SAMUDRA Report No.18, July 1997

Item Type monograph

Publisher International Collective in Support of Fishworkers

Download date 28/09/2021 16:38:12

Link to Item http://hdl.handle.net/1834/33104

Contents SAMUDRA No. 18 JULY 1997 TRIANNUAL REPORT OF ICSF

COMMENT 1

SOUTH AFRICA Straddling the color barrier 3

COMMENTARY Who’s being seduced? 10

RESPONSE Don’t be harsh on the MSC 12

EUROPE Are ITQ’s really a panacea 13

PERU The roar of the sea lion 17

FAROE ISLANDS Skilled fishers, bungling economy 20

EL SALVADOR Too great a cost 26

BRAZIL Sailing for a cause 32

KENYA Throwing the dice 38

DOCUMENT South Africa’s Marine Fisheries Policy 41

IMPRESSIONS The enemy is not just ‘out there’ 47

NEWS ROUND-UP Canada, Philippines, US, Namibia, France Japan, Belgium, Netherlands, Italy, New Zealand 50 Comment Is the White Paper black enough?

The much-awaited White Paper on South African fisheries (excerpted on page 41 of this issue of SAMUDRA), in the making for over two and a half years, and released on 19 June, was expected to mainly address the anomalies in the country’s fisheries, especially the distribution of marine resources, which is highly skewed in favour of whites. At the outset, the White Paper seeks to ensure inter-generational equity and long-term sustainability, and pledges to act as the custodian of all marine resources, which will be treated as a national heritage. Unlike in the past, the rights to utilize living marine resources will also be allocated in a fair and equitable manner. The new policy is seen as contributing to the long-term vision embodied in the Macro Economic Strategy of the country’s Department of Finance, namely, the creation of a competitive, fast-growing economy that generates enough jobs, and redistributes income and opportunities in favour of the poor.

The White Paper acknowledges the concentration of access rights in the hands of a few whites. It considers this a testimony to unequal opportunities and sees in it a strong argument for the future broadening of participation. The White Paper seeks to dismantle the existing system of permits and quotas. It proposes that access rights be converted into “real rights”, which could be purchased through a transparent and competitive process, against the payment of an appropriate fee based on quota, catch or effort.

The new policy moots short-term leasing of rights to those who are not keen on acquiring permanent rights. But it is not clear who would really benefit. It seems that both blacks and whites could profit. The whites, however, stand to gain more, since they have well-entrenched interests in the industry and have the financial muscle to successfully participate in the lease market.

From the point of view of the Macro Economic Strategy, however, no attempt has been made to discuss if the existing fishing capacity could be restructured to provide more employment. It only states that subcontracting under fair conditions could be considered to benefit both the “big” and the “small” The competitive process envisaged for transferring the Total Allowable Catch rights could perhaps frustrate the original objective of fair and equitable distribution of rights. It will prevent economically vulnerable groups from getting a foothold in the industry and could hinder the redistribution of income and opportunities to the poor. This process will only benefit the rich blacks.

Further, the suggestion to reduce the number of fishers will only affect the disadvantaged blacks and coloureds. The White Paper also makes the fundamental mistake of confusing fishers with fishing capacities. Fishing capacity can be reduced without displacing labour if technology is judiciously selected. What is needed is a phased redistribution of fishing capacities through an appropriate combination of capital and labour in the choice of fishing technologies, along with the “unbundling’ of access rights to benefit the black community.

In addition to quota, catch and effort, granting territorial use rights in fisheries should also be considered, especially in the case of species like rock lobster and abalone. Such rights could be given exclusively to the artisanal fishers (or subsistence fishers, as they are called in the White Paper), who depend on the coastal resources for their livelihood. Given their relatively smaller number, it should be possible to grant such permanent rights to legitimate claimants to the coastal resources. Granting them long-term rights, subject to better conservation and management measures, could go a long way in improving living standards as well as the law and order situation in the coastal areas.

In any case, from the point of view of restructuring access regimes, there is no guarantee that the blacks will be automatically empowered, even if the so-called real long-term rights are transferred to them. Given the scope for a lease market for such rights, control can still be exercised by the whites in different forms, thus defeating the original purpose of restructuring fishing rights. What is urgently required is a system that can not be misused, in devious new forms, to perpetrate the existing inequitable power relations in fisheries. The system should be more responsive to the structural dimensions of black poverty and the lack of economic opportunities for blacks. C MENT

SAMUDRA JULY 1997 1 South South Africa Fisheries policy Straddling the colour barrier

Policymakers in post-apartheid South Africa have the unenviable task of resolving conflicting interests in fisheries

The government of South Africa, led by the Ministries of Industries and Nelson Mandela, is currently considering Agriculture. Since 1983, it has been under a major restructuring of its fisheries policy the Ministry of Environmental Affairs. to ensure greater participation of the Until 1990, access rights and fishing non-white communities in the marine licences were given by the Directorate of capture fisheries. A White Paper on the Sea Fisheries. The Quota Board was fisheries policy of the post-apartheid formed in 1990 and, since then, it has been government has just been prepared. awarding quotas on the advice of the Sea Fisheries Advisory Committee. The To understand this process in the allocation of non-quota species is still backdrop of major issues in marine made by the Department of Sea Fisheries. fisheries, to follow-up on ICSF contacts and to co-operate with fishworker initiatives There are 25 deep-sea hake quota holders, in South Africa, I visited several important of which 13 are for trawling. The biggest fishing centres in Western Cape and eleven belong to the South Africa Eastern Cape, the provinces that account Deep-sea Trawling Association. They for almost the entire marine fish caught about 165,000 tonnes of fish in production of South Africa. The trip 1995. Three companies control over 78 per provided opportunities to meet with cent of the deep-sea hake quotas of South established trade unions in fisheries; local, Africa. There are about 56 vessels with a regional and national associations of combined tonnage of 43,500 GRT valued at fishers that are not affiliated to unions; US$80 million, which is the largest managers of big business groups, and investment in the fisheries of South Africa. lawyers. There were also meetings with the Fisheries Desk of the African National About 80 per cent of fresh and frozen fish Congress (ANC), parliamentarians, consumed in South Africa comes from this policymakers and members of the sector, which reports annual sales worth judiciary and press. US$160 million, including about US$50 million from exports. It is the largest With a seaboard of 3,000 kin, South Africa foreign exchange earner in fisheries. produces about 580,000 tonnes of fish in (Some of the world’s finest hake products liveweight (valued at US$400 million). come from South Africa and a substantial Fisheries contribute to nearly half a per proportion consists of products with a cent of the Gross Domestic Product. The high local value added component.) access to resources is distributed mainly through a combination of quotas (for fish Code of conduct such as hake, abalone, rock lobsters, Around 2,000 fishers are employed in the anchovies and pilchard) and permits (for deep-sea sector and another 6,000 in tuna and squid). The sector employs about permanent or non-seasonal work. The 30,000 fishworkers (around 20,000 fishers workers in this sector subscribe to a code and about 10,000 processing workers). of conduct. In addition to remuneration, they are entitled to fishing commissions, The Directorate of Sea Fisheries, the bonuses and company contributions to department responsible for fisheries employee benefit schemes. In the matters, has been shunted from ministry inshore—defined as waters below 110 in to ministry. Originally under the Ministry depth contour—there were 11 quota of Economic Affairs, it was later shifted to holders in 1995. They belong to the

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 3 South Africa Africa South

Southeast Coast Fishing Association and industry) and fishmeal (sold locally to function in multi-species fisheries. They poultry farms). The pelagic fisheries also hold quotas for hake and aguilhas generate employment for over 1,000 sole, and catch about 15,000 tonnes. workers at sea and about 4,000 workers on land. The tuna industry employs about he inshore trawling sector uses 2,600 fishers. vessels 14 m to 32 m in length. TThere are now about 34 vessels in Jigging for squid (called ‘white gold’), the operation (down from 54 in 1982). The most recent fishing industry in South sector provides employment for 300 Africa, began in 1986. It is based on fishers and 800 land-based workers. The permits issued on the basis of annual workers are entitled to pension, performance. There are about 278 vessels, provident fund, housing assistance and of which 112 are between 10-20 m and 19 freedom of association, and they are between 20-30 m in length. The fishery is affiliated to several unions. The majority worth US$15 million. It employs about of workers come from the South East 4,000 people at sea and 1,000 ashore. Cape region. Line-fishing comprises several sectors, The quota system for pelagic stocks was ranging from full-time commercial introduced in South Africa in 1974. The operators to recreational fishers. While it quotas were given to factories and not to provides seasonal and occasional private boatowners. Large companies employment to about 19,000 fishers, it is control the pelagic fishery, from also a source of recreation for hundreds production to retail trade. More than half and is the key support to marine-related the Total Allowable Catch (TAC) for tourism. The species fished include snoek, pelagics is apparently controlled by six kob, yellowtail, hottentot and carpenter. companies (the TAC for pilchard is 23,000 The commercial operators sell these fish to tonnes and for anchovies, 256,000 hawkers on the quay. There are about tonnes). Tuna is also harvested, with a 2,364 hand-line boats. Of these, about TAC of about 3,000 tonnes. 1,000 are less than 6 m and four are over 50 m in length. There are about 73 purse-seiners in South Africa. Apart from a small proportion of Abalone fishery pilchard canned for human The abalone fishery is a shallow-water consumption, and some used as bait, one, where TAC quotas have been issued most of the landings are processed into to six companies for 615 tonnes. There is fish oil (sold to the food products also an extensive recreational fishery

4 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 South South Africa associated with abalone. It employs 58 important fisheries in South Africa, three boats and about 200 fishers. Rock lobsters white companies controlled 72 per cent of are found at depths less than 80 m isobath. the TAC in 1996. Irvin & Johnson Ltd., set Traps and hoop nets are used in this up by the pioneers, continues to be one of fishery, which has a TAC for 2,000 tonnes. those three companies. There is also a South Coast rock lobster harvested at depths of 100 m to 200 m There are about eight large firms that isobath. control the fisheries of South Africa. These also have business interests in food his fishery has a TAC of 452 tonnes. products like potato chips, canned In the peak season, it employs 218 tomatoes and olives. Some of them are Tboats of lengths ranging from 6-40 also involved in diamond and gold m, and around 5,000 fishers. Most of the mining. These companies are essentially informal fishermen of South Africa (about subsidiaries of big South African 5,000) make a living by illegally catching multinationals and are controlled by a rock lobster. handful of families.

Fishermen’s Community Trusts (FCTs) The non-white groups participated in the were established in 1992 to uplift and coastal fishery in a rudimentary capacity develop the fishing communities along for the local market, in addition to the west coast. A certain proportion of the working on board white-owned fishing deep-sea hake TAC was set aside for vessels and processing plants. A allocation to FCTs. In 1995, about five per small-scale fishery, very limited in scope cent of the hake TAC and four per cent of and mainly for the local market, thus the anchovies TAC were set aside for FCTs. co-existed with an industrial fishery for Since the harvesting of hake requires the export market. highly technical and expensive equipment which the FCTs do not have This situation changed to some extent in and can ill afford, they are unable to the 1970s, when a quota system was participate in the harvesting, processing introduced in South African fisheries. The and marketing of quotas. Their quotas are, access enjoyed by the non-whites to therefore, sold to established fishing lobster fisheries was then suddenly taken companies. away by the apartheid regime and given to the white companies. This forced many An 1830 painting, Fishmongers, by HC de people from the coastal communities to Meillon in the Cape Town Museum shows fish illegally for rock lobster and supply vendors carrying fish on wooden poles clandestinely to the black market at across their shoulders, as can be seen in cheaper prices. The right to fish non-quota Southeast Asia. This suggests a local food species like snoek, however, is still open to fishery in South Africa in the 19th century, all, both non-whites and whites. perhaps with the participation of the original slaves from Indonesia. With the demise of apartheid, there have Commercialization of the South African been new entrants into the fishing industry, however, was initiated at quota-managed fishing industry from the the turn of the century by Messrs Irvin and coloured, black and Indian communities. Johnson, two British nationals, who set up In 1995, for example, about five per cent of a vertically integrated firm for the export the TAC for hake and four per cent for of deep-sea hake. anchovies were set aside for the non-white communities. The quotas were Unlike in the rest of Africa, Asia or Latin insufficient to undertake viable America, South Africa has the rare investments and were nick-named ‘paper distinction of having developed an quotas’ since, in most instances, they were industrial fishery much before the growth sold to the white companies. of an artisanal or small-scale fishery. Almost the entire catch comes from New fisheries policy industrial trawling and purse-seining. Unlike the Sea Fishery Act of 1988 that Mainly controlled by white companies, focused on conservation of the marine these have a highly skewed ownership ecosystem and orderly utilization of living pattern. For instance, in hake, the most marine resources, the new fisheries policy

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 5 of post-apartheid South Africa advocates era can be classified into four categories. the utilization of such marine resources is This classification, however, does not undertaken on a long-term, sustainable imply that there is no overlap between basis, with optimum social and economic these categories. benefits to the people. There is a great deal of discussion and debate on what In what can be labelled the ‘restructuralist’

South Africa Africa South ought to be the new policy in relation to school, there is first the FAWU that equity. demands restructuring of all sectors of fisheries, including production, hile the big companies and rich processing and marketing for all labour unions of non-whites commercially valuable fish, from a holistic Ware unanimously for the perspective, through a transparent and continuation of the existing system, participatory process. coloureds, blacks and Indians are divided on what ought to be the focus of the new It wants this to be done without losing policy. These groups are essentially three: existing employment opportunities and also by taking into consideration the the Informal Fishing Community, an Reconstruction and Development association of fishers from the Programme (RDP) of the Republic of South unorganized artisanal sector, that makes Africa. It also wants to ‘address the a living by illegally fishing for rock wrongs of the past’, which include the lobster and abalone in the nearshore discriminatory practices of the apartheid waters; the Food and Allied Workers regime, such as the exclusion of informal Union (FAWU), the biggest union of food fishers from fishing activities. workers which also represents industrial fishworkers, including women; and Black elites This group is against redistribution of the cluster that includes interest groups quotas by the Quota Board to the ‘black like the Fisheries Development Unit, the elites’, fearing that such acts will only Port Elizabeth Fishing Forum and several exacerbate the problem of restructuring other regional and local associations of the industry. Also, it thinks that giving coastal communities encompassing a unviable quotas would only result in the variety of interests, ranging from wage new quota holders selling tern to big workers to quota and licence holders. companies. It regards the Quota Board’s distribution of quotas to non-whites as a The various perspectives on allocation of rent a black’ policy and considers it an fisheries resources in the post-apartheid initiative that misses the wood for the

6 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Vietnam trees. FAWU also insists that attempts at It believes in the fairness of the market restructuring should also apply to the system and does not want any ‘newcomers’, meaning non-white quota government intervention in fisheries, holders. except for conservation and monitoring of catch (to make sure that landings do not andla Gxanyana, General exceed the TAC). It considers current Secretary of FAWU and estimates as politically motivated and Mfacilitator of the Fisheries Policy would like objective assessments of stocks Development Committee (FDPC) that could act as the basis for deciding the constituted by Dr. Dawie de Villiers, TAC. It believes that access to fisheries Minister of Environmental Affairs and resources should be governed only Tourism, in late 1994, for developing a through a fee based on the size of the new fisheries policy for South Africa, feels fishing vessel, in the context of abalone that both processing workers and fishers fishery, however, it proposes greater should benefit from restructuring. He control and something like a territorial use wants the problems of fishing rights regime. communities (including both harvesters and processors) to be addressed. The third group is the ‘redistributionist’ school comprising other non-white He thinks a non-quota system that will groups who demand greater empower the harvesting workers without redistribution to non-white fishing affecting the chain of workers in communities of the quotas enjoyed by processing and marketing may be white companies. They are interested in desirable. He does not want people viable quotas (meaning quotas that would without any history in fisheries to get enable them to economically invest in quotas. He thinks area-based and national fishing capacity) for important fisheries associations should have a larger stake in like hake, anchovies, abalone and rock capture fisheries. He would prefer some lobster. This group seems to be mainly demarcation of fishing grounds: those represented by the Fisheries Development earmarked for deep-sea fisheries and Unit in the Western Cape and Port those set aside for bona fide fishermen Elizabeth Fishing Forum in the Eastern from the coastal communities. Cape region.

The interests of those who are There is also another perspective within marginalized, the bona fide fishermen, this group, especially among some in the have to be looked after. The policy should Eastern Cape, who feel that non-white be to enrich neither a few blacks nor a few quota holders should share their quotas whites. The current way of reforming with poor fishers from the same fisheries, unfortunately, does not address communities. They see the attitude of the the basic problem, says Gxanyana. majority of new quota holders, who refuse to share the newly acquired quotas with The ‘abolitionist’ school is made up of their poor non-white neighbours, as non-white groups, mainly the Informal similar to the behaviour of white Fishing Community, who are fighting to companies under the apartheid regime. abolish the existing system of quota allocation. Their main concern is The mosaic of new claimants to fishery unconditional access to coastal fisheries resources from within the non-white for rock lobster and abalone. They fear fishing communities include: that any redistribution of the TAC, short of levelling the playing field and abolishing • fishermen with quotas but who the current access regimes, would not do have no fishing capacity; justice to their concerns. The demands of the Informal Fishing Community are also • fishermen who have both quotas supported by FAWU. and fishing capacity;

In its Submission to the FDPC on Access • fishermen from the informal Rights, the Informal Fishing Community sector, not legally recognized as argues basically for a laissez-faire approach fishermen; to fisheries, except in the case of abalone.

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 7 • retired fishermen from fishing between FAWU and these unions is that companies; whereas FAWU tries to take on board the interests of unorganized fishers, the latter • fishermen made redundant by support only their own self-interest. fishing companies; The redistributionists have dismissed the

South Africa Africa South • widows of fishermen; and new Marine Fisheries Policy of South Africa as a status quo policy since it does • women processing workers. not propose to change the highly skewed ownership pattern in fisheries and since it In addition, there are several interest makes no mention of redistributing groups outside the fisheries sector which quotas currently enjoyed by the white would like to partake of the quota system. companies to non-whites.

According to the redistributionists, There is thus a divide between the putting an end to the quota system, as non-whites in the organized sector who demanded by the abolitionists and support the status quo and the non-whites restructuralists, would only lead to who demand change. There are further open-access regimes and depletion of differences among those who demand a commercially valuable fish stocks The change, often based on altered Fisheries Development Unit thinks that perspectives. These affect the unity of the controlling access through a quota non-whites and also add new system is a necessary prerequisite to complications to the present situation. ensure the sustainability of the resource. While wanting to retain the quota system, Not convinced they are for the abolition of the Quota Some of the labour, especially those who Board, which is seen as a relic of the do not have any complaints against the apartheid past. In its place, they want a existing conditions of work and Namibian system of quota management, remuneration in the industrial fisheries, where the bulk of the quotas are believed are yet to feel convinced that their rights to have been given to non-whites. will be protected and their earnings maintained if there is a radical change in In a memorandum dated 14 May 1996 to the system. In one instance, on 13 May the Minister Designate, Pallo Jordan, the 1996, there was a physical clash between Informal Fishing Community contends two sections in Cape Town, with one side that allowing access to those currently shouting, “You want to take our jobs excluded from fisheries will ultimately benefit only the big companies. This is because no attempt is made to redress the fundamental imbalance arising from the concentration of harvesting and processing capacity in the hands of a few. Given the technical capability of the white companies, and the lack of it among non-white communities, any situation of open access may understandably benefit the old players more than new entrants.

Finally, in the status quo school are those companies which wish to maintain the status quo. They are supported mostly by unionized fishermen, including coloureds and blacks, who fear that any restructuring would negatively affect their current earnings from fishing operations like trawling and long-lining. They are called ‘sweetheart unions’, a derogatory term for unions that are close to big business. The main difference

8 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 South Africa away!”, and the other shouting back, “You fishworkers is fairly good in big are pawns of the big companies!” companies. These workers might fear that hard-earned benefits would get he apprehensions of the organized dissipated in any transition from the labour force are also perhaps based known present to an unknown future. Ton the fact that very few of the non-white claimants to the quotas have Clearly, there is need to have a set of their own capacity to fish. They are also criteria for allocation of resources and an yet to learn the ropes of fish processing enabling legislation to implement it. and marketing. While it is easy to identify the distinct capital and labour interests among those Also adding to the confusion is the who favour the status quo, it is, however, minority of migrant blacks from tribal too early to differentiate the interests of homelands who work as wage labourers those who favour change. in the seasonal squid fishery of Eastern Cape. They are perhaps the poorest and It is also too early to say who among the are far removed from the debate on non-white communities will largely fisheries restructuring or redistribution of benefit if the government changes the quotas. Their main demand is for greater norms for quota allocation. The ‘haves’ on diversification of fishing operations and both sides of the colour barrier seem to be for round-the-year employment. mobilizing the numerous ‘have-nots’ to fight for their respective interests. There is, The positions of the Informal Fishing however, tremendous distrust and Community and that of FAWU seem to questioning of motives. converge at several points. Both seem to be against the quota system and share the Difficult situation concern that the redistributed quotas are In such a difficult situation, the basically falling into the wrong hands. policymakers’ role is rather unenviably They also seem to agree upon a delicate. There has to be greater clarity on demarcation of fishing grounds between who among the interested parties could coastal and deep-sea fisheries. Both best serve the goals of long-term demand that only bona fide fishers among sustainable utilization of marine the new claimants should be allowed to resources and livelihood interests of participate in fisheries. coastal communities.

The inference that could perhaps be drawn is that activities not labour-intensive at the stage of harvesting or processing (like harvesting and processing of abalone and rock lobster) could be reallocated to bona fide fishers in the informal sector. Other activities which are more labour-intensive should, by and large, remain as they are.

In other words, the message seems to be that the biggest union of fishers and processing workers, while willing to uphold the livelihood rights of non-white coastal communities who are dependent on fisheries, is not keen to support the business aspirations of the non-whites, except those of the workers themselves. This report was written by Sebastian The reluctance of formal unions to Mathew, Executive Secretary, ICSF, support the redistributionists might arise after a trip around South Africa from the present position of organized from 7 to 14 March 1997. labour in South Africa. The condition of work and remuneration of South African

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 9 Marine Stewardship Council Who’s being seduced?

Commentary Commentary As the Marine Stewardship Council tries to sell itself in the South, critics are starting to question its market orientation

he Marine Stewardship Council retail outlets, which will support the MSC, (MSC) is trying to tackle an issue of and determine whether or not fish with Tglobal concern: the sustainable use MSC ecolabels become popular consumer of fishery resources for the benefit of items. In the UK, supermarkets account current and future generations. As part of for around 60 per cent of fresh fish and 80 the process of setting up the MSC, per cent of frozen fish sales. These stores, ‘Principles and Criteria’ are being conscious of their public image and their established and developed for market shares, will be the ones to welcome sustainable fishing. These will eventually the MSC ecolabelling scheme, not provide the logic for a certifying scheme consumers themselves. that will be used to qualify (or disqualify) fisheries products for the MSC ecolabel. The MSC’s interest in the South would This aspect of the MSC has the potential to seem to be mainly as a source of fish make a valuable contribution to the products which could be accredited. Fish whole sustainability debate, and is to be sporting the MSC label will only be welcomed. marketed in the North. It is unlikely that they will be sold in the South. The process of consultation being undertaken by the MSC project in devising On S May, Schmidt, Julia Novy, the and developing its Principles and Criteria consultant recently appointed to help the is being conducted in an extremely open MSC devise its strategy for the South, and and transparent manner. The project is several key people from WWF and seeking to consult with, and be guided by, Unilever hosted a ‘Less Developed the views of as many stakeholders in the Countries Workshop’ in London. The fisheries sector as possible. This is also a agenda included three key questions: very positive aspect of the project and is Who are the relevant stakeholders? What proving to be highly successful in are the key issues facing the introduction stimulating debate. of the MSC in developing countries? What should be the strategy and action plan for However, of considerable concern to the MSC in developing countries? many people is that the MSC is based on a Northern-driven neoliberal agenda. Of the 12 participants, six were WWF, According to Carl-Christian Schmidt the Unilever and MSC staffers. Except for a recently appointed Project Manager of participant from Papua New Guinea, the the MSC, “Ecolabelling is a neoliberal tool rest were from a variety of UK NGOs and and the MSC is going down that path.” consultancy firms with interests in the From a neoliberal market perspective, South. Laura Cooper of the WWF’S livelihoods and cultural traditions are no Endangered Seas Campaign explained different from consumer durables like that, as far as the South is concerned, the cars, and, as such, can be valued and application of the MSC to developing traded. In the neoliberal marketplace, countries was being put off until after the selling your fish quota (and your core programme was established. livelihood from fishing). is no different from selling your car. Lots of questions “We know we don’t know how to do it Yet, it is likely that it will be the trading right (in the South), we know we need to interests, like supermarket chains and ask a lot of questions”, she said, adding

10 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Commentary be the main determining criteria for accreditation, while social factors may be pushed into the background.

Although the MSC deals with inter-generational, not allocation, issues, fisheries where allocation issues are resolved through privatization (for example, through management systems based on individual transferable quotas) will be easier to certify. It will also be easier for the MSC to certify fisheries on scientific evidence, than on more socially based traditional knowledge systems.

In the fisheries of developing countries, traditional community-based resource allocation systems and socially based management systems are widespread but not widely recognized or acknowledged. With its scientific and technical bias, will the MSC discriminate against these? that the workshop and subsequent consultations were designed “to put them The question of exporting a Northern in touch with the people who they need to agenda to the South is also a major issue be in touch with.” for many people, who see the MSC as Northern neocolonialism in another chmidt clarified that the MSC would guise. There are many in the South who do be limited to taking a “slice of the not share the North-devised neoliberal Sfisheries sector.” The MSC might set agenda on which the MSC is based, and right some, but not all, wrongs. “We are who would, therefore oppose its living in a second-best world and have to imposition. There are also many who feel apply second-best solutions,” he said. that the North should rather be questioning and regulating its own MSC accreditation will require participants patterns of consumption, rather than let to buy into the certification scheme by consumerism drive its citizens’ lives. paying for accreditation and subsequent monitoring. Smaller fleets of large ships More work left able to offer bulk supplies will have an Clearly, there is a lot of work to be done advantage over larger fleets of small before the MSC will be fully up and vessels whose supplies may fluctuate. running. According to Schmidt, it should be completely independent and Small-scale, decentralized, functional by end 1998. Given this tight community-based fisheries, prevalent in deadline and its inherent partiality, how the South, might be discriminated against, serious can the MSC initiative be as a tool because they would not be able to buy into to encourage long-term sustainability, as the MSC certification scheme. It could also opposed to being just another short-term prove too costly for MSC certifying agents marketing gimmick? to accredit the many small-scale, decentralized fisheries. The MSC may thus favour more centralized, company-owned fishing operations.

As the process of developing the MSC This report has been sent by Brian Principles and Criteria advances, O’Riordan of Intermediate boundaries will need to be drawn around Technology, Rugby, UK what the MSC includes and what it excludes. This may mean that environmental and technical factors will

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 11 Marine Stewardship Council Don’t be harsh on the MSC Response Response Both fishing communities and consumers have much to gain from the recent MSC initiative, says a former fisher

s a former fisher, I disagree with to provide consumers with a more direct the conclusion drawn by Barbara way of promoting sustainability in ANeis in her article “Cut Adrift” fisheries through market forces, so that (SAMUDRA, November 1996), which women, men and children may rely on analyzes the potential impacts of the healthy supplies of fish in the future. It is Marine Stewardship Council (MSC) not designed to replace existing initiative. Although Neis points out many democratic institutions, which should be of the possible benefits of the MSC, she encouraged to promote sustainability, concludes that this initiative, designed to and, for that matter, social equality. harness market forces to promote sustainable fishing, disenfranchises As an individual who has fished for a women and is “the equivalent of a death living, I am intimately aware of the sentence for (sic) fisheries and shortcomings of modern fisheries communities that depend upon them.’ management and applaud a programme designed to promote sustainable fishing The basic fallacy in Neis’s prediction of practices for the benefit of the resource the MSC’s impacts is the assumption that and those who depend upon it. fisheries are static and that any programme designed to have an impact Consumer point of view on fisheries must address all current As a consumer, I support a mechanism inequities associated with fisheries. The allowing consumers to have a more direct state of fisheries worldwide is not static. impact on fisheries management through Global fish catches have increased 500 per the market place. I encourage all of those cent in the last 40 years. Fishing in fishing communities, women and men communities, such as those on the alike, who have so much to lose from Atlantic coast of Canada and America, overfishing and mismanagement, and so are already in jeopardy or have collapsed, much to gain from conservation and as have some fish stocks. The social costs sustainability, to support the Marine of mismanagement are severe; Stewardship Council. overfishing ruins communities and wrecks the lives of women, men and children.

Fisheries are complex and multi-dimensional, encompassing biological, environmental, social and economic factors, and scientific uncertainty. The MSC, in developing criteria to evaluate the sustainability of fisheries, is taking these factors into This response to the debate on the account. The mission of the MSC is to work MSC Initiative carried by SAMUDRA for sustainable marine fisheries by comes from Laura Cooper, an promoting responsible, environmentally ex-fisher from Alaska, US, who is now appropriate, socially beneficial and the International Programme economically viable fishing practices. Officer of WWF’s Endangered Seas However, the MSC is not a panacea for our Campaign. worldwide fisheries crisis. It is designed

12 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Europe Fisheries management

Are ITQs really a panacea?

Controlling who fishes what, where, when and how might be culturally and ecologically more sensible than quota allocations

“Natural resources must be developed and When Garret Hardin, a genetic biologist, preserved for the benefit of the many and not wrote a paper on birth control and titled it merely for the profit of a few.” The Tragedy of the Commons, academics subsequently overlooked its potential —The Fight for Conservation by Gifford Pinchot contribution to fisheries management, that is, Hardin’s recognition of human omeone should carve Gifford problems as not calling for mere technical Pinchot’s words of 1910 in stone solutions, and his analysis of how to Sand place them outside DG XIV (the ensure that people curb their perceived Fisheries Commission of the European freedom in order that the greater number Union, EU) in Brussels and at the door of might be freer. the European Parliament. The mass media, instead, was caught up While Pinchot was writing specifically in the catchy title of Hardin’s paper, about the US. Forest Service at the though its analysis had been clearly and beginning of this century, his words could fully explained 14 years earlier by Scott be justifiably applied to the world’s Gordon in The Economic Theory 4 a Common marine fisheries today. Property Resource: the Fishery. It is difficult to ascertain whether it was the mass In 2002, there will be a review of the media’s frequent use of the phrase which Common Fisheries Policy of the EU. The dulled the academics’ critical capacities to extent of this review and its legal standing better evaluate Hardin’s paper or whether is currently being much debated. Some the overused title offered administrators believe that all aspects are up for and politicians alike an understanding of re-consideration, while others think that not only the problem but also a solution, irrevocable decisions were stitched into an understanding which enabled and the Treaty of Corfufor instance, the encouraged them to more readily engage introduction of Community Fishing with the academics. Permits after 2002. The most that can be hoped for are decisions on the Shetland Once the problem and solution could be Box and the 12-mile limit to free access. understood in simple terms, resources in the form of research funds were more It is doubtful whether the Eli intends to willingly directed at addressing the radically change its management systems. fisheries conundrum. Rather, the indications are that it merely intends to ‘fine-tune’ current systems of Interpretation challenged quota allocations by the introduction of a In more recent times, an increasing market mechanism. This article advocates number of people are challenging a rethink on such a strategy. Hardin’s interpretation of the commons as applied to fisheries, i.e. the belief that Aided by cliches that abound in the mass common property resources are by nature media, we, in Europe, appear to be in great open-access and will inevitably lead to danger of being swept along by an tragedy. Indeed, there are those who uncritical tide of belief that the salvation believe that very few, if any, truly of fish stocks rests in allocating individual open-access fisheries exist in the world. It fishers, tradable quotas or Individual is argued that most societies have their Transferable Quotas (ITQs). own, often unspoken, rules which very

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 13 clearly dictate who can fish what, where, Currently, there are too few academic when and how. voices being publicly raised against ITQs. The analysis of the problem and. its s J. Cordell says in A Sea of Small solution seem foolproof, which is the only Europe Boats, “There aren’t many places way it will appear if one is desk-bound Awhere an outsider can just walk and views the sector in a career time span, into town and start fishing, hauling nets, as opposed to the everyday setting traps and so on. Anyone doubting catch-to-market reality of the fishing the validity of this principle has only to community. try it out.” There are fishery managers who view ITQ However, the move to more centralized as a means of engineering changes which management systems, coupled with will make fisheries easier to manage and technological advances have, in certain at minimum cost to public funds; a fishery instances, broken down implicit control with fewer ownership units and systems and, in themselves, have geographically more centralized in larger contributed to the creation of greater ports. These developments greatly open-access fisheries. simplify the task of administrators. Such simple solutions, however, pay little heed In uncritically swimming along with the to the ultimate shape of a fishing industry ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ tide, subtle so fashioned and the resultant effects on community regimes and controls were stock and people. ignored. They were not even recognized or understood and were replaced by It is also very difficult for biological centralized controls which had little scientists, who have been prevalent in understanding of ‘what’ (fishing) and fisheries management for long, to concede ‘who’ (fishers) they were attempting to that their science is too imprecise to enable control. This lack of understanding meant a numerical approach, such as quotas, to that regulations imposed from above be successful. A dangerous assumption were perceived in the fishing underlying ITQs is that TACs (total communities as having little or no allowable catches) are proven legitimacy and, accordingly, required mechanisms and that ITQs attempt the complex and expensive enforcement fine-tuning of a basically sound concept. arrangements which were of questionable efficiency and effectiveness. It is possible that the numerical systems’ objective is not conservation, as claimed, The uncritical acceptance of trite cliches but rather, to serve multinational firms should make us much more wary. which need to work in certainties to Alarmingly, though, a wave similar to the provide for the increasingly lucrative ‘Tragedy of the Commons’ type appears international market in quality fish to be gaining strength around the products. Quotas and ITQs create a certain, world—that ITQs are the salvation of the predictable environment in which firms fish stocks because they will: can plan their purchasing, pricing and product development. • generate a more economically efficient fishing industry; Traditional techniques In the past 25 years there has been • rationalize production without increasing interest in traditional fishing intervention from public funds; management techniques and much has been written about TURF (Territorial Use • create the conditions for Rights in Fisheries) and CMT (Customary sustainable commercial fisheries; Marine Tenure) systems. More recently, attention has focused on community • ensure a more easily manageable management and co-management sector; and regimes, prompted by the perceived failures of modem fisheries management • result in lower enforcement costs. systems. These represent attempts at understanding, more fully, the nature of the fisheries and how, in the past, users

14 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Europe

and use of the resource have been running counter to the introduction of a managed. single market in the fisheries sector. Its intention is to allocate quotas to ome people ask: why spend so individual fishermen and to then much energy on stipulating what encourage trade in quotas, thus leaving Snumerically should or may be the market to dictate the restructuring of extracted when we will never know, with the fishing fleet. This shows just how any degree of certainty, what is there in strongly the tide of belief in TACs and ITQs the first place? Not just what is there, but has swept over us. also what processes other than fishing are taking their share of the catch. If these facts A 1996 paper by E. Ethorsson on the can not be ascertained with any degree of impact of ITQs in Iceland, Coastal certainty, why are we encouraging a Communities and fl~ Management: the Case supposedly precise system to tackle a very of Icelandic Fisheries, should serve as a imprecise, complex and possibly chaotic warning on the implications of this situation? numerical system of fisheries management. In particular, the creation of Such questions suggest that there are a trade in the system needs to be much possible lessons to be learnt from past more thoroughly and openly debated, fisher communities who concentrated before the EU’S Parliament gives its their efforts on maintaining an approval to the Motion for a Resolution. equilibrium in the marine environment rather than on the numbers to be Recent Icelandic experience reveals that extracted. It is possible that controlling from 1984, when ITQs were introduced, who fishes what, where, when and how until the end of 1993, the fleet has actually might prove to be more culturally and increased by nine per cent gross registered ecologically sound. A recent draft report tonnage (GRT) and by 17 per cent on the Common Fisheries Policy after horsepower. Trawlers over 500 GRT have 2002, by the Fisheries Committee of the doubled in aggregate tonnage and small European Parliament, calls for member coastal vessels have increased by 57 per state TACs to be assigned to individual cent in tonnage. fishermen and for measures to “guarantee the proper operation of the market in Increased share fishing rights.” The apparent purpose of The large companies, which held 25.5 per this proposal (a Motion for a Resolution) cent of ITQs in 1991, increased their share is to break away from the system of to 47.2 per cent by 1994. There has been a national quotas which is perceived as very clear geographical centralization of

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 15 Europe

the industry and a marginalization of the should they emphasize the small fishing communities. maintenance of system structure?

ccording to the study, “Along • Should our scientific agenda with a loss of local control over emphasize population Aunits of production and a decline assessments, as is presently done, of the land-based processing industry, or should it emphasize the people in these communities are losing investigation and monitoring of their future rights to harvest the fish ecosystem structure and state? resources. The fishermen-owned inshore fleet with owned quota is shrinking and, • Should the governance of fisheries due to quota shortage, many inshore continue to emphasize top-down vessels are now dependent on quota centralized control or is there a leasing arrangements with the larger need to decentralize and companies.” democratize the process?

In effect, the landowner becomes a tenant. Merits and demerits The fisherman who yesterday sold his In the context of EU and many other large vessel to an expanding company fisheries, greater debate is urgently now has to lease quota from the company required on the merits and demerits of the in order to operate his small inshore current numerical system of fisheries vessel. Ethorsson foresees the present management—whom does it well serve, trend resulting in the majority of and whom does it ill serve? Such a debate Icelandic ITQs being owned by is required before, rather than after, any multinational companies and ponders further fine-tuning. Perhaps Pinchot’s what the national benefit from such words of 1910 might be the best guide for efficiency might be. such a debate.

In Reply: Chaos and Parametric Management, J. A. Wilson, James Acheson and Peter Kleban recently asked the following questions: This article is by Joan McGinley, a fisheries researcher and • Should rules restraining fishing be campaigner, based in Ireland designed to emphasize the maintenance of a balance between harvesting and spawning or

16 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Peru Conservation The roar of the sea lion

When nature conservation efforts grow irrational, the results can be disastrous, as shown by the case of the sea lions off Peru

ccording to FAO, there are 116 The total population of Peru’s artisanal species of marine mammals in the fishworkers, including those in the coastal Aworld. Of these, 60 are found in and continental areas, is 45,000. Of this, 40 the South East Pacific (Ecuador, Chile, per cent fish without vessels, Peru). It is commonly recognized here that the pinnipeda compete with fish for A comparison of the figures for the resources. The pinnipeda in Peru number of artisanal fishing craft and comprise the southern fur seal southern sea lions justifies the call to (Arctocephalus australis) and the southern regulate the growth of the southern sea sea lion (Otaria byronia). The latter, lion population through a rational cull. because of their great numbers, pose a huge problem for the artisanal fisheries. Year Artisanal Vessels Sea Lions 1971 4,700 30,054 In Peru, this is a particularly significant 1981 5,171 49,185 problem and, since 1970, when the Ministry of Fisheries was created, it has 1990 5,960 103,562 received greater government attention. 1997 6,258 195,000 Yet, 27 years after the creation of the Ministry, only three multisectoral official IMARPE recommended the harvest of 2,800 commissions have been constituted to and 4,500 sea lions in 1984 and 1992 tackle the problems created for fishermen respectively, based on the principles of a by the sea lion. Plan of Global Action for Marine Mammals developed between 1978 and Since 1991, Peru’s artisanal fishworkers 1983. During a meeting of experts in Costa have been represented by the Federation Rica in 1995, the Peruvian delegation, for the Integration and Unification of the represented by IMARPE, recommended Artisanal Fishworkers of Peru (FIUPAP). legislation for a programme to control the The Federation is very actively involved population of southern sea lions and also in developing and promoting the artisanal to curtail their interaction with the sector, It has a representative in the fisheries through means that do not seven-member official commission (with negatively affect their population. the National Director of Artisanal Fishery as chairman) constituted to determine Environmental groups “actions to diminish the interference of the However, these recommendations have southern sea lion in the artisanal fishery.” not been applied in Peru, mainly due to pressures exerted by national According to the census by FIUPAP and environmental groups which resist any IMARPE (Instituto del Mar del Peru) in action to control the population of 1995-96, there are 6,258 artisanal fishing southern sea lions. Worse, these groups do vessels, of which 2,500 have an average not furnish alternative solutions for this capacity of 2.5 gross registered tonnage problem. (GRT), using drift-nets to fish for species like Peruvian silverside, eastern Pacific Granted that these days the bonito, lorna drum, cabinza grunt and trade-environment nexus is an important palm ruff. Peru’s artisanal sector includes and controversial subject internationally. vessels up to 30 GRT. Yet, in the application of unilateral

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 17 18 Peru SAMUDRA JULY1996 Peru measures under the pretext of environmental protection, there seem to be forces working against the commercial interests of Peru. The access of its artisanal fishery products to the markets of developed countries would be affected.

he southern sea lion does not figure in international conservation Tagreements because its survival is not in danger. On the other hand, the negative economic impact on the incomes of the fishworkers and communities of Peru is not taken into account, nor is the significant contribution of artisanal fishery to global nutrition security.

A preliminary study by FIUPAP has estimated the annual damage caused by the southern sea lion to the artisanal fleet at US$64 million. FIUPAP is now evaluating the economic impact on other techniques of fishing, so as to assess the larger economic consequences.

Although Peru’s artisanal fishery receives support from FONDEPES (National Fund for Fisheries Development), there is very little investment in credit programmes for equipment, vessels or diversification of the fishery. In 1995 and 1996, these investments amounted to only US$3 million and US$6 million respectively.

Considering that fishing is the second most important economic activity after mining, the negative impact of the sea lions on the incomes of Peruvian fishermen is considerable. Artisanal fishworkers are those principally concerned with maintaining an adequate ecological equilibrium in marine areas. The survival of these communities depends on the availability of marine resources. While we recognize the rights of marine mammals to live in the sea, we must not forget to maintain some sort of equilibrium.

In Peru, however, no such equilibrium is sight. The situation appears set for a struggle for survival, in which the greatest This article written by Manuel Milla, damage would be precisely to the an artisanal fisherman from FIUPAP environment. In such a scenario, the (Federation de Integracion y blame should not be hurled at artisanal Unificion de los Pescadores fishworkers but at the mercenaries of the Artesanales del Peru), has bean conservation movement, who translated by Luz Pisua of Instituto misunderstand the relationship between Huayuna, Lima, Peru conservation and development.

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 19 Faroese fishermen Skilled fishers, bungling economy

Faroe Islands The work of Foraya Fiskimannafelag, the association of Faroese fishermen, highlights the problems facing the Islands’ fisheries

he very first ships from the Faroe waters during summer. During winter, Islands sailed to fish in East they fished in Faroese waters and landed TIceland Din 1872. That was when their iced catches in British harbours. the Faroese marine fishery began. By the 1930s, the fishery had evolved to such an At the same time, a large fleet of foreign extent that most of the males in the Faroe trawlers, especially British ones, fished in Islands were aboard ships in the waters Faroese waters. The foreign fleet had its surrounding Iceland from spring to fall, golden period of expansion in the 1950s. the season for marine fishing. The ships But, at the start of the 1960s, restrictions on were very primitive, for a very long time Faroese distant-water fishery began to not better equipped than Noah’s Arc. take effect. The introduction of quotas made Faroese shipowners shift attention They had hardly any safety equipment to local grounds, emboldened by the and often capsized, losing all the hands experience of Aberdonian fishermen who on board. The crew invariably came from came to fish near the Faroe Islands, even the same village as the skipper and there though they had to sail all the way back to were, therefore, many family members Aberdeen to land the catch. working on a ship. Consequently, when a ship went down, the loss of lives meant For a start, two trawlers identical to the immense tragedy for the entire village. ones belonging to the Aberdonians, were ordered by Faroese fishermen. These Faroese fishermen also began to fish near trawlers had limited success. It turned out Greenland in 1925. For many years, the that the Faroese, who had been very fisheries near Iceland and Greenland skilful at fishing in the waters of other were the main source of fish for the Faroe countries, were inexperienced when it Islands. In addition, fishing commenced came to their own fishery. in Canadian waters and in the Barents Sea as well as in Norwegian and Russian In fact, when trawling intensified, it waters. became necessary to hire old Scottish skippers to train their Faroese Later on, the North Sea gained counterparts. The Faroese fishermen soon importance as a ground for Faroese became as skilful as the Scottish. The fishermen. In the early days the fishermen greater capacity to catch fish was due to used a hand-line to catch cod from depths the growth of the Faroese trawler fleet. of up to 300 m. Each person was paid This, of course, raises the issue of whether according to the number of fish caught. trawlers have a lung-term harmful effect on fish stocks, compared to more passive Until 1970, most of the Faroese catch came techniques like longline and hand-line from distant waters. The fishery near the fishing. Faroe Islands was limited to seasonal line fishing (longline and hand-line) from Exclusive zones smaller fishing vessels. Exclusive economic zones (EEZs) of 200 miles were introduced everywhere in the These vessels supplied fish to the very North Atlantic on 1 January 1977. The modest fillet industry which existed then. fishing industry had to necessarily adapt. The larger fishing vessels fished in Fishing vessels cut down on crew size. Icelandic, Greenlandic and Canadian Instead of processing the fish on board,

20 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Faroe Islands

which called for a large crew, the catch which command stable prices in global now had to be landed for processing at the markets. Saithe, however, fetches a lower fillet factory ashore, Where previously the price and must compete with cheaper crew size was 25 men, a typical crew now species from other parts of the world, like consisted of only nine. pollack from Alaska and saithe from the South Atlantic. he surplus fishermen began working in fillet factories. They The example of cod illustrates how Tcould return home every evening, difficult it can be for a community to instead of being away from their families depend entirely on fishery. Statistics show for months on end. In record time, about that, on average, 30,000 tonnes of cod were 20 fillet factories sprouted all over the caught yearly near the Faroe Islands until Faroe Islands and the trawler fleet swelled the 1980s. to 80. However, at the start of the 1990s, the If the Faroe Islands is compared to, for catch gradually started to decline and instance, Iceland or North Norway, they dwindled to 6,000 tonnes by 1993. appear as a mere little speck on the map, Haddock suffered the same fate too. as are the waters surrounding them. In comparison, Iceland and North Norway This decline in catch of the Islands’ most are whole continents surrounded by vast valuable fish was a catastrophe for the oceans. The scanty natural resources of the Faroese community. The effect of lowered Faroe Islands partly explain the crisis incomes of fishermen, shipowners, fillet which they faced in the early 1990s. factories and their employees quickly spread to the rest of the community. That the Islands’ natural resources are more meagre than those of Norway or The crisis in the cod and haddock fishery Iceland is evident from a comparison of especially hit the traditional inshore the groundfish species. Icelandic and fishery of smaller fishing vessels using Norwegian fisheries abound in cod. longlines. For this group of fishermen, it was indeed a catastrophe. The situation is quite different in the Faroe Islands. Normally, it is saithe which is Serious situation caught in large quantities, while cod ranks How serious the situation was can be second. Cod and haddock represent only gauged by the fact that the International a third of the catch of groundfish near the Council for the Exploration of the Seas Faroe Islands. These are expensive species (ICES) advised a complete closure, of the

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 21 cod fishery in Faroese waters. This everywhere in the Faroese waters, a fact closure actually came about also confirmed through tests conducted automatically, since there were simply no by the Faroese Fishery Research Centre. cod left to be caught. The growth of the cod fishery gradually became so pronounced that the Faroese he official explanation for the government and biologists recommended disappearance of cod was that, A a Canadian biologist be engaged for an Faroe Islands Tfrom the beginning; stocks had independent estimation. The Canadian been so greatly overfished that it was biologist concluded that considerably doubtful whether the species were able to larger quantities of cod existed than had reproduce at all. been estimated by the Faroese biologists. The quota for cod in the summer of 1995 This crisis in the cod fishery showed how was set at 10,000 tonnes, as recommended difficult it is, in fact, to predict the size of by ICES. The quota was subsequently fish stocks. In 1994, the Faroese mooted to range between 15,000 and fishermen’s catch of cod began to increase 17,000 tonnes. However, after political considerably. This went against the interference, the final quota was set at biologists’ recommendation of a slow 18,500 tonnes. increase, as cod stocks would only be rebuilt gradually. Additionally, the In this context, it is worth mentioning that biologists had, as late as 1993, dashed the the conservation committee, consisting of fishermen’s hope of a return of the cod in representatives of active fishermen, had the same quantities as in the Fast. recommended a quota of 19,000 tonnes. This recommendation was initially Unfortunately for the biologists, the rejected as pure nonsense by the very increase in cod catches continued. This people who considered themselves actually created problems for the knowledgeable in these matters. fishermen because their limited by-catch Revealingly enough, the Canadian quotas for cod were fished long before the biologist’s estimate of Faroese fish stocks other quotas were used up. As a result, was considerably closer to that of the fishing vessels lay idle, since it was almost fishing industry itself, rather than that to impossible to fish without high cod which ICES had lent its name. by-catches. Large quantities The fishermen also found that it was not In fact, there had never been as much cod just limited areas that had more cod than in Faroese waters as in recent years. The were ‘supposed’ to exist. Cod were trawlers were the first to catch

22 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Faroe Islands unexpectedly large quantities. Then, the haddock. If the fishery had evolved as it longline fishing vessels, contrary to wide did the previous year, it would not have experience, caught record amounts of cod been difficult to stay within the limits of in the midst of summer. The Faroese the quotas, since there was no cod then in fishing boats which used hand-lines also the waters near the Faroese Islands. had record catches. From initially recommending no catch at all in 1993, ICES However, since it is almost impossible to soon recommended a catch of 24,000 reliably estimate the size of fish stocks, the tonnes, closer to the long-term average quota system was absolutely impossible cod catch of 30,000 tonnes per year. to manage. The cod by-catches increased in size, proportionate to the main catch of he biologists now admit that what saithe. Quite inevitably, the cod happened to the cod is a mystery. by-catches were fished before the main TThe cod, which is now caught in catch of saithe. Such a quota system will huge quantities, is of a size that did not inevitably lead to ‘creativity’ among the exist earlier, contrary to the Faroese fishermen. Cod will be thrown overboard biologists’ claims. The cod must have so that the landed quantities are finally migrated to other waters, only to return to equivalent to the actual quota. Otherwise, Faroese waters, although no one knows cod will be ‘renamed’, to be registered as where they migrated to. However, there is another species of fish to which no quota undoubtedly a correlation between the applies. disappearance of food in the sea near the Faroe Islands and the disappearance of the The fishing industry soon complained cod. Significantly enough, when the food that it could no longer accept the present returned, so did the cod. system where the quotas allocated had no relation to the size of the respective fish The fishermen’s experience with saithe, stocks. At the request of the fishing which was the opposite, leads to the same industry, the government appointed a conclusion. In 1996, the saithe catch was committee to find a solution to these significantly less than predicted. problems. There was a lot of scepticism as According to biologists, the relatively to whether a committee composed of good years for saithe have now fishery authorities and fishery biologists disappeared. This raises doubts on could come to an agreement at all. whether there is a correlation between Contrary to expectations, the committee large amounts of cod and small amounts arrived at an agreement. In 1996, it of saithe. The experience of fishermen proposed to replace the present quota shows that very seldom do both saithe and system with a regulating system to be cod exist in plenty at the same time. based on (i) area closures to rebuild fish stocks, and other technical regulations; Aided by a parasite-induced decline in the and (ii) the number of days vessels can export prices of Faroese fish products, spend at sea fishing. trade collapsed in the 1990s, affecting banks too. It became necessary to borrow In those areas where cod were found, area money from Denmark to prevent banks closures were instituted either going bankrupt. These loans had severe permanently or for part of the year. In conditions, including a quota system some instances, the whole fishery was introduced in 1994. One condition for a closed. In others, only trawling was quota system to work properly was the prohibited. The committee felt that these availability of reliable fish stock estimates. conservation measures would prevent overfishing of stocks. In addition, a limit The quotas for cod and haddock were set to fishing days was introduced for each on the basis of their stocks being in a fishing vessel. The regulatory system took terrible condition. The quota for saithe effect from 1 June 1996. It is too early to tell was set considering the fact that saithe whether this new system will satisfy the stocks were in a reasonably good state. demands made on it. Accordingly, pair trawlers, which comprise the largest group of big fishing Planned economy vessels, were allocated a large quota of The Faroese fishing industry has still not saithe, but a small quota of cod and recovered from the crisis. Nevertheless,

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 23 Fiskimannafelag (FF), the association of fishermen, was founded in 1911. The next year FF succeeded in reaching a collective agreement with the shipowners, the first such agreement in the Faroese labour market.

Faroe Islands FF’s aim is to work for fishermen’s interests. In the first few years, FF concentrated its energies on improving the collective agreement with the shipowners. There were quite a few disputes in that period and in 1934 the feelings among the members ran so high that FF got divided. However, it was reunited in 1957.

The activities of FF have increasingly broadened in scope. Much of its work involves representing fishermen before public authorities, for instance, in committees which decide the fishermen’s there has been considerable progress. in interests. However, the Faroese Until 1989, a subsidy scheme existed and authorities felt that FF was exerting too prices were fixed. much influence through its representation in these committees. Consequently, the his system, part of a planned most important committees were economy, contributed to the disbanded. economic collapse. It has since T FF has also worked actively with been replaced by a totally free market system, based on the suggestions of the international trade unions. Since the fishermen’s association. The 1960s, it has been a member of the open-market system led to a considerable International Transport Workers’ increase in the value of different species Federation (ITF), which has approximately of fish. Now, an increasingly large part of four million members in around 100 Faroese groundfish is sold in auctions, countries. ITF is divided into eight partly controlled by the fishermen’s sections, one of which deals with fishing. association. As chairman of the fishing section since As a ‘solution’ to the economic crisis, 1980, I have had ample opportunities to creditors forced the Faroese community represent the Faroese fishermen’s to consolidate most fillet factories into interests internationally and have a fair one single company. Afterwards, some of inkling of their problems. Faroese these factories began to purchase fish, fishermen are paid according to the while others were rented out for different collective agreement between FF and the purposes and still others were closed. shipowners’ association. Unlike most Most Faroese resisted this consolidation. other workers, fishermen are paid a share They were right to be resentful since this of the value of production or the value of model proved to be an ultimate failure. the catch.

It is of utmost importance that the Faroe A typical collective agreement provides Islands develop other industrial activities the fishermen with a share of 27 per cent to supplement fishing. Politically, there of the catch value, which is divided has been such an effort, but it is a slow equally among the crew. process, though proceeding in the right direction. Other benefits The fishermen also receive vacation pay, It was in reaction to the formation of the 12 per cent of one share. The shipowners shipowners’ association that Faroya also pay a bonus to the officers.

24 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Faroe Islands Needless to add, such a wage system can species which can fetch good prices. create huge variations in the fishermen’s Experimental fishing with longlines has incomes. Consequently, it has become succeeded in these waters. Since Faroese necessary to provide the fishermen with fishermen are very experienced with guaranteed incomes, paid through public longlines, they are best equipped to or government funds. explore these new opportunities. However, the special ground conditions he fishermen started to get such in these waters necessitate intensive incomes in 1950. This has gradually research before the fishing industry can Tbeen raised over the years, thanks make profits. The Faroese authorities have to the persistent efforts of FF. Presently, the a huge task in exploring these new wage system works in such away that the Opportunities. fishermen are guaranteed a minimum wage equal to the daily wage of an Based on a SWOT (strengths-weaknesses unskilled worker who works eight hours opportunities-threats) analysis, it can be a day, or a fifth of a 40-hour week. Many said that the biggest strength of the Faroe believe that the guaranteed income is Islands is the existence of a very skilled unreasonably high and there have been workforce of fishermen. The best proof of many political attempts to get it reduced. this is the demand for Faroese fishermen to work on board fishing vessels in a Nevertheless, FF has resisted such changes number of foreign countries. It is easier for and ensured that the fishermen’s incomes Faroese fishermen to get a job on, say, a remain intact. FF also sees possibilities in Norwegian vessel than in the Faroe Faroese fishermen exploiting more Islands. Another strength of the species of fish. For years it was believed workforce is that it is very flexible and that there were no fishing opportunities in boundaries between trades are totally Faroese waters, other than conventional unknown. The Faroese accept any work angling and trawling for traditional which is offered. Fishermen, for instance, species, such as cod, haddock, saithe and do not mind working on board foreign red fish. fishing vessels. Faroese artisans, as another example, seek employment in Once, a Spanish fishing vessel caught for Germany. illegal fishing in Faroese territory turned out to contain, to everybody’s surprise, Overdependence quantities of monkfish caught with nets. The biggest weakness of the Faroe Islands Nobody in the Faroe Islands had thought is its overdependence on fishery, that kind of fishery possible. The illegal including aquaculture. Another weakness Spanish catch motivated the Faroese has been the unstable political situation in fishermen to harvest monkish in a similar the Faroe Islands, However, it is fashion, and they were successful. As a politically agreed that the fishing industry secondary effect, other fishing vessels must be stable. But the geographical have started fishing Greenland halibut situation of the Islands is a drawback. The with nets, also successfully. After the Faroe Islands must establish closer traditional financial institutions refused to relations with Europe as quickly as loan money, the fishermen’s association possible. Politically, there is agreement on itself helped the fishermen to purchase the the need for such close ties. necessary equipment for this kind of fishing. Among the other species of fish in Faroese waters which are not fully exploited is the blue whiting, a very cheap fish found in plenty in these waters.

It also appears that more fishing This article is written by Oli Jacobsen opportunities exist in international who became a fisherman when he waters, along the Mid-Atlantic Ridge was 14 yeas old and is today the which stretches from south of chairman of Foroya Iceland/Greenland to the Azores. Fiskimannafelag, the Faroese Research has shown that it is possible to Fishermen’s Association fish different kinds of new and exotic

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 25 Aquaculture Too great a cost El Salvador Salvador El The costs of aquaculture may far outweigh the benefits, as a cost-benefit analysis done in El Salvador suggests

n the developing world, aquaculture Mangroves comprise a rich, humid is a growth industry. The cultivation ecosystem which is diverse in fauna and Iof shrimp and fish in tanks or flora. Marine and estuarine fauna, such as excavated ponds yields high returns and crab, mussels, shellfish, shrimp and fish, earns much-needed foreign exchange. are essential to coastline communities, However, it is the location of these tanks providing them not only a source of and ponds that critically determines income but also a valuable source of whether this is a sustainable activity, protein. Mangroves also provide timber whether fragile environments are and fuelwood as well as a host of other degraded or maintained and whether the non-timber products and environmental net returns are the result of services. Mangrove wood commands a profit-maximizing or mere cost-shifting. high market value, being easily worked to make furniture and for construction These are not rarefied questions of purposes. For many coastal populations, interest only to those pisicologists who it is also an important source of fuel and care about fish cultivation or to the charcoal. bankers and economists who are concerned about exports and growth. Mangroves provide security for wild and Rather, it is a question of sustainability, of plant life, on which coastal and interior community rights and, ultimately, of populations depend as a source of protein, environmental justice. skins, nuts and medicines. Mangroves also provide environmental functions, Consider the case of El Salvador, where, such as barrier protection, drainage and as in many other parts of the developing filtration, stabilizing the coastline and world, a substantial portion of the surrounding agricultural lands and remaining mangroves is under threat furnishing them with natural windbreaks, from conversion to aquaculture. On the fresh water and conduits. one hand, this represents an opportunity to generate income, to produce shrimp Approximately 112,000 Salvadoran for export and to capitalize on the current families depend directly on the 26,700 First World penchant for this tasty hectares of mangrove and brackish forests delicacy. for their living. The conversion of mangroves to aquaculture ponds On the other hand, the development of displaces the livelihoods of these families aquaculture contributes to the and denies them traditional access to the irreversible loss of a rich and diverse environmental goods and services that the ecosystem that is vital to offshore and mangroves provide. estuarine fisheries, an ecosystem that secures a collection of subsistence and Mangrove conversion industrial activities and one that hosts a In addition, the conversion of mangroves multitude of irreplaceable fauna and for aquaculture threatens other groups flora. This dilemma is at the center of the whose economic interests are intimately development conundrum: What are the connected to the existence of the trade-offs between growth and equity? mangroves. The mangroves secure the How much environmental wealth must breeding grounds for industrial shrimp be sacrificed to increase GDP? Who fishing, an activity which contributes to benefits and who loses? approximately 40 per cent of all

26 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 El El Salvador agricultural export revenues. The export products, both timber and non-timber. of shrimp alone generated approximately The FFS is responsible for the rational 231 million colons or US$27 million for El management of the mangrove systems, Salvador in 1993. the allocation of access rights and the overview and implementation of little over 4,000 hectares, or reforestation efforts. almost 16 per cent, of the total Aremaining area of mangrove Despite this, however, the DGNR has little forest in El Salvador was estimated to be authority to enforce regulations and is prime land for aquaculture. Many private significantly under-resourced, as it has investors eagerly await the opportunity to been subject to substantial downsizing purchase land, obtain permits to clear up under structural adjustment agreements the mangroves, and construct ponds and to reduce the size and cost of government. tanks for shrimp cultivation. Before May1992, petitions for rights to use While there are several analyses of the forest land to convert to agriculture, salt or profits generated by such an activity, the shrimp ponds were made to the FFS in the conflicts over access rights and the true Ministry of Agriculture. This agency environmental costs of conversion have would review the claims, and, if not been fully explored. This calls for not approved, estimate the number of trees to a mere calculation of costs and benefits, be cut down, apply a stumpage fee, and but an examination of the value society levy a state tax accordingly. In a similar places on the environment. It is important fashion, usufruct rights to state-owned to consider how the costs and benefits are land were also granted by the FFS, and distributed: asking who wins and who stumpage fees levied if land use entailed loses highlights the concentration of the destruction or loss of tree cover. power and the exercise of choice. Stumpage fee Nominally, state legislation protects all The stumpage fee paid to the state was 25 mangrove and brackish forests. These centavos (less than US$0.05 in 1992) for ecosystems are state property, managed each mangrove tree felled. In May 1992, by the Forestry and Fauna Service (FFS), this rose to 2.5 colones (US$0.29) per tree. and subject to administration by the The stumpage fee was unrelated to the Director General of Natural Resources replacement cost of reforestation or to the (DGNR) in the Ministry of Agriculture. The environmental damage suffered as the FFS has the power to authorize, control and result of deforestation. It also remained regulate the access to, and use of, all forest too low to provide an effective

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 27 El Salvador Salvador El

disincentive for illegal felling or mangroves of tidal waters and enable the encroachment. applicant to qualify for land conversion rights. any aquaculture investors and timber merchants went ahead In part because of the inability to enforce Mand cleared land before existing legislation, and in part because of seeking permits to do so. Due to staff and initiatives to expand aquaculture and budget constraints, the stumpage fee promote investment in export-oriented scheme was generally self-reporting, activities, mangrove conversion requiring those who had committed such continues. It is often assumed that the an infraction to declare the extent of the most profitable decisions are taken and El mangroves cleared after the event. Salvador can only benefit from the Occasionally, the Forestry Service was conversion of mangroves for aquaculture. able to verify the amount of mangroves While planners and policymakers like to cleared, but, in general, the stumpage fees believe that rational decisions are made levied were not subject to effective about the allocation and use of all goods monitoring or enforcement. and services, reality tends to belie tat assumption, In response to extensive mangrove deforestation, a logging ban was Ask an artisanal fisher in El Salvador introduced in May 1992 that forbade whether the benefits from the conversion further clearance and forest conversion. of mangrove forests to aquaculture ponds The ban extends to all uses including outweigh the costs, and the reply would fuelwood, construction and commercial probably be, “Most certainly not.” A trade. Licences to convert tracts of forest similar reply would most likely come to agriculture, shrimp ponds or salt flats from fishers elsewhere in the world. But have been temporarily suspended. ask an aquaculturist and he would probably reply that it depends acutely on However, the logging and clearance ban how the ponds are managed and the applies only to trees which are still being intensity of the activity. Ask an investor in serviced by the tides. If it is possible to aquaculture and he would most likely establish that the tides no longer service reply that he neither knows nor cares. an area of mangrove, an application can be made to remove the remaining Bottom lines mangrove trees. There is no preclusion This is because investors are concerned for the strategic construction of barriers about their bottom lines—the profits that that may temporarily starve existing they reap—and as long as they do not bear

28 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 El El Salvador the costs of environmental degradation, account of their different growth and and are not forced to compensate those regeneration rates. who have lost livelihoods, and as long as their .profits are not compromised, they The data was used to estimate the have no reason to be concerned. importance of mangroves for marine fisheries. Since mangroves provide the To answer the question of whether breeding grounds for many marine and benefits outweigh costs, a group of estuarine fish, the total production of fish economists, socio-biologists and artisanal is intimately related to the extent and fishers decided to calculate the costs and density of the mangrove areas. benefits from aquaculture. We chose a site in western El Salvador in the Department Using multiple regression techniques, we of La Union in the Gulf of Fonseca. demonstrated that the size of the artisanal and industrial catch was a function of the The idea was simple- We would calculate total extension of mangroves. This the value of the forest assuming that it is allowed us to monetize the fisheries deforested at current rates, and the value production that the mangroves of all the benefits that it would secure if it supported. were to remain the same size and not converted. We would compare these A group of local community members, values with those in which all the land fishers, NGOs and forestry service potentially available for conversion to employees helped design the hypothetical aquaculture was excavated to form sustainable management option. A shrimp ponds. harvesting scheme was developed that-would enable fuelwood and timber These three different scenarios were to be harvested by the local community. A labelled: the current management compensation scheme was devised to strategy; the partial conversion strategy; incorporate local fuelwood traders into and the sustainable management strategy. the management of the mangroves to We would account for all the costs and ensure that illegal deforestation did not benefits, the loss of fuelwood and timber, continue. the loss of fish in the estuaries and at sea, and compare these to the benefits Each household was expected to purchase generated by selling a high value-added an improved fuelwood or propane gas product which earns foreign exchange. stove using a soft loan facility operated by the management committee and financed The approach we chose synthesized from income collected by the Ministry of qualitative and quantitative methods, Agriculture for industrial drag-net using rapid rural and participatory trawling violations. appraisal techniques and survey instruments to gather information. Since costs and benefits occur over time, they must be discounted to reflect a single We constructed a household survey to value that has meaning at one point in develop estimates of the demand for time. A dollar today is not the same as one timber and fuelwood and the use of other dollar tomorrow. Therefore, all figures forest products such as herbs, spices, were discounted by the real rate of interest mammals and crustacea. We undertook a on long-term government bonds, 7.08 per fishing survey to estimate the returns from cent, so as to express them in terms of marine and estuarine fishing activities, current values.

These data were added to Ministry of Costs and benefits Agriculture’s data on industrial and After all costs and benefits were artisanal fisheries. We surveyed shrimp, accounted for, both for the conversion farms and collected data on yields, shrimp option and for the sustainable larvae production, costs of operation and management option, we were able to profits. We gathered data on the price of compare the net benefits (benefits minus fuelwood and timber. All this information costs) and answer the question: do the was combined to develop a measure of the final benefits from aquaculture outweigh value of the mangroves over time, taking the costs?

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 29 30 El Salvador SAMUDRA JULY1996 El El Salvador Table: Net Present Value of the Different Scenarios from 1994 to 2050 at Current Market Prices (Thousands of 1992 colons)

Mangrove Management Options Net Present Value in Thousands of Colons Current Management Strategy 17,552 Fuelwood and timber 718,608 Artisanal shrimp and fish 859,236 Industrial shrimp 3,275 Rustic salt and shrimp 1,598,671 Total Partial Mangrove Conversion 55,445 Clearance logging 10,010 Fuelwood and timber 700,981 Artisanal shrimp and fish 724,514 Industrial shrimp 105,721 Shrimp ponds 1,596,671 Total Sustainable Management Strategy 23,809 Fuelwood and timber 761,652 Artisanal shrimp and fish 1,444,080 Industrial shrimp 3,275 Rustic salt and shrimp 2,232,816 Total

We are able to conclude that the net There are other means of assigning access present value of the sustainable rights to the mangroves and allowing for management strategy exceeds that of the the continued, yet sustainable, use of these other two management options. The net forests. Concerns about environmental present value of benefits reaped under justice and sustainability should guide sustainable management exceeds that our choices about all decisions to generated under partial mangrove transform, degrade or utilize natural conversion by US$ 73,120,115 (in 1992, environments. $1=8.7 colons). The chorus of investors and exporters If the period for which these benefits were who champion growth at the expense of calculated was longer, say 100 years equity and short-term profits at the instead of 56, the benefits from the expense of biodiversity must not drown sustainable management option would the voices of communities whose far exceed those from the other proposed livelihoods are lost nor the voices of those management strategies. who value the continued existence of mangroves. In this light it would seem that conversion of mangrove areas to aquaculture farms needs to be reconsidered. Evidently, mangroves need not be deforested to cultivate shrimp. This article is written by Sarah Gammage, an economist with the There are alternatives for the design and International Centre for Research operation of aquaculture ponds that do on Women, Washington DC. not degrade the environment, displace artisanal fishers and cause the irrevocable loss of biodiversity.

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 31 Ceara fishermen

Brazil Brazil Sailing for a cause

A spirited campaign in the shape of a 76-day voyage of the S.O.S. Sobrevivencia highlighted the plight of the fishermen of Ceara, Brazil

he jangadeiros, fishermen of This time, the target was the Military northeast Brazil who sail on small Regime of Getulio Vargas, which was Trafts, have had considerable strongly supported by the US. The four impact on Brazil’s history. In 1884, Ceara men sailed 61 days on a raft made of six was the first Brazilian state to abolish tree trunks to tell the President about the slavery. Propelling this path breaking miserable working conditions of decision was a year-long protest by the jangadeiros and their need to be included jangadeiros, led by Francisco Jose do in the country’s social security system. Nascimento, the ‘Dragon of the Seas’, who was the founder of the Liberation The voyage caught the attention of the Society of Ceara. movie director, Orson Welles, who was in Brazil at the time making a film on At the time, Ceara, located in Brazil’s airy Roosevelt’s ‘Good Neighbour Policy’. northeast, was going through a severe Welles was so captivated by the courage drought which hit agriculture in the of the jangadeiros that he decided to make region. Not needing slaves, and to help a film about their struggle instead, doing pay their rising debts, the owners began so against the wishes of the State selling their surplus slaves to the state of Department, the Brazilian government, Pernambuco down the coast. The and his then employer, Rio. Rio fired jangadeiros, with their handy jangadas, Welles, who proceeded with the project were needed to transfer the merchandise only to experience tragedy. to the ships anchored out at sea. While re-enacting the jangadeiros arrival in No one reckoned with the high moral Rio, a large wave overturned their jangada standards of the humble fishermen who and, before Welles’ very eyes, Jacare was had decided on their own that slavery carried off by a wave and drowned. The was unjust. To demonstrate their will, the film project was canned and only jangadeiros began a boycott with the completed 52 years later, released by historic phrase: “No porto do Ceara nao Paramount under the title, ‘It’s All True’, se embarcam mais escravos!” (No more slaves will embark from the ports of Just as a film team was in Ceara for the Ceara) final shooting of ‘It’s All True’, a new protest movement came to life in the small The jangadeiros held fast against threats community of Prainha do Canto Verde. by the Emperor and his military. To show Work had begun with the fishermen in their unity, the ‘Dragao do Mar’ even 1991 to liberate them from a wicked travelled by ship to Rio de Janeiro in 1884 network of intermediaries that was with a gift for the Emperor Dom Pedro II: exploiting their hard and dangerous work the jangada ’Liberty’. Even though the and pocketing huge profits by buying Emperor refused to see him, the trip was their catches of fish and lobster at a political success for the abolitionists, as manipulated prices. be was given a hero’s welcome by the people of the capital. Fishermen’s co-operative After less than a year of working to In 1941, it was the turn of ‘Jacare (the establish the co-operative of the Alligator) to sail to Rio de Janeiro with fishermen, it became clear that there were three other fishermen from Fortaleza. even greater evil forces at work to keep the

32 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Brazil

fishing communities in extreme poverty. surprise, the Captain of the Port Authority Real estate speculators were busy buying advised that the navy had overruled the up peach property using corruption and authorization for the trip given by the threats, while, at sea, a growing fleet of captain responsible for the area of Prainha motor boats had started to capture do Canto Verde, implying that the trip ever-growing quantities of lobster using should not take place. But there was no ill-equipped divers and capturing way that the crew, the organizers or ever-smaller juvenile lobsters. (Both supporters of the protest trip would heed diving and catching juvenile lobsters are the advice. prohibited by fisheries regulations.) On 4 April 1993, loaded with emotion, he conflict between artisanal tears, encouragement and worries, fishermen on their fragile jangadas fishermen from ports far away came in Tand armed bandits on motor boats their jangadas to escort the S.O.S. kept growing. The authorities failed to Sobrevivencia on the first leg of the intervene and enforce regulations, even as voyage. TV crews, photographers and four fishermen lost their lives from enemy reporters gave the simple fishermen a fire at sea. preview of what lay ahead of them; hundreds of interviews and TV talk shows The adventurous dream of one young on the more than 3,000 km that lay ahead fisherman, Edilson, to sail to Rio de of them. Janeiro, was probably inspired by ‘Jacare’ and his own grandfather, who together Absent, as always when things get hot, with two other fishermen from Prainha do were most of the representatives of the Canto Verde, sailed to Belem, Para on a state, municipal and federal governments. 14-day trip in 1928. The idea to unite the But the speakers who wished the sailors fishermen of various communities and well, were very clear about where the supporting NGOs gave the trip the sense problem lay—the rich are above the law, that it lacked. So, in three short months, and few people waste their time looking the logistics for the trip and the protest for justice for the poor. campaign were planned and financed. On its way A week before the scheduled departure, Shortly after 12 noon that day, the fishers’ the jangada and the crew were presented favourite priest, Padre Marco, celebrated to the press at the fishing port of Fortaleza. mass and christened the jangada to send it They made the headlines of all the on its way, well protected by the One who newspapers and TV stations, Taken by Cares. The small craft was rolled down the

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 33 beach, while thousands of well-wishers, their own little belongings, they took off, even the hardiest fishermen among them, after a three-day delay. let tears flow. Edilson (Fonseca

Brazil Brazil Fernandes), the Captain Mamede (Dantes Michelle Scharer, who holds a degree in de Lima), crew members Francisco (da zoology from the University of Central Silva Valente) and Francisco (Abilio Florida, had come down with fever on the Pereira da Silva) were busy tacking the day the trip was planned to start. Her wooden mast to sail through the surf and travel companion was Marlene Fernandes gain the wide open sea, accompanied by de Lima, then president of the Villages jangadas from neighbouring Residents Association. Both were in their communities, on the first leg of the trip. early twenties and faced a formidable challenge for the next two months, The trip had been carefully planned by a meeting the press, ensuring supplies for small group of young fishery engineers the jangada, organizing protest meetings from the local university and volunteers and communicating with Operation from NGOs working on issues of fishery, Headquarters in Fortaleza. To fill the gap ecology and human rights. Twenty stops of three days, I went ahead to Redonda, were planned along the coast of Brazil; Icapui, to meet the navigators arid the contacts with a variety of groups, members of the community and then fishermen’s colonies, women’s and drove to the third stop to organize local human rights groups and other support, before heading back to hand over movements were planned at each port. to the girls. Press releases were ready to brief journalists on the scope of the trip and Back at Prainha, the courage of the crew inform them about the great range of and the girls rubbed off on the fishermen. problems facing coastal communities all On 6 April, they went on strike to protest over Brazil. against delayed payments and the low lobster prices offered by buyers. They While the men started to prepare for the went back to sea only when the price went unexpected, two young women were up and the producers were paid in cash. getting ready to follow the route in a small two-door Volkswagen. Loaded to Storm at sea the last square inch with pamphlets, The jangadeiros faced their first serious background material, press releases, problem when they got caught in a petition forms, S.O.S. hats and T-shirts to 24-hour storm at sea. Used to facing many be sold to raise funds along the way, and a storm during fishing, they weathered this one too.

34 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Brazil Meanwhile, Michelle and Marlene had discussed with the communities in made contact with the Sisters of the different ports invariably turned to Convent and the fishermen’s pollution of coastal areas and wetland representative in Toros, Rio Grande do from industry or sugar cane plantations. Norte, unlikely allies who were fighting There were also problems relating to the local city hail which had sided with a fishing by divers, trawlers or those using foreigner who was terrorizing fishermen dynamite. with armed guards against using ‘his’ beachfront property for landing their Another common problem was real estate boats. speculation that drove fishermen’s families from their homes and threw them t was Holy Friday afternoon when, in back into the hinterland, in some cases the middle of the procession, Sister forcing them to travel over two hours by IAurea announced over the public bus to go to work, while earlier they used address system, the arrival of the jangada. to live right beside their boats. It was a great reception for four very tired fishermen, who had endured two Exactly one month into the trip, the S.O.S. sleepless nights, and also attended to Sobrevivencia appeared over the horizon Mamede, still running a high fever. for a triumphant arrival in Salvador, Bahia, the city on the Bay of Saints. The Although not fully recovered, they crew got a hero’s welcome at the Olodum decided to sail on, after spending three in the historic centre of Salvador, where days in this hospitable community and the world-renowned carnival takes place. learning more about the local problems—it seemed just like home, full Olodum is not only the home of famous of real estate speculators and pirates rhythm groups formed of kids who have diving after lobsters. come off the streets and regularly perform on tour in the us, Europe and Japan. Natal was the first capital city on the next Olodum is a social institution founded by segment of their trip. They arrived there blacks to help them win back pride in their on 14 April and got the first taste of the origin. Street children get a chance to go to hard life of celebrities—interviews with school, art and music clinics. four TV stations, three local radios and four newspapers. The navy sergeant made Tuesday just happened to be rehearsal up for his superiors when he told the crew day for Olodum and thousands of people that everybody at the port authority had filled the club in historical Pelourinho. supported the trip. After a grand The six adventurers got a standing reception in Cabedelo in the State of ovation from the crowd and the band beat Paraiba, complete with dazzling the maximum volume out of the drums. fireworks, a parade and a show organized That night it seemed that all the Negroes by the local fishing co-operative, they of Salvador were fishermen and all the headed for Pernambuco and the historical fishermen of Brazil were black, two city of Olinda. neglected groups of suffering people that need to recover their pride, unite and fight The girls arranged for a dentist’s for their existence. appointment to repair Edilson’s root canal that had been bothering him for the last The captain of the port in Salvador was not four days, while the jangada was working so hospitable and required the jangadeiros its way towards Olinda. The to sign a waiver of responsibility to relieve representative of the Fishermen’s Pastoral the navy of any blame in case they should arranged meetings with local groups and sink. But, on the whole, most of the helped Michelle and Marlene collect captains along the route were gracious. signatures for the petition, and sell hats Some even invited the crew for dinner at and T-shirts. home and praised their courage and spirit.

Then they went by sea and over dirt roads Letter of praise through the States of Alagoas and Sergipe, Ironically, we got a letter from the Public ahead to the country’s largest coastal Relations Officer of the Minister of the State, Bahia. The problems that were Navy in Brasilia, commending us on the

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 35 Brazil Brazil

initiative and offering any kind of artisanal fishing; and irresponsible support and assistance—perhaps a case tourism development. of what happens when the right hand does not know what the left is doing. The workshops attracted a good number of experts, students and others interested. As the trip went on, it became clear how Government representatives were invited important the female support team was to present their points of view, but were for the success of the campaign and the hard pressed for good answers. The well-being of the sailors. They looked workshops were the basis for concrete after just about everything, functioning as proposals that would be presented to all look-outs, escorts, shoppers, public the interested parties and sent to the relations agents and nurses, while facing President of Brazil, Itamar Franco, with thousands of kilometres (6,700 km in 74 signed petitions—over 2,000 were days) of dirt roads, often in very collected. inhospitable areas and far from habitation. The President did not respond to the request from the fishermen for a personal For the campaigners, the coast of Bahia audience in Brasilia to present the petition. seemed to have no end, through 16 days The Governor of the State of Ceara did not of sailing and 10 days of being stuck in the appear and never responded to the fashionable tourist resort of Forty Seguro proposals. To a foreign journalist, he due to bad weather. But it was also a time declared that the jangadeiros are long to make friends in new places and to talk overdue for display in museums. shop. Both Marnede and Francisco (Abillo) had earlier fished in the south on The support of the media in Fortaleza was industrial fishing ships and so knew impressive. We were invited to several some of the areas that lay ahead of thorn. morning news talk shows and given ample time to present the various aspects Back in Fortaleza, we were busy of the campaign. TV channels, radio and co-ordinating between the support team newspapers gave regular updates on the on the road, the concerned families of the trip down the coast, crew, the press and the participating NGOs. In May, we organized four Home stretch workshops on the campus of the Federal After crossing the State of Bahia, the University of Ceara on the themes of the campaigners were on the home stretch. campaign irresponsible fishing of lobster; Both the water and wind were getting real estate speculation; neglect of colder, as they were approaching winter

36 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Brazil in Rio. Another weather-imposed stop in ended on 19 June, after a three-and-a-half Vitoria cost the crew five days of precious hour flight back to Fortaleza and a hero’s travel time. reception in Prainha do Canto Verde that reunited all those—whether at sea, on the From then on, there were several difficult road or waiting anxiously back spots, with treacherous currents and home—who had given a small part of crosswinds. It took all the experience of their lives for a cause. Mestre Mamede to avoid a rocky island that seemed to be on collision course with Despite the negative response of the jangada. This was probably the scariest government officials, the fishermen of moment for the four intrepid travellers. Ceara did not give up and, over the years, kept up the pressure by forging new In Rio, the preparations for the team’s alliances to unite the fishing communities. arrival were in high gear and everything The resulting resurgence of the was planned for Saturday, 12 June, with a fishermen’s movement has since yielded fleet of boats ready to escort the S.O.S. some surprising results that are bound to Sobrevivencia across the Bay of have a lasting and positive impact on Guanabara. But the lord and master of the artisanal fishing in Brazil. skies once more did not co-operate.

The result was heavy clouds and no wind to move the jangada. But on the morning of Wednesday, 16 June, Rio de Janeiro awoke in all its scenic splendour to see, despite no winds, the jangada working its way towards the Pracxa XV (Square 15) in the centre of the city, with 15 video cameras shooting its progress from the accompanying schooner.

TV personalities, and songwriter Doryval Cayimmi, were at hand to receive the four modest fishermen and their two fighting ladies, who had travelled 76 days in a memorable campaign, yearning for somebody, somewhere to listen to the call of the fishermen of Brazil. The expedition

This report is by René Schärer, co-founder of the NGO, Instituto Terramar, member of the Fisheries Committee of the State of Ceara and father of the intrepid Michelle mentioned in the story

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 37 Lake Victoria fisheries

Kenya Kenya Throwing the dice

The development of fisheries in Lake Victoria seems set to follow global trends of overcapitalization

ishermen all over the world will advantage in the game of chance. agree that fishing is a game of However, as more people invest in the Fchance played with three dice: good new technology, the competitive edge is weather, good catch and good markets. If lost, and soon everyone is using the new all three are tossed in your favour, then technology. The initial increased earnings your earnings will be good. Inmost cases, of the Innovators may have enabled them however, at least one of the dice will be to pay off their capital costs and loaded against you: despite good weather accumulate wealth. The imitators, who and a good catch, unfavourable market follow, however, are always likely to be at prices can reduce your earnings. a disadvantage. As catches diminish (or Likewise, despite good weather and a incomes reduce as markets get saturated), favourable market place, your earnings earnings may not be enough to pay for may be reduced if you fail to make a good increased running and maintenance costs, catch. let alone make up the greater capital required for the initial investment. The judicious use of technology can load this game of chance in your favour, This can be illustrated with the case of granted, of course, that you have the Lake Victoria’s fisheries. The introduction necessary resource rights, technical skills, of flax and, subsequently, nylon gm-nets knowledge of weather, fish stocks and had a major impact on fish catches in Lake available market outlets. Victoria. Initially, significant surplus catches were made, but soon, as more For example, a more seaworthy boat and people invested in the nets, catch rates motorized propulsion can reduce the risk dropped. of bad weather curtailing fishing. A more powerful fishing unit with more It has been estimated that between the equipment like nets and fish finding early 1900s and 1953, the total length of devices can reduce the risk of a poor gill-nets rose from zero to 2,000 kin, market by improving the quality of the putting huge pressure on stocks and catch and making it possible to stock it for dramatically reducing catch rates. Thanks longer periods. Improvements in to their lightness and strength which technology can also make fishing safer made them easier to handle and use over and less arduous for fishworkers. rocky bottoms, the nylon nets enabled fishers to reach previously inaccessible Some of these issues are evident in Lake fishing grounds. Victoria, which has, for instance, witnessed significant loss of life due to However, it also pushed the fishing boats capsizing. More seaworthy boats pressure beyond the level where stocks would prevent this. Likewise, motorized could replenish themselves. Catch rates propulsion would take the backbreaking soon became unviable. Thus, tilapia toil out of rowing and help the fishermen catches declined from rates of 25 fish per get home sooner. net when gill-nets were first introduced, to less than one fish per net in the 1960s. In most cases, it is the technology innovators (those fishers who first take Signs of overfishing the risk of using a new technique or Similarly, over the last 10 years, there have fishing method) who gain the greatest been increasing signs of overfishing and a

38 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Kenya reduced catch per unit effort in the two With the boom in the Nile perch and omena main fisheries. Although statistical data is fisheries over the last 10 to 15 years, such quite limited, in the case of the Nile perch a trend is discernible in Lake Victoria. fishery, both average catches and average size of fish have reduced considerably. The additional capital and running costs Both the omena and tilapia fisheries also needed in modern fisheries tend to show evidence of reduced catch rates. encourage an industrialization process These are the classic symptoms of which invariably leads to fewer work overfishing. places (technology becomes capital-rather than labour-intensive), centralization of echnology choice and technical ownership of fishing assets, and the change can also be exclusive. vertical integration of the fish catching, TIncreasing requirements for capital marketing and processing sectors. or new technical skills may favour outside investors over local fishing communities. Fishing communities become displaced In most instances, technology change in and disadvantaged. Decentralized modem fisheries (or the ‘modernization’ communities of owner-operators, fish of fisheries) has led to substantial processors and vendors become replaced additional investments in capital, leading by distant, company-owned vessels and to greater industrialization, vertical factories. With increasing fishing pressure integration and, in many cases, and more competitive markets, the overcapitalization in fisheries. Modern economic returns to fishing reduce. The technology has dismantled traditional emphasis then shifts to high-value and barriers to entry in most fisheries. value-added fish products for distant markets or bulk catches of species of Generally, the modernization process in relatively low economic value to be used fisheries has not recognized traditional, as animal feed. community-based regulatory and management systems. Modernization has Market-driven transformed many fishery resources from In the end, it becomes the market which community-managed to open-access drives the fishery and local control is lost. ones. These throw up several implications With efforts concentrating on the export of for sustainability. Open and unregulated the Nile perch and on omena for animal access to resources has resulted in feed, export processing plants and animal unhealthy competition, and has feed factories are dominating fishing encouraged the use of non-selective and communities. Less fish is now available environmentally destructive fishing gear. for local consumption. This indicates that

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 39 Kenya Kenya

Lake Victoria’s fishery is well on its way technology, and social organizations to to being a market-driven, rather than distribute the benefits. community-controlled, fishery. This is why it is important to support At this stage in its development, initiatives like those of the Kenya-based technology change in Lake Victoria’s NGO, OSIENALA, aimed at community fishery has serious implications for the participation in management, survival of its fishing communities, for organization and empowerment, and the number of people it can employ, and why they need to be linked to any future for the supplies of valuable protein-rich technology developments in the Lake food for local consumption. Fisheries Victoria fisheries of Kenya, Uganda and management can not, be left to the Tanzania. mechanisms of the market, neither can regulation of technology be left to Global trends ineffectual state laws. Without such initiatives, Lake Victoria’s fisheries are likely to follow the trend set How can fishing communities make by fisheries in other parts of the world: appropriate technology choices to increasing centralization and become more productive, without concentration of ownership and undermining traditional management management, concentration on systems and depleting the resource base? high-value fish for export and bulk The use of capital-intensive, technically catches for fishmeal, fewer workplaces, efficient hardware for short-term reduced food security, and increased economic gain tends to increase pauperization in fishing communities. competitiveness, and works against sustainability.

’Intermediate technology’ options (between artisanal and capital-intensive fisheries) may offer a ‘middle road’ and provide for a more equitable development of fisheries. Technology This article has been written by hardware, on its own, can not solve the Brian O’Riordan of Intermediate problem. Appropriate delivery and Technology, Rugby UK support systems are also needed, as are institutions to regulate the use of

40 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Document South Africa A Marine Fisheries Policy

The White Paper on South African fisheries, released on 19 June, spells out the following management policy objectives

t is a policy objective that South Africa optimal depend; sustainable should develop and maintain a yields Icost-effective fisheries management structure with a broadly recognized • long-term management plans, acceptability that ensures that: which include operational management procedures, be • fisheries management in South developed to ensure optimal Africa, within the constraints of utilization of all significant living limited human and financial marine resources; resources, be conducted on a multidisciplinary basis and make • the harvesting of one species does use of the best available not endanger the continued knowledge. Special attention existence, or cause the substantial should be given to broadening the depletion of any other species, and scope and increasing the effort of that a variety of regulatory fisheries research within measures be introduced to avoid economic, social, cultural and such dangers, including the full other relevant non-biological protection of species, MPAs disciplines, and to integrating (Marine Protected Areas), their results with those of restrictions on fishing gear and numerical and biological studies methods of harvesting; in order to advance a well-balanced, comprehensive • fishing sectors be subject to basis for important decisions on environmental audits where policy options; applicable, and investigations on potential detrimental effects on • all fisheries sector practices marine and estuarine species and conform to relevant international their environment from activities standards, laws and treaties; causing environmental opportunities for meaningful disturbance or pollution be co-operation between South initiated or continued; Africa and those countries interested in helping development • implications of an economic and of the local fishing industry and its socioeconomic nature, ensuing associated infrastructure be from various policy options, are investigated with a view to properly identified, analyzed and enhancing the industry’s taken into account when decisions development; are made;

• levels and patterns of exploitation, • the principle of national determined on the basis of best co-ordination and control over the available scientific information, do use of South Africa’s living marine not jeopardize the soundness of resources and related research the resource, its environment or activities be entrenched, but on a the ecosystem on which basis of involving other authorities biodiversity and long-term in cases of non-mobile marine resources, which occur relatively

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 41 42 Document SAMUDRA JULY1996 Europe nearshore and which do not • adequate consultation take place overlap boundaries. When this is with representative, visible practicable, it may be necessary to industry organizations and involve networks of scientific democratic public bodies, allied to institutions to assist in the process. open, transparent administrative The inherent potential of procedures; introducing co-management structures shall be given special • an integrated strategy of attention in this respect; development and a coherent plan of strategy implementation, • cost-effective capability and capacity including the addressing of is put in place to enforce fishery appropriate funding schemes, be regulations effectively, to exercise developed in order to create a adequate overall monitoring, control favourable environment for and surveillance and to provide for sufficient contributions to public fisheries sector development. education, to ensure that the extent Some of the features of a fisheries and practices of all exploitation of sector development strategy South Africa’s living marine should be, first, to adopt short-, resources are consistent with the medium- and long-term principle of optimum sustainable perspectives, realizing that utilization. A well-functioning processes of development are Vessel Monitoring System, tailored difficult and complex and that to be compatible also with future they take time, and second, to regional needs in Southern Africa, is considered an essential tool in this support the establishment of an respect; adequately funded specialized • institutional structures of fisheries unit for fisheries and mariculture management in South Africa sector development (UFMD). adequately meet functional Special attention should be given demands linked to theft core role through this development plan to of providing the capability and the schemes of, and support for, capacity for the effective education, training and transfer of implementation of the fisheries technology; the organizing of policy by sound management. some decentralized structure of Furthermore, institutional advisory service units to cater for, structures should minimize for instance, support to improving bureaucracy but allow adequate local capacity of organizing and opportunities for user and interest managing small business groups to raise concerns and make enterprises, disseminating inputs to decision making, and information related to the supply should also promote the necessary of goods and services, markets, research, advice and channels of research, fisheries, mariculture communication for the and other governmental implementation of responsible management institutions; fisheries management through national and provincial • the establishment of basic participation and representation. infrastructure facilities in order to Empowerment of authority and minimize post-harvest loss, lines of communication between improve on the soundness of institutional levels and bodies working conditions, product should reflect realities of policy range and product quality; and management responsibility, thereby fostering realistic • the undertaking of a management accountability and comprehensive study on potential transparency; opportunities of developing a wide range of mariculture and/or • an ethic of training in its broadest fish farming/sea ranching sense be promoted within the activities, with a view to adopting fishing industry and its associated any new technology continuously community; becoming available worldwide to

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 43 prevailing South African or if deemed appropriate, a part-time conditions. Possibilities of fisher. attracting external donor financing and expertise to It is a policy objective that holders of facilitate such a study should be fishing rights and other fishing industry

Document investigated. operators should provide acceptable conditions of employment for all It must be emphasized that all these need employees. to be put in place to achieve the long-term sustainable utilization of all natural living Within the Government’s administrative marine resources of South Africa, and of structures, policy matters related to labour the environment in which they exist and and employment in all sectors of the in which mariculture activities may economy are the special responsibility of occur, to the benefit of the country as a the Department of Labour. whole, The Ministry and the Department will, The human resource needs of the fishing however, within the constraints of its industry are multidisciplinary in nature. specified statutory terms of reference, its A culture should be encouraged where scarce human and financial resources, and labour is seen not merely as a cost of its obligation to give priority to core production but as mankind with the activities and responsibilities, continue to dignity this entails. Good labour relations lend support to efforts at fostering will be promoted. improved relations between fishing industry employers and their labour force. Fair, humane and acceptable labour If required, it can also contribute in a practices, workers’ rights, job creation facilitating and liaising role to improving and security, sound working conditions, communication and relations between the health and safety, and welfare benefits of Department of Labour and representative employees in the industry will be organizations in the fishing industry. encouraged and, where appropriate, regulated. It is necessary to register all Legal report fisherfolk. Therefore, it will be necessary The full legal report identifies the to find suitable parameters in order to instances in which it will be necessary to establish a clear definition of a ‘fisher’ and amend the present Sea Fisheries Act in the level of activities which make him or order to achieve the policy objectives. It her eligible for registration as a full-time, also indicates those instances where the

44 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Document policy recommendations are not respect to utilization of living marine achievable by means of legislation. resources be drafted. However, it is further considered, in any event, that a he more important changes new Act is justified in view of the new proposed to am end the Act include policies that need to be introduced. Tinserting in the Act, a statement of policy objectives and principles in order to An example would be the need to ensure that the Act would be interpreted establish a Commercial Public Company, and applied in accordance with the as outlined in 4.6.1.1. New policies will policies identified in the policy itself, only be fully effective in the context of a specifically with regard to the RDP and new Act. With a new Act, it will be certain recent developments in possible to achieve both the necessary international law; specific degree of transparency as well as ensuring recommendations are also made for effective participation in the legislative changes to achieve the policy’s decision-making process. objectives in respect of access rights, in particular commercial access rights, recreational fishing, subsistence fishing, foreign fishing and mariculture.

With regard to Institutional Structures, the Legal Task Team based its findings on the provisions contained in the original proposal submitted to the Minister in June 1996, because an approved version of the White Paper dealing with this topic was not available when their report was being drafted. Certain changes of a philosophical nature would now be necessitated.

On resource management, the Legal Task Team recommended the incorporation of management plans into legislation.

Certain changes are also proposed to strengthen the enforcement aspects of the present Act. These include strengthening the penalties available and increasing the powers of fisheries inspectors, introducing provisions on the use of evidence gained from vessel monitoring systems, as well as the inclusion of a new offence of failure to stow fishing gear correctly.

A considerable number of amendments would be required to bring the present Sea Fishery Act into line with the policy objectives.

If these amendments are introduced, they would be of such a technical nature that This is excerpted from the White they would have the effect of introducing Paper on a Marine Fisheries Policy further complexities to the Act. for South Africa, prepared in May 1997, and officially released on 19 The Department accordingly June 1997. recommends that the present Sea Fishery Act be repealed and that a new law with

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 45 46 Gender SAMUDRA JULY1996 Impressions Senegalese fisheries The enemy is not just ‘out there’

A trip around Senegal brings forth same disturbing perceptions about the common enemy that confronts fisheries

n the Woluf language, ‘yaboye’ means signed. This agreement preoccupied not the sardinelle and mackerel caught in only our hosts, CNPS, but the entire nation. Iplenty by the coastal fishers of One wry observer from the fishing Senegal. Yaboye is the people’s food, community of Mbour quipped, “These bought and sold daily on the beaches of Europeans send us their ‘vaches folles’ the fishing villages of this West African (mad cows) and then they take away our nation. It ferments in the brine of the vats yaboye in return.” of the women fishmongers, after being landed at night in Gut Ndyar. It is peddled As far as we could see, the Senegalese in the markets of Thies and it is citizens were not going to take it lying transported to Mali and Burkina Faso. down. It will remain a significant challenge for CNPS to keep the issue in the Yaboye is pervasive and an essential public eye and to shame the authorities in ingredient for the food security of the Dakar and Brussels into revising an Senegalese people. It is a resource that agreement that is a travesty of supports thousands of fishing pirogues, North-South co-operation. not to mention a cast of thousands of handlers, brokers, buyers, sellers and We know the follies of industrial fishery processors. It also is what the and we know the powerful forces that hardworking families of Senegal eat. back these fleets. Our own MFU represents the small-boat inshore fishers of the So why would the Government of Senegal Maritime provinces of Canada (including place yaboye on the table of negotiations Newfoundland). Our fishers joined the with the Europeans over a new fisheries MFU in the late 1970s, having experienced agreement? Why would they sign an the decimation of their herring stocks over agreement against the wishes of CNPS the previous decade by industrial herring (Collectiv National des Pecheus du seiners, not from Europe or the US, but Senegal), the organization representing from our own Pacific coast. the men and women fishers and fishworkers of Senegal? In our case, the inshore fishers won a partial victory against the seiners, but only Why would the Senegalese authorities after the resource had been devastated allow 22 European industrial seiners to and the seiners made effectively bankrupt. come to Senegalese waters every year to It is to the credit of the MFU that we now take 25 million kg of this fish for sale and have them contained. Yet we have no consumption in Europe? Why would the illusions about the difficulties of getting authorities agree to such large allocations, this type of fleet under control before the when they know that enforcement is well resource is completely fished out. The nigh impossible? (The President of CNPS, Senegalese can not afford to wait for the Arona Daigle, believes that thrice the industrial seiners to go bankrupt and then authorized amounts will be finally move on—the yaboye is too vital to the caught.) country’s food supply and to the coastal economy. I was in Senegal on 25 March, with Frank McLaughlin, President of the Maritime Forming alliances Fishermen’s Union (MFU), when the With its extensive network of members agreement with the Europeans was and supporters, CM’S should build up a

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 47 campaign and form alliances with other CNPS. History, after all, does not exist in progressive forces. The eventual result textbooks—it is all around. One moment, may be success on the yaboye issue. the radio blares Celine Dion into the fishermen’s huts ten paces from the fish- n my opinion, however, it will not be landing sites on beaches where old a one-dimensional fight. Although donkeys haul the fish in carts. Impressions Impressions Ithe fact of Europeans grabbing food from Africans is scandalous, the issue will The next moment, Babou Mal, a West be downplayed by the authorities, African Bob Dylan, wails an inspirational politicians and experts. The quantities of ode to Africa, to the sounds of the ancient fish caught will be minimized in the cora, As the herds of sheep grow in European Parliament, while the number on the crowded streets, wending trade-offs wilt be trumpeted. their way daily into the market to be sold or sacrificed, you can sense the Foreign fishing in Senegalese waters is a approaching feast of Tabaski. long-term issue for CNPS, one of many that it, as a fishers’ organization, has to On the outskirts of Dakar is the fisheries deal with. The growth and organizational centre, CRODT, which charts fish habitats strength of CNPS is much more important with digital satellite tracking, while the that any other issue, including the fishers of Guet Ndar plot their moves as European fishing agreements that target surely as the Three Wise Men in search of small pelagics. Baby Jesus.

For now, though, what is more vital is Lamine, a CNPS supporter, evokes the how CM’S builds up the yaboye issue to colonial past as he describes the days he also gain support amongst its members used to wait at the gate of the peanut oil and the fishing communities, from St plant to be called in for a day’s work. Louis to Cassamance. The Government of Nearby, the French maintain a military Senegal itself is not monolithic. CNPS base. My colleague spends the afternoon needs not only to confront it, but work on lie Goree, at the mouth of Dakar’s with leaders and technocrats who display harbour, where the old quarters for goodwill. millions of African slaves en route to America has been preserved as a museum. It is easy for an outsider to romanticize the struggles of someone else, but The history, dignity and civility of the fishworkers’ supporters can not afford Senegalese people grows on you at every such indulgence. All our organizations encounter, where the greeting are vulnerable in the extreme. Members “Salamalikum” is followed by a string of can be inspired by ideals and solidarity, exchanges about each other’s health, and but the question of the daily bread and that of the family, a prayer to Allah and a butter is always on their minds. We suffer parting “Inshallah.” the contradictions of all primary producer organizations. We have staff The civility is evident in the one-year old and volunteers who work in conditions of child who can not yet walk, but greets the insecurity, sometimes with little pay and stranger with a handshake and a smile. facing conflicting demands on time and The act of sharing from a common bowl of emotions. Burnout is widely prevalent, rice and fish, yams, manioc and cabbage is delusion never far-off. spiced with a gentleness in the pace of eating. The fish is carefully separated from To borrow a saying from the world of the bones and the food is discretely sport, “You have to stay within yourself.’ directed to your corner of the bowl, when This is true for the CNPSs and MFUs of this your supply is diminishing. world. Our strength and value come from remaining independent and broadbased, Eke out a living all the while recognizing that any single Though I had been to Senegal twice issue has the potential to sap our earlier, never before had I been struck by strengths and our complexities. As a how hard every one works to eke out a westerner, I could only dimly sense the living, to make life civil and bearable. The strength and complexity of Senegal and government seems so distant from daily

48 SAMUDRA JULY 1996 Impressions suddenly overwhelmed by an unexpectedly large wave.

The enemy can even be found in the academies of Dakar, France or Canada which make the young ignorant of their society and impotent in the face of social reality. It lies in the legacy of polygamy and the empty grandeur that builds a massive Marriot President Hotel replete with golf courses but no guests.

The enemy sits in the World Bank, which declares the vital rail link between St. Louis and Dakar obsolete—let them walk, so the Bank seems, to say. The enemy drives the pirogue owner to burn out fishers by 35 years of age, and the Korean super trawler that takes the pirogues on board and pilots, them to fishing grounds far from the coast and then discharges them at sea, with no compasses or radios. life, be it in matters of basic maintenance of sewage pipes or in disbursing old-age The Senegalese fishery is one of the pensions. world’s most productive, landing a quarter of a billion tonnes of fish a year, The state seems to be widely viewed as a but it strains under impossible burdens. It burden to be endured, feeding off an has to support a population driven from already overburdened population. Then the land by desertification, and excluded there is the problem caused by the Sahel, from the workforce by the international the creeping desert that is driving more of division of labour. It has to support 60,000 the population to the overcrowded fishing fishermen and women and another areas. 240,000 shore workers. To ask it to support a bloated, overcapitalized European fleet In Senegal, we were received in common is to invite the wrath of God. cause, as fellow warriors of inshore fishers, acknowledged friends, speaking Of course, we Canadians would never in the same tongue about the problems of demand as much from our fishery. Of the fishery. All of us know that the course not, that is why our coastal common foe is not just ‘out there’. It exists communities recently vented their wrath in the cost of fuel doubled by the on the governing Liberals, while the cities devaluation of the Senegal franc, and in in the centre of the country the incessant need to pay off the mortgage overwhelmingly voted them back to on the pirogue. office. No, I would say there is much that coastal communities everywhere have to It also exists in the glut of fish that can not say to one another. Yaboye is the people’s be handled by the local infrastructure. The food—for the people it must remain. enemy exists in the credit union that plays favourites and blacklists the family with the wrong name, a union that is controlled by the local politician for political gain and economic reward.

The enemy is also the foreign trawler that This piece is written by Michael rams into the pirogue in the dark of night, Belliveau, executive secretary, within the exclusive six-mile limit. It is in Maritime Fishermen’s Union, New the sea itself, as the pirogue loaded with Brunswick, Canada fish and a dozen crew members approaches the beach landing site and is

SAMUDRA JULY 1996 49 an open letter to President Fidel V. Ramos. It urged Ramos to undo the disastrous effects of the 22-year old News Round-up presidential Decree 704, promulgated to fully exploit the Philippines’ Subsidies cut companies announced sharp decline in recent the development of a years of stocks of fishery resources. The voluntary set of groundfish on the signatories, including In early June, at the end ‘principles for Atlantic Coast and Bigkis Lakas Pilipinas, of a two-day workshop responsible fisheries’ to salmon the Pacific Coast. specifically asked for reforms to protect on policy guide the US seafood recommendations for industry in responsible Canada’s Department of mangroves and sustainable fisheries, the resource use. Fisheries and of fishworkers’ rights. World Wide Fund for fisheries and Oceans They also demanded priority for fisherfolk Nature (WWF) and the The principles seek to (DFO) has developed a United Nations improve the way new ‘vision’ for the co-operatives in fish Environment seafood is caught, future management of pond lease agreements. Programme (UNEP) processed and Canadian fisheries. This jointly called for a distributed; to ensure is based on the concept Scot-free-for now reduction of over US $50 environmentally sound of co-operative billion in subsidies. management, and is Vessels from Namibia These were meant to be consistent with the found fishing illegally spent annually by recommendations in South African waters nations worldwide in contained in FAO’s may yet escape the arms excess of fish harvest Code of Conduct for of the law, since the revenues. The Responsible Fisheries. current laws on marine organizations said this fisheries do not provide was a major stimulus in The long-term strategy for punitive measures encouraging of the DFO is to transfer uncontrolled more responsibility for over-competitive fishing fisheries management to that depletes fish stocks. use of seafood the fishing industry, resources; and to offer while maintaining Behave! guidance from the legislative responsibility fishing industry to for protecting stocks. The New England government managers. Fishery Management Slamming salmon Council has mooted a Elements of the fishing industry adopting these voluntary, non-building On behalf of the David against such offenders. principles are expected Code of Conduct to be Suzuki Foundation, the Sihaleni Ndjaba, to co-operate with discussed by a Friends of Clayoquot Namibia’s acting government managers Responsible Fishing Sound and Greenpeace, permanent secretary for to improve resource us Committee. The the Sierra Legal Defense fisheries, was reported and management. proposed code urges Fund in the US has by Xinhua News commercial fishermen And don’t just fish prepared a report Agency as saying that to protect the fishery entitled Containing the country was resource, ensure Disaster: Global Lessons planning new high-quality products, on Salmon Aguaculture legislation under which advance scientific “It is no longer enough that discusses negative Namibian vessels knowledge, keep for fishermen to simply aspects of salmon spotted in other abreast of technological know how to operate a farming. Aquafarmers territorial waters would innovations and boat and catch fish,” may find its contents be fined or impounded. develop mutual respect says a recent report on interesting, even if and trust. Phew! What a responsible fishing uncomfortably so. Hol(e)y war tall order! prepared for the Fisheries Council of Dear President... Be responsible The European Union’s Canada. Although plan to manage the Canada claims to have In late May, several region’s fisheries Self-regulation seems to one of the most organizations through regulating the be the order of the day. comprehensive fisheries representing the mesh size of nets has A couple of months ago, management systems in interests of fishworkers invited the wrath of the world, crises a coalition of US seafood in the Philippines sent fishermen. Hundreds of associations and abound. Witness the

50 SAMUDRA JULY 1997 striking French to hire a Seattle-based reviewing a proposal by International Fishmeal fishermen blocked company, Redmond’s the Dutch fishing and Oil Manufacturers several Channel ports, sound Ocean System conglomerate, Parevliet Association, has called crippling traffic to and Inc., to conduct & Van Der Plas, to for control of discards from Dunkirk, Calais construct and operate a from the human-grade and Boulogne in late 50,000 sq.ft. processing fisheries thrown back April. The fishermen plant for herring and into the sea. He said were protesting EU some mackerel at a that this practice regulations increasing state-managed pier in represents enormous mesh size for fixed sole Gloucester. waste of valuable nets from 80 mm to 120 protein from the North mm. A French court About 20,000 tonnes of Sea. If landed, these fish ordered the fishermen herring would be could help meet the to life the blockade. The environmental tests to packed, frozen and European demand for fishermen complied, but determine how future shipped to European whitefish and would cut only after French deep Seattle-based markets annually, back imports of this officials promised to company, Redmond’s providing an estimated commodity. This would raise fishermen’s Sound Ocean Systems US $10 million in save the European concerns at a meeting of Inc., to conduct economic benefits to the countries around US $55 EU ministers. environmental tests to community. million each year, determine how future according to Barlow. Satellite tracking deep seabed mining The Dutch company has would disturb sea life offered to fund the Oysters for Maoris on the ocean floor. Those all-seeing eyes of conversion of Gloucester vessels for the Big Brothers up Sock! Pow! Bang! An agreement reached there in space may soon herring fishing. between the help monitor fishing government of New fleets and avoid fresh Around 35 Puerto Rican Sad sardines Zealand and the Treaty fishing battles in the fishermen from the of Waitingi Commission waters of Europe. island of Vieques were Fishing industry has given New Using a combination of reported to have officials in Japan have Zealand’s Maoris a 20 Global Positioning clashed with troops reported that, due to a per cent share of the System and satellite aboard six naval vessels severe decline in the oyster catch from the tracking technology, from Belgium and the harvest of sardines by Foveaux Strait. Oysters trials for a new system Netherlands anchored Japanese fishermen, have not yet been have been conducted by in a popular fishing area sardines for canning are included in the Quota the European which the fishermen being imported from the Management System claimed was reserved US and Mexico. The agreed in the 1992 for civilian activities. price of sardines in The US Navy owns Japan has thus risen portions of Vieques and substantially. allows other nations to conduct exercises there. Stop dumping Drifting away Over 550,000 tonnes of discards of edible fish The EU Fisheries were dumped into the Commission in Brussels. Council is considering a North Sea last year, A similar system is also co-financing plan to according to an Maori fisheries being tested out for the convert the swordfish assessment report by settlement. fishery of Italy away ASEAN region, where a the secretariat of the satellite tracking system form drift-net use over fifth North Sea For the current could be more the 1997-1999 period. Conference, prepared agreement, the centralized and thus The proposed plan for the Intermediate government bought much less complex. would provide financial Ministerial Meeting on quotas from existing incentives for fishermen the North Sea in Bergen permit holders at a cost Bedding down and vessel owners to in mid-march. That is of about US $4.2 million. encourage them to cease roughly equivalent to or modify their drift-net the current Danish catch The annual revenue Japan, India and an East fishing. of sand eel dedicated to from a 20 per cent share European consortium of fishmeal and oil of the Foveaux Strait nations have joined the Herring plant production. oyster catch is estimated National Oceanographic to be at least US $ 0.7 and Atmospheric State and local officials Stuart Barlow, director million. Administration of the US in Massachusetts, US are general of the

SAMUDRA JULY 1997 51 ~~ Ilit ltJ I4lt.Jw., iflm ..pili, '""'7'> """I' Is ",.. 1M' tIim Is •

....l1li""""rotftm...... of6tUvJ •f'n of....Ii't {;",~ 'I1JIinmm "'" fit!. «

""'"' ktr/u. 'ButfisI'i"6 is. amstitnl st1"'tf8" fitr """""'"' Sl'Mml. x.di ....n ....rI;J fr"N,,,, oftkarm. ~ uk

Jhwto ~ c!tlUn.< ltJ -W~fit;ftr tF.ue ""'" "'" OIl' of""It

- from Cod: ... "lotl<-p/lf of 1/00 !'WI Th.aI Chantod 'M World by Marl: Kurt..sty Published by sebasban Malhewlor Intema1ional CollectIVe fI Support of FIshworkers 27 College Roae!, Chenna) 600 006. India TelephOnEl (91) 44-827 5303 Facsmi!e (91) 44-825 4457 E.mail:mdsaab060giasmd01.vsnl.netJn

ICSF Is an International ~ CSF Brussels Office: worIdng on issues lIla1 conc:om !ishworkers the world owr.ltls 65 RIJl! Gretry. 6·1000 Brussels. Belgium II status with the Economic and Telephone (32) 2 ·218 1538 Facsimile (32) 2·217 8305 Social COIIlCiI of lI'oe UN and IS E·mail: gdlelpOmail.interpac.be on lO'S Special List 01 Non· GCIYIlfI'lITI8l1tallnlemaUonaIOr· garjZalions. It also has liaison Ediledby Status WIth 00. ReglSlered II s,oJ,llI)IIA Editor\at Geneva, ICSF has ollices in Chennai, India and Brussels, Designed by Belgun. As aglobal nelWOlft 01 community or9Inlz8I5, """""'" leachers, techOlcians, re­ Illustrated by seard1efs and scientisls, lCSf'$ James S, JarClj aclMlies encc:mpass 1IlOfIlIof· ing ~ research, exchange 00_ and lrailng, c:arnpaqIS .., 'Peace on Earfl' action. as wei as CCIIMIInCa' by OWl Aec:bIfd, Onlatio tIllnS.5AWU1lAA REPORT in~ltes cotVIlutia'ls and responses, Photographs courtesy of Cooespondenc8 mud be ad­ 5ebasbal'l MahW 8nlfI Olfurtlarl. Sarah Garrmage lhssed 10 fie Qlemai oIb. AIarl Kemevez, ~ Scharer

The opnens and poslloos Additional news courtesy of expressed il tIB arldes art CongresSlOrlal Reseatch 5eMce tlOse 01 tIB aUllofs concerned lnl do nol necessariy repre. """".....""'" sel1 h oftioaI WlWS 01 ICSf Printed 11 ~garaj WoU:IAA RE.POAT can now be ac­ and CofrllinY MUd., ChemaJ cessed on CSFS home page on Ihe WOIId Wille Wftb at WllJDlIlA REJIOIIT No. 18 .My 1997 ~:I/Www9mt2ODO coLM::s1 FOR UIIlTED CIlCU..o\TION ON.Y