uptake capacities. The results showed that CissusPopulnea Stem bark membrane has higher water uptake capacity up to500%. It also showed that the water uptake increased with increase in concentration and pH, and decreased with increase in ionic strength and temperature. The contact time increased from 1hr to 6hrs and gradually decreased from 8hrs to 24hrs with the percentage uptake of water.This study revealed that CPSB membrane could be used as an adsorbent for treatment of waste water from aqueous solution.To this end,therefore this study is designed to use membrane derived from a plant CissusPopulnea and evaluate the water uptake capacity of CPSB membrane under different condition.

Keywords: CissusPopulnea, Membrane, Water, Uptake, Capacity.

Introduction Water is a source of energy and most importantly a natural resources which make life and living meaningful the world over.As a source of energy water is fundamentally one of the basic needs for human and other organisms. The availability of fresh clean and qualitydrinking water remains one of the most critical environmental and sustainability issues in many societies across the world. People really need a source of water that is notalways available but safe and dependable.This is necessary because water is an essential requirement for sustainable development and quality of life.In most countries of theworld, rapid population expansion and industrialization that are usually characterized by unplanned urbanization cum other environmental factors have largely contributed to water pollution(Osemeahonet al.,2016).Poor disposal system contaminates the soil and water bodies thereby making them undesirable for human needs. Heavy metals in waste water are increasingly discharged directly or indirectly in to the environment.Unlike organic contaminants heavy metals are not biodegradable and tends to accumulate in living organisms. Many heavy metals ions are known to be toxic or carcinogenic. Heavy metals are sources of water pollution and largely responsible for environmental problems in developing countries(Singh and Verghese,2016;Mousavi et al.,2010). The toxic effects of heavy metals accumulate through the food chain there by affecting users /consumers.The

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presence of heavy metal ionsin drinking water constitute serious danger-to-consumers particularly,zinc, copper,nickel,mercury, cadmium,lead and chromium that causes risk for human health and environment(Abas etal.,2013;Oyaro et al.,2007). These heavy metals also have crucial biological functions in plants and animals as their chemical coordination and oxidation reduction properties sometimes give them additional benefits to escape control mechanisms such as homeostasis,transport, compartmentalization and binding to required cell constituents(Jaishankar, et al.,2014).Similarly, Flora et al., (2008) noted that the deterioration of biological molecule is primarily due tobinding of heavy metals to the DNA and nuclear protein. Studies in physical chemistry and biological process revealed that removalof heavy metalions from waste water has been previously achieved by various method such as ion exchange,precipitation,oxidation reduction,reverse osmosis electro chemical filtration(Gupta and Nyaka ,2012;Santhi and Manomani 2012;Santuraki and Muazu,2015). Mostof these methods were found to have some limitations such as production of hazardous by – product,ineffective and expensive for general public.Hence thegrowing need for efficient and cost effective methods or techniques for the removalof heavy metal ions in waste water.Thissituation calls for the need to adopt a more economical and effective methods.Biosorption of heavy metals from aqueous solution is relatively a new technology for the treatment of waste water.The advantage of using this method include; cost effectiveness, affordability, availability and environmental friendliness. These methods could be used as alternative to the expensive waste water treatment processes. Plants are known to be sources of

materials which possess properties that are important to waste water management. Materials and Methods Collection of Materials Sodium alginate, Methanol, Glutaraldehyde, Hydrochloric acid, Sodium chloride, was used, all are product from British Drug House (BDH). The plantCissusPopulneawas obtained from Mbamba area of Yola South Local Government Area of Adamawa State Nigeria. All the chemicals used in this research are of analytical grades and were used as supplied. Preparation of Plant Sample The dissolution of the powdered sample ofCissusPopulnea Stem Bark(CPSB)was made by weighing 4.00g powdered stem bark in to 100cm3 that was mark with distilled water.Andlabelled mixture A and kept in a separating funnel for 12 hours to observed the possible separation into various fractions (Osemeahon, et al., 2007). Preparation of Sodium Alginate

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Sodium alginate was prepared by weighing 4.00g and making it up to 100 cm3 mark with distilled water in a volumetric flask, labeled B and kept overnight for complete dissolution. Membranes Preparation CPSBsolution of (20ml) and sodium alginate of (80ml) with 0.1ml of glutaraldehyde (25%) were mixed. This mixture was stirred for 2hrs at 300C and then poured uniformly on a plastic tray. The membrane was allowed to dry at room temperature for 3days. The cast membrane was cross linked by immersing in a 1% HCI solution taken in an equimolar mixture of methanol and water for 24 hours. It was washed thoroughly in water and allowed to dry at room temperature for three days. (Barminas, et al. 2005). Determination of water uptake The water uptake of CissusPopulnea Stem Barkmembrane was determined using modified “Tea bag” method as reported by Barminas, and Eromosele, (2002) was adopted in this study. This involved the insertion of 2g of clean dried membrane samples into a transparent polyethylene bag, the gross combination was pre weighed before adding 100ml of distilled water, after which it was sealed and kept undisturbed for 24hrs at room temperature to attain equilibrium. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess solution was carefully sucked out using micro syringe, the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was weighed. The percentage water uptake was determined using the following equation; Water uptake (%) = [(Wy-Wx/Wx)] x 100/1: where Wx and Wy represent weight of dry and wet membrane samples respectively, (Barminas, et al., 2005). Two grams (2g) of the clean dried membrane of CPSB of different concentrations (2% - 20%) was inserted into a polyethylene bag and weight before adding 100ml of distilled water, this were then sealed and allowed to stay for 4 hours. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess water was sucked out using a micro syringe, the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was re-weighed again (Osemeahon, et al. 2007). The percentage water uptake will be determined using the formula reported earlier, by Barminas, and Eromosele, (2002). Determination of the effect of pH on water uptake The water uptake behaviour of CPSBmembrane at different pH values (4 – 9) was investigated at 30C0 for 24 hours using the modified tea bag method. Standard solution of 2.0M HCI and 1.0M NaOH was used to adjust the solutions to the required pH values. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess solution was sucked out using a micro syringe; the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was re-weighed. The percentage water uptake was determined at different pH to ascertain the influence on water uptake by the membrane.

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Determination of the effect of Time on water uptake A mass of 2g of CPSB membrane was inserted into a polyethylene bag and weighed. Meanwhile, 100ml of distilled water was added. The modified tea bag method as earlier stated was used. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess water was sucked out using a micro syringe, the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was re-weighed. The percentage of water uptake was determined at different time intervals, ranging from 1hour to 24 hours.

Determination of the effect Ionic Strength on water uptake A mass of 2g of the dried membrane of CissusPopulnea stem bark was inserted into a polyethylene bag and weight. 100ml of sodium chloride solution of various concentrations (0.1M – 1.0M) was added as the need arises. At the end of the equilibrium period 24 hours at 300C, the excess solution was sucked out using a micro syringe the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was re-weighed. The percentage of water uptake will be determined using the formula reported earlier (Barminas, et al., 2005). Determination of the effect of Temperature on water uptake A mass 2g of CPSB membrane was inserted into a polyethylene bag and weighted. After which 100ml of distilled water was added, sealed and allowed to stay for 24hours. The assembly was kept at a constant temperature using a regulated water bath. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess water was sucked out using a micro syringe the polyethylene bag with the wet sample wereweighed which gave rise to the percentage of water uptake. The procedure was repeated for various temperatures ranging from 200C to 700C, in each case the average of three determinations was taken (Barminas, et al., 2005). Results and Discussion Water uptake Capacities of CissusPopulnea Membrane Figure 1 presents the water uptake capacities ofCissusPopulnea Stem Bark (CPSB) membrane, at room temperature of 300C for a period of 24 hours. The water uptake capacity of the sample showed that the CPSB has an uptake capacity of up to 500%. The water uptake capacity of the membrane can be attributed to the amount of cellulose content of the plant stembark. The degree of crystallinity of the polymer membrane can also affect the water uptake capacity. The less crystalline the polymer network is; and the morewater it will absorbed.(Osemeahon, 2016).

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500 400 300 200 100 0

Swelling Capacity (%) Capacity Swelling Plant Membrane of CPSB(g)

Fig.1 Plant membrane of CPSB

Effect of CissusPopulnea Stem Bark Concentration on Water Uptake Capacity Figure 2 shows the effect of CissusPopulnea Stem Bark concentration on water uptake capacity. The study revealed that the water uptake increases as the concentration of the CPS increases from 2g to 20g. (135% to 506%). This result is in agreement with the finding of the study conductedbyAmeh (2013), which showed that the rapid increase in water uptake with increasing adsorbent dosage is due to increase in the availability of more adsorptive surface. Further increment in adsorbent dosage beyond maximum adsorption capacity resulting in decrease in uptake capacity.This reduction in capacity could be due to overlapping of the adsorption sites as a result of overcrowding of adsorbent. Particles beyond the optimize dose (Zhu et al., 2009)

600 500 400 300 200 Cissus Populnea 100 Water Uptkae (%) Water 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 CPSB Concentration (g) Fig. 2 Effect of Concentration on water uptake Effect of pH on water uptake by CPSB The effect of pH on water uptake is presented in figure 2 at pH range from 4.0 to 9.0. The percentage of water uptake changed from 198% to 273% for the CPSB. This showed an incremental difference of 75%. from pH 4.0 to 5.0. However, the percentage of water uptake jumped from 273% to 481% of the CPSB from pH 5.0 t0 9.0. The membrane showed very sharp differences in increment of water uptake. The amount of water uptake absorbed by the pH values of 7.0 to 9.0 are two times the water uptake between pH values of 4.0 to 5.0 for the

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CPSB. It showed that the percentage water uptake increases with increasing pH values. This is due to the presence of the –OH group in solution with increasing pH value. Similarly, the low level of water uptake by adsorbent at low pH could be attributed to the increase in [H+] (Amrita, et al., 2016).

The variation in water uptake by biomass of CPSB at different pH could be due to the differences in the sensitivity of cell wall molecules of the plant cells to pH. This is due to the formation of more hydroxides with increase pH. The differences in the surface chemistry of the different membranes (cations and anions) could also explains the reason for variation in water uptake by CPSB at different pH values (Paul, 2013).

600 550 500 450 400 350 Cissus Populnea 300 250 200 Water Uptake (%) Water 150 4 5 6 pH 7 8 9 Fig. 3 Effect of pH on water uptake Effect of Contact Time on CPSB Water Uptake Theeffect of contact time on CPSB.water uptake by is displayed in figure 4. It showed that the rate of water uptake increased gradually from 1 hour to 6 hours with a percentage change from 274% to 389% respectively which marked the saturation point of the membrane. The water uptake then decreases from 8 hours to 24 hours when equilibrium was reached.It was observed that the process of absorption was high at the initial stage and became slower while approaching the equilibrium stage. Thisdevelopment is due to the fact that more number of vacant negatively charged sites were available initially on the surface of the adsorbent with sites gradually filled up while approaching the equilibrium and completely filled at equilibrium(Oladummi et al; 2012).Crystallinity of the polymer membrane can also affect the rate of diffusion of water molecules into the membrane, and the high crystallinity means less void space between polymer molecule hence a reduction in diffusion rate of water molecules into the polymer membrane.

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410 380 350 320 290 Cissus Populnea 260

Water Uptake (%) Water 230 200 1 2 4 6 8 1 0 2 4 Contact Time (Hrs) Fig. 4 Effect of contact time on water uptake Effect of Temperature on CPSB Water Uptake Figure 5 present the Effect of Temperature on water uptake by CPS. The result showed that water uptake decreases from 200C to 700C by the CPS. It indicates a decrease from 418% to 197%. The trend of this result could be as a result of contraction of pores of the membrane with increase in temperature. This contraction of the pore size and some binding sites limit the access of water molecule into the membranes which translate to decrease in water uptake. This is equally due to the dissolution of low molecular weight polymer andnon-cross linked polymer at high temperature making the pore size to be narrower and suction sites be hidden (Santuraki and Muazu, 2015). The percentage change is also attributed to either an increase in the number of active surface sites available for adsorption on the adsorbent or a decrease in the thickness of the boundary layer surrounding the adsorbent with rise in solution temperature, so that the mass transfer resistance of adsorbent in the boundary layer decreases (Hikmat et al., 2014; Kishore et al., 2012)

450 400 350 300 250 Cissus Populnea 200 Water Uptake (%) Water 150 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 0 Temperature ( c) Fig. 5 Effect of Temperature on water uptake Effect of Ionic Strength on CPSB Water Uptake

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Figure 6 presents the effect of ionic strength on water uptake. It is found that the water uptake decreased with increasing concentration of NaCl. This result is attributed to the decrease in the expansion of the polymer network, by repulsive forces of the counter ions on the polymeric chain shielded by the ionic charge. The percentage uptake change from 0.0 grams to 1.0 gram shows a decrease from 387%, to 223%. The osmotic pressure between the external solution and the polymer network decreased with increase in the ionic strength of the saline concentration (Adeyinka et al., 2017). In this regard, the percentage of water uptake by the membrane of CPSB decreases when the ionic strength of the external solution increases (Kyzas et al., 2012)). This study indicated that presence of ions in water could interfere with the performance of CPSB membrane sorbents.

420 390 360 330 300 270 Cissus… 240 210

Uptake (%) 180 150 0 . 0 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 Water Ionic Strenght (g) Fig. 6. Effect of NaCl on water uptake

Conclusion This study investigated some physical properties of the membrane of CissusPopulnea stem bark plant and determined the water uptakeunder different conditions using the modified tea bag method. The sample showed higher water uptake capacity of up to 500%. It showed an increase in water uptake with increased in concentration and pH, and then uptake decreased with increase in ionic strength and temperature. The contact time increased from 1hr to 6hrs and gradually decreased from 8hrs to 24hrs until equilibrium was achieved. The study found that CPSB membrane could be used as an adsorbent for the treatment of waste water from aqueous solution. Thus it could serve as a viable and cost effective alternative in providing portable

water.

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A STUDY ON THE EVALUATION OF WATER UPTAKE CAPACITY OF CISSUS POPULNEASTEM BARK (CPSB) MEMBRANE

Amina Aminu Department of Chemistry, Federal College of Education, Yola. Adamawa State, Nigeria. Email: [email protected]

ABSTRACT This study investigated some physical properties of CissusPopulnea membrane (CPSB) by determining the water uptake under different conditions (concentration, temperature, pH, contact time, and ionic strength). The modified tea bag method was used to determine the water uptake capacities. The results showed that CissusPopulnea Stem bark membrane has higher water uptake capacity up to500%. It also showed that the water uptake increased with increase in concentration and pH, and decreased with increase in ionic strength and temperature. The contact time increased from 1hr to 6hrs and gradually decreased from 8hrs to 24hrs with the percentage uptake of water. This study revealed that CPSB membrane could be used as an adsorbent for treatment of waste water from aqueous solution. To this end, therefore this study is designed to use membrane derived from a plant CissusPopulnea and evaluate the water uptake capacity of CPSB membrane under different condition.

Keywords: CissusPopulnea, Membrane, Water, Uptake, Capacity.

Heavy metals in waste water are increasingly discharged directly or indirectly in to the environment.Unlike organic contaminants heavy metals are not biodegradable and tends to accumulate in living organisms. Many heavy metals ions are known to be toxic or carcinogenic. Heavy metals are sources of water pollution and largely responsible for environmental problems in developing countries(Singh and Verghese,2016;Mousavi et al.,2010). The toxic effects of heavy metals accumulate through the food chain there by affecting users /consumers.The presence of heavy metal ionsin drinking water constitute serious danger-to-consumers

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particularly,zinc, copper,nickel,mercury, cadmium,lead and chromium that causes risk for human health and environment(Abas etal.,2013;Oyaro et al.,2007). These heavy metals also have crucial biological functions in plants and animals as their chemical coordination and oxidation reduction properties sometimes give them additional benefits to escape control mechanisms such as homeostasis,transport, compartmentalization and binding to required cell constituents(Jaishankar, et al.,2014).Similarly, Flora et al., (2008) noted that the deterioration of biological molecule is primarily due tobinding of heavy metals to the DNA and nuclear protein.

Studies in physical chemistry and biological process revealed that removalof heavy metalions from waste water has been previously achieved by various method such as ion exchange,precipitation,oxidation reduction,reverse osmosis electro chemical filtration(Gupta and Nyaka ,2012;Santhi and Manomani 2012;Santuraki and Muazu,2015). Mostof these methods were found to have some limitations such as production of hazardous by – product,ineffective and expensive for general public.Hence thegrowing need for efficient and cost effective methods or techniques for the removalof heavy metal ions in waste water.Thissituation calls for the need to adopt a more economical and effective methods.Biosorption of heavy metals from aqueous solution is relatively a new technology for the treatment of waste water.The advantage of using this method include; cost effectiveness, affordability, availability and environmental friendliness. These methods could be used as alternative to the expensive waste water treatment processes. Plants are known to be sources of materials which possess properties that are important to waste water management.

Materials and Methods Collection of Materials Sodium alginate, Methanol, Glutaraldehyde, Hydrochloric acid, Sodium chloride, was used, all are product from British Drug House (BDH). The plantCissusPopulneawas obtained from Mbamba area of Yola South Local Government Area of Adamawa State Nigeria. All the chemicals used in this research are of analytical grades and were used as supplied.

Preparation of Plant Sample The dissolution of the powdered sample ofCissusPopulnea Stem Bark(CPSB)was made by weighing 4.00g powdered stem bark in to 100cm3 that was mark with distilled water.Andlabelled mixture A and kept in a separating funnel for 12 hours to observed the possible separation into various fractions (Osemeahon, et al., 2007).

Preparation of Sodium Alginate 205 218

Determination of water uptake The water uptake of CissusPopulnea Stem Barkmembrane was determined using modified “Tea bag” method as reported by Barminas, and Eromosele, (2002) was adopted in this study. This involved the insertion of 2g of clean dried membrane samples into a transparent polyethylene bag, the gross combination was pre weighed before adding 100ml of distilled water, after which it was sealed and kept undisturbed for 24hrs at room temperature to attain equilibrium. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess solution was carefully sucked out using micro syringe, the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was weighed. The percentage water uptake was determined using the following equation; Water uptake (%) = [(Wy-Wx/Wx)] x 100/1: where Wx and Wy represent weight of dry and wet membrane samples respectively, (Barminas, et al., 2005). Two grams (2g) of the clean dried membrane of CPSB of different concentrations (2% - 20%) was inserted into a polyethylene bag and weight before adding 100ml of distilled water, this were then sealed and allowed to stay for 4 hours. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess water was sucked out using a micro syringe, the polyethylene bag with the wet sample was re-weighed again (Osemeahon, et al. 2007). The percentage water uptake will be determined using the formula reported earlier, by Barminas, and Eromosele, (2002). Determination of the effect of pH on water uptake The water uptake behaviour of CPSBmembrane at different pH values (4 – 9) was investigated at 30C0 for 24 hours using the modified tea bag method. Standard solution of 2.0M HCI and 1.0M NaOH was used to adjust the solutions to the required pH values. At the end of the equilibrium period, the excess solution was sucked out using a micro syringe; the polyethylene

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bag with the wet sample was re-weighed. The percentage water uptake was determined at different pH to ascertain the influence on water uptake by the membrane.

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less crystalline the polymer network is; and the morewater it will absorbed.(Osemeahon, 2016).

500 400 300 200 100 0

Swelling Capacity (%) Capacity Swelling Plant Membrane of CPSB(g)

Fig.1 Plant membrane of CPSB

600 500 400 300 200 Cissus Populnea 100 Water Uptkae (%) Water 0 2 4 6 8 1 0 1 2 1 4 1 6 1 8 2 0 CPSB Concentration (g) Fig. 2 Effect of Concentration on water uptake Effect of pH on water uptake by CPSB The effect of pH on water uptake is presented in figure 2 at pH range from 4.0 to 9.0. The percentage of water uptake changed from 198% to 273% for the CPSB. This showed an incremental difference of 75%. from pH 4.0 to 5.0. However, the percentage of water uptake 208 jumped from 273% to 481% of the CPSB from pH 5.0 t0 9.0. The membrane showed very sharp

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differences in increment of water uptake. The amount of water uptake absorbed by the pH values of 7.0 to 9.0 are two times the water uptake between pH values of 4.0 to 5.0 for the CPSB. It showed that the percentage water uptake increases with increasing pH values. This is due to the presence of the –OH group in solution with increasing pH value. Similarly, the low level of water uptake by adsorbent at low pH could be attributed to the increase in [H+] (Amrita, et al., 2016).

600 550 500 450 400 350 Cissus Populnea 300 250 200 Water Uptake (%) Water 150 4 5 6 pH 7 8 9

Fig. 3 Effect of pH on water uptake Effect of Contact Time on CPSB Water Uptake Theeffect of contact time on CPSB.water uptake by is displayed in figure 4. It showed that the rate of water uptake increased gradually from 1 hour to 6 hours with a percentage change from 274% to 389% respectively which marked the saturation point of the membrane. The water uptake then decreases from 8 hours to 24 hours when equilibrium was reached.It was observed that the process of absorption was high at the initial stage and became slower while approaching the equilibrium stage. Thisdevelopment is due to the fact that more number of vacant negatively charged sites were available initially on the surface of the adsorbent with sites gradually filled up while approaching the equilibrium and completely filled at equilibrium(Oladummi et al; 2012).Crystallinity of the polymer membrane can also affect the rate of diffusion of water molecules into the membrane, and the high crystallinity means less void space between polymer molecule hence a reduction in diffusion rate of water molecules into the polymer membrane. 209

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410 380 350 320 290 Cissus Populnea 260

450 400 350 300 250 Cissus Populnea 200 Water Uptake (%) Water 150 2 0 3 0 4 0 5 0 6 0 7 0 0 Temperature ( c) Fig. 5 Effect of Temperature on water uptake

210 Effect of Ionic Strength on CPSB Water Uptake

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420 390 360 330 300 (%) 270 Cissus… 240 210 Uptake 180 150 0 . 0 0 . 1 0 . 2 0 . 4 0 . 6 0 . 8 1 Water Ionic Strenght (g)

Fig. 6. Effect of NaCl on water uptake

water.

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