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Labor Trafficking in the Americas in Context: a Look into the La trata de personas en América en contexto: una mirada al programa de trabajo temporal

Juliana Vengoechea Barrios*

Summary: I. Introduction. II. Guest Worker Programs in the Agricul- ture Industry in the United States and Canada. III. Traditional Approach to : Antislavery Movement. IV. Free Labor Approach. V. Successful Examples of the Free Labor Approach in Practice. VI. Conclu- sion. VII. Bibliography.

* LL.B., Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá (Colombia) ; LL.B. Universidad del País Vasco, Spain. LL.M. (Grotius Fellow), University of Michigan Law School. Director of the Center for Studies in International Law “Francisco Suárez, S.J.” and Assistant Professor of Law at Pontificia Universidad Javeriana, Bogotá, Colombia. Member of the Colombian Academy of International Law(ACCOLDI). [email protected] This paper is an extended version of the conference presented at the International Work- shop “Trade and Investment Induced Displacement in Latin America”, organized by the Latin American Network on Forced Migration (LANFM), the Centre for Research on Latin American and the Caribbean (CERLAC) and the Centre for Refugee Studies (CRS) at York University, Toronto, Canada(October 12-14, 2011). I would like to thank Jennifer Hill for her contributions to this paper. Artículo recibido el 10 de mayo de 2012 Aprobado para publicación el 4 de septiembre de 2012

D. R. © 2013. Universidad Nacional Autónoma de México-Instituto de Investigaciones Jurídicas. Anuario Mexicano de Derecho Internacional, vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659, México, D. F., ISSN 1870-4654 640 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS moderna. Palabras clave: propuestasdémicos handesarrollado innovadoras paraatender aesteproblema. frente aestaproblemática, estánsiendocuestionadas, ycómolasociedadcivilalgunosaca paralatrata.fértil Demostrando asícomoalgunasdelasmedidasimplementadasparahacer de inmigración, sinoporelcontrario, mecanismosderegulación sonunterreno queciertos oalmargendemecanismoslegales irregular exclusivamente encontextosdeinmigración Todos esto, noesunfenómenoqueocurre conelfindedemonstrarquelatrata depersonas te, estacionalenEstadosUnidosyCanadá. sehacereferencia demigración alosprogramas paratrabajotemporal.así comodesdeunmarcoregulatoriodeinmigración Concretamen desdeyhaciaCentro yNorte definido(flujosmigratorios desde unespacioregional América) hacenunaaproximación desdeuncontextoespecífico,guientes páginas alatrata depersonas delahumanidad. alolargodelahistoria humanosyunaprácticapersistente Lassi derechos R Mots-clés: universitaires ontdéveloppé despropositionscertains novatrices pourrésoudre leproblème. personnes, ont finalementétéremises enquestion, ainsiquelafaçon dontlasociétécivileet réponses et mesures qui ont été adoptées pourluttercontre latraitedes comment certaines pourlatraitedespersonnes. fertile migratoire deviennent Celadevrait unterrain démontrer ticulier, mais, plutôt,derégulation programmes mettantenévidence lafaçon dontcertains par - juridique ouenabsenced’unrégime irrégulière ment danslescontextesdelamigration Canada. Tout ceci, seproduit, afindedémontrer commentlatraitedespersonnes nonseule vail temporaire l’Amérique R very. Descriptors: how innovative proposals are beingdeveloped andcivilsociety. bothby scholars are beingchallenged, withhumantrafficking and measures beingimplementedtotackle forhumantrafficking. ground areprograms fertile Demonstrating how someoftheresponses are absent, legalschemes orinwhich regulationmigration but rather migratory how certain In ordertodemonstratenotonly how occurs withincontexts ofirregular humantrafficking regulatory scheme. Particularly, theguestworker intheUnitedStates programs andCanada. flows from andtoCentral andNorth aswell America) astoalabororiented from aspecific context,trafficking bothfrom aconcreteperspective(migration regional practicethroughout humanhistory.and apersistent The following human pagesapproach A ment question de l’encadrement juridique de l’immigration surlabased’uncontrat del’immigration tra ment questiondel’encadrement juridique d’un contextespécifique, concret (des fluxmigratoiresvers dèsunpoint devuerégionale l’humanité. Danslespagesquisuivent avec l’approche laquelleonaborderalesujetestcelui lation desdroits del’hommeetunepratique quiaétéprésentetoutaulongdel’histoire de bs e ésu su tract men m é : : la traite des personnes c’estunphénomènesocial,la traite despersonnes maisaussi, uncrime, une vio : La trata de personas esunfenómenosocial,La trata depersonas undelito, unactopluriofensivodelos

Human Trafficking isasocialphenomenon, acrime, violation ahumanrights Centraleetenprovenance decelle-ci, puisendirection duNord). Ilseraégale traite Human

; enparticulier, detravailleurs desprogrammes invités auxÉtats-Unis etau trata depersonas, trabajadores estacionales, detrabajo, libertad esclavitud des personnes, travailleurs invités, esclavage moderne, travail libre. trafficking, guestworker programs, free laborapproach,sla- modern Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 ------,

of 2000, as in persons definessevere oftrafficking forms The UnitedStates legislation, inthe Trafficking Victims Protection Act There are many legaldefinitionsofhumantrafficking, bothininter vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario dren, as defineshumantrafficking press andPunish Trafficking inPersons, Especially Women andChil lawcriminal provisions. The UnitedNations Protocol toPrevent, Sup aswellnational legalinstruments asindomesticstatutes, particularly tional , (a). 3paragraph NewArticle York, 15November 2000. cially Women andChildren, supplementing the United Nations Convention against Transna 2 1 or slavery. ofsubjectiontoinvoluntaryfor thepurpose servitude, peonage, debtbondage, forlabororservices,through theuseofforce,ing ofaperson fraudorcoercion ofage;years ortherecruitment, harboring, transportation, provision orobtain acthasnotattained 18 such ercion, inducedtoperform theperson orinwhich acommercial sexactisinducedbyin which force, fraud,co or [above]where any ofthemeanssetforth have beenuse. [above] totheintendedexploitation setforth inpersons shallbeirrelevantficking lar toslavery, ortheremoval servitude of organs... The consentofavictimtraf- ofsexualexploitation,forms forcedlabourorservices,slavery orpracticessimi shall include, at aminimum, theexploitationorother oftheprostitution ofothers having control over anotherperson,ofexploitation. forthepurpose Exploitation orreceiving ofpaymentsgiving orbenefitstoachieve theconsentofaperson fraud, ofdeception, oftheabuse ofpower orofaposition ofvulnerabilityorthe ofcoercion,means ofthethreat oruseofforceotherforms ofabduction, of recruitment,the transportation, transfer, orreceipt ofpersons, harboring by

United States Code, Title 8, section 1101.a.15.T.iii. (8U.S.C. §1101(a)(15)(T)(iii)) United Nations, Protocol toPrevent, Suppress andPunish Trafficking inPersons, Espe 2 ,

I.I ntro d u ction 1 ------641 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 642 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS and labor. asasocialphenomenon,human trafficking inthecontextofmigration tic statutes, Iwishto useavery basicdefinition, onethat understands thatlaw areanddomes ficking foundbothininternational instruments Even ofdefinitionshumantraf thoughthere isanamplerepertoire to leave. into voluntarily, enters person but unable afterwards findshim/herself However, canevolve humantrafficking fromthe asituation inwhich thelaboragainsthiswill. whoisbrought intoperforming of aperson employer relationship. person-trafficker) (trafficked This isthecase or consentmightbeabsentfromoftheemployee- thevery beginning to nopay forthelaborheorsheperforms. The elementofvolition andfreedomsto exercise before rights itsemployer, andreceives little theability lacks beingtrafficked theperson asituation inwhich ficking that makeBoth forceandexploitation humantraf are characteristics of another, ofthelaborerare forceispresentabsent. rights and inwhich stood astheexploitation ofaperson’s laborfortheeconomicadvantage fusion in the use of concepts and issues such as:fusion intheuseofconceptsandissuessuch humansmuggling. offenses to tackle humantrafficking.offenses totackle The three offensesare: to a state party of which the person isnotanational”. the person of which a state party directly orindirectly, benefit, afinancial orothermaterial into of aperson of theillegal entry smuggling Protocol) as: defines migrant “..the procurement, inorder toobtain, menting the United Nations Convention against Transnational (theMigrant Organized Crime 4 3 Human trafficking as set forth in the following is under paragraphs assetforth Human trafficking Often when discussing human trafficking there isanoverlapOften whendiscussinghumantrafficking andcon Finally, Codeaddedin2005three criminal theCanadianCriminal to traffic, that person. orvisa,documents, oftrafficking, asapassport forthepurpose such orhelping from humantrafficking.3. Withhold ordestroy aperson’s travel oridentification of exploitingorfacilitation theexploitation ofthat person.2. Benefitmaterially trol, direction orinfluenceover anadultoraminor’s movements forthepurpose 1. Recruit, transport, transfer, receive, holdorhideaperson, orexercise con

Article 3 of the Protocol by againstthe Smuggling of Migrants Land,Article Sea and Air, supple Canadian Parliament, Bill C-49. November 25, 2005. 3 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 ------4 ,

who isinitially smuggled intoacountry, eitherasarefugee concepts. However, they are conceptsthat are closely related. A person These issuesare notmutually exclusive norare they interchangeable 1. 1. vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario ed States work forceformany years. Foreign workers born have beenafundamentalelementoftheUnit cies, leaving withfewer migrants andmore dangerous options. socio-economic insecurity. This assumptionhasshapedupmany poli orleaving eitherwhenfleeingpersecution often face littleornochoices crime. oftheissuesignores thefact thatThis understanding migrants a victimwhereasisseenasanaccompliceto thesmuggled migrant smuggling are clearly separated, isseenas migrant andthetrafficked trafficked. Unfortunately, and itisoftenthecasethat humantrafficking orasalaborer seekingwork,of persecution canlater findhim/herself problem. of thedifferentthat approaches have withthis beensuggestedtotackle Subsequently, there isadiscussion ofthestrengths andshortcomings rect violation orabsenceoflegalregulations ofthem. but rather aspart grams. Itaimstoprove notonly that humantrafficking happensindi through the use of governmentAmerica regulatedworker migrant pro- inNorth industry inthecontextofagriculture human trafficking inthepresence ofthelegalstatusficking ofthemigrant, focusing on of the protection of that country”. of his nationality,country and is unable to or, owing fear, to such is unwillingto avail himself gion, nationality, social group, of aparticular membership orpolitical opinion, isoutside the who as aperson “owing toawell-founded for reasons of race, fear of being persecuted reli- 6 5 The following lightintotheissueofhumantraf pagesseektobring

The USH2AProgram anditsbackground See more: G and Papademetriou,Demetrios Terrazas, Aaron. United Nations Convention Relating tothe Status of Refugees Art. 1.adefines arefugee II. G u e s t W or in k

the er P

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S s tate

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6 Intheearly 1800s anduntilthe the s

and A g C ric anada u lt u Immigrants inthe United re I nd us 5 inflight tr y

- - - - 643 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 644 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS economy. UndertheNaturalization Act of1790 States andthrough theirlaborhelpedtheexpansionofUnitedStates of beginning World War totheUnited arrived IEuropean immigrants 1942 the “” was created, mining, home toMéxico. tolater return enteredborers theUnitedStates forseasons, towork and onfarming move from theUnited States toMexico. freely andforth back The la- that camefromthe migrants Europe, were Mexicanlaborers able to after theendofMexican-American War in1848. Incontrastwith numerical limitation regardingfromnumerical legalimmigration México. wereers seenas “illegal aliens”. At thistimeanduntil1965there was no Studieshaspointedout,American timeMexicanlabor thiswas thefirst totheentranceofMexicanlaborers.ers As Berkeley’s CenterforLatin United Statesbasis onatemporary the UnitedStates that allowed towork Mexicanslaborers legally inthe Labor Program Agreement, abilateralbetween agreement Mexicoand of Chineselaborers. passedanacttobantheemployment in1882whenCongress changed there allowed was nocapinthenumberofimmigrants toenter. This portunity tomeetitsdemandsforlabor.portunity Inpractice, thetreaty opened can workers andprovided anop- industry theUnitedStates agriculture ally beneficialagreement, provided which jobsforunemployed Mexi braceroarchive.org March 26,March 1790(1Stat 103-104). org/Feature/display.cfm?id=723 States Economic Crisis, andthe Current Migration Policy Institute in the US 1, p. 3 1, trafficking,human prevents act protection worker seasonal and migrant the 12 11 10 9 8 7 With World War intheUnitedSates, IIcamealaborshortage andin However in1924USBorderPatrol intotheUS ingreatnumbers from Mexicobeganentering Migrants

Created through the Labor Appropriations Act of 1924. Bauer, Mary. Poverty Southern Law Center, Report “

United States of America, Statutes at Large, 1st Congress, 2ndSession, Page 103-104. See more: Bracero History Archive, andNew Center for History Media. At: http:// Hager, Sovereign, Farmworkers andforced labor: why including agricultural guerstworkers in Bauer, Supranote 8. ”, p. 3-6. . 8 . 12 . wasThe Program inpaperamutu 9 was established, creating barri 11 through the Close to Slavery. Guestworker Programs . Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario http://www.migrationinformation. 7 borders were borders openand pg177-178; supranote vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexican Farm 10 - - - - ,

through USemployers. workforeign workersgram, nonimmigrant visastocertain togrant workers,ricultural was created towards theendofBracero Pro- that about4.5millionjobswere filledby Mexicanworkers. possibility of changing employers.possibility ofchanging inEnglishthat tiedthemtoonesingleemployerwritten withoutthe a gateway forexploitation ofworkers, whowere boundby acontract railroad possible inthe1880s. workersChinese migrant were force that madethenational thedriving and economy.for theexpansionofbothitsgeography For example, Canada hasalsobeenanation greatly dependent on foreign workers 2. the H2Aguestworker program. worktemporarily brought into theUnited States under foragricultural vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario that workers were subjectedto. almost identicaltotheBracero Program. DOL regulations andmany more, butis inessencetheH2Aprogram tic workers over foreign workers, thefiling ofajobofferaccordingto subject toseveral pre- conditions, preference asgiving todomes such make italmostidenticaltotheBracero Program. is The H2Aprogram vgnextchannel=889f0b89284a3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD 3e5b9ac89243c6a7543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=889f0b89284a3210VgnVCM100000b92ca60aRCRD& note 3. THE HUMANCOST OF FOODS: FARMWORKERS’ LIVES, LABOR AND ADVOCACY, berkeley.edu/Outreach/education/migrations2003/bracero.html TIONS: A Collection of Views tothe United States. onMexican Immigration 17 16 15 14 13 The H2A program, which is the current scheme governingThe H2Aprogram,scheme guestag isthecurrent which It isestimated that every year around 30 was1964,program abolishedin The abuses aftermediaexposedthe Canada’s Seasonal Agriculture Worker Program (CSAWP)

Bauer, Supranote 8. See more: Berkeley, University California Centerfor Latin Studies,American MIGRA Bauer, Supranote 8. See more: USCIS website: http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2a Geffert, Gary “ H-2AGuestworker Program, 16 , The regulations that govern the H2Aprogram

14 17 From 1942until1964itisestimated 13 A legacy of Importing A legacy ofImporting Labor,Agricultural in

000 . “unskilled” are laborers . pg113. ; Supra 15

http://clas. - - - - 645 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 646 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS workers through labor recruiters that charge high fees workersto theworker, that charge through laborrecruiters issues that willbehighlightedhere. ery: guestworker intheUnitedStates” Programs exposesmany ofthe tionship between employer andemployee oneofforcedlabor. work conditionsthat are exploitative innaturetherela andthat turn programs, are several, which there are commonelementsthat leadto Despite thedifferences between workers theUSandCanadianmigrant 3. agencies. Development(HRSDC) andadministered by privately user-fee run ofHumanResourcesandSkillsgovernment through theDepartment sector.Canadian agricultural by isauthorized thefederal This program guest worker inthe that program seekstocounteractlaborshortage the governments of both countries recruit andselectcandidates.the governmentsrecruit ofbothcountries oftheworkerments between oforigin thecountry andCanadawhere fields, every andgreenhouses year. orchards inCanadatowork fromandMexicoarrive theCaribbean intheers maximum stay is8months, approximately work farm 18,000migrant About 85%ofguestworkers travel towork toOntario onfarming. The bean countries, andin1974Mexicobegansendingworkers toCanada. labor” in 4migrantworkers.org/bc/pdf/sawp.pdf. naalc.org/english/pdf/study4.pdf tion, eng/workplaceskills/foreign_workers/ei_tfw/sawp_tfw.shtml 20 19 18 Exploitation generallyat home. begins USEmployers findtheir PovertyThe Southern Law Center, inits2006report “Close toSlav- The CanadianSeasonal Agriculture Worker (SAWP) Program isa The Canadianguestworker istheproduct program ofbilateral agree The first SAWPThe first were agreements - inthe1960swithCarib reached Exploitation underguestworker programs

See more: Hill, Jennifer. “Binational guestworker unions:moving guestworkers intothehouse of Justice for Migrant Justice for Migrant Workers, Protection ofMigrant Agricultural Workers inCanada, Mexico andthe United States FORDHAM URB. L.J. Vol XXXV, pp. 312and313. 18 Human Resources andSkillsDevelopment Canada ; The seasonal agriculture workersThe seasonalagriculture program ; Commissionfor Labor Coopera 20 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/ vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659

http://www.justicia

http://www. 19

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back totheworker.back employers toreimbursethecostoftravel andvisas, theserarely getpaid several toberepaid. years Even thoughthe USlegalprovisions require their seasonalemployment withhighdebts, many which timestakes the deedtotheirhouseascollateral. workers From begin thestart-off obtain highinterest loanstocover thesefees, andgenerally have toleave to cover thecostoftravel, visaprocessing andotherexpenses. Workers that rangeanywhere from $500toover $10, 000. The feesare charged vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario travel. Many timesworkers have toobtainthemoney from loansharks who wishtotravel usually alsohave totake loanstoaffordthecostof need nottocover or reimbursethecostoftravel toCanada, soworkers seek a visa to return toworkseek avisatoreturn inthefuture. the union.would orblacklisted make Beingdeported itimpossible to oriftheyployment becomeactive in conditionswithlegalaidservices there isawidespread ifthey fearofbeingblacklisted discusstheirem Watch Carolina, inNorth whileexaminingtheH2AProgram reported workers live andwork inconstantfear. Additionally, asHumanRights ment (ICE)andgettingthemdeported. This necessarilyimpliesthat the threaten theemployee andCustomsEnforce withcallingImmigration wages, oranything elseregarding theirhealthandsafety, employers will of the visa. Iftheworker complains aboutworking conditions, unpaid are withheldundertheargumentthat theemployerports istheowner card”portation intheemployment relationship. Often workers’ pass- employer, theemployer holdswhat hasbeenreferredtoasthe “de have expired, untilthey pay theirdebtinfull. held indebtbondage, andare unable toleave, even whentheirvisas harass andthreaten thefamilies. that usethesafetyofworker’s family asleverage andwillconstantly com/node/10177080 into Canadaareeign workers often exploited, pouring November 22, 2007. http://www.economist. 23 22 21 Given that intheUnitedStates theH2A visaistieddown toasingle Frequently, theworkers findthemselves insituations where they are

Bauer, Supranote 8, pp. 9-11. Bauer, Supranote 8, pp. 15-17 See more: The Economist. Canada’s guest workers. Not such awarm welcome. The temporary for . 21 InthecaseofCanadianProgram, employers ,

23 22 - - - -

647 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 648 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS groups havegroups andhave foundcommonground worked together. case withsextrafficking, where bothfeministandtraditionalreligious Human trafficking hasgainedincreased awarenessHuman trafficking inrecent years. Me hours spent preparing the fields for harvest are unpaid. thefieldsforharvest spentpreparing hours cases they are paidaccordingtotheamountofproduce they pick, the than what they were promised andare entitledto. Likewise, inmany working hourconditions, inpracticeworkers getpaidsubstantially less people andtendstoneutralizeorisolate opposition. victims. facilitates mobilizingThe moralreproachofhumantrafficking defines anunwanted activity, andassiststhe punishestheperpetrators sightseemseffectiveat first andsuccessful, asJames Pope highlights, it many supporters. The antislavery movement orprohibition approach practice. This hasallowed forthemovement togainmomentumand what isconsidered tobebothamorally reproachable andanoutrageous has foundawaybecause it people towardsof great numbers unite to used torefer tohumantrafficking. hasbeenveryThis approach popular not equaltoslavery. day Modern slavery isasynonym that iscommonly publicized isonethatasapracticesimilarif presents humantrafficking forefront violations. ofhumanrights thatThe approach hasbeenmost Kevin Bales’ “The slave next door” have onthe puthumantrafficking dia coverage asCNN´s such “Freedom Project” andinfluentialbookslike nia Law Review trafficking_conference_university_denver.php Everybody wants toget involved”. causes.”gether oninternational But humantrafficking, he says, “is one of those hottopics... andsecular feminist organizations areChristians notpeople that would regularly work to 26 25 24 Despite both Programs havingDespite bothPrograms specificprovisions regarding wage and

See more: Poverty Southern Law Center, Justice reports; Immigration Polaris Project. Carl Raschke, aprofessor studies at of religious Denver University said: “Evangelical Pope, James G., “A free toHuman labor approach Trafficking”, in III. T , vol.158, pp. 1854. raditional A nti A pproach s la http://blogs.westword.com/latestword/2011/03/human_ v . er y M

to o H v ement u man Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario

T ra 25 ff This hasbeenthe vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 University ofPennsylva ic 24

k in g :

26 Equal- - - - ,

out, have prosecutors ofhumantrafficking toreject ahighproportion where theircaseiseasiertoprove. As Anthony DeStefano haspointed analysis, statutes decidingtoprosecute thecasesunderothercriminal to prosecute thecases. Sometimesthey have tomake a costbenefit and costly task. have Prosecutors toinvest greatly limitedresources statues andproving criminal ficking thecaseisoftenavery difficult haveprosecutors avery hardtimeprosecuting casesunderhumantraf haspresentedtraffickers, several which difficulties. Ontheonehand, in different ways that donotmeetthishigh, exceptionalstandard. exploitation andforceisexerted whooftenfindcasesinwhich torneys been subjectedto “enough” abuse isproblematic foradvocates andat cooperate with each otherintheprosecutioncooperate oftraffickers. witheach national oftheissue, criminalization allowing to fordifferent countries ly, ithasallowed foramore globalizedconsensusregarding theinter vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario one handitseekstoprotect the “perfect victim”, in practicetheanti-slavery movement issomewhat problematic. Onthe to amountslavery”. exploitation donotinvolve violencesufficiently immediate orintense find. BalesandSoodalterhave suggestedthat “other practicesoflabor “extreme” ofviolence, andpoliticalleverage forms support isharderto through othermeansthat forceisexerted donotfall underthe in which treme violence. However incasesofeconomicexploitation ofworkers been pervasively abused andcoercedtowork through physical orex ica Today, 151, 179-84(2007). and Real Survivors: The Iconic Victim inDomestic Human Trafficking Law, 85B.U. L. REV. 2763-1239905793229/Human_Trafficking.pdf. eresources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362-1239390842422/601 ment Notes. Conflict, andviolence. crime No. 122/December 2009. Page 10at eration inEurope (OSCE). See more: Human Trafficking: Overview.A Brief Social Develop High Commissioner for HumanRights(OHCHR), andCoop the Organization for Security andmanaged incooperation withILO,man trafficking IOM, (UNICEF), the Office of the Human Trafficking (UN.GIFT) was created tofight againsthu topromote the global efforts 29 28 27 The antislavery movement hasfocusedmainly ontheprosecution of

See more of the “perfect victim” conceptualization inJayashri Srikantiah, Perfect Victims Bales, Kevin and Soodalter, Ron, After the Palermo ProtocolAfter the Palermo was enacted, the United Nations Global Initiative toFight 2009. 29 forthe This search “perfect victim” onethat has ,

The slave next door: Human Trafficking and Slavery in Amer 28 a person whohas aperson 27 However, http://sit ------649 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 650 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS of thecase. intent,criminal problems withwitnessesandthelow value deterrence weakbased onthe cases evidence, anticipatingproving thedifficultiesof the TVPA victimsofhuman trafficking intheUnitedStates willgrant to ensure that freed slaves have somewhere togo”. whoare beingexploited.persons As Pope pointsout “it doesnothing at leastasithasbeendeveloped sofar, isthat itdoesvery littleforthe has alsoheightenedthecontrol ofpeoplesmuggling. respond totransnational trafficking, theexpansionofbordercontrol thaway to an effort hasexplainedthoroughlyin andwithgreatconcern andthrough illegalmeansofentry.borders Furthermore, asJames Ha with thewrongfulonlyacross assumptionthat humantrafficking occurs isheightenedbordercontrol.bat humantrafficking This measure starts because culpabilityishard, ifnotimpossible, toproof. easily replaceable, and the people at the top are very hard to prosecute ly thosewhoareofexploitation, at thebottomofchain whoare debt bondage. themmoreand rendering vulnerable toworkers’ violations and rights workersincreasing theindebtednessofimmigrant tolaborsmugglers ment. Tightened bordercontrol tendstoraisethecostofmigration, the globaleconomy aplacewhere andtoreach they canfindemploy- is many timestheonly way workers migrant have beenable toadjust cases prosecuted underprostitution statutes. isoftenprosecuted underlabor lawwhich violations orsex trafficking of International lawof International 134. In Pope, Supranote 25. p. 1857 Pages/default.aspx http://www.law.umich.edu/clinical/humantraffickingclinicalprogram/humantraffickingproject/ 35 34 33 32 31 30 Finally, themosttroubling issuewiththeprohibitionor approach One ofthemostcommonmeasures that have beenadoptedtocom Likewise, whoare prosecuted andconvicted thetraffickers are most

See more: Law University of Michigan School, Human Trafficking Law Project at Pope, Supranote 25pg1856 Hathaway, James quagmire of “The humanrights “human trafficking”” in Pope, Supranote 25. p. 1857. DeStefano,M., Anthony Idem. 30 . This has been the case with forced labor in agriculture This hasbeenthecasewithforcedlaborinagriculture 34 (2008). The war on human trafficking: assesed human Policy U.S on war The 31 Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario 35 33 Protections under People smuggling vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 32 2007, pp. 133- Virginia Journal - - - ,

self-organizing and concerted activity,self-organizing andconcerted as such inindustries particularly have offree laborrights, recognized especially theimportance thoseof advantages oftheantislavery movement. find. The freedoesnothave laborapproach thepoliticalleverage and andpracticesisharderto forfree laborrights and widespread support these advantages contrastwiththegreatdisadvantage that consensus and are charged andconvictedand are charged withstate andfederalcrimes. of theirvisas, law forimmigration violations, illegally, asentering such foroverstaying andare oftendeported ficking period theauthorized Persons whoare are trafficked notidentifiedasvictimsofhumantraf investigationscial assistancedependentoncriminal andprosecutions. receive thesebenefitsifthey assistlaw enforcement. This makes so- However, unlesstheyare who are minors,onlywill trafficked persons similartothosethat refugees receive.cess someofthesocialservices human trafficking. Once they thevisathey are are granted able toac the investigation andmeetsthestatutorydefinitionof ofthetraffickers a Uor visa,T nonimmigrant assistslaw iftheperson enforcementin James Pope, whoadvocates forafree tohumantraffick laborapproach vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario that are essential to participating inasystemoffreethat labor. are essential to participating sibility towalk away from theiremployers but canalsoexercise rights nance ofanalternativetoslavery, where workers have notonly thepos on worker selfactivity, andlastly itfocusesonthecreation andsuste does notrely ongovernment primarily resources andenforcement, but allow themtoexercise what Pope callsthe “power below”. that secures economicindependenceorproviding themwithtoolsthat workers ofrights rather thegranting thanonthetraffickers, pursuing ing, highlights three strengths ofthisapproach. First, itfocusesonthe give employers the “incentive above” toavoid slavery andservitude”, Supranote 25, p. 1859. 37 36 Strong supporters ofthe prohibition approach, Balesand SoodalterStrong supporters

Idem. As James Pope explains, “When workers have the they can exert rights “power below” to I V . ,

F ree L a b or A pproach 36 37 Second, it However, - - - - - 651 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 652 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS makeongoing payment an workers tofarm in itssupplytoad chain mato pickers. For was timeafast-food corporation boundto thefirst establishedagreement several groundbreakingimprovements forto- proved tobesuccessfulwhen Taco toCIW´sdemands. Bellagreed The proceeds would gotowards theraiseofwages. In2005theboycott paythe foodchain oneextra centperpoundoftomatoes, andthose in thetomato fieldsandhow badly they were paid, they demandedthat inhumane working conditionsandtheabuse workers were subjectedto the world’s largestrestaurant corporation. in 2001againstthe Taco of ispart which Bellfoodchain Yum! Brands, gies. successful strategy wasA particularly the boycott they launched workers,grant using bothfreeandantislavery laborapproach strate compensation, has been active inadvocating ofallmi fortherights by lowformed workers wage farm in1993 toimprove conditionsand “incentive” above toavoid forcedlabor. haveers the they canexert rights “power below” togiveemployers the anddomesticwork.agriculture They withPope, agree that whenwork to drink waterto drink physical beatings andkillings. kinds ofabuses, from extensive ofwork ranging periods withoutpauses the Navarrete brothers’ case. Workers inthetomatoes fieldsfaced all man trafficking, including many that have hadmedia coverage as such workers. ofmany ground casesofhu Immokaleehasbeenthefertile documented workers, holdingH2Avisasaswell asofundocumented capital oftheUS”,tomatothe fieldshavethe destination been ofmany oftheState ofFlorida, knowntown part asthe inthesouthern “tomato Tracing we tothe examplewithwhich started. back InImmokalee, a mentanalysis.html V . 39 38 There, theCoalitionofImmokalee Workers, movement agrassroots S

u See more: Coalition of Immokalee Workers webpage http://www.ciw-online.org/agree Bauer, Supranote 8. cce ssfu ; Yum! Brands website l E xample s

o f

the http://www.yum.com/company/ourbrands.asp

F ree L a b 39 or Exposinginthemedia Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario A 38 pproach vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659

in P ractice . - - - - - ,

ated market incentives for agricultural suppliers willingtorespect theirated suppliers market incentives foragricultural body forcomplaints, oftheCIW. composedofmembers Finally itcre wasin thefastestablished, foodindustry includesamonitoring which theproduct.pick suppliers CodeofConductforagricultural The first thatthe percentageoffinalretailgoestoworkers price who vocates from MexicoandtheUStodiscusstoolsthat existin the this initiative different worskshops were developed forlawyers andad justice asfundamentaltoguaranteeandpromote laborrights. law.der international CDMandPRODESC binational labor understand regulationsand immigration un aswell andlabor rights asimmigrant Market. withMcDonald’s,agreements BurgerKing, Subway, and Whole Foods dress substandard farm-labor wages.dress substandardfarm-labor workers’ vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario 2010. workersmigrant for thedefenseof Satesthe United in México” and in they developed a “Manual forbinational justice: aregulatory framework a MexicanNGOintheirBinational LaborJusticeInitiative. Together Proyecto Eonómicos SocialesyCulturales(PRODESC) de Derechos labor strategies. itestablished with An exampleofthisisthepartnership place rights. CDMhasbeensuccessful inseveral free fronts pursuing workers’ law rights centerbasedinMexicotofocusonU.S. work- that Taco BelldoesintheState ofFlorida. mestic law. Itgave oftomatoes to100%ofthepurchases transparency en/manual-binational-justice-presentation.pdf html. Bauer, Supranote 8. agreementanalysis.html; Pope, Supranote 25pg1863; Bales andSoodater, supranote 28.; 44 43 42 41 40 CIW’s Fair Food Campaignhasalsobeensuccessfulinreaching Centro de los Derechos del Migrante (CDM) is the first transnational (CDM)isthefirst Centro delMigrante delosDerechos

� See also: Coalitionof Immokalee Workers webpage http://www.ciw-online.org/ See more: PRODESC webpage See also: Coalitionof Immokalee Workers webpage: Idem.

See more: PRODESC webpage 43 This isareference manualthat compilesMexicanandUSlabor 42

human rights, even that are thoserights notguaranteedby do ,

http://www.prodesc.org.mx/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/ http://www.prodesc.org.mx/english/labor-rights/. . 40 This resulted inalmostdoubling 41

http://www.ciw-online.org/101. 44 Through - - - - 653 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 654 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS in dozensofstates. is oneof America’s workers, offoreign farm largestsuppliers operating guestworkers.union contractprotecting agricultural GlobalHorizons Likewise in2006theUnitedFarm Workers nationwide signedthefirst guest workers employed Carolina Growers by theNorth Association. ing Committee(FLOC)in2004received recognition forabout8,500 proven tobeuntrue. IntheUnitedStates, LaborOrganiz theFarm past, itwas impossible underwhich toorganizeguestworkers, has national alliances. andtodiscussthepossibilitiesofstrengthening legislation bi current We live inaglobalizedworld, where thedemandforlaborisnotsuf federal government’s SAWP. workers toCanadaunderthe agriculture toreturn of seasonalmigrant provides wage improvements, andestablishes protections fortherights tween UFCW part of a long term outreach program. outreach ofalongterm part union that hasbeensuccessfulinorganizingseveral inCanada as farms right tobargaincollectivelyright by asgranted thestandardsofILO. Constitution provides “at theleastsamelevel ofprotection” forthe SAWP. heldthat theCanadian ina2007ruling The Supreme Court bilities ofunionizingforguestworkers that under cometothecountry ficientlysome countries,met in there is laborshort whereasin others tice%20Initiative.html. &catid=5%3Amedia-releases&Itemid=5&lang=en= 48 47 46 45 Finally, asJennifer Hillexposes, theideathat was prevalent inthe In Canadaseveral noteworthy caseshave helpedimproved thepossi The UnitedFood andCommercial Workers labor isaninternational

� UFCW Canada See more: CDMwebpage Pope, Supranote 25, p. 1866.

Hill, Supranote19; See also:

Canada andFloraliaGrowers of Abbotsford, B.C., which http://www.ufcw.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view=article&id=661 45 46

V http://cdmigrante.org/The%20Binational%20Labor%20Jus http://www.ufw.org/_board.php?b_code=org_vic 47 I.C oncl . us

An examplewas acontractbe ion Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 . 48

------,

who are easily threatened anddisciplined. foreign workers that canbeisolated andwho work forlittleto no pay, movements.ceptable toanti-immigrant This allows employers tohire compromises designedtomaintainhighlevels that ofmigration are ac Cindy Hahahmovitch hasexplained, were alltheseprograms andare laborers andnotenoughjobs.laborers try. Incontrast, andCentral Southern have countries American many not havedo indus agriculture the of meet theneeds to enoughlaborers age. This isthecaseof asawhole.America North countries American examples of such programs intheearly programs 19 examples ofsuch oftransnational migration”,tively form itispossible tofind modern vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario and workers from Philippinesworking intheMiddleEastand Asia. now Mozambiquetravelling towork indiamondfieldsSouth Africa culture workers traveled towork inPrussia, theworkers from what is tions that threatensafety, his/herhealthand isinasitua that person work isperforming forlittletonopay,and that person undercondi ote, home, aloansharkback orbecauseheisretained againsthiswill, isnotfree toleave,person itbeingbecauseheisindebtedwithhiscoy legally,arrived was smuggled, or was across trafficked borders. Ifthe by anemployer inthefieldsregardless and ofwhetherhewas recruited I dothinkaworker canbesubjectedtotheexactsamesituation ofabuse than documented, becauseIdonotbelieve thistobethecase. However, not wishtosay worker that amigrant isbetteroffbeingundocumented caneasilymigration becomethetoolsforabuse andexploitation. Ido are undocumented,grants but rather regulating that thelegalschemes in therealm of “illegality”, mi tobethosecasesinwhich understood evident. immigrant” theory. However theimperfectionsofsystemare self them withwelfare. This iswhat Hahamovitch definestobethe “perfect out theresponsibilitythemtotheirsocietyorprovide ofintegrating ofreadyvelopment workers intheform aidfrom poorcountries with Historical PerspectiveHistorical 1”, in44 50 49 Guestworker are programs notassomehave calledit “a distinc This presentation seekstoillustrate how abuse doesnotonly happen

Hill, Supranote19, p. 312. See: Cindy Hahamovitch, “Creating Perfect Immigrants: Guestworkers of the World in , LABOR HIST. 69, 2003.

th 50 century where century Polish agri Governments receive de 49 As As ------655 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 656 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS industry is industry “probably hosttothelargestnumberofforcedlaborers”. $44.3billioneveryes oragentsreaches year, andthat theagriculture global profits madefromexploitedby forcedlaborers private enterpris his family that mightbemilesandaway. do notonlyeffects of this trafficking affectthelaborer inthefield, but tion offorcedlabor, ofhumantrafficking. tobeaform understood The U Instruments International find jobsthat are sustainable anddignifying. people build oneinwhich paths industry that make ofthe agriculture momentum that theantislavery movement hastoday, andtogether they their rights. Hopefully, the free willsomeday laborapproach gainthe also beeneffective, andhave givenworkers the power toadvocate for lustrated how free labor solutions, tendtobelesspopular, which have been highly popularbut inmany caseseffective. This presentation il tively through free laborstrategies. Anti slavery measures have notonly bothnegatively,tackled asthe prohibitionsuggests, approach andposi be harderifnotimpossible toreach. treated. Ifwe ofthisissue, becomesilentspectators improvements will ofourdemandshavethat thepatterns adirect effectonhow are others ofaglobalizedworldbers we needtoacceptourpart, andbeaware able at Cornell University ILR School University ILRable School at Cornell nited 51 The International LaborOrganization (ILO)estimatedInternational in2005thatThe For thistobeachieved, compromises have tobereached. As mem Human trafficking, andmore specificallycanbe labortrafficking Article 3 paragraph (a). 3paragraph NewArticle York, 15 November 2000. United Nations Convention against Transnational Organized Crime, ing inPersons, Especially Women andChildren, supplementingthe �

ILO, Belser, Patrick Forced Labor andHuman Trafficking: Estimating the Profits. Avail N ation s , Protocol toPrevent, Suppress andPunish Traffick V II. http://digitalcommons.ilr.cornell.edu/forcedlabor/17 B i b lio g raph y Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 . 51 ------,

Articles andbooks Articles 1924. of Labor AppropriationsAct United States of America, Statutes at Large, 1stCongress, 2ndSession, Canadian Parliament, BillC-49. November 25, 2005. United States Code, Title 8, section1101.a.15.T.iii. (8U.S.C. §1101(a) National Statutes United Nations, Convention Relating to theStatus ofRefugees. Protocol by againsttheSmuggling ofMigrants Land, Seaand Air, sup H H H H H G D B B vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario a ale e ill athawa ahamo a e i s Page 103-104. 26, March 1790(1Stat 103-104). (15)(T)(iii)) ganized Crime. plementing theUnitedNations Convention against Transnational Or into thehouseoflabor”, FORDHAMURB. L.J., vol. XXXV. Virginia Law Journal ofInternational the World”. Labor AndAdvocacy Labor”,Agricultural in Guestworker intheUS”. Programs sessed, 2007. tion actprevents humantrafficking”. andseasonalworker guerstworkers inthemigrant ricultural protec andSlaveryficking in America Today ”, 2009. u ff S g torical er te er , s ert , Jennifer, “Binational guestworker unions: moving guestworkers f , , Kevin and ano Mary, Poverty Southern Law Center, Report “Close toSlavery. Sovereign, “Farmworkers andforcedlabor: why includingag , v y Gary, “H-2A Guestworker Program, ofImporting A legacy itch ,

, James quagmire of “The humanrights “human trafficking””, Perspective 1”, Anthony M., , Cindy, “Creating Perfect Immigrants: Guestworkers of S oodalter , Universityof Texas, 2002. ,

The HumanCostOfFoods: Farmworkers’ Lives, The War on Human Trafficking:Human As The Policy on WarU.S 44 LABORHIST, 69, 2003. , Ron, “The slave nextdoor: Human Traf , 2008. ------657 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT 658 JULIANA VENGOECHEA BARRIOS The Economist Human ILO, U R P P J “Canada Bracero History Archive, andNew Centerfor History Media. Resources Internet CDM webpage J us ope apademetrio a a ni ed”, November 22, 2007, http://www.economist.com/node/10177080 foreigntemporary workers intoCanadaare oftenexploit pouring pdf/study4.pdf. . cornell.edu/forcedlabor/17 the Profits. UniversityILRSchool, Cornell http://www.migrationinformation.org/Feature/display.cfm?id=723. EconomicCrisis United States andtheCurrent sity ofPennsylvania Law Review States MIGRATIONS: A Collectionof Views onMexicanImmigration totheUnited program”, 179–84, 2007. Victim inDomesticHuman Trafficking Law”, word/2011/03/human_trafficking_conference_university_denver.php. 1239390842422/6012763-1239905793229/Human_Trafficking.pdf sources.worldbank.org/EXTSOCIALDEVELOPMENT/Resources/244362- flict, andviolence, crime núm. 122, December2009, braceroarchive.org cero.html. Justice%20Initiative.html. y s tice a ch v s er , hri Patrick Belser,Patrick Forced LaborandHuman Trafficking: Estimating James G., “A freetoHuman laborapproach Trafficking”, k Trafficking: Overview. A Brief SocialDevelopment Notes. Con

s , e , it f http://clas.berkeley.edu/Outreach/education/migrations2003/bra ,

Mexico andtheUnitedStates”, or S y ri Carl, Denver University,

M California Berkeley,California CenterforLatin Studies,American , “Canada’s guestworkers. welcome. awarm Notsuch The k http://www.justicia4migrantworkers.org/bc/pdf/sawp.pdf. antiah u i g , http://cdmigrante.org/The%20Binational%20Labor%20 rant Demetrios G.Demetrios and . , W “Perfect Victims andRealSurvivors: The Iconic or k er , vol.158. s , workers“The seasonalagriculture T erra http://blogs.westword.com/latest http://www.naalc.org/english/ z , Policy Migration Institute. a s Anuario Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario http://digitalcommons.ilr. , Aaron, 85 B.U.85 L.REV vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Immigrants inthe http://sitere http:// Univer- ., 151, . - - - . ,

Yum! Brandswebsite USCIS website: School,LawMichigan of University Human Trafficking http:// at Project Law UFCW Canada http://www.prodesc.org.mx/english/labor-rights/ http://www.prodesc.org.mx/wp-content/uploads/2010/10/en/manual-bi PRODESC webpage Commission forLaborCooperation, “Protection of Migrant Agricul http://www.ciw-online.org/101.html. http://www.ciw-online.org/agreementanalysis.html. http://www.ciw-online.org/agreementanalysis.html. Coalition ofImmokalee Workers webpage vol. XIII, 2013, pp. 639-659 Mexicano deDerecho Internacional Anuario http://www.yum.com/company/ourbrands.asp =article&id=661&catid=5%3Amedia-releases&Itemid=5&lang=en= 100000b92ca60aRCRD. M100000b92ca60aRCRD&vgnextchannel=889f0b89284a3210VgnVCM a3e5b9ac89243c6a7543f6d1a/?vgnextoid=889f0b89284a3210VgnVC fickingproject/Pages/default.aspx. www.law.umich.edu/clinical/humantraffickingclinicalprogram/humantraf national-justice-presentation.pdf sawp_tfw.shtml http://www.hrsdc.gc.ca/eng/workplaceskills/foreign_workers/ei_tfw/ tural Workers” inHumanResourcesandSkillsDevelopment Canada http://www.uscis.gov/portal/site/uscis/menuitem.eb1d4c2 . http://www.ufcw.ca/index.php?option=com_content&view ,

. . . . - - - 659 LABOR TRAFFICKING IN THE AMERICAS IN CONTEXT