USAID/ FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL AND ANALYSIS

NOVEMBER 2019

DISCLAIMER This report is made possible by the support of the American People through the Agency for International Development (USAID). The Cadmus Group LLC and ICF prepared this report under USAID’s Environmental Compliance Support (ECOS) Contract, Contract Number GS00Q14OADU119, Order No. 7200AA18N00001. ECOS is implemented by ICF and its subcontractors. The contents of this report are the sole responsibility of the authors and do not necessarily reflect the views of USAID or the United States Government.

USAID/GHANA FOREIGN ASSISTANCE ACT 118/119 TROPICAL FOREST AND BIODIVERSITY ANALYSIS NOVEMBER 2019

Prepared by: The Cadmus Group LLC and ICF

Analysis Team: Michael Minkoff, Joshua Adotey, Yaw Atuahene Nyako, Maclean Asamani Oyeh, Mark Stoughton

Contributors: Paola Bernazzani, Taner Durusu, Jesse Gibson, Jon Hecht, Daniela Kaegi, Carmen Saab

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ACRONYMS AfDB African Development Bank ASGM Artisanal and small-scale gold BCC Behavior Change Communications BOD Biochemical Oxygen Demand CBD Convention on Biological Diversity CCRI Community Conservation Resilience Initiative CDCS Country Development Cooperation Strategy CITES Convention on International Trade in of Wild and CPMR Center for Plant Medicine Research CREMA Community Resource Management Area CSIR Council for Scientific and Industrial Research CSIR-FORIG Council for Scientific and Industrial Research- Research Institute of Ghana CSO Civil Society Organization DA District Assembly DEMC District Environmental Management Committees DO Development Objective DRG Democracy, Rights, and Governance EGO Economic Growth EIAs Environmental Impact Assessments EJF Environmental Justice Foundation EPA Environmental Protection Agency ETOA Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment FAA Foreign Assistance Act FASDEP Food and Sector Development Policy FC Forestry Commission FEU Enforcement Unit FIP Ghana Forest Investment Program FLEGT Forest Law Enforcement, Governance and Trade FoN Friends of the Nation FORIG Forestry Research Institute of Ghana FSC Forest Stewardship Council

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FTF Feed the Future GCFRP Ghana’s Cocoa Forest REDD+ Program GDP Gross Domestic Product GHG Greenhouse gas GIFT Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia GIS Geographic Information System GLSS6 Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6 GoG IBA Important Bird Area IP Implementing partner IRs Intermediate Results IUCN International Union for Conservation of Nature IUU Illegal, unreported, and unregulated LAP Lima Action Plan MAB Man and the Biosphere Strategy MESTI Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation METASIP Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan MMDA Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies MOFA Minsitry of Food and Agriculture MoFAD Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development MSW Municipal Solid Waste NBSAP National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan NDPC National Development Planning Commission NGO Non-governmental organization NRM Natural Resource Management PAs Protected Areas PPA Protected Provenance Area REDD+ Reducing Emissions from and Forest Degradation SLWMP Sustainable Land and Water Management Program SOW Scope of work UN United Nations USAID United States Agency for International Development USG United States Government VCS Verified Carbon Standard VPA Voluntary Partnership Agreement

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WBG World Bank Group WD Wildlife Division WRI Water Resources Institute WWF World Wildlife Fund

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TABLE OF CONTENTS ACRONYMS ...... I EXECUTIVE SUMMARY ...... VIII INTRODUCTION ...... VIII STATUS OF TROPICAL AND BIODIVERSITY ...... VIII THREATS AND DRIVERS ...... IX EXTENT TO WHICH USAID PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTES TO ACTIONS NECESSARY ...... XIII HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA ...... XIV 1. INTRODUCTION ...... 1 1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE ...... 1 1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE USAID PROGRAM UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS ...... 1 1.3 PLANNED STRATEGIC POINTS OF EMPHASIS UNDER THE NEXT CDCS ...... 3 1.4 METHODOLOGY ...... 4 2. COUNTRY CONTEXT AND BIOPHYSICAL SETTING ...... 5 2.1 COUNTRY CONTEXT ...... 5 2.2 BIOPHYSICAL SETTING ...... 7 3. GHANA’S TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 9 3.1 MAJOR TYPES AND STATUS ...... 9 3.2 FOREST TYPE, STATUS, AND ASSOCIATED BIODIVERSITY ...... 14 3.3 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUS ...... 16 3.4 GENETIC DIVERSITY ...... 18 3.5 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS ...... 19 3.6 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE OF PROTECTED AREAS ... 21 4. VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL ...... 24 4.1 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY ...... 24 4.2 ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES ...... 24 5. LEGAL FRAMEWORK & INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE AFFECTING CONSERVATION/ NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ...... 29 5.1 NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES ...... 29 5.2 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS ...... 33 5.3 GOVERNMENT OF GHANA AGENCIES ...... 33 5.4 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES AND GAP ANALYSIS ...... 35 6. THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA ...... 37 6.1 DIRECT THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA ...... 37 6.2 INDIRECT THREATS (DRIVERS) TO BIODIVERSITY...... 50 7. ACTIONS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 60 8. EXTENT TO WHICH THE ACTIONS PROPOSED FOR SUPPORT BY THE AGENCY MEET THE ACTIONS NECESSARY ...... 70 8.1 ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL ...... 70 8.2 ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS ...... 72 8.3 ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ...... 73 8.4 ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE OR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION ...... 76

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8.5 ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE ...... 78 8.6 ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE OPTIONS TO AND WOODFUEL ...... 79 8.7 ACTION 7: DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION ...... 80 9. PROGRAMMING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA UNDER THE NEW CDCS ...... 82 BIBLIOGRAPHY ...... 88 ANNEXES ...... 97 ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK ...... 98 ANNEX B: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON REPORT AUTHORS ...... 108 ANNEX C: SPECIES INFORMATION ...... 110 ANNEX D: RATIFIED INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELEVANT TO CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND IMPROVED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT ...... 113 ANNEX E: KEY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERISTY IN GHANA ...... 116 ANNEX F: PROTECTED AREAS OF GHANA ...... 120 ANNEX G: KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONS ...... 131 CENTRAL GOVERNMENT ...... 138 ANNEX H: CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA...... 142

LIST OF TABLES TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY ...... X TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING ...... XIV TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS ...... 2 TABLE 2. PREDOMINANT ETHNICITIES IN GHANA ...... 5 TABLE 3. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY AGE GROUP AND LOCATION ...... 5 TABLE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2015 BY SUBTYPE IN OPEN AND CLOSED ...... 14 TABLE 5. FAUANA DIVERSITY OF GHANA ...... 17 TABLE 6. GENETIC DIVERSITY OF MAJOR CROPS IN GHANA ...... 18 TABLE 7. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN GHANA ...... 19 TABLE 8. TYPES WITHIN ECOSYTEMS IN GHANA ...... 20 TABLE 9. TOTAL MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL PROTECTION IN GHANA AND AICHI TARGETS ...... 21 TABLE 10. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF IN GHANA ...... 22 TABLE 11. KEY TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES ...... 30 TABLE 12. KEY FORESTRY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES ...... 30 TABLE 13. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING MARINE AND FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY ...... 32 TABLE 14. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT ...... 32 TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM ...... 37 TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY ...... 60

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TABLE 17. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 1 ...... 70 TABLE 18. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 2 ...... 72 TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3 ...... 73 TABLE 20. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 4 ...... 76 TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5 ...... 78 TABLE 22. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 6 ...... 79 TABLE 23. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 7 ...... 80 TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING ...... 83 TABLE 25. KNOWN NUMBER OF FLORA SPECIES IN GHANA ...... 110 TABLE 26. ENDEMIC , THREATENED, AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GHANA ...... 110 TABLE 27.IUCN RED LIST CATEGORY SUMMARY TOTALS FOR GHANA'S PLANTS AND ANIMALS...... 110 TABLE 28. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FAUNA OF GHANA AND ASSOCIATED KEY THREATS ...... 111 TABLE 29. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FLORA OF GHANA ...... 112 TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED ...... 113 TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND ...... 116 TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES ...... 118 TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS ...... 120 TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES ...... 131 TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY ...... 140 TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST ...... 143 TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE ...... 145 TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA ...... 148 TABLE 39. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FRESHWATER RESOURCES ...... 151 TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) ...... 152

LIST OF FIGURES FIGURE 1. TOPOGRAPHY OF GHANA ...... 7 FIGURE 2. AND WATER BODIES OF GHANA ...... 8 FIGURE 3. THE NEAR ITS DELTA. THE MILKY, LIGHT BROWN COLOR IS INDICATIVE OF VERY HIGH SEDIMENT LOADING. NOW THE RIVER’S CONSTANT COLOR, THIS WAS RARELY OBSERVED A GENERATION AGO...... 12 FIGURE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2018 + 2014-2018 ...... 15 FIGURE 5. FOREST LOSS PER YEAR IN FOREST RESERVES ...... 21 FIGURE 6. ECOSYSTEM SERVICES ...... 24 FIGURE 7. POPULATION DENSITY CHANGE IN GHANA FROM 1984-2019, BY REGION ...... 51

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FIGURE 8. CROPLAND AND URBAN GROWTH IN GHANA 2000-2015 ...... 52 FIGURE 9 - CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA (2015 DATA) ...... 142

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EXECUTIVE SUMMARY

INTRODUCTION This Ghana Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis was commissioned by USAID/Ghana to inform the development of its Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) for the period 2020-2025. Towards this end, it concludes with guiding principles and targeted recommendations for future USAID programming to best support conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity.

Sections 6 and 7 of this analysis fulfill requirements of Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA) of 1961, as amended, which stipulates that actions necessary for tropical forestry and biodiversity conservation be identified and the extent to which USAID programming contributes to those actions necessary be characterized for all USAID country development strategies. The analysis also satisfies requirements for country strategy development specified by USAID’s Automated Directives System (ADS) 201 and is prepared in conformity with USAID best practice guidance.

Field work and stakeholder interviews for this analysis were conducted primarily in July 2019, in Accra, the coastal zone, and the north.

STATUS OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY Forests and biodiversity in Ghana are in significant decline.

• Ghana’s small-pelagic marine fisheries, which are a proxy for the health of coastal ecosystems, are on the brink of collapse due to primarily to overfishing. Secondarily, widespread pollution and degradation of inshore waters and the productive seafloor, and the coastal wetlands with which they are ecologically linked exacerbates the risk of collapse. • Savanna conditions and vegetation are moving south into former parts of the Eastern Guinean forest. Forest Reserves are in multiple cases highly compromised. This is globally significant: the Upper Guinean Forest Ecosystem, of which Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest is a part, is recognized as one of the 34 global biodiversity hotspots. • Relatedly, forest cover and forest quality nationwide are decreasing, with closed forest (areas with more than 60% canopy cover) greatly reduced: Eastern Guinean forest degradation rates are at over 3% per year and deforestation rates are at approximately 1.7% per year. Stakeholders generally suggested that degradation and deforestation trends are only modestly better in Protected Areas, though recent studies suggest no difference in forest degradation rates between designated timber production areas and protected Forest Reserves and Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas. • While data gaps make quantifying trends in terrestrial species biodiversity difficult, natural forests are by far the most terrrestially biodiverse areas in Ghana, and the ongoing, significant reduction and degradation in forest cover strongly suggest that the known long-term decline in terrestrial biodiversity continues unabated or is accelerating. • Northern Ghana’s savanna landscapes are severely degraded, with a combination of poor land use management practices, changing climatic conditions, forest degradation, and contributing to eroding conditions.Northern Ghana’s savanna landscapes are severely degraded,

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with a combination of poor land use management practices, changing climatic conditions, forest degradation, and wildfires contributing to eroding conditions.

THREATS AND DRIVERS Based on stakeholder consultations, field visits, and desk research, the analysis characterizes direct threats to tropical forest and biodiversity and their drivers (i.e., root causes) (Section 6) as the means to identify actions necessary for conservation (Section 7). The table below enumerates these threats, drivers, and actions necessary and, beyond this, maps drivers to threats and to actions necessary (Annex I, Threats, Linked Drivers, and Associated Effects on the Status of Biodiversity, maps these threats and linked drivers to the status of biodiversity for each of Ghana’s ecosystems (savanna, forest-savanna transition, Eastern Guinean Forest, freshwater resources, and marine resources).

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TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY

Population Disincentive growth, to apply - or Challenges internal insufficient Inadequate presented by Poor Limited Road and migration, knowledge of implementation Insufficient land tenure sanitation Inadequate access to supplemental infrastructure expansion of - sustainable and enforcement public arrangement and waste affordable energy Drivers or alternative development existing management of existing laws buy-in and (limited) management alternatives livelihoods settlements, practices for and regulations land use systems and traditional planning urbanization livelihoods Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining x x x x x x x activities Unsustainable agriculture and x x x x x activities Wildfires x x x x Sedimentation and siltation of surface x x x x x waters Unsustainable harvesting x x x x x x x x

Overgrazing x x x x x Illegal, unregulated, and unreported fishing x x x x x Unsustainable fishing x x x x Threats Bushmeat hunting x x x x x x x Pollution from mining x x x x x x Solid and liquid waste infiltrating/ overloading x x x x natural systems Coastal Erosion x Oil + gas exploration x Misuse (including overuse) of x x x x agrochemicals

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TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY

Population Disincentive growth, to apply - or Challenges internal insufficient Inadequate presented by Poor Limited Road and migration, knowledge of implementation Insufficient land tenure sanitation Inadequate access to supplemental infrastructure expansion of - sustainable and enforcement public arrangement and waste affordable energy Drivers or alternative development existing management of existing laws buy-in and (limited) management alternatives livelihoods settlements, practices for and regulations land use systems and traditional planning urbanization livelihoods Action 1: Strengthen natural resource and land use governance (regulation, x x x x x x x enforcement, and accountability) at the national level Action 2: Provide targeted technical assistance on sustainable and best x x x x x x management practices for traditional

livelihoods Action 3: Promote district and community level engagement in family planning, land x x x x x x use planning, and natural resource management Action 4: Nurture Actions Necessary non-traditional value chains with potential for “green” growth and income generation x x x x x x competitive with common, illegal or unsustainable options Action 5: Increase investment in and development of education, scientific x x x x x x research, analyses, and technology assisted surveillance

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TABLE ES. 1. MAPPING OF DRIVERS TO THREATS AND ACTIONS NECESSARY

Population Disincentive growth, to apply - or Challenges internal insufficient Inadequate presented by Poor Limited Road and migration, knowledge of implementation Insufficient land tenure sanitation Inadequate access to supplemental infrastructure expansion of - sustainable and enforcement public arrangement and waste affordable energy Drivers or alternative development existing management of existing laws buy-in and (limited) management alternatives livelihoods settlements, practices for and regulations land use systems and traditional planning urbanization livelihoods Action 6: Increase accessibility to and affordability of alternative energy x options to charcoal and fuelwood Action 7: Undertake direct environmental remediation or x x x x x restoration

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EXTENT TO WHICH USAID PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTES TO ACTIONS NECESSARY In conformity with FAA 118/119 requirements, the Analysis characterizes the extent to which USAID programming contributes to actions necessary (Section 8).

In summary, programming under the Mission’s current CDCS contributes significantly to multiple actions necessary, particularly—but not only—to components of Actions 2, 3 and 5. The current CDCS provides significant opportunities to address additional actions necessary and deepen contributions to others. The mission’s planned strong focus on behavioral change, geographic concentration of interventions, and cross-sectoral approaches in the next CDCS is fully consistent with these opportunities to change behavior and improve conservation outcomes. These synergies are highlighted here:

• Action 1: Strengthen natural resource and land use governance at the national level. IRs 1.2 (“Increased government accountability to better-informed citizens”) and 2.1 (“Increased competitiveness of major food chains “) provide the Mission with a pathway to strengthened programming for improved resource management (e.g., formalization of CREMA’s, improved tenure, adoption of silvicultural BMPs): • Action 4: Nurture non-traditional value chains with potential for “green” growth and income generation… Within the current CDCS, there is little direct strategic emphasis on support to non-traditional value chains that could offer environmentally sustainable or ‘green growth” pathways. However, IRs 2.2 (“Improved enabling environment for private sector investment “) and 2.4 (“Increased government accountability and responsiveness”) do provide pathways for such support. • Action 5: Increase investment in and development of education, scientific research, detailed analyses, and GIS/technology assisted surveillance. DO 2 (“Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth”) highlights the necessary role of environmental services in its core development hypothesis. DO2 and corollary elements of the Feed the Future strategy for Ghana highlight the requirement for improved fisheries management, and this has provided a platform for significant Mission programming in support of this Action with respect to fisheries. However, DO 3 (“Equitable Improvements in Health Status”) in principle provides an umbrella under which issues of environmental health and environmental justice could be addressed, including research on water quality impacts of mining and agriculture. DO1 (“Strengthened, Responsive Democratic Governance”) similarly provides an umbrella in principle under which such research and analysis in support of environmental health and environmental justice issues could be carried out, under both its IRs. • Action 7: Undertake direct environmental remediation or restoration. DO 2 and particularly sub-IR 2.4.2 (“Improved community management of natural resources”) combined with IR1.1(improved local government performance) under DO1 provides a clear window in the CDCS for Mission programming in support of /forest enrichment and wetland restoration. In recognizing the key role of ecosystem services, the DO2 development hypothesis reinforces the basis for such programming. In practice, such programming has been limited to some work with mangrove areas in the coastal zone.

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The full extent to which analysis is provided in Section 8.

HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA Based on the extent to which analysis and informed by the Mission’s current programming and input received from Mission staff, the Analysis team developed a set of recommendations for Mission programs and interventions. Table ES. 2, immediately below, shows selected “High Priority” recommendations organized by technical areas of focus, with highest priority actions identified for the Mission’s Economic Growth (EGO), Global Health, Democracy, Rights, and Governance (DRG) portfolio, as well as cross-sectoral actions that span each of those technical areas. The full recommendations are provided in Section 9.

TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

ECONOMIC GROWTH – AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY/NORTHERN ZONE • Provide training on best management practices for sustainable/climate smart agriculture* • Promote intensification of agricultural production (rather than expansion)* • Address pesticide safety via increased education at the farmer level on pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use) • Increase emphasis on restoration and development of sustainable livelihoods assistance outside of traditional agricultural value chains* o Cashew and mango production* o Shea production* o Strengthened environmental governance (e.g., establishment of landscape governing board at the local and district levels working in coordination with traditional authorities) o management (see below) o Afforestation • Address pesticide safety by improving effectiveness of existing policies, particularly import enforcement and retail labelling regimes • Identify and support higher-value agriculture/silvicultural products with potential for sustainable management o Technical assistance targeting best management practices and creating linkages across the value chain o Where trade potential exists (e.g., cashew, shea) provide support to sustainable certification systems and linkages to certifiers and international markets that will pay premiums o Engage with and support new governance structures (e.g., Shea-focused entity being developed under Cocobod by end of 2019) to encourage competitive and sustainable market design/interaction • Heavy emphasis on / support to developing robust wildfire management systems, operating in participatory manner at the community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and developing consensus on approach across traditional authorities and district governance o Reduced attention on complete “no burn” practices; allow for controlled, legal burning in permitted instances, ensuring proper controls/oversight entities are engaged o Leverage community frustration at losses incurred from uncontrolled wildfires o Identify high-value permanent crops that could be viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cocoa, cashew in forest-savanna zone)

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan

ECONOMIC GROWTH – COASTAL ZONES • Identify—and provide support towards the realization of—sustainable alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit.*

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TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

• Support rationalized management regime for wetlands o Must incorporate incentive structure that encourages adoption of effective co-management systems o Address existing inadequacy/fragmentation of existing planning and oversight bodies responsible for wetlands management

*would continue/build on SFMP and FCMCBSP under the current CDCS.

ECONOMIC GROWTH – POWER / ENERGY DEVELOPMENT • Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with Government of Ghana renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA.

GLOBAL HEALTH (FAMILY PLANNING) • Focus family planning efforts along coast and forests and degraded landscapes; this can potentially be linked with Economic Growth Food Security initiatives both in northern Ghana and in coastal zones

DEMOCRACY, RIGHTS, AND GOVERNANCE • Accountable Governance. Support to environmental justice, in the form of accountable management of natural resources ○ Strengthen environmental reporting (see Media, below), engage and strengthen environmental Non- governmental organizations (NGOs), create systems to reward/celebrate environmentally friendly political actors ○ Enhance systems to express grievances by community members related to environmental challenges/issues • Media. Provide support to existing media outlets on environmental journalism, exploring linkages between inadequate enforcement of key natural resources, precipitous resource degradation, and impacts on individuals at the community level

CROSS-SECTORAL • Land use planning and land tenure (DRG, EGO). Strengthen participatory land use and spatial planning* in combination with: targeted support to land tenure* that addresses clear land demarcation, fair, secure, enforceable, and transparent land lease arrangements; and targeted technical assistance on best management practices in sustainable agriculture/silviculture or other sustainable value chains (e.g., sustainable wood lots via acacia). • Behavior Change Communications (BCC). Engage in a broad BCC activity for environmental sensibility and understanding (DRG and EGO, with HEALTH as noted) o Must emphasize value derived by communities from environmentally sustainable management practices o Measures should be participatory, working across governmental and traditional authorities o Integrate elements of family planning, environmental health, natural resource management, and food security to maximize resonance of messaging (HEALTH). o Tie BCC efforts to strengthening effective land use management and governance, motivating community-level enforcement, and increased accountability at the DA level. • Community Resource Management Areas (CREMAs)* (DRG and EGO) o Support and facilitate the process to gazette CREMA bye-law to give legal backing and enhance effective law enforcement at the CREMA levels o Support policy and implementation of defined co-benefit approaches under CREMAs. o Explore the potentials of ecosystem services as a sustainability tools for community engagement including CREMAs in natural resources management.

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TABLE ES. 2. HIGH PRIORITY RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

o Support capacity building and assessment of the ground-water volume of targeted landscapes and areas. o Support research on the cost and benefit analysis for watersheds and major water towers in targeted areas. o Support CREMA communities and members with tools and equipment to enhance effective monitoring in the landscape.

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1. INTRODUCTION

1.1 PURPOSE AND SCOPE The United States Agency for International Development (USAID) Ghana Mission (the Mission) is required by Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act (FAA), to prepare an analysis of the state of Ghanaian tropical forests and biodiversity (“the Analysis”) to inform development of the Mission’s 2019–2024 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS).

Specifically, FAA Section 118 Tropical Forests and Section 119 Endangered Species, as amended, require that country development strategies, statements, or other country plans prepared by USAID include an analysis as follows:

FAA Section 118 (e) Country Analysis Requirements. Each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1. The actions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, and 2. The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

FAA Section 119 (d) Country Analysis Requirements. Each country development strategy statement or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1. The actions necessary in that country to conserve biological diversity, and 2. The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified.

The Analysis ensures compliance with these FAA 118/119 requirements and provides recommendations to inform the Mission’s 2019-2024 CDCS. The Analysis includes an evaluation of the status of Ghanaian tropical forests and biodiversity, an analysis of the legal and institutional frameworks affecting conservation, an economic valuation of ecosystems, a comprehensive appraisal of threats to biodiversity and the underlying drivers thereof, a summary of necessary actions to protect tropical forests and biodiversity, linkages to current USAID programs, and recommendations for strategic opportunities moving forward. In developing recommendations, the Analysis team identifies key changes in the status of institutional management of conservation, use of natural resources, and biodiversity that must be considered at a programmatic level. It builds from the 2011 Ghana tropical forest and biodiversity analysis developed for USAID/Ghana’s current (2013–2019) CDCS.1

1.2 BRIEF DESCRIPTION OF THE USAID PROGRAM UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS The overarching goal of the current USAID/Ghana CDCS is to support Ghana in “realizing its goal of becoming an established middle-income country by 2022.”2

Technical programming under the CDCS is implemented in pursuit of four Development Objectives (DOs), elaborated in Table 1 below. Each Mission technical office (Democracy, Rights and Governance

1 USAID/Ghana. USAID/Ghana Biodiversity and Tropical Forests Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment. May 2011. 2 USAID/Ghana. Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS) 2013 – December 2019. December 2012.

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(DRG), Economic Growth, Health, and Education) has primary responsibility for implementation of one of the DOs.

TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS CURRENT INTERMEDIATE DESCSRIPTION OF PROGRAMMING UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS DO RESULTS CDCS The DO 1 development hypothesis is that if: low-capacity IR 1.1: Improved local decentralized institutions improve their performance, better- government informed citizens succeed in demanding more accountability at all performance levels of government, and election institutions and processes are strong enough to guarantee the fairness of Ghana’s elections, then democratic governance will be strengthened and more responsive to citizens—and that this is essential for Ghana’s transition to middle- IR1.2: Increased DO 1: income status. government Strengthened accountability to A primary focus of programming under IR 1.2 is anti-corruption, Responsive better-informed strengthening the capacity of both Civil Society Organizations Democratic citizens (CSOs) and the National Audit Authority to hold government Governance accountable, particularly at the DA level with respect to capital projects. IR 1.2 is also the foundation for a cross-cutting CDCS focus on increased government accountability/responsiveness across all IR 1.3: Strengthened DOs, each of which have an IR for this purpose. election institutions DO 1 builds upon the 2011 Democracy and Governance Assessment and processes and Ghana Gender Assessment, the Mission’s past programming, including evaluations, and broad stakeholder consultations. IR 2.1: Increased The DO 2 development hypothesis is that if agricultural productivity competitiveness of and nutrition practices are improved, and if environmental services major food chains are maintained, reliable electricity supply is improved, local governance of resources is ensured, and the business policy IR 2.2: Improved environment is enhanced, then local populations will be more food enabling environment secure and play a larger role in an expanding economy. IR 2.4 has for private sector two foci: improved governance in the energy sector, and improved local community management of natural resources. DO2: investment Sustainable The DO2 agricultural, food security and natural resource IR 2.3: Improved and Broadly management programming zone of intervention is 79 districts, resiliency of Shared divided between the majority in the north of the country and the vulnerable Economic coastal zone, with the focus in the latter on fisheries and coastal households and Growth landscapes. communities and reduced under- DO 2 directly supports the Government of Ghana (GoG) Shared nutrition Growth and Development Agenda, Growth and Poverty Reduction Strategy, Food & Agriculture Sector Development Policy (FASDEP), IR 2.4: Increased Comprehensive Africa Agriculture Development Program, the government Medium Term Agriculture Sector Investment Plan METASIP), two accountability and U.S. Presidential Initiatives (Feed the Future and Global Climate responsiveness Change), and the Partnership for Growth. DO3: IR 3.1: Increased The DO 3 development hypothesis is that if Ghanaians have Equitable access to integrated increased access to quality integrated health services, increased Improvements health services availability of community-based health resources, strengthened and in Health IR 3.2: Increased responsive health systems, and improved governance and Status availability of accountability in the health sector, then they will experience more

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TABLE 1. USAID/GHANA 2013-2019 CDCS CURRENT INTERMEDIATE DESCSRIPTION OF PROGRAMMING UNDER THE CURRENT CDCS DO RESULTS CDCS community-based equitable improvements in their health status. Under these IRs, health resources programming is implemented in the Malaria, HIV/AIDs, Family IR 3.3: Strengthened Planning, Nutrition and WASH technical areas. There is a significant and responsive health government-to-government component. systems In addition to GHI alignment, DO 3 also support USAID/Ghana’s IR 3.4: Improved nutrition programs under Feed the Future and reflect health sector USAID/Ghana’s cross-cutting themes of gender equity, capacity governance and building, and the need for improved governance and accountability. accountability IR 4.1: Enhanced The DO 4 development hypothesis is that if instruction in reading reading and math and mathematics is enhanced, if it is supported through strengthened instruction basic education management systems, and if education sector IR 4.2: Strengthened governance institutions are more accountable and transparent to DO4: basic education- citizens who can engage in school oversight, then children’s learning Improved management systems outcomes, specifically children’s reading performance in primary Reading schools, will improve. IR 4.3: Increased Performance government Programming is at the kindergarten to P3 level. It emphasizes in Primary accountability and education quality and supports the agency goal of improve reading School transparency skills for 100 million children in primary grades by 2015, as well as the GoG’s focus on educational quality in the Ghana Education Strategic Plan (ESP) 2010-2020. Emphasizing literacy, but including math, underscores the reciprocal benefits of mutually reinforcing skill-building of literacy and numeracy acquisition.

1.3 PLANNED STRATEGIC POINTS OF EMPHASIS UNDER THE NEXT CDCS The Mission’s new (2019–2024) CDCS is in development, and the draft results framework was not available to the Analysis team. However, the following directions/emphases were conveyed to the team and have been used to develop the recommendations presented in Section 9. The Mission expects to accomplish the following:

• Ensure a results-led—rather than intervention-driven—design by defining outcomes as specific behaviors required to achieve development goals. • Continue programming around its current technical offices: DRG, Economic Growth, Health and Education. • Maintain its existing geographic foci for agriculture, food security, and natural resource programming in the North (majority) and in the Western and Central coastal zone. However, to concentrate impacts, the total number of districts will be reduced from 59 to 17. The anticipated districts are: Northern Region: East Mamprusi, Gushiegu, Karaga, Mamprugu Moagduri, Mion, Sagnerigu, Nanton, Yendi; Upper East Region: Bawku Municipal, Bawku West, Garu, Tempane; Upper West Region: Daffiama Bussie Issa, Nadowli-Kaleo, Sissala East, Sissala West, Wa East • Geographically cluster, concentrate, and leverage cross-sectoral interventions to best achieve incrementally improved development outcomes

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• Provide assistance in support of strengthening land tenure and increasing the accountability and capability of government at the local level.

1.4 METHODOLOGY The Analysis consisted of three phases:

Phase 1: Pre-field work planning, desk-based research and writing, DC-based consultations, and logistical arrangements for in-country site visits and consultations.

Phase 2: In-country consultations and site visits.

Phase 3: Post-field work DC- and Ghana-based consultations; and draft and final report writing.

See Annex A for the Scope of Work and Annex B for the biographical information on report authors.

Analytical Methods used for this Assessment

1. Desk-based review of relevant scientific literature, published reports, and media accounts; 2. Stakeholder consultation with US- (predominantly Washington, DC) and Ghana-based key informants from civil society, non-governmental organizations (NGOs), United States Government (USG), Government of Ghana (GoG), multilateral donors, and the private sector; 3. Limited in-country site visits; 4. Spatial analysis; and 5. Insight and professional best judgement from the core Analysis team.

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2. COUNTRY CONTEXT AND BIOPHYSICAL SETTING

2.1 COUNTRY CONTEXT Formerly known as the Gold Coast, Ghana gained independence from Britain in 1957, becoming the first sub-Saharan nation to emerge from colonial rule. 3 Ghana has a population of 29.6 million and a growth rate of 2.16% per year.

Ghana’s sustained strong economic growth from the early 1990s–2012 TABLE 2. PREDOMINANT ETHNICITIES IN GHANA that helped reduce the country’s poverty rate from 52.6% in 1991 to ETHNICITY POPULATION 21.4% in 2012. Following a slowing in Ghana’s economy between 2013 and 2016, growth accelerated to 8% in 2017, driven by the mining and Akan 47.5% Mole- oil sectors, making it the second-fastest growing African economy, 16.6% trailing only . However, during this recent strong, and largely Dagbon steady, economic growth overall inequality has increased, with a Ewe 13.9% pronounced gap in economic status of rural and urban households.4 Ga-Dangme 7.4% Gurma 5.7% Ghana is an ethnically diverse country with several ethnic groups (see Guan 3.7% Table 2), most of which include multiple tribes. Christianity is the Grusi 2.5% largest with 71.2% of Ghana’s population belonging to Mande 1.1% various Christian denominations while 17.6% identify as Muslim, and All others 1.4% 5.2% follow an indigenous religion. Approximately 57% of Ghana’s Source: Central Intelligence Agency. population is under the age of 25. Increased life expectancy, due to “Ghana.” The World Factbook, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publi better health care, nutrition, and hygiene and reduced fertility have cations/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html. Source: Ghana Statistical Service. 2015 Labour Force Report 2015. December 2016. increased Ghana’s share of elderly persons; Ghana’s proportion of persons aged 60+ is among the highest in sub-Saharan Africa.5

Table 3 shows higher unemployment in younger age classes. This general trend is true irrespective of sex and locality of residence.6

TABLE 3. UNEMPLOYMENT RATE BY AGE GROUP AND LOCATION AGE (YEARS) URBAN RURAL OVERALL UNEMPLOYMENT UNEMPLOYMENT UNEMPLOYMENT 15-24 31.3% 20.8% 25.9% 25-44 11.9% 9.0% 10.6% 45-64 6.0% 5.9% 6.0% 65+ 9.9% 8.8% 9.2% Overall 13.4% 10.2% 11.9%

3 Central Intelligence Agency. “Ghana.” The World Factbook, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/gh.html.

4 Molini, Vasco & Paci, Pierella. Poverty Reduction in Ghana: Progress and Challenges. World Bank Group, October 2015. 5 Ibid. 6 Republic of Ghana. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, December 2016.

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Extreme poverty (i.e. subsistence on less than USD 1.90/day7) is a rural phenomenon, with about 2.2 million persons living in extreme poverty in Ghana’s rural areas, or approximately 15.6% of the Ghana’s rural population. Extreme poverty is most prevalent in rural parts of the northern savanna zone (Figure 2), which is susceptible to droughts and floods and has less access to transportation infrastructure, markets, fertile farming land, and industrial centers. Northern Ghana also has lower school enrollment, higher illiteracy, and fewer opportunities for women.8 Extreme poverty increased in these areas from 27.3% of the population in 2012–13 to 36.1% of the population in 2016–2017 and accounts for 75% of the extreme poor in Ghana; all other parts of the country have experienced at least modest declines in extreme poverty during this period. Nationwide, almost four million children live below the poverty line, and poverty reduction is not keeping pace with population growth.9 10

7 World Bank Group. “Access to electricity (% of population).” Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=GH. 8 Republic of Ghana. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, December 2016. 9 Gallagher, Katherine. “Ghana’s Poverty Rate and Inequality.” The Borgen Project, August 2017, retrieved from https://borgenproject.org/ghana-poverty-rate/. 10 Republic of Ghana. Poverty Trends in Ghana 2005–2017. Ghana Statistical Service, August 2018.

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Since taking office in 2017, President Akuffo-Addo continues to pursue his election pledges such as building one factory per district, free secondary education, increased foreign investment, and curbing corruption.11

2.2 BIOPHYSICAL SETTING Ghana is centered on latitude 7.95° N and longitude 1.03° W with a total land area of 238,535 square kilometers (km2).12 The country has a north-south extent of about 670 km and a maximum east-west extent of about 560 km. Ghana is bordered by Côte d’Ivoire to the west, to the north, and to the east. To the south are the and the . The highest elevation in Ghana, Mount Afadjato in the Akwapim-Togo Ranges, rises 880 meters (m) above sea level. As illustrated by Figure 1, low stretch across the southern part of the country; the Southern Ashanti Uplands, stretch from the Côte d’Ivoire border in the west to the elevated edge of the Volta Basin in the east; the Akwapim- are located in the eastern part of the country; the Volta Basin occupies the central part of Ghana and covers about 45% of the nation’s total area; and high plains span northern and Figure 1. Topography of Ghana northwestern Ghana, outside the Source: Comité Permanent Inter-étas de Lutte Contre la Sécharesse dal le Sahel (CILSS). : Land use and Land Cover Dynamics – The Republic of Ghana. 13 Volta Basin. Ghana contains U.S. Geological Survey EROS. 2016. extensive water resources, including Volta and Bosomtwi, as well seasonal and perennial rivers.14

Ghana has three distinct climatic zones. The South-Western system is the most humid part of the country, with mean annual rainfall between 1500 mm and 2000 mm. The Volta basin system, covering

11 “The World Bank in Ghana.” World Bank Group, Retrieved August 2019 from https://www.worldbank.org/en/country/ghana/overview. 12 “Latitude and longitude of Ghana.” Latitude, retrieved July 2019 from https://latitude.to/map/gh/ghana. 13 Food and Agriculture Organization. “Ghana.” AQUASTAT Survey, 2005. 14 World Bank Group. “Ghana: Country Context.” Climate Knowledge Portal, retrieved July 2019 from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ghana.

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the northern part of the country, has mean annual rainfall of about 1000 mm in the savanna area and about 1500 mm to 2000 mm in the forest area (See Annex H). The coastal basin system is the driest, with mean annual rainfall of about 900 mm. Ghana’s climate is tropical and strongly influenced by the West African monsoon. Seasonal variations in temperature in Ghana are greatest in the north, with highest temperatures in the hot, dry season (April, May, and June) at 27‐30°C; further south, temperatures are lower (June, August, September) at 22‐25°C. Mean annual temperature has increased by 1.0˚C, at an average rate of 0.21˚C per decade since 1960. The rate of increase has been higher in the northern regions of the country than in the south.15

Figure 2. Ecoregions and Water Bodies of Ghana

15 World Bank Group. “Ghana: Country Context.” Climate Knowledge Portal, retrieved July 2019 from https://climateknowledgeportal.worldbank.org/country/ghana.

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3. GHANA’S TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY Current information on biodiversity in Ghana is not robust: according to Ghana’s Fifth National Report to the Convention on Biological Diversity (CBD), no major assessment of biodiversity has been carried out since the European Union funded Protected Area Development Programme (PADP) (1997-2000 and 2004-2010).16 However, as summarized in this section, landscape and ecosystem degradation is significant across the country, with observed deterioration of in marine, coastal and freshwater systems and declines in natural land cover including Ghana’s forests, dry and sub-humid savanna. This degradation necessarily has direct, adverse impacts on biodiversity. The remainder of this section provides brief discussion on species diversity and status in major ecosystems in Ghana.

As elaborated in Section 6, major threats to biodiversity include land-use conversions, habitat degradation, over-exploitation, invasive alien species, climate change, predation, wild fires and poaching. In Annex I, these major threats and linked drivers are directly mapped to their effects on the status of biodiversity for each of the ecosystems discussed in this section.

3.1 MAJOR ECOSYSTEM TYPES AND STATUS

3.1.1 SAVANNA-GRASSLANDS AND SHRUBLANDS Ghana has two distinct forms of savanna-grasslands: (savanna) and Guinean forest-savanna (forest-savanna transition).17 Combined, the West Sudanian savanna and Guinea forest- savanna zones cover approximately 57% of the land area of Ghana.18 The hot, dry, and wooded West Sudanian savanna is composed mainly of large tree species and long elephant grass.19 It is separated from the Eastern Guinean forest by the Guinean forest-savanna.20 Unlike the rest of the country, the interior savanna has only one rainy season from April/May to October. Annual rainfall ranges from 800mm to 1000mm and declines from South to North.21

Information on species diversity and in the savanna zone is very sparse,22 however the savanna has clearly experienced substantial degradation in recent decades. Formerly uninterrupted savanna landscapes are now highly fragmented, and large tracts of natural habitat are broken into myriad patches of farmland, reducing habitat suitability for many types of wildlife.23 As

16 Republic of Ghana. CBD Fifth National Report – Ghana. Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, Convention on Biological Diversity, 31 December 2015. 17 Resolve. “Ecoregions 2017.” Retrieved July 2019 from https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/. 18 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 19 World Wildlife Fund, “Western Africa: Stretching from to Senegal,” WWF, accessed July 2019 from https://www.worldwildlife.org/ecoregions/at0707. 20 Ibid. 21 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 22 Ibid. 23 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land- cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana.

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elaborated in Section 6.1.2, unsustainable agricultural practices, including poor land use and slash-and- burn cultivation, serve as a primary driver of degradation, with about 93% of households in the rural savanna involved in agriculture.24

Changing climatic conditions (Section 6.1.4) such as increasingly frequent droughts and flooding— generally accompanied by high temperatures and intense heat—are also adversely impacting Ghana’s savanna zone, 25, 26 leading to soil erosion and fertility loss, sedimentation and siltation of surface waters, and reduced agricultural productivity—which often leads to uptake of additional resource extraction (e.g., charcoal production) and agricultural extensification.

Further, wildfires (Section 6.1.1) are prevalent and highly problematic throughout the savanna zone, driven by hunting, agricultural, and cultural practices,27 and insufficiently resourced and implemented fire management regimes.28

3.1.2 TROPICAL FORESTS Tropical forest in Ghana covers 10.2% of the total land area, approximately 2.46 million hectares (ha), mainly confined to the southern-western and middle sectors of the country.29 The Upper Guinean Forest Ecosystem, of which Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forest is a part, is recognized as one of 34 global biodiversity hotspots. Despite the high concentration of biodiversity in this area, the region has lost about 80% of the original forest cover, and its remnants are continually threatened with destruction and degradation.30 The Guinean forest-savanna transition zone (see Figure 2 above), is a previously densely forested area within Ghana transitioning into savanna due to population growth, internal migration, urbanization, agricultural and silvicultural expansion, and mining activities (both legal and illegal), among other anthropogenic pressures. Most of the remaining primary forest in that area only exists in statutory Forest Reserves, with small patches of traditionally protected forest occurring as sacred groves outside the reserves and representing less than 2% of the total forest area.

Ghana’s forest resources include primary and and both natural forests and . Primary forests are composed of native tree species, with minimal human disturbance and where ecological processes are not significantly affected. Secondary forests may be defined as the “woody successional vegetation that regenerates after the forest cover has been removed by human intervention.”31 Within the Eastern Guinean forest, 1.76 million ha, or 21%, are permanently protected, with neither occupancy nor agriculture permitted within reserves.32 (As discussed in Section 6, de jure

24 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6): Main Report. Ghana Statistical Service, August 2014. 25 World Bank Group. 3rd Ghana Economic Update: Agriculture as an Engine of Growth and Jobs Creation, February 2018. 26 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 27 In-country consultations with governmental, non-governmental, and private sector stakeholders. 28 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 29 Republic of Ghana. CBD Fifth National Report – Ghana. Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology, and Innovation, Convention on Biological Diversity, 31 December 2015. 30 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 31 Blay, Dominic. ”Tropical Secondary in Humid Africa: Reality and Perspectives.” FAO, Workshop on Tropical Secondary Forest Management in Africa, December 2002. 32 Agyarko, Tabi. FOSA Country Report – Ghana. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA), Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000.

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protections and de facto conditions are often different.) Current forest coverage stands at 8.1 million ha in the Eastern Guinean forest.33 Outside of permanent reserves, forestland is extremely fragmented in Ghana.

Recent initiatives, such as the Forest Plantation Strategy (2016–2040) attempt to restore degraded land and create employment. is a highly important sub-sector in Ghana, and forest plantations are increasingly prevalent, especially for cash crops like cocoa and oil palm. A key component of Ghana’s Forest Plantation Strategy entails introducing Forest Plantations into heavily degraded forest areas, including on-reserve where applicable. While this won’t fully resolve loss or harm to biodiversity, it is part of Ghana’s strategy to improve forest connectivity and reduce loss of forest and canopy cover.

Between 1900 and 1990, Ghana lost 80% of its forest cover (from 8 million ha to 1.6 million ha), impacted by a combination of wildfires, excessive extraction of timber, and human encroachment for agricultural purposes.34 Reports indicate that more than 80% of agricultural expansions in Ghana between 1980 and 2000 resulted in deforestation or forest degradation.35 Approximately 11 million Ghanaians live in forest areas, and two-thirds of the population is supported by forest-related activities.36 In terms of forest coverage, there was a net gain in Ghana from 1990 to 2015, though that figure includes forest plantations; no nationwide inventories that could disaggregate primary, secondary, and plantation forest cover have been completed since 2001. However, in that same time period, the area of dense forest coverage (where forest canopy is greater than 60%) degraded by 9,816 km2, whereas the area of open forest cover (where the forest canopy is between 15% and 60%) expanded over the same period by nearly 15,000 km2. This indicates that while overall forest cover may have increased in Ghana over this time period, the forest area with dense canopy was degraded at a rate of about 460 km2 per year since 1990, and degradation rates have been sited at approximately 3.6% per year.37

3.1.3 FRESHWATER RESOURCES Ghana’s inland aquatic resources include rivers, floodplains, , lakes, and wetlands.38 Volta, artificially created following the construction of the Akosombo Dam between 1961 and 1965, is one of the largest man-made lakes in the world, covering 8,502 km2 and providing a major fishing ground and source of irrigation water for farms in the Accra plains below the dam site.39 Lake Bosomtwi, now a biosphere reserve, is the only natural lake system in Ghana. It covers approximately 50 km2 and has 11 fish species from nine genera and five families. Ghana’s river systems include the Black and the (and tributaries), River Oti, , Volta, Tano, Ankobra, Pra, Densu, and Ayens,40 and Ghana’s six major river basins are Densu, White Volta, Ankobra, Pra, Tano, and . The has

33 Ibid. 34 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 35 Ibid. 36 Ibid. 37 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 38 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. “Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 39 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 40 Anderson, Kwesi. “Ghana – Freshwater Ecosystem.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 14 August 2010, retrieved from http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/freshwater-ecosystem.

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the largest catchment area, representing nearly 70% of Ghana’s total catchment. All of Ghana’s rivers drain to the Gulf of Guinea.

Increases in silt load resulting from changes in land use, such as agriculture or urbanization, or water use alter the natural evolutionary processes of river and stream ecosystems. In doing so, they cause several problems, such as the sedimentation and siltation of water resources, which lead to reductions in flow resulting in the progressive restriction of water bodies to smaller beds within the original channel.41 Additionally, Ghana’s gold rush has harmed water resources. Aside from harmful impacts of mercury contamination from mercury amalgamation and poor or nonexistent clean-up in illegal mining (galamsey) activities, mining is usually accompanied by deforestation and removal of fertile topsoil, adding to sediment loads and otherwise adversely affecting riparian communities and water bodies.42 Consequently, species richness in Ghana’s freshwater ecosystems is declining, especially among those species most sensitive to pollution.43 The construction of the Bui hydroelectric dam in 2009 led to the habitat loss of the White-collared mangabey (Cercocebus torquagus torquatus).44

PHOTO: M STOUGHTON/CADMUS.

Figure 3. The Pra River near its delta. The milky, light brown color is indicative of very high sediment loading. Now the river’s constant color, this was rarely observed a generation ago.

3.1.4 MARINE RESOURCES, INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS Ghana’s marine ecosystems are ecologically and economically significant. Ghana’s entire 500-km coastline lies along the Gulf of Guinea and is lined with approximately 90 lagoons and other coastal wetlands, several estuaries, and rocky shore habitats which exhibit a distinct array of biodiversity. The varied habitats of the coast boast about 347 fish species.45 Production from marine fisheries in Ghana has been declining since 1999, from almost 420,000 tons to 202,000 tons in 2014.46 The coastal wetlands include five Ramsar sites: Keta Lagoon Complex, Songhor, Sakumo, Muni lagoons, and the Densu

41 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 42 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 43 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 44 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 45 Anderson, Kwesi. “Ghana—Marine Ecosystem.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 14 August 2010. Retrieved from http://gh.chm-cbd.net/biodiversity/faunal-diversity-ghana/ecosystem-diversity/marine-ecosystem. 46 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en.

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Delta.47 With partial exceptions for some of these Ramsar sites, Ghana’s coastal wetlands are generally significantly to severely degraded, with conditions progressively worsening.

Similarly, information on faunal, microbial, and floral diversity is generally sparse outside of Ramsar sites.48 Coastal wetlands suffer from organic pollution due to domestic, agricultural, and industrial wastes, which results in increased organic loading of coastal waters and Biochemical Oxygen Demand (BOD) leading to inadequate oxygen supplies to support plant and animal life.49 These nutrients contribute to eutrophication of the sea, including algal blooms that result in high levels of dead organic matter that consumes oxygen as it decays, leading to hypoxic conditions which can be lethal to aquatic organisms. The erosion of coastal areas, driven heavily by sand mining for construction, can destroy life in the inter-tidal area and disturb it in near-shore coastal waters. Extensive coastal erosion can be detrimental for artisanal fisherman and may also result in the long-term degradation of vital fish spawning sites.50 The relatively high population density and concentration of industries in the coastal zone together with poor sanitation, have worsened environmental pressures and pollution both in coastal and marine zones with waters near metro areas heavily contaminated with sewage, and seafloor in some areas covered with plastics—severely impacting viability of breeding.51 This environmental degradation, adds to the impact of unsustainable artisanal fishing (Section 6.1.2) and illegal fishing (Section 6.1.2) (particularly commercial trawling) operations that have brought Ghana’s small pelagic (e.g., sardinella, anchovies, and mackerel) to the brink of collapse. See 6.1.3 for more information.

Ghana is also a hotspot for “aquatic bushmeat” (large marine species like dolphins, manatees, sea turtles and birds killed by direct hunting) as a result of decreasing fishery stocks and demand for human consumption.52 In Ghana, as well as Nigeria and Senegal, sources indicate an existing, albeit poorly documented, practice of using aquatic and turtles for shark and cephalopod bait. Utilized bait tend to be small cetaceans, although manatee (Trichechus senegalensis) are known to have been targeted in Ghana.53 Along with the growing demand for aquatic bushmeat, the main threats to marine and freshwater species are overfishing, fishing bycatch, and habitat degradation. Many non-fish marine species are threatened by the fishing industry due to bycatch or incidental capture.54 For example, turtles are accidentally captured by gillnets, trawlers, and other fishing gear; seabirds are killed by collisions or drown after being hooked by longlines, and dolphins are susceptible to entanglement. The West African sawfish (mentioned above) is particularly threatened by entanglement due to their distinctive ‘tooth’ that extends far in front of its body.55

The Gulf of Guinea’s flora and fauna are limited relative to the neighboring West African Marine Ecoregion due to low salinity, high turbidity, and an ancient climate regression to cooler waters that has

47 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 48 Ibid. 49 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 50 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 51 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 52 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 53 Mintzer, VJ; Diniz, K; & Frazer, TK. “The Use of Aquatic Mammals for Bait in Global Fisheries.” Frontiers in Marine Science, June 2018. 54 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 55 Ibid.

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made conditions less favorable to marine species. However, the Gulf of Guinea does support some important marine fisheries near Ghana where the coastal upwelling creates more favorable conditions, and cold-water reefs were discovered in 2017 off Ghana’s coast.56 While the Ghanaian coastal environment is devoid of any living coral reefs, the entire continental shelf is traversed by a belt of dead stony coral at a depth of 75m.57

3.2 FOREST TYPE, STATUS, AND ASSOCIATED BIODIVERSITY

3.2.1 EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST Ghana contains moist and dry semi-deciduous forest, and wet, moist, and upland evergreen forest, as part of the Eastern Guinean tropical forest, which, together with the Western Guinean Lowland Forest (outside of Ghana), compose the Subregion.58 Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forests fall in the southwestern part of the country. The Guinean Forests are as one of 35 global “hotspots” for exceptionally high biodiversity combined with extreme deforestation make this hotspot one of the top global priorities for conservation.59 However, the Eastern Guinean portion of this hotspot supports fewer distinctive flora and fauna and has fewer endemic species than its neighboring Western Guinean Lowland Forest.60 Out of 3,725 higher plants known to be in Ghana, about 2,300 are found in the Eastern Guinean forest, including 730 tree species, and similarly, approximately 185 mammals of Ghana and about 200 of the over 700 resident birds in Ghana are present in the Eastern Guinean forest.61

TABLE 4. FOREST LOSS 2000-2015 BY SUBTYPE IN OPEN AND CLOSED FOREST COVER Closed Forest Deforestation Open Forest Deforestation Annual Area Annual Area Forest subtype Lost Total Lost Total Wet Evergreen 10,810 162,150 11,022 165,330 Moist Evergreen 14,162 212,430 36,544 548,160 Moist Semi-Deciduous (SE + NW) 19,391 290,865 45,166 677,490 Upland Evergreen 687 10,305 586 8,790 Dry Semi-deciduous 1,657 24,855 34,788 521,820 Total 46,707 700,605 128,106 1,921,590 Source: Ghana’s National Forest Reference Level. National REDD+ Secretariat, Forestry Commission. January 2017. Accessed August 27, 2019: https://redd.unfccc.int/files/ghana_national_reference__level_01.01_2017_for_unfccc- yaw_kwakye.pdf

56 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 57 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 58 Critical Ecosystem Partnership Fund. Ecosystem Profile: Guinean Forests of West Africa . CEPF, December 31, 2015. 59USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 60 Ibid. 61 Republic of Ghana. Forestry Development Master Plan 2016-2040. Ministry of Lands & Natural Resources, September 2016.

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Due to extreme and extensive and degradation, the Guinean Forests are among the most severely threatened in the world and one of the most fragmented ecosystems on the planet.62 While in 1900, these forested areas were estimated to range between 8 and 9 million ha (approximately 34 to 38% of Ghana’s total land area), this was halved to 4.4 million ha (about 18% of Ghana’s land area) by 1946.63 Today, only 11% of the total land surface area of Ghana remains forested, and it is protected through the establishment of over 290 Forest Reserves that are spread throughout the country.64 Figure 4 below, shows—against a backdrop of Ghana’s forest density in 2000—the trends in forest loss both from 2000 to 2018 and then between the nearer term period of 2014 to 2018. Notably, these figures show substantial forest loss over both time frames in Forest Reserves, particularly in proximity to urban areas such as Kumasi and Sunyani.

Figure 4. Forest Loss 2000-2018 + 2014-2018

62 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 63 The REDD Desk. “Ghana.” Retrieved August 2019 from https://theredddesk.org/countries/ghana. 64 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

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3.2.2 MANGROVE FORESTS Based on satellite data, Ghana had an estimated 76 km2 of mangroves in 2012, compared to 181 km2 in 1980,65,66,67 meaning that mangrove deforestation rates have exceeded that of the country as a whole. The most extensive mangrove areas are along the western coast, which includes the Greater Amanzule Wetland Complex and include both freshwater swamps and brackish swamps and lagoons. There is a secondary mangrove region along the lower Volta River and its delta. Mangrove loss principally represents unsustainable harvesting (mangrove is the preferred wood for fish smoking) and degradation and conversion of the wetlands themselves (see 3.1.4 and 6.1 and 6.2). Dominant mangrove species include red mangrove (Rhizophora), black mangrove (Avicennia germinans), Conocarpus erectus, Laguncularia racemose, and Acrostichum aureum.68

While Ghana’s mangrove areal extent is very limited, mangrove loss is particularly concerning from a biodiversity perspective, as mangrove forests provide habitat and spawning grounds for many fish and shellfish, including key fisheries species. Additionally, mangroves provide coastal and flood protection that preserve coastal habitat. Via the food chain and as a direct spawning ground, they are directly linked to Ghana’s important coastal fisheries.

In Ghana, mangroves are not considered as forests under the law, and there are thus no gazetted mangrove reserves. They are rather subject to the legal regime protecting wetlands. As noted in 3.6 and 5.1.3, this offers a very low level of effective protection.

There are examples of successful, community-based mangrove protection and restoration efforts, particularly within the Greater Amanzule Wetland Complex. Education as to the value of the mangroves in combination with technical support to restoration and alternative/supplemental livelihoods were all consistently cited by stakeholders as essential to the success of such efforts.

3.3 SPECIES DIVERSITY AND STATUS Ghana’s Eastern Guinean forest is home to a diverse array of terrestrial species; the canopy stratification and micro-climatic differentiation in the Eastern Guinean forest provide numerous habitats and niches that support the highest levels of faunal diversity in the country (83% of the total number of recorded species).69 The wet evergreen forest harbors the highest levels of endemism and species richness. This region contains the most notable biological hotspots in the country: the Ankasa and Nimi-Suhien conservation areas.70 Table 5 below provides an overview of species diversity in Ghana’s fauna Table 28

65 2015 USAID FCMC Project. Mangrove Reserves in Five West African Countries. Citing Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011a). “Global distribution of mangroves forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” In Supplement to: Giri et al. (2011b). Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/21. 66 LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011b). “Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 154-159. 67 Corcoran, Emily; Ravilious, Corinna; & Skuja, Mike. Mangroves of Western and Central Africa. UNEP-Regional Seas Programme/UNEP-WCMC, June 2007. 68 “Mangrove description – Ghana” retrieved from http://www.fao.org/forestry/mangrove/vegetation/en/gha/, citing Spalding, M.D., Blasco, F. & Field, C.D., eds. 1997. World Mangrove Atlas. The International Society for Mangrove Ecosystems, Okinawa, . 178 pp. 69 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 70 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

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and Table 29, in Annex C, provides an overview of Ghana’s critically endangered animal and plant species.

TABLE 5. FAUANA DIVERSITY OF GHANA Number Number Number Taxonomy of Selected (Latin name; status*) Threatened* Endemic Species (Pan troglodytes; EN), (Loxodanta africana; VU), African Golden Cat (Caracal aurata; VU), (Pantera leo; VU), (Pantera Mammals 272 23 1 pardus; VU), Black-bellied Pangolin (Phatagius tetradactyla; VU), Giant Eland (Tragelaphus debianus; VU), White- thighed Colobus (Colobus vellerosus; VU), Lowe’s Monkey (Cercopithecus lowei; VU) Slender-snouted (Crocodylus cataphractus; CR), Dwarf Crocodile (Osteolaemus tetrapsis; VU), Green Turtle 60 8 0 (Chelonia mydas; EN), Olive Ridley (Lepdochelys olivacea; VU), Leatherback (Dermochelys coriacea; VU) Togo Slippery (Conraua derooi; CR), Ringed River Frog 86 7 5 (Phrynobatrachus annulatus, VU); Ukami Reed Frog ( White-Backed Vulture (Gyps africanus; CR), the White- Birds 741 23 0 Headed Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis; CR), and the Hooded Vulture (Necrosyrtes monachus; CR) Atlanti Horse Macherel (Trachurus; VU), Bigeye Tuna (Thunnus obesus; VU), Madeiran Sardinella (Sardinella Fish 1001 59 0 maderensisl; VU), Red Belly Tilapia (Tilapia busumana; VU) * Refers to Critically Endangered (CR), Endangered (EN), or Vulnerable (VU), as per IUCN Redlist classification. Source: IUCN Redlist 2019. Accessed August 27, 2019 from: https://www.iucnredlist.org/

Three frog species, one species and 23 species of butterflies (out of a recorded 925) are endemic to Ghana.71

Notwithstanding, data on faunal, microbial, and floral diversity remain relatively sparse in Ghana outside from the six Ramsar sites—Owabi Wildlife Sanctuary, Muni Pomadze, Densu Delta, Sakumo, Songor, and Keta Lagoon Complex—where there is significant knowledge.72 For examples, the Convention on Biological Diversity country profile for Ghana notes there are 392 marine species recorded from 347 fish species;73 however the IUCN Redlist suggests a much greater number of fish species (per Table 29). The Department of Oceanography and Fisheries of the University of Ghana has reported indications of extremely high biodiversity of the benthos of the shallow waters of the continental shelf in recent studies. Approximately 60% of the soft bottom benthic macrofauna encountered are believed to be “new and unrecorded.”74 However, there is virtually no information on meiofauna (worms, oligochaetes,

71 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 72 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 73 “Ghana – Country Profile.” Convention on Biological Diversity, Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.cbd.int/countries/profile/default.shtml?country=gh. 74 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

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and crustaceans) or microfauna (ciliates, amoebas, and foraminefera) in benthic waters.75 In 2015, deep water coral reefs were reported in the Ghanaian coastal environment.76 Ghana possesses 157 species of freshwater fauna representing 28 families and 73 genera, of which nine are endemic. Species richness is declining, especially among those species most sensitive to pollution. Approximately 121 species of fish have been recorded from the Volta system, which drains more than two-thirds of the country.77 Ghana’s total plant species richness is at 5,429, out of which 5,217 are Angiosperms (1,257 monocots and 3,950 dicots). There are also 46 recorded species of Bryophytes (35 mosses and 11 liverworts) and 12 species of Lycophytes (club and spike mosses).78 There are also seven species of Gymnosperms, one of which (Encephalortos barteri) is indigenous to Ghana.79

3.4 GENETIC DIVERSITY Ghana possesses numerous TABLE 6. GENETIC DIVERSITY OF MAJOR CROPS IN GHANA ecologically and economically VARIETIES COLLECTED VARIETIES BRED AND CROP TYPE important species. There are AND CONSERVED RELEASED TO FARMERS several important varieties of Sweet potato 20 12 fruits, vegetables, cereals, Cocoyam 39 3 roots, tubers, and legumes Cassava 201 18 80 cultivated in Ghana. Among Yams* 121 3 these crops is significant genetic Legumes** 1513*** 33**** diversity (see Table 6).81The * Includes species such as a D rotundadta Pair (white Guinean yam) and D. alata L. (water, principal factors contributing to winged, or greater yam) ** Includes: soybeans, cowpea, and groundnuts genetic loss in Ghana are the *** Comprised of 11 species replacement of local varieties, **** 11 improved varieties of cowpeas, 20 of groundnut, and 2 of soybean Source: Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected land clearing, Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Arusha, TAWIRI, pests/weeds/diseases, December 2018. population pressure, and changing agricultural systems. To combat this loss, Ghana practices both in situ (maintenance, protection, and management of a variety of life in their original habitats) and ex situ conservation (collection and maintenance of whole or parts of individuals of some species or their population in facilities away from their original habitats such as protected areas (PAs), gene banks, and zoological/botanical gardens). Sites for in situ conservation are both in wild and farmed areas, and they contain most of Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources. Maintaining the biodiversity of agricultural crops’ wild relatives is important as they serve as reservoirs of traits and characteristics useful for improving crop varieties, and they are best conserved in their natural habitats to allow evolution and adaptive changes.

75 Ibid. 76 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 77 Ibid. 78 Ibid. 79 Ibid. 80 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 81 Ibid.

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This is to ensure the availability of useful genetic source material of prime economic timber species for both natural regeneration and artificial manipulation.

Given the high concentration of tree plantations in Ghana, these provenance areas are important for protecting local populations from genetic infiltration of improved varieties. Similarly, in Ghana as in many other sub-Saharan African nations, the Nile Tilapia (Oreochromic niloticus) is the main aquaculture species, and native strains are widely considered inferior to the Genetically Improved Farm Tilapia (GIFT) strain and its relatives, such as the Ghanaian Akosombo variety. Local genetic diversity of Nile Tilapia, common throughout the Black Volta, White Volta, and Oti Rivers are at risk from GIFT varieties that have escaped from farms into the wild, especially considering the interconnectedness among rivers in the Volta Basin. This could mean that “pure” populations of O. niloticus in Ghana could become difficult or impossible to find in the wild in the foreseeable future.82

The Council for Scientific and Industrial Research Plant Genetic Resources Research Institute (CSIR- PGGRI), established in 1964, has a total of 4,412 accessions between two types of ex situ collections: orthodox seeds from cereals, vegetables, cucurbits, and legumes under cold storage holding 3,240 accession and 876 under field conditions.83. At CSIR-PGRRI, 259 accessions of root and tuber crops are under in vitro conservation.

3.5 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF PROTECTED AREAS As shown in Table 7, Ghana has TABLE 7. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF PROTECTED AREAS IN GHANA established 312 legal PAs, notably AREA TOTAL AREA Forest Reserves, Wildlife PAs, and CATEGORY NUMBER (KM2) (% OF GHANA) Ramsar sites. Currently, there are Forest Reserves 294 23713.85 9.9% 294 gazetted Forest Reserves of Game Production 5 723.69 0.3% which 201 are in the Eastern Reserves Guinean Forests and 102 are in National Parks 7 10431.79 4.3% Ramsar Sites 6 716.25 0.3% the forest-savanna transition zone Total Terrestrial 312 35,585.59 14.8% or savanna (see Table 8, below).84 Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Thirty (30) of these Forest Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net Reserves are designated as Globally Significant Biodiversity Areas (GSBAs), covering an area of 2,001 km2.85

The current approach for maintaining the integrity of the Forest Reserves are boundary (internal and external) cleaning and patrolling, destruction of illegal farms, control of illegal harvesting of plantation and natural forest timber, prevention of illegal mining and sand mining, and illegal chain sawing, etc., with active involvement of the communities and Rapid Response Teams constituted by Forestry Commission (FC). The 30 GBSAs have been further demarcated, each with an established integrated resource

82 Anane-Taabeah, Gifty. “Characterization of the Molecular Genetic Variation in Wild and Farmed Nile Tilapia Oreochromis niloticus in Ghana for Conservation and Aquaculture Development.” Virginia Polytechnic Institute, Blacksburg VA, September 18, 2018. 83 K Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 84 World Database of Protected Areas. Protected Area Profile for Ghana. Retrieved August 2019 from www.protectedplanet.net. 85 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012.

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management plan to support the conservation of forest genetic resources. Additionally 42 compartments throughout 26 Forest Reserves have been identified, demarcated, and pillared as Protected Provenance Areas (PPAs), designated for protection of economically threatened species from exploitation. 86 In total, about 4.4% of Forest Reserves are wholly dedicated to genetic resource conservation and ecosystem stabilization, and protected species include African (Mlilicia excelsa), Chrysophyllum subdunum, and several others have been specifically targeted for protection.87 There are 21 legally constituted wildlife PAs under the management of the FC Wildlife Division (WD). Generally, wildlife PAs provide relatively better protection for tropical forests and biodiversity than other forms of protection in Ghana.

TABLE 8. PROTECTED AREA TYPES WITHIN ECOSYTEMS IN GHANA GAME FOREST RAMSAR ECOSYSTEM PRODUCTION NATIONAL PARK RESERVES SITE RESERVE

Guinean Forest 201 3 4 1

Forest-Savanna 32 2 2 5 Transition

Savanna 70 1 2 0

Total 294 5 7 6

Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

*Protected areas that fall within more than one ecoregion are counted again Despite the extent of protection, as illustrated in Figure 5 below, forest degradation is substantial within Forest Reserves; over the period of 2001 to 2018, Ghana’s Forest Reserves experienced 2.28 million ha of forest loss, an average of nearly 130,000 ha per year. Alarmingly, 52% of that loss occurred between 2014 and 2018, illustrating the acceleration of on-reserve forest degradation and loss. Recent research illustrates that these trends are present across all classes of forest management in Ghana. Analysis of satellite data on land use/land cover from 1990 to 2014 show equal forest degradation rates in PAs and GSBAs as in designated timber production areas.88 Further, numerous GSBAs – including Afao Hills Forest Reserve, the Atewa Range, and Cape Three Points, are heavily threatened by human activity— particularly mining for gold and other valuable minerals (e.g., bauxite, diamonds, iron ore).89

86 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012. 87 Ibid. 88 Ankomah, Frank; Kyereh, Boateng; Asante, Winston; & Ansong, Michael. “Patterns of forest cover change and their association with forest management regimes of forest reserves in the high forest zone of Ghana.” Journal of Land Use Science, 2019, DOI: 10.1080/1747423X.2019.1665116

89 Food and Agriculture Organization. The State of the World’s Forest Genetic Resources: Country Report: Ghana. Ghana Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, April 2012.

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350000 300000 250000 200000 150000 100000 50000 Hectares Loss Forest of Hectares 0 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 2014 2015 2016 2017 2018 YEAR

Figure 5. Forest Loss per Year in Forest Reserves

Statutorily, five coastal wetlands and one inland wetland were designated as Ramsar sites in 1992 and backed by the 1999 Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) Regulations. The sites are of global importance due to mangroves, resident and migrant water birds and turtles (Lepidochelys olivacea, Chelonia mydas and Dermochelys coriacea).90 Over the years, the total area of each site has been maintained although there is evidence of extensive degradation and changes in the habitat composition. Of these, urban wetlands such as the Densu Delta (2,460 ha) and Sakumo Ramsar (1,400 ha) sites are seriously threatened by rapid urbanization and industrial expansion. For example, 30 % of original catchment area of the Densu delta Ramsar site has been converted to settlement.91 Shrub and herbaceous grass cover has increased (approximately 6 %) in all wetlands but declined in Sakumo and Densu. The Keta Lagoon Complex (101,022 ha), Songhor Ramsar site (51,133 ha) and Muni-Pomadze Ramsar site (9600 ha) each have a site manager and small staff under the FC WD, but settlement areas within each are under municipal and/or district authorities,92 and local governance is often most effective in addressing infractions, illegal exploitation of resources, and development.

TABLE 9. TOTAL MARINE AND TERRESTRIAL PROTECTION IN GHANA AND AICHI TARGETS TOTAL AREA 2020 ACHI CATEGORY NUMBER AREA (KM2) (% OF EEZ / % OF TZ) TARGET Marine Areas 0 0 0 10% Terrestrial Areas 312 35,586 14.8% 17% Total 312 35,586 14.8% -- Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

3.6 STATUS AND MANAGEMENT OF KEY NATURAL RESOURCES OUTSIDE OF PROTECTED AREAS Within Ghana, the management of natural resources outside PAs faces numerous challenges including the absence of comprehensive land use and management plans and poor land tenure arrangements

90 Clearing House mechanism of Ghana. “Ramsar Sites.” Convention on Biological Diversity, 2019. 91 Republic of Ghana. Ghana: State of the Environment Report 2016. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana, December 2017. 92 In the case of the Muni-Pomadze site, a significant portion of the site is within the University of Education campus; the University is a key actor in overall management of the site.

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(Section 6.2.7), inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations (Section 6.2.5), and high population growth and urban expansion (Section 6.2.1). As elaborated in Sections 6.1.1 and 6.1.2, direct threats driven by the above factors include unsustainable harvesting of domestic wood and timber for domestic (primarily charcoal, , and construction) and international markets, unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural practices, wildfires, illegal and poorly managed small-scale mining operations, sedimentation and siltation of surface water bodies.93

TABLE 10. CATEGORIES AND COVERAGE OF ECOSYSTEMS IN GHANA UNPROTECTED AREA UNPROTECTED TOTAL TOTAL AREA ECOSYSTEM (KM2) (% OF ECOREGION) AREA (KM2) (% OF GHANA) Guinean Forest 63,795 80.1 79,693 33.2

Forest-Savanna 63,491 88.9 71,426 29.72 Transition

Savanna 79,130 88.7 89,211 37.12

Total 206,415 85.7 240,330 100 Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

Ghana has made progress in enhancing local community involvement in the management of the forest and savanna resources. There are currently 32 Community Resource Management Associations (CREMAs) in 26 districts spanning seven of Ghana’s regions. CREMAs seek to integrate natural resources management into the traditional livelihood strategies for communities located in ecologically important areas that fall outside of forest reserves and PAs. As such, some CREMAs operate at the fringes of PAs, serving as buffer zones, while others seek to offer improved protection along identified wildlife corridors. The Ghana Wildlife Society (GWS), in collaboration with BirdLife International, have currently identified 36 Important Bird Areas (IBAs) covering about 11,494 km2 (about 4.8% of the total land area of Ghana); these IBAs serve to support protection of habitat for nationally and globally important birds.

Notwithstanding, the perception that areas outside PAs are agricultural lands influences off-reserve land use and management. Both small- and large-scale farming practices significantly affect biodiversity in off- reserve areas. For example, the widespread adoption of high-yielding cocoa varieties that favor low shade/high sun exposure resulted in the removal of many shade tree species from off-reserve forest areas where cocoa is commonly grown. It is projected that approximately 4 million ha of off-reserve land areas across the Eastern Guinean forest, forest-savanna transition, and savanna zones will be targeted for either -on-farms, farm boundary planting, or climate smart agriculture by 2040, and about 2.68 million ha of fallow and shrub-land area could be sourced for forest plantation development.94

Finally, traditional religious and cultural belief systems include maintenance of Sacred Groves, small sacred areas with perceived links to deities or ancestral sprits, which continue to serve as vehicles for conservation at the local level within communities. There are roughly 2,000 to 3,200 sacred groves in

93 Republic of Ghana. Forestry Development Master Plan 2016-2040. Ministry of Lands & Natural Resources, September 2016. 94 Ibid.

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Ghana. Their religious and cultural significance helps ensure that forest surroundings, watercourses, and other environmentally sensitive areas are demarcated and protected as shrines. The groves also serve important sociocultural and ecological functions by preserving virgin forests, serving as refuges for rare and useful local biodiversity, and providing sources of herbs for medicinal, social, and religious purposes.95 Sacred groves may range in size from a few stones or single trees to hundreds of hectares of forest. In Ghana, they are referred to variously as ‘nanamon mpow’ (ancestral groves), “abosompow/asoyeso” (shrine), “mpanyinpow” (ancestral forest), and “nsamanpow” (burial grounds) by the Akans.96

Along coastal areas, although the five Ramsar wetlands referenced in Section 3.5 are partial exceptions, the remainder of Ghana’s coastal wetlands are generally unmanaged and greatly threatened. General wetland management has not been fully integrated into the national land-use planning systems. Consultations indicated that there are insufficient technical and financial resources to enable active management of wetland areas that fall outside of PAs. The prevalent belief that wetlands are wastelands, rather than areas of great ecological importance, reduces motivation to implement or promote organized development, conservation, or management mechanisms to ensure their long-term viability. Most lagoons and estuaries experience heavy pollution from ineffectively or improperly managed domestic and industrial waste, upstream illegal mining activities, and agricultural run-off (including agrochemicals), with significant implications for near-shore marine waters. Three wetlands, Chemu Lagoon (Tema), Korle Lagoon (Accra) and Fosu Lagoon (Cape Coast), are considered “dead” as a result of heavy industrial and domestic waste.

Nonetheless, there are examples of local NGOs such as Hen Mpoano, Friends of the Nation (FoN), and Development Institute driving the development of CREMAs to support mangrove restoration and to promote sustainable coastal resource management. 97 As noted under 3.2.2, education as to the value of the mangroves in combination with technical support to restoration and alternative/supplemental livelihoods were all consistently cited by stakeholders as essential to the success of such efforts.

As noted above, Ghana has no marine preserves or PAs, so the entire off-shore marine aquatic environment is off-reserve. Consequently, for artisanal/traditional uses, the off-shore marine aquatic environment has been treated as an open-access resource and is over-exploited and significantly polluted.

95 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 96 Ibid. 97 Republic of Ghana. Ghana’s Sixth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (Draft). Convention on Biological Diversity, December 2018.

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4. VALUE AND ECONOMIC POTENTIAL

4.1 VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY Ecosystem services are those values provided to society by the function and processes that take place within nature. Ecosystem services can be classified into three categories: the provisioning of directly utilized resources (environmental goods); non- material cultural services; and regulating services, which provide critical benefits through reliable ecosystem processes. Supporting services underlie the three former categories through extremely long- Figure 6. Ecosystem Services time horizons and broad-scale Source: The Cadmus Group 2017, adapted from the Mid-Atlantic Regional processes, such as soil creation and Ocean Assessment (Mid-Atlantic Regional Planning Body 2019 citing CEQ 2010). nutrient cycling (see Figure 6). Biodiversity is critical to the provisioning and long-term maintenance of these ecosystem services.98, 99 High-biodiversity areas provide over half of the ecosystem services on which the global poor depend, and conservation of those areas has an outsized effect: conserving the top 25% of the world’s high- biodiversity areas could provide 56–57% of the total potential ecosystem goods and service benefits.100

4.2 ECOSYSTEM GOODS AND SERVICES Ghana has a rich stock of biological diversity such as forests, water bodies, minerals, plants and animals. As a developing economy, much of the population depends on the country’s natural resource base for its livelihoods. The Ghana Living Standards Survey Round 6 (GLSS 6) estimated that biodiversity products provide alternative income sources to over 6 million Ghanaians in the forestry and water sectors.101 However, according to Ghana’s 2016 National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the importance of biodiversity to the Ghanaian economy in terms of jobs creation, incomes for local communities, foreign exchange earnings through forest products export and protection of the environment has not been fully estimated.

This section describes some of the key ecosystem goods and services that provide value to Ghana,

98 Balvanera, Patricia et al. “Chapter 4: The links between Biodiversity and Ecosystem Services.” Routledge Handbook of Ecosystem Services. 1st Ed. Marion Potschin, Roy Haines-Young, Robert Fish, R. Kerry Turner, Eds. Pp 45-49. January 2016. Routledge Handbooks, New York, NY. 99 Harrison, Paula et al. “Linkages between biodiversity attributes and ecosystem services: A systematic review.” Ecosystem Services, 9 September 2014: 191-203. 100 Turner, Will R; Brandon, Katrina; Brooks, Thomas M; Gascon, Glaude; Gibbs, Holly K; Lawrence, Keith; Mittermeier, Russell A; Selig, Elizabeth R. “Global Biodiversity Conservation and the Alleviation of Poverty.” BioScience 62: 85-92. January 2012. 101 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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broken down by the categories of provisioning services, cultural services, and regulating services.

4.2.1 PROVISIONING SERVICES Provisioning services arise from the direct use of goods, such as food, fuel, water, timber, non-timber forest products, medicine, and raw materials. Many different ecosystems produce provisioning services, but the focus in this report is on the two dominant sources of provisioning services in Ghana: forests and fisheries.

FOREST MATERIALS Forests are important sources of ecosystem goods and services across Ghana, and the majority of the rural population (2.5 million people) depends on the forests for their livelihood or for the provision of food, clothing, shelter, furniture, potable water, and bushmeat.102 According to the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO), the gross value added from forestry was USD 287 million in 2015.103 Ghana’s export value for forestry production and trade was USD 415 million in 2017.104 The timber industry is the third-most important foreign-exchange earner of the country. The FAO estimates that there were 3.55 thousand people employed in Ghana’s Forestry sector in 2010.105 According to the European Timber Trade Federation, the Ghanaian timber industry produced about 2.6 million m3 of roundwood in 2015, the majority of which is used within the country since teak is the only species for which the export of logs is permitted. In total, the export of all primary timber products (i.e., beyond just logs) accounted for a total export value of USD 230.2 million in 2015. In terms of exported value in 2014, the three most important Ghanaian tree species for production are teak, ceiba, fromager, and abachi.106

Rural/urban energy is an important aspect of the forest economy and depends largely on wood fuels (fuel wood and charcoal). According to the GLSS 6, about 16 million m3 of wood valued at about USD 200 million is consumed in various forms as energy per year: this accounts for about 86% of urban energy. In rural areas, wood fuel makes up more than 95% of energy consumption. Traditional energy accounts for 85.8% of primary energy used in Ghanaian homes and provides income-generating activity (charcoal producers, transporters, and retailers) to a substantial part of the rural community. In 2000, 16 million metric tons (MT) of fuel wood were consumed, 9 million of which were converted to charcoal.107

Non-timber forest products also significantly contribute to Ghana’s economy. It is estimated that 380,000 tons of bushmeat are consumed annually with an estimated value of about USD 350 million. Animal and plant products used in traditional medicine and cultural practices have an estimated value of about USD130 million. Over 600,000 women in the northern Ghana collect about 130,000 tons of nuts yearly, 40% of which are exported. This contributes about USD 30 million annually to the national economy.108 According to the World Trade Organization (WTO), the top exported nuts from Ghana

102 Kuudaar, Elvis (2015). Ghana Case Study. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations. Ghana, October 2015, 1- 39. 103 Global Forest Resources Assessment 2015. Country Report: Ghana. FAO, Rome, 2014. 104 Food and Agriculture Organization. “FAOSTAT.” Accessed August 24, 2019 from http://www.fao.org/faostat/en/#data 105 “Ghana Country Profile.” Global Forest Watch, Retrieved August 24, 2019 from globalforestwatch.org. 106 European Timber Trade Federation. Ghana. TimberTrade Portal, updated 25 March, 2019. Retrieved from: http://www.timbertradeportal.com/countries/ghana/. 107 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 108 Ibid.

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are coconuts, nuts and cashew nuts.109 A small-scale processing facility for production of thaumatin, a sweetener from seeds of the miracle berry (Thaumatococus danielli), has been established at Samerboi and the value of exports of this product in 2014 was reportedly USD 430 million.110

Most of the rural population depends on the forests for their survival as forests are important for food, clothing, shelter, furniture, potable water and bushmeat. The forests are also highly valued as sources of natural medicines commonly used for health treatment and in conjunction with mystical and ritual practices.111

FISHERIES Fisheries contribute significantly to national development objectives related to food security, employment, poverty reduction, GDP, and foreign exchange earnings. According to official statistics, the country produces around 440,000 tons of fish annually from its marine fisheries, inland waters and aquaculture; the fisheries sector in Ghana contributes a total of 4.5% of GDP;112 and the fisheries industry generates an estimated USD 25 million in revenue annually.113 Research suggests that these are likely significant underestimates, at least until the current near-collapse of the small pelagic fishery.114

The fishing industry provides employment to many rural people and urban dwellers, with one in ten Ghanaians economically dependent on fisheries115 and over 135,000 fishermen directly employed in Ghana’s marine capture fisheries.116 Women provide approximately 70% of the labor force in the fisheries post-harvest sector, but they also own canoes and finance capture-fishing operations. It is estimated that the fisheries sector overall contributes 4.5% to GDP and 12% of the agricultural GDP.117 Small-scale fisheries in Ghana contribute about 3% to the national GDP.118 In addition to economic benefits, fish supply 60% of the animal protein in the national diet with annual per capita fish consumption in 2014 growing to 28kg, well above the world average of 18.9kg and well above the average for Africa of 10.5kg.119 Small pelagic fish, which include mackerel, sardines, and anchovies, account for about 70% of the total marine fish capture but are generally recognized to be on the verge

109 World Trade Organization. “Ghana and the WTO.” Accessed August 25, 2019 from https://www.wto.org/english/thewto_e/countries_e/ghana_e.htm. 110 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 111 Agyarko, Tabi. FOSA Country Report – Ghana. Forestry Outlook Study for Africa (FOSA), Food and Agriculture Organization, 2000. 112 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 113 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 114 Belhabib, Dyhia; Sumaila, U. Rashid; & Pauly, Daniel. “Feeding the poor: Contribution of West African fisheries to employment and food security”Ocean and Coastal Management , 111, 2015,72–81

115 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

116 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 117 Coastal Resources Center. Fisheries and Food Security: A briefing from the USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project. The USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP). Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. January 2018. 118 USAID. Fishing for Food Security: The Importance of Wild Fisheries for Food Security and Nutrition. April 2016. 119 Coastal Resources Center. Fisheries and Food Security: A briefing from the USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project. The USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP). Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. January 2018.

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of collapse.120 121 Large pelagic species of the family Thumidae (tunas) are of major commercial importance in Ghana as a result of export revenues and their relative sustainability, which has been estimated at 100,000 tons annually by the Fisheries Commission122. However, some research indicates they are also being overexploited.123 Valuable demersal fish (fish living close to the sea floor), including sole, shrimp, cuttlefish, and burros are similarly exploited, especially during upwelling seasons, when cold, nutrient-rich water is brought to the surface.124

DRINKING WATER The economic value of the provision of water in Ghana has not been comprehensively estimated. However, the mountainous Atewa forest range, 100 km northwest of Accra, is the most important source of drinking water for the lowlands in the Greater Accra Region, yet is being targeting for mining development, which could have significant detrimental impact on water supply. An estimated 2.5 million citizens rely on the catchment area for their daily water needs.125

4.2.2 CULTURAL SERVICES Cultural services result from meaningful interactions that people have with ecosystems, which include outdoor recreation, aesthetic enjoyment, education, and the intrinsic spiritual value of land.

NATURE-BASED TOURISM Ecotourism earns USD 1.6 billion in annual revenue generation and is projected to become the number one foreign exchange earner in Ghana’s national economy in the future.126 Conservation of biodiversity and subsequent development of ecotourism have yielded substantial economic benefits to both national and local economies. For instance, the with its 33m-high canopy walkway draws an average of 270,780 visitors each year and created over 5,000 tourism-related jobs around the park, generating over USD 350,000 as revenue. The current draft version of Ghana’s National Biodiversity Policy estimates that a specialized package of bird and butterfly watching tours could generate over USD 1 million annually.127

OTHER CULTURAL SERVICES Ghana’s biodiversity also has spiritual and cultural values for some ethnic groups. Traditionally protected forests (sacred groves) are forest relics found within and outside of gazetted government PAs. These protected forests are conserved, protected and governed by traditional norms, beliefs and systems.128

120 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en. 121 Lazar, N., Yankson K., Blay, J., Ofori-Danson, P., Markwei, P., Agbogah, K., Bannerman, P., Sotor, M., Yamoah, K. K., Bilisini, W. B. Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP): Status of Ghana’s small pelagic stocks and recommendations to achieve sustainable fishing 2017. Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. April 2018. 122 Food and Agriculture Organization. “The Republic of Ghana.” Fishery and Aquaculture Country Profiles; accessed July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/fishery/facp/GHA/en. 123 Mawuko, A.G. Assessment of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of the Tuna Fishery in Ghana and its Application in Management (Masters Thesis). University of Ghana, Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences. 2015. 124 Ibid. 125 The Green Utility Network. The Value of Watershed Services of the Atewa Forest, Under Various River Basin Management Scenarios. IUCN, n.d. 126 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 127 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 128 Ibid.

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The conservation of these areas contributes to the maintenance of biodiversity, supports ecological processes, provides important environmental services and improves access to traditional medicines. There are an estimated 2,000 to 3,200 sacred sites, about 80% of which occur in the southern half of the country. Several studies have established the commitment of people to support any measures that will contribute to the continued existence of sacred forests and the maintenance of their ecological integrity. Some wild animals are regarded as sacred or totems for certain clans and ethnic groups. They are protected by taboos and traditional beliefs that prohibit their hunting. Streams and rivers are also regarded as deities by several communities.129

4.2.3 REGULATING SERVICES Regulating services include the functions and processes that ecosystems deliver that provide value to human beings. Key regulating services provided by natural areas in Ghana include forest and watershed services and and storage.

FOREST AND WATERSHED SERVICES Forests ecosystems provide many regulating services such as water filtration and soil protection. In addition to herbaceous cover and tree-crop plantations, forests also contribute to capturing and storing carbon from the atmosphere, thus contributing to the maintenance of favorable global climatic conditions. The productivity of agriculture is dependent on how biodiversity is managed within the production landscape.130 For example, cocoa agroforestry in Ghana can be managed to create optimal exposure to—and protection from—sunlight, improve water-nutrient cycling, and provide regulating services such as pest and disease control.131

CARBON SEQUESTRATION AND STORAGE Carbon sequestration refers to the uptake of atmospheric carbon dioxide through photosynthesis; the carbon then becomes stored in the trees or other plants and soils. The world’s terrestrial carbon stocks account for 2,500 gigatons (Gt) out of the total 48,000Gt.132 Ghana’s total terrestrial carbon stocks are estimated as 2.04Gt comprising 1.6Gt in above and below ground forest carbon. Between the savanna and Eastern Guinean forest, carbon stocks range from 30.88-93.47 tons of carbon (MgC)/ha to 28.64MgC/ha -34.05MgC/ha. In cultivated areas within the Eastern Guinean forest, soil carbon stocks range from 28.27 MgC/ha to 72.7MgC/ha, whereas those in the savanna areas have carbon stocks that range from 18.46 MgC/ha to 32.04MgC/ton.

Mangrove distributions along the Ghanaian coast are quite substantial. Mangrove above ground ranges from 378 to 2,077MgC/ha for undisturbed, with degraded mangrove areas, carbon stocks ranges from 146.88 to 529.59 MgC/ha.133

129 Ibid. 130 Ibid. 131 Ibid. 132 Hariah K, Dewi S. Agus F, Velarde S, Ekadinata A, Rahayu S and van Noorwijk M. Measuring Carbon Stocks Across Land Use Systems. World Agroforestry Centre, , 2010. 133 Republic of Ghana. Third National Communication Report to the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change. UNFCC, Accra. 2015.

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5. LEGAL FRAMEWORK & INSTITUTIONAL STRUCTURE AFFECTING CONSERVATION/ NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

5.1 NATIONAL LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES Sections 5.1.1-5.1.4 provide a brief overview on the key policies, acts, and strategies governing wildlife, forest, marine and freshwater resource management and land use and tenure arrangements. Annex E provides an expanded set of key policies for the conservation and management of Ghana’s tropical forests and biodiversity.

5.1.1 TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT Policies and acts governing wildlife management in Ghana include the Wild Animals Preservation Amendment Law of 1982 (PNDCL 55); the Wildlife Conservation (Amendment) Regulation of 1982 (LI 1983); and the Act Establishing the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana.134

Most of the policies and methods, especially in situ conservation methods, have experienced administrative challenges over the years as a result of budgetary allocations, lack of infrastructure, and lack of field equipment.135 At time of writing, a new wildlife act—which has been in development for approximately 18 years—is again sitting with parliament. This act contains provisions that would strengthen the effectiveness of CREMAs, better enabling local derivation of benefits from these resource management arrangements. Similarly, the Analysis team received a copy of the 2019 draft Biodiversity Policy, likewise with parliament awaiting passage. The Biodiversity Policy, if passed, would seek to achieve conservation, and sustainable and equitable utilization, of biodiversity, by mainstreaming conservation of biodiversity into all economic sectors, enhancing safeguarding of Ghana’s ecosystems, and promoting sustainable use of biodiversity through improved planning, research, management, knowledge sharing, capacity, and monitoring and evaluation.

A number of recent and ongoing actions have been taken with regards to biodiversity conservation. In 2018, the Ghana Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) developed a national Man and the Biosphere (MAB) strategy in alignment with the Lima Action Plan for the United Nations Educational, Scientific, and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) Man and Biosphere (MAB) Programme.136 The strategy focuses on Ghana's three (3) Biosphere Reserves: Bia (1982), Songor (2011) and Lake Bosomtwi (2016) with the aim of meeting targets of the United Nations (UN) CBD, the Government’s Economic Development Framework, the National Biodiversity Policy (still in draft), the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, the National Environmental Policy, and the National Climate Change Policy.

134 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 135 Ibid. 136 Ghana Man and the Biosphere (MAB) National Committee. Report on Progress of Implementation of the Lima Action Plan (2016- 2025) Presented to the 31st Session of the MAB Council. UNESCO, Paris, France, June 2019.

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TABLE 11. KEY TERRESTRIAL WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES Key Policies • Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012) • Biodiversity Policy (2019 draft) Key Laws • Wild Animals Preservation Amendment Law of 1982 (PNDCL 55) and • The Wildlife Conservation (Amendment) Regulation of 1982 (LI 1983) Regulations • The Act Establishing the Environmental Protection Agency of Ghana.

Key • Ghana’s Lima Action Plan for the Man and the Biosphere (2016-2025) and Man and the Strategies Biosphere Strategy (2015-2025) • National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2016) • Ghana’s Sixth National Report to the UN Convention of Biological Diversity (2018 draft)

5.1.2 FORESTRY MANAGMENT Beginning in 1948, the colonial government of TABLE 12. KEY FORESTRY LAWS, POLICIES, AND Ghana adopted a Forest Policy Act to 1) STRATEGIES regulate the creation and management of Key Policies Forest and Wildlife Policy (2012) permanent forest estates, II) research all branches of scientific forestry, III) maximize Key Key The Amendment Act; utilization of areas not dedicated to Laws and the Control and Prevention of Bushfire Regulations Law, 1990; the Forest Improvement Fund permanent forestry, and IV) provide technical (Amendment) Act of 1962; the Forest Fees advice and cooperation to prevent soil Amendment Regulation 1993 (LI 1576); the erosion and support land use planning.137 Economic Plants Protection Decree of However, in practice the Forest Policy Act of 1979; the Timber Resources Management 1948 promoted the conversion of off-reserve Act of 1998 (Act 547). The Forestry Commission Act of 1999 (Act 571) forests to nonforest lands, leading to massive Key Forestry Development Master Plan (2016- degradation of land and forests, and Strategies 2036); Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy significant loss of biodiversity. The 1992 (2016-2040) in Chapter 21, Article 269 and sub-section 1 provides for the establishment of the Forestry Commission (FC). In 1994, the first For and Wildlife Policy was passed, in an effort to refine the forestry sector, incorporate improved governance, transparency, and derivation of benefits to reduce poverty. The 1994 policy had mixed success, increasing formality of the sector, but it did not sufficiently address the major challenges that faced Ghana’s forests such as illegal timber and mining operations. The Forestry Commission Act of 1999 (Act 571) re-established the FC with a responsibility of regulating and managing the utilization of forest and wildlife resources, conserving and managing those resources, and

coordinating policies related to them. In 2012, a new Forest and Wildlife Policy was adopted, targeting increased conservation and sustainable development of forest and wildlife resources. While the policy seeks to maintain environmental stability and the continuous flow of optimum benefits from the sociocultural and economic goods and services that the forest provides and to fulfill Ghana’s commitments under international conventions and agreements,138 the forestry sector continues to face significant pressure from illegal timber extraction, mining operations, and expansion of agricultural and

137 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 138 Ibid.

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silvicultural activities, both on and off reserve.

Additionally, existing policies governing tree tenure further undermine conservation and management of forest resources, particularly in areas with expanding agricultural production. Under existing statute, naturally growing trees are property of the state, regardless of where they are located, eroding motivation for those cultivating the land to conserve any trees. This, in turn, leads to complete land clearing for agriculture or mono-culture tree cropping. Through the Ghana Forest Investment Program (FIP), implemented with financial support from the World Bank, efforts are underway at time of writing to rework the existing law. The proposed changes to the law would allow for those that cultivate the land (who may be lease holders, as described in Section 5.1.4) to register the trees and thus derive direct benefits from those trees. However, some consulted stakeholders highlighted the potentially onerous prospect of Ghana effectively implementing such a registration system, noting the potentially billions of trees that would require registration for the system to be properly executed.

5.1.3 MARINE + FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY MANAGEMENT There are relatively fewer policies and laws governing marine and freshwater resources in Ghana than there are for terrestrial biodiversity leading to misuse and degradation of marine and freshwater environments. The Fisheries Act is the most significant legislative framework for marine and freshwater management in Ghana, although it lacks important elements to maximize effectiveness. The management of fisheries has not been decentralized making it difficult for District Assemblies (DAs) to enforce fisheries legislations or enact fisheries-related by-laws, especially as no staff of a DA in Ghana has been appointed as an “authorised officer” to exercise enforcement powers.139 For instance the content of the management plan of a small, community-owned lagoon would need to be approved by the Minister and Cabinet; this creates enough additional bureaucratic steps to routinely undermine conservation and management efforts at the local level without external support.

The initial fisheries regulation of 1968 went through a series of amendments to arrive at the current regulation dated 2015 (LI 2217). The National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy underpinned key initiatives such as development of the Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana (2015-2019) consistent with the FAO Code of Conduct for Responsible Fisheries, and the establishment of fisheries co-management (i.e., systems in which the resource users/local fishermen are granted substantive responsibilities in the management of the fisheries and related resources; successful co-management typically includes embedding these local management structures within state governance institutions, whether at the district, regional, or national level).140

With regards to enforcement, Ghana’s Fisheries Enforcement Unit (FEU)—comprised of the Fisheries Commission, the Ghana Navy, and the Marine Police Unit of the Ghana Police Service—was established in 2013 in line with the Fisheries Act of 2002 (Act 625). The FEU, operating from Tema and Takoradi, conducts sea patrols, beach combing, quayside inspections and electronic vessel monitoring, and enforces regulations on fishing gear, fishing zones, fishing documentation, and fish landings. The FEU was

139 Tsamenyi, M. Analysis of the Adequacy of the Legislative Framework in Ghana to Support Fisheries Co-management and the Suggestions for a Way Forward. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, April 2013. 140 Coastal Resources Center. A National Framework for Fisheries Co-management in Ghana. USAID Integrated Coastal and Fisheries Governance Program for the of Ghana. Coastal Resources Center, University of Rhode Island, Hɛn Mpoano Policy Brief No. 4, February 2013.

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created under the West African Regional Fisheries Programme (WARFP; 2012-2018), which sought to strengthen Ghana’s capacity to sustainably govern and manage fisheries.

A key policy guiding coastal and marine TABLE 13. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING conservation is the Riparian Buffer Zone MARINE AND FRESHWATER BIODIVERSITY Policy for Managing Freshwater Bodies in Key Policies • Marine, Coastal, and Environmental Policy of Ghana of 2011. The policy requires a 60- Ghana, the Fisheries Law of 1991 (PNDCL to 90- m buffer for municipal 256); shorelines; a 10- to 60- m buffer for • The Fisheries Commission Act of 1993 (Act 457); and the Water Resources Commission major perennial rivers and streams; a 10- Act of 1996 (Act 522)141 to 50- m buffer for streams within forest • National Fisheries and Aquaculture Policy reserves; and a 30 m buffer around the (2008) highwater point for wetlands. However, • Riparian Buffer Zone Policy for Managing in practice, effective enforcement of the Freshwater Bodies in Ghana (2011) buffer zone policy is greatly challenged, Key Key • The Fisheries Act 2002, Act 625 Laws and • The Fisheries (Amended) Regulations 2015 and stakeholder consultations confirmed Regulations (LI 2217); Fisheries Co-management Policy of that between illegal (and, at times, legal) Ghana mining operations, agricultural expansion, • Wetland Management (Ramsar Sites) population growth, and urban sprawl, Regulation, (1999) there are many anthropogenic activities Key Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana (2015- occurring within the restricted buffer Strategies 2019) areas. Additionally, while the policy is an TABLE 14. KEY LAWS, POLICIES, AND STRATEGIES GOVERNING important achievement and an essential LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT step for strengthening environmental protection of Ghana’s freshwater systems, Key • National Land Policy (1994) Policies it is limited only to those freshwater Key Key • The State Property and Contracts Act of 1960; bodies. Additional legislature to protect Laws and the State Lands Act of 1962 coastal water bodies would further Regulations • The Land Title Registration Act of 1986 support protection of Ghana’s severely • The Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands threatened marine fisheries. Act of 1994 • The Lands Commission Act of 2008 Finally, Ghana does not currently have any • The Marriage Ordinance of 1884 policy explicitly governing the protection Key • National Land Use and Spatial Planning Strategies Framework (2016) of wetlands; this gap—in addition to the prevailing attitudes around wetlands characterized in Section 3, contributes to the ongoing degradation of Ghana’s wetland areas and represents a serious legislative need for the country.

5.1.4 LAND TENURE, PLANNING, AND LAND USE MANAGEMENT ARRANGEMENTS Ghana’s Constitution vests all public land and minerals to the President, and customary land holdings; 80 to 90% of land is vested under customary holdings. The customary land tenure framework consists of multiple categories of ownership, most prevalent of which are allodial title (‘stools’ or ‘skins’), freehold title (land acquired via sale or gift from the allodial owner), customary freehold title (rights held by a group or individual on behalf of the community with ownership via lineage), and leasehold title (land use

141 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

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granted by allodial or freehold title holders; leases may be held for up to 50 years by foreigners or 99 years by Ghanaians). Common lease arrangements entail sharecropping, such as abunu, in which the sharecropper provides half of their harvest to the landlord, or abusu, in which the one-third of the harvest is given to the landlord.142

Ultimately, existing systems for land tenure, title, and registration are complex and often cumbersome, with both the GoG and customary land owners frequently misusing their authority when it comes to derivation of benefits from land ownership or leasing arrangements.143 This undermines motivation at the local level to invest in and value land, particularly for smallholder farmers that typically are granted land use rights through lease. In areas such as the forest-savanna transition zone, these arrangements can contribute to practices of silvicultural and agricultural expansion—including into Forest Reserves. Some stakeholder consultations noted that existing tenure systems indirectly encouraged participation in illegal on-reserve cultivation; given existing limitations in enforcement, such illegal cultivation activities often result in revenue that does not have to be shared with land owners, unlike traditional tenure and lease arrangements.

5.2 INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS Ghana is party to numerous key international agreements relevant to the conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity. These include the UN CBD, the Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES), the Ramsar Convention, the World Heritage Convention, and the International Tropical Timber Agreement. Ghana has developed and adopted the UNESCO MAB Programme, consistent with the 2016 to 2025 Lima Action Plan for the World Network of Biosphere Reserves. The action plan seeks to “collectively and responsibly build thriving societies in harmony with the biosphere.”

A more comprehensive listing of international agreements to which Ghana is party can be found in Annex D.

5.3 GOVERNMENT OF GHANA AGENCIES Natural resource governance in Ghana is managed at national, regional, district, and local levels. The key entities engaged in management of tropical forest and biodiversity resources are characterized below.

5.3.1 NATIONAL GOVERNING ENTITIES Ghana’s FC is responsible for managing Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources and is comprised of five distinct divisions: Forest Services Division (FSD), WD, Timber Industry Development Division, Forestry Commission Training Centre, and the Resource Management Support Centre (RMSC). The FSD is responsible for implementation of laws, policies, and regulations guiding management or use of Ghana’s forest resources. The WD is responsible for the conservation of Ghana’s wildlife, with direct oversight for the National Parks, Resource Reserves, Wildlife Sanctuaries, and Strict Nature Reserves. The WD also has management responsibility for Ghana’s five coastal Ramsar sites. The RMSC is responsible for

142 USAID. “Landlinks – Ghana Country Profile.” Retrieved August 27, 2019 from: land-links.org/country-profile/ghana/#land 143 Frimpong Boamah, Emmanuel & Clifford Amoako, “Planning by (mis)rule of laws: The idiom and dilemma of planning within Ghana’s dual legal land systems.” Environment and Planning C: Politics and Space, 2019, https://doi.org/10.1177/2399654419855400.

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monitoring and reporting on the status of Ghana’s forest and wildlife resources, assisting with development of management plans and systems governing these resources and providing related assistance.

Other key national bodies include MESTI, which has primary responsibility for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity; the Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR), which works in coordination with the Wildlife and Forest Services Divisions of the FC to support conservation through formulation of Forest Reserves and PA management plans, as well as regulating the trade and export of forest products; the EPA, which is responsible for implementation and oversight of Ghana’s Environmental and Social Impact Assessment (ESIA) requirements and procedures.

Ghana’s fisheries are predominantly managed by the Fisheries Commission and Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development (MoFAD), though they work in collaboration with the Water Resources Commission, FC’s FSD, EPA, and MESTI, as well as regional and local governance (see below). Stakeholder consultations—and professional experience within Ghana’s fisheries and coastal conservation by an Analysis team member—indicate that efforts by various government agencies to contribute to fisheries and coastal conservation are often sporadic and uncoordinated. Attempts to establish an inter-ministerial platform comprising the Ghana Police, Navy, Ministry of Interior, MoFAD, Fisheries Commission and other relevant agencies have not been successful.

A table providing a more comprehensive listing—and elaborated roles—of Ghana’s central governmental entities responsible for management and/or oversight of natural resources is provided in Annex G.

5.3.2 REGIONAL AND DISTRICT GOVERNANCE Regional Coordinating Councils. Regional governance in Ghana is organized through the Regional Coordinating Councils (RCCs), which are envisioned to play a key role as Ghana continues to pursue decentralization. In response to local demand for greater decentralization, Ghana designated six new regions, increasing the country’s total from 10 to 16, in turn increasing the number of RCCs and localized governmental management—including as pertains to natural resource management and land use planning. The RCCs are comprised of the Regional Minister and their deputies; a presiding member of each District Assembly and the District Chief Executive within the region; two chiefs from the Regional House of Chiefs; and, as applicable, the regional heads of decentralized ministries within the region (non-voting members).144

Metropolitan, Municipal, and District Assemblies. Assembly level government is organized into Metropolitan (districts with more than 250,000 people), Municipal (districts with between 75,000 and 250,000 people), and District (districts with less than 75,000 people). Collectively, this assembly level is often referred to as MMDAs; for this analysis, when speaking of assembly-level government we’ll refer predominantly to DAs. DAs have a key role in management of natural resources through the District Environmental Management Committees (DEMCs), although stakeholder consultations and site visits indicated that DAs and respective DEMCs often lack the technical capacity, financial means, or political will to enact or enforce environmental management requirements or procedures with special reference

144 Ghana’s Local Government Act 1993 (Act 462). Accessed August 27, 2019 from: http://laws.ghanalegal.com/acts/id/167/section/141/Composition_Of_Regional_Co-Ordinating_Councils.

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to the coastal and marine landscapes. It is noteworthy that wildlife and biodiversity are ultimately protected not by laws or regulations but by people. Therefore, poor policy coordination, harmonization, communication to the citizens; limited civil society participation and lack of resources for implementation impede efforts to achieving sound results in biodiversity conservation.

Chieftaincies. The chieftaincy is a traditional form of authority in Ghana, with often significant informal power based on traditional or cultural rule. While the power of the chieftaincy is attenuated in cities and other areas with ethnically mixed populations, in many rural communities the chieftaincy serves as the first court for domestic and neighborly disputes, controls uses of stool lands (which are extensive in many parts of the country), provides social welfare services, and serves as a key interlocutor—often the interlocutor—between the community and formal government bodies. Within formal governmental arrangements, the participation of chiefs is limited to the National and Regional Houses of chiefs, and Traditional Councils, the latter of which is largely designed as a mechanism to resolve disputes with the chieftaincy, and support clarification and establishment of customary law(s).

5.4 CONSERVATION INITIATIVES AND GAP ANALYSIS Ghana has numerous ongoing conservation initiatives, many of which focus on improving on-reserve forestry management throughout the Eastern Guinean forest and forest-savanna transition zones; sustainable land use in northern Ghana; and sustainable fisheries management along the coastal zones. Consolidated tables of key current conservation initiatives in forest and savanna landscapes (Table 32) and marine fisheries and coastal areas (Table 33) are provided in Annex E.

5.4.1 CONSERVATION OF FORESTS AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES There is substantial investment in Ghana in support of strengthen forestry management and sustainable management of landscapes and water resources. Current major initiatives include the World Bank and Africa Development Bank (AfDB) funded Forest Investment Program (FIP), implemented by FC, and the World Bank-funded Sustainable Land and Water Management Program (SLWMP). USAID’s Agriculture and Natural Resources Management (AgNRM) program likewise operated in this space. Other donors providing support to strengthened management of Ghana’s forest include the United Kingdom (UK), European Union (EU), and the United Nations Development Program. Donor support in the forestry sector has targeted a range of issues, including sustainable cocoa production, forest plantations, forest management and resource development, institutional capacity building, data collection and scientific analysis, governance (including policy and institutional reforms), and biodiversity conservation.

Key Gaps: Despite extensive donor support to the sector, as illustrated in Section 3.2, it is clear more donor support to the forestry sector is needed given trends in forest degradation and loss; in essence, the gap is more a matter of scale rather than intervention type. All the same, and while there has been recent investment under FIP to analyze issues around small-scale mining (specifically illegal mining), management of these activities would clearly benefit from additional attention. Stakeholders consulted noted that it is not always illegal activities creating issues but instead sometimes legal operations for which large trucks and heavy machinery are brought into ecologically sensitive areas, with little regard for environmental safeguarding. Further, some stakeholders consulted indicated a need for engagement with GoG to think through and develop a concrete action plan for addressing both illegal and poorly implemented mining activities. Other areas that emerged as clear needs during consultations include:

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support in creating land and resource (e.g., tree) tenure policies that incentivize land users to sustainably manage the land they are cultivating, and increased capacity building and awareness raising coupled with institutional strengthening and economic incentives to address wildfires (particularly in the forest- savanna transition zone and the savanna.

5.4.2 MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES While not as robust as support in the forestry sector, there are numerous initiatives targeting marine fisheries and coastal resources (particularly selected wetlands). In addition to USAID’s Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP) and technical assistance to the University of Cape Coast, key initiatives include: an Environmental Justice Foundation (EJF) project targeting illegal fishing activities, working in concert with local NGOs such as Hen Mpoano and FoN; the IUCN-backed Community Conservation Resilience Initiative (CCRI), which is delivering support along the Weto Range and near the Keta Lagoon Complex Ramsar Site; and the West Africa Fisheries Governance Improvement Project, which is being implemented in 30 districts spanning Western, Central, and Greater Accra Regions to address overfishing and illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) practices.

Key Gaps: The numerous ongoing initiatives represent important steps toward addressing the severe threats to Ghana’s marine fisheries and coastal ecosystems. Regardless, a key area that presented during site visits and stakeholder consultations as requiring prioritized attention is the conservation of wetland areas proximate to—and being destroyed by—pollution and infill associated with urbanization and sprawl, infrastructure development, and oil and gas exploration. While numerous initiatives are supporting wetland restoration and coastal protection, few of these focus specifically on areas in closest proximity to urban centers.145

In addition, while there has been significant experimentation and piloting of supplemental and alternative livelihoods activities for coastal communities, successful, scalable supplemental and alternative livelihoods initiatives have proved elusive. As discussed in 6.2.3 the lack of such livelihoods is a key driver to threats to coastal ecosystems.

145 See 6.1.3 for discussion of the ecological linkage between the marine fisheries and coastal wetlands and inshore ecosystems.

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6. THREATS TO TROPICAL FORESTRY AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA

6.1 DIRECT THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA Per the FAA Sections 118/119 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis Best Practices Guide146 (Best Practices Guide), a threat is “a human action or unsustainable use that immediately degrades biodiversity (e.g., unsustainable , overfishing or mineral extraction).” Table 15 below provides a mapping of the most significant threats within each of Ghana’s ecoregions, reflecting findings from extensive stakeholder consultations and accompanying analysis elaborated herein. Importantly, threats in Table 15 are coded based on relative threat level within each ecosystem; this classification is applied in recognition that some geographies in which USAID/Ghana may deliver programming may not be those facing the most significant threats to biodiversity nationwide. The below table thus guides prioritization and decision making for threats specific to a given ecoregion.

TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM Marine Resources Eastern Guinean Forest-Savanna Freshwater Savanna (including coastal Zone Resources wetlands) Pollution from multiple sources (mining Coastal wetland, Illegal and/or poorly Illegal and/or poorly activities; fragmentation, and loss implemented mining implemented mining Climate change misuse oil and gas exploration activities activities (including and other infill), oversuse) of agricultural chemicals) Pollution from multiple sources (Solid and liquid waste Unsustainable Sedimentation infiltrating/overloading Unsustainable agriculture agriculture and Wildfires and siltation of natural systems; and silviculture activities silviculture activities surface waters mining activities; misuse (including oversuse) of agricultural chemicals Unsustainable Unsustainable wood Unsustainable wood IUU fishing and agriculture harvesting harvesting unsustainable fishing practices Mining activities (pollution) and misuse Wildfires Overgrazing Climate change (including overuse) of agrochemicals

146 USAID. “Foreign Assistance Act Sections 118/119 Tropical Forest and Biodiversity Analysis Best Practices Guide.” February 2017.

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TABLE 15. PRIORITIZATION OF THREATS IN GHANA BY ECOSYSTEM Marine Resources Eastern Guinean Forest-Savanna Freshwater Savanna (including coastal Forest Transition Zone Resources wetlands) Unsustainable Coastal erosion (e.g.,

wood harvesting via sand mining) Darker shading = more significant threat

Subsections 6.1.1-6.1.5 provide a discussion of direct threats to biodiversity and forestry in Ghana, organized as follows: Deforestation and habitat degradation, fragmentation, and loss; overexploitation and unsustainable use of resources; pollution; climate change; and invasive species. See Annex I for more information regarding the effects of these threats on biodiversity by ecoregion.

6.1.1 DEFORESTATION AND HABITAT DEGRADATION, FRAGMENTATION, AND LOSS ILLEGAL AND/OR POORLY IMPLEMENTED MINING ACTIVITIES Galamsey or illegal mining is any mining activity by individuals or group without (i) License issued by the MLNR; (ii) Environmental Permit issued by the EPA (Act 703, Section 18); and (iii) Operating Permit issued by the Inspectorate Division of the Minerals Commission (Act 703 Section 102). Some illegal mining activities are undertaken in unauthorized areas including Forest Reserves, river bodies, buffer zones, farmlands, and within communities.147 Illegal mining activity has spiked in Ghana in recent years in response to (i) the relatively high price of gold, making the activity economically attractive; (ii) traditional authorities, landowners, or opinion leaders coordinating with foreign nationals to operate in remote areas using heavy earth-moving equipment; (iii) Ghanaians fronting for foreign nationals (particularly Chinese) to operate in the small-scale mining sub sector;148 (iv) political interference and corruption.149 Other factors contributing to the increase in galamsey activities include bottlenecks in obtaining licenses, traditional land tenure systems, and inadequate institutional support.150 Most legal and illegal mining activities are conducted in the Eastern Guinean Forest or forest-savanna transition zones and thus pose significant threat to biodiversity given the considerable natural resource value in these areas. The proportion of Ghana’s gold that is mined through artisanal and small-scale gold mining (ASGM) has increased from 6% in 2000 to 23% in 2010151. ASGM has become by far the single most important source of destruction of terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems and biodiversity loss while expanding throughout the developing world as a result of high global demand.152

Illegal and poorly managed artisanal mining significantly degrade the physical environment through destruction of flora and fauna, significant pollution of land and water bodies (Section 6.1.3), and soil

147 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 148 Isaac Ibrahim. 2018. “Gold Exports and Cost Implications of Illegal Gold Mining in Ghana.” British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, January 2018, Vol. 15 (1). 149 University of Ghana Business School (2017). “The Galamsey Menace in Ghana: A Political Problem Requiring Political Solutions?” UGBS, Policy Brief No.5, June 2017. 150 Isaac Ibrahim. 2018. “Gold Exports and Cost Implications of Illegal Gold Mining in Ghana.” British Journal of Economics, Finance and Management Sciences, January 2018, Vol. 15 (1). 151 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 152 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017.

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erosion and surface water sedimentation. A recent study suggests that the land degradation associated with a single Eastern Guinean forest mining site has increased from 15,000 ha in 2015 to 43,224 ha in 2018. The Ofin, Tano, Jeni, Oda and Birem Rivers have experienced increased sedimentation due to galamsey activities along their tributaries, and adjacent forests are at risk of severe degradation or deforestation from mining activities.153 Galamsey mining groups often destroy forest resources without regard to any environmental protection laws and regulations, at times even diverting the natural course or rivers to mine gold in the river bed irrespective of damage to the environment.154155 Even formal mining companies in Ghana frequently operate without regard to sustainability requirements.156 Galamsey operations, through erosion, mercury amalgamation, and other practices, leave behind a trail of uncovered pits, pools of heavily contaminated water, large tracts of land with no vegetative cover, and contaminated lands and rivers resulting from the dangerous chemicals used in these illegal operations.157 158

Local population growth, diminished soil fertility or agricultural productivity, decreased cash-crop profitability, inadequate access to farming inputs, market failures, or natural disasters and climate extremes may serve as push factors to convince farmers to shift from subsistence farming to gold mining. ASGM also tends to offer a higher return on labor, a lower risk than agriculture, the generation of cash to meet non-food needs, and other economic opportunities associated with development and urbanization.159

UNSUSTAINABLE AGRICULTURE AND SILVICULTURE ACTIVITIES While Ghana has a relatively large amount of cultivated land per capita, most lands are characterized by low fertility and are subject to degradation.160 Slash-and-burn is the predominant agricultural practice throughout the country, but permanent tree crops, compound farming, mixed farming, and special horticultural farming systems are also prevalent.161 Subsistence agricultural practices, such as slash-and- burn, , and mechanization all result in declining soil quality and land degradation and are estimated to affect about 150,000km2 of agricultural land per year. Clearing land for cultivation creates various hazards for Ghana’s biodiversity.162 Landscapes are denuded of forest resources created fragmented forest cover (where forest still remains); additionally, land clearing exposes fields to soil erosion and the loss of plant nutrients and habitats, perpetuating a cycle of land degradation and continued agricultural expansion. Limited access to irrigation and the subsequent overreliance on favorable climatic conditions frequently results in low output for many farmers; this then drives farmers

153 Ababio, Joseph Osei and Bonsu, Kofi. “Change Detection Analysis on the Impact of Illegal Mining (Galamsey) in Ghana; Case Study focusing on Land cover Changes in some Selected Districts within the Country.” FIG Congress 2018. Istanbul, , May 6–11, 2018. 154 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 155 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 156 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 157 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 158 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 159 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 160 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 161 Ibid. 162 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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to supplement their output and income by clearing more land to find higher-fertility soil, clearing trees and other vegetation for fuelwood, or abandoning farming altogether in favor of illegal mining activities.163 The threat from agricultural expansion is exacerbated by the increasing demand for food and raw materials in Ghana, putting pressure on remaining forests and PAs.164 Forestry and silviculture are also highly relevant in the context of Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. Despite this, unsustainable management practices are common within Ghana’s forest plantations; proper site-species matching is not observed in many cases, and planting material of unknown provenances are often used.165 Additionally, plantation agriculture for oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa drive substantial forest degradation and loss via displacement of large swaths of forest.166 As cocoa is a dominant source of foreign exchange and farmer income, farmers were long encouraged to grow cocoa, exacerbating the rate of deforestation.167 Growing global demand for chocolate and decreasing productivity due to aging trees and poor tree/soil management provide an economic incentive for the conversion of forest land into cocoa plantations.168

WILDFIRES Bush burning practices are prevalent in many parts of Ghana, particularly the northern savanna and the more central forest-savanna transition zones. Stakeholders almost uniformly reported that the primary reasons for bush burning, in order of relevance, are group hunting activities, traditional “fire festivals,” slash-and-burn agricultural practices, and to accelerate grass regeneration for cattle grazing. These practices combine with ineffective fire management regimes to perpetuate annual recurrence of fire outbreaks in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones.169 Especially during the dry season, these almost exclusively man-made fires increasingly result in unmanaged wildfires that cause significant damage across the landscape, destroying cropland, degrading forest, and contributing to ongoing loss of soil fertility. Stakeholders noted that climate change is extending the dry season (historically 6 months, now often closer to 8 months) and projected increases in temperatures and increased variability in rainfall are likely to increase the preponderance of fires in Ghana.

Beyond the direct impact wildfires have on the landscape, stakeholders noted that the prevalence—and expectation—of dry season wildfires discourages adoption of improved land use management practices and longer-term agricultural investment that could yield higher value over longer time horizons. A study conducted in the Afram headwaters Forest Reserve revealed that between 2002 and 2012 the Forest Reserve experienced on average of six fires, averaging 31 ha of coverage, each year. Notably, this average was lowered as a result of a joint GoG and Government of Netherlands fire management project between 2004 and2011. Both prior to and following conclusion of this project, the average number and/or extent of fire increased underscoring both the need for active management.170

163 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 164 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 165 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 166 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 167 Quacou, Ikpe Emmanuel. “Unsustainable Management of Forests in Ghana from 1900-2010.” International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 4(6), 2016, 160-166. 168 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 169 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 170 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015.

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OIL AND GAS EXPLORATION An increase in oil and gas activities and establishment of associated infrastructure, particularly in the western corridor of Ghana, threaten both tropical forests and biodiversity through habitat fragmentation (in both terrestrial and aquatic areas), dislodgement of marine organisms, and degradation of farmlands and wetlands. Wetlands, often considered wastelands in both rural and urban settings, frequently become repurposed as sites for oil and gas exploration/extraction infrastructure, and the insufficiency of governance structures to ensure environmentally sound site management exacerbates the risk such siting presents. (As noted below, wetlands are also subject to other infill activities; solid waste and fill may be dumped in wetlands as part of a deliberate infill strategy by abutters.) Conversely, landowners are ready to lease lands, whether farmlands or plantations, to oil and gas companies for any infrastructure development given that the economic benefits are appreciable. Cost of living escalates as farmlands that initially produce vegetables and other food crops for local consumption are converted for oil and gas related infrastructure. This puts further economic pressure on individuals living in these areas, and—in the face of limited economic alternatives (Section 6.2.3) increases motivation to engage in unsustainable, extractive, or harmful economic activities (e.g., galamsey, logging, charcoal production) that adversely impact Ghana’s forests and biodiversity.

Fishermen cited the occurrence of oil spills which, though accidental, has negative implications for marine and coastal organisms. The impact of an actual oil spill could be devastating given that there is no clear strategy for oil pollution prevention.171 Oil rigs often serve as makeshift marine parks for fishes, but seismic activities around the rigs can harm marine organisms. Fishermen reported regular stranding of and dolphins, which may be as a result of the seismic surveying conducted during exploration activities. Community leaders and members lose motivation to actively protect the affected natural resources given the perception that they do not benefit directly from oil and gas exploration yet are “heavily” impacted by the operations; stakeholders consulted suggested that investments made by (some) oil and gas companies in support of alternative or supplementary livelihoods are inadequate relative to number of affected persons.172

SEDIMENTATION AND SILTATION OF SURFACE WATERS Sedimentation and siltation of surface water have clear effects on freshwater biodiversity in Ghana including effects to channel morphology that impact species that spawn in riverbed substrate. These problems are caused largely by the depletion of forest and vegetative cover.173 High sedimentation occurs during run-off from rainfall and at points of discharge from drains, sewers, and other water pipes. Additionally, the increase in suspended matter reduces the penetration of light into the water, which is likely to affect productivity.174 Siltation resulting from changes in land use (such as agriculture and urbanization) or water use affects a range of biophysical processes and can negatively impact freshwater biodiversity.175 The deposition of fine particles of silt on substrates can reduce oxygen availability to

171 Monney, I., & Ocloo, K. “Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: A comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy.” Water Policy, 19(3), February 2017: 377–389. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017. 172 Stakeholders consulted routinely advocated for GoG to negotiate better settlement plans on behalf of the coastal communities where oil and gas is extracted and/or where impacts are experienced most directly. 173 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 174 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 175 Ibid.

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benthic organisms and degrade spawning habitat.176 Furthermore, vegetation can establish within areas of deposited silt, affecting flow pathways and potentially even diverting flow from established channels...177

COASTAL EROSION Coastal erosion is a transboundary problem facing several West African coastal nations, including Ghana. Ghana’s eastern coastline is steep with natural erosion rates exceeding 1.5 meters per annum (m/yr).178 Several factors may be exacerbating high erosion rates including damming of the Volta river which alters the sediment discharge and flow rate and unregulated sand mining from the shore zone. Storm frequency, which may be increasing due to climate change, may also affect rates of coastal erosion (climate change is discussed in Section 6.1.4). Sensitive areas, such as nesting sites for sea turtles, are threatened by widespread illegal sand mining activities. Average coastline loss ranges from 1.5m to 2m annually with parts of eastern (Keta) and central coast (Cape Coast) recording up to 4m.179 Extreme erosion of over 6 m/yr180 was recorded in eastern parts of Greater Accra region (Ada), requiring government action to stabilize the 16 km stretch of Ada’s coast. Erosion along the eastern coast has further led to the loss of large expanse of mangrove forests and salinization of freshwater lagoons due to sea water intrusion; stakeholders cited the loss of riparian farmlands due to high salinity of freshwater bodies. A site visit to Anlo beach showed signs of severe coastline erosion that resulted in submerged buildings along the shoreline, damaged or destroyed coconut trees and mangroves, and regular flooding.

6.1.2 OVEREXPLOITATION OR UNSUSTAINABLE USE OF RESOURCES UNSUSTAINABLE WOOD HARVESTING Overexploitation of forest resources is driven by unsustainable charcoal production, wood fuel harvesting, and (both legal and illegal) logging activity.

• Unsustainable commercial charcoal production occurs throughout Ghana and is most prevalent in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones (Brong Ahafo region [now Bono, Bono East and Ahafo Regions], followed by the Northern, Ashanti and Eastern Regions). 181 Commercial charcoal production is an essential livelihood for many but presents considerable environmental threats, primarily related to the extraction of live trees from the natural forest without replacement, which reduces habitat for wildlife and causes incremental but widespread forest loss and degradation.182 Hardwood species such as Kane (Anogeissus leiocarpus), Odum (Milicia excelsa) and (Khaya senegalensis) are becoming scarce due to overexploitation for both charcoal and logging/timber.183 A recent study on charcoal production in Volta Region

176 Ibid. 177 Ibid. 178 Republic of Ghana. Ghana: State of the Environment Report 2016. Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana, December 2017. 179 Jonah, F. E., Adjei-Boateng, D., Agbo, N. W., Mensah, E. A. and Edziyie, R. E. 2014. “Assessment of sand and stone mining along the coastline of Cape Coast, Ghana.” Annals of GIS, 21(3): 223-231, doi:10.1080/19475683.2015.1007894. 180 Bolle, A., das Neves, L., & Rooseleer, J. 2016. “Coastal protection for Ada, Ghana: A case study.” Proceedings of the Institution of Civil Engineers - Maritime Engineering, 168(3), 125–133. https://doi.org/10.1680/jmaen.15.00013. 181 Nketiah K. S & Asante J. Estimating National Charcoal Production in Ghana. Tropenbos Ghana, 2018. 182 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 183 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from:

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revealed that charcoal producers used 35 distinct species (5 of which were non-traditional for charcoal), belonging to 31 genera, demonstrating the increasing diversity of the trees used. Over 79% of these producers exploited Anogeissus leiocarpus for their charcoal, ranking it most common among the varieties used.184 According to data collected by FC, approximately 590,000 MT of charcoal was produced in 2016, about half of which was transported without a charcoal conveyance certificate. 185 Based on consultations, it is likely this does not account for the full extent of informal charcoal production. Commercial charcoal production is dominated by rural households and therefore has some potential for serving as a major source of livelihood if sustainably handled. Charcoal production was ranked as the second major occupation in terms of income generation activity in some areas in Northern Ghana186.

• Overconsumption of fuelwood is prevalent in Ghana. Fuelwood is used as a source of domestic energy, primarily for cooking and heating in rural communities. About 2.2 million Ghanaian households burn fuelwood, 90% of which is obtained from nearby forests.187 The regions most directly impacted by unsustainable fuelwood consumption are the forest-savanna transition zone and savanna zone in Kintampo, Nkoranza, Wenchi, Afram Plains, and Damongo.188 The current forest degradation rate in Ghana is over 3% annually, and some predictions suggest that fuelwood consumption will surpass 25 million MT by 2020.189

• is recognized to be widespread in Ghana. A 2008 study estimates the overall illegal logging rate to be around 70%, and that most (75%) of the illegal logging is accounted for by the informal sector (chainsaw operators) who produce for the domestic market. Further, the study reveals that illegal logging is predominantly confined to the most valuable species, such as rosewood and mahogany, and to the reserved and protected forests. Consulted stakeholders consistently cited the rampant illegal extraction of rosewood (Pterocarpus erinaceus)—largely for export to —from the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones; some stakeholders noted that rosewood had already been nearly extirpated in the Eastern Guinean forest zones.

OVERGRAZING Intense livestock grazing has led to significant habitat degradation and subsequent loss of local fauna and flora in Ghana.190 In a degraded forest, livestock overgrazing is a major problem for forest regeneration, while in savanna landscapes, overgrazing contributes to soil degradation, thus contributing to the cycle of land use degradation and change that ultimately affects Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. Consulted stakeholders also noted that grazing can lead to bush fires and, at times, wildfires, particularly during the dry season; dry grass is often burned to hasten regeneration of fresh grass as fodder for cattle.

https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species- for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana. 184 Kumapley, Philomena and Dumevi, Christopher. “Plant Species Selection for Charcoal Production: Dwindling Resource and Further Implications for the Environment.” Journal of Environmental Science and Engineering, A 5, 2016, 484-488. 185 Nketiah K. S & Asante J. Estimating National Charcoal Production in Ghana. Tropenbos Ghana, 2018. 186 Anang, Benjamin Tetteh; Akuriba, Margaret Atosina; & Alerigesane, Aaron Adongo. “Charcoal production in Gushegu District, Northern Region, Ghana: Lessons for sustainable forest management.” 187 Ofori-Nyarko, Eric. “Woodfuels Use in Ghana: Social, Economic and Energy Dimensions.” Food and Agriculture Organization; retrieved July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/3/Y3198E/Y3198E05.htm. 188 Ghana Energy Commission, Woodfuel Use in Ghana: An Outlook for the Future? 2010. 189 Ibid. 190 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019.

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However, as discussed in Section 6.1.1, such behaviors contribute to the increasing prevalence of wildfires eroding the landscape in both the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones.

ILLEGAL, UNREGULATED, AND UNREPORTED (IUU) FISHING IUU fishing activities significantly threaten marine and coastal biodiversity by affecting reproductive productivity, damaging spawning and breeding grounds, and contributing to unsustainable overfishing. IUU is perpetrated by nearly all fishing fleets, with industrial trawlers affecting the most significant adverse ecological and economic impacts. A major area of concern is fish transshipment, popularly called “saiko” fishing, which occurs when trawlers transship unwanted bycatch to artisanal canoes – often through pre-arranged transactions. Saiko fishing is particularly destructive due to the lack of restriction on the number of days trawlers can stay at sea; as such trawlers may stay at sea for over 40 days without filling the quota for their pre-determined catch. This illegal activity thus contributes significantly to the unsustainable overfishing that has brought Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries to the brink of collapse (see Unsustainable Fishing, below). Further, the recent illegal incursion of trawlers into Ghana’s inshore waters is leading to destruction of the fragile sea floor and breeding grounds of several fish species. This destruction, coupled with the harvest of the juveniles of valuable commercial fishes (nearly 60% of saiko landings are juvenile pelagic fishes), severely harms the replenishment capacity of the populations. Additionally, the establishment of a Bycatch Collectors Association (which pays taxes to the government) by approximately 80 canoe-owners represents a shadow formalization of the saiko practice.191 192

Higher demand for marine products is likewise driving illegal fishing by artisanal fishermen at landing sites all along the coast of Ghana.193 The use of unapproved nets, either larger than stipulated or monofilament nets, and small net mesh sizes to exploit juvenile fishes, present significant risk to Ghana’s increasingly fragile marine ecosystem. The use of small nets, for example, for certain species removes juveniles before they reach sexual maturity thus drastically affecting reproductive productivity and resulting in shifts in species composition overall. Illegalities and infractions include the use of light for fishing, use of poison and dynamites during fishing expeditions and the use of wrong mesh sizes; fishermen in the western and central coast use Dichlorodiphenyltrichloroethane (DDT), detergent, petrol, carbide, and dynamite to fish and then preserve them in formalin before landing and selling to processors, while in western Ghana, fishermen often place light in the sea to attract fish, including juveniles, in high quantities.194 195 Artisanal fishermen are highly unregulated in the marine space, thus accounting for high growth in the number of canoes and corresponding overcapacity of the artisanal fishing sector generally (see “Unsustainable Fishing,” below). Given the various infractions by industrial and artisanal fishermen and fishing vessels, catch statistics as reported by the Fisheries Commission are

191 Asare, Cephas. Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: The “Saiko” Story. Hen Mpoano and BUSAC, Issue Brief, April 2017. 192 Environmental Justice Foundation. China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A spotlight on illegal practices within Ghana’s industrial trawl sector. EJF, London, United Kingdom, 2018. 193 Republic of Ghana. Fisheries Management Plan of Ghana: A National Policy for the Management of the Marine Fisheries Sector 2015-2019. Fisheries Commission, Ministry of Fisheries and Aquaculture Development, October 2015. 194 Illegal fishing practices are extensively discussed under “Unsustainable Fishing” in section 6.1. 195 Afoakwah, R., Osei, M. B. D., & Effah, E. A Guide on Illegal Fishing Activities in Ghana. USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project, April 2018. Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island.

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often inaccurate or grossly under reported. For instance, main landing sites for saiko fish are Elmina and Apam as against the designated Tema and Takoradi Ports as prescribed by law.

UNSUSTAINABLE FISHING In addition to the challenges presented by IUU fishing above, overcapacity and unsustainable artisanal fishing significantly threaten Ghana’s marine fisheries—and particularly the small pelagic fisheries. Records show that annual fish production has declined from 420,000 MT (in the late 1990s) to 203,000 MT (2014 records). Of this figure, four pelagic species (round and flat sardinella, anchovies, and mackerel) constitute about 80% of total small pelagic fish landings.196 Notwithstanding, the number of artisanal canoes increased from 8,000 to over 13,000 during this time, as has the size of artisanal canoes and fishing nets. The combined effect of these trends and the IUU activities described above is driving the small pelagic fish stocks to a brink of collapse, with extrapolations showing that if the current fishing capacity and effort remains unabated with an annual catch of 20,000 MT, Ghana’s small pelagic fish stocks will be totally depleted by 2020.197

Stakeholder consultations and site visits confirmed that declining fish stocks is economically burdening for fishermen and by extension coastal communities. Interactions with fishermen and processors indicate that although they are aware of the health implications of consuming fish caught using unauthorized methods, they feel they have limited choices or opportunities given the absence of alternative or supplementary livelihood vis-à-vis the depleting fish stocks. However, if enforcement agencies can effectively stop other forms of fishing illegalities, they may resort to fishing using the appropriate methods.

BUSHMEAT HUNTING Bushmeat hunting is a key threat to a variety of wildlife species in Ghana. Hunting is traditional to Ghanaian culture with bushmeat representing a significant source of protein for many living in rural areas.198 The most commonly hunted species are medium-sized mammals, such as forest antelopes and diurnal monkeys.199 However, improved hunting mechanisms, an increase in logging efforts, and weak enforcement has caused a spike in bushmeat consumption, posing a threat to most medium-sized mammals and large birds in Ghana.200 This uncontrolled hunting has significantly diminished the faunal diversity across the country. The drastic decline in fauna in these once thriving ecosystems has been coined “empty forest syndrome,” referring to the absence of animals in an otherwise healthy Ghanaian forest.201

Despite the threat to biodiversity, there is little effective government action in place to halt the lucrative bushmeat trade system. In the late 1990s, there were approximately 300,000 hunters in rural Ghana

196 Lazar, N., Yankson K., Blay, J., Ofori-Danson, P., Markwei, P., Agbogah, K., Bannerman, P., Sotor, M., Yamoah, K. K., Bilisini, W. B. Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP): Status of Ghana’s small pelagic stocks and recommendations to achieve sustainable fishing 2017. Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. April 2018. 197 Ibid. 198 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 199 Ibid. 200 Ibid. 201 Ibid.

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hunting between 220,000 and 380,000 MT of bushmeat per year.202 The FC WD has attempted to issue licenses as a regulatory measure.203 However, lack of capacity and resources have done little to curb the bushmeat hunting overall.

6.1.3 POLLUTION Pollution poses a significant threat to biodiversity in Ghana, particularly in the coastal wetlands and marine ecosystems.

MINING ACTIVITIES A principle source of pollution is galamsey, or illegal small-scale mining operations in Ghana; these operations cause pollution of surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, oils, and sediments. These polluted water sources affect the food chain, impair ecosystem services, and impact the health of thousands of people.204

SOLID AND LIQUID WASTE INFILTRATING/OVERLOADING NATURAL SYSTEMS (PARTICULARLY WETLANDS AND INSHORE MARINE WATERS) Beyond effective protection in parts of Ghana’s Ramsar sites, the condition of Ghana’s lagoons and other coastal wetlands is progressively worsening. Consultations and site visits indicate that a significant cause of this degradation is the introduction of solid and liquid waste into wetland systems. Coastal wetlands near municipalities and settlement areas are frequently used as dumping grounds for household and commercial solid waste, and in some cases for septic pump-out. Solid waste may be dumped simply for convenience, or as part of a deliberate infill strategy by abutters. Where constructed and natural drainage systems exist, waste from municipalities and settlement areas is still often offloaded to wetlands, when proximate. Drains discharge a mix of solid waste (particularly plastics/packaging and organics) and sewage, with petroleum products and chemicals also included when the drained area includes lorry parks, mechanical shops, and light industry. Ghana has limited wastewater collection and even more limited treatment; it is not uncommon to find untreated liquid waste discharged directly into wetlands or the sea in major urban centers. With only 4 out of 35 institutional treatment plants operational, serving about 200 trucks daily, only 1% of the sewage generated in Ghana is treated.205

Currently, only 2% of domestic and industrial waste generated is recycled as un-engineered landfilling is the dominant waste treatment and disposal method.206

Near-surface groundwater in coastal settlements is typically biologically and chemically contaminated, and this near-surface groundwater is hydrologically connected with adjacent wetlands. This type of pollution combines with chemical/metal pollution from mining activities (above), and agrochemicals (below) and infill to create a complex set of threats. (See Section 5.1.3 regarding Ghana’s legal framework for wetland conservation and management.)

202 Ntiamoa-Baidu, Yaa. Wildlife and Food Security in Africa: “Chapter 3.1.3: Bushmeat Trade.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1997. 203 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 204 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 205 Badoe, C (2014). “The challenges of waste management in Ghana: EPA’s perspective.” Todaygh.com, July 8, 2014. 206 Ansah, K. “Zoomlion to build waste treatment plants across Ghana.” Starrfm.com.gh, 22 June 2019, retrieved from: https://starrfm.com.gh/2019/06/zoomlion-to-build-waste-treatment-plants-across-ghana/.

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Near-shore marine waters in the vicinity of municipalities and major settlement areas are likewise significantly contaminated with sewage, organic waste, and plastics. These materials enter the sea from surface drains, lagoons, river and wetland outflows, and deliberate shore dumping, which was observed even in fishing communities where complaints and concern regarding plastic pollution is common. In one consultation a fisherman noted that it is not uncommon for seine hauls to include significant amounts of plastics—in some cases to the exclusion of fish.

The coastal wetlands and productive sea floor have important biodiversity value in their own right,but are also ecologically linked to the marine fisheries. The small pelagics (round and flat sardinella, chub mackerel, and anchovies) that are the targets of Ghana’s artistinal fisheries are migratory, with research indicating that populations seek preferred environmental conditions, particularly water temperature (e.g. ~21C for sardinella) and high primary and secondary productivity.207 Primary and secondary productivity are significantly adversely impacted by nutrient loading and other pollution, turbidity, and fouling of the productive seafloor. Thus, fouling of wetlands and inshore marine environments is a threat to this fishery, although this threat is currently poorly quantified208 and secondary to overfishing. In addition, some small pelagics (particularly sardinella) are found in lagoons,209 indicating that an unknown portion of these populations are directly impacted by conditions in these waters. The ecological linkage is even stronger for the industrial trawl fishery (grouper, snapper, cuttlefish, octopus), as the target species have a direct dependence on the productive sea floor (e.g., sea grass beds for spawning), and food chain links to the wetlands may exist as well.210

MISUSE (INCLUDING OVERUSE) OF AGROCHEMICALS In addition to challenges with domestic and industrial waste described above, agricultural and agrochemical waste are major contributors to coastal wetland pollution. Inflows of agricultural waste increases the organic loading of coastal waters and the BOD, leading to inadequate oxygen supply to support plant and animal life.211 In an assessment of ecological health of coastal aquatic ecosystems, concentrations of nitrates and phosphates were found to be significantly higher than the recommended World Health Organization (WHO) standards.212

Additionally, the widespread usage of agrochemicals—while importantly contributing to increased food supply and nutrition—is also presenting substantial harm to the environment more generally. Indiscriminate and inappropriate use of agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers may result in significant reduction in the population of flora and fauna, with water bodies, fish, vegetables, food, soil and

207 Brochier Timothéeet al. “Complex small pelagic fish population patterns arising from individual behavioral responses to their environment.” Progress in Oceanography. Vol 164, May–June 2018, 12-27. 208Entsua-Mensah, M. “The Contribution of Coastal Lagoons to the Continental Shelf Ecosystem of Ghana” in The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem: Environmental Forcing & Sustainable Development of Marine Resources. McClade JM et al, eds. Elsevier Science B.V. 2002.

209 Okyere, Isaac; Aheto, DW; and Aggrey-fynn, J. “Comparative ecological assessment of biodiversity of fish communities in three coastal wetland systems in Ghana” European Journal of Experimental , 2011, 1 (2): 178–188 210 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 211 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 212 Larbi, L., Nukpezah, D., Mensah, A., and Appeaning-Addo, K. 2018. “An Integrated Assessment of the Ecological Health Status of Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems of Ada in Ghana.” West African Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 26(1), 2018: 89 – 107.

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sediment have been found to be pesticide contaminated.213 The excessive use of pesticides has contributed to the destruction of useful insects, including pollinators.214 Vegetables (cultivated all over the country) and cash crops like cocoa and citrus (cultivated in the Eastern Guinean forest) are the crops most commonly treated with pesticides. Studies indicate that more than half (58%) of farmers have not received agricultural extension education on safe handling and use of pesticides.215

Additionally, indiscriminate disposal of used agrochemical containers poses health and ecological risks e.g., land degradation and surface water pollution.216 A 2015 assessment of farmer pesticide use at an irrigation scheme in the Greater Accra Region indicated common use of herbicides and insecticides and minimal use of fungicides; the assessment further revealed that approximately two-thirds of applicable farmers improperly disposed of empty containers, throwing them into nearby bushes.217

6.1.4 CLIMATE CHANGE Rising temperatures and declining and increasingly variable rainfall are key factors contributing to changes to Ghana’s ecological zones, loss of flora and fauna, and an overall reduction in ecological productivity.218 The increasing frequency of droughts directly reduces biodiversity, while low levels of rainfall combined with high temperatures and winds exacerbate bush fires—themselves a major threat to tropical forests and biodiversity as discussed in Section 6.1.1.

Rising sea surface temperatures alter migratory patterns and reproductive cycles of key species such as anchovies and sardines, contributing to the potential collapse of Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries. Furthermore, the increased absorbance of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere has contributed to ocean acidification.219

Ghana’s vulnerability to climate change is largely defined by its exposure to various impacts of droughts, floods, and sea erosion.220 Historical data for Ghana from 1961-2000 show a progressive rise in temperature and a decrease in the mean annual rainfall in all agroecological zones.221 Climate change has exacerbated the problem of soil degradation. Increased rainfall variability increase the likelihood of droughts and other extreme climate events such as flooding and desertification, particularly in the northern regions of the country.222 Approximately 295 species of indigenous crop varieties have become endangered or near extinct as farmers increasingly resort to improved crop varieties in order to adapt to challenges from changing climatic conditions.223 Areas that are suitable for cocoa production lie

213 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 214 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 215 Yaw Mensah Ofosu. “Pesticides Handling and Use in Four Selected Agro – Ecological Zones in Ghana.” Department of Crop and Soil Sciences, University of Science and Technology – Kumasi, November 2013. 216 Sambay Enterprise. Final ESIS - Proposed Rice Farming Project at Biu in the Kassena Nankana Municipal, UE/R, 2017. 217 Mattah, M.M., Mattah, P.A. D., and Futagbi, G., 2015. “Pesticide Application among Farmers in the Catchment of Ashaiman Irrigation Scheme of Ghana: Health Implications.” Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2015, pp 7. 218 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 219 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 220 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 221 Ibid. 222 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 223 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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primarily along the coast and are contracting as temperatures rise, floods increase, and soil salinization and coastal erosion continue. As interannual rainfall variability and the length of the growing season shortens, projections suggest that yield losses may become more severe.224 Taken together, climate change thus indirectly impacts the ability of economic sectors to provide adequate income and services to the population, which translates into unsustainable harvesting of natural resources and negative impacts on biodiversity.225

6.1.5 INVASIVE SPECIES Globally, invasive alien species threaten biological diversity and impose significant economic costs and losses e.g. in the areas of agriculture, fisheries, and tourism. They are a major driver of biodiversity loss: “Analysis of the IUCN Red List shows [invasive species] are the second most common threat to extinction of a species and, in the case of amphibians, reptiles and mammals, the most common cause.”226 These global problems are fully represented in Ghana, as evidenced by the following indicative examples:227

Aquatic Invasive Species: (i) floating invasive water weeds such as water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes), Kariba weed (Salvinia molesta) and water lettuce (Pistia stratiotes); and (ii) submerged weeds such as Vallisneria spiralis/gigantea and Ceratophyllum demersum have significant adverse impacts on the , the Tano-Abby Lagoon Complex, the Kpong Head pond and Lower Volta River—blocking water channels, increasing sedimentation, reducing water volume and impairing water quality. The presence of large swathe of floating invasive weeds has led to significant reduction in the population of the Volta clam (Galatea paradoxa).228

Terrestrial Invasive Species: Paper Mulberry (Broussonetia papyrifer)—deliberately introduced in Ghana in 1969 by the Forest Research Institute of Ghana (FORIG)Pra-Anum and Afram Headwaters Forest Reserves.229 Neem (Azacdiracta Indica) likewise outcompetes and threatens indigenous species.

Witch-weed (Striga hermonthica) is a parasitic plant attaching to the roots of cereals and legumes and depriving them of nutrients, with significant adverse effects on crop yields, adding to pressures for agricultural extensification; it is widespread in northern Ghana.

Invasive animal pests that pose challenges in the agricultural sector include the larger grain borer (Prostephanus truncatus) on grains and cereals, fall armyworm (fall armyworm (Spodoptera frugiperda) on

224 2015 USAID FCMC Project. Mangrove Reserves in Five West African Countries. Citing Giri C, Ochieng E, Tieszen LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011a). “Global distribution of mangroves forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” In Supplement to: Giri et al. (2011b). Cambridge (UK): UNEP World Conservation Monitoring Centre. URL: data.unep-wcmc.org/datasets/21. 225 UNEP/UNDP. CC Dare: National Climate Change Adaptation Strategy. November 2012. 226 Centre for Agriculture and Bioscience International. Invasive Species: The hidden threat to sustainable development. CABI, n.d.

227 In addition to the cited examples, invasive plant species in Ghana include: Alien trees—Cecropia peltata, Cedrelaodorata, Gmelina arborea, Leucaena leucocephala, Senna siamea and Tectona grandis; woody shrubs—Calotropis procera, Jatropha curcas, J. gossypiifolia and Ricinus communis; climbing shrubs: Chromolaena odorata and Lantana camara; herbs and small shrubs—Canna indica, Catharanthus roseus, Hyptis suavolens, Senna hirsuta, S. obtusifolia, S. occidentalis and Triumfetta sp; and water plants—Minosa pigra and Pistia stratiotes. IUCN/PACO (2013). Invasive plants affecting protected areas of West Africa. Management for reduction of risk for biodiversity. Ouagadougou, BF: IUCN/PACO. https://papaco.org/wp-content/uploads/2015/08/Invasive-plants-study.pdf 228 Republic of Ghana. Invasive Alien Species Policy (Draft). Ministry of Environment, Science, Technology & Innovation, December 2014. 229 Bosu, Paul P & Apetorgbor, Mary M. “Broussonetia papyrifera in Ghana: Its Invasiveness, Impact and Control Attempts.” Biology and Forest Health Division, Forestry Research Institute of Ghana.

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multiple crops, the cassava mealy bug (Phenacoccus manihoti) on cassava and the giant land snails (Achatina fulica). These similarly add to pressures for agricultural extensification, and to mis-use of agricultural chemicals.

6.2 INDIRECT THREATS (DRIVERS) TO BIODIVERSITY Per the Best Practices Guide, a driver is “constraint, opportunity or other important variable that positively or negatively influences direct threats.” There are many factors driving the threats identified above, but the most significant and influential drives in the country are as follows:

• Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient of knowledge of -- sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods; • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road improvements and infrastructure development; • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in; • Challenges presented by land tenure and insufficient land-use planning; • Poor sanitation and waste management systems; • Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

Each of these drivers affects numerous threats.

6.2.1 POPULATION GROWTH, INTERNAL MIGRATION, EXPANSION OF EXISTING SETTLEMENTS, AND URBANIZATION Population growth is one of the key underlying causes of deforestation and forest degradation in Ghana.230 Between 1960 and 2017, the population of Ghana more than tripled from 6.6 million to 28.7 million, averaging 3.3% annually.231 From 1950 to 2016, population density rose from 28.6 people per square kilometer (km2) to 103.4 people per km2. 232 Increases in population density between 1984 and 2019 have been concentrated in the Greater Accra, Central, Ashanti, and Upper East Regions; as illustrated by Figure 7, this corresponds to major growth of urban centers in these regions. The most obvious land cover changes in Ghana results from expansion of agricultural land use across the country, especially in the Northeast, East Central and Southwestern regions.233

230 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 231 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019 232 Twerefou, D.K; Chinowsky, P; Adjei-Mantey, K; Strzepek, NL. “The Economic Impact of Climate Change on Road Infrastructure in Ghana.” Sustainability, 2015, 7, 11949-11966. 233 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land- cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana.

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Figure 7. Population Density Change in Ghana from 1984-2019, by Region

Population growth coupled with high levels of economic growth have increased domestic wood consumption and domestic and export demand for agricultural commodities such as cocoa, oil palm, cashew, and food crops.234 Rapid population growth has resulted in the degradation both on- and off- reserve areas due to expanding settlements, agricultural expansion, and other developmental projects.235, 236

234 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 235 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 236 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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Over the past 20 years, Ghana’s urban population has increased at rates significantly above total population growth, driven heavily by rural-to-urban migration spurred by economic growth, commercialization, industrialization, and globalization. 237, 238 Figure 8 illustrates this growth between 2000 and 2015. From 1,460 km2 in 1975, urban areas have expanded to 3,830 km2 in 2013, a 161% increase.239 Rapid urbanization, increase in industrial activities, and insufficient sanitation and waste management systems (Section 6.2.8) have resulted in environmental pollution (Section 6.1.3).240 Additionally, per the 2010 census, urban demand for charcoal and fuelwood remain high, as approximately 50% and 25% respectively; the majority of charcoal production is thus to meet urban—rather than rural-- demand. Additionally, as of 2010 about half of Ghanaians lived in urban centers, and this figure is Figure 8. Cropland and Urban Growth in Ghana 2000-2015 expected to reach 70% by 2050. The urban population is highly concentrated in Ghana’s major cities, namely Accra, Kumasi, and Tamale.241 A whole quarter of the population lives along the coast in expanding urban areas, such as Accra, and unchecked urbanization has led to an ”urban sprawl” and increases in the size and numbers of informal settlements.242 It is estimated that about 20% of Ghana’s urban population live in slums. The population of slum-dwellers living in

237 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 238 Ibid. 239 “Land Use, Land Cover, and Trends in Ghana.” USGS. Accessed July 24, 2019 from https://eros.usgs.gov/westafrica/land- cover/land-use-land-cover-and-trends-ghana. 240 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 241 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 242 Ibid.

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Accra, Tema-Ashaiman, Kumasi, Tamale, and Takoradi was estimated in 2001 to be 500,000; this reached 6,418,580 by 2014.243

6.2.2 DISINCENTIVE TO APPLY—OR INSUFFICIENT KNOWLEDGE OF—SUSTAINABLE MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS Stakeholders consulted noted that despite increasing awareness about sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods such as agriculture, artisanal fishing, and livestock, application of these best practices often remains a challenge. Resource extraction is deeply rooted in traditional and cultural practices and therefore requires extensive, carefully planned and continuous behavioral change communication, education, and technical assistance to achieve sustainable progress. At the community level, many actors perceive – or have experienced – that benefits derived from sustainable management practices can often discourage adoption for those with limited livelihood options and poor food security. For some, knowledge on sustainable management practices in traditional livelihoods is simply limited.

Consequently, continued application of unsustainable land and water management practices due to the lack of adequate incentives, knowledge, or capacity helps drive decreasing agricultural and fishing yields, soil fertility loss, forest degradation and loss, and the preponderance of wildfires experienced in the savanna and forest-savanna transition zones. Poor agricultural practices such as total clearing of vegetation and burning, poor—or absence of—proper mechanization, improper and unsafe application of agrochemicals are examples of practices that directly or indirectly harm Ghana’s forests and biodiversity. For instance, farmers indicated that limited knowledge of proper techniques for management tree plantings within agricultural systems served as a barrier to the development of tree stock on farms.244 Additionally, stakeholders suggested that lack of confidence in dry season land (and wildfire) management discouraged long-term investment by farmers in their land (including application of improved agricultural management practices). The rotational bush fallow system characterized by clearing and burning of vegetative cover, is the dominant farming system throughout Ghana.245 This clearing and burning normally destroys vegetative cover and make the soil susceptible to erosion and leaching.246

6.2.3 LIMITED SUPPLEMENTAL OR ALTERNATIVE LIVELIHOODS Ghana’s poverty rate is closely tied to the lack of supplemental or alternative livelihoods that allow the poor to break free of economic constraints. The Northern, Savanna, North East, Upper East, and Upper West regions continue to have the country’s highest poverty rates,247 and poverty is most prevalent among households headed by food-crop farmers and those self-employed in agriculture, at

243 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 244 Oduro, K. A., Arts, B. J. M., Kyereh, B., & Mohren, G. M. J. 2018. “Farmers’ Motivations to Plant and Manage On-Farm Trees in Ghana.” Small-scale Forestry, 2018 17(3), 393–410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-018-9394-5. 245 Asuming-Brempong, S., Botchie, G., and Seini, W. “Socio economic analysis and the roles of agriculture in developing countries. Country case study Ghana.” FAO roles of agriculture project, ISSER, University of Ghana, Legon-Accra. 246 Kissinger, G., Herold, M. and De Sy, V., 2012, Drivers of Deforestation and Forest Degradation: A Synthesis Report for REDD+ Policymakers. Lexeme Consulting, Vancouver Canada, January 2012. 247 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016.

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about 46%and 39% in 2012 and 2013, respectively. Further, those in informal employment have higher rates of absolute poverty than those employed in the public and private formal sectors.248

Falling productivity of agriculture and fisheries throughout the country have forced many Ghanaians to shift their employment and livelihood strategies, and survey data show increasing diversification into non-farm activities and migration.249 Under conditions of poverty and unemployment, most alternative work involves little pay or subsistence. However, declining land yields have induced a widespread increase in non-farm activities to generate a complementary source of earnings, such as tree cropping and the production of charcoal as well as illicit practices such as galamsey, logging, poaching, and other activities that cause serious threats to ecosystems.250 251 It is estimated that 5,000 to 6,000 people are engaged in regular hunting, with an average income from hunting of around USD 1,000 per year, increasing pressure on rare wildlife species.252 In areas with lower population pressure and relatively greater availability of fertile virgin land—such as the Jirapa district in the Upper West region-- households are still inclined to migrate due to the lack of (typically more profitable) non-farm livelihoods;253 as discussed in Section 6.2.1, this also drives many of the threats to Ghana’s tropical forests and biodiversity.

Beyond agriculture, other land changes have caused disruptions in employment, especially in Ghana’s fisheries. Dam construction combined with population pressures in the Volta Basin has led riparian communities to move away from fishing due to decreasing fish catch. Similar to what is observed in northern Ghana regarding those moving away from—or supplementing—agriculture, fishermen are engaging in activities such as fuelwood harvesting, charcoal burning, palm wine tapping, local gin distilling, mat weaving, sand extraction, and stone quarrying as alternative or supplemental forms of income. These activities are extractive in nature and thus increase pressure upon increasingly scarce, locally available resources.254

6.2.4 ROAD AND INFRASTRUCTURE DEVELOPMENT Infrastructure is a necessary part of development, especially when associated with a growing human population. However, it can have significant impacts on the environment when environmental concerns are not addressed before, during, and after construction. Hydroelectric dams, such as the Akosombo and Kpong Dams on , have indisputably altered the biodiversity and ecology of the Volta River and adjacent areas.255 256 Prior to damming, the Volta River supported a substantial local fishery, and the Volta Basin as an ecosystem functioned primarily for food production, flood protection, water

248 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 249 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 250 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017. 251 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 252 Addae, Bright & Oppelt, Natascha. “Land-Use/Land-Cover Change Analysis and Urban Growth Modelling in the Greater Accra Metropolitan Area (GAMA), Ghana.” Urban Science, 2019, 3, 26. 253 Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13. 254 Amevenku, F.K.Y et al. “Determinants of livelihood strategies of fishing households in the Volta Basin, Ghana.” Cogent Economics & Finance, 2019, 7: 1595291. 255 World Wildlife Fund. “Infrastructure: Overview.” Accessed 20 August 2019 from https://www.worldwildlife.org/threats/infrastructure. 256 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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infiltration, and groundwater recharge. The Akosombo dam resulted in habitat modifications and resource decline, which worsened with the formation of the Kpong dam. These two dams have resulted in activities such as fuelwood harvesting, palm wine tapping, local gin distilling, matt weaving, sand winning (i.e., extraction of sand from shores and river beds), and stone quarrying—all of which are extractive in nature and depend on the (diminishing) availability of the locally available resource.257

Studies have found linear infrastructure such as pipelines and powerlines, to be “ubiquitous and responsible for loss, fragmentation, and alteration of habitat across diverse ecosystems” globally;258 the full extent of this issue in Ghana is unclear. Al the same, construction of new pipelines and powerlines will be part of Ghana’s development of oil and gas resources, and efforts to increase access to electricity; this will involve clearing of vegetation, the removal or degradation of soil, and the removal or serious diminishment of biodiversity on the site. Furthermore, tall vegetation is continually removed to prevent interference with power lines.259 New logging roads provide easier access to formerly remote areas and allow hunters to move deeper into the forests, leading them to shoot significantly more game to feed growing numbers of logging crews or for sale in city markets. As a result, bushmeat hunting (Section 6.1.2) has now reached epidemic levels in Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest region and is a major driver behind the absence of wild animals in otherwise intact forest.260 Furthermore, new roads can open increased land for further penetration of galamsey activities (Section 6.1.1).

6.2.5 INADEQUATE IMPLEMENTATION AND ENFORCEMENT OF EXISTING LAWS AND REGULATIONS Implementation and enforcement of existing forestry, wildlife, and fisheries laws and regulations is challenging throughout Ghana. Managers of FC’s WD often lack the vehicles or resources to effectively monitor poaching of endangered wildlife, encroachment, and illegal developments in wetlands. Consultations routinely revealed anecdotes such as enforcement officials lacking the necessary weapons and vehicles to arrest perpetrators of illegal activities (e.g., sand mining, galamsey). While the current administration is targeting anti-corruption, such efforts have had mixed results (e.g., the new anti- corruption investigator’s mandate and authorities are unclear thus limiting their effectiveness.261)

In the forestry sector, the 2016 – 2036 Forestry Development Master Plan explicitly recognizes weak enforcement of legislation and regulations as an inherent internal weakness, despite a well-established set of laws and regulations. As with wildlife, limited funding and inadequate supply of requisite field equipment undermine enforcement against forest and wildlife offenses in PAs. Consulted stakeholders cited numerous factors undermining enforcement, including insufficient commitment by government officials; political interference (including phone calls by politically influential actors to encourage inaction rather than enforcement); corruption among governmental staff and security agencies responsible for oversight; non-deterrent penalties for offenders by the judiciary; long trial periods for offenders; and

257 Amevenku, F.K.Y et al. “Determinants of livelihood strategies of fishing households in the Volta Basin, Ghana.” Cogent Economics & Finance, 2019, 7: 1595291. 258 Richardson, ML; Wilson, BA; Aiuto, D.A.S.; Crosby, JE; Alonso, A; Dallmeier, F; & Golinski G.K. “A review of the impact of pipelines and power lines on biodiversity and strategies for mitigation.” Biodiversity Conservation, April 2017, 26:1801-1815. 259 Ibid. 260 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 261 Wilhelm, Jan Philipp. “Even with a Slow Start Ghana’s President Akufo-Addo is fulfilling election promises.” Mail and Guardian, 11 December 2017, retrieved July 2019 from https://mg.co.za/article/2017-12-11-even-with-a-slow-start-ghanas- president-akufo-addo-is-fulfilling-election-promises.

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insufficient public buy-in to comply with existing laws and regulations (see Section 6.2).262 Consultations further provided numerous anecdotes of political party supporters or community groups threatening enforcement of forestry laws through physical intimidation or assault, or political influence.

Stakeholder consultations underscore that similar challenges confront the fisheries industry. Ghana’s constitution stipulates that “all natural resources should be invested in commissions,” thus placing management of all fisheries resources under the Fisheries Commission. However, the establishment of the MoFAD has created difficulties with regards to delineated roles and responsibilities, implementation of policies, and enforcement of regulation. As the Fisheries Commission is yet to achieve autonomy, this concern will be addressed in the legal review of the fisheries law, which is ongoing at the time of writing. Beyond the institutional challenges highlighted above, limited personnel, lack of necessary equipment, political interference, open access fisheries, and low political will to alter the status quo all undermine and weaken enforcement. As with forestry officials, political intimidation is also used as a tool to punish enforcement, with one consultation noting a fisheries enforcement unit officer within the marine police was transferred to direct traffic following an altercation with a politician over seizure of an illegal fishing net.

Exacerbating challenges with enforcement officials is a cross-cutting lack of understanding or application of the governing legal or regulatory requirements. Collectively, insufficient prosecution, lengthy trialing periods, and limited judicial capacity to support environmental law enforcement, undermine the effectiveness of the penal system in discouraging environmental crimes.

6.2.6 INSUFFICIENT PUBLIC BUY-IN Successful implementation of Natural Resource Management (NRM) law and policy must rely in part on a willingness to comply, and the willingness of communities and those on the ground to report violators. This is particularly true in contexts such as Ghana, where government surveillance and monitoring capacity or implementation are limited. Such public buy-in rests in substantial part on both (1) an understanding of the importance and value of the ecosystem services provided by the resources being managed (greatly enhanced by direct derivation of benefits from NRM activities) and (2) the belief that acting with probity (to comply oneself, to report violators) will not incur adverse consequences. In Ghana, stakeholder consultations strongly indicate that such understanding is generally weak, and there is little faith that acting honestly is rewarded.

Stakeholder consultations instead routinely highlighted that resource users, government officials outside specialist departments, and the general public have limited understanding of (a) the importance of ecosystem services and (b) the impact of forest and ecosystem degradation on these services. In many cases, it was also noted that awareness of the requirements of law or policy was poor. For example, FC WD regional and site managers, district planning officers, multiple NGOs, and community representatives noted that wetlands are commonly viewed as wastelands, with very limited understanding of (1) the role and importance of mangroves and other wetlands in fisheries, flood control and water purification, and (2) the policies and regulations that govern activities in wetlands.

262 Asare, Rebecca Ashley; Osafo, Yaw; Richards, Michael; Hawkins, Slayde; Mason, John; & Olander, Jacob. Implications of the Legal and Policy Framework for Tree and Forest Carbon in Ghana: REDD Opportunities Scoping Exercise. Forest Trends/Katoomba Group, June 2010.

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Conversely, every example of successful community resource management and restoration encountered—and there were several--included a significant education and behavior change communication (BCC) component, which was cited both by community members and those providing technical or financial support as critical to the success of the effort. Stakeholders consulted noted appreciable improvements in areas where communities received targeted educational and logistical support to implement conservation initiatives. Similarly, successful interventions generally incorporated recognition of the importance of community-derived direct benefits from any proposed natural resource management efforts; it was also commonly observed that in most of the areas where dramatic improvements were recorded in resource management, key leaders and traditional authorities were vitally involved in the process.

If communities or individuals are to refrain from exploiting resources in compliance with the law, they must have a reasonable belief that the resource will not simply be exploited by another actor. Given systemic weaknesses in enforcement described in Section 6.2.5, above, another consistent theme of the stakeholder consultations was that such belief is frequently not reasonable. This was cited with respect to naturally growing trees on agricultural lands, protection of mangroves, and use of compliant gear in fishing activities, among others. Importantly, consultations revealed examples to the contrary as well— such as a Western Region paramount chief ordering the arrest of a sub-chief for attempting to log wood in an off-limits forest area; in this case, the clear derivation of benefits from resource management ensured appropriate enforcement of laws (with the matter ultimately settled out of court).

6.2.7 CHALLENGES PRESENTED BY LAND TENURE AND INSUFFICENT LAND-USE PLANNING Traditional land tenure and land ownership systems in Ghana present unique challenges with regards to NRM. In southern Ghana, customary landowners typically have extended kinship/inheritance to the land. At times, landowners may be founders in the area, or perceived as such, and thus granted privileged land access. Customary landowners will then form productive agreements with smallholder farmers, often under abuno arrangements, where the smallholder farmer will manage the land, almost always planting cocoa, and—after approximately 5 years—the farmer will get half ownership. However, increasing land pressure and often insufficiently formal arrangements can lead to contention over matters such as how much land is granted or the duration for which such agreements should persist. In turn, incentives for smallholder farmers regarding the potential to benefit from long-term sustainable management of the land are undermined, discouraging sound agricultural or silvicultural management practices and contributing to a cycle of agricultural expansion, forest degradation, and soil fertility loss. Further, existing tree tenure legislation in Ghana grants no derivation of benefits to the farmers managing farms on behalf of the customary landowners. Consequently, farmers often fully clear land to maximize short- term silvicultural production, ultimately undermining soil fertility and likewise contributing to the above- described cycle. In northern Ghana, while customary land ownership follows inheritance, traditional authorities such as Chieftaincies remain more prominent in making determinations over land use. Consultations suggested that these practices did less to directly discourage sustainable land use management practices, though other challenges—including corrupt chiefs or landowners, poor agricultural management practices, and dry season wildfires—ultimately contributed to similar cycles of agricultural expansion, land clearing, and soil fertility loss.

Throughout the country, localized land use planning is severely limited, despite the2016 National Land Use and Spatial Planning Framework calling for district level Land Use and Spatial Plans by 2019.

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Stakeholders suggested that DAs and traditional authorities typically failed to coordinate effectively on such matters, though they noted that, should such coordination be supported, effective land use planning could be accomplished. Insufficient land use planning can drive conflict between—and unsustainable resource utilization by—farmers, herdsmen, and other land users. For example, research and consultations highlight instances of disagreement over estranged tenure arrangements and resultant land use tensions between Fulani (non-Ghanaian) herdsmen263 and traditional authorities and/or landowners. Such conflicts are often further fueled by widespread perception among community members that chiefs sell lands indiscriminately and are corrupt,264 making law enforcement difficult; oftentimes the traditional authorities or politicians are the actual owners of the cattle creating conflict, further challenging enforcement.

6.2.8 POOR SANITATION AND WASTE MANAGEMENT SYSTEMS Rural sanitation and waste management in Ghana are poor, but this has a relatively low impact on biodiversity (though significant impacts on human health). Poor sanitation and waste management in cities and larger towns, particularly in coastal areas, are another matter, contributing significantly to pollution of wetlands, and near-shore marine waters.

While some recent significant upgrades to municipal solid waste (MSW) and sewerage collection and treatment have been made in Ghana,265 particularly in the largest cities, collection and treatment rates remain notably low (see 6.1.3): surface drains and rivers continue to carry significant raw sewerage and solid waste, open dumping at the coast remains prevalent, and it is not uncommon to see MSW used for deliberate fill of wetlands, in most cases apparently by abutters.

The situation results from the lack of waste management infrastructure and equipment, poor community/neighborhood sanitation practices, and under-developed and under-funded sanitation and waste management systems in larger towns and cities. The United Nations’ Children Fund notes: “There is no clear urban basic sanitation strategy and plan in Ghana. Various approaches and interventions in urban basic sanitation are not effectively coordinated and monitored”266 (emphasis added).

6.2.9 INADEQUATE ACCESS TO AFFORDABLE ENERGY ALTERNATIVES Ghana’s power generation mix is primarily comprised of hydropower (38%; predominantly from the Akosombo dam) and thermal power (61%). Solar power represents less than 1%.267 As of 2017, energy access in Ghana is estimated to be as high as 79%,268 though grid electricity remains erratic—with prolonged energy crises between 2012 and 2016 as a result of variable rainfall and high dependence on hydropower. In urban areas, energy access is estimated to be 90% of the population, however in rural

263 Kuusaana, Elias Danyi and Bukari, Kaderi Noagah. “Land conflicts between smallholders and Fulani pastoralists in Ghana: Evidence from the Asante Akim North District (AAND).” Journal of Rural Studies, 42, 2015, 52e62. 264 Ibid. 265 Ahmed, I., Ofori-Amanfo, D., Awuah, E. and Cobbold, F. 2018. “Performance Assessment of the Rehabilitated Mudor Sewage Treatment Plant at James Town Accra-Ghana.” Journal of Water Resource and Protection, 10, 725-739. 266 “Water, Sanitation, and Hygiene.” Accessed 2 August 2019 from https://www.unicef.org/ghana/water-sanitation-and-hygiene. 267 African Development Bank (AfDB). Republic of Ghana: Country Strategy Paper (CSP) 2019-2023. West Africa Development and Business Delivery Office (RDGW), June 2019. 268 World Bank Group. “Access to electricity (% of population).” Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://data.worldbank.org/indicator/EG.ELC.ACCS.ZS?locations=GH.

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areas it remains notably lower, at 67%. Additionally, as of 2016 only 21.7% of the national population were believed to have access to clean fuels and cooking technologies.269

These statistics align with stakeholder consultations, which reported that lack of access to affordable alternatives to fuelwood or charcoal drive continued widespread use of those resources and, in turn, the unsustainable harvest of wood required to keep up with demand. Based on 2003 and 2010 surveys, Ghana’s Energy Commission anticipated steadily growing demand for charcoal between 2009 and 2019.270 Further, data collected by the Energy Commission indicate that use of biomass energy is nearly as prevalent as use of petroleum-based energy (largely natural gas).

269 Sustainable Energy for All. Country Data. Ghana. 2019. Accessed on August 27, 2019 from: https://www.se4all- africa.org/seforall-in-africa/country-data/ghana/ 270 Energy Commission of Ghana. National Energy Statistics 2009-2018. Strategic Planning and Policy Directorate. April 2019.

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7. ACTIONS NECESSARY TO CONSERVE AND PROTECT TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY The following table (Table 16) defines the actions necessary to effectively conserve and protect tropical forests and biodiversity in Ghana. The Analysis team believes these actions are necessary to realize sound and sustained conservation and management of Ghana’s extensive tropical forest and biodiversity. The actions are divided into two tiers: highest priority and high priority. This Analysis identifies actions necessary to strengthen conservation within Ghana for any potential actor and notes the actor or actors that may be best positioned to operationalize those actions. These actions necessary directly inform the analysis conducted in Section 8 which guides programming recommendations for USAID/Ghana developed in Section 9.

TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

TIER 1: HIGHEST PRIORITY

ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

GoG, private sector, and development partners working together to strengthen NRM ● Inadequate implementation and ● Unsustainable wood enforcement with a focus on (1) surveillance capacity in forestry, mining and fisheries enforcement of existing laws and harvesting sectors and (2) reduction in political interference: regulations ● Unsustainable fishing • Direct engagement between GoG, development partners, and (perhaps) ● Challenges presented by land ● IUU fishing private sector to develop strategy and implementation plans for addressing tenure and insufficient land-use ● Unsustainable existing challenges presented by illegal and/or poorly implemented mining planning agriculture and activities; ● Poor sanitation and waste silviculture activities • Strengthened enforcement—inclusive of equipment and training for management systems ● Pollution from mining enforcement officers—by FC to prevent or reduce on-reserve agriculture ● Insufficient public buy-in activities (particularly in forest and forest-savanna zones); and, ● Sedimentation and • Collaboration between MESTI, MLNR MC, and civil society to support siltation of surface Ghana’s adherence to Minamata Convention on Mercury. waters

GoG refining existing—or developing new--resource management and tenure ● Inadequate implementation and ● Unsustainable legislation to incentivize sustainable management behaviors that encourage adoption of enforcement of existing laws and agriculture and best management practices. Areas where opportunities exist for engagement include regulations silviculture activities the following: ● Challenges presented by land ● Unsustainable wood • Formalization of CREMAs in a manner that further empowers community tenure and insufficient land-use harvesting

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

adoption by clarifying terms of management and ensuring community planning derivation of benefits from the protection of natural resources; ● Poor sanitation and waste • Rectification of existing disincentives related to tree tenure policy (e.g., no management systems ownership for planted or naturally growing trees on farmed areas); ● Insufficient public buy-in additionally, existing efforts to develop a tree registration system—which may ● Disincentive to apply—or prove bureaucratically difficult to execute—could be further evaluated to insufficient knowledge of— pursue simpler to implement solutions; sustainable management practices • Introduction of a rationalized wetlands management regime that clarifies for traditional livelihoods responsible actors for oversight, strengthens protections and penalties for ● Population growth, internal violation, and empowers enforcement of wetland areas; and, migration, expansion of existing • Adoption of a policy of no total/complete clearing of land for plantation settlements, and urbanization establishment, instead requiring adherence to silviculture BMPs, including that remaining degraded forest cover is left intact and protected with establishment of new plantations.

• Poor sanitation and waste • Solid and liquid waste Significant investment in municipal solid and liquid waste management systems by GoG management systems infiltrating/ and/or international donors to help reduce pressure on wetlands and near-shore overloading natural marine ecosystems. systems

Strengthened regulation of industrial trawlers by GoG utilizing police, navy/military, • Inadequate implementation and ● IUU fishing with a focus on transparency to reduce political interference and achieve sustainable enforcement of existing laws and ● Unsustainable fishing management of the fishery. This must address current gaps in equipment/technology to regulations support enforcement. • Targeted engagement with civil society actors and national media to help raise awareness about the threats facing the fisheries sector due to illegal trawling activities and the challenges in implementing and enforcing trawling activities, in turn encouraging more effective and transparent regulation of the trawling sector; and, • More effective enforcement of existing restrictions (e.g., net sizes), and following effective regulation of the trawl sector, ending the open-access regime for the artisanal sector

Strengthened enforcement/application of ESIA requirements is required to better ● Inadequate implementation and ● Oil and gas minimize or offset environment/social impacts of economic development (e.g., oil and enforcement of existing laws and exploration

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS gas exploration, large and small-scale mining, road improvements and infrastructure regulations ● Illegal and/or poorly development, forest plantations). Achieving such strengthened enforcement or ● Insufficient public buy-in implemented mining application could entail the following: ● Road and infrastructure activities • Dialogue between EPA, civil society, and GoG entities such as MLNR MC, development ● Unsustainable Ministry of Planning, and Ministry of Energy to facilitate common objectives ● Challenges presented by land agriculture and for enhanced application of ESIA requirements. tenure and insufficient land-use silviculture activities • Capacity building of NGOs and national media around environmental planning ● Pollution from mining advocacy and journalism to strengthen in-country accountability mechanisms ● Population growth, internal activities as additional support to EPA oversight of ESIA requirements. migration, expansion of ● Solid and liquid waste • Enhanced application of land use planning and creation of stronger forms of settlements, and urbanization infiltrating/ overloading support—via GoG, civil society, and/or development partners—to natural systems local/regional governance bodies in localized land use planning. ● Sedimentation and • Incorporation of silviculture BMPs in ESIA guidance and review standards. siltation of surface waters

ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS

Expansion of existing efforts—by GoG, civil society, and development partners—to ● Disincentive to apply—or ● Unsustainable wood strengthen the enabling environment and value chains for, and productivity of, insufficient knowledge of— harvesting agriculture and incorporate sustainable best management practices to help reduce sustainable management practices ● Unsustainable existing pressures on soil fertility, land degradation, and loss of tree cover and forest for traditional livelihoods agriculture and density. Such efforts could include the following: ● Insufficient public buy-in silviculture activities ● Training on agricultural best practices that incorporate sustainable land use ● Inadequate implementation and ● Climate change management practices such as climate smart agriculture, silviculture BMPs, enforcement of existing laws and ● Misuse (including agro-forestry initiatives, respect for riparian buffers, low-burn practices. regulations overuse) of ● Education and BCC focused on the benefits and opportunities provided by agrochemicals increased adoption of agro-forestry techniques, emphasizing multiple uses of forest products and benefits such as soil fertility, reduced erosion. ● Greatly enhanced education and behavior change intervention targeting traditional authorities, farmers, women and youth around pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use; this would need to incorporate demonstration on proper use as well as BCC programming designed to monitor shift in attitudes around handling, storage, use, and disposal of agrochemicals.

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

Continued training and capacity building delivered via academia, development partners, ● Disincentive to apply—or ● IUU fishing civil society, and GoG around sustainable fisheries management practices for marine insufficient knowledge of— ● Unsustainable fishing fisheries. This could include the following: sustainable management practices ● Sedimentation and ● Expanding the reach of interventions demonstrating success in adoption of for traditional livelihoods siltation of surface more sustainable practices. ● Insufficient public buy-in waters ● Working with communities living alongside coastal wetlands essential for fish ● Inadequate implementation and ● Unsustainable wood reproduction / fish stock replenishment to: a) deliver education and BCC that enforcement of existing laws and harvesting underscores the ecosystem services delivered by those wetland areas; b) regulations ● Unsustainable identifies livelihood generating activities that could supplement—or perhaps ● Poor sanitation and waste agriculture and serve as alternative to—existing fishing practices; and c) work in coordination management systems silviculture activities with traditional authorities and local government to establish CREMAs with ● Road and infrastructure ● Oil and gas formalized bylaws for community derivation of benefits from improved development exploration resource management. ● Challenges presented by land ● Solid and liquid waste ● Providing civic advocacy support to communities affected by private sector oil tenure and insufficient land-use infiltrating/ overloading + gas developers, particularly where oil + gas infrastructure is developed in planning natural systems ecologically sensitive wetland areas. Link to capacity building delivery for NGOs on civic advocacy and media outlets on environmental journalism.

Intensified delivery of technical assistance by GoG, development partners, and civil ● Disincentive to apply—or ● Unsustainable wood society on livestock best management practices to improve productivity of, reduce insufficient knowledge of— harvesting land use conflict around, and encourage quality-over-quantity approach to livestock sustainable management practices ● Unsustainable handling and grazeland management. Such technical assistance could include the for traditional livelihoods agriculture and following: ● Insufficient public buy-in silviculture activities ● Inadequate implementation and ● Overgrazing • Training for cattle owners and herdsmen on best management practices in enforcement of existing laws and ● Climate change grazing area management. regulations • Supporting development and formalization of cattle owners and herdsmen ● Challenges presented by land associations. Capacity building targeting development implementation of tenure and insufficient land-use effective, locally tailored by-laws with appropriate consensus across traditional planning authorities, DAs, and community leadership councils. • Assistance in the development of localized land use and spatial plans that incorporate the establishment and demarcation of dedicated grazing corridors, as well as provision of water points for cattle grazing and watering.

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

Participatory engagement between development partners, civil society, and traditional ● Challenges presented by land ● Sedimentation and and local governance authorities to map and enforce sustainable land use at the tenure and insufficient land-use siltation of surface community/district level—operationalizing the framework currently in place—to planning waters reduce unsustainable resource utilization. Such support could focus on the following: ● Disincentive to apply—or ● Unsustainable wood ● Participatory engagement with communities in establishment or strengthening insufficient knowledge of— harvesting of CREMAs. sustainable management practices ● Unsustainable ● Reforming lease arrangements to increase benefits derived by tenant farmers for traditional livelihoods agriculture and from cultivation. ● Insufficient public buy-in silviculture activities ● BCC on the benefits of natural resource management, land use planning, and ● Inadequate implementation and ● Solid and liquid waste family planning targeting all stakeholders engaged at the local governance and enforcement of existing laws infiltrating/ overloading community levels. and regulations natural systems ● Community & DA sensitization, mobilization for drinking water source ● Poor sanitation and waste ● Overgrazing protection (surface and groundwater). management systems ● Wildfires ● Establishment and support of grazing committees. ● Illegal and/or poorly ● Establishment and demarcation of grazing corridors and establishment of implemented mining water points for cattle grazing and watering. activities ● At community/district levels, establishment of landscape \governing boards who will discuss, plan and resolve landscape challenges including fire in an integrated manner.

Collaboration between national governmental authorities (e.g., NAMDA, National Fire ● Disincentive to apply—or ● Wildfires Service), traditional authorities, and DAs, with support from civil society, private insufficient knowledge of— ● Unsustainable sector, and development partners, to emphasize and support development of robust sustainable management practices agriculture and wildfire management systems that operate in participatory manner at the community for traditional livelihoods silviculture activities level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and incorporate consensus on ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Climate change approach can help reduce prevalence of wildfires—particularly in savanna and forest- ● Inadequate implementation and savanna transition zones. Focuses of wildfire management systems could include the enforcement of existing laws and following: regulations ● Coordinated engagement with traditional authorities, local governance (e.g., ● Challenges presented by land DAs), NAMDA, National Fire Service (local branches) on (wild)fire tenure and insufficient land-use management planning

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

● Reduced attention on pure “no burn” practices, instead creating systems designed to allow for and effectively manage controlled, legal burning in permitted instances, with proper oversight entities engaged ● Understanding of existing community frustrations resulting from losses incurred in the face uncontrolled wildfires to encourage or increase buy-in (particularly in the face of cultural practices that will challenge adoption) ● Identification of high-value permanent crops that could be viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cashew, mango) and linking community level, de minimis incentives (e.g., seedlings for these high-value crops) upon realization of no-/low-fire dry seasons ● Community engagement to establish fire management plans, ultimately coordinated at district level (engagement at both community and district level must be participatory and coordinated) ● Development of fire danger index that can be readily transmitted to farmers (on regular basis; e.g., every 2 hours during high risk periods)

Focused, community/district-level family planning efforts in impoverished communities ● Population growth, expansion of ● Unsustainable pursuing traditional but unsustainable livelihoods in vulnerable ecologies. existing settlements agriculture and ● Disincentive to apply—or silviculture activities insufficient knowledge of— ● Unsustainable wood sustainable management practices harvesting for traditional livelihoods ● Overgrazing ● Unsustainable fishing

ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION

● Limited supplemental or alternative ● Unsustainable wood livelihoods harvesting Delivery of technical assistance by development partners and relevant GoG entities on ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Unsustainable sustainable/best management practices in non-traditional value chains such as shea, ● Disincentive to apply—or insufficient agriculture and cashew, mango with unrealized economic potential in threatened areas and/or knowledge of—sustainable silviculture activities ecologically important areas (e.g., wildlife corridors) to discourage unsustainable management practices for traditional ● Solid and liquid waste resource extraction and reduce poor land use management practices. Such technical livelihoods infiltrating/ overloading assistance could include the following: ● Inadequate implementation and natural systems enforcement of existing laws ● Overgrazing

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

● Be provided in coordination with land use planning and resource management and regulations ● Wildfires regimes (e.g., CREMAs) that codify protection of key ecological areas ● Challenges presented by land tenure ● Illegal and/or poorly ● Incorporate BCC elements that underscore the value of ecosystem and insufficient land-use planning implemented mining conservation, and monitor shifts in behavior activities

Collaboration between GoG, civil society, and development partners in the ● Limited supplemental or alternative ● Unsustainable wood identification, promotion, and training on best management practices for sustainable livelihoods harvesting value chains of comparable economic value to unsustainable activities (e.g., charcoal ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Unsustainable production; artisanal fishing alternatives). Assistance could include the following: ● Disincentive to apply—or insufficient agriculture and ● Promotion of-and training in best management practices for-cultivation of knowledge of—sustainable silviculture activities permanent crops of high value (e.g., mango, cashew) that could be planted if management practices for traditional ● Solid and liquid waste there were less fire risk to increase motivation for increased livelihoods infiltrating/ overloading protection/improved fire management; such support must be integrated with ● Inadequate implementation and natural systems cross-sectional training on fire management and fire danger indices/warning enforcement of existing laws ● Overgrazing systems. and regulations ● Wildfires ● Identification and development of alternative building materials that reduce ● Challenges presented by land tenure ● Illegal and/or poorly pressure on sand extraction at the coast and insufficient land-use planning implemented mining ● Introduction of sustainable charcoal/wood fuel production models, such as activities community managed woodlots with fast-growing species (e.g., Acacia) cultivated ● Coastal erosion on a rotation basis ● Identification and support of sustainable alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities with potential to yield near-term economic benefit. ● Creation of value chain linkages—e.g., through development partners or public- private partnerships—to private markets that pay premiums for sustainable production that rewards retention of natural growth forest areas

TIER 2: HIGH PRIORITY

ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE

Further investment by GoG, civil society, donors, and/or academic institutions into ● Challenges presented by land tenure ● Illegal and/or poorly the extent of mining impacts and activities to help GoG decisionmakers and their and insufficient land use planning implemented mining development partners refine design and prioritize geographies for interventions ● Limited supplemental or alternative activities targeting galamsey or poorly implemented mining operations. Needed investments livelihoods ● Pollution from mining

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS include the following: ● Inadequate implementation and activities • Research on the impacts of mining activities on ecosystems (e.g., mapping enforcement of existing laws and of legal and illegal mining activities, water and soil quality as well as fish regulations tissue in areas likely affected by chemicals used during mining) Further ● Insufficient public buy-in research into the extent of mining impacts on ecosystems. • Increased availability and application of technology for surveillance/monitoring (e.g., enhanced satellite imagery, drone video capture) of illegal mining activities.

● Insufficient knowledge of or ● Unsustainable fishing disincentive to apply sustainable ● IUU fishing Improved collection, maintenance, and sharing of fisheries data and knowledge of management practices for traditional fisheries by GoG, academia, and development partners, including information livelihoods sharing and awareness raising around the linkages between coastal wetlands and ● Inadequate implementation and marine ecosystems, to facilitate marine fisheries management planning and enforcement of existing laws and enforcement. regulations ● Lack of public buy-in

● Challenges presented by land tenure ● Coastal erosion Increased utilization of enhanced technologies—e.g., simulation models that allow and insufficient land use planning better prediction of unintended intensification of erosion on other parts of the ● Road and infrastructure development coast—to enhance coastal protection efforts.

Increased investment in training for terrestrial biologists and taxonomists to ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Bushmeat hunting enhance ability for academia and/or civil society to conduct inventories of wildlife ● Inadequate implementation and ● Unsustainable wood resources, in turn enhancing ability to design spatial plans that properly account for enforcement of existing laws and harvesting biodiversity protection and management. regulations

● Insufficient public buy-in Promotion of environmental stewardship and responsibility in the context of ● Cross-cutting ● Inadequate implementation and maintaining ecosystem services that sustain communities and the nation as key enforcement of existing laws and elements of civic behavior education, from early childhood onward. regulations

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTIONS TO CHARCOAL AND WOODFUEL

GoG and private sector natural gas exploration and development that 1) apply ● Inadequate access to affordable ● Unsustainable wood internationally recognized best practices for environmental and social safeguards and 2) energy alternatives harvesting are conducted in a manner consistent with national, regional, and local landscape level ● Oil and gas land use and resource management planning that accounts for conservation of exploration ecologically sensitive habitats (e.g., coastal wetlands) to minimize impacts to habitats essential for biodiversity.

Continued emphasis by GoG, private sector, and development partners to increase ● Inadequate access to affordable ● Unsustainable wood development of renewable energy solutions—particularly solar—in combination with energy alternatives harvesting natural gas development (above) to increase access to electricity and, with time, assist in creating more affordable energy alternatives in both urban and rural settings. • Support to increase grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables Power Purchase Agreements (PPA). • Design and adoption of policies to encourage renewable energy, such as renewable energy feed-in-tariffs or targeted subsidy programs designed to attract foreign investment.

GoG, civil society, private sector, and development partner action at the national level ● Inadequate access to affordable ● Unsustainable wood to enhance regulation of commercial charcoal production and associated value energy alternatives harvesting chains—including fees and charges for different stakeholders—to reduce unmanaged ● Insufficient public buy-in wood harvesting for charcoal use. ● Inadequate implementation and enforcement of existing laws and regulations

ACTION 7: UNDERTAKE DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION

Development partners, civil society, and private sector working in direct support of ● Challenges presented by land tenure ● Unsustainable wood afforestation, including riparian buffers and areas affected by mining, with focus on the and insufficient land use planning harvesting following: ● Insufficient public buy-in ● Illegal and/or poorly • activities where tree cropping is not profitable and/or implemented mining where land may become available. activities

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TABLE 16. ACTIONS NECESSARY, DRIVERS ADDRESSED, AND LINKED THREATS ACCORDING TO TIER OF PRIORITY

ACTIONS NECESSARY DRIVER(S) ADDRESSED LINKED THREATS

• Forest enrichment or afforestation initiatives with species that have been ● Invasive species overharvested/ overexploited within an ecoregion to help restore biodiversity ● Climate change and ecosystem health. • Research into which native species will be appropriate for restoration efforts in areas affected by mining and explore application of to enrich affected soils.

Wetland restoration/remediation/clean-up including, but not limited to mangrove ● Poor sanitation and waste ● Coastal erosion areas. management systems ● Sedimentation and ● Population growth, internal siltation of surface migration, expansion of settlements, waters and urbanization ● Solid and liquid waste ● Road and infrastructure development infiltrating/ overloading natural systems ● Misuse (including overuse) of agrochemicals ● Pollution from mining activities ● Climate change

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8. EXTENT TO WHICH THE ACTIONS PROPOSED FOR SUPPORT BY THE AGENCY MEET THE ACTIONS NECESSARY This section characterizes the Analysis team’s findings regarding the “extent to which” the actions proposed or implemented by USAID/Ghana support the “actions necessary” as defined in Section 7. Each sub-section describing the manner in which current and planned programming contribute to one of the seven defined actions necessary, providing examples within current programming of that contribution or describing opportunities for the Mission to improve upon that contribution through the new CDCS.

8.1 ACTION 1: STRENGTHEN NATURAL RESOURCE AND LAND USE GOVERNANCE (REGULATION, ENFORCEMENT, AND ACCOUNTABILITY) AT THE NATIONAL LEVEL

TABLE 17. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 1

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 1 USAID CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 1

Coordinated strengthening of NRM enforcement with focus on (1) The Mission emphasizes increased government accountability and responsiveness as a surveillance capacity in forestry, mining and fisheries sectors and cross-cutting IR across all DOs. (2) reduction in political interference: • Develop strategy and implementation plan for confronting Within DO 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance: IR 1.2’s and managing illegal and/or poorly implemented mining specifically targets such accountability, including CSO capacity-building in support of activities. citizen advocacy (1.2.1), enhancing financial oversight via CSO and National Audit Authority strengthening (1.2.2), and targeted anti-corruption efforts (1.2.3). Sub-IR 1.2.2 • Support strengthened enforcement by FC to prevent or specifically notes that “Specific attention will be paid to the management of revenues reduce on-reserve agriculture. from natural resources, including oil & gas, mining and forestry.” Meanwhile Sub IR 1.2.3 • Support of Ghana’s adherence to Minamata Convention is intended to target issues including ‘judicial impartiality, adherence to environmental on Mercury. regulations.” GoG refining existing—or developing new--resource management Under DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IRs 2.2 and and tenure legislation to incentivize sustainable management 2.4 both provide potential pathways for Mission support to national level reforms that behaviors would encourage adoption of best management could markedly strengthen natural resource management or enforcement. IR 2.2 practices. Areas where opportunities exist for engagement include focuses on strengthening the enabling environment for private sector engagement, the following: addressing constraints to participation including quality and execution of policies, • Formalize CREMAs in a manner that further empowers organizational effectiveness, and access to credit. The strategy further notes that the community adoption. focus of IR 2.2 was elevated to an IR (rather than sub-IR) level, specifically to “broaden • Address existing disincentives related to tree tenure the scope beyond agricultural activities under FTF.” Under IR 2.4 (and, specifically, sub- policy. IR 2.4.1 “Improved governance in the energy sector,” USAID’s provision of technical

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TABLE 17. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 1

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 1 USAID CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 1

• Introduce a rationalized wetlands management regime. assistance and advisory services in the energy sector affords opportunity to enhance • Adopt a policy of no total/complete clearing of land for application of ESIA best practices and target problematic development of infrastructure plantation establishment, instead requiring adherence to within Ghana’s increasingly degraded coastal wetlands. silviculture BMPs. Opportunities: Significant investment in municipal solid and liquid waste management systems by GoG and/or international donors to • Support policy reform with the potential to encourage improved resource help reduce pressure on wetlands and near-shore marine management (e.g., formalization of CREMA’s, improved tree tenure, adoption of ecosystems. silvicultural BMPs). • Seek to facilitate private sector investment and foster public-private partnerships, Strengthened regulation of industrial trawlers. This must address to connect private sector actors to communities benefiting from improved tree current gaps in equipment/technology to support enforcement. tenure or stronger CREMAs; additional benefits could be derived from voluntary Supplement such efforts with the following to REDD+ contributions or sustainable silvicultural production targeting high-value • Targeted engagement with civil society actors and national markets. media in support of civil advocacy and environmental • Engage with CSOs and NGOs to build capacity in civic advocacy around issues of justice; and, environment justice and NRM. • More effective enforcement of existing restrictions, and • Work with national media outlets to strengthen environmental reporting and to following effective regulation of the trawl sector, ending develop and disseminate communication campaigns that raise awareness on the the open-access regime for the artisanal sector. importance of conservation of undervalued habitats (e.g., wetlands). Strengthened enforcement/application of ESIA requirements. Achieving such strengthened enforcement or application could entail: • Facilitation of common objectives across key GoG actors for enhanced application of ESIA requirements. • Capacity building to NGOs and national media around environmental advocacy and journalism. • Enhanced application of land use planning and creating stronger forms of support to local/regional governance bodies in localized land use planning. • Incorporation of silviculture BMPs in ESIA guidance and review standards.

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8.2 ACTION 2: PROVIDE TARGETED TECHNICAL ASSISTANCE ON SUSTAINABLE BEST MANAGEMENT PRACTICES FOR TRADITIONAL LIVELIHOODS

TABLE 18. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 2

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 2 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 2

Expansion of existing efforts to strengthen the enabling environment DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth and in particular and value chains for, and productivity of, agriculture, and incorporate IR 2.1 Increased competitiveness of major food chains and sub-IR 2.4.2: Improved sustainable best management practices. Such efforts could include: Community Management of Natural Resources requires significant focus on sound ● Training on agricultural best practices, e.g., climate smart land management/agricultural and fisheries management practices. As indicated by agriculture, silviculture BMPs, agro-forestry, respect for the examples below, this focus has indeed been applied to the level of smallholder riparian buffers, low-burn practices. farmer, traditional fishermen, and their communities—i.e. in support of this action. ● Education and BCC on the benefits and opportunities (This has generally not extended, however, to good practices for livestock and provided by increased adoption of agro-forestry techniques. pesticides, which have not been foci of Mission programming, though the Mission did ● Greatly enhanced education and behavior change intervention adhere to safe pesticide use and practice within its core programming.) around pesticide safety/health hazard and safer use. Examples: Build upon current training and capacity building on sustainable fisheries management practices for marine fisheries. This could include: • AgNRM – CREMAs. ● Expanding the reach of interventions demonstrating success in • ADVANCE worked with lead farmers on demonstration of agricultural best adoption of more sustainable practices. practices and improved technologies (lead farmers would work with/support Working with communities living alongside coastal wetlands ● their outgrowers to demonstrate new technologies and provide extension essential for fish reproduction / fish stock replenishment to: a) services). ADVANCE supported extension services targeted agricultural deliver education and BCC that underscores the ecosystem intensification, including through improved use of agrochemicals and higher services delivered by those wetland areas; b) identifies quality agricultural inputs. livelihood generating activities that could supplement existing • SFMP (Sustainable Fisheries Management Program) focused both on the fishing practices; and c) work in coordination with traditional enabling legal/policy environment and on sound practices. authorities and local government to establish CREMAs with • formalized bylaws for community derivation of benefits from CSLP (Coastal Sustainable Landscapes Project) had a primary focus on improved resource management. alternative livelihoods, but also supported sound practices for traditional coastal livelihoods, particularly in the context of community co-management of ● Providing civic advocacy support to communities affected by private sector oil + gas developers, particularly where oil and resources. gas infrastructure is developed in ecologically sensitive wetland areas. Link to capacity building delivery for NGOs on Opportunities civic advocacy and media outlets on environmental journalism. • Re-initiating programming in the same “space” as AgNRM, incorporating lessons Intensified delivery of technical assistance by GoG, development learned and with a higher funding priority. This may be a vehicle for an increased focus on livestock, which has been a relative gap in Mission

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TABLE 18. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 2

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 2 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 2

partners, and civil society on livestock best management practices to programming with respect to this Action. improve productivity of, reduce land use conflict around, and • Closer integration of access-to-finance with implementation of sustainable land encourage quality-over-quantity approach to livestock handling and use practices. grazeland management. Such technical assistance could include: • Address pesticide safer use more explicitly as a cross-cutting concern in • Training for cattle owners and herdsmen on best management agricultural programming. practices in grazing / grazeland management. • Supporting development and formalization of cattle owners and herdsmen associations, with capacity building targeting on development and codifying their constitution and design and implementation of effective, locally-tailored by-laws with appropriate consensus across traditional authorities, DAs, and community leadership councils. • Assisting in the development of localized land use and spatial plans that incorporate the establishment and demarcation of dedicated grazing corridors, as well as provision of water points for cattle grazing and watering.

8.3 ACTION 3: PROMOTE DISTRICT AND COMMUNITY LEVEL ENGAGEMENT IN FAMILY PLANNING, LAND USE PLANNING, AND NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 3 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 3

Participatory engagement between development partners, civil Under the current CDCS, the Mission emphasizes increased government society, and traditional and local governance authorities to map and accountability and responsiveness as a cross-cutting IR across all DOs. This Mission enforce sustainable land use at the community/district level— emphasis thus establishes multiple pathways through which USAID would be able to operationalizing the framework currently in place—to reduce provide technical assistance related to district or community-level land use planning unsustainable resource utilization. Such support could focus on: and natural resource governance. ● Participatory engagement with communities in establishment or strengthening of CREMAs. Under DO 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance, IR 1.1.

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TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 3 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 3

● Reforming lease arrangements to increase benefits derived by notes that “all levels of government, including districts and municipalities… will be tenant farmers from cultivation. considered for technical support,” underscoring that “decentralization is essential to ● BCC on the benefits of natural resource management, land Ghana’s governance structure.” IR 1.2 incorporates both CSO capacity-building in use planning, and family planning targeting all stakeholders support of citizen advocacy as well as targeted anti-corruption efforts, with the engaged at the local governance and community levels. CDCS going so far as to specify the need to address corruption in environmental ● Community & DA sensitization, mobilization for drinking regulations (among other areas). water source protection (surface and groundwater). Under DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IR 2.4 – ● Establishment and support of grazing committees, review and particularly sub-IR 2.4.2 – Mission support specifically targeted community-level formalized roadmap on grazeland management planning. governance of natural resources, squarely in line with Action 5. Importantly, the ● Establishment and demarcation of grazing corridors and CDCS intention to “support the GoG to sustainably manage coastal, marine, and dry- water points for cattle grazing and watering. land biologically significant ecosystems” directly underscores the purpose of Action 3. At community/district levels, support the establishment of landscape \governing boards who will discuss, plan and find solutions to DO3, IR 3.1’s focus to increase access to integrated health services, including support resolving the landscape challenges including fire in an integrated to Community Health Planning and Services (CHPS) zones, provides a window to manner. support (among other things) family planning interventions. Similarly, IR 3.2’s intent to increase access to community-based resources—particularly through health Collaboration between national governmental authorities (e.g., volunteers that demonstrate good health behaviors and utilization of social marketing NAMDA, National Fire Service), traditional authorities, and DAs, with resources that encourage healthy behaviors—affords opportunity to promote family support from civil society, private sector, and development partners, planning at the community level. to emphasize and support development of robust wildfire The Mission’s stated priority for BCC and integrated programming at the community management systems that operate in participatory manner at the level – specifically reducing the number of districts in which programming will be community level to affect behavior/mindset change, build capacity, and delivered to increase potential for such integration – directly aligns with Action 3 and incorporate consensus on approach can help reduce prevalence of affords the Mission numerous opportunities to contribute toward this Action under wildfires—particularly in savannah and forest-savannah transition the new CDCS. zones. Focuses of wildfire management systems could include: ● Coordinated engagement with traditional authorities, local Examples: governance (e.g., DAs), NAMDA, National Fire Service (local branches) on (wild)fire management. • AgNRM ● Reduced focus on pure “no burn” practices, instead creating o Technical assistance to communities (e.g., CREMA support and systems designed to allow for and effectively manage strengthening) along Western and Eastern wildlife corridors in controlled, legal burning, with proper oversight. Northern Ghana. ● Understanding of existing community frustrations resulting o from losses incurred from uncontrolled wildfires to • ADVANCE encourage or increase buy-in (particularly in light of cultural o Worked with lead farmers on demonstration of ag best practices

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TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 3 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 3

practices that will challenge adoption). and improved technologies as dissemination model (lead farmers ● Identification of high-value permanent crops that could be would work with/support. viable with reduced prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cashew, o Provided ag extension services / mechanized services under mango) and linking community level, de minimis incentives ADVANCE which improved ag intensification. (e.g., seedlings for these high-value crops) upon realization of o Media campaigns focused on reducing bush-burning practices. dry seasons without wildfires in the communities receiving • NGGA - The Mission has leveraged these strategic areas of focus into support. supporting local governance in/around agricultural areas in Northern ● Community engagement to establish fire management plans, Ghana—with focus on women—and anti-corruption programming. ultimately coordinated at district level (engagement at both community and district level must be participatory and Opportunities: coordinated). ● Development of fire danger index that can be readily • Strengthen and increase efficacy of decentralized governance institutions to transmitted to farmers (on regular basis; e.g., every 2 hours continue alignment with GoG’s recognized interests; the Coordinated during high risk periods). Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies 2017-2024271 states that “to bring governance to the doorsteps of the people, the Focused, community/district-level family planning efforts in interventions to be pursued by Government will include deepening political impoverished communities pursuing traditional but unsustainable and administrative decentralization, strengthening decentralized planning, livelihoods in vulnerable ecologies. and improving popular participation in local governance.” • Increase explicit emphasis on technical assistance to district/community-level governance of natural resources beyond support along key food security value chains (e.g., sustainable wood lots, mango or cashew production). • Increase dimensions of economic growth / food security programming targeting wildfire management understanding the role that wildfire plays in undermining sustainable land use and agricultural best management practices. • Provide targeted technical assistance in support of district level land use and spatial plans, in line with the National Land Use and Spatial Planning Framework. • Work with CSOs specifically to build capacity in localized / community engaged environmental advocacy and justice. • Align community-level NRM, land use planning, and family planning interventions in the same communities and with overlapping recipients of

271 Republic of Ghana. The Coordinated Programme of Economic and Social Development Policies. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All, Presentation to the 7th Parliament of the 4th Republic, 20 October 2017.

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TABLE 19. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 3

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 3 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 3

Mission support. o Target ecologically sensitive areas / areas of biodiversity significance.

8.4 ACTION 4: NURTURE NON-TRADITIONAL VALUE CHAINS WITH POTENTIAL FOR ENVIRONMENTALLY SUSTAINABLE OR “GREEN” GROWTH AND INCOME GENERATION

TABLE 20. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 4

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 4 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 4

Delivery of technical assistance by development partners and Within the current CDCS, there is little direct strategic emphasis on support to non- relevant GoG entities on sustainable/best management practices in traditional value chains that could offer environmentally sustainable or ‘green growth” non-traditional value chains with unrealized economic potential in pathways. threatened areas and/or ecologically important areas (e.g., wildlife corridors) such as shea, cashew, mango can discourage unsustainable DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth: IRs 2.2 and 2.4 best resource extraction and reduce poor land use management provide strategic avenues for such support in future; IR 2.2’s focus on improving the practices. Such technical assistance could: enabling environment for private sector investment – by addressing issues such as ● Be provided in coordination with land use planning and access to credit, land tenure, marine fisheries governance, ease of doing business, and resource management regimes (e.g., CREMAs) that codify institutional performance. The strategy further notes that the focus of IR 2.2 was protection of key ecological areas. elevated to an IR (rather than sub-IR) level, specifically to “broaden the scope beyond • Incorporate BCC elements that underscore the value of agricultural activities under FTF” affording the Mission room to support technical ecosystem conservation, and monitor shifts in behavior. assistance to value chains beyond the major food crops such as maize, rice, and soya. Further, under IR 2.4, as discussed under Action 3 above, the strategic emphasis on Collaboration between GoG, civil society, and development partners strengthening community-level natural resource governance provides the necessary in the identification, promotion, and training on best management coordinated strategic dimension to assure that initiatives seeking to strengthen the practices for sustainable value chains of comparable economic value private sector enabling environment can stimulate growth in areas with the localized to unsustainable activities (e.g., charcoal production; artisanal fishing governance systems to manage both that growth and the natural resource base, in alternatives). Assistance could include: tandem.

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TABLE 20. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 4

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 4 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 4

● Promotion of - and training in best management practices for- Examples: cultivation of permanent crops of high value (e.g., mango, cashew) that could be planted if there were less fire risk to • AgNRM – CREMAs. create incentives for increased protection/improved fire management; such support must be integrated with cross- Opportunities: sectional training on fire management and fire danger indices/warning systems. • Expand technical assistance around private sector enabling environment ● Identification and development of alternative building materials beyond food security / major food crops to increase investment in and that reduce pressure on sand extraction at the coast. support to non-traditional and sustainable or “green growth” livelihoods. • Incorporate technical programming / strategic dimensions designed to ● Introduction of sustainable charcoal/wood fuel production identify, promote, and deliver training on best management practices for models, such as community managed woodlots with fast- sustainable value chains of comparable economic value to unsustainable growing species (e.g., Acacia) cultivated on a rotation basis. activities (e.g., sustainable charcoal production/woodlots; cashew, mango, ● Identification and support of sustainable shea production). alternative/supplemental livelihoods for fishing communities • Increase bilateral support to sustainable cocoa production – a target with potential to yield near-term economic benefit. substantial, but still insufficient World Bank and GoG investment and attention – to fortify, broaden, and enhance existing initiatives. ● Creation of value chain linkages—e.g., through development • Design strategic pathways that explicitly encourage and result in programs partners or public-private partnerships—to private markets delivered in ecologically sensitive areas and areas of biodiversity importance that pay premiums for sustainable production that rewards (e.g., marine/coastal wetlands) that simultaneously integrate: retention of natural growth forest areas. o Economic growth (specifically, green growth)-focused technical assistance; o Community-level NRM + governance;, o Community-level governance and enhanced decentralization more broadly; and o Family planning interventions.

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8.5 ACTION 5: INCREASE INVESTMENT IN AND DEVELOPMENT OF EDUCATION, SCIENTIFIC RESEARCH, DETAILED ANALYSES, AND GIS/TECHNOLOGY ASSISTED SURVEILLANCE

TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 5 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 5 Further investment by GoG, civil society, donors, and/or academic institutions into the extent of mining impacts and Under USAID/Ghana’s current CDCS and portfolio: activities to help GoG decisionmakers and their development DO 3: Equitable Improvements in Health Status in principle provides an partners refine design and prioritize geographies for interventions umbrella under which issues of environmental health and environmental justice could targeting galamsey or poorly implemented mining operations. be addressed, including research on water quality impacts of mining and agriculture, Needed investments include the following: and some sub-IRs could support programming for this purpose—e.g. 3.3.5- • Research on the impacts of mining activities on Strengthened Health Research Capacity; 3.4.6 Increased Government Responsiveness ecosystems (e.g., mapping of legal and illegal mining to vulnerable and marginalized populations). However, data-gathering, research and activities, water and soil quality as well as fish tissue in surveillance regarding mining activities and water quality and other ecosystem impacts areas likely affected by chemicals used during mining) has not been a focus of USAID/Ghana programming. DO1: Strengthened, Further research into the extent of mining impacts on Responsive Democratic Governance similarly provides an umbrella in principle ecosystems. under which such research and analysis in support of environmental health and Increased availability and application of technology for environmental justice issues could be carried out, under both its IRs. However, the surveillance/monitoring (e.g., enhanced satellite imagery, drone video focus of Mission programming has rather been on financial accountability and capture) of illegal mining activities. performance. DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth highlights the Improved collection, maintenance, and sharing of fisheries data and necessary role of environmental services in its core development hypothesis. DO2 and knowledge of fisheries by GoG, academia, and development corollary elements of the Feed the Future strategy for Ghana highlight the partners, including information sharing and awareness raising around requirement for improved fisheries management for productivity and sustainability of the linkages between coastal wetlands and marine ecosystems, to the fisheries. This has provided a platform for significant Mission programming in facilitate marine fisheries management planning and enforcement. support of Action with respect to fisheries. The DO provides a window under which Increased utilization of enhanced technologies—e.g., simulation research into alternative energy options could be supported: sub-IR 2.4.2 Improved models that allow better prediction of unintended intensification of Community Management of Natural Resources. However, the Mission’s energy erosion on other parts of the coast—to enhance coastal protection programming has not been oriented towards alternative energy options for rural efforts. households, but rather towards energy sector governance. Examples include: Increased investment in training for terrestrial biologists and taxonomists to enhance ability for academia and/or civil society to • The Mission has significantly supported the development of improved fisheries conduct inventories of wildlife resources, in turn enhancing ability to data and science via the Fisheries and Coastal Management Capacity- design spatial plans that properly account for biodiversity protection Building Support Project, which focused on 1) strengthening UCC’s and management. Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences; 2) strengthening UCC’s Centre for

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TABLE 21. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT OR PLANNED STRATEGY AND PROGRAMMING CONTRIBUTE TOWARD ACTION 5

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 5 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 5 Coastal Management; and 3) better management of fisheries data. Opportunities: • If mining is within or is thought to have impacts within USAID’s consolidated zones of intervention under the new CDCS, data-gathering, research and surveillance regarding mining activities and water quality and other ecosystem impacts of mining would be cross-cutting in support of WASH (source water Promotion of environmental stewardship and responsibility in the quality), food security/FTF (food safety), and MCH. context of maintaining ecosystem services that sustain communities • Support for specific research areas such as coastal protection modelling under and the nation as key elements of civic behavior education, from any successor the Costal Management Capacity-Building Support Project. early childhood onward. • While USAID/Ghana has invested (as above) in development of fisheries and coastal management experts, it has not supported human capacity development in terrestrial biology in like fashion, though there are some overlaps between terrestrial biology expertise and investments USAID/Ghana has made in human capacity in biotechnology, crop and soil science, e.g. via support to the University of Ghana. These overlaps could be recognized and reinforced in future programming so that biotechnology, crop and soil science professionals bring a stronger biodiversity sensibility to their work.

8.6 ACTION 6: INCREASE ACCESSIBILITY TO AND AFFORDABILITY OF ALTERNATIVE ENERGY OPTIONS TO CHARCOAL AND WOODFUEL

TABLE 22. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 6

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 6 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 6

GoG and private sector natural gas exploration and development As noted in the discussions for preceding Actions, DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly that 1) apply internationally recognized best practices for Shared Economic Growth – and particularly, sub-IR 2.4.1 – focuses specifically on environmental and social safeguards and 2) are conducted in a improved governance in the energy sector. In practice, technical assistance focused manner consistent with national, regional, and local landscape level largely on financial health of the sector and the Mission was looking less at energy land use and resource management planning that accounts for generation, but rather productive use of energy via improved transmission and conservation of ecologically sensitive habitats (e.g., coastal wetlands) distribution. This presents numerous opportunities for Mission engagement in to minimize impacts to habitats essential for biodiversity.

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TABLE 22. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 6

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 6 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 6

Continued emphasis by GoG, private sector, and development support of Action 6. As noted in the discussion for Action 5, to-date the Mission’s partners to increase development of renewable energy solutions— Energy Sector programming has not been focused on alternative energy, though the particularly solar—in combination with natural gas development sub-IR does create the strategic space to do so. (above) to increase access to electricity and, with time, assist in Relatedly, Sub-IR 2.4.2 Improved Community Management of Natural Resources creating more affordable energy alternatives in both urban and rural allows the Mission, particularly in combination with Sub-IR 2.4.1, to strengthen settings. management of energy resources beyond oil and gas, including charcoal. While • Support to increase grid readiness/increased penetration of consultations with the Mission suggest that directly addressing regulation of charcoal renewables, consistent with GoG renewables production will fall outside of practical engagement for the Mission, the existing CDCS commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPAs. does give room to support such action. • Design and adoption of policies to encourage renewable

energy, such as renewable energy feed-in-tariffs or targeted Examples: subsidy programs designed to attract foreign investment. • Under the Power Africa umbrella, supporting transmission and distribution of energy, focused predominantly on oil and gas sector. GoG, civil society, private sector, and development partner action at • Evaluating mini-grids for water pumping for irrigation. the national level to enhance regulation of commercial charcoal production and associated value chains—including fees and charges Opportunities for different stakeholders—to reduce unmanaged wood harvesting • Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent for charcoal use. with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA. • Support research on targeted incentive schemes (e.g., to accelerate uptake of household LPG infrastructure). • Support and facilitate national action on the regulation of commercial charcoal production and value chain including fees and charges for different stakeholders.

8.7 ACTION 7: DIRECT ENVIRONMENTAL REMEDIATION OR RESTORATION

TABLE 23. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 7

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 7 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 7

Development partners, civil society, and private sector working in Strategic Areas of Alignment/Opportunity in Current (2013-2019) CDCS direct support of Afforestation, including focus on riparian buffers and areas affected by mining, with focus on:

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TABLE 23. EXTENT TO WHICH THE CURRENT DO OR IR CONTRIBUTES TOWARD ACTION 7

COMPONENTS OF ACTION 7 CONTRIBUTION TOWARD ACTION 7

• Forest restoration activities in areas where tree cropping DO 2: Sustainable and Broadly Shared Economic Growth, particularly sub-IR activities are not profitable/land may become available. 2.4.2: Improved community management of natural resources, combined with IR1.1: • Forest enrichment or afforestation initiative with species improved local government performance under DO1: Strengthened Responsive within ecoregion that have been overharvested/ Democratic Governance provides a clear window in the CDCS for Mission overexploited to help restore biodiversity and ecosystem programming in support of afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration. In health. recognizing the key role of ecosystem services, the DO2 development hypothesis • In areas affected by mining, conduct research into which reinforces the basis for such programming. In practice, such programming has been native species will be appropriate and application of biochar limited to some work with mangrove areas in the coastal zone. to enrich affected soils. Examples:

Wetland restoration/remediation/clean-up including, but not limited Successful examples of CREMA-based sustainable mangrove management and restoration in the coastal zone under CSLP. to mangrove areas. Opportunities:With linkage to Actions 2, 3, and 5, support communities and local government in afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland restoration/remediation where critical ecosystem services are at risk.

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9. PROGRAMMING RECOMMENDATIONS FOR USAID/GHANA UNDER THE NEW CDCS By comparing the Extent to Which analysis (Section 8) against the Actions Necessary (Section 7), with cognizance of the Mission’s current programming and with input received from Mission staff on preliminary recommendations, the Analysis team developed the following recommendations (Table 24) for Mission programs and interventions.

These recommendations are organized by Mission technical area, including a series of cross-sectoral or integrated recommendations. USAID programming is subject to Congressional earmarks, which necessarily inform and at times constrain the opportunities to integrate tropical forestry and biodiversity conservation into all technical programming. Recommendations in Table 24 are made based upon the Analysis team’s understanding of any such constraints and framed in a manner practicable for the Mission, understanding that factors beyond the conservation of tropical forests and biodiversity will likewise inform final programming decisions.

This said, this Analysis also identified key threats and drivers that the team believes merit USAID attention but are not targets of current USAID/Ghana programming and which may require funding streams beyond those currently utilized by the Mission. Specifically, these include forest degradation and loss in the Eastern Guinean forest and transition zones; galamsey as well as poorly managed legal artisanal mining; wetland protection and restoration in the context of urbanization; and, relatedly, municipal solid and liquid waste management.272

To further support the Mission’s decision-making process for future programming, Table 24 identifies selected interventions as “High Priority” (HP). An HP designation reflects the Analysis team’s conclusions that the recommendation 1) will address at least one of the primary drivers to significant threats to biodiversity and conservation; 2) will align with stated Mission objectives or priorities regarding sustainable, broad-based economic growth; 3) is based upon extensive stakeholder consultation; and 4) includes a perceived cost-effective intervention.

Finally, in accordance with the Best Practices Guide, Table 24 organizes recommendations into the following three categories:

• Opportunistic: Working within the boundaries of programs to improve the extent to which USAID is meeting the actions necessary to reduce threats • Proactive: Adapting programs to improve the extent to which USAID is meeting the actions necessary to reduce threats • Direct Threat Reduction: Designing with an explicit objective of reducing priority drivers of threats or otherwise contributing to biodiversity conservation.

272 The team’s understanding is that biodiversity and/or sustainable landscape funds could likeliy be used for all but municipal solid waste management. USAID/Washington review noted that (1) there is a small new earmark for ocean plastics management, currently applied to Asia though with possible expansion to Africa in future budget years; and (2) municipal solid waste management often has significant potential for private sector engagement, if small pools on non-earmarked funding are available and can be leveraged.

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TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

ECONOMIC GROWTH – AGRICULTURE AND FOOD SECURITY/NORTHERN ZONE

• Align and coordinate initiatives • HP: Increase emphasis on landscape restoration and • HP: Emphasize developing robust wildfire with WB/AfDB SLWMP to development of sustainable livelihoods assistance outside of management systems, operating in achieve multiplier effects. traditional agricultural value chains.* participatory manner at the community level • HP: Provide training on best o Cashew and mango production.* to affect behavior/mindset change, build management practices for o Shea production (see below).* capacity, and developing consensus on sustainable/climate smart o Strengthened environmental governance (e.g., approach across traditional authorities and agriculture.* establishment of landscape governing board at the district governance. • HP: Promote intensification of local and district levels working in coordination o Deliver assistance that reduces agricultural production (rather with traditional authorities). attention on complete “no burn” than expansion).* o Wildfire management (see at right). practices but instead allows for • Emphasize investment o Afforestation (see at right). controlled, legal burning in permitted in/introduction of improved • HP: Address pesticide safety by improving effectiveness of instances, while ensuring proper rainwater harvesting and water existing policies, particularly import enforcement and retail controls are applied and oversight storage technologies. labelling regimes. entities are engaged. • HP: Address pesticide safety via • HP: Identify and support higher-value o Leverage community frustration at increased education at the agriculture/silvicultural products with potential for losses incurred from uncontrolled farmer level on pesticide sustainable management. wildfires. Identify high-value permanent crops safety/health hazard and safer o Deliver technical assistance that emphasizes best o use. management practices and creates linkages across that could be viable with reduced • Provide technical support the value chain. prevalence of wildfire (e.g., cocoa, cashew in forest-savanna zone). including shea processing o Where trade potential exists (e.g., cashew, shea) machines to CREMAs to support provide support to sustainable certification systems • Support communities and local government in value addition and generate and linkages to certifiers and international markets afforestation/forest enrichment and wetland additional revenue along the that will pay premiums. restoration/remediation where critical † value chain.† o Engage with and support new governance ecosystem services are at risk. structures (e.g., Shea-focused entity being developed under Cocobod by end of 2019) to encourage competitive and sustainable market design/interaction. • HP: Leverage overlaps between investments USAID/Ghana has made in human capacity in biotechnology, crop and soil science, e.g. via support to the University of Ghana and

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TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

terrestrial biodiversity expertise to reinforce future programming so that biotechnology, crop and soil science professionals bring a stronger biodiversity sensibility to their work.

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan †see CREMA cross-cutting recommendation, below

ECONOMIC GROWTH – COASTAL ZONE

• Continue delivery of training and • Support research for data on marine • Support effective regulation of trawl sector capacity building around best biodiversity/ecosystem function via research institutions via MoFAD, NGOs, media (see also management practices for and academia. “proactive” recommendations for DRG). sustainable fisheries.* • Support implementation of co-management approaches for • Training and capacity building for security • HP: Identify--and provide wetlands. agencies specifically Customs, Immigration, support towards the realization o Incorporate a heavy BCC and sensitization Navy and Police on fisheries issues. of-- sustainable alternative or component focused on understanding the value of • HP: Support rationalized management regime supplemental livelihoods for the resource. for wetlands. fishing communities with • ○ Must incorporate incentive structure potential to yield near-term that encourages adoption of effective economic benefit.* co-management systems (see below). ○ Address existing *would continue/build on SFMP and inadequacy/fragmentation of existing FCMCBSP under the current CDCS. planning and oversight bodies responsible for wetlands management.

ECONOMIC GROWTH – POWER AFRICA/ENERGY DEVELOPMENT

• HP: Support increased grid readiness/increased penetration of renewables, consistent with GoG renewables commitments; e.g. support for renewables PPA. • Support research on targeted incentive schemes (e.g., to accelerate uptake of household LPG infrastructure). • Support and facilitate national action on the regulation of commercial charcoal production and value chain including

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TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

fees and charges for different stakeholders.

DEMOCRACY, RIGHTS, AND GOVERNANCE

• For Elections programming, • In delivery of anti-corruption programming, target political Incorporate questions on influence/interference in enforcement of illegal activities environmental health, landscape impacting tropical forests and biodiversity (e.g., illegal degradation, illegal mining and mining activities, illegal logging). logging activities, environmental • HP: Under the umbrella of accountable governance, management and oversight, illegal deliver support focused on environmental justice, in the fishing/trawlers, and similar form of accountable management of natural resources questions into public polling and ○ Strengthen environmental reporting (see Media, surveying to inform key electoral below), engage and strengthen environmental topics. NGOs, create systems to reward/celebrate environmentally friendly political actors. ○ Enhance systems to express grievances by community members related to environmental challenges/issues. • HP: Provide support to existing media outlets on environmental journalism, exploring linkages between inadequate enforcement of key natural resources, precipitous resource degradation, and impacts on individuals at the community level.

GLOBAL HEALTH

• Ensure dissemination of bed nets • HP: Focus family planning efforts along coast and forests • HP: Support community & DA sensitization includes sensitization on proper and degraded landscapes; this can potentially be linked with and mobilization for drinking water source use / discourages unsafe and Economic Growth Food Security initiatives both in protection (surface and groundwater). environmentally harmful uses northern Ghana and in coastal zones. o Enusre that sensitization and education (e.g., fishing). (Note: this is a • Raise awareness regarding the risks to water quality/health efforts explicitly link to galamsey requirement of USAID’s Malaria introduced by illegal mining activities to motivate public activities and agrochemical use in Vector Control Programmatic support for enforcement and control efforts by traditional applicable areas.

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TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

Environmental Assessment.) authorities. See also cross cutting recommendation o Address improper use regarding environmental BCC. of old bed nets are observed in use for protection of household gardens, or in cassava processing. • Consider incorporation of programs focused on recollection of old/non-viable bed nets, potentially integrated with broader recycling or collection system. • Incorporate BCC regarding pesticide risks in food and water.

EDUCATION

• Explore whether scope exists to support “soft skills” for citizenship (per NaCCA director’s call) in the form of practical environmental stewardship and responsibility as civic behavior. • Incorporate reading materials/books that raise awareness on ecosystem services and the importance of environmental stewardship. • Incorporate math problems that touch on scarcity of environmental resources/depletion.

CROSS-SECTORAL (DRG, ECONOMIC GROWTH, HEALTH)

• HP: (DRG, EGO). Strengthen • HP: Engage in a broad BCC activity for environmental participatory land use and spatial sensibility and understanding (DRG and EGO, with planning* in combination with: HEALTH as noted). targeted support to land tenure* o Must emphasize value derived by communities from

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TABLE 24. RECOMMENDATIONS AND OPPORTUNITIES FOR USAID PROGRAMMING

OPPORTUNISTIC PROACTIVE DIRECT THREAT REDUCTION

that addresses clear land environmentally sustainable management practices. demarcation, fair, secure, o Measures should be participatory, working across enforceable, and transparent governmental and traditional authorities. land lease arrangements; and o Integrate elements of family planning, environmental targeted technical assistance on health, natural resource management, and food best management practices in security to maximize resonance of messaging sustainable (HEALTH). agriculture/silviculture or other o Tie BCC efforts to strengthening effective land use sustainable value chains (e.g., management and governance, motivating sustainable wood lots via acacia). community-level enforcement, and increased accountability at the DA level. • HP: (DRG and EGO) o Support and facilitate the process to gazette CREMA bye-law to give legal backing and enhance effective law enforcement at the CREMA levels. o Support policy and implementation of defined co- benefit approaches under CREMAs. o Explore the potentials of ecosystem services as a sustainability tools for community engagement including CREMAs in natural resources management. o Support capacity building and assessment of the ground-water volume of targeted landscapes and areas. o Support research on the cost and benefit analysis for watersheds and major water towers in targeted areas. o Support CREMA communities and members with tools and equipment to enhance effective monitoring in the landscape.

* indicates alignment with or matching element in Global Food Security Strategy Ghana Plan

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Lazar, N., Yankson K., Blay, J., Ofori-Danson, P., Markwei, P., Agbogah, K., Bannerman, P., Sotor, M., Yamoah, K. K., Bilisini, W. B. Sustainable Fisheries Management Project (SFMP): Status of Ghana’s small pelagic stocks and recommendations to achieve sustainable fishing 2017. Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. April 2018.

LL, Zhu Z, Singh A, Loveland T, Masek J, Duke N (2011b). “Status and distribution of mangrove forests of the world using earth observation satellite data.” Global Ecology and Biogeography 20: 154-159.

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Marchetta, Francesca. “On the Move: Livelihood Strategies in Northern Ghana.” Cerdi, Etudes et Documents, E 2011.13.

Mattah, M.M., Mattah, P.A. D., and Futagbi, G., 2015. “Pesticide Application among Farmers in the Catchment of Ashaiman Irrigation Scheme of Ghana: Health Implications.” Journal of Environmental and Public Health, 2015, pp 7.

Mawuko, A.G. Assessment of the Maximum Sustainable Yield (MSY) of the Tuna Fishery in Ghana and its Application in Management (Masters Thesis). University of Ghana, Department of Marine and Fisheries Sciences. 2015.

Mintzer, VJ; Diniz, K; & Frazer, TK. “The Use of Aquatic Mammals for Bait in Global Fisheries.” Frontiers in Marine Science, June 2018.

Molini, Vasco & Paci, Pierella. Poverty Reduction in Ghana: Progress and Challenges. World Bank Group, October 2015.

Monney, I., & Ocloo, K. “Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: A comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy.” Water Policy, 19(3), February 2017: 377– 389. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017.

Nketiah K. S & Asante J. Estimating National Charcoal Production in Ghana. Tropenbos Ghana, 2018.

Ntiamoa-Baidu, Yaa. Wildlife and Food Security in Africa: “Chapter 3.1.3: Bushmeat Trade.” Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations, 1997.

Oduro, K. A., Arts, B. J. M., Kyereh, B., & Mohren, G. M. J. 2018. “Farmers’ Motivations to Plant and Manage On-Farm Trees in Ghana.” Small-scale Forestry, 2018 17(3), 393– 410. https://doi.org/10.1007/s11842-018-9394-5.

Ofori-Nyarko, Eric. “Woodfuels Use in Ghana: Social, Economic and Energy Dimensions.” Food and Agriculture Organization; retrieved July 2019 from http://www.fao.org/3/Y3198E/Y3198E05.htm.

Okyere, Isaac; Aheto, DW; and Aggrey-fynn, J. “Comparative ecological assessment of biodiversity of fish communities in three coastal wetland systems in Ghana” European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2011, 1 (2): 178–188

Quacou, Ikpe Emmanuel. “Unsustainable Management of Forests in Ghana from 1900-2010.” International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 4(6), 2016, 160-166.

Resolve. “Ecoregions 2017.” Retrieved July 2019 from https://ecoregions2017.appspot.com/.

Republic of Ghana. 2015 Labour Force Report. Ghana Statistical Service, December 2016.

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Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018- 2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017.

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Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019.

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Republic of Ghana. Forestry Development Master Plan 2016-2040. Ministry of Lands & Natural Resources, September 2016.

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Republic of Ghana. Ghana’s Sixth National Report to the United Nations Convention on Biological Diversity (Draft). Convention on Biological Diversity, December 2018.

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Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018.

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Richardson, ML; Wilson, BA; Aiuto, D.A.S.; Crosby, JE; Alonso, A; Dallmeier, F; & Golinski G.K. “A review of the impact of pipelines and power lines on biodiversity and strategies for mitigation.” Biodiversity Conservation, April 2017, 26:1801-1815.

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Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR- FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from: https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor- funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of-emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal- production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana.

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USAID/Ghana. USAID/Ghana Biodiversity and Tropical Forests Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment. May 2011.

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ANNEXES Annex A: Scope of Work

Annex B: Biographical Information on Report Authors

Annex C: Species Information

Annex D: Ratified International Agreements Relevant to Conservation of Biodiversity and Improved Natural Resource Management

Annex E: Key Conservation and Management Initiatives in Support of Tropical Forests and Biodiversity in Ghana

Annex F: Protected Areas of Ghana

Annex G: Key Government of Ghana Policies and Institutions

Annex H: Climate Zones of Ghana

Annex I: Threats, Linked Drivers and Associated Effects on the Status of Biodiversity

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ANNEX A: SCOPE OF WORK 12 June 2019 | Based on E3 FAB Standard Template April 2019 Version

1. Background

As part of the documentation for the 2020 Country Development Cooperation Strategy (CDCS), USAID/Ghana is required by Sections 118 and 119 of the Foreign Assistance Act, as amended, to prepare an analysis of tropical forests and biodiversity in Ghana.

By mandating FAA 118/119 analyses (hereafter referred to as “the analysis”), the U.S. Congress recognizes the fundamental role that tropical forest and biodiversity play in supporting countries as they progress along the journey to self-reliance. The analysis will examine the country-level forest and biodiversity conservation needs and the extent to which the mission is currently addressing the identified needs for forest and biodiversity conservation. The report recommendations will help the mission identify ways to strengthen host country commitment and capacity to biodiversity conservation.

1.1 Summary of relevant parts of FAA Sections 118 and 119

FAA Sections 118 and 119, as amended, require that USAID missions address the following:

1) FAA Sec 118 Tropical Forests

COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy, statement, or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests, and 2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified. 2) FAA Sec 119 Endangered Species

COUNTRY ANALYSIS REQUIREMENTS. Each country development strategy, statement, or other country plan prepared by the Agency for International Development shall include an analysis of:

1) The actions necessary in that country to conserve biological diversity, and 2) The extent to which the actions proposed for support by the Agency meet the needs thus identified. The FAA 118/119 analysis for Ghana must adequately respond to the two questions for country strategies, also known as “actions necessary” and “extent to which.”

1.2 Purpose

The primary purpose of this task is to conduct an analysis of tropical forest and biodiversity in compliance with Sections 118 and 119 of the FAA of 1961, as amended, and ADS guidelines. The analysis

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will inform USAID/Ghana in the development and implementation of its CDCS. USAID’s approach to development requires that the Agency examine cross-sector linkages and opportunities to ensure a robust development hypothesis. Biodiversity conservation is a critical component in achieving self- reliance and should be considered in mission strategic approaches to improve development outcomes. The analysis therefore can define opportunities to integrate tropical forest and biodiversity conservation into priority development sectors to support the journey to self-reliance.

While the analysis should not be used as a climate-risk assessment, climate change is a global concern, and as such, the analysis will evaluate the threat to the country’s tropical forest and biodiversity from climate change. The Analysis team should review mission reports on climate change and other sources of climate information available such as the World Bank Climate Change Knowledge Portal and the United Nations Climate Change website.273

1.3 Mission Program

The USAID/Ghana 2013-2019 CDCS focused on Ghana’s transition towards established middle income status accelerated. The CDCS was aligned with the Government of Ghana’s development priorities, as outlined in their Ghana Shared Growth and Development Agenda (2014-2017). This goal is underscored by the four development objectives, which include:

• Development Objective 1: Strengthened Responsive Democratic Governance • Development Objective 2: Sustainable and broadly shared economic growth • Development Objective 3: Equitable improvements in health status • Development Objective 4: Improved reading performance in primary school

Applying a behavioral lens, USAID/Ghana’s forthcoming strategy intends to develop an integrated Mission-wide Results Framework that focuses on priority behavioral outcomes, highlighting areas for collaborating, learning and adapting within the Mission environment. The Mission will focus on supporting under-served citizens, including women and youth and vulnerable populations; strengthening host government systems; and strengthening private sector engagement.

See Annex 2 for overview of current mission portfolio.

See Annex 3 for draft Results Framework for upcoming CDCS (2020-2025).

2. Statement of Work

To achieve the above-stated purpose, the Analysis team, under the direction of the Team Leader, will proceed as described in this section to undertake an analysis generally consistent with USAID’s FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide. As described herein, the analysis is based on synthesis and analysis of existing information, coupled with key stakeholder consultations and site visits to ground-truth information. Per the Guide, the assessment will analyze direct environmental threats and drivers of the threats to identify actions necessary to “achieve conservation and sustainable management of tropical forests” and to “conserve biological diversity,” characterize the extent to which these “actions

273 Mission had marked for this paragraph for deletion; however, CC must be considered in the context of its impact on tropical forests and biodiversity, consequently, text was therefore reinstated.

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necessary” are addressed by USAID’s current program, and develop recommendations for USAID/Ghana’s new CDCS based on the “extent to which” and “actions necessary analysis,” Beyond strategic recommendations, specific opportunities should also be recommended as possible.274 The analysis will not generate original primary data.

The analysis will build upon the relevant elements of the USAID/Ghana Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment (ETOA) completed in 2011.

The analysis will bas based on desk research, DC consultations, USAID meetings, and field interviews. As such, the report will be a synthesis of the collective feedback of multiple participants, which cannot be identified due to PPI restrictions. The level of attribution in the document will be commensurate with privacy requirements and with a synthesis of multiple perspectives, rather than a journal article or research thesis. Additional research and sourcing will be limited by schedule constraints and budget (note that new primary research is not contemplated under the Best Practices Guidelines for a 118/119 analysis and is not scoped as part of this effort). Assertions in the final report that are based on widely accepted facts or the collective feedback of multiple participants will not be sourced to published literature unless additional LOE is allocated to such an effort.

2.1 Pre-Field Work Actions

2.1.1 Desk-based Data Collection and Analysis

Gather and begin to analyze existing information to identify tropical forest and biodiversity status, key biodiversity issues, stakeholders, policy and institutional frameworks and gaps in the available information. Reports and other documentation to be reviewed include previous 118/119 analyses, current CDCS and mission project documents, information available online (websites of government ministries) on biodiversity conservation (and tropical forest conservation), project reports and evaluations, the National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan, and the National State of the Environment Report.

The analysis will focus on a review of Mission documents and other relevant tropical forest and biodiversity reports provided by the Mission and/or the Africa Bureau. Any additional background documents USAID wishes to specifically incorporate into the analysis must be provided to the Analysis team. Any specific spatial data the Mission and/or the Africa Bureau wishes to use must be specified and publicly available or provided by USAID.

Note: Per Section 5, “Role of USAID Mission,” USAID/Ghana will share all relevant documents readily available as soon as able; ECOS will set-up or utilize a shared Google Drive or similar cloud- based file transfer system accessible to the mission. However, documents reviewed should not be limited to solely those shared by the Mission.

2.1.2 Planning and Logistical Preparations

274 Mission had inserted text characterizing the nature of the required analysis. ECOS has restated using language from the FAA 118/119 Best Practice Guide.

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Note: The activities described in this Section may occur prior to, or in parallel with, activities described in Section 2.1.1.

1. Organize weekly planning meetings with the mission. The team will plan weekly calls with the activity manager ahead of in-country arrival to support planning and logistic preparations such as site visits, lodging and in-country travel, key informants, work plan development, key informant interview protocols, and political or other sensitivities. See section 2.2 for further details and topics for the pre-field work meetings.

2. Plan site visits. In coordination with the mission, the team will begin planning site visits based on the mission’s recommendations/guidance and the team’s preliminary review of key topics and information gaps. Site visits allow information gathering from key informants, and direct observation, and supplement information gathered from consultations, literature review and other second-hand sources. As much as possible, site visit locations should be finalized at least two (2) weeks prior to in- country fieldwork to allow the consultant to complete necessary logistical preparations.

Site visits will include both important terrestrial biodiversity areas and coastal and marine ecosystems as well as key agricultural areas. Possible regions for the site visits include the former three (3) northern Regions, Western Region, Ashanti Region and/or the former Brong Ahafo Region.

The number and location of site visits will be limited by budget and time constraints and will be determined in consultation with the Mission.

3. Develop and submit draft work plan. Within 11275 days after the start of the period of performance, ECOS will submit a draft work plan (Deliverable 1). The draft work plan will include a schedule of tasks and milestones, assessment methods, and a brief discussion of information gaps. The draft work plan will also include a preliminary:

a. List of the type of information to be obtained through further desk research and through consultations; b. Mapping of key people to engage throughout the analysis process. This may include US-based (predominantly Washington D.C.) stakeholders; mission staff, including the program office, all sector technical staff, and the deputy and mission director; implementing partners; and other key in-country stakeholders (e.g., organizations, government bodies, the private sector and individuals knowledgeable about and/or implementing projects on environment, biodiversity and tropical forest conservation and other sectors relevant to tropical forest and biodiversity conservation, such as agriculture, economic growth, health, climate change and governance). Note: ECOS will require timely feedback (within three (3) business days) on the draft workplan to ensure time to meet with agreed upon set of Washington-based stakeholders. c. Itinerary for in-country consultations and site visits, based upon information made available by the mission regarding geographies of existing programming, areas of known concern and areas being considered for future programming. d. Key informant interview guides to be used for stakeholder consultations.

275 ECOS suggests 11 days rather than 10 days.

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e. Report outline based on the outline provided in Annex B: Analysis Report Annotated Outline in the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide, with differences noted and explained. f. Schedule for written progress reports to, or calls with, the activity manager starting at latest on the 10th day and weekly thereafter during the pre-field and field segments. If calls are chosen, they will be documented with written call notes provided to the USAID Activity Manager. 4. Revise work plan. Following receipt of mission comments and suggestions on the draft work plan, the team will revise the work plan and submit a revised version 2-5 days before the start of the field work.

Note: Logistical details and planning for site visits can only be finalized once sites are agreed upon; if insufficient time is afforded the consultant to research and collaborate with the mission, the work plan will include only general information on site visits.

2.2 Mission and Field Consultations and Site Visits

Note: see section 5 “Role of USAID Mission” for role of the USAID activity manager in supporting the in-country program described in this section.

After arrival in-country, in coordination with the activity manager, the Analysis team will:

1. Conduct in-brief meetings with the Mission Director, Deputy Mission Director, Program Office, Technical Team Office Directors and relevant Technical Team staff to:

• Orient the attendees to the overarching objective of the 118/119 analysis, the methodology to be used (i.e., approach the Analysis team will take to conduct the analysis and recommendations for potential biodiversity linkages with other sectors), and the agreed upon itinerary per the approved work plan. Ideally this will have already been circulated within the mission prior to the team’s arrival in country. • Review with the mission the approach to the assignment and learn specific mission areas of interest or concerns regarding the planned itinerary and consultations. • Learn of any sensitivities related to the exercise (e.g., political constraints, mission challenges in working with the host country government or other generalized in-country implementation challenges) that could refine the Analysis team’s consultations and strategic or programming recommendations (i.e., the potential for raising expectations and the need to be clear about the purpose of the analysis). • Identify any additional organizations to be contacted and site visits to be planned, including advice and protocol on approaching USAID partners and host country organizations with respect to the assignment. 2. Meet with the Program Office at USAID to:

• Understand the mission’s planned timeline for new CDCS development. • Gain an understanding of the status of the new CDCS development/results framework and anticipated changes to overarching strategic goals and/or development objectives, to the extent they are known at the time of fieldwork.

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3. Meet (separately) with all mission technical teams including, whenever possible team leads, to:

• Understand current programming (geographic areas of focus, earmarks and related mandates or constraints) and the ways in which it may have supported or contributed to actions necessary to conserve forests and biodiversity. • Learn about planned or potential future programming or strategic orientation. 4. Meet with stakeholders and undertake site visits identified in the work plan.

5. Conduct exit briefing: Prior to departure, conduct an exit briefing with the mission, including mission management, program office and all technical teams, to provide them with an overview of the analysis and preliminary report findings (Deliverable 2). The exit briefing should be conducted with all technical teams to explore interactively the feasibility of preliminary recommendations and to help identify areas of future collaboration across programs.

2.3 Preparation of the FAA 118/119 Analysis

1. Prepare and submit draft report (Deliverable 3). The Analysis team will analyze the information gathered and will prepare a draft analysis report in accordance with the outline agreed via the workplan (i.e. based on Annex B: Analysis Report Annotated Outline in the FAA 118/119 Best Practices Guide, with differences noted and explained in the workplan) and responsive to the legislative requirements listed in Section 1.1 above. The report will:

a. Be between 50-75 pages (excluding annexes) and submitted for review by USAID. b. Be copy edited, formatted and comply with USAID branding requirements Any specific formatting, citing, or other editorial preferences by the Mission must be specified before report writing. Otherwise, the ECOS team will default to established internal editorial guidelines consistent with USAID templates. 2. Submit revised report (Deliverable 4). The mission review period for the draft report will be 10 working days. The mission should send the analysis report to the relevant regional bureau and pillar bureau staff in Washington for their review and concurrence.

Following receipt of USAID comments on the draft report, the Analysis team will prepare and submit a final analysis within 10 working days that incorporates USAID comments.

The Analysis team assumes one combined response document containing all reviewer feedback. Multiple review documents submitted at different times will require additional LOE. If ECOS is not able to address the comments within the available budget, the Mission will prioritize the comments and in collaboration with ECOS, develop a set of comments that ECOS can address within the available budget.

3. Schedule and Logistics

The assignment is expected to last approximately 3.5 months from the date of contract signing to submission of the final deliverable. This includes 4 weeks of preparations, approximately 2 weeks of in-

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country field work, 4 weeks to produce the draft report following in-country work, 2 weeks for USAID review of the draft report, and 2 weeks to produce a revised report.

Table 1: Indicative Weekly Activities and Milestones Based on 17 June 2019 Start Date

To be finalized per approved workplan. Note: delays in USAID review cycles will extend all subsequent milestones equivalently.

Week of Process/Milestone Notes 1 June 17 Desk research/planning (thru week of July 8) 2 June 24 DC Consultations 3 July 1 Draft workplan submitted July 1; DC consultations Final workplan w/in 2 days of receipt of comments 4 July 8 Thursday: July 4 Holiday 5 July 25 In-country work 6 July 22 In-country work 7 July 29 Draft report prep; some follow-up consultations possible in DC or via telecon/skype 8 Aug 5 As above Monday, 5 Aug - Local Ghana Holiday: Founders Day Observed 9 Aug 12 As above Monday, 12 Aug - Local Ghana Holiday: Eid al-Adha 10 Aug 19 As above 11 Aug 26 Draft report delivered for Ghana 00B 26 Aug; USAID review; USAID review starts 12 Sept 2 USAID review Monday, 2 Sept - Labor Day holiday 13 Sept 9 ECOS receives USAID comments OOB WDC time Sept 9; ECOS revision starts 14 Sept 16 ECOS report revision 15 Sept 23 Revised report delivered for Ghana OOB 23 Sept; Monday, 23 Sept - Local Ghana USAID review. Holiday: Kwame Nkrumah Memorial Day Observed 16 Sept 30 ECOS receives USAID comments OOB WDC time Sept 23; ECOS revision starts 17 Oct 7 ECOS transmits final report COB Oct 7. 4. Deliverables

The following are the deliverables for this task:

Deliverable 1. Draft work plan and schedule submitted within 11 working days of the start of the period of performance. The work plan will address all elements specified in 2.1.2.

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Deliverable 2. Exit briefing, and associated media such as PowerPoint, hand-outs, etc., prior to the Analysis team’s departure from the country or at a time requested by the mission if the team is locally based.

Deliverable 3. Draft FAA 118/119 analysis report, conforming to all requirements specified in section 2.3 submitted 20 working days after the conclusion of in-country work.

Deliverable 4. Revised report incorporating all comments, conforming to all requirements specified in section 2.3 submitted within 10 working days of the receipt of all USAID review comments on the draft analysis.

5. Role of the USAID Mission

USAID acknowledges that substantial mission engagement is required in support of the Analysis team. To this end, the mission is responsible for arranging the following prior to the Analysis team’s arrival in- country:

• In-briefing meetings with technical offices, including notifying relevant mission offices (as elaborated Section in 2.1.2, above) and ensuring their direct participation. When key offices are not able to participate, the mission will look to include appropriate alternatives that may participate on their behalf. • Time for the exit-brief presentation. • Separate, scheduled meetings with the front and program office. Such support includes providing the Analysis team with the following:

• A list of key USAID documents (mission wide activity descriptions, reports and evaluations) to review with links or copies of the documents; • A list of USAID programs for each technical team with brief descriptions of technical remit, A/COR (and contact info), implementing partner (and key point of contact) and maps, ideally a country map showing the geographic location of all programs – when available; • A list of key and/or recommended stakeholders (with contact information); • Assistance to the team in making initial contact to arrange interviews, particularly to host country government stakeholders for whom USAID mission outreach is often required; • Preparation of letters of introduction, as needed; • Candidate site visits or key criteria to support Analysis team identification of potential site visits; • A list of relevant donor projects as available; • Logistics support for site visits in the form of suggestions for lodging, in-country air travel, rental car agencies and logistics specialists or similar advice. (The mission will not manage or provide in-country logistics support); and • Review and feedback on the draft analysis report. To ensure continued coordination with the mission over the course of the in-country work, the Analysis team will provide weekly progress reports to the activity manager, which discuss progress, challenges, issues and key findings to-date. These may be submitted as written memos or conducted by phone with summary notes subsequently provided, as determined by mission and Analysis team.

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6. Staffing and Estimated Effort

The Analysis team shall include a Team Leader, with the following qualifications:

• Post-graduate qualifications (master’s level degree or higher) in biology, ecology, zoology, forestry, ecosystem conservation, political economy, political ecology, environmental policy, environmental planning, or a closely related field; • Knowledge of USAID’s strategic planning process both broadly and as related to tropical forests and biodiversity; • Expertise in assessing environmental threats; • Experience in the geographical region and the specific country; • Experience coordinating analyses and leading teams; • Exceptional organizational, analytical, writing and presentation skills; and • Fluent in English and preferably the language spoken in the analysis country.

Including the Team Leader, the exact team composition shall be proposed by the consultant for approval by the mission and should ensure appropriate coverage across the below technical areas, tailored to the types of programming and environmental conditions prevalent in the specific country or region of focus.

• Post-graduate qualifications (master’s level degree or higher) in biology, ecology, zoology, forestry, ecosystem conservation • Agricultural, governance, health or other non-environment sector specialist who will focus on linkages between tropical forests, biodiversity and other key technical sectors; and • Aquatic resources specialist and, if in a marine environment, one with marine expertise. • Environmental political economist, or political ecologist, that understands the human dimensions of conservation and natural resources management and diverse conservation and management problems including, but not limited to, water, governance, fisheries management, wildlife management, agriculture, economic growth, extractive industries, protected areas, and the scale of the issue, from local, to regional to global. • GIS expertise or access to GIS expertise to help identify, use and analyze geospatial data and maps. Note: Where the consultant is a firm, cost-effective utilization of home office staff, including junior staff, for logistics, research/analysis/writing and report production support are expected.

The estimated level of technical effort (LOE) requirements for this task are:

• Approximately 45 days for Team Lead • Up to 28 days each for other members of the field team, with composition and allocation to be proposed by the consultant per guidance above. • Up to 30 days for home office support staff (e.g., logistical planning; GIS support; research/writing support) • Up to 10 days for technical quality assurance/quality control and 8copy-editing, formatting and branding (i.e., document production)

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ANNEX 1: Key Documents

• 2011 Ghana Threats and Opportunities Assessment. • Mission to provide ECOS with list of key documents as soon as possible. Per standard SOW directions “A list of key documents to be reviewed by the Analysis team with links if possible, should also be included as an annex.”

ANNEX 2: Overview of Mission Portfolio.

• The mission should provide a list or table, as an annex to the SOW, with the names of mission wide activities, the implementing partner and geographic location, in addition to any material describing mission projects or activities. These materials will help the team examine potential cross/multi-sector linkages and prepare questions for the mission-wide in-brief meetings.

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ANNEX B: BIOGRAPHICAL INFORMATION ON REPORT AUTHORS MR. MICHAEL MINKOFF (TEAM LEADER, INTERNATIONAL POLITICAL ECONOMY + ENVIRONMENTAL MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Minkoff is a Senior Associate at Cadmus. An international environmental management specialist, Mr. Minkoff is expert on USAID environmental compliance requirements, including FAA Sections 118 and 119, with 10+ years of field- and desk-based environmental, natural resource management, and international development experience. With background in international environmental policy and political economy, Mr. Minkoff led the field-based Tanzania FAA 118/119 Tropical Forestry + Biodiversity Analysis and Kenya FAA 118/119 Tropical Forestry + Biodiversity Analysis, and the desk-based East Africa 118/119 Analysis and has supported environmental impact assessments for development projects in sub-Saharan Africa and Eastern Europe, for sectors including natural resource management, agriculture, and rural road rehabilitation. Mr. Minkoff has led and supported trainings on USAID’s environmental compliance and resource management requirements across multiple locations in Sub-Saharan Africa and the Middle East, reaching more than 250 USAID staff and partners. Mr. Minkoff has a B.A. in Political Philosophy from the University of Wisconsin and an M.A. in Law and Diplomacy from the Fletcher School of Law and Diplomacy, at Tufts University.

MR. JOSHUA ADOTEY (COASTAL ECOLOGIST). Mr. Adotey is an Assistant Research Fellow at the World Bank funded Africa Centre of Excellence in Coastal Resilience (ACECoR), University of Cape Coast, specifically responsible for Monitoring and Evaluation. Mr. Adotey holds a Master’s degree in Integrated Coastal Zone Management and a Bachelor’s degree in Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences, both from the University of Cape Coast. Among other responsibilities, he works as a Monitoring and Evaluation Officer on the USAID funded Fisheries and Coastal Support Project funded through the Department of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences of the University of Cape Coast. His area of expertise is coastal zone management with focus on climate change impacts on coastal livelihoods. As a result, Mr. Adotey has led and supported the training of over 200 practitioners, over the last five years, in short courses in Coastal Adaptation to Climate Change, Fisheries Management and Integrated Coastal Management in Ghana.

MR. YAW ATUAHENE NYAKO (FORESTRY + NATURAL RESOURCES MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Nyako is a with strong focus in forest management, inventories and climate change. With his over 20 years of experience in tropical forestry, he has held several management positions in the Forestry Commission across the different vegetation zones in Ghana contributing to the conduct of various , wildfire management, forest protection and participatory forest management programs. In addition to his role at the Forestry Commission, he has been involved in several consultancies including an assessment on Ghana Climate Change Vulnerability and Adaptation; an assessment/study on lessons learned from forest sector projects in Ghana over the past 25 years; flora and fauna surveys; and the USAID/Ghana Tropical Forests and Biodiversity Environmental Threats and Opportunities Assessment, 2011. He is currently involved in various works in carbon assessment, environmental governance and wood tracking.

MR. MACLEAN ASAMANI OYEH (SUSTAINABLE LANDSCAPES AND FOREST MANAGEMENT SPECIALIST). Mr. Oyeh is a sustainable development practitioner with focus on environment, natural resource and climate change. Mr. Oyeh is an expert in sustainable forest

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management, international environment, climate policy and finance. Mr. Oyeh has over six (6) years in technical and analytical works, programs design and implementation. He has been working with the Environment Natural Resource and Blue Economy and the Climate Change Global Practice of the World Bank in projects and program design and implementation. In Ghana, Mr. Oyeh supports the World Bank in design and implementation of Global Environmental Facility (GEF) projects (i.e., Sustainable Land and Water Management Project), Climate Investment Fund projects (i.e., Forest Investment Program and Dedicated Grant Mechanism), and the Forest Carbon Partnership Facility initiatives (i.e. REDD+ Readiness and Emission Reduction Program) in Ghana. Maclean also provides technical and analytical support to REDD+ participant countries in Africa, Latin America and Asia-Pacific including Cameroon, Fiji, , Laos, Colombia, and in the design and implementation of Forest Carbon Partnership Facility and BioCarbon Fund projects (i.e. REDD+ and Result-Based Emission Reduction Program). Maclean has a BSc. in Natural Resources Management from Kwame Nkrumah University of Science and Technology (KNUST) – Ghana, an MSc. in Climate Change and Sustainable Development, and an MSc. in Development Finance both from the University of Ghana.

DR. MARK STOUGHTON (DEPUTY TEAM LEADER, INTERNATIONAL ENVIRONMENTAL AND DEVELOPMENT PLANNER). Dr. Stoughton is a Principal at Cadmus. As Chief-of-Party for the ECOS-predecessor Global Environmental Management Support (GEMS I and GEMS II) mechanisms, Dr. Stoughton designed and oversaw over 20 FAA 118/119 analyses. He has 20 years’ experience providing environmental support to USAID programs in Africa, with short- term technical assistance field work in 13 sub-Saharan African countries. He brings a strong knowledge of USAID’s programming cycle; extensive experience in governmental, community, and civil society stakeholder consultations; and in-depth expertise in the interaction of economic sectors and subsistence activities with the environment. Beginning with Peace Corps service in Central Region (1990-92), he has maintained professional and personal ties to Ghana for over 25 years and has a strong knowledge of Ghana’s environmental, social, and economic context. Dr. Stoughton holds a doctorate in economic development and environmental policy, and a master’s degree in Civil and Environmental Engineering, both from the Massachusetts Institute of Technology.

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ANNEX C: SPECIES INFORMATION

TABLE 25. KNOWN NUMBER OF FLORA SPECIES IN GHANA GROUP FAMILIES GENERA NUMBER OF SPECIES IN GHANA Indigenous 15 43 124 Gymnosperms 1 1 1 Monocotyledons 30 227 780 Dicotyledons 127 806 2069 Introduced (Naturalized) Monocotyledons 15 42 53 Dicotledons 63 149 200 Source: Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

TABLE 26. ENDEMIC , THREATENED, AND ENDANGERED SPECIES IN GHANA ENDEMIC THREATENED ENDEMIC ENDANGERED Mammals 1 0 23 Birds 0 0 23 Amphibians 5 2 8 Reptiles 0 0 7 Chameleons 0 0 * Fish 0 0 59 Sharks & Rays 0 0 * Mollusks (Invert) 0 0 2 Other Invert 1 1 3 Plants 0 0 119 Fungi & Protists 0 Source: IUCN 2019. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-1 .

TABLE 27.IUCN RED LIST CATEGORY SUMMARY TOTALS FOR GHANA'S PLANTS AND ANIMALS EX EW CR EN VU NT LR/cd DD LC Total Animals 0 0 17 23 85 78 0 139 2097 2439 Plants 0 0 3 24 94 19 1 12 648 801 EX – Extinct; EW – Extinct in the Wild; NT – Near Threatened; LR/cd - Lower Risk; Conservation Dependent; DD – Data Deficient; LC – Least Concern Source: IUCN 2019. IUCN Red List of Threatened Species. Version 2019-1 .

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TABLE 28. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FAUNA OF GHANA AND ASSOCIATED KEY THREATS Taxomic Species (name, scientific Group name, year last assessed by Key Threats IUCN Red List) White-Backed vulture (Gyps • Bushmeat hunting africanus; 2018), White-Headed • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions Birds Vulture (Trigonoceps occipitalis; • Overgrazing 2017), Hooded Vulture • Road and Infrastructure Development (Necrosyrtes monachus; 2017) • Pollution from agriculture • Settlement and urban expansion • Unsustainable fishing • Road and infrastructure development (e.g., dams) • Oil and gas development* Slender-snouted Crocodile • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* (Crocodylus caaphractus; 2014), Nubian Flapshell Turtle • Bushmeat hunting* (Cyclanorbis elegans; 2016) • Pollution from agriculture, urban and domestic waste water* • Climate change*

*only applies to slender-snouted crocodile • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions Togo Slippery Frog (Conraua • Unsustainable wood harvesting derooi; 2004), Krokosua • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* Squeaking Frog (Arthroleptis • Wildfires* Amphibians krokosua; 2019), • Pollution from agriculture** Phrynobatrachus intermedius; • Settlement and urban expansion** 2011 (no common name provided) *only applies to Krokosua squeaking frog **only applies to Togo slippery frog • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions Rolowa Monkey (Cercopithecus • Unsustainable wood harvesting roloway; 2019), Miss Waldron’s • Bushmeat hunting Red Colobus (Piliocolobus • Settlement and urban expansion* Mammals waldroni; 2019), Atlantic • Unsustainable fishing* Humpback Dolphin (Sousa • Illegal, unregulated, and unreported (IUU) fishing teuszii; 2017) *only applies to Atlantic Humpback Dolphin Largetooth Sawfish (Pristis • Settlement, industrial, and urban expansion pristis; 2013), Smalltooth • Unsustainable fishing Sawfish (Pristis pectinate; • Road and infrastructure development (e.g., dams)* 2013), Blackchin Guitarfish • Oil and gas development Fish (Claucostegus cemiculus; 2019), • Smoothback Angelshark Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* (Squatina oculate), African • Pollution from agriculture, urban and domestic waste Wedgefish (Rhnchobatus water luebberti) • Climate change Source: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T104050689A104057239. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T104050689A104057239.en. Downloaded on 27 August 2019.

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TABLE 29. CRITICALLY ENDANGERED FLORA OF GHANA Name (Date last assessed Key Threats by Redlist) • Illegal and/or poorly implemented mining activities* • Settlement and urban expansion** • Unsustainable agricultural and silvicultural expansions Anadelphia pumila Asclepias • Overgrazing (2019); kamerunensis (2014); • Unsustainable wood harvesting Aubregrinia taiensis (1998); • Wildfires*** Talbotiella gentii (1998) *only Anadelphia pumila **only Anadelphia pumila and Talbotiella gentii ***Applies to Anadelphia pumila, Aubreginia taiensis, and Talbotiella gentii Source: The IUCN Red List of Threatened Species 2019: e.T104050689A104057239. http://dx.doi.org/10.2305/IUCN.UK.2019-2.RLTS.T104050689A104057239.en. Downloaded on 27 August 2019.

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ANNEX D: RATIFIED INTERNATIONAL AGREEMENTS RELEVANT TO CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY AND IMPROVED NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT

TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED YEAR YEAR CONVENTION, TREATY, OR AGREEMENT ADOPTED/ RATIFIED/ SIGNED ACCEDED BIODIVERSITY Convention on International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora 1973 1975 Convention Concerning the Protection of the World’s Cultural and Natural Heritage 1972 1975

Protocol to the International Convention for the Regulation of Whaling 1956 2009

Convention on the African Migratory Locust 1962 1963

International Plant Protection Convention 1951 1991

Convention on Wetlands of International Importance Especially as Waterfowl Habitats (Ramsar Convention) 1971 1988 Convention on the Conservation of Migratory Species of Wild Animals 1979 1988

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living resources of the High seas 1958 *

African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 1968 1969 Cartagena Protocol on Biosafety to the Convention on Biological Diversity 2000 2003 Convention on Biological Diversity 1992 1994

Agreement on the Conservation of African-Eurasian Migratory Waterbirds 1995 2005 International Treaty on Plant Genetic Resources for Food and Agriculture 2002 2002

African Convention on the Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources 2003 2007

Convention on the status of the Volta River and the Establishment of Volta Basin Authority 2007 2008

Convention for the Establishment of the Fishery Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea 2007 2007

Agreement on Port State Measures to Prevent, Deter and Eliminate Illegal Unreported and Unregulated Fishing 2009 2016

CLIMATE CHANGE AND ENERGY Convention for the Protection of the Ozone Layer 1985 1989

Montreal Protocol on Substances that Deplete the Ozone Layer 1987 1989

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TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED YEAR YEAR CONVENTION, TREATY, OR AGREEMENT ADOPTED/ RATIFIED/ SIGNED ACCEDED United Nationals Framework Convention on Climate Change (UNFCC); Rio Declaration and Agenda 21 1992 1995

Gaborone Declaration on Sustainability in Africa 2012 2012

African Union Agenda 2063 (2013-2063) 2013 2013

Paris Agreement under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change 2015 2016

Agenda 2030 for Sustainable Development (2015-2030) 2015 2015

INTERNATIONAL WATERS The 1958 Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living Resources of the High Seas—Geneva 1958 *

International Convention Relating to Intervention on the High Seas in Cases of Oil Pollution Casualties 1969 *

Convention on Fishing and Conservation of the Living resources of the High Seas 1958 1958

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution of the Sea by Oil 1954 1962

1972 Convention on the International Regulations for Preventing Collisions at Sea 1973 1977

International Convention for the Prevention of Pollution from Ships (MARPOL) 1973/1978 1978 1991

International Convention for Bunker Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Convention for Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central African Region 1981 1989

United Nations Convention on Law of the Sea (UNCLOS) 1982 1983 International Convention for the Conservation of Atlantic Tunas 1968 1969

Convention for the Cooperation in the Protection and Development of the Marine and Coastal Environment of the West and Central Africa Region 1981 1989

International Convention on Oil Pollution Preparedness Response and Cooperation 1990 1990 Convention on Fisheries Cooperation Among African States Bordering the Atlantic Ocean 1991 2014

Agreement for the Establishment of the Intergovernmental Organization for Marketing Information and Cooperation Services for Fishery Products in Africa 1991 1995

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TABLE 30. CONVENTION, TREATY OR AGREEMENT BY YEAR ADOPTED AND RATIFIED YEAR YEAR CONVENTION, TREATY, OR AGREEMENT ADOPTED/ RATIFIED/ SIGNED ACCEDED International Convention on the Establishment of an International Fund for Compensation of Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Agreement to Promote Compliance with International Conservation and Management Measures by Fishing Vessels on the High Seas 1993 2003

Protocol to the Convention on the Prevention of Marine Pollution by Dumping of Wastes and Other Matters 1996 2010

International Convention for the Control and Management of Ships’ ballast water and Sediments 2004 2015

Convention on the Pooling and Sharing of Information and data on Fisheries in the Zone of the Fisheries Committee for the West Central Gulf of Guinea 2014 2014

LAND DEGRADATION International Convention on Civil Liability for Oil Pollution Damage 1978 1978

Convention on the Prohibition of Military or Any Other Hostile Use of Environmental Modification Techniques 1977 1978

Agreement Establishing the International Tropical Timber Bureau 1977 1977

Protocol Concerning Cooperation in Combating Pollution in Cases of Emergency 1981 1989

Convention on early Notification of a Nuclear Accident 1986 2016

Convention on Assistance in the Case of a Nuclear Accident or Radiological Emergency 1986 2016

Convention on the Control of Transboundary Movements of Hazardous Wastes and Their Disposal 1989 2003

Convention on the Ban of the Import into Africa and the Control of transboundary Movement and Management of Hazardous wastes Within Africa 2004 *

Convention to Combat Desertification in Those Countries Experiencing Serious Drought and/or Desertification, Particularly in Africa 1994 1994

Rotterdam Convention on the Prior Informed Consent Procedure for Certain Hazardous Chemicals and Pesticides in International Trade 1998 2003

Convention on Persistent Organic Pollutants 2001 2003

Minamata Convention on Mercury 2013 2017

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ANNEX E: KEY CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT INITIATIVES IN SUPPORT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY IN GHANA

TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

Ghana Forest Investment A targeted program designed to address the Being implemented by the Program (FIP) underlying drivers of deforestation and catalyze Ministry of Lands and Natural transformational change by providing upfront Resources through the Forestry FIP 1: Enhancing Natural investment to support the implementation of the Commission. Forest and Agroforest REDD+ strategy and generate information and Landscapes Project FIP 1 – World Bank experience for policy and regulatory changes. FIP 2: The Engaging Local FIP 2 – Africa Development Bank Ultimate objectives include achieving reduction in Communities in Reducing (AfDB) greenhouse gas (GHG) emissions within the Land emissions from Use, Land-Use Change, and Forestry sector in deforestation and forest Ghana. This includes by addressing major threats, degradation (REDD+)/ such as illegal mining activities, and providing Enhancement of Carbon targeted private sector engagement and technical Stocks assistance to enhance sustainable management in plantation activities, among other interventions.

Sustainable Land and The project aims to improve land management of The project is being implemented Water Management selected micro-watersheds in northern Ghana to by the Ministry of Environment Project (SLWMP) reverse land degradation and enhance agricultural Science Technology and productivity; and spatial planning through Innovation (MESTI). integration of watershed management and World Bank development plans.

Forest 2020 Project To provide critical resource management decision The project is being implemented support through the application of earth by the RMSC of the Forestry observation tools through advanced uses of Commission in collaboration with satellite data for improved forest monitoring. The the Faculty of Renewable Natural project will develop, test and integrate improved Resources of the Kwame methods of forest change detection, for faster and Nkrumah University of Science more accurate identification of deforestation and and Technology. degradation and develop methods for mapping

forest at risk of fire or deforestation and for identifying areas suitable for forest restoration. United Kingdom (UK) Space Agency

Ghana’s Cocoa Forest Using a climate-smart cocoa production strategy, It is being co-led by the National REDD+ Program (GCFRP) the GCFRP aims to significantly reduce emissions REDD+ Secretariat of the driven by deforestation and forest degradation, Forestry Commission and while improving smallholder farmers' livelihoods Ghana's Cocoa Board. through substantial yield increases and other

benefit-sharing arrangements. The program will also make Ghana's cocoa and forestry sectors Forest Carbon Partnership more resilient, while establishing a new asset class Facility Carbon Fund/World Bank

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TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER and revenue stream from climate-smart cocoa beans, validated against a landscape standard.

Forest Law Enforcement, Ghana is in a VPA with the European Union (EU); EU Governance and Trade a legally binding trade agreement that seeks to (FLEGT)/ Voluntary ensure legal production and export of timber Partnership Agreement products and strengthen forest governance and (VPA).276 enforcement. Despite the typically international focus, stakeholders within Ghana are hopeful the VPA will strengthen production and sale of legal timber on the domestic market as well. Under the VPA, Ghana is committed to strengthening its supply chain and verification systems to assure legality of timber production and sale. The system will be subject to independent monitoring and eligible for FLEGT licensing, should these systems become sufficiently robust.

Increased Resilience to The objective of the program is to enhance the UNDP Climate Change in resilience and adaptive capacity of rural livelihoods Northern Ghana through to climate impacts and risks on water resources in the Management Water the northern region of Ghana. The objective will Resources and be achieved through key results centered on the Diversification of improvement of water access and Livelihoods increase institutional capacity and coordination for integrated water management to support other uses of water resources especially for the diversification of livelihoods by rural communities. The program targets the three regions in the northern part of Ghana: The Upper East, Upper West and Northern Regions. Compared to other regions of the country, these three northern regions have high degree of exposure to climate variability and change characterized by increasing temperatures and decreasing and erratic rainfall. These factors make the northern regions highly vulnerable to climate change and high priority regions for climate change adaptation.

276 EUFLEGT Facility. “The Ghana-EU Voluntary Partnership Agreement.” Retrieved July 2019 from http://www.euflegt.efi.int/background-ghana.

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TABLE 31. CONSEVATION INITIATIVES IN FOREST AND SAVANNA LANDSCAPES

PROGRAMME /PROJECT OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

Restoration of Degraded As a private entity, Form Ghana actively restores Form Ghana (Private Sector) Forest Reserve through degraded Forest Reserves with sustainably planted Verified Carbon Standard and managed forest plantations and natural forest (VCS) and Forest restoration. Form Ghana exclusively plants teak Stewardship Council (FSC) plantations, coupled with planting of indigenous Certified Plantations species in areas with degraded forest cover not suitable for plantation planting. The company uses FSC™ certification and VCS to maximize value of their sustainable management practices.

Ghana Land The LAP 1 project sought to improve land tenure, Funder: World Bank Administration Project simplify the process for accessing land, and (LAP 1 and LAP 2) improving the transparency, fairness, and efficiency through which land could be marketed and transferred. LAP 2 aimed to build on that through consolidation and strengthening of land administration and management systems. Currently, additional financing has been authorized for LAP 2 focused on scaling LAP 2 project activities and addressing a funding gap to support completion of LAP 2 objectives. National Forest Plantation Originally launched in 2001, with a new program Ghana Forestry Commission Development Programme started in 2010, the NFPDP aims to expand forest (NFPDP)277 cover by 200km2 through the establishment of forest plantations; plantation species include: Teak (Tectona grandis), Cedrela (Cedrela odorata) Eucalyptus (Eucalyptus spp.), Ofram (Terminalia superba), Emire (Terminalia ivorensis) Mahogany (Khaya spp.), Wawa (Triplochiton scleroxylon), and Cassia (Senna siamea). As of 2014, this program had established 1,800 km2 of forest plantations.

TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

PROGRAMME OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION IMPLEMENTING /PROJECT AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER

The Environmental EJF seeks to promote greater environmental sustainability EU and the German Federal Justice Foundation and social equity through reduction of illegal fishing and Ministry for Economic project: strengthening capacity to support legal, sustainable and Cooperation and co-managed fisheries. The project together with other Development

277Forestry Commission of Ghana. “National Forest Plantation Development Programme.” Retrieved July 2019 from https://www.fcghana.org/page.php?page=291§ion=28&typ=1.

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TABLE 32. MARINE FISHERIES AND COASTAL CONSERVATION INITIATIVES

PROGRAMME OBJECTIVE(S) AND IMPLEMENTING INSTITUTION IMPLEMENTING /PROJECT AGENCY/DONOR PARTNER local NGOs (Hen Mpoano and FoN) has campaigned extensively to end destructive IUU fishing practice known as “saiko” fishing.

West Africa Implemented across 30 districts in the Western, Central, CARE International, FoN, Fisheries and Greater Accra Regions to address the challenges of and OXFAM Governance overfishing and unsustainable fishing, including IUU fishing, Funder: European Improvement low compliance and weak capacity for law enforcement Development Fund Project within the sector.

Greater Accra The project seeks to improve solid waste management is Component 1: Ministry of Resilient and key river basins and catchment areas. The project entails Works and Housing Integrated three components: Component 2: Ministry of Development • Sanitation and Water Project Component 1: Climate Resilient Drainage and Flood Mitigation Measures; Resources • Component 2: Solid Waste Management Capacity Component 3: Ministry of Improvements; and Local Government and Rural Development and Ministry of • Component 3: Participatory Upgrading of Targeted Inner-Cities and Zongo Flood Prone Low-Income Communities and Local Development Government Support

This will have important implications for coastal and marine biodiversity because, if successfully implemented, Funder: World Bank perennial flooding of Accra will reduce or be eliminated, and solid waste management systems will be strengthened; thereby reducing the influx of pollutants into wetlands and adjoining marine ecosystem.

Community CCRI is being implemented around inland water and Development Institute Conservation forest ecosystems, notably along the Weto Range of the Funder(s): IUCN and Resilience Initiative Upper Guinean Forest as well as near the Keta Lagoon Wetlands International Complex Ramsar Site, an important site for migratory birds and the only Ghanaian site for the threatened Sitatunga, an antelope species that resides in heavily vegetated swamps and marshes.

West Africa In its second phase of implementation, the West Africa Funder: World Bank Coastal Areas Coastal Areas Resilience Investment project is partnering Resilience with the Centre of Coastal Management of the University Investment Project of Cape coast to Strengthening regional integration by mapping existing institutions and technical capacity in Ghana to address coastal issues.

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ANNEX F: PROTECTED AREAS OF GHANA

TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM FOREST RESERVE Abasumba 1927 0.33 Designated National Forestry Commission Abisu 1939 9.55 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboben Hill 1962 6.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboma 1932 35.74 Designated National Forestry Commission Aboniyere Shelterbelt 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Abrimasu 1940 25.77 Designated National Forestry Commission Abutia Hills 1939 10.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Achimota Plantation 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Afao Hills 1940 39.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Afia Shelterbelt 1940 19.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Afram Headwaters 1928 213.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Afrensu Bohuma 1934 59.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ahirasu (Blocks I & II) 1927 0.83 Designated National Forestry Commission Aiyaola 1929 35.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Ajenjua Bepo 1930 3.63 Designated National Forestry Commission Ajuesu 1943 16.02 Designated National Forestry Commission Akrobong 1930 3.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Amama Shelterbelt 1940 44.65 Designated National Forestry Commission Ambalalai 0 125.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Ambalara 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Angoben Shelterbelt 1948 34.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso East 1926 337.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso North 1926 7.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Anhwiaso South 1926 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankaful Fuelwood 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankasa River 1934 328.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ankwai East 0 250.30 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Anumso North 1928 36.04 Designated National Forestry Commission Anumso South 1950 3.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Apamprama 1952 28.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Aparabi Shelterbelt 1939 17.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Apedua 1926 5.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Apepesu River 1954 59.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Asenanyo River 1938 Designated National Forestry Commission Asonari 1928 0.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Assin Apimanim 1927 12.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Assin Attandaso 1937 143.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Asubima 1945 74.43 Designated National Forestry Commission Asufu Shelterbelt East 1950 6.60 Designated National Forestry Commission Asufu Shelterbelt West 1951 19.86 Designated National Forestry Commission Asukese 1934 264.06 Designated National Forestry Commission Asuokoko River 1939 85.19 Designated National Forestry Commission Atewa Range 1926 212.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Atewa Range Extension 1957 Designated National Forestry Commission Auro River 1948 5.69 Designated National Forestry Commission Awura 1940 147.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Ayum 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Baku 1929 5.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Banda Hills North 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Bandai Hills 1928 175.74 Designated National Forestry Commission Bazua Bridge 1958 Designated National Forestry Commission Bediako 1928 7.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Bemu 1950 33.46 Designated National Forestry Commission Ben East 1954 22.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Ben West 1954 44.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Shelterbelt 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tano 1937 212.73 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tano Blk 1 0 121.56 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Bia Tawya 1965 546.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Trans 0 119.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Tributaries North 1940 360.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Bia Trributaries South 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Bilisu 0 51.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Bimpong 1937 99.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Birim 1929 44.64 Designated National Forestry Commission Birim Extension 1940 24.79 Designated National Forestry Commission Bobiri 1939 50.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Bodi 1967 186.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Boin River 1932 307.32 Designated National Forestry Commission Boin Tano 1968 122.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Bombi 1963 1.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Bomfoum 1928 218.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonkoni 1934 76.55 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsa Ben 1939 146.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsa River 1932 123.06 Designated National Forestry Commission Bonsam Bepo 1934 119.08 Designated National Forestry Commission Bopong 0 42.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosomkese 1937 153.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosomoa 1930 141.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Bosumtwi Range 1931 75.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Boti Falls 1969 Designated National Forestry Commission Bowiye Range 1930 143.11 Designated National Forestry Commission Brimso 1951 5.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Bukanaw Shelterbelt 0 5.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Buligu 1955 Designated National Forestry Commission Bura River 1932 100.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Buru 0 222.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Cape Three Points 1950 45.75 Designated National Forestry Commission Chai River 1962 175.68 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Chasi River 1940 49.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Chiana Hills 1945 51.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Chipa Tributaries 0 29.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Chira Headwaters 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Chiremoasi 1931 4.36 Designated National Forestry Commission Chirimfa 1932 92.53 Designated National Forestry Commission Dadieso 1977 151.30 Designated National Forestry Commission Daka Headwaters 1952 134.21 Designated National Forestry Commission Damango Scarp 1963 28.53 Designated National Forestry Commission Dampia Range 1937 76.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Dechidan Stream 0 7.32 Designated National Forestry Commission Dechidaw 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Dede 1955 47.92 Designated National Forestry Commission Denyau Shelterbelt 1939 8.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Desiri 1954 127.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Disue River 1943 22.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Dome River 1929 75.42 Designated National Forestry Commission Draw River 1937 195.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Dunwli 0 86.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Ebi Shelterbelt River 1937 17.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Esen Epam 1936 45.18 Designated National Forestry Commission Esuboni For 1927 30.39 Designated National Forestry Commission Esukawkaw 1929 124.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Fiankonya Stream 0 7.30 Designated National Forestry Commission Fum Headwaters 1931 228.22 Designated National Forestry Commission Fumbesi 0 10.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Fure River 1939 141.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Gambaga East 1948 337.44 Designated National Forestry Commission Gambaga West I 1954 158.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Ghira 0 41.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Giah 1948 19.25 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Gianima 1939 16.71 Designated National Forestry Commission Goa 1940 23.56 Designated National Forestry Commission Greenbelt 0 Proposed National Forestry Commission Ho Hill Station 1946 Designated National Forestry Commission Inchaban 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Jade Bepo 1932 Designated National Forestry Commission Jade Bepo Extension 1932 Designated National Forestry Commission Jema Asemkrom 1977 68.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Jeni River 1937 20.70 Designated National Forestry Commission Jimira 1932 28.18 Designated National Forestry Commission Jimira Extension 0 13.02 Designated National Forestry Commission Kabakaba Hills 1947 18.03 Designated National Forestry Commission Kabo River 1931 86.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Kade Bepo 1930 13.94 Designated National Forestry Commission Kadembeli 1948 Designated National Forestry Commission Kajeasi 1952 23.98 Designated National Forestry Commission Kakum 1931 Designated National Forestry Commission Kandenbelli 0 18.28 Designated National Forestry Commission Kani 0 609.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Kanjarga Fumbisi 1948 Designated National Forestry Commission Karaga 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Karaka Plantation 0 1.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Karanja 0 22.37 Designated National Forestry Commission Kenikeni 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Klemu Headwaters 1947 12.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Kokotintin Shelterbelt 1940 8.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Komenda Fuelwood 1946 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Plantation 1947 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Range (Dayi Block) 1951 20.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Kpandu Range West 1947 32.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Krochua 1932 24.69 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM

Krokosua Hills 1935 Designated National Forestry Commission Krokosua Hills FoR* 1935 485.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Krowam 1928 4.29 Designated National Forestry Commission Kulpawn Headwaters 0 45.72 Proposed National Forestry Commission Kulpawn Tributaries 0 83.43 Proposed National Forestry Commission Kumawu Waters 1945 1.35 Designated National Forestry Commission Kumbo 1956 169.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Kunda 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Kunsimua Bepo 1937 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwamisa 1928 53.89 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwekaru 1929 7.25 Designated National Forestry Commission Kwesi Anyinama 1930 Designated National Forestry Commission Laboni 0 259.36 Designated National Forestry Commission Lambo 1956 129.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Lawra 1953 Designated National Forestry Commission Mamang River 1938 49.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Mamiri 1949 48.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Mankrang 1933 97.26 Designated National Forestry Commission Manzan 1972 278.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Marago River 1954 116.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Mawbia 0 124.99 Proposed National Forestry Commission Minta 1938 22.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Mirasa Hills 1937 55.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Morago 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Morago West 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Mpameso 1937 375.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Muro 1951 542.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Nandom/Lambussie 1956 52.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Nasia Tributaries 1956 285.19 Designated National Forestry Commission Navrongo North 0 9.09 Designated National Forestry Commission Ndumfri 1937 63.28 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Neung South 1954 120.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Neung North 0 25.44 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkawanda 1939 7.14 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkonto Ben 1950 16.81 Designated National Forestry Commission Nkrabia 1940 100.22 Designated National Forestry Commission North Bandai Hills 1928 69.99 Designated National Forestry Commission North Fomangsu 1925 49.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Northern Scarp (East) 1935 36.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Northern Scarp (West) 1935 58.96 Designated National Forestry Commission Nsemere 1939 24.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Nsuensa 1938 63.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Nuale 1954 32.95 Designated National Forestry Commission Numia 1938 50.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Nyamibe Bepo 1933 26.31 Designated National Forestry Commission Nyembong 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Obotumfo Hills 1930 1.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Oboyow 1927 56.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Obrachere 0 0.34 Designated National Forestry Commission Obrachere 1 0 0.57 Designated National Forestry Commission Ochi Headwaters Blk I 1940 1.50 Designated National Forestry Commission Ochi Headwaters Blk II 1940 Designated National Forestry Commission Oda River 1939 153.47 Designated National Forestry Commission Odomi River 1931 10.45 Designated National Forestry Commission Ofin Shelterbelt 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Ofin Shelterbelt Headwaters 1927 10.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Ongwam 1951 17.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Ongwam Blk I, II and III 1957 12.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Onuem Bepo 1930 32.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Onuem Nyamibe Shelterbelt 1936 27.80 Designated National Forestry Commission Onyimsu 1940 9.88 Designated National Forestry Commission Opimbo 1927 1.52 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Opon mansi 1930 90.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Opro River 1929 129.83 Designated National Forestry Commission Padu 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Pamu Berekum 1932 176.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Pogi 1951 21.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Polli 0 28.27 Proposed National Forestry Commission Pompo Headwaters 1930 8.52 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Anum 1908 106.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Birim 1937 7.75 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Suhyien Blk I 1928 Designated National Forestry Commission Pra Suhyien Blk II 1933 141.56 Designated National Forestry Commission Prakaw 1942 9.85 Designated National Forestry Commission Prampram Fuelwood 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Pru Shelterbelt 0 52.67 Designated National Forestry Commission Pudu Hills 0 40.55 Proposed National Forestry Commission East 1953 230.65 Designated National Forestry Commission Red Volta West 1962 331.91 Designated National Forestry Commission Saboro 1934 Designated National Forestry Commission Santomang 1944 Designated National Forestry Commission Sapawsu 1957 9.28 Designated National Forestry Commission Sawsaw 1976 57.78 Designated National Forestry Commission Sekondi Waterworks (Blocks II and III) 1938 4.92 Designated National Forestry Commission Sephe 0 375.37 Designated National Forestry Commission Sinsaa bogiwini 1956 Designated National Forestry Commission Sinsableswani 0 68.84 Designated National Forestry Commission Sissili Central 1947 160.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Sissili North 1940 56.06 Designated National Forestry Commission South Fomangsu 1925 31.00 Designated National Forestry Commission Southern Scarp 1935 250.46 Designated National Forestry Commission Subin 1956 209.27 Designated National Forestry Commission Subin River 1949 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Subin Shelterbelt 1940 27.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Subri River 0 562.99 Designated National Forestry Commission Subuma 1935 361.78 Designated National Forestry Commission Sui River 1930 267.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Sukusuki 1972 145.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Sumtwitwi 1939 Designated National Forestry Commission Supong 1954 33.34 Designated National Forestry Commission Supuma Shelterbelt 1938 15.61 Designated National Forestry Commission Tain Tributaries 1932 20.01 Designated National Forestry Commission Tain Tributaries II 1934 454.38 Designated National Forestry Commission Tamale Fuelwood Blks I and II 1953 Designated National Forestry Commission Tamale Waterworks 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Tanja 0 101.05 Designated National Forestry Commission Tankara 1951 Designated National Forestry Commission Tankwiddi West 1941 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Anwia 1935 141.98 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ehuro 1967 209.24 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Nimri or Tano Nimiri 1935 191.51 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ofin 1929 378.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Ofin Extension 0 54.62 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suhyien 1967 74.35 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suraw 1939 20.93 Designated National Forestry Commission Tano Suraw Extension 1935 72.63 Designated National Forestry Commission Tapania 0 94.38 Proposed National Forestry Commission Tinte Bepo 1928 114.59 Designated National Forestry Commission Togo Plateau 1929 123.54 Designated National Forestry Commission Tonton 1936 149.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Totua Shelterbelt 1941 65.72 Designated National Forestry Commission Tumu 0 39.56 Proposed National Forestry Commission Uppe Bli 0 1.11 Designated National Forestry Commission Upper Tamne Blocks I-V 1958 Designated National Forestry Commission

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Upper Wassaw 1925 110.90 Designated National Forestry Commission Volta River 1940 34.66 Designated National Forestry Commission Wawahi 1929 41.29 Designated National Forestry Commission Wiaga 1950 9.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Wiaga Kandema 1941 127.07 Designated National Forestry Commission Winneba Fuelwood 1949 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong (North) 1927 34.82 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong (South) 1929 47.76 Designated National Forestry Commission Worobong 1930 115.15 Designated National Forestry Commission Yakombo 1974 1083.49 Designated National Forestry Commission Yaya 1930 45.23 Designated National Forestry Commission Yendi Town Plantation 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission Yenku 1937 Designated National Forestry Commission Yerada 1972 654.16 Designated National Forestry Commission Yogaga 0 Designated National Forestry Commission Yongwa 1957 Designated National Forestry Commission Yoyo River 1932 212.79 Designated National Forestry Commission Zawli Hills 0 8.20 Designated National Forestry Commission Zawse Hill Blocks I and II 1954 Designated National Forestry Commission GAME PRODUCTION RESERVE Assin-Attandanso 1991 94.32 Designated National MLNR-WD Bunkunaw 0 3.84 Designated National MLNR-WD Gbele 1975 543.76 Designated National MLNR-WD Kalakpa 1975 78.33 Designated National MLNR-WD Shai Hills 1971 3.45 Designated National MLNR-WD NATIONAL PARK Bia 0 310.83 Designated National MLNR-WD Bui 1971 1897.32 Designated National MLNR-WD Digya 1971 2789.47 Designated National MLNR-WD Kakum 1991 176.15 Designated National MLNR-WD Kyabobo 0 220.22 Designated National MLNR-WD

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TABLE 33. PROTECTED AREAS AREA YEAR NAME IN SQ. STATUS DESIGNATION TYPE MANAGED BY EST. KM Mole 1971 4522.28 Designated National MLNR-WD Nini-Suhien 0 515.52 Designated National MLNR-WD Ramsar SITE, WETLAND OF INTERNATIONAL IMPORTANCE Anlo-Keta lagoon complex 1992 698.62 Designated International Not Reported Densu delta 1992 Designated International Not Reported Muni Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Owabi 1988 17.64 Designated International Not Reported Sakumo Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Songor Lagoon 1992 Designated International Not Reported Source: Protected Area Profile for Ghana from the World Database of Protected Areas, August 2019. Available at: www.protectedplanet.net

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ANNEX G: KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES AND INSTITUTIONS

TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES

WILDLIFE MANAGEMENT STRATEGIES AND REGULATIONS

WILDLIFE ANIMALS An act to consolidate and amend the law relating to wild animals, birds and fish and to continue the observance of the PRESERVATION ACT, 1961 Convention signed at London on the nineteenth day of May 1900. (ACT 43)

Provided for the establishment of six (6) new wildlife reserves. It also outlined entry specifications for persons entering a WILDLIFE RESERVES wildlife reserve with the requirement that such entry must be with the consent of the Chief Game and Wildlife Officer. REGULATION, 1971 (LI 710) The Regulations further provided for the protection of fauna and flora by prohibiting hunting, capturing or destroying animals, plant life and amenities and by including wildlife related offenses.

FORESTRY MANAGEMENT & RELATED STRATEGIES/ REGULATIONS The Ghana Economic Recovery Programme: 1989-1992 was designed to improve management of industrial forestry production and promote conservation and . Agriculture was identified as the economic sector that could THE GHANA ECONOMIC rescue Ghana from financial ruin. The government invested significant funds in the rehabilitation of agriculture. Primarily RECOVERY PROGRAMME using loans and grants, the government directed capital toward repairing and improving the transportation and distribution (1989-1992) infrastructure serving export crops. In addition, specific projects aimed at increasing cocoa yields and at developing the timber industry were implemented. The government allowed the free market to promote higher producer prices and to increase efficiency. GHANA FOREST AND Provided for the creation and management of permanent forest estates, research in all branches of scientific forestry, WILDLIFE POLICY, 1948- maximum utilization of areas not dedicated to permanent forestry, provision of technical advice and cooperation in 1980: schemes for the prevention of soil erosion and in land use plans. GHANA FOREST AND Aims at conservation and sustainable development of the nation’s forest and wildlife resources for maintenance of WILDLIFE POLICY 1994: environmental quality and perpetual flow of optimum benefits to all segments of society. 1995-2011 Aims at the conservation and sustainable development of forest and wildlife resources for the maintenance of GHANA FOREST AND environmental stability and continuous flow of optimum benefits from the socio-cultural and economic goods and services WILDLIFE POLICY, 2012: that the forest environment provides to the present and future generations whilst fulfilling Ghana’s commitments under 2012 TO DATE international agreements and conventions. FOREST RESOURCE Undertook a systematic evaluation of Forest and Wildlife resources and assessed the capacity of the sector departments MANAGEMENT to face the challenges of the time and those perceived for the future. The FRMP culminated in the formulation of the

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES PROGRAMME (FRMP); 1990- Forest and Wildlife Policy of 1994 that clearly recognized more strongly the role of local communities and indigenous 1994: knowledge in the conservation of Forest and Wildlife resources. NATURAL RESOURCES AND ENVIRONMENTAL This program focuses on a set of policies and reforms in the inter-related sectors of forestry and wildlife, mining and GOVERNANCE (NREG) environmental protection. PROGRAM, 2008- TO DATE NON-LEGALLY BINDING To boost the implementation of sustainable forest management (SFM) and thus to maintain and enhance the economic, INSTRUMENT (NLBI), 2007 – social and environmental values of all types of forests for the benefit of present and future generations. TO DATE VOLUNTARY PARTNERSHIP Provides a legal framework aimed at ensuring that all imports into the EU from Ghana of timber products have been AGREEMENT (VPA) 2009 – legally produced and in doing so to promote trade in timber products. TO DATE Its main aim was to develop and implement resource reserve management plans that will enhance biological diversity PROTECTED AREA conservation in two nationally and internationally important representative protected areas. The Nini-Suhien National DEVELOPMENT PROGRAM, Park and Ankasa Resource Reserve and (also an UNESCO Biosphere Reserve) and Resource Reserve 1997-2010 are all located in the Eastern Guinean forest areas within the Western Region. The Forestry Commission has entered into a Partnership Agreement with the Food and Agriculture Organization (FAO) NATIONAL FORESTRY of the United nations under the National Forest Programme Facility (NFP) which established the National Forestry Forum PROGRAMME; 2004 – TO and for implementing series of activities aimed at safeguarding the benefits due to farmers participating in the Modified DATE Taungya Plantation Scheme. REDUCED EMISSIONS FROM DEFORESTATION AND As part of the Forestry Commission’s commitment to ensuring the sustainable management of Ghana’s forests we are FOREST DEGRADATION leading efforts to prepare Ghana to engage with international mechanisms on REDD. (REDD+) FOREST INVESTMENT The medium to long term expectation of Ghana’s FIP strategy is to strengthen institutional capacity in forest resources PROGRAMME (FIP), 2013 – management, improve governance, strengthen the regulatory mechanisms, streamline tenure and tree rights, improve local TO DATE livelihoods and enhance resilience to climate change. NATIONAL PLANTATION It aims at rehabilitating degraded forest reserves in suitable off-reserve areas, mangroves, watersheds, planting of amenity DEVELOPMENT trees in urban areas and creating employment for the youth in the rural and urban communities. PROGRAMME, 2002-2012: GHANA FOREST The purpose of the strategy is to optimize the productivity of planted forests by identifying suitable tree species and PLANTATION improving their propagation, management, utilization and marketing. The strategy has the following strategic objectives: to DEVELOPMENT STRATEGY, establish and manage 500,000 ha of forest plantations and undertake enrichment planting of 100,000 ha through the 2015-2040 application of best practice principles, by year 2040 as well as maintain best practice principles; to promote large scale and

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES small holder forest plantation investments; to create employment opportunities and sustainable livelihoods in rural communities through forest plantation development; to increase investments in research and development, extension, training and capacity building for forest plantation development and timber utilization; and to improve governance in the regulation and management of forest plantations. GHANA TREE CROP POLICY Competitive and sustainable tree crop sub-sector with focus on value chain development and improved technologies to 2011 – TO DATE create job opportunities, ensure food security, enhance the environment and improve livelihoods. GHANA COCOA SECTOR The overall objective is to contribute to an improved livelihood of smallholder cocoa farmers and improved sustainability PROGRAMME, 2007 – TO of cocoa production in Ghana. DATE FORESTS ORDINANCE (CAP This Act provided guidelines for constitution of forest reserves and the protection of forests and other related matters. 157) FOREST PROTECTION This Act defined forest offenses and prescribed sanctions and or penalties for such offenses. DECREE, 1974 (N.R.C.D 234) TREES AND TIMBER DECREE This law prescribed guidelines for participation in the logging/timber industry and provided for the payment of fees as well 1974 (N.R.C.D. 273) as sanctions for non-compliance with the guidelines for participation and also export of unprocessed timber. FOREST PROTECTION (AMENDMENT) LAW, 1986 This law reviewed upwards the penalties/fines for forest offenses. (P.N.D.C.L. 142) TREES AND TIMBER (AMENDMENT) ACT 1994 This Act reviewed the fees and fines upwards and introduced export levy for air-dried and logs. (ACT 493) TIMBER RESOURCES This repealed the Concessions Act, 1962 (Act 124) and provided for the grant of timber rights in a manner that secures MANAGEMENT ACT 1997 the sustainable management and utilization of timber resources. (ACT 547) This Act repealed Act 453 and re-established the Forestry Commission as a semi-autonomous corporate body and FORESTRY COMMISSION brought under the Commission, the forestry sector agencies implementing the functions of protection, development, ACT, 1999 (ACT 571) management, and regulation of forest and wildlife resources. FOREST PLANTATION This Act consolidated to it the Forest Improvement Fund and provide for the establishment of a Fund to provide financial DEVELOPMENT FUND ACT, assistance and the management of such funds for the development of private commercial forest plantations in the country. 2000 (ACT 583) THE FOREST PROTECTION This Act repealed the Forest Protection (Amendment) Law, 1986 (PNDCL 142), reviewed forest offenses fines upwards (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 and introduced joint liability in the commitment and prosecution of forest offenses. (ACT 624)

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES

THE FOREST PLANTATION This Act amended Act 547 to exclude from its application, land with private forest plantation, to provide for maximum DEVELOPMENT FUND duration, and maximum limit area for timber rights and to provide for incentives and benefits for investors in the forestry (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 and wildlife sector. (ACT 617) TIMBER RESOURCES This Act amended Act 547 to exclude from its application, land with private forest plantation, to provide for maximum MANAGEMENT duration, and maximum limit area for timber rights and to provide for incentives and benefits for investors in the forestry (AMENDMENT) ACT 2002 and wildlife sector. (ACT 617) ECONOMIC PLANTS PROTECTION DECREE, 1979 This decree prohibits the grant of timber rights in cocoa farms. (AFRCD 47) LI 1649 TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT This regulation provided guidelines for the allocation and management of timber resources. REGULATIONS, 1988 LI 1721—TIMBER RESOURCES MANAGEMENT This regulation established the basis for competitive bidding in timber resource allocation. (AMENDMENT) REGULATIONS, 2003 LI 2184 TIMBER RESOURCES (LEGALTIY LICENSING) This established the Timber Validation Division, Timber Validation Committee and Timber Legality Licensing scheme. REGULATIONS, 2012: COCOA INDUSTRY This law provides the regulations for buying and selling of cocoa in Ghana. REGULATION, 1968 FRESHWATER AND MARINE WATER MANAGEMENT MINISTRY OF FISHERIES MoFAD leads policy formulation and oversees the development and utilization of fisheries in Ghana. The Ministry AND AQUACULTURE coordinates policies pertaining to the sustainable exploitation of fisheries resources through the Fisheries Commission and DEVELOPMENT (MOFAD) manages, develops and regulates fishery and aquaculture activities through regulation and licensing.

WETLANDS MANAGEMENT Provides for the definition of sustainable utilization of wetlands. (RAMSAR) REGULATIONS, 1999 – TO DATE FISHERIES ACT, 2002 Establishes the fisheries commission and its structures as well as and its responsibilities.

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES

WATER RESOURCES Established the Water resources Commission (WRC) with the mandate to regulate and manage Ghana’s Water resources COMMISSION ACT, 1996 and coordinate government policies in relation to them. (ACT 522)

WATER Developed by the Ministry of Local Government in 2007 with key policy objectives of achieving sustainable management of water resources; and ensuring equitable sustainable exploitation, utilization and management of water resources, while POLICY (2007) maintaining biodiversity and the quality of the environment for future generations. MARINE POLLUTION ACT, Provides for the prevention, regulation, and control of pollution within Ghana’s territorial waters and incorporates most 2016 (ACT 932) of the marine pollution conventions ratified by Ghana. LAND TENURE, LAND USE MANAGEMENT, AND OTHER POLICIES INFORMING NATURAL RESOURCE MANAGEMENT The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR) through the Wildlife and Forest Services Division of the Forestry Commission coordinates the implementation of activities and programs that promote biodiversity conservation through the formulation of Forest Reserves and Protected Area Integrated Management Plans as well as forest investment MINISTRY OF LANDS AND programs. They regulate trading and export of forest products and threatened plant and animal species through the NATURAL RESOURCES issuance of Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) licenses by the (MLNR) WD) to ensure sustainability of threatened plant and animal species.

The MLNR through the Minerals Commission also formulates national policies on the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources with due regard to the conservation of biodiversity. MoFA is responsible for policy formulation, programming and coordination within the agricultural sector and ensures that MINISTRY OF FOOD AND the exploitation of natural resources, including genetic biodiversity found in terrestrial and aquatic habitats, is within AGRICULTURE (MOFA) sustainable limits. MoFA has the responsibility to provide improved seed varieties and modified animal breeds for farming communities as well as plant protection and regulatory services at entry points to the country. MoCRA promotes the development of an effective interface between government and civil society on matters relating to MINITRY OF CHIEFTAINCY chieftaincy, culture and religious affairs for promoting peace, governance, national values and international partnership. AND RELIGIOUS AFFAIRS The Ministry supports, collaborates and mobilizes local actors for sustainable management of biodiversity in the country. (MOCRA) They also document traditional practices such as taboo species and sacred groves that maintain and/or protect biodiversity. Seeks to promote the judicious use of the nation’s land and all its natural resources by all sectors of the Ghanaian society. NATIONAL LAND POLICY This is in support of various socioeconomic activities undertaken in accordance with sustainable resources use and (1994) maintenance of viable ecosystems.

GHANA POVERTY Reform land acquisition to ensure easier access and more efficient land ownership and title processes; Serve as a catalyst REDUCTION STRATEGY: to assist the private sector to increase the production of grains such as rice, maize and tubers so that Ghana can achieve 2003-2009 food security. This included extension and research services, irrigation facilities, and affordable credit to support the farmer. Encourage the production of cash crops such as cashew; Support the private sector to add value to traditional

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES crops such as cocoa. The incidence of poverty among food crop farmers was targeted to decrease from 59% to 46% by 2005. THE FOOD AND This is the main agriculture sector policy of Ghana built on the GPRS priorities for Ghana. Several other policies, AGRICULTURE SECTOR programs, and projects have been developed in response to the provisions of this policy. The policy targets agricultural DEVELOPMENT POLICY growth of 6-8% per annum, crops and livestock leading the growth at an average annual growth rate of 6%. Forestry and (FASDEP), 2002- TO DATE logging, and fisheries, each growing at 5% per annum, and cocoa remaining robust in support of other sectors. Ghana’s irrigation policy (and the strategy for its implementation) is designed to open up the investment space for intensified and diversified irrigated crop production in Ghana where there is clear comparative advantage. The policy is GHANA IRRIGATION designed to accomplish this by addressing four key ‘problem’ areas concerning the formal, informal and commercial DEVELOPMENT POLICY, irrigated sub-sectors that have been identified during an extensive consultative review. These problems are (a) Low 2010 – TO DATE agricultural productivity and slow rates of growth (b) Constrained socio-economic engagement with land and water resources (c) Environmental degradation associated with irrigated production (d) Lack of irrigation support services. BUFFER ZONE POLICY Intends to protect, regenerate and maintain the active and established vegetation in riparian buffer zones to improve (2011) water quality by instituting proper procedures for managing and controlling activities along surface water bodies. THE AGRICULTURAL This was the first integrated intervention in the agricultural sector. The objectives were to strengthen the institutional SECTOR REHABILITATION capacity and services of the Ministry of Food and Agriculture, and to support policy reforms involving the privatization of PROGRAM (ASRP), 1987-1990 certain services (including fertilizer marketing, tractor services, and veterinary drugs). Nationwide scaling up of a successful value chain investment approach; promoting and mainstreaming climate change GHANA AGRICULTURAL resilience approaches in Ghana, in particular in the northern regions, financed through the Adaptation for Smallholder SECTOR PROGRAMME, 2013- Agriculture Programme (ASAP); and knowledge management, harmonization of intervention approaches and policy 2018 support. MEDIUM TERM The METASIP is the investment plan to implement the medium term (2011-2015) programs of the policy. It has been AGRICULTURAL developed to achieve a target agricultural GDP growth of at least 6% annually, halving poverty by 2015 in consonance with INVESTMENT PLAN, 2011- MDG 1 and based on government expenditure allocation in the national budget of at least 10% within the Plan’s period 2015 (2011-2015). MEDIUM TERM The Medium-Term Agricultural Development Program 1991-2000 was to attain food self-sufficiency and security by the AGRICULTURE year 2000. To this end, the government sought to improve extension services for farmers and to improve crop-disease DEVELOPMENT research. PROGRAMME (1991-2000) NORTHERN RURAL This program aims at developing agricultural value chains and increasing agricultural production. It will help vulnerable GROWTH PROGRAMME, groups including women and the youth, create profitable commodity and food chains, while improving market linkages for 2009- TO DATE these agricultural products with the domestic and export markets.

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TABLE 34. KEY GOVERNMENT OF GHANA POLICIES

YOUTH IN AGRICULTURE The Youth in Agriculture Program (YIAP) is a Government of Ghana (GoG) agricultural sector initiative with an objective PROGRAMME, 2012 – TO of motivating the youth to accept and appreciate farming/food production as a commercial venture, thereby taking up DATE farming as a life time vocation. PROGRAMME FOR The Programme for the Promotion of Perennial Crops in Ghana is implementing the strategies outlined by the FASDEP PROMOTION OF through the following actions: Linking of farmers to market, Creating and strengthening of farmer associations, Building of PERENNIAL CROPS, 2006- 77 km of feeder roads and 210 km of farm roads, and designing to out grower projects under the program. 2013 ROOT AND TUBERS This program seeks to build a competitive market-based Root and Tuber Commodity Chain (RTCC) supported by IMPROVEMENT relevant, effective and sustainable services that are available to the rural poor. PROGRAMME, 2007-2014 WAAPP is a two-phase, 10-year Adoptable Program, each of 5-year duration. The first of WAAPP involves three countries (Ghana, Mali, and Senegal). The priority commodities for the WAAP which have International Food Policy WEST AFRICA Research Institute (IFPRI) and West and Central Africa Council for Agricultural Research and Development (WECARD / AGRICULTURE CORAF) in 2006, identified roots and tubers, livestock, rice, cereals among others as the commodities that make the PRODUCTIVITY greatest contribution to the region’s agricultural growth and productions’ benefit, from research and development. The PROGRAMME, 2006 – TO specific country commodities are as follows: root and tubers for Ghana; rice Mali and drought—tolerant cereals for DATE Senegal. The development objective of the program is to contribute to agricultural productivity increases in the participating countries’ top commodity sub-sectors that are aligned with regional priorities. Article 258 establishes a Lands Commission and prescribes the functions of the Commission. Article 266 imposes restrictions on the rights and interest in land that could be granted to a non-citizen of Ghana. Article 267(1) vests stool lands in the appropriate stools in trust for their subjects in accordance with customary law and usage. CONSTITUTIONAL Article 267(2) establishes the Office of Administrator of Stool Lands and prescribes its functions. PROVISIONS ON LAND IN Article 267(6) provides for the disbursement formula for stool land revenue. THE 1992 GHANAIAN Article 268 establishes the requirement of Parliamentary Ratification of agreements in relation to the grant of a right or CONSTITUTION concession for the exploitation of any natural resources. Article 269 establishes natural resources commissions [Forestry Commission] which “shall be responsible for the regulation and management of the utilization of the natural resources concerned and the coordination of policies in relation to them” Article 295 provides for the definition of Stool Lands. STATE LAND ACTS AND ITS Provides for acquisition of land for national interest and related matters. REGULATIONS, 1962 LAND TITLE REGISTRATION ACT AND REGULATIONS, Provides for the establishment of land title registry and the procedures for land title registration. 1986

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PUBLIC CONVEYANCING Provide for the declaration of a selected area, the granting of land in such area, and matters connected therewith or ACT AND REGULATIONS, incidental thereto. 1965 LAND PLANNING AND SOIL Provide for the better utilization of land in designated areas by land planning and soil conservation and for the CONSERVATION ACT, 1963 establishment of committees for purposes incidental to this. LAND DEVELOPMENT Protect purchasers of land, and their successors, whose titles are found to be defective after a building has been erected (PROTECTION OF on the land. PURCHASERS) ACT, 1960 FARMLANDS PROTECTION Protect farmers whose titles to land are found to be defective and to provide for related matters. ACT, 196 ADMINISTRATION OF LANDS ACT AND Consolidate with amendments the enactments relating to the administration of Stool and other lands. REGULATIONS, 1962 Amends, simplifies and consolidates the law relating to conveyancing and to provide for related matters. This law provides CONVEYANCING ACT, 1973 the procedures and requirement for transfer of interest on land. OFFICE OF THE ADMINISTRATOR OF Establish the Office of the Administrator of Stool Lands and provides for the administration of Stool Lands generally. STOOL LANDS ACT, 1994 Establishes the Lands Commission to integrate, subject to the Constitution, the operations of public service land LANDS COMMISSION ACT, institutions under the Commission in order to secure effective and efficient land administration and to provide for related 2008 matters. CENTRAL GOVERNMENT The Ghana National Biodiversity Policy (Draft 2019) is set within the framework of the UN Sustainable Development Goals, the International Convention on Biodiversity (CBD), the African Union Agenda 2063, the ECOWAS Environmental Protocols, the Long-Term National Development Plan of Ghana (2018-2057), Ghana National Climate Change Policy, the DRAFT GHANA NATIONAL Forest and Wildlife Policy, and other biodiversity-related agreements that Ghana has signed. Within the agenda of these BIODIVERSITY POLICY (2019) policies, agreements, and strategies, Ghana is obliged to take effective and urgent actions to minimize the loss of biodiversity and enhance its sustainable use. This will ensure that ecosystems are resilient and continue to provide essential services to secure the country’s variety of life and contribute to human well-being. Aims to provide strategic direction and coordinate issues of . It also promotes a climate-resilient NATIONAL CLIMATE and climate-compatible economy while achieving sustainable development through equitable low-carbon economic growth CHANGE POLICY (2014) for Ghana. A key focus area of the policy is to minimize .

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The Ghana Vision 2020 (1995-2020) was designed to improve the quality of life of all Ghanaians by reducing poverty, GHANA VISION 2020: 1995- raising living standards through a sustained increase in national wealth and a more equitable distribution of the benefits 2020: therefrom. Identifies the following objectives related to biodiversity: • Conserve the diversity of landscapes, ecosystems, habitats, biological communities, populations, species and genes throughout the country by expanding human capacity. • Use biological resources sustainably and minimize adverse impacts on biological diversity. • Ensure that benefits derived from the use and development of the country’s genetic resources serve individual communities and national interests. • Create and implement conditions and incentives that support the conservation and sustainable use of biodiversity NATIONAL ENVIRONMENT at the national and international levels. POLICY (2014) • Encourage involvement of local communities inside and outside protected areas in the planning and management of such areas. • Ensure that the conservation of biological diversity outside protected areas is integrated with strategic national land use plans, district and local level plans and strategies. • Include in protected areas, a wide range of ecosystems/habitats, and where appropriate, to link them by corridors or suitable habitats to neighboring countries for purposes of wildlife migration. • Ensure that economic instruments and pricing policies support biodiversity conservation. The main focus of agricultural development policy, over the medium-term as stated in the GSGDA, is to accelerate the GHANA SHARED GROWTH modernization of agriculture and ensure its linkage with industry through the application of science, technology, and AND DEVELOPMENT innovation. The modernized agriculture sector is expected to underpin the transformation of the economy through job AGENDA: 2010-2017 creation, increased export earnings, food security, and supply of raw materials for value addition and rural development as well as significant reduction in the incidence of poverty. GHANA CLIMATE CHANGE To enhance Ghana’s current and future development to climate change impacts by strengthening its adaptive capacity and ADAPTATION STRATEGY, building resilience of the society and ecosystems. 2010-2020 ENVIRONMENTAL PROTECTION AGENCY This act establishes the EPA and spell out its power and responsibilities. ACT, 1994 ENVIRONMENTAL Outlines the regulations guiding various undertaken that require environmental screening, environmental impact ASSESSMENT REGULATIONS, assessment, and environmental permit. 1952 Sources: Kuudaar, Elvis. 2015. Ghana Case Study. FAO, October 2015, 1-39.

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Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. Republic of Ghana. Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019.

TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY MESTI is statutorily responsible for the conservation and sustainable management of biodiversity and collaborates and coordinates as the lead Ministry in the implementation of the Policy. MESTI in performing this function collaborates with the MINISTRY OF Ministries of Lands and Natural Resources, Food and Agriculture (MOFA), Local Government and Rural Development ENVIRONMENT, SCIENCE, (DAs), the National Development Planning Commission (NDPC) and other relevant Agencies to enact legislation to support TECHNOLOGY, AND biodiversity conservation and management in the country. INNOVATION (MESTI) The key considerations in the implementation of the policy are efficient allocation of resources, strengthened linkages between different stakeholders and sectors, as well as coordinated activities. The Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources (MLNR) through the Wildlife and Forest Services Divisions of the Forestry Commission coordinates the implementation of activities and programs that promote biodiversity conservation through the formulation of Forest Reserves and Protected Area Integrated Management Plans as well as forest investment programs. MINISTRY OF LANDS AND They regulate trading and export of forest products and threatened plant and animal species through the issuance of NATURAL RESOURCES Convention on the International Trade in Endangered Species of Wild Fauna and Flora (CITES) licenses by the Wildlife (MNLR) Division (WD) to ensure sustainability of threatened plant and animal species. The MLNR through the Minerals Commission also formulates national policies on the exploration and exploitation of mineral resources with due regard to the conservation of biodiversity. The National Development Planning Commission Act, 1994 (Act 479) and the National Development Planning (System) Act, NATIONAL 1994 (Act 480) provide the core legal framework for the establishment of the Commission and performance of its function. DEVELOPMENT The Commission operates through a number of committees whose composition changes with the focus of a medium-term PLANNING COMMISSION development plan. The Commission, according to the Constitution, “shall also perform such other functions relating to (NDPC) development planning as the President may direct.” The Environmental Protection Agency (EPA) regulates environmental matters and implements environmental policy ENVIRONMENTAL objectives. They ensure compliance with the environmental impact assessment procedures, promote relevant research, PROTECTION AGENCY surveys and analyses, develop databases and publications as well as coordinate biodiversity education for public awareness. MINISTRY OF The Ministry of Education, with backing from MESTI, supports universities and other research institutions to conduct EDUCATION (MOE) research, advocacy, and monitoring of the state of biodiversity in the country. MoTCA promotes sustainable and responsible eco-tourism to preserve historical, cultural and natural heritage. The Ministry MINISTRY OF TOURISM, also has the responsibility to license and monitor the production, preservation and exportation of artifacts, as well as CULTURE, AND ART develop new high-value options in the leisure, culture, heritage and ecotourism markets. They collaborate with MESTI and MLNR to support the development of national parks and other tourist attractions.

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TABLE 35. IMPORTANT GOVERNMENT OF GHANA INSTITUTIONS FOR ASPECTS RELATED TO THE CONSERVATION AND MANAGEMENT OF TROPICAL FORESTS AND BIODIVERSITY MINISTRY OF WATER The Ministry of Water and Sanitation through its implementing agencies (the Water Resources Commission, Department of AND SANITATION Hydrology, and the Community Water and Sanitation Agency) seeks to ensure sustainable exploitation, utilization and (MOWS) management of water resources while maintaining biodiversity and the quality of the environment for future generations. MINISTRY OF FISHERIES MOFAD focuses on interventions geared to move the fihseries sector and industry to contribute to overall economic AND AQUACULTURE development. MOFAD directs the Ministry, the private sector, and other agencies in fisheries sector development. DEVELOPMENT (MOFAD) CSIR-FORIG (COUNCIL CSIR-FORIG works to conduct high quality user-focused forestry research that generates scientific knowledge and FOR SCIENTIFIC AND appropriate technologies; disseminate forestry related information for the improvement of the social, economic, and INDUSTIRAL RESEARCH- environmental well-being of Ghanaians; enhance the sustainable development, conservation and efficient utilization of FORESTRY RESEARCH Ghana’s forest resources; and foster stronger linkages through collaborative research across disciplines. INSTITUTE OF GHANA) WRI generates and provides scientific information, strategies, and services toward the rational development, utilization, and WATER RESEARCH management of the water resources of Ghana in support of the socio-economic advancement of the country, especially in INSTITUTE (WRI) the agriculture, health, industry, energy, transportation, education and tourism sectors. The Ministry of Finance exists to ensure macro-economic growth stability for promotion of sustainable economic growth and development of Ghana and her people through the formulation and implementation of sound financial, fiscal and monetary policies; Creating an enabling environment for investment; Establishing and disseminating performance-oriented guidelines and accurate user-friendly financial management information systems; and efficient mobilization, allocation and MINISTRY OF FINANCE management of financial resources. Key objectives of the ministry are: to allocate and manage financial resources efficiently, (MOF) effectively, and rationally; to formulate and implement sound macro-economic policies; to reduce and restructure the domestic debt, to improve public expenditure management; to pursue prices and Exchange rate stability; to account for all Public Finances properly; to improve the human resources and Institutional Management Capacity; to improve Fiscal Resource Mobilization; to strengthen private sector. The Wildlife Division began as a branch of the Department of the Ministry of Agriculture responsible for wildlife issues. In WILDLIFE AND FOREST 1965, it became a full-fledged line agency of the Ministry of Forestry known as the Department of Game and Wildlife, which SERVICES DIVISIONS OF later changed to Wildlife Department after the adoption of the Forestry and Wildlife Policy of 1994. It is responsible for all THE GHANA FORESTRY wildlife in the country and administers 16 Wildlife-Protected Areas (PAs), 5 coastal Ramsar Sites and the Accra and Kumasi COMMISSION Zoos. It also assists with the running of 2 community-owned Wildlife Sanctuaries.

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ANNEX H: CLIMATE ZONES OF GHANA

Figure 9 - Climate Zones of Ghana (2015 Data)

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ANNEX I: THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY

TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Population growth, internal migration, expansion The Eastern Guinean Forest Zone is one of the principle areas of both legal and of existing settlements, and urbanization; illegal mining (galamsey) activities in Ghana, even in unauthorized areas such as Forest Reserves, river bodies, and buffer zones.278 Given the Eastern Guinean • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management practices for Forest’s considerable wealth of natural resources, mining poses a significant threat Illegal and/or traditional livelihoods; to biodiversity in this ecoregion through the destruction of flora and fauna, poorly significant land and water pollution, soil erosion, and surface water sedimentation. • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; implemented Galamsey groups often destroy forest resources without regard for environmental • Roads and infrastructure development; mining protection laws and regulations, even going so far as to divert the natural course • activities Inadequate implementation and / or of rivers to mine gold in the river bed.279, 280 Galamsey significantly impacts natural enforcement of existing laws and regulations; habitat, pocking landscapes with uncovered mining pits, and creating pools of • Insufficient public buy-in; heavily polluted water, large tracts of land devoid of vegetative cover, and • Challenges presented by land tenure contaminating soils surface water bodies with chemicals and heavy metals such as arrangement and (limited) land use planning. 281,282 mercury. • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization; Silviculture Ghana’s forest plantations have significantly disrupted Ghana’s forests and • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge Unsustainable biodiversity. In many cases, the species involved in plantations are not properly of – sustainable management practices for Agriculture matched to the site or originate from unknown locales, indicating insufficient traditional livelihoods; and Silviculture knowledge of, will to apply, or incentive to apply more sustainable practices.283 • Limited supplemental of alternative livelihoods; Activities Plantation agriculture for oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa represent significant • Insufficient public buy-in; contributors to forest degradation and loss by displacing large tracts of natural • Challenges presented by land tenure forests—which are by far the most biologically diverse terrestrial areas in arrangement and (limited) land use planning.

278 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 279 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 280 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 281 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 282 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 283 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016.

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TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Ghana—and reducing local species diversity.284 In some areas within Ghana’s Eastern Guinean Forest ecosystem, these plantations (particularly cocoa, one of Ghana’s principal sources of foreign exchange), serve as the only viable livelihood activities available.

Agriculture Slash-and-burn is a dominant agricultural technique employed in Ghana, and along with shifting cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation. The clearance and reduction of forest cover exposes fields to soil erosion and reduces plant nutrients and habitats.285 Land conversion, driven in part by increasing demand for food and raw materials as a result of population growth and limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods, places considerable and increasing pressure on remaining forests and Protected Areas in Ghana.286 • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlement, and urbanization; Unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management practices for and legal and illicit logging activities significantly harm tropical forests and traditional livelihoods; biodiversity. Specifically, these activities result in the loss of live trees from natural Unsustainable forests without replacement, in turn furthering reduction in wildlife habitat, and • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; Wood contributing to the country’s widespread trends in forest loss and degradation.287 • Road and infrastructure development; Harvesting As a result of the listed drivers (at left), efforts to combat deforestation caused by • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of over-extraction have seen limited success. The over-extraction of wood resources existing laws and regulations; has resulted in hardwood species like Kane, Odum, Rosewood, and Mahogany • Insufficient public buy-in; becoming increasingly scarce.288 • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited) land use planning;

284 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 285 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 286 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 287 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 288 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from: https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of- emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana.

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TABLE 36. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR EASTERN GUINEAN FOREST THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives. • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; • Road and infrastructure development; Indiscriminate and inappropriate use of agrochemicals and inorganic fertilizers may • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of significantly reduce flora and fauna populations and diversity. Within Ghana, water Pollution (e.g., existing laws and regulations; bodies, fish, vegetables, food, soil and sediment have been contaminated by from Mining • Insufficient public buy-in; pesticides used in agricultural activities,289 the excessive use of which have Activities, • Challenges presented by land tenure 290 contributed to the destruction of important insects such as pollinators. In Misuse arrangement and (limited land use planning); addition to direct impacts on the landscape, galamsey is one of the principal [including • Poor sanitation and waste management systems; sources of pollution of surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, overuse] of • Population growth, internal migration, expansion oils, and sediments. This pollution negatively affects the food chain, impairs Agrochemicals) of existing settlements, and urbanization; ecosystem services, and impacts the health of communities dependent on these • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge resources.291 of – sustainable management practices for traditional livelihoods. • Population growth, internal migration, expansion Bushmeat represents a significant source of protein for rural Ghanaians, who of existing settlements, and urbanization consume and an estimated 380,000 tons of bushmeat annually. Medium-sized • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods. mammals (forest antelopes, diurnal monkeys) are the most commonly hunted Bushmeat • Road and infrastructure development species, but large birds are also threatened from the spike in bushmeat Hunting • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of consumption in recent years. Uncontrolled bushmeat hunting has greatly reduced existing laws and regulations Ghana’s faunal diversity, yielding “empty forest syndrome” (the absence of 292 • Insufficient public buy-in animals) to occur in Ghana’s forest ecosystems.

TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Illegal and/or • Population growth, internal migration, expansion Legal and illegal mining activities are common in the Forest-Savanna Transition Poorly of existing settlements, and urbanization; Zone, sometimes undertaken in unauthorized areas such as Forest Reserves, river

289 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 290 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 291 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 292 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Implemented • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge bodies, and buffer zones.293 Mining poses a significant threat to biodiversity in this Mining of – sustainable management practices for ecoregion by destroying or degrading habitat for flora and fauna. This in turn drives Activities traditional livelihoods; population decline as a result of the significant pollution to land and water bodies • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; and increasing soil erosion and surface water sedimentation. By definition operating • Road and infrastructure development; outside of the law, galamsey groups do not typically adhere to environmental • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of protection requirements or best practices, instead substantively contributing to the existing laws and regulations; destruction of forest resources, at times even diverting the natural course of rivers 294, 295 • Insufficient public buy-in; to mine gold in the river bed. Landscapes characteristic of galamsey mining contain uncovered pits, pools of heavily contaminated water, large tracts of land • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited) land use planning. devoid of vegetative cover, and land and rivers contaminated with dangerous chemicals such as mercury.296, 297 As a result of these changes, galamsey is a significant driver of deforestation and habitat loss. Silviculture Plantation agriculture for products such as oil palm, rubber, bananas, and cocoa has • Population growth, internal migration, expansion displaced large tracts of forest.298 Given its economic importance as a dominant of existing settlements, and urbanization; source of foreign exchange and farmer income, Ghana long encouraged farmers to Unsustainable • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge grow cocoa, exacerbating rates of forest degradation and loss.299 Increasing global Agriculture of – sustainable management practices for demand for chocolate combined with the decreasing productivity of aging trees and and traditional livelihoods; poor tree/soil management has further driven the conversion of forest land for Silviculture • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; cocoa plantations.300 Species habitat and forest ecosystem health both decline Practices • Insufficient public buy-in; alongside reductions in species diversity in forest plantations relative to natural • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement growth forest. and (limited) land use planning.

293 Republic of Ghana. Scoping Study of the Potential of Reclamation of Mined-Out Areas in Forest Landscapes – Eastern-Western Region. Final Report. Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Traffic & Environmental Network, Tema-Accra, September 2018. 294 Cooke, Edgar; Hague, Sarah, and McKay, Andy. The Ghana Poverty and Inequality Report: Using the 6th Ghana Living Standards Survey. UNICEF, March 2016. 295 Wilson, M.L et al. 2015. “Integrated assessment of Artisanal and Small-Scale Gold Mining in Ghana—Part 3: Social Sciences and Economics.” International Journal of Environmental Research and Public Health, 2015:12, 8133-8156. 296 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021-Volume 1: Policy Framework. 2018 297 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019. 298 Ibid. 299 Quacou, Ikpe Emmanuel. “Unsustainable Management of Forests in Ghana from 1900-2010.” International Journal of Environmental Monitoring and Analysis, 4(6), 2016, 160-166. 300 USAID. USAID/West Africa Tropical Forestry and Biodiversity Assessment. February 2019.

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TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Agriculture Slash-and-burn is the primary agricultural practice in Ghana, and, along with shifting cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation.301 Land conversion for agriculture reduces quality and extent of forest cover, exposes fields to soil erosion, and drives losses of plant nutrients and habitats. 302 Declining soil fertility, population growth and human settlement expansion, along with limited supplemenal or alternative livelihoods are primary drivers of agricultural expansion and land converstion, which place considerable pressure on remaining forests and Pas in Ghana.303 • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management practices for Unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, and traditional livelihoods; legal and illegal logging activities are among the most significant contributors to deforestation and habitat loss in Ghana. Over-extraction of forest resources is • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; Unsustainable most prevalent in the forest-savanna transition zones and the Eastern Guinean • Road and infrastructure development; Wood Forest. Charcoal production results in the extraction of live trees from the natural • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of Harvesting forest without replacement, reductions in total habitat for wildlife, and incremental existing laws and regulations; 304 contributions to widespread forest loss and degradation. The over-extraction of • Insufficient public buy-in; wood resources has led to hardwood species like Kane, Odum, Rosewood, and • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement Mahogany becoming increasingly scarce.305 and (limited) land use planning; • Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

301 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 302 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 303 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 304 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164. 305 Sparkler, B.S., Obiri, B.D., Derkyi, N.S.A., Dabo, J. and Adjei, R. Characterization and Efficient Utilization of emerging Wood Fuel Species for Charcoal Production in the Savanna Transition Zone of Ghana. CSIR-FORIG, Accessed August 24, 2019 from: https://www.csir-forig.org.gh/projects/donor-funded/217-characterization-and-ecient-utilization-of- emerging-wood-fuel-species-for-charcoal-production-in-the-savanna-transition-zone-of-ghana.

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TABLE 37. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FOREST-SAVANNA TRANSITION ZONE THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Wildfires are common throughout the central Forest-Savanna Transition Zone, • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge where they are largely a man-made problem. Wildfires cause significant damage to of – sustainable management practices for landscapes, contribute to cropland destruction, degrade forest resources, and drive traditional livelihoods; or exacerbate soil fertility losses. 306 The increased prevalence of wildfires Wildfires • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; discourages the adoption of improved land use management practices and longer- • Insufficient public buy-in; term agricultural investment. 307 Further, the prevalence of wildfires and belief • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement among stakeholders of their inevitability can undermine buy-in to adopt improved and (limited) land use planning. natural resource management practices, perpetuating a negative cycle of increasingly degraded landscapes with reduced ability to foster species diversity. Bushmeat represents a significant source of protein for rural Ghanaians, who • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization consume and an estimated 380,000 tons of bushmeat annually. Medium-sized mammals (forest antelopes, diurnal monkeys) are the most commonly hunted • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods. Bushmeat species, but large birds are also threatened from the spike in bushmeat • Road and infrastructure development Hunting consumption in recent years. Uncontrolled bushmeat hunting has greatly reduced • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of Ghana’s faunal diversity, yielding “empty forest syndrome” (the absence of animals) existing laws and regulations to occur in Ghana’s forest and forest-savanna ecosystems.308 • Insufficient public buy-in

TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA THREATS DRIVERS EFFECT ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management Wildfires are particularly prevalent in the northern savanna where. as in the Forest- practices for traditional livelihoods; Savanna Transition Zone, they are largely a man-made problem. Wildfires cause Wildfires • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; significant damage throughout the landscape, including cropland destruction, forest • Insufficient public buy-in; degradation, on ongoing losses to soil fertility.309 The increased prevalence of • Challenges presented by land tenure wildfires discourages the adoption of improved land use management practices and arrangement and (limited) land use planning.

306 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016. 307 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015. 308 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 309 Republic of Ghana. Ghana Forest Plantation Strategy: 2016-2040. Forestry Commission, Ministry of Lands and Natural Resources, Ghana, 2016.

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TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA THREATS DRIVERS EFFECT ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY longer-term agricultural investment. 310 Further, the prevalence of wildfires and the belief among stakeholders of their inevitability can undermine buy-in to adopt improved natural resource management practices, perpetuating a negative cycle of increasingly degraded landscapes with reduced ability to foster species diversity. • Population growth, internal migration, Slash-and-burn is the primary agricultural practice in Ghana, and, along with shifting expansion of existing settlements, and 311 urbanization; cultivation and mechanization, results in declining soil quality and land degradation. Unsustainable Unsustainable agriculture practices denude Ghana’s landscapes of their increasingly • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient Agriculture limited forest resources, expose fields to increased soil erosion, and reduce plant knowledge of – sustainable management and nutrients and habitats. This perpetuates the cycle of land degradation and practices for traditional livelihoods; Silviculture agricultural expansion that is further challenged by drivers such as population • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; Practices growth and limited alternative livelihoods.312 As noted above, these practices work • Insufficient public buy-in; in combination with increasingly prevalent and damaging wildfires in Ghana’s savanna • Challenges presented by land tenure landscape, exacerbating the destructive outcomes of both threats. arrangement and (limited) land use planning. Rising temperatures as well as declining and increasingly variable rainfall are key contributors to changes to Ghana’s ecological zones, loss of flora and fauna, and reductions in ecological productivity. 313 Higher frequency of droughts leads to • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient reductions in biodiversity by decreasing available natural resources and driving Climate knowledge of – sustainable management landscape conversion. In combination with high temperatures and winds, low rainfall Change practices for traditional livelihoods; levels exacerbate wildfires, which themselves threaten savanna biodiversity, • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods. principally through cropland destruction, declining soil fertility, and increased soil erosion.314 Approximately 295 species of indigenous crop varieties have become endangered or close to extinction as farmers increasingly resort to improved crop varieties in order to adapt to changing climatic conditions.315

310 Agyemang, Sandra Opoku, Müller, Michael, and Barnes, Victor Re. “Fire in Ghana’s Dry Forest: Causes, Frequency, Effects, and Management Interventions.” USDA Forest Service Proceedings, RMRS-P-73. 2015. 311 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 312 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 313 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 314 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 315 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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TABLE 38. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR SAVANNA THREATS DRIVERS EFFECT ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and Intensive livestock grazing in Ghana has contributed significantly to habitat urbanization; degradation and the loss of local flora and fauna.316 In the savanna, overgrazing • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient contributes to soil degradation and therefore the cycle of land degradation and knowledge of – sustainable management change discussed above. Overgrazing can create favorable conditions for bush fires Overgrazing practices for traditional livelihoods; to evolve into wildfires—with herdsmen at times setting the fires themselves to • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; accelerate regeneration of fresh grass for their cattle. This is especially true during • Insufficient public buy-in; the dry season, increasing the erosion of the landscape in savanna ecosystems and • Challenges presented by land tenure further driving habitat loss. arrangement and (limited) land use planning. • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlement, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management The unsustainable commercial charcoal production, overconsumption of fuelwood, practices for traditional livelihoods; and legal and illegal logging activities are significant drivers of forest degradation and Unsustainable • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; loss, and the subsequent loss of biodiversity. The extraction of live trees from the Wood • Road and infrastructure development. natural forest without replacement reduces total habitat for wildlife and contributes Harvesting • Inadequate implementation and enforcement of incrementally to widespread forest loss and degradation. 317 In the savanna, existing laws and regulations; stakeholders routinely cited the near extirpation of Rosewood from northern • Insufficient public buy-in; Ghana, a particular target of foreign (predominantly Chinese) loggers. • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited) land use planning; • Inadequate access to affordable energy alternatives.

316 Kwabena Osei, Michael, et al. Global Biodiversity, Volume 3, Selected Countries in Africa. ”Chapter 4: Biodiversity in Ghana.” Kumasi / Bunso, CSIR, 2019. 317 Kwasi Osei Agyeman, Owusu Amponsah, Imoro Braimah. “Commercial Charcoal Production and Sustainable Community Development of the Upper West Region, Ghana.” Journal of Sustainable Development, 2012, Volume 5 (Issue 4):149-164.

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TABLE 39. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR FRESHWATER RESOURCES THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Mining Activities • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; Galamsey is one of the principal sources of freshwater pollution in Ghana. • Road and infrastructure development; Galamsey pollutes surface and groundwater through inputs of heavy metals, oils, • Inadequate implementation of and enforcement and sediments, adversely impacting the food chain (in part through biomagnification Pollution (e.g., of existing laws and regulations; of mercury) and impairing ecosystem functioning and services.318 Mining • Insufficient public buy-in; Activities, • Misuse (including overuse) of Agrochemicals Misuse Challenges presented by land tenure An uptick in agricultural waste inflows such as nitrogen-based fertilizers increase (including arrangement and (limited) land use planning; • Poor sanitation and waste management the organic loading of aquatic habitats and often lead to inadequate oxygen supply overuse) of 319 systems. to support plant and animal life. The indiscriminate use of agrochemicals and Agrochemicals) • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient fertilizers—both common practices among smallholder farmers in Ghana—could knowledge of – sustainable management therefore significantly harm aquatic flora and fauna. Furthermore, water bodies 320 practices for traditional livelihoods; found to have been pesticide contaminated, directly reducing aquatic biodiversity, including the destruction of important insects such as pollinators.321 • Population growth, internal migration, The effects of sedimentation and siltation of surface waters for freshwater expansion of existing settlements, and biodiversity include effects to channel morphology, impacting species that spawn in urbanization; riverbed substrate. In Ghana, these problems are largely caused by the depletion of Sedimentation • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient forest and vegetative cover.322 Increases in suspended matter yield reduced light and Siltation of knowledge of – sustainable management penetration into the water, which is likely to impact productivity.323 The deposition Surface practices for traditional livelihoods; of fine particles of silt on substrates can reduce oxygen availability to organsims Waters • Limited supplemental or alternative livelihoods; along the bottom of water bodies and degrade spawning habitat for aquatic fauna. • Insufficient public buy-in; 324 Finally, increased siltation can provide new locations for the establishment of • Poor sanitation and waste management vegetation, potentially affecting flow pathways or diverting flows from established 325 systems. channels.

318 Republic of Ghana, Draft National Biodiversity Policy 2019. Accra, 2019. 319 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 320 Fianko, J.R., Donkor, A., Lowor, S.T., Yeboah, P.O. 2011. “Agrochemicals and the Ghanaian Environment, a Review.” Journal of Environmental Protection, 2011, 2, 221-230. 321 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016, 322 Fredua, Kwame Boakye, “The Economic Cost of Environmental Degradation: A Case Study of Agricultural Land Degradation in Ghana.” Environmental Protection Agency, Ghana. July 31, 2014. 323 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 324 Ibid. 325 Ibid.

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TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Population growth, internal migration, expansion of existing settlements, and urbanization; • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient knowledge of – sustainable management Despite the essential ecosystem services they provide, Ghana’s wetlands are practices for traditional livelihoods; often locally considered wastelands and are therefore often repurposed as sites for oil and gas exploration and extraction infrastructure. In addition, wetlands Coastal wetland, • Insufficient public buy-in; are subject to settlement pressure: solid waste or fill may be dumped as part of fragmentation, and • Challenges presented by land tenure a deliberate infill strategy by abutters. Combined with pollution (below), coastal loss (from oil and gas arrangement and (limited) land use wetland ecosystems face a complex set of threats, with fragmentation, exploration and other planning; degradation and loss reducing the availability of habitat for flora and fauna that infill) • Limited supplemental or alternative depend on these unique habitats. Furthermore, the destruction of wetlands livelihoods; reduces the natural filtration systems common in mangrove forests, thereby • Inadequate implementation of existing laws contributing to increased salinization and pollution of coastal ecosystems. and regulations; • Poor sanitation and waste management systems; • Road and infrastructure development. Coastal wetlands near municipalities and settlement areas are often • Population growth, internal migration, used as dumping grounds for household and commercial solid waste, and in expansion of existing settlements, and some cases, even septic pump-out. 326 As a result, near-surface groundwater in Pollution from urbanization coastal settlements tends to be biologically and chemically contaminated. multiple sources • Limited supplemental or alternative Combined with pollution from chemical/metal pollution from mining activities (Solid and liquid livelihoods; and agrochemicals, this pollution and infill can dramatically impact ecosystem waste • Road and infrastructure development; function, contributing to habitat degradation and reducing levels of biodiversity. infiltrating/overloading • Inadequate implementation and In an assessment of the ecological health of Ghana’s coastal aquatic ecosystems, natural systems; enforcement of existing laws and concentrations of nitrates and phosphates were found to be significantly higher mining activities; regulations; than the recommended WHO standards for healthy aquatic ecosystems.327 misuse (including

oversuse) of • Insufficient public buy-in; Near-shore marine waters and the seafloor in the vicinity of agricultural chemicals • Challenges presented by land tenure arrangement and (limited land use settlement areas are significantly contaminated with sewage, organic waste, planning); and plastics, adversely affecting ecosystem health.

326 Badoe, C (2014). “The challenges of waste management in Ghana: EPA’s perspective.” Todaygh.com, July 8, 2014. 327 Larbi, L., Nukpezah, D., Mensah, A., and Appeaning-Addo, K. 2018. “An Integrated Assessment of the Ecological Health Status of Coastal Aquatic Ecosystems of Ada in Ghana.” West African Journal of Applied Ecology, vol. 26(1), 2018: 89 – 107.

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TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Poor sanitation and waste management The coastal wetlands and productive sea floor have important biodiversity value systems; in their own right, but are also ecologically linked to the marine fisheries. The • Population growth, internal migration, small pelagics (round and flat sardinella, chub mackerel, and anchovies) that are expansion of existing settlements, and the targets of Ghana’s artistinal fisheries are migratory, with research indicating urbanization; that populations seek preferred environmental conditions, particularly water • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient temperature (~21C fpr sardinella) and high primary and secondary 328 knowledge of – sustainable management productivity. Primary and secondary productivity are significantly adversely practices for traditional livelihoods. impacted by nutrient loading and other pollution, turbidity, and fouling of the productive seafloor. Thus, fouling of wetlands and inshore marine environments is a threat to this fishery, albeit one that is currently poorly quantified329 and secondary to overfishing.(In addition, some small pelagics (particularly sardinella) are found in lagoons,330 indicating that an unknown portion of these populations are directly impacted by conditions in these waters. The ecological linkage is even stronger for the industrial trawl fishery (grouper, snapper, cuttlefish, octopus), as the target species have a direct dependence on the productive sea floor (e.g. sea grass beds for spawning), and food chain links to the wetlands may 331 exist as well. • Population growth, internal migration, IUU and unsustainable fishing activities threaten marine and coastal biodiversity expansion of existing settlements, and by harming reproduction, damaging spawning and breeding grounds, and further IUU Fishing and urbanization; reducing fragile fish populations. Trawlers used in Ghana’s inshore waters have Unsustainable Fishing • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient contributed to the destruction of the fragile sea floor and breeding grounds for knowledge of - sustainable management several species of fish. Furthermore, practices such as saiko result both in practices for traditional livelihoods; overfishing of targeted stocks and in the harvest of many juveniles of

328 Brochier Timothéeet al. “Complex small pelagic fish population patterns arising from individual behavioral responses to their environment.” Progress in Oceanography. Vol 164, May–June 2018, 12-27.

329 Entsua-Mensah, M. “The Contribution of Coastal Lagoons to the Continental Shelf Ecosystem of Ghana” in The Gulf of Guinea Large Marine Ecosystem: Environmental Forcing & Sustainable Development of Marine Resources. McClade JM et al, eds. Elsevier Science B.V. 2002.

330Okyere, Isaac; Aheto, DW; and Aggrey-fynn, J. “Comparative ecological assessment of biodiversity of fish communities in three coastal wetland systems in Ghana” European Journal of Experimental Biology, 2011, 1 (2): 178–188

331 Republic of Ghana. An Agenda for Jobs: Creating Prosperity and Equal Opportunity for All (First Step) 2018-2021. National Development Planning Comission, December 2017.

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TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY • Limited supplemental or alternative commercially valuable fishes.332, 333 Similarly, the use of unapproved (larger than livelihoods; stipulated or monofilament) and small net mesh sizes further exploit juvenile 334 • Road and infrastructure development; fish. These practices, along with an open-access regime and high overcapacity • Inadequate implementation and in the artisanal sector, have brought small pelagic fisheries of Ghana to the brink 335 enforcement of existing laws and of collapse . regulations; • Insufficient public buy-in. Illegal sand mining is a significant contributor to coastal erosion, with accompanying impacts on sensitive areas, such as nesting sites for sea turtles.336 • Insufficient public buy-in; Furthermore, erosion along the eastern coast has contributed to the loss of Coastal erosion • Road and infrastructure development. large stretches of mangrove forests and seawater intrusion leading to the salinization of freshwater lagoons and reducing ecosystem services. High salinity in freshwater bodies can also lead to the loss of riparian farmlands. Oil and gas activities and the establishment of associated infrastructure threaten • Road and infrastructure development; coastal and marine biodiversity through habitat destruction and fragmentation, • Inadequate implementation and displacement of marine organisms, and degradation of wetlands. Wetlands, often enforcement of existing laws and considered wastelands, are frequently repurposed as sites for oil and gas regulations; Oil and Gas exploration and extraction infrastructure. Accidental oil spills have negative • Challenges presented by land tenure Exploration implications for marine and coastal ecosystems, and the lack of a clear strategy arrangement and (limited) land use 337 for pollution prevention increases these impacts. Fisherman have reported the planning; regular stranding of cetaceans as a possible result of seismic surveying during • Inadequate access to affordable energy exploration activities. Oil rigs often serve as shelter for fish and marine alternatives. organisms, though they too can be harmed by nearby seismic activities.

332 Asare, Cephas. Illegal, Unreported and Unregulated (IUU) Fishing: The “Saiko” Story. Hen Mpoano and BUSAC, Issue Brief, April 2017. 333 Environmental Justice Foundation. China’s Hidden Fleet in West Africa: A spotlight on illegal practices within Ghana’s industrial trawl sector. EJF, London, United Kingdom, 2018. 334 Afoakwah, R., Osei, M. B. D., & Effah, E. A Guide on Illegal Fishing Activities in Ghana. USAID/Ghana Sustainable Fisheries Management Project, April 2018. Narragansett, RI: Coastal Resources Center, Graduate School of Oceanography, University of Rhode Island. 335 Ibid. 336 Jonah, F. E., Adjei-Boateng, D., Agbo, N. W., Mensah, E. A. and Edziyie, R. E. 2014. “Assessment of sand and stone mining along the coastline of Cape Coast, Ghana.” Annals of GIS, 21(3): 223-231, doi:10.1080/19475683.2015.1007894. 337 Monney, I., & Ocloo, K. “Towards sustainable utilisation of water resources: A comprehensive analysis of Ghana’s National Water Policy.” Water Policy, 19(3), February 2017: 377–389. https://doi.org/10.2166/wp.2017.

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TABLE 40. THREATS, LINKED DRIVERS, AND ASSOCIATED EFFECTS ON THE STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY FOR MARINE RESOURCES (INCLUDING COASTAL WETLANDS) THREATS DRIVERS EFFECTS ON STATUS OF BIODIVERSITY Over-fishing has already brought Ghana’s small-pelagic fisheries to the brink of collapse and, along with coastal ecosystem degradation (above) impacts from climate change are likely to exacerbate the problem and create further barriers to recovery. Ffor example rising sea temperatures alter migratory patterns and reproductive cycles of key species such as anchovies and sardines.338 Rising • Disincentive to apply – or insufficient temperatures could alter the distribution of other aquatic species as well, or knowledge of – sustainable management lead to changes in their metabolism, life cycle, or behavior.339 For example, the Climate Change practices for traditional livelihoods; gender of newborn sea turtles, of which three species reside in Ghana’s waters, • Limited supplemental or alternative is determined by temperature. Therefore, increased ocean temperatures can livelihoods; 340 skew sex ratios and threaten the population. Finally, the increased absorption of carbon dioxide from the atmosphere has contributed to ocean acidification, with possibly significant consequences for sensitive species and ecosystems. 341

338 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016. 339 World Wildlife Fund. “Oceans: Climate Change.” Retrieved 5 November 2019 from: http://wwf.panda.org/our_work/oceans/problems/climate_change/ 340 Ibid. 341 Republic of Ghana. National Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan. Convention on Biological Diversity, Accra, November 2016.

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