GATHERED WILD FOOD PLANTS IN THE UPPER VALLEY OF THE RIVER (), CENTRAL 1

ANDREA PIERONI

Pieroni, Andrea (Dipartimento di Scienza del Suolo e Nutrizione della Pianta, Universitgt degli Studi di Firenze, Piazzale delle Cascine 28, 1-50144 Firenze, Italy; address for corre- spondence: Venloer Str. 233a, D-50823 KOln, Germany, [email protected]. GATH- ERED WILD FOOD PLANTS IN THE UPPER VALLEY OF THE SERCHIO RIVER (GARFAGNANA), CEN- TRAL ITALY.Economic Botany 53(3):327-341, 1999. A study of the traditional gathered food plants in the upper valley of the Serchio river (Garfagnana), Province, north-west , central Italy, was carried out. One hundred thirty-three species (including fungi), belonging to 48families, were encountered, The geographical isolation of the valley and the survival of old gastronomic traditions have permitted a rich popular knowledge to be main- tained. In particular, the tradition of preparing in springtime a characteristic vegetal soup (minestrella) based on about forty wild vegetables in a very restricted area of the valley might be correlated with influences of pre-Roman civilisations. An uncommon specific food utilization of Bryonia dioica and Prunus laurocerasus as well as the consumption in some districts of Fagus sylvatica seeds, Taxus baccata and Crocus napolitanus fruits as snacks and the very common use of Clematis vitalba shoots seem to demonstrate a well established tradition to use unpalatable vegetal sources. Ethnopharmacological aspects of the consump- tion of these species are discussed.

PIANTE SPONTANEE AD USO ALIMENTARE RACCOLTE NELLA PARTE SUPERIORE DELLA VALLE DEL SERCHIO (GARFAGNANA), ITALIA CENTRALE. E' stato effettuato uno studio sulla raccolta tradi- zionale di piante ad uso alimentare nella parte superiore della valle del Serchio (Garfagnana), Provincia di Lucca, Toscana nord-occidentale, Italia centrale. 133 specie (inclusi funghi), ap- partenenti a 48 famiglie, sono state censite. L'isolamento geografico della valle e la soprav- vivenza di vecchie tradizioni gastronomiche hanno permesso ad una ricca conoscenza popolare di mantenersi inalterata fino ai nostri giorni. In particolare, la tradizione della preparazione in primavera di una caratteristica zuppa vegetale (minestrella) basata talvolta su pifi di quar- anta specie spontanee in un 'aerea molto ristretta della valle potrebbe essere messa in relazione ad influenze di civilt& pre-romane in quel territorio. L'utilizzazione alimentare non comune di Bryonia dioica e Prunus laurocerasus cosi come il consumo di semi di Fagus sylvatica, di frutti di Taxus baccata e Crocus napolitanus come snack e l'uso molto comune di giovani parti aeree di Clematis vitalba sembrano dimostrare una consolidata tradizione ad usare fonti vegetali non palatabili. Aspetti etnofarmacologici legati al consumo di queste specie vengono discussi. Key Words: Ethnobotany; wild food plants; Garafagnana; Tuscany; Italy.

The upper valley of the Serchio river is called est" while the adjective gar is Celtic and ex- Garfagnana and is situated in north-west Tus- presses the concept of grand or sublime. The cany,the , in central Italy (Fig. natural landscape of the valley is characterized 1). It is enclosed by two mountain ranges, sig- principally by woods (Castanea sativa nificantly different from each other: the Apuan MILL.) up to about 1000 m a.s.1.. In this lower Alps in the West facing the Tyrrhenian coast and zone Turkey oak (Quercus cerri L.) occurs spo- the Apennines in the east. It covers a surface of radically and hornbeam woods (Ostrya carpini- 533.7 km 2 and has approximately 30 000 inhab- folia ScoP. and Carpinus betulus L.) are occa- itants. The name Garfagnana derives from the sionally encountered. The higher lands are cov- old Umbrian faniana, which means "large for- ered by beech woods (Fagus sylvatica L.), which extend for about 1600 m a.s.1. On the western side of the valley, nearness to the sea Received 9 October 1996, resubmitted; accepted 6 gives rise to an Apuan flora with both alpine and May 1999. Mediterranean elements.

Economic Botany 53(3) pp. 327-341. 1999 1999 by The New York Botanical Garden Press, Bronx, NY 10458-5126 U.S.A. 328 ECONOMIC BOTANY ~ [VOL. 53

ITALY TUSCANY

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The Garfagnana has been inhabited since the The continuing practice of traditional culti- Middle Palaeolithic. Later the Ligurian-Apuans vation and the survival of traditional gathering defended their territories in a ferocious war methods inspired the author to consider food against the Romans. In the Middle-Ages, Goths, plants exclusively in order to provide a view of Byzantines, and Longobards arrived in sequence the historical and anthropological interaction and beginning in the twelfth century self-gov- between the local inhabitants and the environ- erning towns were established. The majority of ment. them placed themselves under the protection of the Duke of Ferrara while at the same time Luc- METHODS ca dominated the lower part of the valley and Ethnobotanical information for wild plants held the most important stronghold in was obtained during interviews with 83 knowl- the little town of Barga in the middle of the val- edgeable persons (age 43-96 years) living in ley. In 1860 the territory was annexed to the small villages outside of the main center of the Kingdom of Italy. valley, Castelnuovo Garfagnana (5000 inhabi- The geographical isolation of the region and tants). Characteristic of the villages is their small events of its history have given to the Garfag- population (50-500 inhabitants) and a continu- nana very special characteristics relative to the ing traditional way of life, although many young rest of the Tuscany. Popular knowledge deriving people now come to the Castelnuovo and to the from diverse cultural origins, survives in the use larger towns in the region to find work. Many of plants for food and medicine. Nevertheless, areas, remote from the population centers of the no studies have been carried out on the use of valley and from the river Serchio, which were wild food plants in this territory. An ethnobo- inhabited until thirty years ago and where people tanical work of the nearby region of Versilia was lived in small agropastoral familial economies, carried out by Corsi, Gaspari, and Pagni (1981) are now abandoned. and brief studies on local medicinal species have Our research touched villages situated in the been published by Bilia, Cioni, and Morelli municipalities of , , Castel- (1990), and by Uncini Manganelli and Tomei nuovo, , , Vagli, S. Ro- (1996, 1997). mano, , , 1999] PIERONI: WILD FOOD PLANTS 329

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and Giuncugnano (Fig. 2). Identification and no- RESULTS menclature followed Pignatti's work on Italian TRADITIONAL FOOD SOURCES IN THE flora (1997) and Cetto's work on fungi (1987) GARFAGNANA and, for cultivated species, the works of Mans- feld (1986) and Franke (1997). The traditional culture of the Garfagnana has Participants were invited to fill in a question- developed in an agricultural and pastoral con- naire for the most used species, including a pal- text. Cultivated species, which played a central atability index and the frequency of the use of role in the local food economy until about thirty years ago, were represented by Castanea sativa the plants at the present time and 30 years ago. L., Zea mays L., Triticum dicoccum Seven hundred questionnaires were completed. SCHUBLER, Panicum miliaceum L. and Secale cereale L. To- Most of the information about fungi and wild gether with Solanum tuberosum L. (introduced fruit gathering were obtained from men, while into the upper Garfagnana very late, in 1815) the gathering of green seems to be the domain and Phaseolus lunatus L. and Phaseolus vulgar- of the women. is L. they have long represented the principal The local schools participated in the project food plants used by the local people. In the win- in connection with a teaching program coordi- ter season chestnut flour based dishes (mostly nated by the author and the regional Comunit~ polenta) made up the main meal, substituted in Montana della Garfagnana. One hundred fifty the summertime by corn meal polenta. Rye- pupils between 11 and 15 years of age inter- bread, wheat-noodles and bean-soups with em- viewed elderly relatives about traditional uses of mer wheat and potatoes completed the diet. wild food plants during the school year 1997/ Among the cultivated species the harvest and 1998. processing of chestnut is an especially old tra- Wild plants recognized by the villagers were dition, and has been a major social event which collected and pressed, and fungi were photo- is still observed in some limited areas of the graphed. The collections are deposited at the valley. are collected in October and Documentation Centre on Local Traditional November, some are eaten boiled (ballucciori) Knowledge in the Municipality of Piazza al Ser- or roasted (mondine), but most are dried and chio and in the Municipal Library of GaUicano. ground into flour. This processing used to take 330 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53 place in the middle of the chestnut forest in spe- the past, but which now are feral in the neigh- cial buildings (metati) which had two floors sep- borhood of the villages. These products and oth- arated by chestnut- or beech-wood planks. The ers, including chestnuts, walnuts, and some old lower floor was filled with blocks of chestnut local cultivars of apples, pears, and cherries are wood which were lighted, and covered with saw relicts of cultivation abandoned when people be- dust so that they could burn very slowly. The gan to move to the main villages of the valley collected chestnuts, stored on the upper floor about forty years ago. Gathering is a day-trip were dried for 4-6 weeks. At least one person activity and does not involve overnight camping. had to remain in the vicinity of the building con- Food traditions which have now disappeared tinuously during this period to monitor the pro- but were extant at the beginning of this century, cess and to turn the chestnuts occasionally. The revived during war times, and remembered by chestnuts were threshed on a hemp-bale in order old people, are marked with an asterisk. to remove the coat, after which they could be About 50% of wild plants are used as vege- ground into flour on stone mills (macina) locat- tables (leaves, young shoots, or stems), a few ed near rivers. At the present time about half of for their roots or bulbs (six species), receptacles, the chestnut woods are abandoned. inflorescence, and flowers (nine species). Fruits Typical of the vaUey's retention of agricultur- and seeds are gathered from a remarkably high al tradition is the cultivation of emmer wheat. number (30 species). Garfagnana has always had the most important Traditional cooking with wild gathered plants emmer production of this grain in Italy. This tra- in Garfagnana is very complex and includes dition, deriving directly from the ancient Roman dishes which are the part of the local heritage. times, has survived undisturbed in Garfagnana, Table 2 lists the explanations for many vernac- while in some other mountainous areas in Italy ular terms, which define special preparations. it has disappeared completely in recent decades. The most common culinary preparation of The increasing interest in the biological and vegetables (erbi) is in the form of a variety of nutritional properties of emmer have stimulated vegetable soups. Throughout the valley, soups new cultivation projects in Garfagnana since are prepared mixing wild (usually Borago, Sil- 1990. At the present time in the valley 110 hect- ene, Urtica, Beta sp.) with cultivated vegetables, ares are cultivated in emmer wheat (a 100% in- among them the much used cabbage [Brassica crease between 1990 and 1996). This is the main oleracea L. ssp. oleracea convar, acephala cultivated emmer area in Europe and is concen- (DC.) f. serotina]. The utilization of large trated between 500 and 800 m a.s.1, with centers amounts of cabbage in the north-eastern part of also at 1000-1100 m a.s.l. the valley (Vagli) might also be related to the The European Commission granted "Protect- past worship of the popular Saint Viano, an er- ed Geographic Indication" to the emmet wheat emite, who lived in middle ages in this area. of the Garfagnana in 1996. In such zones of pro- Legends say that he could survive eating wild tected food crops traditional foodways are en- kale only (the quite rare Brassica oleracea hanced by the gathering of wild plants. subsp, robertiana) and the sight of this wild cab- bage is still considered a good omen. The use WILD GATHERED FOOD PLANTS of cabbage (now the cultivated species) is very Table 1 lists the wild food gathered plants in popular here, in contrast with other parts of the Garfagnana. One hundred thirty-three species valley. (84 herbaceous, 29 shrubs or trees, 20 fungi), In Gallicano traditional minestrella is pre- belonging to 48 families were recorded. Most of pared without cultivated species except for the plants are natives of the Mediterranean re- beans. Never fewer than twenty, but often more gion (with the exception of Robinia pseudoaca- than forty species are used (see Table 3). The cia, imported in the seventeenth century from number depend on the season (normally it's pre- North America, Prunus laurocerasus, which ar- pared in spring-early summer) and the avail- rived in Italy around 1560 from Turkey, Dios- ability of the plants. The people of the village pyros kaki, originally from eastern Asia and Bal- are convinced that some of the species are now samita major, a plant of the west Asian flora). rare. Included in Table 1 are some species (mostly Some of the greens utilized are defined fruit trees), which were extensively cultivated in as"bitter" by the people who relate this char- 1999] PIERONI: WILD FOOD PLANTS 331

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TABLE 2. SOME TRADITIONAL VERNACULAR CULI- NARY TERMS OF THE GARFAGNANA.

Ballucciori (or Ballotte): Boiled chestnuts with wild fennel seeds and/or laurel leaves : Traditional chestnut flour , made also with rosemary, walnuts, orange-peels and ol- ive oil. It has to be served with fresh (a form of cottage cheese) 8 r Farro: Soup based on mashed beans, sage, pig-skin and emmer wheat o Frittata: A kind of omelette made mixing the (boiled) vegetables with the beaten eggs and fry- ing in olive oil Necci: Chestnut flour pancakes, fried in lard Mondine: Roast chestnuts

o,0 Manafregoli: Like a very weak polenta di neccio served with milk and ricotta Minestrella: A special vegetable soup based on pig- skin, yellow beans and a big number of wild green plants (also thirty species), served with a kind of salted pancakes made of corn meal (called mignec- ci), which are prepeared by hot iron dies called testi Necci: Chestnut flour pancakes, prepared by testi and served with ricotta z Pofenta di neccio: Chestnut flour polenta, served Z with bacon (fried in vinegar) and boiled pig-bones Tullore: Dried chestnuts boiled in milk (with two leaves of laurel), served with ricotta 6 m Vinata: Polenta di neccio boiled in a very weak ,.2 0 r~ < wine called vinello Torte: Salt pies made of different wild vegetables, ri- cotta, cheese, eggs. Torta di farro is a typical Eas- 6~ ter salt pies based on boiled emmer wheat

t:: "6 e~ "7. acteristic with the concept of "healthy." Such use might have cultural significance relating to the ingestion of less than palatable vegetable foods (Johns 1980, 1995). Z The collecting of herbs for the minestrella is still a ritual for many women of the village of Gallicano. It's interesting to note that only a few ,J 1--, miles to the North, South or West from Galli- e cano people are not accustomed to prepare such dishes. The area of distribution of the mines-

en trella is restricted to the territory extending from Gallicano east to the Apuan crest. The association of several boiled spontaneous 8 vegetables is common also in the cooking tra- ditions of other areas on the other side of the Apuan Alps (in the Versila region) and in East- ern Liguria (the north eastern region bordering > Tuscany). In all these territories the domination 1999] PIERONI: WILD FOOD PLANTS 339

TABLE 3. TRADITIONAL GATHERED WILD FOOD of these mixtures of wild greens as a relict of PLANTS IN THE TERRITORYOF GALLICANOFOR THE pre-Roman cultures, such as the Celtic. In an- TRADITIONALVEGETABLE SOUP (MINESTRELLA). other part of northern Italy (Western Friuli) trac- es of the influence of this civilization were found Allium vineale L. to survive in a similar special dish (pistic), based Apium nodiflorum L. on more than fifty wild greens (Paoletti, Dreon, Bellis perennis L. and Lorenzoni 1995). Beta vulgaris L. ssp. maritima (L.) TI-IEII. Other preparations based on wild vegetables Borago officinalis L. include boiled mixtures sometimes eaten with Bunias erucago L. olive oil and vinegar or stewed in butter or olive Campanula rapunculus L. oil with garlic. Among these preparations is a Campanula trachelium L. Cichorium intybus L. mixture of boiled greens used as a stuffing for Cirsium arvense (L.) ScoP. tortelli and (salt pies). The use of boiled Crepis leontodontoides ALL. and stewed Lepidium campestre leaves, unique Crepis sancta (L.) BABCOCK to the municipality of Piazza al Serchio in the Crepis capittaris (L.) WALLR. northern upper valley, is another interesting Daucus carota L. case. There it is called erbo de' tedeschi (weed Foeniculum vulgate MILL ssp. vulgare of the Germans) probably reflecting the Longo- Geranium molle L. bard domination of that region and the very pop- Hypochoeris radicata L. ular use of Lepidium species as an aromatic Lapsana communis L. Leontodon hispidus L. plant in the Middle Age in central and Northern Lichnis flos-cuculi L. Europe (Ktister 1997). Malva sylvestris L. The frittata (an omelette of vegetables [usu- Papaver rhoeas L. ally boiled], and beaten eggs) is very popular in Picris echioides L. the entire region and shoots of Clematis vitalba Picris hieracioides L. is a main ingredient. The young shoots of this Plantago lanceolata L. relatively toxic species are boiled, before being Pfantago major L. mixed with eggs and/or cheese, and fried. In this Primula vulgaris HUDSON way the toxic principle protoanemonine (Roth, Raphanus raphanistrum L. Daunderer and Korman 1994) is inactivated. Ranunculus ficaria L. Reichardia picroides (L.) ROTH The majority of the plants are boiled, fried, or Rumex crispus L. steeped in water or alcohol and it is reasonable Rumex obtusifolium L. to suppose that a degradation or decreased con- Salvia pratensis L. centration of the toxic principles (mainly alka- Salvia verbenaca L. loids) results from such treatment. In some cases Sanguisorba minor ScoP. (Bryonia, Papaver) young tissues in which the Silene alba (MILLER)KRAUSE toxic constituents are present in limited amounts Silene vulgaris (MOENCH) GARCKE are used preferentially. Sisymbrium officinale (L.) ScoP. Crocus fruits (lucette) and perhaps also buds Sonchus asper L. were consumed by children and women. Safran- Sonchus oleraceus L. Symphytum tuberosum L. al contained in Crocus sativus is also known to Taraxacum officinale WEB. have a psychoactive action as a mild euphoria Urtica dioca L. (R~itsch 1998). Whether flowers of other Crocus Urtica urens L. species are toxic, is not yet clearly understood Viola odorata L. (Roth, Daunderer and Korman 1994; Teuscher and Lindequist 1994). The innocuous arils of Taxus are consumed, often with the whole toxic of the Ligurian-Apuans (third-second centuries seeds. The seed are probably eliminated from 8.c.) was remarkable. In these regions, even the the body without being broken to liberate the term "kitchen" (cucina) is sometimes used to toxic alkaloids which they contain. It may be denote such vegetable soups or the essential possible to detect the retention of ritual behavior plants used in them (e.g., Silene vulgaris). Fur- in such practices as the eating of Lonicera flow- ther study along these lines might detect the use ers and Crocus fruits by women as they gather 340 ECONOMIC BOTANY [VOL. 53 wild greens, and the consumption of Taxus arils Reichardia, Sonchus and Valerianella represent- by children while playing in the woods. ing the most used genera. The local people also The use of Bryonia and Prunus laurocerasus ascribe depurative and diuretic action to such as foods are reported here for the first time in food. the scientific literature. Prunus laurocerasus A relevant contribution to the local food econ- fruits are also a component for a local spirit omy is also provided by many wild fruits (both called agorino in the Southern part or laurino in from mountain species and from Mediterranean the Northern part. The morphological similarity ones) to prepare jams, syrups and sometimes to the black sour cherry-tree (Prunus cerasus), home-made digestive drinks (such us aromatized whose fruits have long been used in Mediterra- and spirits). Most of them are used also nean areas to prepare the liqueur maraschino, for their astringent properties against diarrhoea might play a role in the development of this tra- (Arbutus, Comus, Cydonia, Mespilus, Sorbus, dition. Rubus). Bryonia leaves and young shoots are boiled The harvesting of fungi for markets has long and utilized in frittate, or stuffing for tortelli or been economic activity in the valley. Boletus simply eaten boiled in mixtures with other wild ssp., Cantharellus and, less frequently, Amanita greens. The very poisonous root is also very cesarea from Garfagnana are sold in regional well known in the local popular medicine as a markets, and in other parts of Tuscany. Other diuretic (cold maceration). less common fungi are harvested, and some of The ancient practice of using Quercus cerris them, Grifola for example, are unknown in other fruits as a bitter kind of coffee substitute illus- regions. Dried mushrooms from the valley trate a general acceptance among old people of reached America from Genoa during the last bitter tastes. The fruits were roasted, the shell century (De Stefani 1884). eliminated and the seeds powdered. Some preparations based on toxic plants are SUMMARY seen as food/medicine: aerial parts of Artemisia From our ethnobotanical findings, more than absinthium (in form of decoctions as well as one hundred twenty wild food plants, represent- spirits) are always considered digestive both for ing the traditional heritage of the local people, humans and for animals, while the fresh leaves are still gathered and used in the upper valley of were also used topically to promote the weaning the Serchio river. Although many traditions have of babies. Similarly decoctions and spirits of been lost in the last thirty years, the relative ab- Ruta chalepensis leaves are used as eupeptics sence of true industrial development and the nat- and digestives. The use of Rumex acetosella ural isolation of the region have permitted the stems against thirst is well known. survival of a rich popular wisdom. For this fea- Such observations illustrate the double role ture the role that traditional cooking maintained (as food and medicine) played by many wild in many families in the valley is important. plants (Etkin 1994, 1996). Some of the most uti- While much medicinal knowledge of wild plants lized wild food plants have therapeutic activity has been lost because of rapid development and supported either by local tradition (Corsi, Gas- distribution of proprietary pharmaceutical prod- parin, and Pagni 1981; Uncini Manganelli and ucts, the special role played by food has resisted Tomei 1995) or biomedical evidence (H~asel et this loss. al. 1993): Apium, Asparagus, Borago, Calam- The traditional society is changing rapidly and intha, Cichorius, Daucus, Foeniculum, Humu- many more women work outside the home, but lus, Laurus, Malva, Plantago, Primula, Tarax- they still preserve the female heritage of food acum, Thymus. Some food preparations were traditions, especially the gathering of wild spe- taken exclusively for therapeutic reasons: vinata cies. (made of chestnut-flour and red wine) for ex- Significant differences in ethnobotanical data ample was the most used medicine against were found comparing the Apuan and the Apen- cough. nine sides of the valley, perhaps because of their Wild vegetables for salads are harvested es- pre-history. The pre-Roman Ligurian-Apuan pecially during the spring season. The local peo- domination took place primarily on the side of ple prepare mixtures with up to ten species: the Apuan Alps. Campanula, Cichorium, Crepis, Hypochoeris, Statistical studies of the collected ethnogas- 1999] PIERONI: WILD FOOD PLANTS 341 tronomical data are in progress within a per- Castelnuovo Garfagnana. La Garfagnana 1803- manent research project. The objective of these 1883. Walter Ciapetti Editore, Castelnuovo, Italy. studies is to quantify the changes in the wild Franke, W. 1997. Nutzpflanzenkunde. Thieme Verlag Stuttgart. Germany. food plant preferences by the local people in re- Hiinsel, R., K. Keller, H. Rimpler, and G. Schnei- cent decades and to better understand the eth- der. 1993. Hagers Handbuch der pharmazeutischen nopharmacological and anthropological bases Praxis, Drogen. Springer-Verlag, Berlin. for preferences among less palatable plant foods. Johns T. 1980. With bitter herbs they shall eat it. Uni- versity of Arizona Press, Tucson. ACKNOWLEDGMENTS --, and L. Chapman. 1995. Phytochemicals in- gested in traditional diets and medicines as modu- Special thanks are due to all the people of the Garfagnana, who shared their experience with wild gathered plants and food traditions. Many lators of energy metabolism. Pages 161-187 in T. thanks to Patrizia Pieroni (Comunit~ Montana della Garfagnana), for Arnason, ed., Phytochemistry of Medicinal Plants. sustaining the ethnobotanical project in the local schools, to all the pupils Plenum Press, New York, USA. who were enagaged in the project, to the Mayor of Piazza al Serchio Kiister, H. 1997. Kleine Kulturgeschichte der Gew- Umberto Bertolini for his assistance and his decades of documenting local tradional knowledge, to Anna Satti, Loreua Bertocchi, Antonella Ferri, tirze. Verlag C. H. Beck, Munich, Germany. Orietta Bonini for their wonderful cooperation. Mansfeld, R. 1986. Verzeichnis landwirtschaftlicher Thanks to Sandro Pierooi and Gabriele Bertucci (Consorzio Garfag- and g~irtneriscber Kulturpflanzen. Springer-Verlag, nana Produce) for their field support. I am indebted to Dr. Lawrence Berlin. Kaplan for his help in improving the previous version of the manuscript. Paoletti, M. G., A. L. Dreon, and G. G. Lorenzoni. 1995. Pistic, traditional food from western Friuli, LITERATURE CITED N.E. Italy. Economic Botany 49:26-30. Pignatti, S. 1997. Flora d'Italia. Edizioni Edagricole, Bilia, A. R., P. L. Cioni, and I. Morelli. 1990. I ri- Bologna, Italy. medi naturali di origine vegetale. Piante di uso ter- R~itseh, C. 1998. 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