Opportunities for transition to clean household energy in Application of the WHO Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART)

THIOPIA

Getachew E Beyene Abera Kumie Rufus Edwards EKarin Troncoso ETHIOPIA Opportunities for transition to clean household energy in Ethiopia Application of the WHO Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART)

THIOPIA

Getachew E Beyene Abera Kumie Rufus Edwards EKarin Troncoso Opportunities for transition to clean household energy: application of the Household Energy Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART) in Ethiopia/ Getachew E Beyene, Abera Kumie, Rufus Edwards, Karin Troncoso

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Cover photo: John Wollwerth / Shutterstock Contents clean household energy inEthiopia 14. 13. 12. 11. 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1. Preface Acknowledgements Abbreviations and acronyms References Conclusions Discussion Introduction

7.3 7.2 7.1 6.2 3.3 3.2 2.3 2.2 2.1 6.1 5.2 5.1 4.4 4.3 4.2 4.1 3.4 3.1 Annex 5. International agenciesandnational nongovernmental organizations that address Annex 4. Landandhousingprogrammes Annex 3. EthiopianConservation Strategy Annex 2. Airpollutants inhouseholdsselectedurbanandrural areas ofEthiopia Annex 1. Additional dataonenergy sources inEthiopia Social interventions Stakeholder organization andcoordination Current householdenergy use Health sector Country context ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� Recommendations tothehealth sector for accelerating thetransition Opportunities for increasing access tocleanfuels Barriers toadoptionofclean household energy Environmental health riskassessments Health service infrastructure andaccess Local studiesofhealth effectsofhouseholdairpollution Energy production andconsumption Demographic andeconomic data Geographical data Maternal andchildhealth andnutritionprogrammes Development strategies andflagshipprogrammes Government agencies Perceived safety ofhouseholdenergy Household usefor heating Household usefor lighting Household usefor cooking Health sectorpoliciesandprogrammes onairpollution Burden ofdisease ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������ ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� �������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������������������������ �������������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������������� ����������������������������������������������������������������� ���������������������������������������������������������������� ��������������������������������������������������������� ������������������������������������������������������������ ������������������������������������������������������ ������������������������������������������������������ ������������������������������� ���������� 55 40 36 34 27 62 59 58 24 18 13 32 29 27 25 24 18 17 17 15 13 11 10 20 11 vii vi 2 1 9 9 7 3 2 v iii 

WASH SDG ppm PM2.5 NGO MDG LPG HEART GTP II GDP CO and acronyms Abbreviations

water, sanitationandhygiene Sustainable Development Goal parts permillion particulate matter≤2.5µmindiameter non-governmental organization Millennium Development Goals light petroleum gas Household Energy AssessmentRapid Tool second Growth and Transformation Plan gross domesticproduct carbon monoxide

v vi Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Lewis (Technical Officers), WHODepartment was reviewed by HeatherAdair-Rohani andJessica report andisgratefully acknowledged. The report officials was instrumental for completing the Input from local organizations andGovernment Gebremedhin atthe WHO CountryOffice inEthiopia. with inputfrom Waltaji Terfa KutaneandGoitom Kumie, RufusEdwards andKarin Troncoso, consisting of Getachew Eshete Beyene, Abera This report was prepared by ateamofconsultants Acknowledgements Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART). countries by application oftheHouseholdEnergy for transition tocleanhouseholdenergy in for fundingtheproject toidentifyopportunities WHO isgrateful toBloomberg Philanthropies Mingle andElisabethHeseltine. Editorial assistance was provided by Jonathan Determinants ofHealth, Geneva, Switzerland. of PublicHealth, Environmental andSocial policies and programmes on household energy relevant stakeholders, andmapoutacountry's Assessment Rapid Tool (HEART), toidentify WHO has developed a tool, the Household Energy In support of the implementation of the guidelines, benefits from thecleanenergy transition. environmental andotherissuestoensure health and specialistsworkingonenergy, health, technical recommendations for policy-makers household fuel combustion (2014) provide The WHO guidelinesfor indoor air quality: burns andpoisoning. cancer, aswell asseriousinjuriesfrom scalding, respiratory illness, cardiovascular diseasesand deaths annually among children andadults from cookstoves causes almost4million premature cooking and heating. Widespread use of polluting burnt ininefficient, highly polluting stoves for animal dung, charcoal, crop wastes andcoal) income countries, still rely onsolidfuels(wood, 3 billion people, mainly inlow- andmiddle- global environmental health risks today. Almost fuel combustion isoneofthemostimportant Household air pollution (HAP) from inefficient Preface global workonmappingdiseaseincidence nor identify nationalenergy priorities, nationaland the detailedeconomic evaluations required to The rapid assessments do not take the place of accelerate atransition tocleanhouseholdenergy. opportunities for the public health sector to country-specific barriers toimplementationand shared responsibilities andcoordinated actions, on theimpactsofhouseholdenergy interventions, impacts andtostimulateaninformed dialogue on householdenergy useanditspublichealth It isusedtogatherandsynthesizeinformation to address access to clean energy technologies. situational assessmentsofcountries’ readiness pilot-tested as aguide to conducting rapid and/or related health impacts. The toolisbeing HEART inEthiopia. This report presents theresults obtainedwith ultimately supportintersectoral cooperation. situation, identifykey stakeholders andwill of thecurrent householdenergy andhealth public health. They doprovide abroad overview in implementing major social interventions in the socialandpolitical considerations required vii  1 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Introduction 1 in Ethiopia(1, 2), andchronic obstructive lung leading causes ofhospitaladmissionsanddeaths Respiratory illness amongchildren isoneofthe due to lower respiratory infections in children. household airpollution are dominatedby those death inEthiopia, andthedeathsattributableto single environmental risk factor for premature a highburden onhealth: airpollution isthelargest rely onbiomass fuelsfor cooking, whichresults in In Ethiopia, over 95%ofhouseholdscontinue to is renewable, withplansfor more generation; gas field resources, andtheelectricitysupply both significant andsignificant fuels. Ethiopiaisonthecuspofdevelopment of There are possibilitiesfor atransition toclean • • • • • • Ethiopia are: The mainbarriers touseofcleanfuelin • • • • • The mainenergy issuesin Ethiopiaare: the first 2 years oflife shouldbeahighpriority. Reduction of exposure during pregnancy and in pollution duetocooking withbiomassfuel. who are mostheavily exposed tohousehold disease isagrowing concern amongwomen, the electricitypricingstructure. an underdeveloped market and little awareness about the safety of clean fuels, and technologies, little awareness ofcleanfueloptions rural communities, the weakpurchasing power ofpoor low availability andreliability offuelresources, energy sectors. inefficient coordination betweenthehealth and and householdenergy use; and limited awareness of thelinkbetweenhealth for cooking, particularly inurbanareas; increasing proportion ofincome spentonenergy both health andtheenvironment; adverse effectsofhouseholdenergy useon for biomassfuels; a growing gap between the supply of and demand areas, given theprojected increase ingeneration isaviableoptioninurbanandperiurban fuels, andfuelmarkets are well established. proportion of urban income is spent on cooking purchasing power. Incontrast, anincreasing greatest burden of ill health, as they have limited barrier for rural populations, who have the The affordability ofcleanfuelisasignificant air pollution are limitedby wealth inequality. the past few years, effortsto reduce household growth in gross domesticproduct (GDP)over Ethiopia hasshown consistently highrates of increasing by about30%annually. Although however, totaldemandfor electrical power is ventilate emissions outdoors. separate from themainhouse, withchimneys to could beimproved by constructing kitchens where cleanfuelsare notyet available, health markets requires assistance. Inrural communities but themove toproduction andpenetration oflocal electric inductioninjera stoves are beingtested, significantly improved technology. Prototype towns, resistance andinductionstoves require Although electric stoves are onsaleinrural monitoring andevaluation in testing facilities. and ethanolstoves andincreasing capacity for There are technical barriers to use of electric for wider adoption of electricity and . social acceptance remain tocatalysing themarket to refineries; however, barriers of awareness and rural households, particularly inareas adjacent refineries offers an option for both urbanand production ofethanol(200million L)insugar infrastructure andcost. The estimatedsurplus to water, remain asignificant challenge for in whichlivestock are reared andwithaccess rural areas, apartfrom biogasfor households its use. Nevertheless, thecleanfueloptionsin higher tariffs for kerosene inorder toeliminate should be promoted, possibly in combination with lighting, solarelectricitysystems andmini-grids to reach poorer households. Inrural areas, solar capacity, if it iscombined with price structuring Country context 2 administrations (kebeles). The regional states districts (woredas), citiesandneighbourhood federal andregional levels. Eachstatehaszones, The Government structure is in two tiers, for the nine regional statesand twomunicipalities. The country isafederal statecomprising wikimedia.org/wiki/File:Ethiopia_Topography.png Source: + where there are large uncultivated areas anda livelihood iscattle herding; thewesternlowlands, lands totheeastandsouth, where themain Ethiopia can bebroadly categorized into:arids wide variety ofhousingandcooking arrangements. soil types, altitude andotheraspects, resulting ina agro-ecological zonesdifferintermsof rainfall, Somali-inhabited plains to the east. Ethiopia’s slopes tothelowlands ofSudanonthewestand country’s mountainranges. The plateaugradually to more than4000mabove sealevel inthe m below sealevel onthenortheasternborder Ethiopia hasawiderange ofaltitudes, from 100 2.1 + Fig. 1. Sadalmelik 2007. Topographic map of Ethiopia, created with GMT from public domain GLOBE data ( Geographical data Topographical mapofEthiopia , accessed19March 2018). agro-pastoral areas inthesouthandsoutheast which are themain seasonal rains for pastoral and highlands of Tigray andAmhara regional states, between March andMay, mainly inthenorthern produced. This seasonispreceded by shortrains which 90–95%ofEthiopia’stotalannualcrop is season between June and September, during (Fig. 1). Mostofthecountry experiences arainy and rapidly eroded, withhighpopulationdensity ideal for farmingbutwhere farmlandislimited small population;andthehighlands, whichare for development. national Government and is leased, not sold, over thekebeles. All landistheproperty ofthe the basic planning unit, and they have jurisdiction their internalaffairs. Ineach region, thedistrictis have considerable autonomy inthemanagementof in thesouth. of the country, including the lowlands of https://commons.

Geographical data 2 3 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia . sub-Saharan , withanestimatedpopulation Ethiopia isthesecond mostpopulouscountry in Gumuz, Gambella andSomali). than the agricultural regions (Afar, Benishangul- the populationandalarger populationdensity and People’s and Tigray, togetherhave 86%of Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nations, Nationalities populations varies widely. The largest regions, represented 3.5%. The distribution of regional the populationin2015, whilethoseover 64years Children aged≤15years represented about42%of 2.2.1. 2.2 Human development index Gross nationalincome percapita (US$) Urban population(millions) Annual populationgrowth rate (%) Average householdsize(nationalcensus) Total fertility rate perwoman Life expectancy atbirth(years) Child mortalityrate, numberper1000live births Infant mortalityrate, numberper1000live births Maternal mortalityratio, numberper100000live births Crude birthrate, numberper1000population Crude deathrate, numberper1000 Indicator . Table 1.

Demography Demographic andeconomic data Demographic andeconomicindicators, Ethiopia, 2016 line(3)(Table 1). 80 million live inrural areas and34%below the of more than 100 million, of whom more than development. the natural environment, whichwill furtheraffect substantially, thereby increasing thedemandon cooking, heatingandlightingwill alsoincrease by 2050(Fig. 2). The demandfor fuelenergy for current urbanpopulationisexpected todouble smaller rural towns are also growing, and the to grow, some becoming metropolitan areas; The current 935urbansettlements are expected 2.2.2.

Urbanization 0.448 (2015) Value 33.6 19.5 412 660 9.2 2.5 4.6 4.6 67 48 65 Reference 4 4 4 4 4 8 5 7 6 4 4 5 Source: + Source: + 10 14 16 36.7% ofthe country’s GDP in2015, 90% ofexport 2004–2016. The agricultural sectorcontributed product (GDP)grew by anaverage of10.6%in 2004 (Fig. 3), andtheannualgross domestic Ethiopia’s economy hasdeveloped annually since 12 2.2.3. -4 -2 2 0 4 8 + + Percentage Fig. 3. Fig. 2. 10 20 30 40 0 reference 5. reference 9. 2000

Gross domesticproduct Annual percentage growth ingross domesticproduct Proportion ofurbanresidents inthetotal population, Ethiopia, 1950–2050

2001 1950 2002

2003 1960

2004

1970 2005

2006 1980

2007 Year

1990 2008 earnings and85%ofemployment; however, recent years (Fig. 4). poor, withanannualgrowth rate ofabout8%in the performance ofthesectorhasbeengenerally with very littletechnological input. Asaresult, farming, almost entirely rain-fed, and pastoralism, this sectorischaracterized by subsistence 2009 2000

2010

2010 2011

2012 2020

2013

2014 2030

2015 2040 2016

2050

Demographic and economic data 4 5 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia (Afar, Somali, Gambella andBenshangul). The rural are more wealthy thantheagricultural regions (Amhara, Oromia, Southern Nationsand Tigray) Ababa, andHarari) andthelarge regions residence. Generally, urbanadministrations (Addis Disparities inwealth are seenby region and agriculture and20%inindustryby 2019–2020(10). increase intheGDP of 11% by growth of 8% in Plan (GTP II)includestargets tosustainarate of The country’s second Growth and Transformation Source: + 2.2.4. B +

a Fisical year Fig. 4. s e

reference 10. ( 2009/ 2010/ 2011/ 2012/ 2013/ 2014/

Disparities inwealth Percentage share ofGDPby majoreconomicsector, Ethiopia, 2009–2010and2014–2015 10) 11 12 13 14 15 0 10 Service 20 in thehighlandsandalongmajorroad networks. density map shows strong geographical clustering 80% ofthetotalpopulation(Fig. 5). The population- and Oromia, Amhara andSouthernregions have (11). Mostofthepopulationlives inthehighlands, million people, with an annual growth of 2.53% The populationofEthiopiain2016was 102.4 rural householdstocleanenergy intheshortrun. the urban population, which affects the access of population hastheleastwealth ascompared with 2.2.5. Percentage Industry

Population distribution 30 Agriculture 40 50 with about57million mobilephonesubscribers. Telecommunications have expanded rapidly, weather road decreased from 21kmto 5 km (13). and theaverage distance tothenearest all- decreased from 64%in1997to37%2015, further than5kmfrom anall-weather road 316% increase in18years. The numberofareas in 1997to110414km2015, representing a increase in the road network from 26 550 km development programme since 1997, withan Ethiopia hasundertaken alarge-scale road sector Population &HousingCensus, Altas ofEthiopia 2007, InternationalFood Policy research Institute(IFPRI). Source: + Communications Road development 2.2.6. + Popula Fig. 5. reference 12. tion density

Infrastructure Population density, Ethiopia campaigns (18). to 0.94in2013–2014asaresult ofextensive parity index increased from 0.8in2009–2010 education ismuchlower inrural areas. The gender aged 7years startgrade 1. Access tosecondary 32 000primaryschools, and100%ofchildren number ofschools, Ethiopianow hasmore than (16, 17). After concerted effortstoincrease the reduces exposure tohouseholdairpollution number ofdeliveries ininstitutions (15)and of cases of diarrhoea (13, 14), increases the indicate thateducation reduces thenumber socioeconomic development. Numerous studies School infrastructure plays key role inEthiopian subscribers will beconnected by theendof2020. It isanticipatedinGTP IIthat103.6million Education services Population density(no.ofpeopleperkm 0 W R C N L 31-40 21-30 11-20 6-10 0-5 ensus desig.TBD egion akes atural reserves&parks oreda 150 K ³ m 3 00 N > 151-300 101-150 51-100 41-50 o data 300

2 )

Demographic and economic data 6 7 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia . significant renewable energy and significant gas Ethiopia isonthecuspofdevelopment ofboth to increase thecountry’s energy production (19). respectively. A number of projects are in place kV, withpower flows upto250MW and90MW, connected withSudanandDjiboutithrough 230 of renewable energy toeastern Africa andis is 100kWh/a(19). Ethiopiais a majorexporter 25%. Estimatedelectricityconsumption percapita is about56%andhouseholdconnectivity about MW, geographical access totheelectricitygrid The amountofdieselpower currently usedis143 a Sources: capacity for generation 2.3.1. 2.3 Potential windGW energy >7m/s, ameasure ofusablewindenergy. Biogas Agricultural waste Wood Geothermal speed) Wind (power Solar (day) Source . Table 2. references 19–22.

Availability of energy and Energy production andconsumption Potential andexploited sources ofenergy inEthiopia Households Million T Million T Trillion m Million T Million T GW GW m/s kWh/ m GW Unit 2 3 (2013) reserves Exploitable 1–3 million 1350 >7 15–20 > 300 1120 < 0.1 253 5.2 45 7 however, increasing by about30%annually. total demand for electrical power in Ethiopia is, on energy sources in Ethiopia, see Annex 1.) The (7.6%) (Table 2). (For more information renewable sources, suchhydropower (89.7%)and position, aselectricityisproduced exclusively from field resources. The country isina relatively unique are responsible for asubstantialproportion. energy consumption, indicating thathouseholds industrial waste andmunicipalwaste) innational and waste (solidbiofuels, liquidbiofuels, biogases, in 2015(Fig. 5;3)shows themassive role ofbiofuels A Sankey diagram oftheenergy balance ofEthiopia consumption 2.3.2. a

Energy production and Amount 17 869 0.0073 0.324 3.18 560 ~ 6 – – – Exploited ~ 17 < 1 < 1 < 1 < 1 30 50 0 0 0 Source: + + Fig. 6. reference 3. Sankey diagram ofenergy production, andconsumptioninEthiopia, imports 2015 Credit: Heather Adair-Rohani Solid fueloven andstove 

Energy production and consumption 8 9 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Health sector 3 adjusted life–years peryear (23). The deaths deaths andmore than3.1million disability- prematurefuels isresponsible for over 65 000 and householdairpollution due toburningofsolid risk factorfor premature deathinEthiopia, Air pollution isthesinglelargest environmental environmental riskfactorfor chronic respiratory In 2016, airpollution was themostimportant COPD, chronic obstructive pulmonarydisease Source: + mainly to lower respiratory tract infections (36 144 attributed tohouseholdairpollution are due 3.1 + Fig. 7. 0-4 ≥18 ≥18 ≥18 ≥18

reference 24. years years years years years Burden ofdisease Numbersofdeathsattributable to householdairpollution, Ethiopia Trachea, bronchus,lungcancers Lower respirationinfections Ischaemic heartdisease Stroke COPD 0 adverse birthoutcomes for diseasessuchastuberculosis andvarious in adults (24)(Fig. 7)andmay beariskfactor disease, lungcancer andcardiovascular disease a riskfactorfor chronic obstructive pulmonary first 6 days of life. Household air pollution is also cases in2016), withthegreatest impactinthe pneumonia (Fig. 8). and cardiovascular diseases, stroke and 5 000 10 000 15 000 20 000 25 000 30 000 35 000 40 000 respiratory illness, defined as cough accompanied kitchen were associatedwithself-reported acute poor ventilation anduseofbiomassfuelinthe Low socioeconomic status, little education, cleaner fuels(30). in thosewhichkerosene was used, relative to which biomass fuel was used and 1.96 (0.78;4.89) confidence interval, 1.38;3.87)inhouseholds in onesurvey, with anoddsratio of2.97(95% in theprevalence ofacuterespiratory illness urban slumwas associatedwith anincrease were found. The use of polluting fuels in an pollution asarisk factor for respiratory illness Few local studiesofexposure tohouseholdair The prevalence of symptoms was, however, from 24%in2000to7%2016(4, 26–28). illness withintheprevious 2weeks decreased The prevalence ofsymptomsacuterespiratory endo, endocrinemetabolicbloodandimmunedisorders WASH, water, sanitation and hygiene; LRI, lower respiratory tract infection; NTD, neglected tropical disease; urog, urogenital; Source: + household airpollution 3.2 environmental Occupational + Air pollution Fig. 8. reference 25. WASH Local studiesofhealth effectsof Other Environmental riskfactors for deathinEthiopia, 2016 risks 0 10 Deaths per100000 40 health riskare summarized inAnnex 2. programmes andassessments ofenvironmental Maternal and child health and nutrition socioeconomic status. use ofbiomassfuels, crowded livingandlow was strongly linked tocharacteristics suchas 5 years (31). Overall, acuterespiratory illness chest indrawing andstridor amongchildren under fast breathing and/ordangersignsincluding pneumonia as diagnosed by the presence of cough, living incrowded housewere determinants of carrying achildonthebackwhilecooking and (29). Malnutrition, useofcharcoal for cooking, by fast breathing, in a study in a rural community (23.9% (30)). rural (20.6%(29))and urbanslumpopulations much higher in vulnerable groups such as 60 80 War &disaster Self-harm &violence Unintentional injuries Transport injuries Other non-communicable Musculoskeletal disorders Diabetes/urog/blood/endo Mental &substanceuse Neurological disorders Digestive diseases Cirrhosis Chronic respiratory Cardiovascular diseases Neoplasms Other groupI Nutritional deficiencies Neonatal disorders Maternal disorders NTDs &malaria Diarrhoea/LRl/other HIV/AIDS &tuberculosis 10 Local studies of health effects of household air pollution 11 Opportunities for Transition to Clean HouseHold Energy in Ethiopia Millennium Development Goals (MDGs) and the of 23per10000asathreshold for achievingthe which islower thanthe WHO recommendation physicians was 0.2per10000population(9), and childhealth remain high. The numberof greatly improved, majorindicators ofmaternal health services by geographical location hasbeen hospitals inEthiopia(32). Although access to 447 health posts, 3547health centres and189 has access to a health facility. There are 16 facilities, and, currently, 100%ofthepopulation the Ethiopian population better access to health Extension oftheroad infrastructure hasgiven and these interministerial partnerships can be through steering and technical committees, by seven ministriesandorganizations and through memoranda ofunderstanding signed Strategy. These strategies are implemented the Integrated UrbanSanitationandHygiene Hygiene andEnvironmental Health Strategy and for health and the environment: the National The Ministry of Health has two strategies social security for all (Article 90). and education, cleanwater, housing, food and policies istoprovide access topublichealth (Article 44)andstipulatesthattheaimof the righttolive inaclean, healthy environment The Constitution of Ethiopia (1993) enshrines health services (34). health centres offerall basicmaternal andchild health facilities, 70%ofhospitalsand80% basic health services (33). Nationally, 22% of all Sustainable Development Goals (SDGs) to provide on airpollution 3.4 3.3 Health sectorpoliciesandprogrammes Health service infrastructure andaccess and radios) (35). land lines, mobilephones, wireless telephones access tocommunication equipment(functioning available in 84% of health facilities, and 27% had mobile phones. Transport for emergencies was and acommunication networkoflandlinesand delivery, whichconsists ofanambulance service a strategy toprotect thelife ofmothers during health posts(10%)(35). Ethiopiahasintroduced and access topower istheleastregular inremote a regular, uninterrupted supply of electricity, Only about one fourth of health facilities have to acleanwater supply and69%tosanitation. 30% of the health facilities surveyed had access and sanitation are still major challenges: in 2016, facility in2016(4). Anadequatewater supply Only 26%ofmothers gave birthatahealth to airpollution (Fig 9). Conformity Case Team toaddress issuerelated health. IthasaClimateChangeandSocial issues ofhygiene, sanitationand environmental and Environmental Health Directorate for national has currently become anindependentHygiene Extension andPrimaryHealth Services. The team health teamwithintheDirectorate ofHealth The MinistryofHealth includedanenvironmental neglected concern. represented inthesestrategies asanemerging, water pollution. Householdairpollution iswell and coordination for managementofair, soiland technologies. Bothstrategies emphasizeactions called upontodeliver and promote cleanenergy health facilities and introduces initiatives such as and childhealth. Itensures regular activitiesin health needs, withafocus onimproving maternal plan (2015–2016and2019–2020)addresses The long-termhealth sectortransformation Source: + • Humanwaste. • Hazwaste; • Solidwaste; • Liquidwaste; Wastes include: + Waste management Fig. 9. Compiledfrom datafrom theMinistryofHealth. Case Team Structure ofHealth, oftheMinistry includingtheEnvironmental HealthDirectorate State Minister,HealthProgrammes Hygiene andEnvironmentalHealth Directorate • PersonalHygiene. • Drinkingwatersafety; • FoodHygiene; Food, WaterSafetyand Personal Hygiene Case Team Federal MinistryofHealth mitigate airpollution. strategies tochange waste management and It alsoincludes national environmental health and child illnesses and safe, clean deliveries. community integrated managementofneonatal • Residentialenvironment. • Healthfacilities; working places; • Schools,industries,other Institutions include: Institutional Hygiene Case Team State Minister,Operation Outdoor kitchenwithstonestove Credit: Heather Adair-Rohani Other Climatefactors. • AmbientAirPollution • HouseholdAirPollution; include: Climate changefactors Climate Changeand Social Conformity Case Team  12 Health sector policies and programmes on air pollution 13 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Current householdenergy use 4 Although urbanhouseholds uselesspolluting fuel almost 100%in rural areas (Figs 10and 11). especially firewood (4), andtheproportion is is donewithpolluting fuelsandtechnologies, In about95%ofEthiopianhouseholds, cooking Source: + Source: + 4.1 solid fuelsorkerosene 99% cookmainlywith 80% ofthepopulation + + Fig. 11. Fig. 10. live inruralareas Electricity 5% reference 4. reference 4. Charcoal 8% Household usefor cooking Rural LPG 1% Rural andurbanuseofcookingfuelstechnologies inhouseholds inEthiopia, 2016 Cookingfuelsandtechnologies usedinhouseholdsEthiopia, 2016 Dung cake7% solid fuelsorkerosene 75% cookmainlywith 20% ofthepopulation live inurbanareas Crop residues2% Urban Kerosene 1% Firewood 76% 1% withliquifiedpetroleum gas(LPG). of homes, asabout23%cook withelectricityand fuel andtechnologyare usedinaboutonefourth firewood and30%charcoal. Inurban areas, clean and technology, they still use mostly biomass: 38% Source: season. urban households, particularly duringtherainy It isalsocommonly usedfor heatingindoors in coffee ceremony inalmostall urbanhouseholds. Charcoal is used daily for cooking and during the high (36). resources, isestimatedtobe62%, whichisvery a measure ofunsustainableusebiomass the fraction ofnon-renewably harvested biomass, of primary energy is obtained from biomass, available in2019. Because alarge proportion although gasproduction isprojected tobecome Gas fuelhasvery low penetration inEthiopia, + + Fig. 12. reference 4. Cookingfuelsandtechnologies usedinhouseholdsEthiopiaby region 2016 dioxide in3300houses showed that thosewith solid fuelwas used (37). Measurements ofnitrogen m3, withhigherconcentrations inhouses inwhich matter measuring2.5µm (PM2.5)was 818µg/ community, themeanconcentration ofparticulate survey of59kitchensinanAddis Ababaslum in anumberoflimitedstudiesEthiopia. Ina Household airpollution hasbeenmeasured energy, seeAnnex 3. For more detailsonthefuelsusedfor household has decreased recently because oflimitedsupply. holidays, even in , although its use traditionally usedfor bakingbread duringmajor Cow dungisusedmainly for bakinginjera andis 14 Household use for cooking 15 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia The coffee ceremony isperformed twoorthree min (41), muchhigherthan WHO guidelinelevels. 1028 µg/m3andthatofCOwas 29ppmover 60 The geometricmeanlevel ofrespirable PM2.5was exposure duringatraditional coffee ceremony. in only one study in Ethiopia, which assessed Personal exposure toairpollution was measured exceeded theinterim WHO criteria. million (ppm) (40). All of these pollutant levels level ofcarbon monoxide (CO)was 16.1partsper 24-h level ofPM2.5was 793.1µg/m3, andthe8-h in which wood was used for cooking, the mean residues (38, 39). InhouseholdsinAddis Ababa those in which cooking was done with dung or crop wood stoves hadsignificantly higherlevels than Source: + and wood. and technologiesfor lighting, includingkerosene households, however, usepolluting, harmfulfuels solar-powered lights(Fig. 12). Almost 30%of with electricity, battery-powered lanternsand lighting inthemajorityofhouseholdsEthiopia, Clean fuelsandtechnologiesare usedfor Battery 4.2 Biogas 0.1%/Candles + Fig. 13. Solar 12% reference 4. Firewood 5% 27% Household usefor lighting Fuelsandtechnologies used for lightinginEthiopia, 2016 Generator 0.7% No lighting1% Kerosene 23% Electricity 31%

replace woodandcharcoal, thelevels ofPM stoves were introduced intorefugee camps to and CO, respectively (42). When ethanolcooking pollution significantly, by 58%and72% for PM ethanol stove intothesamehousesreduced the charcoal stoves, respectively. Introduction ofan µg/m median PM2.5andCOconcentrations were 330 In a study in nine houses in Addis Ababa, the 48-h exposure, especially for womenandchildren. times aday andmay therefore beasource ofhigh households have shiftedtosolarlighting. raising thecost three times, andmany rural Ethiopia hasremoved subsidiesfor thisfuel, the relatively low useofkerosene may bethat batteries (36%) (Figs 13 and 14). One reason for dominated by useofkerosene (31%)andelectric for lighting(87%), whilelightinginrural areas is More householdsinurbanareas useofelectricity on householdairpollution conducted inEthiopia.) 44). (SeeAnnex 4for theresults ofmore studies and COwere reduced tomuch lower levels (43,

3 for kerosene stove users and25.1ppmfor 2.5 2.5

U Source: Source: + use amixofkerosene, electric batteriesandsolar areas; rural areas are largely unelectrifiedand Access toelectricityisfound mainly inlarge urban + R r u + + b r Fig. 15. Fig. 14. a a n l reference 4. reference 45. 0 , 0 Lightingfuelsandtechnologies usedinurbanandrural Ethiopia, 2015 Proportions ofhouseholdswithaccessto electricity, by region, 2016 2 0 , 0 4 0 , 0 6 0 , 0 potential. extend electricityaccess by usingitshydropower energy (Fig. 15). Ethiopiahasambitiousplansto 8 0 , 0 1 0 0 , 0 1 2 0 , 0 O F C B G S B K E l a i i a t e o e r e o h n l r t n e c a ga e t o d e w e t r r s r l r r e s o e i a y c o s n t i o t d e y r 16 Household use for lighting 17 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia however, thelimiteddataavailable indicate that Little isknown aboutburninjuriesinEthiopia, Thus, homeheatingisanotherpotentialsource freezing-point at night and during the rainy season. rural areas where thetemperature can drop to Firewood is used for space heating in high-altitude lamps more stableandencouraging education in barrier to inadvertent contact, making kerosene raising fires offthe ground to create a physical The proposed preventive measures included: Adult burnswere related tocooking andepilepsy. and children are thecommonest victims(46). the homeiscommonest siteofburninjuries, (West ShoaProvince) in1983–1989show that of inpatientadmittedfor burnsinAttat Hospital household energy use plays a major role. Recrods 4.4 4.3 Perceived safety ofhouseholdenergy Household usefor heating in children under5years ofageandthat 81% town alsoshowed thatthehighestincidence was 7309 individuals in 1390 households in Mekele and first aid(46). Across-sectional survey of for disseminating education on burn prevention in households, women'sgroups may beuseful home safety. Asmostburnsare related tofires national surveys. household heatinghasnotyet beenassessedin areas. Unfortunately, theuseofdifferent fuels for of householdairpollution inEthiopiacertain high priority. and first aidmeasures was recognized as a energy use(47). Education aboutburnprevention of burnsoccurred inthehomefrom household and coordination Stakeholder organization 5 governments tobetterdeliver regulatory services The Authority delegatesitsmandatestoregional programmes andprojects onenergy efficiency. standards anddirectives andcommissions and theelectricitysector, issuestechnical codes, regulates energy efficiency and conservation fund. TheEthiopiaEnergy Authority home systems for solarenergy through arural hydro and others) and has distributed over 45 000 alternative energies (biomass, solar, wind, mini- manufacturing, laboratory workandtraining in Development and Promotion is responsible for The Directorate for Alternative Energy Technology the source of data and information on energy. and theoff-gridmasterplan. TheDirectorate is worked onthenationalelectrification strategy directly involved inplanningelectrification and is responsible for the energy sector strategy. It is The Directorate for Energy StudiesandDevelopment those describedbelow. government agencies and enterprises, including operations, implementationand supervisingother for regulatory policyanddecision-making, energy charge oftheenergy sectorandisresponsible The Ministryof Water, IrrigationandEnergy isin and Electricity 5.1.1. 5.1

Ministry of Water, Irrigation Government agencies Electric Power undertakes feasibility studies electric tariffs and related activities. Ethiopian to customers. Italsoproposes amendmentsto bulk electricpower andsells electrical energy of electric distribution networks and purchase of Utility works in the construction and maintainance services intheeconomy. The EthiopianElectric to andpromote energy efficiencyand conservation hospitals (level 3)(Fig. 16). with ageneral hospital(level 2)andspecialized people. The districthealth system isassociated posts for eachhospital, eachserving3000–5000 care hospital, health centres and five health 60 000–100 000 people, consisting of a primary The first level is a district health system covering system to deliver health care in Ethiopia (Fig. 16). The MinistryofHealth oversees athree-tier and socialdevelopment policiesandpriorities. purpose in accordance with Government economic access and conducts other activities t to achieve its lines, sells bulkelectric power, ensures universal and transmission, leaseselectricitytransmission operates andmaintainselectricitygeneration and upgrades transmission and substations, and surveys ofelectricity generation, constructs 5.1.2.

Ministry ofHealth 18 Government agencies 19 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia improved stoves andpromotes themanufacture technical and social research on the design of use offossil energy. The Ministryalso supports renewable energy sources andreduction ofthe resources, promotion ofthedevelopment of protection, sustainableuseofrenewable integrated withenergy conservation, environmental development, inwhichenergy development is to energy includeintersectoral planningand The Ministry’senvironmental policieswith regard a party. environmental hazards, towhichEthiopiais chemicals, industrialwastes andanthropogenic agreements, includingthoseonhazardous of internationalandregional environmental for synergistic implementation andfollow-up safety oftheenvironment. Itisalsoresponsible and mechanismsfor humanwelfare andthe establishing systems, designingprogrammes It actsby coordinating appropriate measures, and oftheenvironment policyofEthiopia. basic principlesenshrinedintheConstitution the environmental rights, goals, objectives and The Ministryisresponsible for realization of Ref: HSDPIV (HealthSectorDevelopment Programme IV 2010/11–2014/15;page75) + Forestry andClimate Change 5.1.3. + Fig. 16.

Ministry ofEnvironment, Three-tier system, healthdelivery Ethiopia Health centerrural:15,000-25,000people Primary hospital:1-1.5millionpeople Health centerurban:40,000people Health post:3,000-5,000people Primary healthcareunits (1-1.5 millionpeople) (3.5-5 millionpeople) General hospitals Specialized hospital health care Tertiary level They also created the Ministryof Works and regional governments and cities since 2000. bring togetherthesmall-scale initiatives of consolidated urban development policyto In 2005, the Council of Ministers approved a for coordinating housing andurbandevelopment. Until recently, there were few national policies strategy issummarizedinAnnex 5. end-use appliances. The Ethiopianconservation manufacturing energy development facilitiesand assisting theprivate sectorinassembling and technologies andappliances; andpromoting and for testingefficient alternative energy sources, and project implementation;establishingacentre regional energy agencies in research, planning strengthening thecapacity ofFederal and household energy-related functionsinclude kilns, solar cookers and solar heaters. Other to testinganddisseminatingimproved stoves, fuels inorder toavoid ; thisextends sources andtechnologiestoreplace biomass It hasamandatetodevelop andadaptenergy and distributionofcharcoal andbiomassstoves. Development and Housing 5.1.4. health care Secondary level

Ministry ofUrban health care Primary level the national grid, thus makingthepower supply which encourages diversification ofthepower in follows theElectricity Feed-in-Tariff Law (2012), provide reliable power for lighting. This strategy sufficient forhousehold cooking, although itwould 2025. Itisnotclearwhethertheelectricitywill be on-grid and35%off-grid)ofthepopulation by World Bank(US$350million) toreach 100%(65% (worth US$ 1.5 billion) – with support from the Ethiopian integrated electrification road map electricity strategy in November 2017 – the the Government launchedanambitiousofficial Ministry of Water, Irrigation and Electricity (19), other modernenergy sources. According tothe project to increase access to electricity and The Government hasembarked uponanational public finances. is incharge ofeconomic policy, planningand The MinistryofFinance andEconomic Development details ofhousingprogrammes inEthiopia. capacity-building (48). See Annex 6 for additional address financial planning, human resources and and theUrbanDevelopment SupportServices small enterprisedevelopment programmes, development programme, includingmicro- and Bureau implementstheintegrated housing development plans, theHousingDevelopment is responsible for preparing physical urban Ministry, theNationalUrbanPlanningInstitute studies onurbanizationpatterns. Within this of thecountry’s urbanareas andtoconduct Urban Development toguidedevelopment access toelectricity 5.2.1. programmes 5.2 5.1.5.

National strategy for Development strategies andflagship Other ministries regional bureaus andotherregional institutions. level, energy activitiesare supportedmainly by the distributionofpetroleum products. At regional The Ministry of Trade sets retail prices and regulates a sustained supply at times of sudden shortages; depots located throughout thecountry toensure that managesandadministers strategic reserve Reserve Administration, an armof Government and use, andtheNationalStrategic Petroleum responsible for coordinating biofuel development Development Coordination Directorate, whichis directly related totheenergy sectorare theBiofuel agencies andenterprises. The twodirectorates operations, and supervising other Government making for mining, petroleum andnatural gas is incharge ofregulatory policyanddecision- The MinistryofMines, Petroleum andNatural Gas use ofmodern fuels. With thispolicy, thecountry fuels are usedandfacilitatingashifttomore increasing theefficiency withwhichbiomass household energy by promoting agro-forestry, energy sector. The aimofthepolicyistoensure March 1994andremains the mainpolicyfor the The first nationalenergy policy was issuedin projects currently underway inEthiopia(49). a listofthenationalandinternationalenergy innovating newtechnologies. Annex 7provides energy sources andtechnologiesby adoptingor is to use the country’s abundant renewable alternative energy development andpromotion market conditions. The aimoftheprogramme for more reliable and less vulnerable to weather and 5.2.2.

National energy policy 20 Development strategies and flagship programmes 21 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia of theEthiopianGovernment designedtoprotect A climate-resilient green economy isastrategy on wood. of alternative fuelsandrelieving thepressure of householdenergy by increasing thesupply and gasreserves. The policystabilizestheprice as appropriate andfurtherexplore anddevelop oil solar, windandotherrenewable energy resources electricity supply but also use its geothermal, will rely mainly onhydropower toincrease its Source: + base andgreater export growth. The strategy agricultural productivity, a strengthened industrial gas emissions low. The will require increased (stipulated inGTP II), whilekeeping greenhouse help Ethiopiareach itsambitious growth targets the strategy istoidentifyopportunities that could income statusbefore 2025(50). The objective of help ittorealize itsambitionofreaching middle- change andtobuildagreen economy thatwill the country from theadverse effectsofclimate economy 5.2.3. + Fig. 17. reference 51.

Climate-resilient green Agriculture growth programme areas, Ethiopia • • • • economy plan isbasedonfour pillars: in aconventional development pathway. The green than theestimated250MtofCO2tobeexpected around today’s 150MtofCO2, whichwill beless while limiting2030greenhouse gasemissionsto help thecountry toachieve itsdevelopment goals and prioritized more than 60 initiatives that could follows asectoral approach andhassofaridentified biogas stoves). cooking andbaking(suchaselectric, LPGand efficient stoves or alternative-fuel stoves for the demandfor firewood by distributingfuel- programmes for sustainableforestry andreducing The green economy strategy hasprioritized and buildings. technologies intransport, industrial sectors Transition tomodern, energy-efficient regional markets. sources of energy for domestic and Extend electricitygeneration from renewable carbon stocks. ecosystem services offorests, includingas Protect andre-establish theeconomic and income whilereducing emissions(Fig. 17). for greater food securityandmore farmer Improve crop andlivestock production practices programme, UNICEF supports the Government targeting ofinterventions. Within theOne WASH strengthens Government ownership andimproves fund”, theconsolidated WASH account, which The One WASH programme includes a “basket partners andothers toachieve common goals. among planners, implementers, development and serves asaplatform for closerpartnership planning, procuring, implementing and financing harmonizing Government anddonorapproaches to goals of the GTP (52). It provides a framework for Government’s maininstrumentfor achievingthe March 2013, respectively. The programme isthe and Economic Development inNovember 2012and of Water andEnergy, Health, Education, Finance implementation framework signedby theministries a memorandum ofunderstanding andan The national One WASH programme operationalizes and solarenergy. and for export, andexpansion ofbiofuelandwind in hydropower, sufficient for both domesticuse supply. The Plan promotes an extensive increase for energy by providing asufficient, reliable power green development tomeetthecountry’s demand middle-income country by 2025. GTP II promotes justice and increase per capita income to that of a to sustaineconomic development, secure social industry andinfrastructure. The second Planis 14% peryear through investments inagriculture, MDGs, withanambitiousGDPgrowth rate of11– (10). Amajorobjective ofGTP Iwas toattainthe followed by the second Plan (GTP II) for 2015–2020 strategic framework for 5years from 2011. Itwas Transformation Plan(GTP I)asamedium-term Government launchedthefirst Growth and Sustained Development to End Poverty – the Programme and the Plan for Accelerated and Sustainable Development for Poverty Reduction of twoconsecutive poverty reduction plans–the objectives for 5-year periods. After implementation Ethiopia’s Growth Transformation Planslay out programme 5.2.5. plans 5.2.4.

One WASHnational Growth transformation distribute improved cooking stoves by building implementation oftheGovernment’s planto The programme isdesignedtocontribute to evaluation through thenational WASH Inventory. UNICEF alsostrengthens sectormonitoringand initiatives, suchas“Sanitationandwater for all”. of nationalachievements withinternational development partners. UNICEFfacilitateslinkage for dialoguebetweentheGovernment and sector working group by acting as a platform and partners supportthesecretariat ofthewater efficiency and avoid duplication ofefforts. UNICEF setting upcoordination anddialoguetoimprove of Ethiopiaandthedevelopment community in communities inwhichbiomass fuelisusedfor improved stoves” are promoted mainly inrural and having achimney inthekitchen. “Smokeless in a separate room, having windows in all rooms separating spaces for human and animals, cooking home environment include useofimproved stoves, their own health”. Packages suchasahealthy on theunderstanding that“households produce about the consequences of environmental risks, improve awareness, attitudesandknowledge provides health education houseto address environmental health. This programme to rural populations;seven ofthe16packages 16 service packages for delivering health care The health extension programme comprises of Environment, Forestry andClimateChange. The coordinator oftheprogramme istheMinistry and theNetherlandsDevelopment Organisation. Gesellschaft fürInternationaleZusammenarbeit Irrigation andElectricityNGOslike theGerman and Natural Resources andtheMinistryof Water, ministries such as the Ministry of Agriculture steering committee comprises Government institutional capacity at all levels (53). A national a sustainable, vibrant market for thestoves and stove programme 5.2.6. programme 5.2.7.

National improved cooking Health extension 22 Development strategies and flagship programmes 23 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia best practices. and health workers ononeplatform toshare one tofive households, organizes the community benefits. The“army”, involving networkingamong to increase theaccess ofhouseholdstohealth development army” was introduced recently who provide theservices tohouseholds. A“health packages totwofemale health extension workers, cooking andlighting. Health postsdeliver the country are summarizedinAnnex 6. housing. Landandhousingprogrammes inthe strategies and programmes promote healthy of kebele housingstock. The various Government the current housingdeficitandthepoorquality serviced, healthy, affordable housing owing to planning strategy. There ismassive demandfor a rural housingstrategy andasavings andfinancial an integrated housing development programme, are anurbanhousingsupply policyandstrategy, the MinistryofUrbanDevelopment andHousing Some ofthepoliciesandstrategies issuedby 5.2.8.

Housing programmes Social interventions 6 a with increasing access to skilled health staff HIV andsafe abortion, improve maternalhealth, prevention ofmother-to-child transmission of care, comprehensive emergency obstetriccare, initiatives, suchasbasicemergency obstetric usually monitorpregnant women. Health service Health postsstaffed by health extension workers . due toacomprehensive approach topregnancy steadily (from 891in2000(26)to4122016(4)) the numberofmaternaldeathsisdecreased deaths per 100000 live births in2016 (4); however, in Ethiopiaisstill high, withanestimated412 The pregnancy-related maternalmortalityrate pregnant women 6.1.1. programmes 6.1 Percentage offemales ofchildbearingagewhoattendedatleastfour antenatalvisits(54). (deaths per100000live births) Maternal mortalityratio women (%) planning amongmarried Unmet needfor family staff (%) Birth attendedby skilled health women Antenatal care for pregnant woman) Total fertility rate (numberper use amongmarriedwomen (%) Prevalence ofcontraceptive Indicator . Table 3. a

Health services for Maternal andchildhealth andnutrition Indicators ofmaternal health, Ethiopia 2000 (26) 891 5.6 5.5 8.1 35 27 significantly, andthey are monitored andevaluated free ofcharge. These services have improved mothers. Various contraceptive methodsare also health institutions toguarantee thewell-being of and postnatalcare, are provided for free inpublic including antenatalcare, vaccination, delivery and childcare. Maternalhealth services, health of the mother and the baby. Relatives of and for afew days afterthebirthtoensure the pregnant womenare admitted untildelivery with ambulances andmaternityrooms, towhich deliver inhealth facilities, which are equipped health initiatives. Mothers are encouraged to with theexpansion ofhealth facilitiesandpublic but islow inAddis Ababa(1.8). tends to be above average inSomali Region (7.2) periodically andannually. The totalfertility rate 2005 (27) 33.5 14.7 673 5.7 5.4 28 2011 (28) 25.3 28.6 676 4.8 10 34 2016 (4) 412 4.6 35 26 62 36 24 Maternal and child health and nutrition programmes 25 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia The mortalityrate ofchildren under 5 years in clean home. health andawareness oftheimportance ofasafe, are strategic community partners inbothmaternal care andvaccination. Health extension workers providers for antenatal care, delivery, postnatal mothers duringtheir contacts withhealth Clean householdenergy can bepromoted to acceptable support. them toprovide psychological andculturally pregnant womenare encouraged tostay with interventions for mitigation andadaptation on theimmediateand remote environment, assessment mustdeclare any possibleeffect (Proclamation 299/2002). The report ofthe impact assessments for eligible investments has amandatetorequest environmental Environment, Forestry andClimateChange health riskassessment. The Ministryof Three ministriesare involved inenvironmental was above thenationalaverage in2015(1). Tigray, BenshangulGumuzandAmhara regions of vaccination ofurbanchildren andchildren in with differences by residence and region. The rate reached 39% among children aged 12–23 months, The rate of vaccination with all 10 vaccines has the vaccinations atfive contacts withproviders. measles. Every child is expected to complete infection, hepatitisB, diarrhoea, pneumoniaand pertussis, tetanus, Haemophilusinfluenzae b diseases: tuberculosis, poliomyelitis, diphtheria, entitles every childtobevaccinated against10 disability. The nationalvaccination programme are common causes ofchildhooddeathand (4). Diarrhoeaandacuterespiratory illness in 2000(26)to67per1000live births in2016 it is decreasing – from 166 per 1000 live births Ethiopia isoneofthehighestglobally, although 6.2 6.1.2.

Environmental health riskassessments Child vaccination NGO account establishedtoruntheschoolfeeding funding. Donors’ supportischannelled intoalocal it isexpected thatthey will bereplaced by public teachers, donors andcommunities; infuture, feeding programme is supported by voluntary identified by theschool community. Theschool regular curriculum. Needyschoolchildren are nutrition clubsandintegrating nutritionintothe programme, aschool garden programme, school primary schools, whichincludesaschoolfeeding nutrition programme, mainly for children at of Education hasadoptedaschoolhealth and overcome child malnutrition, and the Ministry is implementinganationalnutritionstrategy to children under5years (1). The MinistryofHealth chronic and10%for acutemalnutritionamong health problem inEthiopia, withrates of38%for Malnutrition amongchildren isstill apublic that satisfies the health requirements for human involved in the design of housing (urban and rural) The MinistryofHousingand UrbanDevelopment is investments are subjecttohealth riskassessment. villages, waste management, landfills and other epidemics. Siteselectioninvolving water, housing, investment andimplementation during evaluates thehealth riskofprojects during the monitoring system. The Ministry of Health homes andfamilies. bringing messages about clean cooking to their Both groups could actasagentsofchangeby community whocook aboutuseofcleanenergy. schoolchildren and the women from the local could beusedtoincrease theknowledge ofboth clean energy for cooking is not promoted. Schools biomass fuelisusedfor cooking, anduseof selected for thenutritionintervention, mainly least breakfast andlunch. Inmostoftheschools children among all those eligible toprovide at has difficulty in reachingthemostdestitute there isachronic shortageoffood. The programme urban (slum)areas andrural communities inwhich the programme isgirlsfrom theleast-served programme inidentifiedschools. Onepriority of 6.1.3.

Nutrition programme ministries inmitigatinghouseholdairpollution for cooking. Collaboration among these three and toaccommodate useofcleanfuelsources to includeaseparate kitchenwithwindows habitation. The designofhousingisexpected health strategy. and for implementing the national environmental of understanding for theOne WASH programme goals. The ministrieshave signedmemoranda is vitaltosustaintheenvironment andhealth Cooking injera withsolidfuel Credit: Jessica Lewis  26 Environmental health risk assessments 27 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Discussion 7 economy) are conducive for thedevelopment the energy policy andclimate-resilient green policies onhealth, environment andenergy (e.g. Lack ofcoordination: fuels for cooking inrural households. LPGis distribution still posesabarrierfor useofthese in someareas, inadequateinfrastructure for their ethanol are cheaperthancharcoal andkerosene and targeted incentives. Although electricityand collect it. Changing suchattitudeswill take time “free” commodity, despitethetimerequired to the populationlives, firewood isperceived as a constraint. Inrural areas, where themajorityof rural households. Lack of cash is amajor stove isamajorbarrier, especially for poor Unaffordability: working capital. is limitedbecause ofthelackincentives and levels. Moreover, involvement of the private sector to provide diversified energy sources atdifferent insufficient technical staffandinstrumentation institutions have overlapping mandatesand Mines, Petroleum and Natural Gas), and key Forestry andClimate ChangeandMinistryof Irrigation andElectricity, MinistryofEnvironment, shared amongthree ministries(Ministryof Water, arrangements are abarrier, asdirectorates are health risks ofhouseholdairpollution. Institutional Ministry ofHealth do not promote awareness of the currently, thechildandmaternalhealth unitsinthe clean energy tomake itapriority;for example, be improved by ensuringbetterunderstanding of agencies. Coordination amongministriescould the private sectorandnationalinternational regional andnationalagencies, thepublicand and energy sectors, ministerialdepartments, There islackofcoordination amongthehealth sectors isrequired for implementationofpolicies. of cleanenergy use, bettercoordination among household energy 7.1 Barriers toadoptionofclean The highcost ofacleancooking Although Government Unclear regulatory responsibility: cost tohouseholds. and the stove for other cooking) increases the poor efficiencyofappliances (boththeinjera stove to use of electricity for cooking, and the relatively the initialcost of appliances isthemainbarrier households (seeAnnex 1). Inurbanhouseholds, affordable mainly tomiddle-andupper-income demand for cleancooking stoves. Householdsare fuels, which hasimpededthegrowth ofmarket associated with inefficient combustion of solid information onthenegative health outcomes Lack ofawareness: green economy. for emissionreductions intheclimate-resilient Government policygoals, suchasthetargets barriers todesigningacoherent strategy toreach responsibility and lackofcoordination are promotion ofbiogasasacleanfuel. Such“siloed” Natural Resources haslimitedcooperation on Electricity andtheMinistryofAgriculture and between theMinistryof Water, Irrigationand stove programme). For example, weaklinks and ClimateChange(nationalimproved cooking (biofuel) andtheMinistryofEnvironment, Forestry the Ministry of Mines, Petroleum and Natural Gas solar, technologydevelopment andpromotion), Water, Irrigation and Electricity (electricity, biogas, among many ministries, suchastheMinistryof responsibility for householdenergy isspread stakeholder consultations showed thatthe programming andimplementation. Government capacity-building toimprove planning, to woreda level, wouldbenefitfrom sustained such. Institutional infrastructure, from federal household energy are notclearly designatedas rural energy development activitiesrelevant to (policy, licenses, quality, standards, etc.)and Householdslackadequate Regulatory have income topurchase anewcooking stove and Cultural factors: generating opportunities. investment inhouseholdappliances andincome- (currently about16%)discourages borrowing for interest rate charged by microfinance Institutions (7.5%) isthesamefor all businesses, andthehigh rate currently charged by commercial banks distributing clean fuel technologies. The interest working capital for importing, manufacturingor limited financingmodalities for investment or and isolatedfrom outside experience. There are solar andmicrohydro industriesispre-commercial systems, and, even inAddis Ababa, thestatusof no capacity to market and install renewable energy investment. OutsideofAddis Ababa, there isalmost energy consultants, bothrequiring littlecapital consider themselves importers ofequipmentor Most energy companies in the private sector working capital isneededtobridgethegap. not yet atthescale tosupportsuchenterprises; low profit margins. Carbonfinance schemes are capital for theirbusinesses, andthey operate with solutions have limitedaccess toinvestment sized entreprises working on clean cooking scale production facilities. Small- andmedium- limited distribution networks and relatively small- clean fuelsislimitedby poormarket development, in thehouseholdenergy sector. The availability of private sector, microfinance institutions andNGOs is almost no integration or interaction among the investments innewideasandtechnologies. There encouraged, andthere hasbeenlittlereturn on sector enterprise. Entrepreneurship hasnotbeen has notdeveloped sufficiently to supportprivate Insufficient market development: and capacity-building. of cleanenergy will require clearmessages Improving householdawareness andadoption and durability ofanewcooking device orfuel. more concerned aboutthesafety, convenience Inmany settings, womendonot The market The rural communities, reducing development rural Ethiopians. The physical barriers isolate provision ofsocialandeconomic services to and physical access isamajorbarriertothe in rural areas are in low-density settlements, Inadequate electricity supply: exceed thoseof WHO guidelines. are exposed tolevels ofparticulatematterthat lasts for hours, duringwhichtimeparticipants of socialandcultural life. The ceremony usually making coffee for this ceremony isanintegral part social and economic support. The use of charcoal in neighbours talkandshare opinions, andhostsgain social tradition in which household members and in food preparation. The coffee ceremony is a as charcoal ispartofmany cultural practices household airpollution isassociated withtradition, are convinced ofitsbenefits. Some exposure to purchasing a new appliance, even if their wives rely on their husbands, who may be resistant to disruptions have decreased from 18%to13%. lines, particularly inAddis Ababa, andpower launched aprogramme torehabilitate distribution household income. Recently, the Government solar lanternsandcandles, dependingonthe use ofdieselgenerators, car batteries, torches, power supplies for lighting and cooking, with the electricity, andmany householdshave back-up all areas ofthecountry thatare connected to Frequent power cuts are a major problem in and awareness-raising. of cleanhouseholdenergy, health care delivery settings, lack of roads severely limits penetration to itswideruseasacleanfuel. Inremote rural which isamajorlogistical andfinancial constraint distribution, substations and control centres, raise the cost of electricity transmission, prevalent thannuclearsettlementsorvillages, with individualandfamily homesteadsmore potential. Ethiopia’shighly dispersed settlements, Many households 28 Barriers to adoption of clean household energy 29 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia and Economic Development andcould serve as Electricity andEnergy, Health, Education, Finance among the ministries of Water, Irrigation and operationalizes theagreement for implementation platform for thepartnership. The programme implementation andfinancingservingas a and donorapproaches toplanning, procurement, a model framework for harmonizing Government for interagency coordination inEthiopia, providing One WASH programme isasuccessful precedent Leverage themodelof WASH programme: • • • • • household airpollution, including: in thehealth sectoraddress thehealth risks of sector: Leverage enablingenvironments inthehealth household energy. addressing householdairpollution andclean interest incollaborating insuchaframework for The EthiopianPlanningCommissionhasshown coordinated by steeringandtechnical committees. in asimilarfashion. Government ministriesare strategy requires coordination of line ministries and theintegrated urbansanitationandhygiene of thenationalenvironmental health strategy and reporting intoonesystem. Implementation finance and its management, implementation among ministriesby integrating theflow of The One WASH programme fosters cooperation partners involved in household energy in Ethiopia. work ofvarious ministriesanddevelopment a modelfor asimilarplatform tocoordinate the clean fuels 7.2 mothers; and safe, cleanhomes, targeting children and opportunities andplatforms for promoting regional administrations; the MinistryofHealth andlineoffices in the Environmental Health Directorate in programmes; access ofevery household tohealth extension in order tosustainhealth gainsinhouseholds; health infrastructure for reaching rural areas emphasis onmothers andchildren); Transformation Plan(publichealth with the Health Policy andHealth Sector Many enablingenvironments andwork Opportunities for increasing access to The The MinistryofHealth recently introduced a clean, safe deliveries andtoidentifyriskfactors. hospital perdistrict–isdesignedtoprovide health posts, onehealth centre andoneprimary primary health care units–comprising five low, andthehealth extension programme in care anddelivery inhealth facilitiesare currently infant deaths in Ethiopia. The rates of antenatal childbirth are leadingcauses of maternal and programmes: Promotion of clean stove use in pregnancy • many local womentoclean cooking. Use ofcleancooking inthesekitchensintroduces institutions, ofwhom60% are schoolchildren. are served meals cooked by local women in social perception. Currently, about1million customers accelerate adoption and dispel myths in the public directly introduce cleancooking to communities, in schools, medical care facilitiesanduniversities and operated mainly by thepublicsector. Stoves military establishmentsandprisons, managed hospitals, clinics, universities, refugee camps, Institutional stoves: promote useofcleanenergy. centres andbirthcentres can alsobeusedto can beused. Communityhealth posts, health provision ofcleanandimproved cooking stoves health promotion. Posters, demonstrations and discuss cleancooking andheatingintensive other pregnant mothers andfamily members to at health facilitiesprovide anopportunitytomeet traditional foods tomothers. The maternityrooms providing thecoffee ceremony tofamiliesandof any symptomoflabour. The supportincludes after 37weeks ofpregnancy orwhenthey have newborn equipment. Mothers stay at such centres are equipped with basic emergency obstetric and by donors, communities andtheGovernment, rooms close tohealth facilities, constructed necessary for mothers during delivery. Maternity practices andthesocialpsychological support delivery service withculturally acceptable including pneumonia. programme toprevent major causes ofdeath, the nationalchildhoodvaccination Complications ofpregnancy and Stoves are used inschools, lighting inthese areas hasreached almost100%. national electricity grid, and use of electricity for households inlarge citiesare connected tothe than charcoal inmany urbanareas. Almost all and cleanfuelssuchaselectricity now cost less established, asitisnotpossible to collect fuel, for cooking fuel. Urbanfuelmarkets are well In urbanareas, even thepoorest householdspay Increase cleanenergy access inurban areas: technologies by low-income rural households. schemes, toencourage theadoptionofcleanfuel partners, carbon financing and various subsidy from theGovernment budgetandsupportfrom with subsidized interest rates, a revolving fund clearly bediversified, includinglong-termcredit of importedstoves. Financingmodalitiesshould consumers through regulation andqualitycontrol regional agenciesshouldwork togethertoprotect Standards Agency, Energy Authority andsimilar Government agenciessuchastheEthiopian according tomarket development priorities. however, theMinistrymay updateitsstandards air pollution isnotincludedinthestandards; cooking stoves. According toexperts, indoor Standards Authority tostandardize andlabel and ElectricitybegantoworkwiththeEthiopian and workshop of the Ministry of Water, Irrigation the renewable energy technologylaboratory Regulations andstandards: consumption insocialinstitutions inEthiopia(55). for scaling upstove production andreducing fuel for universities andprisonswouldbeeffective and commercial stove production businessmodels Financing opportunities such as grants for schools to commercial bakers, primarily for management. most institutions now outsource the injera supply have beenwidely usedininstitutions;however, to firewood. Electricstoves for injera baking has meant, however, atendency to move back the highreplacement cost ofelectricstoves and hospitals. Lackofmaintenance, ageingand boilers and hot plates, particularly in universities stoves for cooking andbakinguseofelectric cooking inEthiopia, apartfrom improved biomass interventions toimprove energy usefor institutional to be33000tonnes. There have beenlimited universities anddetention centres isestimated consumption of wood for cooking inschools, on anopenhearth tocook meals. The annual those inhouseholds, inwhichfirewood isused Currently, thefuelandstoves usedare similarto Recently,

urban electricity consumption, easing pressure on lighting and solar water-heaters could reduce capacity. Promotion oflight-emitting diode(LED) areas andreliable transmission infrastructure and supply, elimination of load shedding in residential electric stoves will requires areliable electricity stoves. Inadditiontopricing, penetration of development anddisseminationofinduction should supportstandardization, certification, 100% electricityfor cooking. The Government of appliances could encourage households to use could decrease fuelcosts, andreducing thecost fuels. Increasing theefficiencyofelectricstoves has, however, become one ofthemostexpensive rather than withwoodorkerosene. Charcoal for electricstoves andcook oncharcoal stoves have exchanged their wood-burning injera stoves (56). Hence, many households in large cities price of wood tripled during the past decade the retail price of kerosene in cities, and the Elimination ofkerosene subsidieshasincreased the lowest wealth quintiles, and theaffordability large wealth inequality. Rural populationsare in reduce householdair pollution are hampered by of GDPgrowth over thepastfew years, effortsto Although Ethiopiahas hadaconsistently highrate kerosene inorder to eliminate kerosene use. possibly incombination withhighertariffs for In rural areas, solarlightingshouldbepromoted, are used for lighting would reduce kerosene use. in whichbatteriesandsolarphotovoltaic panels incentives toincrease the proportion ofhouseholds Ethiopia, especially inrural areas. Providing health effectsofsolidfuelsand kerosene in cooking technologies would reduce the adverse rural towns andvillages: Reduce exposure tohouseholdairpollution in poorer households. cooking, withassociatedprice structuringtoreach periurban areas could provide anoptionfor clean Extension oftheelectricitygridinurbanand good opportunitytoscale uppilotprogrammes. Ethiopian householdsby 2025andwill provide a Electricity isanambitiousplantoconnect all launched by theMinistryof Water, Irrigationand The “integrated electrification road map” recently are akey opportunity. to cleanfuels. Slumupgrades inmunicipalities for concerted actiontoaccelerate thetransition the electricitysupply. There isaclearopportunity Atransition toclean 30 Opportunities for increasing access to clean fuels 31 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia excise andvalue added taxes, payment through savings andsupportstructures, removing payments, payment from traditional community saving andcredit cooperatives, installment could beused, suchasmicrofinance loanschemes, rural households, various financingmechanisms channels. To reduce thecost ofelectricstoves for could beimproved andexpanded through various devices: New financingmechanism for cleanfuelsand networks ofclean householdenergy. Road development will improve thedistribution connected tomini-solar grids, alsofor lighting. of thehouseholdenergy market could alsobe Afar andSomaliregional states. This segment of cleanfuelisasignificant barrier, especially in allocation budgetasarevolving fund. Inthecurrent microfinance institutions andtheGovernment’s Moreover, theprogramme facilitatescredit from providing asolidargument for investment (57). to show thebenefitofusingbiogas, thereby as fertilizer, deforestation avoided) are calculated agricultural productivity from theuseofbio-slurry emissions leadingtocarbon credits, increased the digester(e.g. reduction ingreenhouse gas reducing workload)andeconomic benefits of digester. Boththefinancial (e.g. saving time, about 25% if they decideto invest in abiogas households have aninvestment incentive of chain. To make biogassystems more affordable, private sectorisnotyet involved inthesupply channels for stoves and spare parts, and the relatively expensive; there are no distribution million households. The current technologyis Currently, the market is estimated to be 1.5–3.5 households withenoughwater andmanure. however, thedomesticmarket islimitedto responsible for disseminatingbiogastechnology; Promotion ofbiogas: with carbon fundswithinthisprogramme. of covering partorall ofthecost ofappliances emissions. Householdswouldhave theincentive green economy strategy toreduce greenhouse gas the initiatives intheEthiopianclimate-resilient energy (e.g. solarheating, electricity)isoneof programmes. Buildinghousesthatrely onclean carbon financingintothedevelopment ofhousing of promoting cleanfuelusewouldbetointegrate revolving fundsandsubsidyschemes. Oneway Development Mechanism and the Gold Standard, carbon trading mechanismssuchastheClean Financialincentives for households The Government is promotion ofcleanfueltechnologyintegrated existing programmes to leverage resources, e.g. Clean householdenergy could beintegrated into institutions, suchasiqubs, idirs andmahibers. clean householdenergy through traditional social be more inclinedtotake advantage offinancing for schemes have more disposable income and might mini-solar grids;andfarmers whohave irrigation improved cooking stoves withchimneys and accept technologies such asbiogas, solar energy, and sesame)are grown wouldbemore likely to and inareas inwhichcash crops (e.g. coffee supported by theAgriculture Growth Programme, in areas inwhichthere isanagricultural surplus, financial investment mechanisms. People living the investment cost and ensure a wider variety of alternative biogastechnologiesthatmightreduce is nocompetition amongsuppliers toprovide sole supplierofthetechnology;therefore, there the NetherlandsDevelopment Organisation isthe programme, theGovernment inpartnership with and promotion ofprivate investment are necessary a large Government investment, carbon financing ethanol stoves ofacceptable quality. Apartfrom a competitive local manufacturing market for are lackofareliable source ofethanoland infrastructure andservices. Particular problems increased ethanolprices andlimiteddistribution options, resulting constraints onavailability, public awareness ofcleanfuelandcooking market development isduemainly toinadequate to afew households inAddis Ababa. Inadequate in Ethiopia, butthemarket isessentially limited since ethanolwas introduced asacooking fuel the potential. More than 10years have passed only about3000households, whichisfarbelow 0.6 million households. The current market is to meetthecooking energy requirements of estimated tobe350million L annually – enough from Government-owned sugarfactoriesaloneis in the coming years. Potential ethanol production production isexpected toincrease significantly produced from molasses, andannual is increasingly available atcompetitive prices. Itis viable cleanfuelintheEthiopiancontext because it transport andcooking. Ethanolisconsidered a security andreliability of the energy supply for renewable domesticfuelthatcould improve the policy of Ethiopia (2013) identified ethanolas a Promotion ofethanol: health development andnetworking. with theSustainableLandManagementProject, The draft nationalenergy in rural areas; guidingthe development ofrural marketing, service andagro-processing centres the lifestyle oftherural population; establishing electricity andwaste managementtomodernize villages by providing roads, drinking-water, housing; improving theinfrastructure ofrural standards for kitchensandtoiletsinappropriate the construction ofresidential unitstoinclude design. The strategy includesregulation of and Housing, emphasizesbetter rural housing 2015 by theMinistryofUrbanDevelopment Development Strategy, issuedinNovember design anduseofcleanenergy. The Rural Housing opportunities for improving ventilation, kitchen Coordination withhousing initiatives will offer increasing adoption of clean cooking techniques. provide opportunities for awareness-raising and Coordination withtheseflagshipprogrammes will cover theentire rural populationofEthiopia. Land Management and Agricultural Growth programmes Productive Safety Net, Sustainable target populations. The agricultural flagship malaria, could leverage resources for thesame initiatives, suchas WASH, HIV prevention and mothers. Integration ofHAPwithotherhealth and chronic obstructive pulmonarydiseasein its role asariskfactorfor childhoodpneumonia (federal, regional anddistrict), withemphasison cutting agendafor theMinistryofHealth atall levels initiatives: Coordination withflagshipprogrammes and are related toenergy, includingreducing forest the climate-resilient green economy strategy for mitigatinggreenhouse gasesproposed in market development at scale. Most of the actions clean householdenergy could attract fundingfor hydrological power. Therefore, promotion of supply inEthiopiaisbasedmainly basedon Climate changeconsiderations: to maximizepenetration ofthistechnology. should beencouraged tocomplete thevalue chain to move toscale (58). Private sectorcompanies accelerating thetransition 7.3 Recommendations tothehealth sectorfor HAP should be addressed with a cross- The electricity The generation capacity andextension ofnetworks. provision inthefuture, inadditiontoincreased will therefore beimportantinenergy service accelerate inthenext 10–20years. Conservation energy, particularly for electricity, isprojected to 250 MtCO2equivalent) (59). The demandfor potential in2030(to50MtCO2equivalent from constituting 20% of totalgreenhouse mitigation is thelargest mitigationmeasure intheplan, renewable fuels. The target for clean cooking degradation by useofenergy-efficient stoves and Communities inwhichcooking isdoneindoors designs for theconstruction ofresidential units. to includestandards for kitchensinapproved partnerships. The aim of the strategy would be to be formed through existing interministerial Health andUrbanDevelopment and Housing, ministries of Water, IrrigationandElectricity, group consisting of representatives from the energy indesignscould bedoneby asteering Strategic planning toincludecleanhousehold (and providing connections for where they are). ventilation where cleanfuelsare notavailable inclusion of separate kitchens with chimneys and financing andincentives for cleanstoves and kitchens, leveraging housing initiatives to include design, programming electrical connections in a transition tocleanfuelsatscale through kitchen household energy usebutprovide aframework for designs donotaccount for airpollution from rainwater harvesting structure. Current housing downwind toavoid smells andexposure anda kitchens, placingkitchensandsanitationfacilities environmental health by recommending separate meet regional preferences, all ofwhichaddress designs developed centrally by theMinistryto is notmandated, itoffers anarray ofhousing Although theGovernment’s rural housingstrategy design principles. Environmental health isaconsideration inthe and developing astrategic development plan. communities toimprove livelihoods andhealth; 32 Recommendations to the health sector for accelerating the transition 33 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia anyone, regardless oftheirreligion, sex orethnic but they are democratic andegalitarian, opento involve teachers, womenorethnicclangroups, other socialactivities(60). Someidirs specifically or jobthatprovide self-help, mutualaidand united by ties of family, friendship, neighbourhood local institutionsestablishedby agroup ofpeople through socialnetworks. For example, idirs are their benefitsandtoidentifydistributionchannels increase awareness ofcleanenergy optionsand could workwithlocal andregional institutionsto groups: Coordination withinformal socialandcommunity outdoors issubstantially lower. household energy, asexposure duringcooking should be the priority for introducing clean opportunity for promoting useofcleanfuel. used asloanguarantee. Useofthissystem isan and householdequipment, which issometimes use this social institution to buy modern furniture (64) andare similartorevolving funds. Women social qualification rather thanincome orassets in the same way as banks but on the basis of give itbackinalotterysystem. Iqubs give credit They pool money from individual members and members without requiring collateral orinterest. are informal institutionsthatlendmoney to clean fueltechnologiestothecommunity. Iqubs benefits ofusingcleanfuelsanddisseminate can beusedasanopportunitytopromote the for thecommunity. This kindofsocialplatform coordinate activitiesinaform ofsocialmedia of common interest, share information and conflicts. Inmahiberes, peoplediscussissues time ofneed), receive information andresolve such asinterest-free loans, tomembers in with risk (e.g. providing financial support, followers. Mahiberes helpmembers tocope community associationsofOrthodox Church The mahiberes orsenbetesare voluntary and disseminatingtechnology. Idirs offeranopportunity for promoting cleanfuel any opportunitythey consider could benefitthem. and supportmembers inavailing themselves of fire, death oflivestock orhealth problems (63) in situationssuchaslossofassetsby theftor the costs ofburial(62). Idirs assisttheirmembers money tobeusedfor emergencies andtocover affiliation (61). Members regularly contribute Government agenciesand thehealth sector institutions, such as rural savings and credit benefits ofcleanfuelandaslinks tolocal financial cooking technologytocreate awareness ofthe could serve asdemonstration sitesfor clean all aspectsofagriculture (66). These centres and natural resources tosupportfarmers in staffed with experts incrops, livestock, fisheries improve theirlives. Farmers training centres are using technologies thatreduce their work loadand credit andmarket services. They helpwomenin institutional supportservices suchasinputsupply, services. The centres alsolinkfarmers with market information, communication and advisory in useoffarmingtechnologiesandproviding extension services, ranging from capacity-building used toincrease thereach andeffectiveness of throughout thecountry (65). They have been About 18000training centres are established technologies thatcan improve theirlivelihoods. Farmers training centres linkfarmers with Coordination withfarmers’ training centres: level andacross sub-Saharan Africa. successful coordination ofprioritiesatnational HIV andmalariaprogrammes provide modelsfor awareness about cleanhouseholdenergy. WASH, HIV prevention, could alsobeused to increase initiatives, suchasdistributionofbednets and as ittargets thesame population. Otherhousehold would bemaximizedifcleanfuelwere included, and personal hygiene. The health benefits of WASH the risks associatedwithunsafe water, sanitation financing, implementingand reporting tomitigate and stakeholders useonesystem for planning, integrates andharmonizesresources on WASH, communities. The One WASH programme of improved stoves and solartechnologyfor marketing inworeda could includepromotion designed. Once demandiscreated, sanitation acceptable tomothers andelders shouldbe leaflets and conversations. Tools thatare culturally health benefitsofcleanfuelthrough brochures, and local leaders toincrease awareness ofthe health care unitscould usedtomobilizehealth penetration (e.g. tastetrials, safety). Primary are important priorities for increasing market programmes todispelmyths aboutcleanfuels pollution. Concerted marketing andawareness knowledge ofthehealth impactsofhouseholdair benefits ofcleanfuel: Raise awareness and advocate for the health cooperatives andmicrofinance institutions. The population haslimited

Conclusions 8 coordinate the work of all stakeholders and avoid The interministerialsteering group could surveillance ofdisease, injuriesandincidents impact assessmentsare required. Capacityfor Household energy policyscenarios andhealth energy solutions. promote cleancooking stoves andotherclean in developing andimplementingprogrammes to microfinance organizations andtheprivate sector designate theroles ofGovernment agencies, NGOs, and lighting). Anearly stepwouldbetoidentifyand kitchen placement, cleanfuelsfor cooking, heating considerations such as house design, ventilation, regions andurbanrural contexts (including for solutionsappropriately tailored todifferent coordination ofexisting initiatives and aroad map should include market development, finance, penetration ofcleanhouseholdenergy. The plan an evidence-based strategic planfor increasing the Federal PlanningCommission, toprepare an interministerialtechnical group, hostedby partnerships. The MinistryofHealth could convene of different stakeholders and interministerial in an integrated framework to coordinate the work prioritization and intervention by the Government The adoptionofcleanhouseholdenergy requires household energy infour areas. The health sectorcould encourage adoptionandsustaineduseofcleanfuelstechnologiesfor 8.2 8.1 8.3 Assessment, monitoringandevaluation Convening andcoordination Communication and education with financialinstitutionstosupportproducers, pyramid” anddesigningfinancialmechanisms networks to customers at the “bottom of the investment inextending theexisting distribution for electrification. Theprioritiesshouldbe programmes withplannedandongoinginitiatives could coordinate clean household energy The Ministryof Water, IrrigationandElectricity International consensus on priorities, ashasbeen mixed messagesfrom different vested interests. clean fuelandtoevaluate itspotentialscale-up. a peri-urbandemonstration project for useof should beassessed. Itwouldbeusefultoidentify fuel applications. feasibility andmarket potentialofdifferent clean and knowledge managementtoestablishthe technologies andimprove datacollection, analysis that influence householdchoices of cooking could beconducted todeterminethefactors for cleanhouseholdenergy. Consumeranalyses be undertaken toimprove thebusinessclimate while policy, legalandregulatory reforms could pursued tobringcleancooking initiatives toscale, Partnerships withtheprivate sectorcould be distributors andusers ofcleancooking stoves. 34 Convening and coordination 35 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia and kerosene. risks ofburningsolid fuels(includinggarbage) benefits ofcleanhouseholdenergy andthe campaigns toraise publicawareness ofthe also coordinate communication andeducation ecology andtheenvironment. The Ministrycould of clean household energy, including for livelihoods, Messages shouldemphasizethemultiple benefits issues, income generation, education andhealth). (e.g. with respect to gender roles, environmental household energy hasmultidimensional aspects regional priorities. Capacityfor theuseofclean done for malaria, WASH andHIV, wouldchannel and safe use of clean fuels to protect health, of laws, policiesandregulations for access to national standards; evaluation andpromotion integration of WHO recommendations into Policy and advocacy measures could include 8.4 Policy advocacy People sellandbuycharcoal onanoutdoor market in Ethiopia including areview oftheelectricitytariffsystem; and managementcapacity. stoves andconduct training to improve technical control, warranties andlabelling ofcleancooking setting standards, testing, certification, quality national workshop andtestinglaboratory for Electricity could enhance the capacity of the Agency, theMinistryof Water, Irrigationand In cooperation with the Ethiopian Standards prevention ofHAP. to includerapid training inthehealth effectsand training curriculumfor health extension workers The Ministry of Health might review and update the be evaluated for effectiveness. projects for upgrading slums. Advocacy should and integration ofcleanhouseholdenergy into Credit: John Wollwerth /Shutterstock  References 9 10. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. 3. 2. 1.

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Ethiopia. Astudy oftheiqub, idir, and the Aredo D. Semi-formal financialsectors in from Ethiopia. GeoJ. 1995;36(4):353–60. cooperatives. Somelessonsofexperience Engdawerk D. Agricultural producer Control. 2000;7(2):35–57. function, andpotentialrole. HIV/AIDSPrev Ethiopia. Historical development, social Pankhurst A, MariamDH. The iddirin Ababa University; 2008. Ethiopia. MSc Thesis. Addis Ababa: Addis Teshome T. Role andpotentialofiqubin Electricity; 2013. Ababa: Ministryof Water, Irrigationand Nations Secretary-General Initiative. Addis sustainable energy for all (SE4All). The United Updated rapid assessmentandgapanalysis on 66. 65. 64.

Addis Ababa:MinistryofAgriculture; 2005. Farmers training centre guideline(inAmharic). Addis Ababa:Addis AbabaUniversity; 2014. South West Shoa Zone, Ethiopia. MSc Thesis. the case ofOromia NationalRegional State, centers intheeconomic life ofrural adults: Bekelech T. The effectiveness of farmer training in Ethiopia;2007. on behalfoftheCanadianNetworkNGOs Ottawa: CHF–Partners inRural Development path toself-resiliency. Vol. I:Finalreport. A, Mulugeta T, Moges T, etal. Ethiopia: The Frankenberger T, SutterP, Teshome A, Aberra African Economic Research Consortium;1993. Ethiopia (AERC Research Paper 21). Nairobi: informal and semi-formal financial sectors in in Ethiopia Annex 1. Additional dataonenergy sources A services, agriculture, forestry, fishing andunspecified In thousand tonnes of oil equivalent (MToe) on a net calorific value basis. includes “Other” residential, commercial and public . use Non-energy Not specified fishing forestry and Agriculture, services and public Commercial Residential Other Transport Industry consumption Total final transformation and other Losses use industry own Energy Oil refineries plants Electricity differences Statistical Transfers supply Total energy bunkers international changes and Stock Exports Imports Production . Table A1.1. Energy sources inEthiopia 0.253 0.253 0.253 0.253

0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Coal 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Crude oil –0.438 0.092 0.129 0.129 0.055 0.281 0.594 1.612 0.737 3.035 3.041 0.006 3.472 -1 -5 0 0 0 0 0 0 Oil products 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0

(1) Natural gas . 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Nuclear energy –0.832 0.832 0.832 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Hydro-energy –0.065 0.065 0.065 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Geothermal, solar, other 45.813 36.527 36.880 36.886 45.813 –8.927 0.353 0.006 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Biofuels and waste –0.014 –0.152 –0.027 0.192 0.277 0.474 0.241 0.716 0.898 0.011 –0.14 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 0 Electricity 46.710 37.085 37.948 40.890 49.900 –0.014 –9.079 –0.027 0.006 37.25 0.092 0.134 0.129 0.600 1.618 1.231 0.006 –438 0 0 0 Total 40 Annex 1 41 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Addis Ababa . economy, because forests account for onethird programmes intheclimate-resilient green Forest Degradation isoneofthefour priority Reducing Emissionsfrom Deforestation and use asfuel. The UnitedNations Programme on than 40Mtin2030asaresult ofunsustainable from about25MtCO2equivalent in2010tomore from burningwoodare expected toincrease driver offorest degradation inEthiopia. Emissions and consumption ofwoodisthesecond main wood for lighting and space heating. Logging households, andmany households alsouse Firewood isthemaincooking fuelusedinrural LPG, lightpetroleum gas;ETB, Ethiopianbirr;CFR, capital financing requirement. Source: Firewood used inEthiopia Household energy fuelsandtechnologies Rank Index (firewood =1) (ETB) Total expenditure permonth Total expenditure peryear (ETB) Fuel cost (ETB/year) 10%) Annualized capital cost (CFR@ Thermal efficiencyofstove (%) Life ofstove (years) Price ofstove (ETB/unit) Energy content (MJ/unit) Price (ETB/unit) Fuel type . Table A1.2. reference 54. Relative costofcookingfuelsonthebasisusefulenergy (October 2014prices), Firewood 2 1.00 145 1740 1740 – 10 0 0 15 1 kg 5 1.81 263 3154 3152 22.1 25 4 70 29 8.7 kg Charcoal women andchildren disproportionately. generation. “Energy poverty” therefore affects such as family care, leisure, education and income- wood, there islesstimefor productive activities For instance, whenmore timeisrequired tocollect and socialeffectsonwomen young people. wood biomassusually hasgreater development and drastically insomeparts. Reduced access to has decreased significantly throughout the country Because ofdeforestation, access tobiomassfuels programme intheworld. second-largest afforestation and reforestation huge potentialfor abatement. Ethiopiahasthe deforestation and less forest degradation offer of nationalgreenhouse gas emissions, andless 4 1.63 237 2840 2816 23.7 42 5 90 35.3 16 L Kerosene 6 2.68 389 4671 4598 73.2 55 10 460 45.2 43.8 kg LPG 1 0.43 63 758 685 73.2 60 10 450 3.6 0.567 kWh Electricity 3 1.55 225 2704 2535 168.4 60 10 1035 24 13.99 L Ethanol 1 intermediaries. In urbanareas, mostfirewood purchased (Fig. A1.2);there are essentially no by householdsinrural areas, andvery littleis Firewood isusually collected and transported Source: Source: + A Ethiopian bread). The Tikikil (Fig. A1.1) wood and theGonziefor bakinginjera (traditional Some oftheleadingmodelsare theMirt(Fig. A1.1) have since been distributed. distributed (1). Anadditional1.6million stoves by 2015, 8.875million biomassstoves hadbeen during planningoftheGTP I(2010–2015), and, cooking stoves increased significantly, however, households. The penetration ofimproved biomass charcoal stoves are still common inmany rural Three-stone open-fire stoves andtraditional gathering Market structure andfirewood Stove types Personal communication from theMinistryof Water, IrrigationandEnergy. + Fig. A1.1. Energizing Development (EnDev)Ethiopia, 2014. Energypedia, GIZEndalkachew G/Silassie. Women stove inEthiopiausingaMirt (A)anda Tikikil stove (B) 1 B locally, theircleannessandefficiency are unknown. parts ofnorthernEthiopia. Asthey are made smoke through the walls are common in some Cooking stoves with chimneys that discharge of thatwithathree-stone fire (3). the field, the fuel saved with a Mirt was 22–31% slightly less in practice: in a study conducted in stone openfire (2);however, thegainmay be reduce fueluseby 50%from thatwiththethree- tests indicate that theMirtand Tikikil stoves can universal in Tigray Regional State. Laboratory being accepted. Useofenclosedclay stoves is stove, usedfor general cooking, isgradually firewood can beused. and otherbuildingsdonothave kitchensinwhich urban areas; however, thenewcondominiums is nolegalrestriction ontheuseoffirewood in from communal forests only by members. There forests orprivate homesteadsandmay becollected Firewood cannot be collected in Government supplied from theperipheryofcities. used for cooking ispurchased from collectors 42 Annex 1 43 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia + annual market for charcoal stoves (both traditional an annual market of about 100 million €, and the market: charcoal for useasacooking fuelhas Charcoal andcharcoal fuelsrepresent asubstantial Source: + rural areas; however, itisused asaprimary to be 500 000 T/year. Most (> 90%) is used in National charcoal consumption isestimated Source: Charcoal

+ Percentage charcoal + Percentage firewood Fig. A1.3. Fig. A1.2. 10 15 20 100 0 5 20 40 60 80 1996 reference 4. reference 4. 0 Proportion ofcharcoal usedfor householdcooking Proportion offirewood inthe total cookingfuelmix by source 1996 1998 2000 1998 2002 Year Year 2000 2004 2006 or secondary cooking fuelinalmostall urban produced from Prosopis juliflora in Afar Regional northeastern Rift Valley andAddis Ababa is Much ofthecharcoal usedinmajorcitiesthe and improved) is estimatedtobe400000€. cooking fuelin30%ofhouseholds(5). decades (Fig. A1.3), and itiscurrently the main areas increased markedly duringthepasttwo of charcoal inthehouseholdenergy mixinurban households, regardless of income. The proportion 2004 2008 2011 2010 2012 Urban purchased Urban collected Rural purchased Rural collected Urban Rural are inefficient. Charcoal is produced bythousands techniques currently used in charcoal production average conversion efficiency ofabout 16%, used tomake itremain undeveloped. With an charcoal production meansthatthetechniques legally ill-defined. Theabsence of commercial failed, asitisnotenforced anditcontinues tobe to stopcharcoal production andmarketing has sustainable forest practices; however, legislation bureaus of agriculture would develop and enforce that charcoal producers would be licensed and that the Enterprisewas disbanded. Itwas envisaged marketed outside the State monopoly. After 1993, a large proportion of charcoal was produced and production andmarketing. Inpractice, however, Marketing Enterprisehadamonopoly oncharcoal Construction andFuelwood Production and private sector. Before 1993, theState-owned been almostentirely informally organized by the Charcoal production and marketing have always widely usedimproved charcoal stoves inEthiopia. The Lakech andMircha stoves are amongthemost prescribed asamanagementstrategy. of theregion. Hence, charcoaling isinformally eastern Rift Valley and reducing the biodiversity species, whichisencroaching intomuchofthe State. Prosopis hasbecome aninvasive bush Market structure Stove types consumption inthe foreseeable future. the price higher, whichmay result indecreased the demand. The shortageofcharcoal isdriving simply because there is insufficient wood to meet deforestation. Charcoal production is also limited view isthatcharcoal production isresponsible for charcoal production and marketing, as the official Little ornoofficialtechnical supportisgiven to persuaded theGovernment tobemore lenient. charcoal ofurbanconsumers appears tohave the demonstrated demandandpreference for use ofcharcoal asamajorcooking fuel;however, The Government’s energy policydoesnotencourage agricultural soilsupplement. Use of dung as fuel limits other use as an burning by increasing energy density. mixed withagricultural residues toenhance natural shape orisformed into flat cakes and (Fig. A1.4). Duringdrying, itiseitherleftin inits dung mustbedriedbefore itcan beusedasfuel urban populationusesdungfor cooking. Fresh the national population butless than 2%ofthe Nationalities andPeoples Region). About 7%of (the southernRift Valley inSouthernNations, Ethiopia (eastern Oromia) and Southern Ethiopia (around lake Tana andNorthShoa), eastern highlands in northern Ethiopia, in Tigray, Amhara as fuelinrural households, particularly inthe Significant quantitiesofanimaldungare used major cash income for many rural households of local farmers inopenpits, whichrepresents a Dung (6) . 44 Annex 1 45 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia + Source: + used mainly inthedryseasons. dry dungpattiesintherainy season, thisfuelis farmers livingclosetotowns. Asitisdifficult to or women;hence, thesupply isexclusively from eastern towns. Itistransported mainly by donkeys northern highlandsandinsomecentral and Dung still has a market in many towns in the Source: Market structure

+ Million tonnes/year + Fig. A1.5. Fig. A1.4. 10 15 20

Addis Ababa 0 5 SNV Ethiopia, 2010. reference 7. Crop residue, dung andcharcoal useby region Dungbeingdriedfor useasfuel

Afar

Amhara Benshangul Gumz Crop residue

Dire Dawa Region Gambela Dung by increasing energy density. used withwoodorcow dungtoenhance burning in Tigray (Fig. A1.5). Crop residues are usually in thehighlands, although relatively little is used Crop residues are usedasfuelalmostexclusively Crop residues

Harari Charcoal

Oromia

SNNPR

Somali

Tigray SNNPR, SouthernNations, NationalitiesandPeople’s Region Source: + from kerosene to electricity or electrical batteries 2006 and2011, 1.86million householdschanged used kerosene onaverage 3h/day (8). Between survey of the lighting market reported that they Rural householdsthatparticipatedinarecent Source: + common. households, three-stone stoves are the most residue; however, asitisusedmainly inrural There are nospecialstoves for burningcrop E Stove types l e + + Percentage kerosene c Fig. A1.7. Fig. A1.6. t 10 15 20 25 r 0 5 i c 1996 reference 4. reference 4. i t K K y

e e S r r h o o a sen sen Proportion ofkerosene usedascookingfuelinthehouseholdenergy mix Switchoffuelusedfor lighting, 2011versus 2006 r e 1998 d e e

t t t o El o o

El El e e e c c c t 2000 t t r r r i i i c c c i a t t y S y l B

P a h r i t a v 2002 t r e a e r t d e y 0 . 0 2004 Year 2006 0 Million households . 5 4.9% in2011(6)(Fig. A1.6). has decreased sharply, from 21.5%in2000to 1%. Inurbanareas, useofkerosene for cooking national used for cooking is less than rural Ethiopia. The proportion ofkerosene inthe areas andis usedfor lightingexclusively in Kerosene isusedfor cooking mainly inurban change from kerosene (Fig. A1.7)(4). Peoples and Tigray) accounted for 95%ofthe Oromia, SouthernNations, Nationalities and electricity). The four largest regions (Amhara, (1.45 million to batteries and 0.41 million to Kerosene 2008 2010 1 . 0 2012 1 . 5

S O A T i mh NNP r g o Urban Rural r mi a a y r y a a

46 Annex 1 47 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia . depots withinthecountry. retail distributers. The companies have large by several internationalandlocal wholesaleand those fuelsandisdistributedatservice stations import anddistribute diesel and gasoline fuel with transported anddistributedby companies that Ministry ofPetroleum andNatural Gas. Itis Kerosene isanimportedfuelregulated by the promote its use. As taxes are levied on LPG, it is for LPG;however, importers anddistributors There is noregulatory orinstitutional framework wider adoption. Perceptions oftheriskexplosions also limit major barrierfor adoption by many households. is possible with LPG; however, affordability is a City householdsappreciate thefastcooking that LPG stoves cannot beusedfor bakinginjera. and boiling water is limited mainly to Addis Ababa. (5). ConsumptionofLPGby householdsfor cooking that they used LPG as their primary cooking fuel Less than1%ofthenationalpopulationreported SNNPR, SouthernNations, NationalitiesandPeoples Region; ETB, Ethiopianbirrs Source: Market structure Liquid petroleum gas(LPG) Market structure household expenditure (%) Proportion oftotal lighting ETB/month Expenditure onkerosene for Price (ETB/L) Consumption (L/month) . Table A1.3. reference 8. Kerosene consumptionandexpenditure Total 37.8 19.8 3.6 1.9 Amhara 38.5 19.5 3.8 2 for kerosene are shown in Table A1.3. in recent years. Consumption andexpenditure Its poorer affordability hassuppressed demand exempt from excise andvalue addedtaxes. like otherpetroleum fuels, although itisstill determination according totheworldmarket, because ofremoval of thesubsidyandprice Its cost hasnevertheless increased substantially subject toexcise andvalue addedtaxes (8). such aspetrol, dieselandLPG, kerosene isnot market demand. Unlike otherpetroleum fuels, Kerosene imports are not sufficient tomeet (Table A1.4)(9). only 9%ofhouseholds have access toelectricity rural areas (i.e. excluding small towns), however, in citiesand83%ofthosesmall towns. Intruly complete electricity coverage: 95%ofhouseholds to electricity. Mostlarge urbanareas have almost Urban andrural areas have alarge gapinaccess supply themarket inEthiopia. Currently, only themajoroildistributioncompanies distribution, representing asizeableinvestment. infrastructure for storage, transport, bottlingand a fluctuatingsupply. LPG requires appropriate compete with other national priorities, leading to and, asitisimported, useofforeign currency must unaffordable for populationswithlow incomes, Electricity Oromia 41.1 2.2 3.9 19 SNNP 32.9 21.4 1.5 2.4 Tigray 20.4 1.8 3.6 36 2 connections anddemand. infrastructure tomeetthe rapidly increasing shortfalls) butalsobecause oflimiteddistribution shortages (generation and transmission capacity have increased notonly because ofsupply The frequency andlengthofpower blackouts having had three or more interruptions (12). the previous week, andmore than50%reported having hadapower interruptionatleastonce in In 2011, more than85%ofhouseholdsreported appears tohave worsened over thepast5years. consistent electricity)for domesticcustomers reliability ofthepower supply (uninterrupted, grid-connected urbanareas are frequent, andthe Unfortunately, interruptionsofelectricpower in the Ministryof Water, Irrigation andElectricity. 27% in2014(11)and30%2017, according to population in2000, to22%in2010, 24%in2012, alone systems andmini-grids, from 13%ofthe national gridandincreasing numbers ofstand- electricity isincreasing due toextension ofthe The proportion ofhouseholdswithaccess to NA, notavailable; SNNPR, SouthernNations, NationalitiesandPeoples Region Sources: 2013 .

Total Dire Dawa Addis Ababa Harari Gambella SNNPR Gumuz Benishangul- Somali Oromia Amhara Afar Personal communication from theDirector ofAlternative Energy Development andPromotion, Ministryof Water, IrrigationandElectricity. . Table A1.4. references 9and10. Rates ofaccessto electricityinurbanandrural Ethiopiaby typeofconnection, Total (%) 9 24 NA 67 4 10 10 3 8 9 18 13 Rural 83 83 0 NA NA 91 76 67 60 81 95 100 93 town Small 95 100 95 100 100 98 0 69 97 92 100 88 town Large 3 3 NA 25 0 3 4 1 3 3 6 6 Rural Government (%) by more affluent groups (14). households anddiscouraging overconsumption consumption, providing anincentive for poorer (Table A1.5)increase withtheriseinkWh tariff structure andservice for household use as itisaregulated monopoly market. The current Ethiopia hasthelowest electricitytariffin Africa, and thecurrent estimateis 13%. was lost through transmission and distribution, (13). In2010, about8 TWh or18%ofelectricity lost duetoelectrical outageswas estimatedat5% estimated 600h/year (7%oftheyear), andsales In 2014, electricityblackouts amountedtoan receive lower-than-standard voltage (220 V ±10%). Another problem is that many domestic customers Market structure 39 39 NA NA 0 73 35 42 9 45 32 62 52 town Small 39 52 60 65 13 29 NA 15 32 32 8 31 town Large 6 21 NA 43 3 7 6 1 5 6 11 8 Rural Shared (%) 44 44 0 NA NA 18 40 25 51 35 62 38 41 town Small 2 55 48 36 35 87 69 NA 55 65 60 92 56 town Large 48 Annex 1 49 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia in Ethiopiaare notyet ready toprovide enough the distributionlinesandtransformer network With afew exceptions inmodernhouses, ETB, Ethiopianbirrs. . the Sun. renewable energy, such asethanol, biogasand has been made in the use of other sources of and geothermalenergy projects, lessprogress of theemphasisonhydropower andonwind planned installed capacity of6000MW). Because dam ontheBlueNileRiver (with amaximum construction ofthelargest hydroelectric power electricity andtoinvest inhydropower, suchas Ethiopia hasambitiousplanstoextend access to private individualsandcooperative housing. Government’s housingprogramme, housingfor of modernhousesbeingconstructed withinthe in many large cities withtheincreasing number many Ethiopianhouseholdsandhasrisen sharply electricity, particularly for lighting, is increasing in stock andinsufficienttechnicians. Thedemand for verification of requests, insufficientmaterials in that thereasons for thedelay includetechnical An Ethiopian ElectricUtilitytechnicianreported new homesinlarge citiesaround the country. households are waiting for electricityintheir bureaucratic reasons. Substantialnumbers of newly developed sites), for many technical and neighbourhoods withnewbuildingsandto transformers toextend power distributionto household (obtaining a meter, upgrading establish anelectricityconnection inanew electricity for cooking. Ittakes alongtimeto 7th 6th 5th 4th 3rd 2nd 1st Block . Table A1.5. Domesticelectrictariff, interconnected system 0–50 Monthly consumption (kWh) > 500 401–500 301–400 201–300 101–200 51–100 There are alsoafew thousandsolarwater- water pumping, health services andschools). telecommunication andsocialservices (suchas not connected tothegrid, includinghomesand Solar energy is used in rural buildings that are biodigesters provide clean energy for households use firewood for this essential task. Domestic clean householdenergy fuel, ashouseholdswill for bakinginjera. This limits its potential useas used for daily cooking andboilingwater butnot organic fertilizer on farms. Biogasisgenerally Biogas isusedfor cooking andlightingasan to address thisissue(15–17). and assemblingofproducts, have beeninitiated of initiatives, includingimproved standards for to 60%poororsubstandard products. Anumber significant issue in Ethiopian markets, with up Quality control ofsolarproducts hasbeena Electrification Fund. for lighting have been installed from the Rural and Electricity, over 40000solarhomesystems (1). According totheMinistryof Water, Irrigation technologies –mainly solarlanterns–distributed solar charging stations, with2.032 million solar tested, including mini-grids, solar kiosks and systems, although othermodelsare beingpilot- essentially for solar lanterns and solar home The solarhomelightingmarket today is other majorcities. heating installations inAddis Ababaandafew Solar energy Biogas 0.6943/0.0255 0.5880/0.0216 0.5666/0.021 0.5500/0.02 0.4993/0.018 0.3564/0.013 0.273/0.01 Rate (ETB/US$) 3 with funding ofspecificduration andintensive mature. Currently, aproject approach isbeing used, The market for biogasisnot yet well establishedor a trained mason. fixed domebio-digesterthat can bebuilt only by are majorproblems. The current technologyisa high. Lackofafter-sales services andspare parts of Ethiopia, where thecattle populationisvery dissemination inpastoral andsemipastoral areas of biogastechnologyandisabarrierto Lack ofwater inmany areas limitstheapplicability to compensate for “free” firewood. and asaninvestment incentive for households the public sector being used to run the programme and theFederal Government, thecontributions of with households, donors, regional governments The programme operates on a cost-sharing basis digesters duringthesecond phaseupto2021. the programme plans to construct 30 000 bio- substantial fundingfrom theEuropean Union, to thedistrbutionof17869bio-digesters. domestic biogasprogramme in2008, which led the launchoffirst phaseofthenational The biogas sector in Ethiopia started with Source: + fertilizer, lessdeforestation, mitigationofclimate productivity from application ofbio-slurryasa and alsoco-benefits, suchasbetteragricultural that have sufficient cattleand water (Fig. A1.8) Market structure From theMinistryof Water, Irrigation andElectricity BiogasProgramme Office. + Fig. A1.8. HeatherAdair-Rohani. Biogasdigester anditsusefor lightingandcooking 3 With energy inEthiopia(18). million householdsare projected tousebiogas avoiding firewood collection. Apotential1.1–3.5 change, areduced workloadandtimesaved by manufactured locally andmay beunaffordable unreliable supply offuel. The stoves are not the high initial cost of the stoves and the limited, Ethiopia; however, its use is limited because of Ethanol isusedfor cooking and lightingin and NGOs. as well asrepresentatives oftheprivate sector and Environment, Forestry, and Climate Change, Resources, Finance andEconomic Development from theministriesofAgriculture andNatural Electricity. The steering committee includesstaff hosted by theMinistryof Water, Irrigationand National Biogas Programme Coordination Office, At Federal level, theprogramme isledby the in designandinstallation shouldbeenhanced. mechanisms mustbefound, andtechnical capacity level, themarket mustbecatalysed, financing penetration, awareness mustbe raised at national major constraint toitspromotion. To increase The affordability ofthecurrent technologyisthe with enoughwater andmanure for daily input. limited. The market isrestricted tohouseholds technical capacity toreach all householdsare thus promotion. The financing mechanisms and the Ethanol 50 Annex 1 51 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia six sugarestates, withaplannedincrease to12 production. Itiscurrently produced on Energy for ethanolproduction isgenerated during camps and3000in householdsinAddis Ababa. Association-Ethiopia. Ofthese, 7500 are inrefugee for householduseover thepastdecade by Gaia and 10500ethanolstoves have beendistributed mix. In2017, itcontributed 0.4 TWh annually, Ethanol isarecent additiontotheEthiopianenergy to usewood. of injera, for which households would continue current stove technologydoesnotallow baking are not developed. Another limitation is that widely used, thedistributionsystem andservices for many prospective users. Asthefuelisnotyet all thesugarfactoriesare operational. with projected supply for 200000 stoves when and alsoincooking stoves intheGaiaProject, ethanol. Ethanolisusedasagasolineadditive into sugarandtheremaining sugarmolassesinto estates by 2020, where sugarcane isconverted building oroutdoors. Fig. A1.9shows theareas of is doneinsideahouserather thaninaseparate to smoke from cooking ishigherwhencooking in Ethiopia, virtually all ofwhichiswood. Exposure Solid fuelisusedfor cooking in93%ofhouseholds biofuel aspartofhouseholdenergy. The Ethiopian Government energy policy includes ethanol stoves andinadequatepublicawareness. system and services, the high cost of imported a reliable supply, aninadequatedistribution households (19). The challenges are lackof The potential market is estimated at 0.6 million fuel initiatives. be an immediate priority for targeting with clean than 75%ofthepopulationcooks insidecould Oromia andAmhara. Regions inwhichmore Nationalities and People’s regions, followed by the house, mostly in Afar andSouthernNations, the country inwhichmosthouseholdscook inside Ethiopian households Site atwhichcooking isdonein Market structure Source: + increased since the2011demographic andhealth households (Fig. A1.10), andtheproportion has Cooking isdoneinaseparate buildingin47%of Source: +

+ Place of cooking + Fig. A1.10. Fig. A1.9. No foodcookedinhousehold reference 20. reference 6. In aseparatebuilding Areas ofEthiopiainwhichcookingisdoneinsidehouses Placeinwhichcooking is doneinEthiopianhouseholds In thehouse Outdoors Other 0 10 Percentage households 20 30 house daily in6%ofhouseholds. survey (36%)(21). Someonesmoked insidethe 40 50 60 Urban Rural Total 52 Annex 1 53 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia 3. 2. 1. 9. 8. 7. 6. 5. 4. References implementation document. Addis Ababa: biogas programme Ethiopia. Programme Boers W, Workneh K, Eshete G. National accessed 20 March 2018). Market-Intelligence-Report_June2013.pdf, org/wp-content/uploads/2016/07/Ethiopia- Group; 2013(https://www.lightingafrica. intelligence. Addid Ababa: Ethio Resource Lighting Africa program: Ethiopiamarket Dialogue Facility; 2013. European UnionEnergy Initiative Partnership Biomass energy strategy Ethiopia. Brussels: accessed 20March 2018). Financial-and-Economic-Analyses-pdf.pdf, uploads/2013/10/8-Feasibility-study-Market- 2014 (https://projectgaia.com/wp-content/ Ethiopia. Addis Ababa:GaiaAssociation; and ethanolmicro distilleries (EMDs)in scale-up program for ethanol cook stoves Holistic feasibility study ofanational pdf, accessed 19March 2018). dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR328/FR328. Rockville (MD):ICF, Inc.;2016(https:// 2016. Addis Ababa:Central Statistical Agency; Ethiopia demographic andhealth survey Addis Ababa:Central Statistical Agency;2012. Ethiopian Welfare MonitoringSurvey 2011. Resour Energy Econ. 2018;52:173–85. from controlled cooking tests inEthiopia. with improved biomass cookstoves: evidence Fuel savings, cooking timeandusersatisfaction R, Martinsson P, Mekonnen A, Toman MA. Gebreegziabher Z, Beyene AD, Bluffstone Energy%2C_06.06.2007.pdf). Internal_report%2C_GTZ-SUN_ stove_testing%2C_Hiwote_Teshome%2C_ info/images/1/11/Memo%2C_Result_of_ GTZ-SUN; 2011(https://energypedia. Memo: result ofstove testing. Addis Ababa: Ababa: National Planning Commission; 2016. (2015/16-2019/20). Vol. I:Maintext. Addis Growth and Transformation PlanII(GTP II) 11. 10. 17. 16. 15. 14. 13. 12.

The World Bank;Paris: InternationalEnergy for Reconstruction and Development and energy. Washingotn DC:InternationalBank framework. Progress towards sustainable Sustainable energy for all. Globaltracking accessed 20March 2018). Electricity-Access-Ethiopia-FINAL.pdf, pdf/112967-WP-P105651-PUBLIC-Beyond- curated/en/781791487789244953/ 2016 (http://documents.worldbank.org/ Ethiopia. WashingtonThe WorldDC: Bank; based aidandrural electrification in Diaw I. Beyond electricityaccess. Output- Barnes DF, GolumbeanuR, promotion Centre; SNV/Ethiopia;2008. Ethiopia Rural Energy Development and ethiopia/, accessed June2018). transfer-to-assemble-solar-products-in- lightingafrica.org/niwa-partners-with-sun- DC: LightingAfrica; 2014 (https://www. solar products inEthiopia: Washington Niwa partners withSun Transfer toassemble accessed June2018). www.lightingafrica.org/country/ethiopia/, Washington DC: Lighting Africa; 2018 (https:// Ethiopia. Reaching out toriral end-users. accessed June2018). for-the-small-scale-solar-home-system/, ethiopia-to-introduce-new-standards- 6 June2018(https://www.esi-africa.com/ small-scale solarhomesystem. ESIAfrica, Ethiopia tointroduce newstandards for gov.et). Ethiopian ElectricPower Corp(www.eepco. Agency; 2014. special report. Paris: InternationalEnergy sub-Saharan Africa. World energy outlook Africa energy outlook. Afocus onenergy on Statistical Agency;2012. Summary report. Addis Ababa:Central Ethiopian welfare monitoringsurvey 2011. Agency; 2017. 19. 18.

Finaldocx.pdf). wp-content/uploads/2013/10/Policy-brief- Ethiopia; 2014(https://projectgaia.com/ in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa: Gaia Association- Policy brief. Ethanolfor cooking programme files/338849/172350.pdf). 2006 (http://www.bibalex.org/Search4Dev/ in Ethiopia. Addis Ababa:SNV/Ethiopia; feasibility ofthenationalbiogasprogram Eshete G, Sonder K, Heegde F. Report on the 21. 20.

Rockville (MD):ICF, Inc.;2012. 2011. Addis Ababa:Central Statistical Agency; Ethiopia demographic andhealth survey pdf, accessed 19March 2018). dhsprogram.com/pubs/pdf/FR328/FR328. Rockville (MD):ICF, Inc.;2016(https:// 2016. Addis Ababa:Central Statistical Agency; Ethiopia demographic andhealth survey 54 Annex 1 55 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia selected urbanandrural areas ofEthiopia Annex 2. Airpollutants inhouseholds A 5 4 3 2 1 Reference pollution) of indoorair (monitoring sectional Cross- monitor) UCB particle (Berkeley pollution) of indoorair (monitoring sectional Cross- monitor) UCB particle (Berkeley pollution) of indoorair (monitoring sectional Cross- design Study method) colorimetric (Saltzman Longitudinal method) colorimetric (Saltzman Longitudinal houses 3300 rural houses 3300 rural camp refugee Bonga camp refugee Kebribeyah Setting homes disadvantaged Addis Ababa, samples 17 215 wood stoves and modified three-stone traditional with 11 houses stoves and charcoal with wood 11 houses stoves and charcoal kerosene 9 with Sample size 48-h median: clean stove: Before useof 140 clean stove: After useof 330 48-h median: clean stove: Before use of PM Household airpollution indicators 100 clean stove: After useof 560 48-h median: clean stove: Before useof 110 clean stove: After useof 2 190 2.5 (µg/m 3 ) 48-h median: clean stove: Before useof 4.5 clean stove: After useof 25.1 48-h median: clean stove: Before use of CO (ppm) 4.8 clean stove: After useof 16.7 48-h median: clean stove: Before useof 15.9 clean stove: After useof 54 PM (µg/m 3 ) NO2 (µg/m 56.1 µg/m residues: Crop 67.5 µg/m Cow dung: µg/m Wood: 71.2 24-h mean: 97 24-h mean:

µg/m 3 3 3 3 3 ) WHO airqualityguidelines United StatesEnvironmental Protection Agencyprimarystandards 9 8 7 6 PM NO CO: 8-hmean:10ppm;1-h25ppm PM PM PM PM NO CO: 8-hmean:9ppm;1-h35ppm PM

2 2 Reference 10 2.5 2.5 2.5 10 2.5 : annualarithmeticmean:40µg/m : annualarithmeticmean:0.053ppm : 24-haverage: 50µg/m : annualarithmeticmean:150µg/m : interimannualmean:35, 25, 15µg/m : interim24-hmean:75, 50, 37µg/m : 24-hmean:25µg/m : 24-hmean:35µg/m 0600) 0500 and min (NIOSH a meanof72 measured for sectional; Cross- 130 min measured for sectional; Cross- monitor) UCB particle (Berkeley sectional Cross- design Study monitor) UCB particle (Berkeley sectional Cross- Setting Urban Rural urban Addis Ababa, urban slum Addis Ababa, (11) 3 3 ; annualhmean:10µg/m ; annualhmean:12µg/m 3 : ; annualarithmeticmean:20µg/m 3 ceremony during coffee 10 houses 26 kitchens CO kitchens for for PM 69 kitchens 59 kitchens Sample size ; 1-hmean:200µg/m 3 3 3 10 ; 54 3 3 in results) abstract; 793 (1580 in PM 24-h mean 335 Clean stove: stove: 637 Kerosene stove: 1134 Solid fuel mean: 818 geometric 24-h PM Household airpollution indicators 10 2.5 : 1580 (µg/m 3 3 (10) 3 ) : 8-h CO:6.08 CO (ppm) 29 min average): sample (60- Personal 41 Area sample: in kitchen: particulates suspended 2.2-h total PM (µg/m 1 025 Personal: Area: 1 028 PM Respirable areas: 4 855 non-cooking 6 795 in 3 ) NO2 (µg/m 3 ) 56 Annex 2 57 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia 3. 2. 1. 7. 6. 5. 4. References in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia. Atlanta (GA): Rollins assessing indoor air pollution among women Megan G. Amixed methodsapproach to Ababa, Ethiopia. Atmos Environ. 2014;89:003. pollution inslumneighbourhoodsofAddis Sanbata H, Asfaw A, KumieA. Indoorair of Ethiopia. Environ Health. 2009;8:51. for indoornitrogen dioxide inrural residences Ali A, Mekonen E, et al. Sources ofvariation Kumie A, EmmelinA, Wahlberg S, Berhane Y, 19(1):14–21. settings of Ethiopia. Indoor Air. 2009; indoor NO2from biomassfuelsinrural Y, Ali A, Mekonnen E, etal. Magnitudeof Kumie A, EmmelinA, Wahlberg S, Berhane Addis Ababa:GaiaAssociation, Ethiopia;2007. CleanCookstove testsinAddis Ababa, Ethiopia. Indoor airpollution monitoringsummary. Addis Ababa:GaiaAssociation, Ethiopia;2007. refugee camp, Somali Regional State, Ethiopia. CleanCookstove testsintheKebribeyah Indoor airpollution monitoringsummary. Ababa: GaiaAssociation, Ethiopia;2007. Gambella Regional State, Ethiopia. Addis CleanCookstove testsinBongarefugee camp, Indoor airpollution monitoringsummary.

10. 9. 8. 11.

National ambient air quality standards – J Environ PublicHealth. 2010;2010:213960. ceremonies inAddis Ababa:apilotstudy. and carbon monoxide duringEthiopiancoffee Inhalation exposures toparticulatematter Keil C, KassaH, Brown A, KumieA, Tefera W. Addis AbabaUniversity; 2015. Woreda, southernEthiopia. Addis Ababa: children: anexposure assessmentinAnilemo acute respiratory infections amongyounger Ramato T. Householdbiomass fueluseand June 2018). view/record/pid/emory:93n41 2011 ( School ofPublicHealth, EmoryUniversity; 5726B?sequence=1 sionid=52E46360843344D6CC55AFC0C1F WHO_SDE_PHE_OEH_06.02_eng.pdf;jses int/iris/bitstream/handle/10665/69477/ Health Organization; 2006( oxide. Globalupdate2005. Geneva: World ter, ozone, nitrogen dioxide andsulfurdi Air qualityguidelinesfor particulatemat accessed June2018). gov/criteria-air-pollutants/naaqs-table Protection Agency;2018( NAAQS table. Washington DC:Environmental https://legacy-etd.library.emory.edu/ , accessed June2018). https://www.epa. http://apps.who. , accessed - - - - , Annex 3. EthiopianConservation Strategy A 1. • • • • • Strategy (1989)related toenergy are: The guiding principles of the Ethiopian Conservation Reference fossil fuelstoensure theirfuture availability; the environment, andminimizationofuse both toensure sustainabilityandtoprotect in preference tofossil energy sources, development ofrenewable energy sources energy resources; resources anddevelop-ment ofindigenous technologies, sustainable useofrenewable increased reliance onenergy-efficient development anduseofenergy resources; arrangements to ensure optimal, efficient institutional, pricingandregulatory investment costs; remote andisolatedareas inorder tominimize decentralization oftheenergy supply to sustainable useofrenewable resources; conservation, environmental protection and integrating energy development with energy intersectoral planninganddevelopment, through thepromotion ofenergy efficient GHG mitigation and sustainable development • • • • • • • amounts ofwoodfueltoestablishorcontract institutions andindustriesthatconsume large where feasible, incentives to encourage jointly by all Stateandprivate sectoragencies; investment programmes to be undertaken planning andinvestigation ofleast-cost energy resource assessment, investment especially inworeda andlocal development plans; energy development atall levels ofplanning, at all levels, jointly by concerned agencies; planning and least-cost investment programming energy resource assessment, investment energy resources; participation indevelopment ofthecountry's provision ofthenecessary incentives for their encouragement oftheprivate sectorand in all aspectsofresource development anduse; participation ofcommunities, especially women, entrepreneurs inperiurbanareas. Government leasesfor fuelwoodlotsfor private their own woodlots;and Ababa: GaiaAssociation-Ethiopia;2012. cooking insocialinstitutionsEthiopia. Addis 58 Annex 3 59 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia Annex 4. Landandhousingprogrammes A and furtherpayment ininstallments from their borrowed from banks, withaninitialpayment conduct this business. Their investment is usually is built by large investors whohave alicense to or borrowed from banks. Real estatehousing The investment iseitherdirect, withcash, design and location by the responsible authorities. investment by individualsafterapproval ofthe Private individualhousesare constructed with private sector housing; and Government housing. cooperative housing;jointGovernment and private, individualhouses;real estatehousing; People have five options for housinginEthiopia: estimates of thescale ofinformal urbanhousing considerable proportion oftotalhousing, although Informal, unplanned housing constitutes a credit for betterhousing. The programme reflects households hadlimitedopportunityfor securing of Ethiopia, whereas, previously, low-income income populationthrough theCommercial Bank has facilitatedaccess tocredit for thelow- energy in houses. Importantly, the programme carbon financingthat could beusedtoinstall such household energy intheprogramme could attract and access tobasicservices. Includingclean their livingconditions, theirsecurityoftenure serviced housingunits. The programme improves better housingby constructing durable, fully who oftenlive inprecarious situations, toaccess allows low- andmiddle-income households, of anestimated1million units. The programme and isanattempttoaddress theurbanbacklog This programme istypically for urbanhousing villas, dependingonthelandthathasbeenleased. clients. The buildingsare apartmentblocks or Informal housing Integrated housingdevelopment programme to achievingthegoalsofhousingprogrammes. reducing waste andavoiding cost overruns, isvital industry, particularly inproject management, on time. Improving thecapacity oftheconstruction is limitedby thecapacity todeliver aconstruction Development andHousingreported thatprogress bedrooms, kitchenandtoilet. The MinistryofUrban the Government. Mosthouseshave separate in thehousingsectorare private individualsand been implemented. Currently, themajorplayers housing isapossiblemodality, ithasnotyet in agreed installments. Although jointventure of 8–20people, withindividualcontributions paid Cooperative housingisusually built by agroup for 34.1% ofall housesbetween 1996and2003. prevalent inAddis Ababa, where itaccounted differ vastly. Informal housingisespecially priority ifthey can pay 100%withoutcredit (1). groups, whilemiddle-income purchasers are given distributed by lottery, particularly for low-income is for middle-income households. Housesare target low-income groups, whilethe40/60option for this programme. The 10/90 and 20/80 options administers theloanmadeby theGovernment and “40/60”. The Commercial Bank of Ethiopia term credit atanominalinterest rate), “20/80” “10/90” (10%down payment and90%long- Currently, theprogramme offers three options: reduce theprevalence ofurbanslumsinEthiopia. conditions oflow-income urbandwellers andto low-income populations, toimprove theliving authorities to ensure affordable housing for the commitment oftheGovernment andlocal areas) andthedevelopment ofcommunity assets, conservation, rangeland management(inpastoral including activitiessuchassoilandwater community-based watershed development, year. The publicworks are mainly for integrated works andreceive transfers for 6monthsofthe with able-bodied adult labour engage in public or food transfers tohouseholds, whilethose insecure. The programme provides cash and/ that are eitherchronically ortemporarily food Peoples, Somaliand Tigray andtargets households Oromia, SouthernNations, Nationalitiesand households inAfar, Amhara, Dire Dawa, Harari, food-insecure households. The programme covers programme isEthiopia’srural safety netfor which do not have to be repaid, so that they livelihood transfers tothepoorest households, to credit providers, the programme provides who participateinlivelihood activitiesare referred and buildtheirassets. While many ofthepeople households toincrease anddiversify theirincomes production andotheremployment toenable assistance andtraining incrop andlivestock services. The programme provides technical transfers andare linked tosocialprotection support clients) receive 12 months of unconditional do not have labour capacity (permanent direct to participateinpublicworks. Householdsthat regard to nutrition counts towards their obligation behavioural change communication sessions with for clients of publicworks, whoseparticipation in who require temporary direct support, andalso care andnutrition ofpregnant andlactatingwomen nutrition services, particularly for theantenatal The programme facilitatesaccess tohealth and management, climate resilience and nutrition. market access) andstrengthen disasterrisk increased agricultural production andimproved including water and cultivatable land, soil fertility, (with increased availability of natural resources, and clinics. These works improve livelihoods such asroads, water infrastructure, schools Productive Safety NetProgramme: tied tocore urbanareas, andthere isnospecial (2). Periurban areas inEthiopiaare strongly It isstill thefastestgrowing supply ofhousing Programmes This tenure securityandimprove theagricultural project istoreduce landdegradation, increase and restore soil fertility. The objective of the land degradation, protect natural resources Government project (4)isdesignedtocombat Sustainable LandManagementProject: eventually, food secure. help householdstobecome food sufficientand, strengthen resilience, improve nutritionand of indebtedness. Together, these interventions can build their assetsrapidly andavoid a cycle are privately owned. in these areas is mainly informal, and almost all housing programme for theseareas; thehousing goal ofincreasing sustainableagriculture growth. designed torealize theEthiopianGovernment’s donor-funded, comprehensive programme was Agriculture Growth Programme: • • • • • of Finland. The project hasfive components: development cooperation andtheGovernment the Global Environmental Facility, German regions withthesupportof The World Bank, Nations, Nationalities and People’s and Tigray Benishangul Gumuz, Gambella, Oromia, Southern have startedin55watersheds intheAmhara, Agriculture andRural Development. Interventions food-secure woredas prioritizedby theMinistryof management interventions in177watersheds in areas. The project conducts sustainableland productivity ofsmallholders intheintervention effective project management and coordination. project management, toensure operational, certificates; and among male and female farmers with land land administration, toincrease tenure security the participationofcommunities; methods for sustainable landmanagementwith scale-up anddisseminateapproaches and knowledge management, todevelop, improve, water management; watershed management, toimprove landand approaches andmethods; and to scale up and implement innovative policy advice, toimprove conditions atall levels This multi- This This 60 Annex 4 61 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia The programme targets 96woredas infour water managementandmarket infrastructure. and management of rural small-scale agricultural of markets andagribusiness anddevelopment strengthening, useofbestpractices, development and commercialization through institutional strategic priorities are agricultural production areas (woredas) ofthecountry. The programme’s in targeted, potentially richbutunderdeveloped programmes andpromotes agricultural growth and Transformation Plan, complements existing It isamajorcomponent ofthe5-year Growth 3. 2. 1. References Addis Ababa:MinistryofAgriculture; IV. Programme implementation manual. Productive Safety Net Programme phase Settlements Programme; 2011. programme. Nairobi: UnitedNationsHuman The integrated housingdevelopment Condominium housinginEthiopia. of UrbanDevelopment andHousing;2013. framework (inAmharic). Addis Ababa:Ministry Government urbanhousingstrategic their participationintheagricultural sector(5). farmers are encouraged andenabledtoincrease the programme, womenandyoung small-scale an average landholdingof0.25–2.3ha. Through who are small andmedium-scale farmers with the mainbeneficiariesofprogramme, and theirinstitutionalcapacity. They comprise their potential for irrigation, their infrastructure were selected for their agricultural suitability, and People’s Region and9in Tigray. The woredas Amhara, 22inSouthernNations, Nationalities , with 39 in Oromia, 26 in 5. 4. files/documents/1866/psnp_iv_programme_ 2014 (https://www.usaid.gov/sites/default/ org/agricultural-growth-program-agp/). Ministry ofAgriculture; 2018(http://ethioagp. Agricultural Growth Program. Addis Ababa: agriculture-ethiopia). theredddesk.org/countries/actors/ministry- Ministry of Agriculture; 2018 (https:// Sustainable landmanagement. Addis Ababa: implementation_manual_14_dec_14.pdf). clean householdenergy in Ethiopia nongovernmental organizations thataddress Annex 5. Internationalagenciesandnational A solar andmicro-hydro energy. They have madegoodprogress inpopularizing in any energy programme from thebeginning. large role indevelopment, they mustbeincluded work andtheirtarget groups. AsNGOs play sucha funders, their developmental approach to their NGOs have oftenbeenlimitedby lackoffundsand manufacture andinstallation. The activitiesofthe forestry, microhydroelectricity andsolarlighting, irrigation andwater purification, biogas, fuelwood fuel-saving stoves, solarrefrigeration, solar have included solar water pumping, wind pumping, sector in Ethiopia for the past 20 years. The initiatives Several NGOshave beenworkingintheenergy and Onereport”. The mottois:“Onefinance, Oneimplementation Nations Development Assistance Framework. through joint programming within the United to harmonizeaidandavoid duplication ofefforts Bank andUNAIDS, whichhave ajointagreement include WHO,UNICEF, UNFPA, UN Women, The World The key partners innational health development energy projects inrural areas. projects fundedby theseagenciesare renewable of sustainabilityproject financiers. Many ofthe development agencies often take on the role Government fundsare limited, international In adeveloping nationsuchasEthiopia, where a large role intheenergy sectorinEthiopia. United NationsDevelopment Programme play Bank, theAfrican Development Bankandthe International institutionsincluding The World Nongovernmental organizations International organizations of Health since 2012. The fundhasbeenimplementedby the Ministry Ethiopia, toimprove sanitationandhygiene. and local entrepreneurs in13countries, including fund for poor people, organizations, governments Service hasestablishedapooledglobalsanitation Council undertheUnitedNationsOffice for Project The Water Supply andSanitation Collaborative UNHCR inarefugee camp. Itrecently began indoor air. ItisworkinginSomaliRegion with the fuelfor householdcooking toensure clean use ofethanolfueland stoves that safely burn Gaia Association project for theCleanDevelopment Mechanism. is registered as an afforestation/ reforestation The World Vision Ethiopiawoodstoves project and potentiallocal andinternationalsuppliers. is assessingappropriate fuel-saving stoves areas inrural partsofthecountry. The organization distribute over 100000woodstoves inits project WorldEthiopia Vision energy. to generate afundanddeliver cleanhousehold of intersectoral coordination thatmay beused These andotherpartners provide goodmodels programme andJohnSnow Incfor urbansanitation. funds tocapacity-building inthehealth extension Agency for International Development extend Bilateral partners suchastheUnitedStates isalocal NGOthatpromotes isrunningaproject to 62 Annex 5 63 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia of Health are involved mainly in WASH programmes: The NGOs working inpartnership with theMinistry centres (completed) andsolarlighting. establishment ofrenewable energy technology and NGOs workingintheenergy sectorinEthiopia, biogas programme are theleadinginternational Organisation programmes andthe GIZ cooking stove withECOandSUN Ababa condominiums. promoting theCleanCookstove for useinAddis 1. and UNDPtofinance analytical worktosupport programme The black-carbon emissions. promotes energy-efficient stoves that lower reduce short-lived climate pollutants (3)and The stoves and fuelsby 2020(2). 100 million households adoptclean, efficient led by the UnitedNationsFoundation, is helping The 2030 (1). broader objective ofenergy access for all by clean fuelstopoorhouseholdsaspartofthe (SE4ALL) United NationsSustainableEnergy for All References energy International initiatives for access toclean sustainable energy for all. The Secretary agenda. Pathways for concerted action towards Sustainable energy for all; aglobalaction Global Alliance for CleanCookingstoves Climate andCleanAirCoalition energy sectormanagementassistance HoAREC provides efficient cookingstoves and is run jointly by The World Bank , a national NGO, is working on withtechnical supportfor the Netherlands Development (completed) works to , • • • • • • • been submitted. although studies onsustainablecharcoal have none of the proposed actions include stoves, submitted proposals to the UNFCCC; however, are already initiatingpilotprojects. Somehave being prepared, butsomedeveloping countries local level. The internationalframework isstill or projects implementedat national, regional or initiatives. They may bepolicies, programmes for accessing financialsupport for climate by hostcountries, they are acommon vehicle While theactionsmay beunilateral, undertaken reported by its governments to the UNFCCC. undertaken by developing countries thatare are voluntary meaures for emissionreduction Nationally appropriate mitigationactions and knowledge-sharing. technical assistance, lendingoperations Development onrenewable energy. German Federal MinistryofCooperation and USA); and funding: UNICEF, UNOCHA, UnitedKingdom, HIV/AIDS andchildsurvival (many sources of Population Services Internationalonmalaria, World Vision onwater andsanitation; water, sanitationandenergy; The Netherlands Development Organisation on Water AidEthiopia, aninternationalNGO; Government oftheNetherlands); water, sanitationandhygiene (fundedby the Plan International Ethiopia: agriculture, country programme; health, water andsanitation, since 2002asa Amref Health Ethiopia:maternalandchild Nations; 2012. energy for all. New York City(NY):United General’s high-level group onsustainable

2. field_publication_file/Ethiopia_Biomass_ www.euei-pdf.org/sites/default/files/ Partnership DialogueFacility; 2013(http:// Eschborn: European UnionEnergy Initiative Sutcliffe P. Biomassenergy strategy Ethiopia. Geissler S, Hagauer D, Horst A, Krause M, 3. mate+and+Clean+Air+Coalition unenvironment.org/search/node?keys=Cli Environment Programme; 2018( Clean AirCoalition. Nairobi: UnitedNations Final_2014_02_06.pdf, accessed 3 June 2018). Energy_Strategy_and_Action_Plan_ https://www. ). - 64 Annex 5 65 Opportunities for Transition to Clean Household Energy in Ethiopia A womancarries heavy loadsofbranches inOromia, Ethiopia Credit: John Wollwerth /Shutterstock 

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