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The Professional Educator © 2020 Lois A. Yamauchi and E. Brook Chapman de Sousa 2020, Vol. 43, No. 1, 100–113

Early Childhood Educators’ Perspectives on Early Childhood Settings and Collaborations to Promote Transition

Lois A. Yamauchi E. Brook Chapman de Sousa University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa

Previous indicates that many children have difficulty transitioning from to kinder- garten, which may be attributed to differences between the two settings. The purpose of this study was to investigate preschool and elementary educators’ perceptions of the similarities of and differ- ences between the two types of settings and their perceptions of how preschool-elementary collabora- tions could facilitate young children’s transition to kindergarten. Sixteen early childhood educators from elementary and preschool settings were interviewed. All educators saw more differences com- pared to similarities between the two settings. For example, they viewed elementary school as more focused on academic domains. Educators noted that the elementary school and flow of day was generally more structured and that tended to promote greater family engagement. Par- ticipants suggested that by engaging in joint activity together, these two groups of educators could learn about each other’s and find ways to facilitate kindergarten transition.

these two types of differ, as pre-service Introduction coursework for preschool educators tends to focus on child development, while that of kindergarten teachers The world’s largest organization of educators of emphasizes curricula, assessment and learning expec- young children, the National Association for the Edu- tations (Corter et al., 2012). cation of Young Children, defines early childhood as Other differences exist regarding educators’ work the period from birth through age 8 (Bredecamp, 2014). environments. For example, preschool teachers often As such, schooling in early childhood crosses a number work with partners or are assisted by instructional of settings, including preschools serving children ages aides, while kindergarten educators usually have their 3- to 5-years-old and elementary that include own . Such differences in professional his- kindergarten and Grades 1-3. Preschools and elemen- tories may contribute to problems encountered when tary educators often have different goals and expecta- preschool and kindergarten educators are expected to tions (Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta, 2000). Compared to work together (Corter et al., 2012; Rose, 2011). The preschool educators, elementary school teachers often purpose of this study was to investigate educators’ per- have more explicit, skills-driven goals and instruct chil- spectives on the similarities and differences between dren as a whole group (Seppanen et al. 1993). Interac- preschool and early childhood elementary environ- tions between elementary school teachers and families ments and to explore their ideas about how collabora- also tend to be more formalized and less frequent tions between these groups of educators may facilitate (Rimm-Kaufman & Pianta, 1999). Preparation for children moving into kindergarten settings.

Lois A. Yamauchi, PhD, , Dept. of Educational Participation in Preschool and Kindergarten Psy-chology, University of Hawai‘ i at Mānoa. E. Brook Chapman de Sousa, University of Hawai‘i. This work was supported by the U.S. Department of Schooling before Grade 1 is sometimes referred to Educa-tion (USDOE), PR/Award No. S362A110016. The as “preprimary” (Kena et al., 2015) or preschool edu- contents, findings, and opinions expressed here are those of the authors and do not necessarily represent the positions or cation. In 2014, most states in the U.S. did not mandate policies of the USDOE. A version of this paper was presented that children attend kindergarten, and it was mandatory at the 2014 an-nual meeting of the American Educational in only 15 states and Washington D.C. (Workman, Research Associa-tion, Philadelphia, PA, April 3-7. 2014). In 2013, 42% of all U.S. 3-year-olds, 68% of 4- Correspondence concerning this paper should be addressed year-olds, and 84% of 5-year-olds were enrolled in pre- to Lois A. Yamauchi, PhD, Professor, Dept. of Educational school and kindergarten. Across racial groups, 31% of Psy-chology, University of Hawai‘i at Mānoa, Email: yamau- chi@.edu 100 YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 101

Hispanic 3- to 5-year-olds enrolled in preschool, com- with one another develop what Vygotsky (1978) called pared to 37% of Black, 41% of White, 41% of Asian, intersubjectivity, or shared understandings. When cer- and 44% of children who were two or more races. This tain groups of people do not have the opportunity to in- differed somewhat for kindergarten, as 23% of Asian, teract with others, there are less possibilities for the de- 25% of White, 27% of children who were two or more velopment of intersubjectivity between them (Tharp et races, 27% of Hispanic, and 33% of Black children en- al., 2000). Preschool and elementary school teachers rolled. tend to differ in terms of how they are prepared for their Kena et al. (2015) found that participation in pre- careers (Corter et al., 2012). Such varied and and kindergarten varied by parents’ highest ed- interactions may lead the two groups to develop differ- ucational levels, and that generally, participation was ent beliefs about young children and the nature of their greatest for children whose parents had attained higher roles as teachers. levels of education themselves. These differences were primarily in regards to preschool participation, as 49% Kindergarten Transition of children whose parents had a graduate or profes- sional degree went to preschool, compared to 45% of Research indicates that children’s kindergarten tran- those with a ’s degree, 36% with an associate’s sition, their movement to this setting from their previ- degree, 35% with a vocational degree or some , ous placement, affects academic, social, and other de- 28% with a high school credential and 28% with less velopmental outcomes (Corter & Pelletier, 2010; than a high school credential. Entwisle & Alexander, 1999; Pelletier & Corter, 2005; Wildenger & McIntyre, 2012). Entwisle and Alexan- Sociocultural Theory der’s longitudinal research of 800 Baltimore youths’ progression through school, as well as the researchers’ For the current study, we applied a sociocultural meta-analysis of prior research, showed a convincing theoretical framework (Vygtosky, 1978) to explain link between children’s early childhood experiences how preschool and elementary school teachers devel- and improved long-term academic outcomes, such as oped different views of young children and of their placement in advanced courses and roles as educators. We also applied this framework to higher grade point averages in high school. The authors help us understand why collaborations between these concluded that their findings underscored the need for two groups could lead to shared understandings. more research to focus on early schooling experiences. Vygotsky (1978) maintained that all of our thoughts, Wildenger and McIntyre (2012) found that children beliefs and ways of thinking develop through interac- who participated in preprimary programs displayed tions with others. Thus, the sociocultural communities smoother transitions to kindergarten, in that compared in which individuals participate determine the values to peers who did not attend, these children had fewer and ways of thinking that novice members eventually behavior problems and more positive - appropriate. As new members interact with more profi- relationships. cient members of their communities, using language Although the importance of kindergarten transition and other symbolic means, they eventually appropriate has been documented, a nationwide survey of 3,595 what others around them say and do. For example, nov- kindergarten public school teachers indicated that 48% ice preschool educators might hear their supervisors of children had difficulty adjusting to kindergarten telling them to “kneel down to physically be at the chil- (Rimm-Kaufman et al., 2000). The teachers observed dren’s level.” Over time, those voices become the nov- that children had trouble following directions, diffi- ices’ own thoughts as they automatically go to their culty working independently, and lacked academic knees to talk to children and believe that this is an ap- skills. The authors suggested that “these findings call propriate way to approach youngsters. attention to the need to better align children’s compe- We suggest that as novice preschool teachers inter- tencies, their home environments, and their kindergar- act with veteran educators in their field, they begin to ten teachers’ expectations during this period of school adopt shared views of education and young children entry” (p. 163). Simultaneously, children need to pre- that are expressed by more experienced members of pare for schools, while schools prepare for them. their school communities. Similarly, as novice elemen- Such preparation is important because kindergarten tary educators interact with veteran teachers, they also transition may be a child’s first change of school level, begin to act and talk in ways that are similar to their and the transition often creates uncertainty for them and colleagues and mentors. Individuals who interact often their families (Harrison & Murray, 2015; Hatcher et al., YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 102

2012). Harrison and Murray (2015) studied the percep- It may be that preschool educators have misconcep- tions of 96 kindergarteners during their first year of tions about kindergarten settings that contribute to dis- school. Areas of personal challenge for children in- jointed transition to kindergarten. Firlik (2003) re- cluded higher expectations for more self-regulation, ported that preschool directors perceived kindergarten making friends, resolving conflicts with other children, to be like “boot camp,” focused on phonics, sight-word and engagement in specific school tasks. Up to 29 per- drills, and prescribed curricula (p. 73). Preschool edu- cent of children’s perceptions about some school events cators reported feelings of anxiety regarding expecta- changed from positive at the beginning to negative by tions that children entering preschool needed mastery the end of the school year. of and other demands of kindergarten (Hatcher Successful efforts to ease children’s transition to et al., 2012). Such comments are often based on as- kindergarten are related to the cognitive and social- sumptions that may not have been accurate. Until re- emotional skills of at-risk children (Ritchie & Gut- cently, there have not been many opportunities for pre- mann, 2014). Kindergarten transition programs tend to school and early elementary educators to interact with lead to higher on-time enrollment, increased parent en- one another, and their unfamiliarity about curricular ex- gagement, and improved community and school rela- pectations in the two settings could be contributing to tionships (Smythe-Leistico, et al., 2012). Children who misconceptions. participated in pre-kindergarten transition activities in In response to the need for coherent transitions, ed- which families, preschool and kindergarten educators ucators have developed programs that work to unite collaborated, were judged by kindergarten teachers as early childhood educators and community members having fewer behavior problems and more social skills around the goal of improving kindergarten transition. than children who did not participate in such activities Early childhood initiatives that promote collaboration (LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2008). A positive kindergar- among educational leaders, practitioners and parents ten experience is important because children’s perfor- are related to positive outcomes such as children’s so- mance and behavior in early elementary school tends to cial-emotional, cognitive and language development remain stable across many years (Alexander et al., (Corter & Pelletier, 2010; Ritchie & Gutmann, 2014; 1993). Simons & Curtis, 2007). Positive outcomes are associ- Typical kindergarten transition practices include ated with a shared goal of improved outcomes for tran- handouts for families and “open houses” when families sitioning kindergarteners and opportunities for collab- can visit the school (LoCasale-Crouch et al., 2008). oration such as (PD) sessions These are insufficient to adequately prepare children held for both preschool and kindergarten teachers to- and family members, especially for learners who are gether (Corter & Pelletier, 2010; Ritchie & Gutmann, considered economically or socially at-risk. Educators, 2014; Smolkin, 1999). particularly those who serve culturally diverse children, may lack adequate resources to assist children’s transi- Research Questions tions. Stuhlman and Pianta (2009) found that it is more likely for children who are non-White and from low in- There were two research questions for this explora- come families to be placed in early childhood class- tory study. First, in what ways do preschool and kin- rooms that are “low-quality.” Compared to those serv- dergarten educators perceive their two settings to be ing White and more affluent families, these classrooms similar and different? Second, how do these educators tend to lack enriching adult-child interactions and so- think that collaborations between these two groups of cio-emotional and instructional support. teachers promote positive kindergarten transition? Preschool educators often perceive that compared to kindergarten teachers, they give children more time to Method practice social skills (Hatcher et al., 2012). Preschool educators also believe that they assist children to de- velop verbal problem-solving abilities and strategies to Participants interact with peers. They view kindergarten teachers as Participants included 16 early childhood educators having other priorities, such that structured social-emo- in Hawai‘i: five preschool teachers, four early elemen- tional goals are not valued as much as they are in pre- tary school teachers, two preschool administrators, and schools. five teacher educators. We recruited most of the educa- tors through the College of Education at a large . As described in more detail in the section on YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 103 participants’ settings, some of the educators were col- tion was voluntary. The university human studies com- leagues at the same schools. Except for three teacher mittee approved the research, and each educator pro- educators, all participants were involved in one of two vided written informed consent. projects at the University that provided PD for teachers All of the participants were female. See Table 1 for who work with culturally and linguistically diverse participants’ other demographic information. In the fol- young learners. In both of these projects, preschool and lowing section, we provide additional information on elementary teachers met together for the PD. Participa- the settings in which participants worked.

Table 1 Participants’ Demographic Information

Participant1 Setting Age Years in Highest Ethnicity Previous collaborations educa- degree tion Type years With whom Preschool Anna Preschool special edu- 40 12 MS Part Hawaiian PD 1 Brook teachers cation in a rural public elementary school Hannah University preschool 37 9 BA Japanese Am Research 5 Lois Jennifer Urban public school 37 14 MEd Asian Am PD 1 Brook Marsha University preschool 36 15 MEd European Am PD 1 Brook Patty University preschool 61 15 BA European Am Research 5 Lois Elementary Cynthia 2nd grade in an urban 64 30 MEd European Am PD 1 Lois school public school teachers Donna Kindergarten in a rural 58 7 BA Japanese Am PD 2 Lois public June Kindergarten in a rural 41 18 BS Part Hawaiian PD 1 Brook public school Asian and European Am Karen 1st Grade in a rural 28 11 MA European Am PD 1 Brook public school Preschool Lisa University preschool 48 26 MA European Am Research 5 Lois Adminis- Kehau Private church-based 32 12 MA Part Hawaiian Research 3 Lois trators preschool on a neigh- bor island Teacher Allison Public university 37 13 PhD European Am Research 9 Lois Educator Renee Public university 45 21 MEd Japanese Am Research 5 Lois Sharon Early childhood con- 65 46 MA European Am Research 3 Lois sultancy on a neighbor island Tammy Public university 60 36 PhD European Am Research 8 Lois and Native Am Vera Community non-profit 60 16 MEd Part Hawaiian None organization school campuses, and the participating teachers taught Settings at both the main and satellite sites. The preschool was University Preschool. Three of the preschool edu- culturally and linguistically diverse, with 32% of chil- cators and one of the administrators, worked at a pre- dren speaking a language other than English, and 42% school that served approximately 160 2- to 5-year-old of families identified as Asian or Asian American, 40% children of , , and staff at a large public European or European American, and 15% Pacific Is- university on the island of O‘ahu. The preschool was lander, with the remainder from African-American and comprised of a main university site and three satellite Latino backgrounds (Gauci, 2016). classrooms that were located on public elementary Private Preschool. Kehau was the director of a pri- vate church-based preschool on a neighbor island. The

1All names are pseudonyms YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 104 preschool served approximately 30 children, aged 2-6. Sharon was a lecturer at a on a Approximately 90% of children at this preschool were neighbor island. of Hawaiian ancestry and all of the learners spoke Eng- Non-Profit Organization. Vera worked for a local lish as their first language. non-profit organization whose mission was to support Public Elementary Schools. Four elementary edu- three public charter schools with high enrollments of cators and two preschool teachers taught at five differ- high-need, Native Hawaiian students. The organization ent public schools on the island of O‘ahu. Two schools hired Vera to manage a grant-funded program to pro- were in urban Honolulu, and three were in rural areas. mote children’s transition to kindergarten. All of the schools included a preschool special educa- tion . Procedures Jennifer taught at an urban elementary school that served 630 children in kindergarten through Grade 5. The first author, Lois, and a research assistant inter- Fifty-nine percent of children at the school received viewed the preschool educators, teacher educators and free or reduced-price lunch, 3% were enrolled in spe- two of the elementary school teachers. The second au- cial education, and 13% were multilingual learners. thor, Brook, interviewed two of the elementary teacher The majority (62%) of children were of Filipino de- participants and two preschool teachers. The 45-60 mi- scent, and 13% were Native Hawaiian. nute individual interviews focused on participants’ Cynthia’s school was also in an urban area. Her views on (a) how they thought education for preschool school enrolled 550 students, kindergarten through and elementary children were similar and different, (b) Grade 5. Approximately 28% of students received free the goals and expectations they had for the settings in or reduced-price lunch, 5% were enrolled in special ed- which they worked, and (c) what facilitated and im- ucation, and 14% were multilingual learners. The larg- peded collaborations among educators from these est ethnic groups were Japanese American (30%), Eu- groups, as it related to kindergarten transition. See the ropean American (27%), and Chinese American (14%). Appendix for the interview questions. We conducted Karen worked at a rural elementary school that six of the interviews with college-based educators in served 480 children, kindergarten through Grade 6. person at a university. The remainder of the interviews Thirty-five percent of children at the school received were conducted by phone. All interviews were audio free or reduced-price lunch, 8% were enrolled in spe- recorded and transcribed. cial education, and 3% were multilingual learners. The largest ethnic groups were European American (63%), Data Analysis Native Hawaiian (15%), and Filipino (5%). Anna and June taught at the same rural elementary We used Corbin and Strauss’s (2015) grounded the- school that served 690 children, kindergarten to Grade ory method of analysis to determine themes in the data, 6. Fifty-eight percent of students received free or re- applying open and axial coding. We used open coding duced-price lunch, 6% were enrolled in special educa- to determine themes that emerged from the data. We tion, and 5% were multilingual learners. The largest first read through the transcripts, identifying themes. ethnic groups were European American (33%), Sa- Starting with the research questions, we developed ini- moan (24%), and Native Hawaiian (21%). tial codes. For example, we established codes for the Donna was the only participant at a public charter differences between elementary and preschool settings school. At the time of her interview, her school was the and similarities between them. We further refined the largest public charter school in the State, serving 750 coding by becoming more specific (e.g., , children in kindergarten through Grade 10 in a rural state mandates) and also found themes that were not area. The majority of students were Native Hawaiian anticipated (e.g., differences in lesson planning). After (59%) and qualified for free or reduced-price lunch. In open coding was completed, we used axial coding, or- addition, 60% of the families struggled with housing or ganizing the codes to determine how they were related were homeless. to one another (Corbin & Strauss, 2015). College Settings. All but one of the teacher educa- tors were affiliated with a public university or college Methods of Validation campus. Allison, Renee, and Tammy worked in the College of Education at the large flagship public uni- Consistent with Creswell and Poth’s (2018), versity that prepared most of the teachers in the State. approach to validation of qualitative research, we viewed validation as our efforts to achieve accuracy of YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 105 our results. Creswell and Poth noted that validation is a Lois supervised. Brook also interviewed the teachers process, rather than verification, and suggested that re- she knew after they completed the , she was searchers use at least two of eight possible validation teaching for them. strategies. We examined our own biases as researchers Because Lois interacted with more of the preschool and clarified our researchers’ positions with regard to participants than the elementary school teachers, she those biases and our former relationships with the par- realized that she may have had a bias toward the pre- ticipants (Brayboy & Deyhle, 2000; Mosselson, 2010). school educators’ points of view. Brook also recog- See the following section for details on these reflec- nized that her friendship with one of the teacher educa- tions. Second, whenever possible we provided rich, tors may have biased her toward that person’s perspec- thick descriptions of the settings and contexts in which tives. To guard against this, both authors specifically participants discussed so that readers could determine looked for negative cases (Creswell & Poth, 2018) of the extent which findings generalized to other settings themes that emerged from those transcripts. (Erlandson et al., 1993). Lastly, we look for negative cases of the themes that could be related to potential Results biases.

Similarities Role of the Researchers All of the educators reported more differences be- Lois is an educational psychologist who directed tween preschool and elementary education, than there one of the projects from which nine of the participants were similarities. However, all identified some similar- were recruited. (See Table 1 for a list of the authors’ ities, and the elementary teachers and preschool admin- previous collaborations with participants.) For five istrators noted more similarities than did other partici- years, Lois collaborated with early childhood educators pants. Karen, an elementary school teacher said she at the university preschool to create a developmentally thought that the two settings were similar in that both appropriate adaptation of the Center for Research on focused on “milestones” or standards for children. An- Education, Diversity, and Excellence (CREDE) model other elementary teacher, June, noted that preschool ed- (Yamauchi et al., 2012). Lois’s children had also at- ucators and kindergarten teachers both tended to be tended the university preschool in which some of the kind, caring, and nurturing. Vera, a teacher educator, participants worked. said that preschool had become more like elementary The second author, Brook, was an assistant profes- school, with increasing emphases on learning outcomes sor of education. Her research focused on preparing ed- and “more intentional teaching.” She and Kehau, a pre- ucators to work with multilingual children and lan- school administrator, noted that many of the assess- guage development from a sociocultural perspective. ments used at the two institutions were similar. Three Brook worked as an elementary school teacher for 10 teacher educators mentioned that preschool and ele- years prior to pursuing doctoral studies and eventually mentary educators were united in wanting the children becoming a university instructor teaching classes and in their classes to succeed. As Sharon, a teacher educa- providing instructional coaching to prepare early child- tor who worked with both elementary and preschool hood educators. Brook interviewed four of the elemen- teachers suggested, both “[preschool] and kindergarten tary educators who were her former students and one of teachers really want the kids to do well. They really the preschool teachers. Brook’s daughter also attended have full intention of helping their kids learn. It’s just the university-based preschool. how they go about it is a wee bit different.” Beyond Potential Biases. Lois and Brook recognized that these similarities, the participants saw the two school their relationships with various participants may have systems as very different. affected their interview responses. Although the inter- view questions were not related to the topic of the PD in which these educators were involved, the authors re- Differences alized that the participants may have responded in ways Developmental Versus Academic Goals. Partici- that were socially desirable and reflected what they pants suggested that preschools tended to focus more thought the interviewers wanted to hear. To guard on children’s overall development; whereas, elemen- against this, a research assistant interviewed all of the tary schools emphasized academic skills. Renee, a pre- participants who were involved in the PD for which school teacher, noted that “preschool educators look at Lois was responsible and the teacher educators who the whole child and try to develop all aspects of their YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 106 development.” She explained that preschool teachers curricula came from children’s interests; whereas ele- think about various domains of child development in- mentary education was based on a set of knowledge and cluding physical development, creativity, and cognitive skills that teachers needed to cover. Marsha felt that as development, under which academic goals would be there was less standardization in preschool, teachers in placed. Tammy, a teacher educator, concurred that be- this setting had more freedom to follow children’s in- cause preschool educators’ preparation emphasized terests. Vera noted that preschool education “is more child development, they tend to focus more on devel- child-initiated work with teachers . . . observing the opmental aspects of children’s growth; whereas ele- child, following the child’s lead, and providing oppor- mentary teachers placed importance on specific content tunities for the child to explore;” thus, emphasizing to be taught. Anna, a preschool children’s interests and choices. Preschool teachers teacher whose classroom was on an elementary school Patty and Jennifer agreed. Although elementary educa- campus, noted that the biggest difference between pre- tors had to follow mandated expectations and curricula, school and elementary school was the former’s focus Patty explained that in preschools, educators created on the development of social, rather than academic their own curriculum, “so we really follow the child skills. She felt that preschool teachers made “sure that and their interest, and in elementary public school . . . the kids learn the essential norms and the things that you ’t have that much latitude to actually tap into will help them . . . be part of a group, when most of the child’s interests.” Teacher educator Allison felt that their early childhood life is focused on being an indi- this resulted in preschool educators focusing on the vidual.” Donna, a kindergarten teacher, concurred that process of learning and elementary teachers emphasiz- preschools prioritize social-emotional development; ing the products. Karen, an elementary teacher, sug- whereas, in elementary school, “we focus on academ- gested that preschool education tended to put more em- ics.” phasis on play as a means to learn; however, in elemen- Other participants also characterized elementary tary school, she often heard teachers telling children schools as more academic. Sharon, a teacher educator, “You’re in school. You’re here to work, and it’s not mentioned that there were increasing expectations of play.” This differed from Julia’s response that one way elementary school. that preschools and elementary schools were similar There is so much pressure in the [elementary] sys- was in their emphasis on play. Unlike the other elemen- tem to teach . . . the Common Core, that the curric- tary school teachers, Julia felt that at her school empha- ulum has been pushed down. So, things that used to sized learning through play. be second grade are now first grade and things that Vera suggested that the different emphases placed were first grade are being pushed down into kinder- in preschools and elementary schools also translated to garten. the amount of time that educators spent with children The two preschool administrators noted that elemen- outside the classroom, and the purposes they intended tary educators would like preschools to prepare chil- for these moments. In preschools, there is outdoor dren for kindergarten by teaching specific academic learning: skills, such as reading and writing. Lisa said that her So, the curriculum is taking place outdoors. It is not school covered these skills, but did not emphasize thought of as just recess or play. It is play, but it is them: not thought of as just a break from the curriculum . In elementary school, the standards, the expecta- . .. I think in elementary education . . . outdoor ex- tions of the parents, the administration, even the posure is seen more as kind of a break from the real teachers themselves [are] much more . . . single- curriculum. mindedly on academic, measurable skills and suc- She felt that young children also needed opportunities cess. I think preschool does those things, but we def- to physically release their energy, and this could come initely do not document it, and we definitely do not from playing outside. She attributed many behavioral have the same level of . . . pressure and expectation. problems in elementary school to not enough time out- Curricular Differences. Participants explained that doors and being forced to sit still for long periods of because elementary education emphasized academic time. standards and preschool focused on developmental Structure of the Day. Having more outdoor play goals, the two groups tended to approach curricula dif- and learning in preschool also reflected the different ferently. Marsha, a preschool teacher, and Allison and ways that educators structured their time. Five partici- Vera, two teacher educators, pointed out that preschool pants mentioned that curricular differences reflected YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 107 the ways that elementary and preschool teachers struc- such as reading and writing, by a deadline. Julia, a sec- tured the school day. Lisa, a preschool administrator, ond-grade teacher concurred, “so many of our children pointed out that elementary schools appeared more coming to us . . . not ready to jump into the Common structured and compartmentalized. She noted that when Core of kindergarten . . .. in my opinion, it’s not neces- her teachers taught , they did not necessarily sarily that the kids aren’t ready as much as the Stand- teach it at the same time of the day; however, elemen- ards are not really appropriate to them.” June, a kinder- tary educators typically had a specific time. Activities garten teacher, suggested that she sometimes felt over- were also structured differently. Tammy an elementary whelmed by the national standards, which did not allow teacher, suggested that there was more whole group in- for much flexibility. This pressure sometimes made her struction in elementary classrooms than in preschools, angry so that she would say, “I’m tired of being a kin- where they spent more time in small groups. Vera, a dergarten teacher. I want to be a preschool teacher!” teacher educator, observed that there was less choice in Preschool administrator Kehau described the differ- elementary school, and children often worked on the ence between what they did at her preschool and her same individual assignment simultaneously. experiences with elementary school. She suggested that Emphasis on Conversation. Perhaps because there in preschool: was more small-group activity in preschool, two pre- We are willing to take the time for them to master school and one elementary teacher mentioned that there [academic skills]. I think that by the time they get was more conversation in those classes. The preschool into [elementary school], it is just like shoved down teachers said that they promoted children talking and their throat, you know, either you get it, or you do interacting with peers and adults. Hannah said she tried not. And if you do not get it, you get kicked out of to promote children’s questioning. When a child asked the class. a question, she often repeated the question, so that it Sharon, a teacher educator, pointed out that most pre- was a model for other children. Donna, an elementary schools have nap time; whereas, in elementary school school teacher, thought that although they used to em- they have cut out those rest breaks to increase time for phasize oral expression in kindergarten, currently, there content coverage. is more emphasis on reading and writing. Partnerships with Families. Five participants Documented Lesson Plans. Three preschool edu- mentioned that different from elementary education, cators talked about differences in lesson planning. preschool educators promoted the development of part- Those facilitating a PD workshop in which they partic- nerships with families. Patty, a preschool teacher, ex- ipated asked teachers to turn in lesson plans to docu- plained that she and her colleagues had a lot of contact ment the curricula they were developing. The template with families, so that in school, educators could more for the lesson plans was based on what the teacher ed- easily make connections to children’s home lives. She ucators had previously used with elementary school ed- observed problems when families transitioned to ele- ucators. The preschool educators found the template to mentary school, and there was typically less communi- be more detailed and structured than what they typi- cation between families and the school. She said that cally used. They said that they usually brainstormed the family members sometimes felt “like they’re cut off” general topic and activity, but not exactly when every- when they did not get enough information, or that they thing would happen. While preschool teacher Patty said were “not getting the whole picture when they do get that the lesson plan helped her to think about her expec- the information.” tations for children, she often abandoned her plan, sug- Vera, a teacher educator said that cultivating rela- gesting that “when young children are interested in tionships with families was an expectation of preschool something you want to go . . . where their interests are.” education. Although, elementary teachers might want Lisa, a preschool administrator, said that the lesson this, they often had little preparation in how to do it. planning template was not meaningful for teachers. Af- She said that preschool educators ter the preschool teachers expressed that they were not realize that they really are partners with parents in happy with the template’s format, they created some- the caregiving role . . . and make very deliberate at- thing different that was more meaningful and helpful. tempts to engage parents in the learning environ- Pressure in Elementary School to Cover Con- ment, as well as doing outreach to parents . . .. tent. Participants said that the external mandates ap- Whereas, in the [elementary] school environment, I plied to elementary school created stress for teachers to think there is a real strong desire for family engage- help children acquire academic skills and knowledge, ment, but there is not as much training. YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 108

Professional Development and Status Differen- On the other hand, when children attended pre- tial. Finally, participants mentioned the segregation of school on the same campus as the elementary school PD for the two groups. The major PD convention for that they would move to, Jennifer felt that the transition the local early childhood organization focused mainly was much smoother. Jennifer taught preschool special on preschool education, while workshops for early education at a public elementary school. She worked childhood public school teachers, at the time data for with the kindergarten teachers on her campus to pro- this study were collected, did not include preschool ed- mote her children transitioning to their classrooms. The ucators. Renee, a preschool educator explained, “We children visited the kindergarten classrooms for short live in two separate worlds. So, our professional con- periods of time, to get used to the new environment and ferences are separated . . .. There is very minimal cross routines, “I think it's because we've had that relation- over.” ship and because we are there on that campus, it makes Lisa, a preschool administrator and Sharon, a it a lot easier for me.” teacher educator, mentioned the lower status of pre- Learning About the Two Settings. Jennifer and school education, compared to elementary schooling. Anna, the two preschool educators whose classrooms Lisa explained that “people think of preschool as child- were on elementary school campuses, suggested that care, babysitting . . . before the real education. And it is they benefited from “vertical articulation” meetings not even just the elementary or other people who think with kindergarten teachers at their schools who shared that I think some preschool teachers’ kind of think that, about expectations at the next level. Jennifer said she too.” Sharon and Renee suggested that this lower status asked the kindergarten teachers, “What do you think of preschool teachers sometimes got in the way of the the children are lacking?” and adjusted her preschool preschool and elementary educators collaborating, as activities to address those issues. Likewise, teachers of elementary teachers were often put in a position of the older children often described particular children more authority over preschool educators. They both who had been in Jennifer’s class, and she explained noted that if the status could be equalized, the two strategies that had worked for her while working with groups could learn much from each other. them. Jennifer stated that other kindergarten teachers, who visited her classroom, often exclaimed that they Collaborations between Preschool and Elementary had not realized that children in preschool were capable Educators. of doing so much. Teacher educators Vera and Sharon were both in- All participants recognized the importance of pre- volved in programs that brought preschool and kinder- school and elementary educators collaborating to assist garten teachers together. In these programs, teachers children in their transition to kindergarten. Six stated visited each other’s classroom and met to discuss what that it would be helpful if educators from each of the they observed. The two felt that the classroom visits two types of schools could exchange information about helped teachers understand the worlds in which the oth- their institutions. The two preschool administrators said ers worked. Both felt it was important for educators to that they tried reaching out to the elementary schools in have time to discuss with and question each other. Al- their areas to start conversations about children’s tran- lison, another teacher educator, agreed that teachers sitions. Lisa said that she suggested that the preschool needed a way to gain the perspective of the other and kindergarten teachers meet to plan for the transi- group’s work environment. In addition to classroom tion. Because only a few schools were willing and most visits, she thought teachers might benefit from watch- were not enthusiastic, Lisa said that the teachers at her ing video recordings of each other’s classrooms. preschool perceived that elementary school educators Marsha, a preschool teacher whose master’s pro- did not value these interactions. Kehau also tried reach- gram included both preschool and elementary teachers ing out to elementary schools to which the children at in Grades K-3, stated that she appreciated what she her preschool would be transitioning and found that the learned from her elementary peers. Prior to being in- elementary educators were not interested. Both Lisa volved in this program, she did not realize what it was and Vera felt that this ambivalence on the part of ele- like to be an elementary school teacher. As she listened mentary schools might stem from the fact that children to their experiences, she said she gained empathy for from any one preschool in Hawai‘i transitioned into them. Marsha said that the collaboration was positive many elementary schools, such that it was not clear to and helped to eliminate stereotypes that people had elementary educators which relationships with particu- about the other group. lar preschools would really make a difference. YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 109

Learning About the Children Who Would Tran- forth created a collaborative setting that led to friend- sition. Participants suggested that preschool and ele- ships and better understandings of each other’s circum- mentary collaborations could result in elementary stances. school teachers learning more about the children who Visitations and Co-Teaching. Participants sug- would be transitioning. Preschool educator Patty noted gested ways that elementary school and preschool edu- that preschool teachers could help their elementary cators could collaborate to facilitate kindergarten tran- counterparts understand how to work with children sition. One strategy was for teachers to visit each who were having difficulty transitioning, something other’s classrooms and discuss what they saw. Three that Jennifer said occurred for her and the kindergarten participants mentioned preschool and elementary teachers at her school. Teacher educator Sharon said teachers co-teaching, often during the summer before that some of the elementary school teachers with whom children moved to kindergarten. Sharon said that co- she worked learned about which children could benefit teaching could work well because the two teachers be- from being placed in junior kindergarten as opposed to gan to learn strategies from each other. As described kindergarten, and that this information came from col- previously, difficulties sometimes arose when there laborations with preschool educators who worked with was a status differential, with the preschool teacher tak- those children. Sharon, preschool teacher Jennifer, and ing a more subservient role. Renee noted that preschool elementary school teacher Donna noticed that when the educators were not used to working with elementary two types of teachers visited each other’s classrooms, school teachers, and elementary teachers typically they learned about what children were able to do in worked alone. Sharon felt that with more equally those settings and this informed practice. shared roles, the two groups of educators could learn Vera and Sharon said that through collaborations much from each other through co-teaching. with preschool educators, elementary teachers learned Articulation of Goals. Teacher educator Renee, about the kinds of assessments that were conducted in preschool teacher Anna, and elementary school teach- preschools. In both of their programs, the preschool ers Cynthia and Karen felt that there was a need for bet- teachers shared assessment data with the kindergarten ter articulation between preschool and elementary teachers, and vice versa. According to Vera, the pre- school goals. Anna said that all teachers could benefit school teachers saw how well and in what areas the from understanding what was expected of children at children did in kindergarten and adjusted their curricu- the next level. Similarly, Sharon described how she lum to promote a smoother transition. asked kindergarten teachers to create their “wish list” of what they wanted incoming children to be able to do. Facilitating Collaboration Between Preschool and At the same time, she asked preschool educators to Elementary Educators write down what they meant by children being ready for kindergarten. Sharon created two lists of these Developing Relationships Between the Two goals, shared them with the two groups, and facilitated Groups. Cynthia, a second-grade teacher who had pre- a discussion among all participants about what ap- viously taught preschool, reported that the major bar- peared on the lists. rier to elementary school and preschool educators col- Anna said she benefited from learning about the laborating was the fact that they were typically located goals of teachers of older children so that she could at different sites. She and other participants felt that consider alignment across their age- and grade-levels, teachers needed to build relationships and interact with “I'm always curious as to what . . . they're hoping that one another, in order to understand each other’s set- [children] can come in to kindergarten knowing” She tings. Jennifer, a preschool special education teacher noted that such discussions were a nice way for teach- whose classroom was on an elementary campus, noted ers to collaborate “up and down,” in the sense of bring- that her proximity to elementary school colleagues fa- ing goals and expectations into alignment. cilitated collaborative efforts that could be longer and Joint Professional Development. Five participants more frequent than what she observed of preschool ed- mentioned providing PD for preschool and elementary ucators whose schools were elsewhere. Anna, another school educators together as a strategy for encouraging preschool special education teacher on an elementary collaboration across the levels. Tammy, a teacher edu- school campus, said that her relationships with col- cator who developed a program that included teachers leagues who taught older children developed when they in preschool and Grades K-3, noted that when pre- enrolled in a PD program together, and it required hour- school and elementary teachers took courses together, long car rides to the university. Carpooling back and they learned about each other’s contexts. She said that YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 110 otherwise, the two groups of educators rarely had op- may explain other differences mentioned by partici- portunities to interact. It worked particularly well to pants, such as different goals, curricula, and ways to have preschool and elementary teachers from the same structure activities. geographic regions in courses together, so they could The academic emphasis of kindergarten discussed talk about issues that affected children across the two by participants is consistent with the literature that de- levels and the groups learned about each other’s set- scribes how American kindergarten is now more like tings and goals. As discussed earlier, preschool teacher upper grades, rather than being a bridge to elementary Marsha had experienced this as a master’s student and school (Goldstein, 2009). U.S. federal policies such as gained a better understanding of what her elementary No Child Left Behind and Race to the Top pressured counterparts experienced. kindergarten educators to abandon play-based curricula School and Administrative Support. in favor of activities that prepare children for high Anna, a preschool special education teacher with an el- stakes testing. Although such policies might not in- ementary school credential, said that teacher prepara- clude assessment in Grades K-2, there was in- tion did not focus on collaboration, so when educators creased pressure for teachers to prepare children for arrived at their first classrooms, it could be very isolat- testing. Hatch (2002) described this “accountability ing. Anna felt that some schools had a more collabora- shove down” as putting pressure on children and teach- tive school culture, whereas others did not, so the ers and restricting experiences in early childhood that school culture influenced whether educators worked threaten the integrity of the field. with one another and across grade levels. Five partici- This study was framed by Vygotsky’s (1978) soci- pants emphasized the importance of school administra- ocultural theory, which suggests that individuals’ ideas, tors being supportive of the collaborations between pre- expectations, and ways of being originate from social school and elementary teachers. Sharon noted that ad- interactions with others in their communities. For ex- ministrators have to value collaboration enough to put ample, through interactions with more experienced ed- it in their budgets, “I think it’s hard to underestimate ucators, novice teachers develop intersubjectivity, or the importance of administrator support because it’s ex- shared understanding, and begin to think like their pensive. If you are going to do visitations for example, peers. Because the teacher preparation for preschool somebody has to be watching the kids. So, you got to and elementary school educators differ and these two have a substitute. That’s an expense.” Vera agreed that groups rarely interact with one another, sociocultural “administrators have to buy in, and they have to be the theory explains that the two types of educators would ones [who think that] this is important. You can’t just tend to lack intersubjectivity, resulting in disparate ex- do it with teachers.” In her program, preschool and el- pectations for their roles and approaches to education. ementary administrators met monthly to build trust and Participants in our study reported that it was rare for plan for collaboration. preschool and elementary school educators to collabo- rate. However, when they did, for example, participat- ing in PD together or working on programs designed to Discussion facilitate children’s transition to kindergarten, such in- teractions could lead to learning about each other’s set- The preschool and elementary educators in this tings, about the children who were transitioning, and study perceived that their worlds were different from what they could do to facilitate successful transitions. each other, in ways that are consistent with previous re- The results of the current study suggest that collabora- search. The teachers remarked on differences between tions between preschool and elementary educators have and approaches to education--that pre- the potential to benefit children by creating smoother school tended to emphasize broader areas of develop- transitions and improved outcomes for learners. Partic- ment and learner-focused approaches, while kindergar- ipants felt that creating opportunities for preschool and ten focused on academic skills and content standards. elementary educators to work together increased their Corter et al. (2012) reported that coursework preparing knowledge about expectations and strategies in both the two types of educators differed in these ways, with settings. The literature suggests that when early child- preschool educators receiving more classes on child de- hood environments integrate educational aspects tradi- velopment and kindergarten teachers learning about tionally found in both preschool and kindergarten, such content, curricula, and assessment. These orientations as addressing children’s social-emotional and aca- demic needs, a higher percentage of students meet aca- YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 111 demic standards and demonstrate behavioral improve- campuses, there may be increased opportunities for ment (Perry et al., 2007; Siraj-Blatchford & Sylva, such collaborations at their sites. 2004). Children also perceive their academic abilities Educators can benefit from learning about the to be higher (Perry et al., 2007). broader contexts in which their peers are situated, for The kinds of activities that our participants sug- example, the ways in which policies and other social, gested for possible collaborations between the two historical, and cultural contexts influence educational groups were similar to those found in the literature on settings. These insights can help teachers to foster preschool-elementary collaborations. Participants men- greater empathy and new perspectives on their own tioned visitations to each other’s classrooms (Smolkin, work. Educators benefit from seeing the strategies that 1999), discussions across the two groups, and partici- are used in different settings. Of particular value are op- pating in PD opportunities together (Pelletier & Corter, portunities for teachers to work together with children 2005). One of the preschool teachers in our study, who who are transitioning to kindergarten, as is the case had enrolled in a master’s program that included both with a summer bridge experience. This joint activity preschool and elementary teachers, commented that she lends itself well to educators modeling different prac- gained a perspective of elementary school by interact- tices and fosters conversation about their expectations ing with her elementary-level peers. A teacher educator and strategies. This is related to a Vygotskian notion of also remarked that when these interactions worked, Joint Productive Activity, that advocates for individu- both groups learned about each other and built common als working together to develop new conceptual under- understandings of the young children they served. standings (Tharp et al., 2000). Conversations and These collaborations are not without challenges. shared experiences among those with different perspec- Consistent with prior research, the participants in this tives often require articulation of views and negotia- study noted that there were barriers to preschool-ele- tion. This negotiation can result in a shared, new per- mentary collaborations, including status differentials spective and a more holistic vision of young children between preschool and elementary teachers, time and and the contexts in which they participate. other resource constraints, and an unwillingness to col- laborate. Such challenges are similar to Rose’s (2011) Limitations and Future Research findings that barriers to collaboration arose when inter- professional teams worked together to provide child One of the limitations of this study was the small services. Participants overcame these challenges when sample size. We recruited participants from university they defined and pursued joint goals. Corter and Pelle- projects that brought preschool and elementary educa- tier (2010) cited similar difficulties faced by child ser- tors together for PD, so those who participated may vice providers and kindergarten teachers that included have already been in favor of such collaborations. Data problems related to “professional turf,” as well as find- for the study consisted of interviews, and these data ing space and time for collaboration. Barriers were could have been susceptible to social desirability, such overcome with strong leadership and by prioritizing that the educators may have reported practices that they time for collaboration. thought reflected positively on them, rather than what they actually did. Future research could include more educators and observations of educators at each type of Implications for Practice site. Research has shown that family engagement can fa- The results of this study indicate that there is much cilitate kindergarten transition (Simons & Curtis, 2007; that preschool and elementary teachers can learn from Smythe-Leistico, et al., 2012); however, we did not in- each other, as their contexts differ considerably and clude families in our study. Future research could in- learning about these differences can assist in easing the clude family perspectives on how preschool and ele- transition for young children. It is important to develop mentary settings differ and investigate coordinated in- opportunities for preschool and elementary educators teractions between families and educators from the two to visit each other’s classrooms. A number of the edu- types of schools, related to children’s transitions. cators in our study took university courses together and Finally, video reflexive interviewing (e.g., Tobin et found that these classes afforded time and space to al., 1989; 2009) might also add insight into the two con- learn from peers about their settings. As more elemen- texts. Tobin and his colleagues showed video record- tary schools include preschool classrooms on their ings of typical days in classrooms in Japan, China, and the U.S. to educators in each of these countries. The YAMAUCHI AND SOUSA 112 comments that were elicited about the recordings re- Hatcher, B., Nuner, J., & Paulsel, J. (2012). Kindergarten readiness vealed differences in philosophical beliefs about child and preschools: Teachers’ and parents’ beliefs within and across programs. Early Childhood Research & Practice, 14(2), 1—17. rearing and education. In a similar way, showing video Retrieved form https://files.eric.ed.gov/fulltext/EJ997132.pdf recordings of typical elementary and preschool class- Kena, G., Musu-Gillette, L., Robinson, J., Wang, X., Rathbun, A., rooms to educators from these two types of settings Zhang, J., Wilkinson-Flicker, S., Barmer, A., and Dunlop Velez, might uncover beliefs about children and education E. (2015). The Condition of Education 2015 (NCES 2015-144). more readily than would be revealed in a standard in- U.S. Department of Education, National Center for Education Statistics. Retrieved form https://nces.ed.gov/pubsearch/pub- terview. sinfo.asp?pubid=2015144 LoCasale-Crouch, J., Mashburn, A. J., Downer, J. T., & Pianta, R. C. (2008). 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