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Senaratne, Sunari Chandrima Fernando (2016) Surviving the Wave: Reconstruction After the Tsunamion the South-Western Coast of Sri Lanka

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Senaratne, Sunari Chandrima Fernando (2016) Surviving the Wave: Reconstruction After the Tsunamion the South-Western Coast of Sri Lanka Senaratne, Sunari Chandrima Fernando (2016) Surviving the Wave: Reconstruction after the Tsunamion the south-western coast of Sri Lanka. PhD Thesis. SOAS, University of London http://eprints.soas.ac.uk/23684 Copyright © and Moral Rights for this thesis are retained by the author and/or other copyright owners. A copy can be downloaded for personal non‐commercial research or study, without prior permission or charge. This thesis cannot be reproduced or quoted extensively from without first obtaining permission in writing from the copyright holder/s. The content must not be changed in any way or sold commercially in any format or medium without the formal permission of the copyright holders. When referring to this thesis, full bibliographic details including the author, title, awarding institution and date of the thesis must be given e.g. AUTHOR (year of submission) "Full thesis title", name of the School or Department, PhD Thesis, pagination. Surviving the Wave: Reconstruction after the Tsunami on the south-western coast of Sri Lanka Sunari Chandrima Fernando Senaratne Thesis submitted for the degree of PhD 2015 Department of Sociology and Anthropology SOAS, University of London. 1 2 Abstract My research is concerned with the way in which a coastal community in south-western Sri Lanka, affected by the Asian tsunami of 2004, has rebuilt itself. Prior to the disaster the social processes of this community involved individuals with different levels of capital and capacity (following Bourdieu), using the alliances available to them, to pursue the aspirations of their choice. My concern in this study is the impact of the tsunami on these social processes. In particular, I want to explain how in rebuilding their lives, the people of this village reproduced core aspirations, relationships and values, even while the effects of the tsunami -- on trajectories and outcomes for different households -- varied. The village was one in which the spatial organisation was such that the western half was involved in fishing, while the eastern half pursued other occupations. It was a village undergoing significant shifts in social arrangement, and the tsunami amplified rather than disrupted some of these trends. I am also interested in the inter-play between the local community and various external actors in the processes of reconstruction, particularly in the role played by the State and Non-Governmental Organisations (NGOs). I introduce my research by identifying some of the major issues which bear on my problem, as well as the themes of the disaster literature. Then, I describe the community which is the focus of this research, and the damage that it suffered in the aftermath of the tsunami. This is followed by a discussion of my theoretical and methodological approaches. Finally, I analyse the manner in which various initiatives in relation to relief and reconstruction, fed into the social processes of this community. 3 Acknowledgements I am deeply grateful to my supervisor, Professor David Mosse, for all the support over the last few years and the many insightful comments regarding the chapters of my thesis. I am also grateful to my second supervisor, Dr. Edward Simpson, and the staff and students of the Department of Anthropology and Sociology at SOAS. Thank you to the Haimendorf Fund and the British Federation of Women Graduates (BFWG), which provided me with grants for fieldwork and living expenses, respectively. Thank you to my informants and interviewees in Sinhapura, as well as those in institutions in Colombo, Galle and Hikkaduwa, who took time away from their busy lives to talk to me. A big thank you to my cousin, Sumana Lenton, and her husband, John Lenton, who have been brilliant to me right throughout my university life in the UK -- at Sussex, at the LSE and at SOAS. Thank you also to my late uncle, Evan Senanayake, and his wife, Anne, for their encouragement and support during my university career. Thank you to my uncles, Laki Senanake and Daya Senanayake, and my aunt, Ranee Jayawardena, who have been there for me right throughout my life. A very special thank you to my friends from Goodenough College -- Noriko Inagaki, Ruth Mellor, Clarissa Miller-Stinchcombe and Fei Ren -- who have been absolutely wonderful and a tremendous source of strength. A special thank you also to Dr. Stephen Biggs and Mr. Sunimal Fernando, Senior Sociologist, who have both been a great support to me and my parents. Last, but certainly not least, my beloved parents, Ranjith (S.P.F.) and Lalitha Senaratne, who have loved and supported me in every way throughout the long years of the PhD. 4 Table of Contents Page Introduction 11 Chapter 1 -- The Tsunami and Sinhapura 39 Chapter 2 -- Theory and Methodology 75 Chapter 3 -- The Social Processes 97 Chapter 4 -- The State Programmes 140 Chapter 5 -- The NGO Programmes 175 Chapter 6 -- The Impact of the Tsunami on Sinhapura 215 Conclusion 242 Bibliography 257 5 Source: Sarasavi School Atlas. 4th Edition, 2014. Sarasavi Publishers. Colombo. 6 Map of Sinhapura 7 Abbreviations ADB -- Asian Development Bank BBC -- British Broadcasting Corporation BOI -- Board of Investment CAFOD -- Catholic Agency for Overseas Development CARE -- Cooperative for Assistance and Relief Everywhere CCD -- Coast Conservation Department CEB -- Ceylon Electricity Board CFC -- Ceylon Fisheries Corporation CFHC -- Ceylon Fishery Harbours Corporation COFIT -- Coastal Fisheries and Industries Trust DEC -- Disasters Emergency Committee DMC -- Disaster Management Centre EEZ -- Exclusive Economic Zone FAD -- Fish Aggregation Device FAO -- Food and Agriculture Organisation FCCISL -- Federation of Chambers of Commerce and Industry of Sri Lanka GAM -- Free Aceh Movement GDP -- Gross Domestic Product GN -- Grama Niladhari GTZ -- German Agency for Technical Corporation IDB -- Industrial Development Board IDNDR -- International Decade for Natural Disaster Reduction IFAD -- International Fund for Agricultural Development 8 IRC -- Integrated Relief Command IUCN -- International Union for Conservation of Nature JP -- Justice of the Peace JVP -- Janatha Vimukthi Peramuna LSSP -- Lanka Sama Samaja Party LTTE -- Liberation Tigers of Tamil Eelam MC -- Municipal Council MOU -- Memorandum of Understanding MP -- Member of Parliament NARA -- National Aquatic Resources Agency NGO -- Non-Governmental Organisation NHDA -- National Housing Development Authority OXFAM -- Oxford Committee for Famine Relief PA -- People’s Alliance PC -- Provincial Council PR -- Proportional Representation PS -- Pradeshiya Sabha P-TOMS -- Post Tsunami Operational Management Structure RADA -- Reconstruction and Development Agency RDA -- Road Development Authority SLFP -- Sri Lanka Freedom Party SLFUW -- Sri Lanka Federation of University Women SLTB -- Sri Lanka Tourist Board TAFREN -- Task Force for Rebuilding the Nation 9 TC -- Town Council TEC -- Tsunami Evaluation Commission TO -- Technical Officer UC -- Urban Council UDA -- Urban Development Authority UN -- United Nations UNDP -- United Nations Development Programme UNICEF -- United Nations Children’s Fund UNOCHA -- United Nations Office for the Coordination of Humanitarian Affairs UNP -- United National Party USAID -- United States Agency for International Development VC -- Village Council YWCA -- Young Women’s Christian Organisation 10 Introduction The Tsunami The Asian tsunami, on 26 December 2004, struck the eastern coast of Sri Lanka, at approximately 8.00 a.m., local time. During the next two and a half hours, the tsunami hit the southern and western coasts of Sri Lanka. It was caused by an undersea earthquake off the coast of Sumatra, Indonesia, measuring 9.3 on the Richter scale.1 Two-thirds of Sri Lanka’s coastline was affected by the tsunami. The effect, however, was by no means uniform. While there was complete devastation in one location, a hundred metres away the damage was minimal. Thus, coastal communities were differentially affected by this disaster. This is now known to have been due to the geomorphological particularities of the Sri Lankan coastline. The loss of life, destruction of infrastructure and damage to livelihoods was on a massive scale. It was an event which caused a heavy loss of physical assets both in the community and among individual households.2 In some communities the damage to property and livelihoods was on such a scale that they ceased to function as viable social units. The Central Bank of Sri Lanka assessed the total economic loss to the country at US $ 1.5 billion.3 The devastation was such that President Chandrika Bandaranaike Kumaratunga had to declare a national state of emergency and appeal for international assistance. My concern in this study is with the impact of this disaster, on the communities of the south-western coast of Sri Lanka, with a special focus on the village of Sinhapura, located just a few miles to the north of the city of Galle.4 Sinhapura is one of the many communities along this coastline, which was severely affected by the tsunami. Galle is the administrative capital of the Southern Province. It has a long history and was once a major port in the country. It continues to remain an important regional centre providing 1 The tsunami affected the other countries of the Bay of Bengal as well: principally, Indonesia, Thailand and India. 2 I use the term household to denote a residential unit consisting, largely, of those who have kin relationships with each. The household is a unit of income, of consumption and expenditure and, often, one of production. See also Stirrat (1988); Netting, Wilk & Arnould (1984); Carsten & Hugh-Jones (1995). 3 Source: Reconstruction and Development Agency (RADA) Report on the Tsunami. 4 This is the pseudonym that I shall use for this village throughout this thesis. Except for proper nouns all non-English terms will be in italics. The names of my informants and all individuals from the village who figure in the thesis have been replaced with pseudonyms. 11 the Southern Province with important services in relation to education, health, transport, trade and distribution. Galle, though it is no longer a major port, has one of the largest fisheries harbours in Sri Lanka.
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