G Srivatsava President

Vinayak Meharwade Dear Patron, Vice President Greetings and best wishes!

These are best of times for the global pulses Research Team industry. On one hand, there has been a resurgence Vinay K Soni in the demand for pulses in an increasingly health Naveen R conscious society. On the other hand, there have been continuous research and development Kempa Reddy efforts to place pulses as an important and Abhijeet Anand essential component of the food ingredient Lopamudra Dhal market. Progressive governments have realized Venkatraman S the importance of Pulses in achieving their goals on nutritional security Debajit saha and sustainable agriculture practices. Given all these, the United Nations Organisation has rightly assigned 2016 as the International Year of Pulses (IYOP). The global pulses industry has seized this opportunity and has set itself an Marketing impressive list of ‘to do’ tasks to transform pulses from a ‘bulk commodity’ to Swapna an ‘appealing and healthy food of choice’. We wish all the stakeholders – CICILS Ravi and its stakeholder members, a resounding success in their efforts on this momentous occasion. Data Support Pulses Handbook 2015 focuses on several crucial issues pertaining to pulses Shivakumar S ranging from production and productivity improvement, sustainability, Gajendra environmental impact, role of markets and institutions, trade and supply chain to technology trends and food safety aspects. I take this opportunity to thank Jayanth Kumar all the experts, who have committed their time and expressed their views for the benefit of the industry. In this edition, we have added two new sections- Design data section and a directory of importers and exporters. I must admit that the Radhika directory is a partial list, as we have to do the due diligence of verifying the Praveen database before publishing it. We hope to continue the efforts and keep you updated. If you wish to be a part of the database, please email us your company ...... details. Foretell Business Solutions Pvt Ltd 146, 1-2 Floor, Gopal Towers I place on record our sincere thanks to all the sponsors and advertisers, without Ramaiah Street, Kodihalli, HAL Airport Road whose support such projects do not happen. Their generous support has helped us to reach out to a large number of stakeholders of this vibrant industry Bangalore – 560008 through print and online editions. India, Tel: +91 80 25276152/53 Fax: +91 80 25276154 I thank the team at Foretell under the leadership of Mr. Naveen Ramaiah that Email: [email protected] has put in efforts to bring out this year’s edition on time for you. Lastly, I thank all of you, our beloved patrons, who have been supporting all our initiatives Web: www.fbspl.com with your valuable feedback and suggestions. This Handbook is dedicated to www.commodityindia.com you all- the proud stakeholders of pulses industry. We look forward to your suggestions and feedback (email us at [email protected]).

Once again best wishes to all the stakeholders participating in 2015 CICILS World Pulses Conference in Las Vegas! Have a very productive and fun-filled conference.

Best wishes and good luck. G Srivatsava

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  TABLE OF CONTENT

Sections Contents Page.No

Dry peas-a premium substitute for world’s protein basket 14 Vinay K Soni, Head of Business Consulting, Foretell Business Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Pulses research and development strategies for India CL Laxmipathi Gowda, Sushil K Chaturvedi, Pooran M Gaur, CV Sameer Kumar and 17 Aravind K Jukanti GRSV Consulting Services, ICRISAT, IIPR, CAZRI, India

Production and productivity of pulses: Indian Perspectives Section-1 S.K. Datta, B.B. Singh, Pro-Vice Chancellor and Asst. Director General, ICAR, 34 Production, Productivity & New Delhi Environmental Sustainability Pulses production and productivity in India Purushottam and Deepak Singh, Senior Scientist and Scientist (SS) 38 Indian Institute of Pulse Research, India

Production of pulses in Asia: sustainability issues Subash Dasgupta, Senior Plant Production Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia 41 and the Pacific, Thailand

Environment and pulses 48 PS Basu, Principal Scientist, Indian Institute of Pulses Research

Modern pulses milling technology Juan Carlos Arriola, Technical Specialist, Milling Technology, Cigi 55 (Canadian Internati onal Grains Insti tute)

Pulses processing scenario in India Kempa Reddy and Abhijeet Anand, Agri-Business Analysts, Foretell Business Solu- 59 tions Pvt. Ltd. Section-2 Pulses Processing Technology Overview of pulse milling and processing technologies Sathyendra Rao. B.V and Srinivas. A, Senior Principal Scientists in Department of 63 Grain Science & Technology, CSIR, Mysuru

New pulse processing technologies meet changing world needs 65 Prasad Jaripatke, Head of Bühler’s Pulses Business Segment, Bangalore

Branding of minor pulses in India 68 Nirali Bhatt, Global Agro Commodities

Health benefits of pulses Section-3 Charan Wadhawan, Senior Scientist, Agricultural Utilization Research Institute 70 Health, Nutrition & (AURI), USA Food Innovation Reserve mobilized pulses– a timely addition to the nutrient deficient Indian diet 72 R. Sujatha, Consultant – Diet and Food Processing, India

Various gluten-free food applications of pulses H.D Maskus and T.B Loader, Project manager, Pulse Flour Milling & 75 Food Applications, Cigi (Canadian International Grains Institute)

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Sections Contents Page.No

Pulses as food ingredients in India P. Vennila, Professor (FSN) in Agricultural Engineering College and Research 78 Institute, India

Tall, strong and handsome! …the new Pentaseal Pouch. 80 Nichrome

Pulses for food security of India C. S. Praharaj and Ummed Singh, Principal Scientist 82 Section-4 Indian Institute of Pulses Research Security & Creating Awarness Pulses as an essential food ingredients and ways to increase food consumption Jagdish Singh & RajaniKanaujia, Principal Scientist (Biochemistry) & Head, Divi- 85 sion of Basic Sciences, IIPR, India

Australian pulses crop outlook 89 Peter Wilson, CEO of Australia Milling Group

Australian 2015 pulse outlook Tim Edgecombe (CEO Pulse Australia), Cindy Benjamin (Pulse Australia communi- 91 cations consultant)

Myanmar pulses industry Soe Win Maung, Consultant, Myanmar Pulses, Beans and Sesame Seed Producti 94 on, Myanmar Section-5 Outlook, Markets and Trade Myanmar pulses market and its trade 97 Shyam Narsaria, CEO, Arvee International Pvt Ltd. (Yangon Branch), Myanmar

Outlook on lentils and peas 100 Harsha Kukreja Rai, Vice President Global Sales, Mayur Global Corporation

Towards the holistic development of pulses economy 102 Pallavi Oak, Dy. Manager - Knowledge Management, NCDEX

Price outlook on lentils and peas 105 Venkatraman S, Sr. Commodity Analyst, FBSPL

Pulses markets and trade-India Gaurav Bagdai, Tha. Gopaldas Popatlal, General Merchant and Commission 106 Agent, India

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List of abbreviations and terminologies

AB Advanced Backcross ACRIP (MULLaRP) All India Coordinated Research Project on Mungbean, urdbean, Lentil, Lathyrus, Rajmash & Pea ADHD Attention Deficit Hyperactivity Disorder AICPIP All India Coordinated Pulse Improvement Project ANF Anti Nutritional Factors ATP Adenosine Triphosphate AVRDC Asian Vegetable Research and Development Center CAD Current Account Deficit CExC Crop Exchange Centers CFTRI Central Food Technological Research Institute Cigi Canadian International Grains Institute CPI Consumer Price indices CSIR Council of Scientific & Industrial Research EFP Exchange of Futures for Physicals FAO Food and Agricultural Organization FAQ Fair Average Quality FDI Foreign Direct Investment FOB Free on Board FPOs Farmer Producers’ Organizations FQ First Quality FW Fusarium Wilt GDP Gross Domestic Product GXE Genotype x Environment HTI Heat Tolerance Index ICAR Indian Council of Agricultural Research ICARDA International Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas ICRISAT International Crops Research Institute for the Semi-Arid Tropics IGP Indo-Gangetic plains IIP Index of Industrial Production IMF International Monetary Fund INR Indian Rupee IPCC Intergovernmental Panels on Climate Change ITC International Trade Centre KFCSC State Food and Civil Supplies Department, Government of Karnataka Kg Kilogram KTAML Karnataka Togari Abhivrudhi Mandali Limited Lac tons Lakh tonnes (100000 tonnes or 100 thousand tonnes) MABC Marker Assisted Back-Cross Breeding MARS Marker assisted recurrent selection mha Million Hectares mt Million Tonnes MTs Metric Tonnes

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MYMV Mungbean yellow mosaic virus NCDEX National Commodity and Derivatives Exchange NDA National Democratic Alliance NDC National Development Council NeML NCDEX e-Markets Limited NFSM National Food Security Mission NICRA National Initiative on Climate resilient Agriculture NRCPB National Research Centre on Plant Biotechnology NTBs Non-tariff barrier NWPZ North Western Plains Zone PCM Protein Calorie Malnutrition RBA Reserve Bank of Australia ReMS Rashtriya e-markets and Services Private Limited RKVY Rashtriya KrishiVikasYojana SQ Special Quality TBTs Technical barrier to trade TDF Total Dietary Fibre TILLING Targeting Induced Local Lesions in Genomes UMP Unified Market Platform USDA United States Department of Agriculture US Pounds 1000 Pounds = 0.453 592 37 Metric Ton WGA Whole Genome Association

List of local terminologies

Adai mix: It is a mixture of Rice, Bengal gram, green gram; rolled oats, asafoetida, red chillies, curry leaves, salt and can be directly used to make Adai by frying. Adai is mainly used as a popular snack item in South India

Bonda mix: It is a mixture of deep fried chickpea battered with some spices and prepared by using potato, onion etc.,

Bisibelebhat: It’s a rice-based dish with its origins in the state of Karnataka, India. Bisi-bele-bhaath translates to hot lentil rice

Curried chholay: Gravy of dollar chana (kabuli chana) and spices especially made in the northern part of India

Curried dhal: Gravy made of up mainly pulses and Indian spices especially served with boiled rice and wheat bread.

Dhokla mix: It is a healthy, readily available powder, which can be used to make Khaman ( a Gujarati delicacy) batter in minutes.

Dosa: It is a fermented crepe made from rice batter and black lentils. It is a staple dish in South Indian states

Gota: Dehusked whole pulse

Idli: It’s a traditional breakfast in South Indian households. Idli is a savoury cake that is popular throughout India and neighbouring countries like Sri Lanka

Pakoda mix: It is a mixture of deep fried chickpea battered with some spices and prepared by using onion

Sambhar: Sambar is a lentil based vegetable stew or chowder based on a broth made with tamarind popular in South Indian and Sri Lankan Tamil cuisines adapted in each to its taste and environment

Vada mix: It is a common term for many different types of savoury fritter-type snacks from South India with a set of common ingredients and prepared from a thick batter of Black gram or coarsely ground Bengal gram which has been fermented. This mixture is then seasoned by mixing with cumin seeds, onion, curry leaves (sometimes previously sauteed), salt, chillies and/or black pepper grains

www.commodityindia.com Page 11         Section-1 Production, Productivity & Environmental Sustainability  

Dry peas-a premium substitute for World’s protein basket

Vinay K Soni, Head - Business Consulting, Foretell Business Solutions Pvt. Ltd. India

Dry Pea (Pisum sativum) is one average production of 21.1 million tonnes and 9.5 million kind of legume crop which is tonnes respectively. CAGR of these two pulses during the grown and consumed in the year 2001-2013 was 2% and 5% respectively. world since very long time. It has been a part of western diet The production of the dry pea has undergone transformation as one of the staple ingredients too. Two decades ago, the production of dry pea was in various preparations like concentrated in Europe (France and Russian Federation) soup, snack foods, bakery but later it gained popularity in the USA and Canada, the products etc. Some sources dominant players in the trade today. claim that nutrition value of peas has been recognized The world production of dry peas averages around 10.4-10.5 10,000 BC during the human civilization era. Peas are high million tonnes annually (2001-2014). Average area under in protein and low in fat containing only two grams of fat dry pea is 6.33-6.50 million ha and average productivity or per 365 calories. Similarly it is a natural food source which yield is 1630 Kg/ha during the same period. The area and contains highest amounts of fiber i.e. 25.5 grams of fiber per production trend is seen to be almost stagnant during the 100 gram. On the other hand, pea crop helps in protecting year 2001-2014. However, in the last five year scenario there and providing nutrition to soil, as it can be grown in rainfed has been a slight increase in the annual production at 2.9% (less irrigation) conditions and with no or minimal usage which is mostly due to stable yield level in the first three of chemicals and fertilizers. Soil fertility increases with dry years and enhancement in the productivity in the next year pea crop as it replenishes nitrogen in the soil and stands as of 2013 & 2014. perfect option for crop rotation cycle. Fig 1: World’s Total Pulses Scenario (2001-2013) Dry pea is the second largest type of pulses crops produced in the world after dry bean. In earlier days, the dry pea is mainly cultivated for feed purposes in Americas and European countries. Even today, around 15-20% of total pea cultivated is supplied for feed purposes. But majority of the peas produced is now consumed by humans mainly in the Asian regions. This is one major transformation of dry pea from animal feed to human food.

High nutritive contents such as fiber and protein, less expensive than other pulses and similar organoleptic properties as per major consumed pulses type in the consuming countries are some of the key reasons why dry Fig 2: Production Scenario of Dry Pea in the World pea entered into those markets as substitute. However, declining production level of major pulses crops, minimal government support, lower productivity etc. are the few other important external reasons for adaptation of peas in their meals by the major consuming countries.

World Pulses and Dry Pea Production Scenario During the period 2001-2013, the average annual world pulses production was 63.8 million tonnes. Compounded annual growth rate (CAGR) in world pulses production during the same period was 2.18%. Dry beans and Chickpeas were the top two produced pulses in the world with annual

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Table 1: Annual average World Dry Peas area, production & at 4% and 3.4% respectively whereas other three countries yield scenario have shown a declining growth of -0.3%, -10.4% and -0.6% 2001-2014 2010-2014 respectively. Absolute % Change Absolute % Change Fig 3: Country-wise Dry Pea Production Trend and Growth Area (Mha) 6.33 0.50% 6.50 0.28% Scenario (2001-2013) Production 10.41 0.19% 10.57 2.89% (MTonne)

Yield (Kg/Ha) 1646 -0.32% 1627 2.59%

Major Contributors in World Dry Pea Production Canada is the single largest producer of dry pea in the world followed by Russian Federation, China, France and India. Mix trend in production of dry pea is seen in these top five countries, top two country’s production growth is positive

Export of Dry peas Annual average export of dry pea in the world during the year 2001-2013 is 3.81 million tonnes. The world export of dry pea is growing up by 4.67% during the same period.

Table 2: Export trend of Dry Peas in the World Country Avg (2001-06) 2007 2008 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Growth % (2001-13) Canada 1.67 2.19 1.60 2.61 2.79 2.85 1.93 2.83 7.1 France 0.57 0.35 0.28 0.22 0.30 0.32 0.28 0.24 -8.7 USA 0.22 0.48 0.50 0.50 0.52 0.34 0.36 0.44 13.7 Australia 0.23 0.13 0.12 0.12 0.19 0.26 0.21 0.18 -1.9 Russian Fed 0.08 0.02 0.04 0.26 0.15 0.46 0.59 0.34 22.6 Ukraine 0.16 0.07 0.08 0.27 0.15 0.17 0.17 0.11 2.3 Others 0.39 0.44 0.41 0.27 0.43 0.44 0.53 1.14 4.4 World 3.30 3.69 3.02 4.24 4.54 4.84 4.06 5.27 4.7 Quantity in Million Tonnes

Major Importers of Dry peas There is one commonality in major dry importing countries i.e. all are major rice consuming countries either as main ingredient or used to make other products. Raw, Dal (cooked liquid pulses), flour, admixture for bakery, snack food and other products (Noodles, Cake, Filling agent) are the major forms in which different pulses are consumed in these countries.

Table 3: Country-wise import trend of Dry Peas Country Avg of 2004-08 2009 2010 2011 2012 2013 Growth % (2004-13) India 1.13 1.68 1.54 1.87 1.50 1.23 8.0 China 0.22 0.37 0.55 0.73 0.67 1.03 26.2 Pakistan 0.11 0.07 0.16 0.10 0.19 0.16 3.3 Bangladesh 0.13 0.30 0.19 0.29 0.40 0.26 17.1 Spain 0.50 0.08 0.08 0.11 0.16 0.03 -25.9 Quantity in Million Tonnes

Why does India and China import Dry Peas? Production of pulses is seen to be declining in both (India and China) major pulses consuming countries in the world. In China, other competitive and more value crops like maize, wheat and cotton cultivation are being promoted. No support is laid by the government to promote pulses cultivation. Mung bean (green gram) is one of the major pulses cultivated and consumed in various

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types and forms in China. Over the years, there has been a pea is now a major part of government’s subsidized grain large fluctuation in production of Mung bean. In India, Chick distribution programme under Public Distribution System pea is considered as multi-applicable pulses, i.e. it is consumed (PDS). Procurement of pulses at Minimum Support Price by the in forms of raw, splits, powder, roasted/fried, snack food etc. government (as is done in case of Rice and Wheat) is also a key The organoleptic characteristics along with the price make the recommendation to support pulses development programe and dry peas as close substitutable. The quantum of production of in this case, the procured pulses may replace dry peas. Mung bean in China and Chick pea in India has a direct effect on China’s import of dry pea is influenced by production and quantum of import of dry peas into these two countries. prices of Mung bean as it used as replacement in some of the food preparations. Chinese know the health benefits of Mung Fig 4: Mung Bean Production vs Dry Peas Import in China bean and hence products made of it are sold at the higher or premium price. So there will some level of resistance to import more dry pea as it is still used as substitute...... The author can be contacted at vinay.soni@commodityindia. com, [email protected], Contact No. +91 9343732244 Disclaimer- Views are personal

Fig 5: Chickpea Production vs Dry Peas Import in India

What in the Nut Shell India is largest importer of dry peas in the world and and uses dry pea for the human consumption purposes. Decline in the total pulses production in India is a worrying factor for the government, hence pulses development plan under national food security mission (NFSM) has been announced to promote pulses production by providing highy yielding seeds, farm inputs, cash subsidies, mechanisation support and also price support to the farmers. Red gram, Chick peas, Lentils like climate suitable crops are focused in this program. India has banned export of pulses and pulses products since the year 2007 onwards. This has an adverse impact on production of some pulses like lentils which was earlier exported from India. Industry experts and government formed committee have recommendaded that opening export of pulses could boost pulses production in India. Government has started thinking on this recomondation. If it happens, India may start exporting pulses to neighbouring countries like Bangladesh, Sri Lanka where lentils used to be exported. In India, dry

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Pulses research and development strategies for india

CL Laxmipathi Gowda, Sushil K Chaturvedi, Pooran M Gaur, CV Sameer Kumar and Aravind K Jukanti GRSV Consulting Services, ICRISAT, IIPR, CAZRI, India

I. Introduction MT), dry peas (0.6 MT), groundnut with shell (9.4 MT) and The world population is soybean (11.95 MT; FAOSTAT 2015). Overall, the global legume projected to grow from production has increased by ~1.7 times between 1961 and 2011 the current ~7.3 billion (in and during the same period cereal production has increased 2015) to ~8.9 billion by 2050 by ~ 3 times. The yield per hectare of legumes has increased (United Nations Report only by ~1.4 times to that of ~3.0 times in cereals. All these 2004). Therefore, increasing factors contribute to an overall short-supply of legumes globally, food production to provide especially pulses in India. food and nutritional security is a challenge. Food and More than a dozen pulses crops are grown in different parts nutritional security becomes of India. Among them, chickpea (gram or chana), pigeonpea all the more important with (tur), mungbean (green gram or moong), urdbean (black the certainty of climate gram or mash), lentil (masoor) and fieldpea (matar) are most CL Laxmipathi Gowda change scenario and ever common ones. During 2013-14, India produced 19.27 MT of increasing human population. pulses, and about 3.18 MT of pulses worth more than Rs. 11038 These twin challenges can be addressed to by diversifying the crores (US$1.8 billion) were imported from Canada, Australia, global cropping pattern and by promoting food/grain legume Myanmar, Turkey, Syria, Tanzania, etc. during same year. The crops, generally called Pulses in India. Legumes include ~750 results from frontline demonstrations clearly indicated that genera and ~18000 species (Graham and Vance 2003; Polhill et pulses production can be enhanced to the desired level if al. 1981). The Legume family consists of important food grain, appropriate technology transfer efforts are made. India has oilseed, forage, and agroforestry species. The domestication witnessed an impressive growth in pulses production during of legumes by humans dates back to Neolithic times. Chickpea last 5 years with the good compound growth rate. The growth (Cicerarietinum) is one of the seven Neolithic founder crops rate of pulse production (2.61%) during last one decade was of the near East (Lev-Yadun et al. 2000). Some of the earliest even higher than the growth rate of rice (1.59%), wheat (1.89%) domesticated legumes include: lentil (Lens culinaris; ~9000 yrs; and total cereals (1.88%). This has also had a direct effect on Cohen 1977),beans (Phaseolus vulgaris) and soybean (Glycine max; per capita availability of pulses (39.4 g/capita/day from the ~3000 year;Hymowitzand Singh, 1987; Kaplan and Lynch, 1999). earlier 36g/capita/day). Among different pulses, the highest Legumes form an important part of human daily diet especially in growth rate was observed in chickpea production (5.89%) several developing and some developed countries and therefore followed by pigeonpea (2.61%). The overall productivity of sometimes legumes are considered as poor man’s meat. pulses increased to an impressive 786 kg ha-1 during 2012-13 as compared to 577 kg ha-1during 2004-05. The credit goes Pulses are produced on ~12-15% of global arable land and to the improved varieties and production of breeder seed, their contribution to total human dietary protein nitrogen demonstration of pulses production technologies through requirement is ~30% (Graham and Vance 2003). Most technology demonstrations, frontline demonstrations, policy important dietary pulses include chickpea, beans, lentil, green support and various schemes like National Food Security gram(mungbean), black gram (urdbean) field peas, pigeonpea, Mission (NFSM), RashtriyaKrishiVikasYojana (RKVY), and and cow pea. Soybean and groundnut are important oilseed accelerated pulses production program (A3P) etc. launched by legumes meeting ~35% of the global vegetable oil requirement the central government to promote pulses cultivation. In order (Graham and Vance 2003), and are also used as protein to ensure self-sufficiency, the requirement for pulses in the supplements. The global legume/pulse production, area and country is projected at 39 million tonnes by the year 2050; at an yield during 2013 was ~73 million tonnes (MT), ~80.8 million ha annual growth rate of2.2%. This will require a pragmatic change (m ha) and ~904 kg ha-1respectively (FAOSTAT 2015). Legume/ in research and developmental strategies, beside good policy pulse production, area and yield during the same period was support from the government. ~18.3 MT (~25% of the global production), 28.2 m ha (~35% of global area) and 650 kg ha-1respectively. Further, Africa and II. Why Pulses? Asia together contribute ~49 MT, i.e., 67% of the global pulse Pulses in general are nutritionally enriched as they have high production. India’s production of different legumes during 2013 protein content, relative to staple cereals. In addition to their was: chickpea (~13.1 MT), pigeonpea (~4.74 MT), lentils (~1.13 nutritional content, there are several reasons that strongly

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support legume cultivation and adoption. Important reasons most of the legumes are also good source of carbohydrates for their cultivation include: (i) suitability for human and animal (30-60%; USDA 2013). The different carbohydrates in legumes consumption, (ii) adaptability for inter- or mixed cropping, include: (i) monosaccharides – glucose, fructose and ribose (iii) agronomic management of legumes is relatively easy, (iv) (ii) disaccharides – maltose and sucrose (iii) oligosaccharides legumes are relatively hardy crops and grown in some of poorer – ciceritol, verbascose, stachyose, and raffinose,(iv) soils and harsh growing conditions and face lower incidence polysaccharides – starch, cellulose and hemicellulose (Chibar of pests and diseases, (v) input (especially nitrogen fertilizer) et al 2004, 2010; Han and Baik 2006).Higher oligosaccharide requirement is lower compared to other crops,and (vi) legumes content in chickpea leads to higher flatulence (Jaya et al., 1979; are also considered as cash crops. Though legume cultivation Rao and Belavady, 1978). The main carbon reserve in grains of has several advantages they also suffer from some limitations legumes starch and is constituted of amylose and amylopectin restricting their cultivation, especially limited availability of (Chibar et al 2010).Grain legumes are a good source of fibre and quality seeds of improved varieties, harvesting is tedious,in total dietary fibre (TDF) content in legumes is ~8-27.5% (Guillon addition to labour requirement for value addition, and most and Champ 2002). Several health benefits are associated with importantly volatility of markets. increased consumption of dietary fibre including reduced risk of several diseases (cardiovascular disease/diabetes/cancer/ Grain composition of pulses obesity) and also lowers blood cholesterol levels (Tosh and Yada ‘Protein Calorie Malnutrition (PCM)’ is a global concern especially 2010; Marlett et al 2002). in infants, young children and nursing mothers. The protein content of legumes is substantially higher (20-36.0%; Gowda et III. Future Strategies for Increasing Pulses Productivity and al 2014) compared to major cereals (6.0-15.0%; Champagne et al Production 2004; Shewry 1993, 2009; Zuber and Darrah 1987). The protein 1. Chickpea content of important grain legumes is: pigeonpea [21.7 g 100-g], Chickpea (Cicerarietinum) has always been the most important chickpea [19.3 g 100-g], lentil [25.8 g 100-g], bean [23.4 g 100-g], pulse crop of India and its global importance has increased cowpea [~24.0 g 100-g] and, soybean [36.5 g 100-g] (USDA 2013). considerably during the past three decades. The number of Additionally, high variability (60-92%) was observed for in vitro chickpea growing countries has increased from 36 to 52 and protein digestibility (IVPD) for different legume crops (Gowda et importing countries from 30 to 150 during 1981 to 2011. al 2014). Further, the commonly consumed legumes were found Chickpea reached a record high global area of 13.3 million ha to have a relatively balanced amount of all the required essential (mha) and production of 11.75 million tons (MT) during 2011. amino acids. In 2013 the area of chickpea cultivation increased to 13.5 m ha but production remained at 13.1 MT (FAOSTAT 2015). Chickpea Minerals are important in human metabolism and mineral is currently the second most important food legume in the deficiencies are often associated with some human diseases/ world after common bean. During 2013, 89.20% of the chickpea disorders like cardiovascular disease (CVD), diabetes, cancer, area and 84.47% of production was in Asia, 3.57% and 4.05% and neurodegenerative disorders (Cabrera et al 2003). Pulses in Africa, 4.24% and 6.22% in Oceania, 2.44% and 4.55% in are a good source of different minerals. Consumption of 100- Americas and 0.55% and 0.71% in Europe (FAOSTAT 2015). The 200 mg of legumes can meet the daily requirement of different major chickpea producing countries,which contributed to about minerals: e.g. the daily zinc requirement of 3.0mg/day for 90% of the global chickpea production during 2013, include women and 4.2 mg/day for men (FAO 2002) can be met by India (67.4%), Australia (6.21%), Pakistan (5.73%), Turkey consumption of 100-200 mg of lentil, cowpea, and chickpea. (3.86%), Myanmar (3.74%), Iran (2.25%) Similarly, daily iron requirement (1.46 mg/day for women and 1.05 mg/day for men) can be met by consuming 100 g of There has been an impressive growth in area, production and most of the food legumes.Further, legumes are good source productivity of chickpea in India during the past decade. The of different types of Vitamin B, folic acid, and α/γ tocopherol year 2011 was particularly rewarding as the chickpea production (Gowda et al 2014). Additionally, legumes like chickpea and exceeded 8 MTfor the first time and the area reached 9.2 m ha, bean also provide β-carotene and Vitamin-K. which was~0.4 mha less than the highest chickpea area recorded in 1962 (~9.57 mha). Overall, India’s contribution towards global The fat content of many pulses ranges between ~1-6 g/100 g chickpea area and production is about 70%, so the global trend (USDA 2013). Chickpea hasthe highest fat content (~6.0g/100 follows the Indian trend in chickpea area and production. g) among the grain legumes, almost about 3-4 times higher than others. The range of polyunsaturated, monounsaturated Chickpea is a cool season crop and general perception is that and saturated fatty acids (PUFAs, MUFAs and SFAs) in most of it requires cooler and longer winter season and more suited the pulses is 40-60%, 20-25% and 15%,respectively (Gowda et to northern India. It was probably true for the earlier varieties al 2014). Legumes are a good source of health promoting fatty which were bred for cooler, long-season environments confining acids like linoleic, linolenic, oleicand palmitic acids. Additionally, the chickpea production to northern and central India. However,

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the scenario of chickpea cultivation has drastically changed offer opportunities for expanding chickpea area. The earlier in India during the past five decades, primarily because of experiments clearly demonstrated that chickpea is a very two factors:(i) the green revolution that intensified wheat suitable pulse crop for rice-fallows, provided suitable varieties cultivation in northern India replacing post-rainy season pulses, and technologies for crop establishment are available. The particularly chickpea, and (ii) development of short duration most important traits required in chickpea varieties for rice- chickpea varieties which are better adapted to warmer, short- fallows include early to extra-early maturity and tolerance season environments ofcentral and southern India. There has to reproductive stage heat tolerance. An early maturing been a major shift (about 4.0 million ha) in chickpea area from heat tolerant chickpea variety JG 14 (ICCV 92944) is already northern India (cooler, long-season environments) to central becoming popular in Eastern India. This variety can be further and southern India (warm, short-season environments).During promoted and used as a benchmark for developing better the triennium 1965-67 and 2010-12, the chickpea area declined performing varieties. from 4.7 to 0.7 million ha in northern states (Punjab, Haryana and Uttar Pradesh), while it increased from 2.1 to 6.1 million ha Biotic Stress Tolerance: Dry root rot (DRR) and Fusarium wilt in central and southern states (Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra, have emerged as highly devastating root diseases of chickpea Andhra Pradesh and Karnataka). in central and southern India. There are many wilt resistant varieties, but there is a need to enhance efforts on identifying 1.1 Strategies for enhancing chickpea production in India sources of resistance to DRRin the germplasm of cultivated There are tremendous opportunities for further increasing area and wild species and combine resistance to DRR and wilt in the and productivity of chickpea in India. The following chickpea varieties developed for central and southern India. improvement strategies are proposed for enhancing chickpea production in India: Pod borer (Helicoverpaarmigera) continues to remain a major and challenging insect-pest of chickpea.It has not been Input responsive and non-lodging varieties:The chickpea possible to develop varieties with high levels of resistance to area has reduced drastically (about 4.0 million ha) in northern pod borer due to non-availability of sources with high levels of India because the existing varieties are not responsive to high resistance. Higher levels of resistance have observed in some input conditions and tend to show excessive vegetative growth wild species and efforts are being made to exploit these wild and lodging when grown in fertile alluvial and black soil and species in improving pod borer resistance. Greater chances receive rains or irrigations during crop growth. Re-introducing for development of pod borer resistant cultivars exist through legumes for crop diversification in cereal-dominated cropping application of transgenic technology. Concerted efforts are system of northern India is very much needed for enhancing needed on using different transgenes and promoter options and sustaining cropping system productivity. The chickpea crop for developing transgenic events and their evaluations for can be made more profitable and competitive by developing effectiveness and biosafety. chickpea varieties which are non-lodging and responsive to high input conditions. This will require long-term investment in Chickpea is a poor competitor to weeds especially at early research on restructuring the plant type. The other traits need growth stages. Weeds compete with the crop for nutrients, to be combined are resistance to foliar diseases (ascochyta water, sunlight, and space. Therefore, herbicide tolerance in blight and botrytis grey mold), herbicide tolerance and chickpea is another important trait. Chickpea is sensitive to suitability to machine harvesting. herbicides and manual weeding is currently the only option for weed control. Development of herbicide-tolerant cultivars can Abiotic Stress Tolerance: Drought and heat are the major abiotic help in controlling weeds economically and also facilitate no-till stresses affecting chickpea at reproductive and terminal phases of methods, which help preserve topsoil. Presently ICRISAT, IIPR, crop growth especially in central and southern India. The residual IARI and four state agriculture universities (SAUs) are working nature of soil moisture coupled with progressively receding soil together in a project funded by NFSM for developing machine- moisture conditions and increasing temperatures towards end of harvestable and herbicide tolerant chickpea cultivars. the crop season impact the crop severely. Early maturing and stress tolerant cultivars are required to combat these stress conditions. Extra-large kabuli varieties for domestic and international Excellent progress has been made to develop chickpea breeding market:Extra-large kabuli chickpea fetches premium price in lines with improved heat tolerance. Breeding lines with enhanced domestic and international markets. Thus, there is a substantial drought tolerance have been developed through marker-assisted area under extra-large kabuli chickpea in Madhya Pradesh, breeding. Thus, breeding lines can be developed which combine Maharashtra and Andhra Pradesh. Considering the demand of both drought and heat tolerance. extra-large kabuli chickpea varieties in India, a research project on “Development of extra-large seeded kabuli chickpea” was Vast rice-fallow areas (~10 million ha) available in eastern funded through ISOPOM during 2006-2009. The breeding lines India (Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal) developed under this project have led to release of three extra-

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large kabuli cultivars. There is a need to enhance adoption of low RFO lines already identified can be used for development of improved extra-large seeded cultivars. Efforts are further needed low RFO containing chickpea varieties. on development of better varieties which have better plant type, higher yield potential and resistance to fusarium wilt. 2. Pigeonpea Pigeonpea is an important grain legume mostly being Super-early varieties for green grains: The immature green cultivated in Africa, Asia and Americas. The global chickpea grains of chickpea are used as a vegetable or snack throughout area, production and yield (in 2013) was ~6.22 mha, ~4.74 MT India. Early flowering and low temperature tolerance are and 762.4 kg ha-1respectively (FAOSTAT 2015). During 2013, needed in a chickpea variety for early podding in northern India. ~83.09% of global pigeonpea production and ~85.50% of area Similarly, a combination of early maturity and heat tolerance is was in Asia, 14.34% and 12.19% in Africa, 2.57% and 2.31% required for staggered planting and continuous supply of green in Americas (FAOSTAT 2015). The major pigeonpea producing seeds in other parts of India. There is a need to develop super- countries include India (63.74% of global production), Myanmar early chickpea varieties with acceptable seed size, resistance (18.98%), Malawi (6.07%), Tanzania (4.42%) and Uganda 1.98%). to fusarium wilt, tolerance to cold and heat tolerance at In India pigeonpea was cultivated on 4.65 mha with a total reproductive phase and should harvested in ~60-70 days for production of 3.02 MT and yield of 650.0 kg ha-1during 2013. green pods. It is grown as sole crop or intercrop with urdbean, mungbean, castor, sorghum, soybean, cotton, maize and groundnut in Machine harvestable and herbicide tolerant varieties: different states like Maharashtra, Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh, Enhancing mechanization of farm operations for improving Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Gujarat, Jharkhand, Rajasthan efficiency and reducing the cost of cultivation is being widely Odisha, Punjab and Haryana. adopted in India. The farmers are demanding chickpea cultivars which can be directly harvested by combine harvesters. Pigeonpea is mostly consumed as dry split dhal besides several The current chickpea cultivars are not suited to mechanical other uses of various parts of pigeonpea plant. It is an excellent harvesting because the plant height is not adequate and the source of protein (20-22%), supplementing energy rich cereal branches are close to ground due to semi-spreading growth diets in a mainly vegetarian population. Pigeonpea is a multi- habit. Development of chickpea cultivars with 30 to 40% more purpose crop that fits very well in the context of sustainable height compared to thepresent cultivars with semi-erect to agriculture. In addition to food, it can be used as fodder, feed, erect growth habit is essential for mechanical harvesting. fuel, functional utility (for making baskets, huts, fences, etc.), fertilizer (fixes atmospheric nitrogen and releases phosphorus), Nutritionally enhanced varieties: Chickpea is the most forest use (re-forestation, lac production), and even for consumed pulse crop of India and it contains high protein pharmaceutical purposes. However, the current production content (20-22%). Though wide variation has been observed of pigeonpea in India cannot meet the domestic demand for protein content (14 to 30%) in chickpea germplasm, no leading to a decrease in per capita availability of pigeonpea efforts have been made to breed for high protein varieties. from 70 gm to 35 gm. Despite the fact that a large number of The high protein germplasm accessions already identified high yielding varieties and have been released, productivity can be exploited for development of high protein varieties. in the crop remains stagnant around 700 kg ha-1as compared An improvement in the protein content by 20-25% appears to its potential yield (2500-3000 kg ha-1). This gap may be feasible. The high protein chickpea cultivars will improve protein attributed to several biotic and abiotic factors. Since it is mainly availability to the people by 20 to 25% from the same amount a rainfed crop, unfavorable rainfall (delayed, erratic, improper of chickpea consumed. distribution) leads to terminal drought or heavy down pour. Non adoption of improved management practices and lack of proper Development of chickpea varieties with higher beta-carotene research and commercial perspective for the crop influence the (precursor of Vitamin A) levels and micronutrient contents is low productivity to a greater extent. highly desired for India where it is the most consumed pulse crop. Limited studies conducted on assessing genetic variability 2.1 Strategies to enhance production and productivity for nutritional quality traits in chickpea germplasm suggest Pigeonpea like most other grain legume crops has lost genetic large genetic variation for contents of β-carotene (0.4-0.1 variability during the process of its domestication. Most present µg per g seed weight), iron (35-150 ppm) and zinc (25-50 day plant breeding efforts in developing high yielding varieties ppm). Thus, opportunities exist for developing varieties with aim at defect elimination i.e., developing resistant varieties to enhanced contents of β-carotene, iron and zinc.Raffinose family biotic (wilt, SMD, Phytophthora, and pod borer) and abiotic of oligosaccharides (RFOs), responsible for causing flatulence (moisture, high or cold temperature) stresses. Systematic studies uponchickpea consumption is an anti-nutritional factor to rebuild the plant type to improve the genetic yield potential associated with chickpea. A recent study indicates range of RFOs of pigeonpea are very limited. In view of above, the following from 1.58 to 5.83 mmol/100 g seed in chickpea germplasm. The strategies are needed for genetic enhancement in the crop:

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Development of varieties/hybrids tolerant to wilt, SMD, pod pigeonpea had restricted its expansion to wider latitudes and borer and Phytophthora: The major constraints in pigeonpea altitudes. Considering this, a breeding program was initiated at production are fusarium wilt and sterility mosaic disease (SMD); ICRISAT in 2006 to develop super-early maturing (< 100 days) and in recent times phytophthora blight is emerging as potential pigeonpea lines. This resulted in very stable photo- and thermo- threat (due to climate change) to pigeonpea production causing insensitive lines in determinate (ICPL 20340, ICPL 20338, ICPL huge yield losses. Considering the need, ICRISAT and its national 11255) and non-determinate group (ICPL 20325, ICPL 20326, partners have developed several varieties and hybrids resistant ICPL 11301). These lines provide number of opportunities like to fusarium wilt and SMD in medium duration, maturity group. pigeonpea–wheat cropping system since pigeonpea matures Several wilt, and SMD resistant genotypes have been identified by 100 days provides time to prepare the land for the following and these sources of resistance are used by national program wheat crop which is not possible with traditional medium scientists as resistant donors in pigeonpea breeding program. In duration varieties. It escapes drought, and pod borer attacks if the recent past efforts are intensified to develop resistant varieties planted early in June and harvested before those stresses occur. for both Fusarium and Phytophthora. Helicoverpa tolerance/ Introduction of super-early pigeonpea in rice-fallows not only resistance was identified in wild relatives and pre-breeding is generates additional income but also improve soil health and underway transfer the resistant genes to cultivated lines. productivity.

Recent crop improvement efforts of ICRISAT and ICAR led to Integrated Pest and Disease Management: Although development of stable cytoplasmic and genetic male sterile pigeonpea is grown on large area, yet the production per system in pigeonpea; and hybrids have been developed for unit is very low due to attack of pests and diseases at different agro-climatic niches. Seed production technology is vegetative growth to pod formation stage. It was observed also standardized for large scale production of commercial seed. that the overall cost of cultivation decreased with the There is an immediate need for exploitation of hybrid vigor by increasing adoption of Integrated Pest Management, along breeding heterotic hybrids for different zones in the country to with promotion of improved disease resistant varieties of improve productivity and production. pigeonpea, widely grown in the semi-arid tropics of the Indian subcontinent and South-eastern Africa. Farmers often Development of extra-short duration genotypes (< 120 days cultivate pigeonpea as mixed and intercrop. The integrated maturity) to different cropping systems in north western crop management technologies promoted helps other crops plain zone: Extra-short duration pigeonpea has a potential to grown simultaneously or in rotation. Similarly, technologies becultivated in new niches considering its photo- and thermo- dealing with avoidance of virus inoculum, vector control (for insensitivity. It can grow in diverse range of latitudes (35° N) and sterility mosaic disease), management of pod borer, and altitudes (>1250 msl) like in Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Odisha and seed processing and storage practices are implemented in Punjab. The adoption of short duration pigeonpea variety ICPL farmer participatory approach which also helps in reducing 88039 in the states of Rajasthan, Uttarakhand and Odisha has input cost of pigeonpea cultivation. helped in improving the livelihoods of poor farmers living in the harsh environment and undulated and hilly regions. In addition Pigeonpea, being a drought tolerant crop, is raised as a sole to ICPL 88039, extra short duration pigeonpea varieties ICPL crop or as an inter-crop with cotton, maize, castor, sorghum 85010 and ICPL 84031 varieties were also released earlier in or greengram. But achieving the higher and more stable yields Himachal Pradesh and Andhra Pradesh allowing farmers to grow remains the prime and high priority objective. For pigeonpea pigeonpea in various cropping systems. the major factors influencing adoption of new varieties are the yield potential, resistance to pests and diseases and seed Development of genotypes (> 180days maturity) with frost availability. There are several constraints pertaining to seed resistance for north eastern plain zone: In parts of Uttar availability (quantity, quality, time and prices) which hinder Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and Bihar traditionally long duration the adoption of improved varieties. The existing seed delivery varieties >( 200 days) of pigeonpea are grown. These are highly system of pigeonpea constrains the technology adoption. photoperiod-sensitive and take about 40 weeks to mature and Incorporation of preferred traits in the pigeonpea crop it exposes them to terminal drought stress at lower latitudes improvement programs will foster adoption. There is, therefore, and to frosts at higher latitudes. Almost every year the crop is no option but to concentrate on increasing the yield potential damaged by frost leading to lower yields and poor quality seeds. of pigeonpea by evolving such varieties of pigeonpea that are There is need to identify sources of tolerance/ resistance for high yielding and resistant to drought conditions, pests and this constraint and design appropriate breeding strategies to diseases and are of short duration with bigger sized grains, develop suitable varieties. brighter yellow coloured dhal and higher recovery percentage accompanied by less wastage. Incorporation of these preferred Development of super-early genotypes (90-100days maturity) traits would not only foster adoption at a faster rate but would for different cropping systems: Photo-and thermo-sensitivity of also increase their marketability.

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3. Lentil breeders to effectively go for the transfer of targeted genes for Lentil (Lens culinarisMedikus), or masoor, is one of the most resistance to different diseases and pests and incorporation of nutritious amongst cool season legumes, grown throughout traits being controlled by many genes (Chamarthi et al. 2011). the northern and central India for grains, which are used as dal The recent efforts on decoding of lentil genome will definitely (whole or dehulled) and in various other preparations. Lentil help in development of more robust genomic resources for seeds contain 25% protein, 0.7% fat, 2.1% mineral, 0.7% fibre practical breeding leading to varieties release. and 59% carbohydrate. It is rich in phosphorus, calcium, iron, zinc and carotene. Due to presence of more protein, calcium Early maturing varieties for rice fallow areas: A substantial area and phosphorus it is preferred fodder for animals compared to of lentil is sown under late sown condition in rice-fallowfields of wheat straw (Gupta etal. 2013). In India, red cotyledon lentil Indo-Gangetic plains. Early maturing varieties possessing high seeds are more preferred over yellow and green cotyledons biomass and tolerance to high temperature at reproductive seeds while in Canada, Syria and Turkey yellow or green stage are required. Varieties should have resistance to cotyledon seeds are preferred. diseases like stemphylium blight, rust and wilt; tolerance to low temperature at vegetative stage and high temperature at During the past few years, world production of lentil has reproductive stage, and terminal soil moisture stress. The rice increased from 2.76 MT to 3.60 MT. In India, lentil was varieties should be early maturing and have less re-growth; and cultivated on 1.42 m ha area in 2012-13 with a production of lentil varieties should have herbicide tolerance. 1.13 MT (DoAC 2015). In the last two decades, the area under this crop has increased by 28% and production by 24% with a Nutritionally dense Varieties for culinary and export purpose: productivity increase of 6%. Lentil is mainly cultivated in Uttar Accelerated productivity gains are required for enhancing total Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh, Chhattisgarh, Jharkhand, Bihar production of protein, by enhanced yield and increasing seed and West Bengal. It is generally grown as rainfed crop during protein content. Systematic bio-fortification research has to be rabi season after rice, maize, pearl millet orkharif fallow. It given top priority to enhance availability of minerals like Fe and is also grown as intercrop with barley, linseed, mustard and Zn (Gupta et al. 2013). Ample scope exists for development of occasionally with autumn planted sugarcane. In north-eastern extra-large seeded lentil varieties for so that farmers can get parts of the country, lentil is also cultivated as sequentialcrop more money from per unit area of cultivation. The extra-large after rice, where seeds of lentil are broadcast in the standing seed are already being utilized for preparation of snacks. crop of rice just before its harvest. Productivity of lentil is also limited by several biotic stresses such as diseases and pests Restructuring existing plant type: There is need to reduce cost and weeds (Gupta 2014; Kumar et al. 2013), hence breeding of cultivation. Accordingly, need is being felt to understand strategies need to include development of varieties with vegetative and reproductive components to develop the multiple resistances. physiologically efficient plant types so that more solar light interception can be ensured to have proper partitioning of 3.1 Strategies to enhance production and productivity photo-synthates. Lentil varieties amenable for mechanized Lentil is mainly grown under harsh environmental conditions, harvesting can provide a viable option to the farmers to reduce and realization of yield potential depends on the stored cost of cultivation. Hence tall, erect, non-lodging and non- moisture from the previous rainy season and rainfall during shattering varieties will be suitable. crop growth. There is an urgent need to develop climate smart varieties for rainfed conditions and suitable for late sown areas. Climate smart varieties: Lentil production is limited by lack of Some of the strategies to enhance production and yield of lentil proper soil moisture and warm temperatures in major lentil are enumerated below. growing areas. Little progress has been made in development of drought tolerant varieties ensuring increased water use Germplasm enhancement and pre-breeding: The recent efficiency.Genotypic differences for waterlogging have been approach on hybridization of diverse genotypes from different reported in literature. Genotypes like, ILL 5845, ILL 6451, ILL agro-climatic zones of India and utilization of exotic lines in 6788 and ILL 6793 possess relative tolerance to salinity. Recent hybridization has also helped in broadening the genetic base efforts have resulted in identification of heat tolerance in lentil. and several good varieties have been developed both in small- There is need to develop phosphorus acquisition efficient and large-seeded background. Wide hybridization involving lentil varieties those can extract phosphorus even when soil closely related species is yet to be explored for germplasm phosphorus status is low. Efforts needed to combine tolerance enhancement. Systematic pre-breeding efforts are being made against different stresses, so that lentil varieties resilient to through IIPR and ICARDA collaborations, and are likely to climate change can be developed. result in identification of new sources of resistance/tolerance to diseases, insect pests, nematodes and post emergence There is need to have seed multiplication rolling plan to achieve herbicides. The power of genomic resources would enable required seed replacement rate. Results of 6000 technology

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demonstrations have indicated vast yield gaps which exist importance, quality traits, and resistant sources against biotic between realizable and realized potential in terms of productivity and abiotic stresses is pre-requisite for any crop improvement enhancement. Systematic transfer of available technologies have programs. Wild relatives of Vigna i.e., V. radiata var.sublobata potential to enhance lentil yield by at least 20-25%. and V. mungo var. silvestris have resistance to MYMV and bruchids. The gene introgression derivatives have potential for 4. Mungbean (Green gram) yield contributing traits and disease resistance. These derivatives Green gram or mungbean (Vignaradiata L. Wilczek) is an facilitate further genetic enhancement in mungbean. During important short duration grain legume which can be grown recent past, wide hybridization has resulted in development of in varying environmental conditions, during all three crop several high yielding varieties of mungbean and these are being seasons viz., kharif, rabi and spring/summer in different grown by farmers in different parts of the country. parts of the country, as sole or intercrop for grain and green manure. The major portion is utilized in making dal, curries, Climate resilient varieties: Mungbean is known to have good soup, sweets and snacks. The germinated seeds have high tolerance to high temperature. Accordingly, its cultivation during nutritional value compared with asparagus or mushroom. spring and hot summer of northern and north-eastern parts of There is an increase in the thiamine, niacin and ascorbic acid the country is now reality. Development of photo- and thermo- concentrationwith sprouting..Mungbeanhas easily digestible insensitive varieties will help in developing variety for different protein. The mungbean seeds contain approximately 25-28% seasons and agro-ecologies, and for non-traditional regions and protein, 1.0-1.5% oil, 3.5–4.5% fiber, 4.5–5.5% ash and 62–65% seasons. This will also help in large scale seed production of high carbohydrates on dry weight basis. The concentration of sulphur yielding varieties as per demand. containing amino acid methionine and cystine are low. Lysine values are comparatively high, hence the protein of mungbean Biotic stress resistance: Large numbers of viruses, fungal and is an excellent complement to rice in terms of balanced human bacterial diseases are known to damage mungbean crop at nutrition.Mungbean seeds also contain isoflavons(Narasinga different stages of crop growth and during storage. Pyramiding Rao, 2002), and isoflavons content of pulses has been reported of genes for resistant to major insect pests (thrips, jassids and to increase after germination (Sharma 1981), and hence pod borer) and diseases (yellow mosaic virus, anthracnose, consumption of germinated pulses is preferred by many people. powdery mildew, Cercospora leaf spot, etc.) for which high level of resistance is not available in cultivated germplasm, Mungbean is grown throughout Asia, Australia, West Indies, and identification of donors from diverse germplasm is of South and North America, Tropical and subtropical Africa. paramount importance. Pyramiding of useful genes to develop However, India alone accounts for 65% of the world acreage multiple stress resistant varieties is needed through deployment and 54% of the world production. During 2012-13, 1.19 MT of of molecular markers in breeding programs. Similarly, mungbean was produced from 2.71 m ha area distributed over incorporation of bruchids resistance will help in minimizing different seasons. Rajasthan, Andhra Pradesh, Maharashtra, post-harvest losses during storage. Odisha, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Punjab, Tamil Nadu, Karnataka, Gujarat etc. are major mungbean producing states.Mungbean Short duration varieties for crop diversification: Presentlyseveral is grown mostly during rainy season, however development of varieties maturing in 60-65 days are available for large scale short duration and disease resistant varieties opened doors for adoption. However, most of these do not have distinct vegetative its cultivation during spring/summer season (Chaturvedi and and reproductive phase so that these can fit well in narrow Asthana 1999) in almost all parts of country and during rabi windows of cereal- cereal cropping system. The indeterminate season (rice fallows) in peninsular India. nature of present day varieties do not allow single harvest, and rains at physiological maturity lead to reversal of reproductive 4.1 Strategies for increasing production and productivity to vegetative phase. The incorporation of seed dormancy or Among various pulse crops grown in India, mungbean offers good pre-harvest sprouting will help in minimizing damage by rains potential for bringing additional area and enhancing production during crop maturity. There is further need to reduce maturity and productivity, as varieties with varying maturity groups exist duration at least by another 8-10 days to fit mungbean varieties to meet the needs of different cropping systems. Recently, the for sustainability of wheat-rice dominated cropping system. availability of draft genome sequence of mungbean has opened Reduction in maturity duration will also reduce water requirement doors for development of genomic resources for utilization in to the crop ensuring more profit to summer mungbean growers. crop breeding(Nadarajan and Chaturvedi 2010). The following Similarly additional area of 2.7 m ha under mungbeanis possible research strategies are being suggested to enhance production in southern and coastal India during rabi season under rice-rice and productivity of mungbean in India. cropping system. Inclusion of mungbean in between rice and wheat and rice-rice cropping systems will provide for long term Germplasm enhancement and pre-breeding: Systematic sustainability and help in protecting the environment from the identification of donors possessing traits of economic risk associated with mono-cropping and high input agriculture.

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Restructuring plant type: Most of the mungbean varieties are of short duration and diseases (powdery mildew and yellow largely photo- and thermo-sensitive, have indeterminate growth mosaic virus) resistant varieties led its cultivation during spring/ habit, low harvest index and low grain yield. Mungbean has summer season in almost all parts of country and during rabi to fit in gaps in high input cereal– cereal dominated cropping season (in rice fallows) in peninsular India. Since the crop is systems, to remain a commercially competitive crop. There is highly photo-thermo-sensitive, due care is required during seed need to restructure existing plant types so that future varieties supply. with determinate growth habit, photo- and thermo-insensitivity, early maturity, high harvest index and high yield (>2.0 tones 5.1 Strategies for increasing production and productivity ha-1) and resistant to lodging can be released for large scale Germplasm enhancement and pre-breeding: Narrow genetic cultivation. Good seedling vigour with a clear-cut distinction base of the present day cultivars as indicated by pedigree between vegetative and reproductive phases will be essential analysis of released cultivars in urdbean indicate that a fewer components of the restructured plant types. number of parents with high degree of relatedness were repeatedly used in crossing program resulting in low yield gains Results of the front-line demonstrations have clearly indicated in new varieties. This clearly indicates the requirement for the scope for enhancing yields at farmers’ fields following diverse germplasm lines for development of biotic and abiotic systematic technology transfer particularly in spring/summer stresses resistant/tolerant varieties(Chaturvedi 2009). The wide season. Since the crop fits well in small window after harvest hybridization involving wildVigna species is needed to broaden of rabi crop (such as wheat and rabi maize) and kharif cereals the genetic base so that vulnerability to diseases, insect pests (such as rice and sorghum) in irrigated conditions, mungbean and abiotic stresses can be minimized. cultivation will help in sustaining productivity of the cereal based cropping systems in different parts of the country. Short-duration varieties for sustainability of cereal-based cropping system: The expansion of cereal –cereal rotation poses 5. Urdbean(Black gram) a serious threat to the sustainability of production system as Urdbean[Vignamungo (L.) Hepper] or black gram is one of the indicated by a decline in total factor productivity in high input most important cultivated pulse crops of the ‘Vigna’ group. It agriculture of Haryana, Punjab and western Uttar Pradesh(IIPR is cultivated since prehistoric period in India and considered Vision 2050). Being a short duration and nitrogen fixing crop, to be originated from Vignasilvestris. Archeological studies urdbean fits well in multiple cropping systems and can provide have shown that urdbean was cultivated in the country as far desired sustainability to cereal based cropping systems. back as 2200 B.C. It is a short day photo-and thermos-sensitive Considerable scope exists to bring additional area under urdbean crop. However, completely photoperiod insensitive to highly through inclusion of short duration urdbean varieties between sensitivegenotypes are known. two cereal crops in many parts of the country where irrigation facilities are available. There is further scope for increasing area, Major portion of urdbeanis utilized in making dal, for curries, hence the need to develop short duration and high yielding soup, sweets and snacks. In South India, the most popular Idli varieties with better biomass for spring/summer or rabi seasons. and dosa are prepared using mixed proportions of rice and urdbean. The food values of urdbean lie in its high and easily Varieties with multiple diseases resistance: Crop breeding has digestible protein. Urdbean seeds are known to contain high contributed significantly in developing varieties with desired protein (25-28%), oil (1.0 -1.5%), fibre (3.5 – 4.5%), ash (4.5 – traits including disease pest resistance. Varieties developed 5.5%) and carbohydrates (62 – 65%) on dry weight basis. Amino in past with resistance to single stress may not be a viable acid analysis indicates that as with most grain legume crops, the solution as new diseases and pests are emerging and incidence concentrations of sulphur containing amino acid (methionine of diseases and insect pests is often unpredictable. Therefore and cystine) are small. varieties having resistance to more than one stress provide greater insurance and stability of crop production. Combining The area, production and productivity of urdbean has increased resistance to major diseases in desirable background will help in from 1.87 m ha in 1971–72 to 3.11 m ha during 2012-13 with consolidating the yield level and production. production level of 1.90 MT. This increase in production has been due to additional area brought under the crop as well as Development of efficient plant type:The plant type of the productivity gains (from 0.5 to 1.3 t/ha). Summer cultivation in present day varieties of urdbean is largely photo- and thermo- northern India and winter cultivation in rice fallows in southern sensitive, indeterminate growth habit,with low harvest index and coastal areas of the country also added to additional and poor grain yield. An efficient plant type would be photo- acreage. In India, Madhya Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh, Andhra thermo-insensitive, with determinate growth, early maturing, Pradesh, Maharashtra, Rajasthan, Odisha, Bihar, Karnataka and high yielding (>2000 kg ha-1) with high harvest index. Good West Bengal are major urdbean producing states. Urdbean seedling vigourwith a clear cut distinction between vegetative is grown mostly during rainy season, however, development and reproductive phages will be essential components. At the

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same time, insulation of varieties against major diseases and to the development and growth of malignant tumors. Grains insect pests will be required (Gupta, 2014). also contain anti-nutritional factors and consumption in large quantity leads to flatulence. Developing herbicide tolerant varieties: Since urdbean is known to have slow initial growth, weeds pose serious threat to 6.1 Strategies for increasing production and productivity urdbean cultivation during kharif season and under rice-fallow Restructuring plant types for lodging resistance and situations. Hence, there is need to incorporate high seedling mechanical harvest: The traditional tall varieties tend to lodge vigour and post emergence herbicide tolerance in urdbean leading to yield penalty. A plant type with strong and thick varieties. A systematic germplasm and wild relatives should stem can keep plant standing and erect till maturity and will be screened to identify sources of herbicide tolerance and help in increasing the yield potential. The ‘tendril’ trait needs introgress in adapted varieties. to be combined with high biomass so that plant populations per unit area can be increased besides having varieties with Limited work has been done to enhance urdbean production lodging resistance. The non-lodging types will also be suitable in India during last two decades. Systematic research led to for mechanical harvesting. development of several high yielding varieties for cultivation in coastal areas of Andhra Pradesh that helped in enhancing Dual purpose, short duration varieties: The demand for production of urdbean in the 1990s. However, the productivity animal feeds and fodder will increase in the years to come gains could not be realized due to slow seed replacement rate and, therefore, a highly productive crop like field pea can of improved varieties. There is urgent need to develop climate play an important role to meet out the demand. Accordingly, smart varieties and matching crop production technologies. development of dual purpose feed-forage varieties possessing high biomass and early maturity would be priority for field 6. Fieldpea (Dry pea) pea breeders. Thus, the future needs of pea breeding will be Field pea (Pisumsativum L.) is one of the important rabi pulse develop dwarf, non-lodging and disease resistant varieties. crops grown in India that serve as a source for food, feed and Early maturing varieties will allow cultivation of late sown vegetable. There are two distinct types of peas grown in India wheat (if harvested for green immature pods) or spring season viz., (i) vegetable type characterized by sweet grains when mungbean and urdbean. There is ample scope of bringing more green and become wrinkled on drying, and (ii) dry grain type area under extra-early maturing field pea varieties in northern that generally has white and round seeds. Often pea flour is India.Transfer of available technology can bridge the vast gaps mixed with chickpea flour to prepare varying types of snacks. which exist between realizable and realized potential in terms of The cultivation of grain type is confined to northern and central productivity enhancement. However, paradigm shift is required parts of the country, whereas vegetable types are also grown in policies to bring additional under this crop. in cooler parts of southern India. Recently, breeders have also developed intermediate type, green and round seeded or dual 7. Use of Genomic resources and approaches in developing purpose varieties with high yield potential. improved varieties Rapid advancements in development of genomic resources In India, fieldpea is grown on about 0.76 m ha areas with an have made it possible to use genomics-assisted breeding in annual production of 0.84 MT showing productivity of >1.1 t/ legumes improvement, especiallyfor resistance abiotic and ha during 2012-13. Crop is largely cultivated in Uttar Pradesh, biotic stresses. Significant progress in developing legume Madhya Pradesh, Bihar, Maharashtra, Haryana and Rajasthan. genomic resources has taken place in the last decade. Its cultivation is also confined to the rainfed areas and marginal This has been made possible due to financial support and and sub-marginal lands with poor soil fertility, however, with the coordinated efforts of several international (Bill & Melinda development of input responsive dwarf type varieties farmers Gates Foundation, CGIAR Research Programs, National Science often irrigate crop to achieve higher yields in central and Foundation – USA, American Peanut Council, etc.) and national northern India. Usually tall type varieties without tendrils are (Indian Council for Agricultural Organization (ICAR), Department preferred for rainfed conditions. of Biotechnology, Department of Science & Technology, and Ministry of Agriculture, Government of India) level Fieldpea grains are rich in protein (20%), essential amino acids organizations. This strong financial support and efficient team and minerals important those are important for human health. work resulted in developing a huge cache of genomic resources Pea contains 4 mg pro-vitamin A, 300 mg vitamin C, 3 mg B1, such as molecular markers, genetic and molecular maps, and 1.5 mg B2 and 1.2 mg pantothenic acid per 1000 g fresh seed quantitative trait loci (QTL) for important agronomic characters, weight. Grains also contain 1.1% fat, 2.2% minerals, 4.5% and most importantly initiating the marker-assisted breeding. fibre and 56.5% carbohydrate. Green pea and the immature Additionally, whole genome sequencing of some legume crops pods of pea have high level of active lipotropic anti-sclerotic has been completed (pigeonpea and chickpea) and sequencing substances--choline and inositol. Choline deficiency may lead efforts are underway in others (ex. Groundnut, lentil, etc.). The

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latest advances in the field of genomic resources are available Ltd, Australia were successful in developing DArT arrays with on web-based platforms like: (i) International Chickpea Genetics 15,360 features for different legume crops. Both SNPs and DArT and Genomics Consortium (http:// www.icrisat.org/gt-bt/ systems enables the researchers to analyse genomes without ICGGC/home.html) (ii) International Peanut Genome Initiative prior knowledge of DNA sequence. (http:// www.peanutbioscience.com) and (iii) International Initiative on Pigeonpea Genomics (http:// www.icrisat.org/gt-bt/ Transcriptome and genome sequencing: Prior to the availability iipg/home.html). of low-cost next generation sequencing (NGS) technologies for genome sequencing, Sanger sequencing technology 7.1 Genomic Resources was used for transcriptome sequencing to access genes in Molecular makers:Among the different DNA-based marker many legume crops. Utilizing transcriptome sequencing systems available, ‘microsatellites’ or ‘simple sequence repeats technologies about 20162EST were identified in chickpea [SSRs]’ are markers of choice, especially for plant breeding and 9888 EST in pigeonpea (Varshney et al 2009; Raju et applications. SSRs amplify the unique sequences flanking the al 2010). Several research groups have used transcriptome repeat units and polymorphism is detected by the differences in sequencing techniques to identify several thousand additional number of repeat units amplified. Co-dominant inheritance and ESTs in different legumes. Furthermore, more than 250,000 multi-allelic nature of these markers makes them suitable for Sanger ESTs are available for groundnut in the public domain genotyping and detection of allelic variants. Another advantage (http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/sites/gquery, as of 2012). with these markers is that SSRs developed for a particular Though transcriptome sequencing contributed significantly, species can also be used in related species (cross species utility). genome sequencing is the ultimate approach to identify all SSR development is largely based on size-selected DNA libraries, the possible genes in a crop species. Genome sequencing mining of expressed sequence tags (ESTs) or bacterial artificial helps in understanding the genome structure, identifies genes chromosome (BAC)-end sequences (BESs). As per Varshney et and provides tools for gene mapping/isolation and molecular al (2013) about 3000-6000 SSR markers are available in three breeding. Availability of low-cost NGS technologies has made legume crops (chickpea, pigeonpea and groundnut). it feasible to sequence legume crops. Among the important grain legumes, pigeonpea, chickpea, mung bean (Vignaradiata) ‘Single nucleotide polymorphisms [SNPs]’ are another class of and common bean (Phaseolus vulgaris) genomes have been markers that indicate single nucleotide (A, T, C, or G) difference sequenced and their draft genomes have been published. The in gene/genome between member species. In addition to their genome size of the sequenced legumes is as follows: (i) desi higher abundance and amenability to high-throughput, SNPs chickpea – ~520 megabase (MB); kabuli chickpea – ~740 MB (ii) are the most common type of nucleotide variations either in pigeonpea - ~833MB with 48,680 genes (iii) mung bean – ~548 plants or humans. SNPs can be found either with in a gene MB with about 22, 427 genes (iv) common bean – 587 MB with or outside. Although they may not be associated with any 27,197 protein-coding genes. character/trait, but they certainly act as marker for that trait. In legumes SNPs have been identified using ‘Sanger ESTs’, allele- Genetic maps and QTLs: Development of genetic maps has specific sequencing of candidate genes, tentative orthologous helped in identification of molecular markers specific for genes (TOGs) developed based sequence similarity and next several agronomically important characters. Both inter- and generation sequencing (NGS) technologies (454/FLX or Illumina/ intra-specific mapping populations have been developed Solexa). NGS has been utilized in identifying about 26, 082 and and these have been used to generate genetic maps in 12,141 potential SNPs in chickpea and pigeonpea respectively different legume crops. In chickpea, several workers (Gujaria (Hiremath et al 2011; Dubey et al 2011). Furthermore, 8486 et al 2011, Thudi et al 2011 and Choudhary et al 2011) SNPs were identified in groundnut using 454/FLX-sequencing have utilized a mapping population developed from a cross technology (Varshney et al 2013). Genome sequencing efforts between ICC 4958 x PI 489777. Genetic maps integrated with of mung bean has additionally yielded several thousands of several thousand markers of different types (SSRs, DArT and potential SNPs and SSRs. Appropriate SNP genotyping platforms genic molecular markers [GMMs) have been developed using (Illumina GoldenGate Assay, Illumina GoldenGate SNP array, this population. Additionally, Hiremath et al (2012) have VeraCode Assay, and KASPar assay) have been developed for developed a genetic map including 625 ‘Chickpea KASpar different legume crops. Assay Markers (CKAMs)’, 314 TOG-SNPs, and 389 published marker loci. Furthermore, molecular markers associated ‘Diversity array technology [DArT]’ is microarray-based with several important traits have also been identified like hybridization procedure that is used to detect presence versus resistance to Fusarium wilt/rust, tolerance to salinity, seed absence of a particular sequence or fragment in genomic traits and grain yield in chickpea. representations. It is mainly used in diversity studies, for detecting genome introgressions from other species and In case of pigeonpea, the development of genetic maps has saturating linkage maps. Joint efforts of ICRISAT with DArT Pvt lagged behind compared to others due to lack of sufficient

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number of DNA markers and less or limited genetic variability. Several dense molecular map have been developed using But, due to the development of low cost-NGS platforms different type of markers in few other legumes including large scale SSR and SNP markers have been developed. The blackgram (Vignamungo; Gupta et al 2008), cowpea availability of these markers facilitated the development of (Vignaunguiculata; Ouedraogo et al 2002), faba bean (Viciafaba; several inter- [ICP 28 (C. cajan) x ICPW 94 (C. scarabaeoides)] Roman et al 2002), adzuki bean (Vignaangularis; Han et al 2005) and intra-specific genetic maps (TTB 7 x ICP 7035; ICPB 2049 and lentil (Lens culinaris; Tullu et al 2008). An interesting study x ICPL 99050; and ICPA 2043 x ICPR 2671). This inter-specific by Fedoruk et al (2013) reportedQTLs for seed diameter, and genetic map consists of 239 SSR markers covering a distance of plumpi-ness in lentil. Further, the authors developed a genetic ~930 cM. Additionally, this inter-specific mapping population map (of 697cM) integrating ~560 markers in seven linkage was used for developing DArT-based maternal- and paternal groups. QTLs identified in several legumes are presented in specific genetic maps. Availability of genetic maps with Table 1. extensive phenotypic data has helped in identifying of QTLs/ markers for important traits like SMD and fertility restoration in Genomics-assisted breeding (GAB): Integrating genomic tools pigeonpea. with conventional breeding approaches for improvement of trait of importance is often referred to as ‘GAB’. The term ‘GAB’ Several genetic maps saturated mostly with SSR markers have includes proteomics and transcriptomics along with genomics. been developed in groundnut and some of these are trait- The development of efficient ‘NGS’ platforms and high- specific (drought tolerance related traits and foliar diseases). throughput genotyping technologies has led to better prediction These individual maps have been used in developing a of phenotype of progenies in breeding programs. Based on consensus map for drought traits and foliar diseases separately these and other emerging technologies several breeding with 293 and 225 SSR loci respectively. These consensus approaches like ‘Marker-Assisted Backcrossing (MABC)’, maps coupled with other dense genetic maps with uniformly ‘Marker-Assisted Recurrent Selection (MARS)’, ‘Genome-Wide distributed markers are very valuable resources for selection, Selection/Genome Selection (GWS/GS)’, and ‘Advanced Back- diversity analysis and to develop other genetic maps. These Cross QTL (AB-QTL)’ have been advocated (Varshney et al 2013). efforts have resulted in identification of several epistatic QTLs These approaches are briefly described below with examples. for drought tolerance related traits. Similarly, QTL analysis based on phenotyping and genotyping data of two different MABC involves the use of molecular markers in introgression recombinant inbred line (RIL) populations has resulted in of a trait of importance from ‘donor’ parent into a ‘recurrent’ identification of 28 QTLs for late leaf spot (LLS) and 13 QTLs for parent, usually an elite or leading variety/cultivar. This approach rust. Further, a major QTL for rust (82.96 PV) and LLS (62.34 PV) leads to developing a cultivar/line with the whole genome of have been reported and their associated markers validated. recurrent parent but containing the major gene/QTL for the trait Additionally, QTLs for protein content, oil content, oleic and of interest. The only limitation with this approach is that it can linoleic acid, and tomato spotted wilt virus have also been used for transfer of limited number of loci including transgenes identified. These genomic resources complement the groundnut from donor to recurrent parent. MABC can also be used to breeding efforts significantly by increasing the efficiency and develop near-isogenic lines or chromosome substitution lines reducing the time/labour. (CSSLs), which could be used in genetic analysis of QTLs. MABC has already been used in developing an improved groundnut A backcross population (BC1)based-molecular map (Florida map) variety ‘Tifguard High O/L’ containing DNA fragment carrying was developed in common bean by Vallejos et al (1992). This root-knot nematode resistance. Additionally, several efforts mapping population was also used to map a QTL for bacterial utilizing MABC have been initiated in groundnut (leaf rust QTL blight resistance. This map consisted of 294 molecular markers introgression) and chickpea (Fusarium wilt, Ascochyta blight along with pigmentation gene ‘P’. An F2-population derived by resistance and drought tolerance). crossing parents of two different gene pools (‘Middle American’ and ‘Andean’) was used to develop ‘Davis map'. ‘Davis’ and ‘CIAT’ MARSis routinely used in cross-pollinated crops, using markers maps were utilized to localize anthracnose resistance genes and for selection, can increase its efficiency. First, the QTLs are for QTL analysis of tannin content respectively. The ‘CIAT’ map identified in the breeding population and thereafter lines has also mapped several SSR and SNP markers. Additionally, carrying superior alleles are crossed to introgress major alleles several RILs have been developed in common bean. Further, a in to one genetic background. These improved lines are further saturated and integrated (physical and genetic) common bean evaluated phenotypically and best lines selected for multi- genetic map using BAC-derived microsatellite markers has been location testing. The advantage with MARS is that it helps to developed by Córdoba et al (2010). Yuste-Lisbona et al (2014) pyramid several minor and major QTLs, genetic gain is higher in have identified QTLs for various key pod traits which could MARS compared to MABC. MARS is mostly employed by several provide opportunities for bean breeding by improving efficiency, multinational corporations (maize and soybean) and few public selection for improved pod traits. sector institutes (wheat, sorghum, rice and chickpea).

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GS/GWS identifies better performing lines with higher breeding sown conditions of Madhya is already becoming popular in value using genome-wide marker profile data. Since the Eastern India. This variety and other heat tolerant varieties breeding values are estimated based on genome-wide marker can be promoted along with suitable sowing equipment and profile data they are referred to as genomic-estimated breeding technologies for ensuring better crop establishment and plant values (GEBVs). GS/GWS employs two types of populations: (i) stand. . Similarly, early maturing varieties of lentil like Pant L training population and (ii) candidate population. Phenotyping 6, HUL 57, DPL 62, Moitree etc. are getting popularity among and genotyping data generated are used for estimating GEBVs of farmers of eastern Uttar Pradesh and Bihar as these varieties the lines. Similarly GEBVs for progenies of candidate population are suitable for late sown and rice fallow conditions. Recently, are estimated and superior lines selected for making crosses. In short duration field pea varieties viz., Vikas and Prakash are this way progenies can be selected based on higher GEBVs and being accepted by the framers of North East Hill states of India these can further be utilized in next breeding cycle or can be as farmers are getting more price when they sale immature field tested and advanced for multi-locations trials. Significant pods in market. positive attributes of GS/GWS include: (i) phenotyping frequency is reduced leading to an overall decrease in duration b. Promoting early-maturing, drought and heat tolerant and costs (ii) there is no need for QTL mapping (iii) length and disease resistant varieties for central and southern of selection cycle is reduced. But, availability of appropriate India:Drought and heat stresses during the reproductive phase statistical model to estimate GEBV with higher precision is and with increasing severity towards the end of the crop season very critical. Several models including ‘Best Linear Unbiased are the major abiotic stresses of chickpea and other rabi pulses Prediction (BLUP)’, ‘Bayesian Methods (Bayes B)’, and ‘Weighed as these crops are generally grown rainfed (68%) on residual soil Bayesian Shrinkage Regression (wBSR)’ are available to estimate moisture and experiences progressively receding soil moisture GEBVs. Though GS/GWS is not widely used in legumes presently conditions and increasing atmospheric temperatures towards but, it has the potential to be applied in the future. end of the crop season. Early maturity is an important trait for escaping these terminal stresses. In addition, we need cultivars IV. Creatingthe PulsesRevolution in India with enhanced tolerances to these stresses. For example, some Pulsesare playing a vital role in ensuring the food and nutritional of the promising varieties of chickpea possessing these traits security in India. However, there is a huge gap in supply and include JG 11, JG 130, JAKI 9218, KAK 2 and Vihar. The adoption demand of many of the pulse crops. There is a huge potential of such varieties needs to be enhanced in central and southern for substantially enhancing production of pulses in India, India. . Farmers of central India usually have preference for primarily by increasing productivity and to some extent large seeded lentil varieties. Considering the demand several increasing area. A large gap exists between the average yields early maturing varieties having large seeds were released for received by farmers and the yields obtained in research stations cultivation. Out of these varieties, DPL 62, JL 3, IPL 316 and and well managed farmers’ fields. The adoption of high yielding IPL 526 are getting popularity in Bundelkhand tracts of Uttar cultivars/hybrids and improved crop management practices Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh. Government of Karnataka has can increase the yield substantially. There is also a scope of also taken initiative to promote early maturing lentil varieties enhancing area in the rice-fallows of eastern India (and possibly in state. Similarly, early maturing fieldpea varieties like Adarsh, other rice-fallow areas, and also in the hilly areas where some DDR 23, Ambika, Vikas, Indra, Shikha and Prakash are very of the improved extra- short and short-duration varieties. popular and have helped in enhancing fieldpea productivity (1100 kg ha-1) in India. During 2013, a early maturing green Some of the interventions that can bring a pulses revolution in seeded variety ‘IPFD 10-12’has been released for cultivation in India are listed below: central India. This variety has potential to replace some of the a. Promoting cultivation of early maturing, heat tolerant area of vegetable type pea. In southern India, fieldpea is a less varieties for expanding rabi pulses (chickpea, lentil, field known crop but have vast potential during kharif season. For pea) cultivation in rice-fallows of eastern India:Vast areas of example, many farmers in adjoining of Dharwad in Karantaka rice-fallows (about 10 million ha) available in eastern India have already started cultivation of pea during kharif season. (Jharkhand, Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Odisha and West Bengal) offer These varieties offer ample scope in central and southern India. opportunities for expanding area under rabi pulses. The earlier experiments clearly demonstrated that chickpea, lentil and field c. Extra-short and short-duration pigeonpea in high elevation pea are suitable pulse crops for rice-fallows, provided suitable and rice-fallow cropping system:Early duration pigeonpea varieties and technologies for crop establishment in rainfed varieties have a potential to grow in new niches considering rice-fallows are available. The most important traits required its photo and thermo insensitivity. It can be grown in diverse in the varieties for rice-fallows include early growth vigor, range of latitudes (30° N) and altitudes (1250 msl) like in early to extra-early maturity, and tolerance to reproductive Uttarakhand, Rajasthan, Odisha and Punjab. For instance, ICPL stage heat stress. For example, an early maturing and heat 88039, a short duration (140-150 days) pigeonpea variety, tolerant chickpea variety JG 14 (ICCV 92944) released for late can enhance pigeonpea production in the states of Rajasthan,

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Uttarakhand and Odisha. This variety provides an opportunity institutions (Department of Agriculture, State Agriculture to increase crop intensity by growing a post-rainy season crop Universities, public and private organizations, and farmer after harvesting pigeonpea. Since its cultivation does not require organizations) can expand commercial hybrids substantially. any additional inputs and the grains have good market value, its adoption by the farmers will be quick. Similarly,super-early lines e. Promotion of pulses in intercropping systems and non- (ICPL 11300, ICPL 11285 and ICPL 20325) maturing in 90 days traditional areas:Pulse crops are grown as intercrops in many have potential to be adaptive and productive in the rice-fallow parts of the country during all three crop seasons (rabi, cropping system and rainfed hilly areas of India. kharif and spring/summer) and forms integral part of rainfed agriculture. Vast potential exists for promotion of pulse crops d. Expanding pigeonpea hybrid production: During the past 5 in intercropping system as an intercrop. For example, chickpea/ decades, pigeonpea productivity in India has remained almost lentil + autumn planted sugarcane in western Uttar Pradesh, stagnant around 700 kg ha-1. In this context, the hybrids can Terai region of Uttar Pradesh, Maharashtra and Karnataka; produce more biomass (more than 50%) and productivity mungbean + long/medium duration pigeonpea in Uttar (more than 30-40%) than varieties. ICRISAT and its partners Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra have developed the hybrid technology in pigeonpea. In the and Gujarat; chickpea/lentil + mustard in Rajasthan, southern past 6 years, several hybrids (ICPH 2671, ICPH 2740, and ICPH Madhya Pradesh and Uttar Pradesh; pigeonpea + soybean; 3762) have shown enhanced productivity and adaptability andpigeonpea + sorghum etc. (see Table below) offers not in Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh, Odisha, Telangana State, only scope to enhanced pulses production but also to ensure Madhya Pradesh, Karnataka and Jharkhand. ICRISAT and partner sustainable agricultural production base.

Table: Details of bringing additional area under pulses Potential crop/cropping systems/Niche Specific area

1 Intercropping

Mungbean with ratooned Sugarcane during spring/ Uttar Pradesh (excluding Bundelkhand parts), summer (irrigated) Bihar, Maharashtra, Andhra Pradesh and Tamil Nadu Mungbeanwithcotton and millets (rainfed uplands)

Andhra Pradesh, Malwa region of Madhya Pigeonpea with soybean, sorghum, cotton, millets and Pradesh, Vidarbha of Maharashtra, North groundnut (rainfed upland) Karnataka, Tamil Nadu

Chickpea as intercrop with barley, mustard, linseed and South East Rajasthan, Punjab, Haryana, Uttar safflower (rainfed) Pradesh, Bihar, Vidharbha region of Maharashtra

Chickpea or lentil with autumn planted sugarcane Maharashtra, Uttar Pradesh, Bihar

Mungbean: sole crop in spring/summer season Western and Central Uttar Pradesh, Haryana, 2. (irrigated) Punjab, Bihar, West Bengal

3. Rice fallow areas

Eastern Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, Orissa, Chickpea Chhattisgarh, West Bengal

Urdbean/ Andhra Pradesh , Tamil Nadu, Orissa, Karnataka Mungbean

Eastern U.P., Bihar, West Bengal, Assam, Lentil Jharkhand

Lentil/fieldpea North-East

3. Urdbean in Kharif fallow of Bundelkhand Uttar Pradesh and Madhya Pradesh

4. Lentil in Diara lands Uttar Pradesh and Bihar

5. Pigeonpea in foot hills of Terrain sloping lands Uttarakhand, North Bihar

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f. Knowledge empowerment of farmers and making seeds References and other inputs available to farmers:There has been slow Anonymous (2013-14) AICRP Report of All India Coordinated adoption of improved cultivars and production technologies Research Project on MULLaRP. Indian Institute of Pulses by farmers. The major reasons include unawareness of Research, Kanpur, India farmers about improved cultivars and technologies or unavailability of seeds and other required inputs. Concerted Asthana AN,Chaturvedi SK (1999). The Pulses. The Hindu: efforts on training and other awareness activities for farmers, Survey of Indian Agriculture. pp. 61-69 strengthening formal and informal seed systems and increasing access to other inputs are needed for enhancing Cabrera C, Lloris F, Giménez R, Olalla M, López MC(2003) adoption of improved cultivars and technologies. Considering Mineral content in legumes and nuts: contribution to the the huge requirement of quality seed of improved varieties, Spanish dietary intake. The Science of the Total Environment and limited interest of private players in the pulses seed 308:1-14 sector, there is need to encourage ‘Seed Village’ concept through involvement of farmers in quality seed production. Chamarthi SK, Kumar A, Vuong TD, Blair MW, Gaur PM, We will also need to develop good linkages between the Nguyen HT,Varshney RK (2011) In:Pratap and Kumar J (eds), formal and informal seed system so that the entire seed Biology and breeding of food legumes. CABI International, system chain can be strengthened. It is also a known fact U.K that many tribal and poor farmers of Jharkhand, Chattisgarh, Assam and North East Hill region usually consume or sell Champagne ET, Wood DF, Juliano BO, Bechtel DB (2004) green immature pods of chickpea and field pea, therefore Therice grain and its gross composition.In: ET Champagne proper training and awareness among farmers need to be (ed), Rice:Chemistry and Technology, 3rd (ed.). AACC, St. created for production of quality seeds, and policy support Paul, MN, pp. 77-107 from government is inevitable. Chaturvedi SK (2002) Pulses: poor man’s meat need fresh fillip. The Hindu: Survey of Indian Agriculture. pp. 63-69

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MarlettJA, McBurney MI, Slavin JL(2002) Position of the Shewry PR (1993) Barley seed proteins. In: AW MacGregor American DieteticAssociation: Health implications of dietary and Bhatty RS(eds), Barley: Chemistry and Technology. AACC, fiber. Journal of the American DieteticAssociation 102(7): St. Paul, MN, pp. 131–197 993–1000 Thudi M, Bohra A, Nayak SN, Varghese N, Shah TM, Nadarajan N,Chaturvedi SK (2010) Genetic options for Penmetsa RV et al (2011) Novel SSRmarkers from BAC-end enhancing productivity of major pulses-retrospect, issues sequences, DArT arrays and a comprehensive genetic map and strategies. Journal of Food Legumes 23(1):1-7 with 1,291 marker loci for chickpea (CicerarietinumL.). PLoS One 6:e27275 Narasinga Rao, B.S. 2002. Pulses and legumes as functional foods. Bulletin of Nutrition foundation of India. 23:1 Tosh SM, Yada S (2010) Dietary fibres in pulse seeds and fractions: Characterization, functional attributes, and Nigam RK,Chaturvedi SK, Vishwadhar, Ahmed R, Masood A applications. Food Res Internl43:450-460 (2004) Training Manual on Pulses Production. Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur Tullu A, Tar’an B, Warkentin T, Vandenberg A (2008) Construction of an intraspecific linkage map and QTL analysis Ouedraogo JT, Gowda BS, Jean M, Close TJ, Ehlers JD et for earliness and plant height in lentil. Crop Sci 48:2254–2264 al (2002) An improved genetic linkage map for cowpea (Vignaunguiculata L.) combining AFLP, RFLP, RAPD, United States Department of Agriculture (2013) USDA biochemical markers, and biological resistance traits. National Nutrient Database for Standard Reference, Release Genome 45:175–188 25 (2009)http://www.ars.usda.gov/SP2UserFiles

Parihar AK, Dixit GP,Chaturvedi SK (2013) Diseases resistance Vallejos CE, Sakiyama NS, Chase CD(1992) Molecular marker- breeding in fieldpea-a review. Progressive Research-an based linkage map ofPhaseolusvulgarisL.Genetics131:733–740 International Journal 8(1): 1-13 Varshney RK, Hiremath PJ, Lekha PT, Kashiwagi J, Balaji Pratap A, Kumar J (2011) Biology and Breeding of Food J, Deokar AA et al (2009) A comprehensive resource of Legumes. CAB international, UK drought-and salinity-responsive ESTs for gene discovery and Pratap A,Sengupta D, Gupta S, Agrawal R,Chaturvedi SK, marker development in chickpea (CicerarietinumL). BMC Nadarajan N (2011)Mung avamUrdkiUnnatKhetiavamUpyog. Genomics 10:523 Indian Institute of Pulses Research, Kanpur, India,pp. 30 Varshney RK, Mohan SM, Gaur PM, Gangarao NVPR, Pandey Raju NL, Gnanesh BN, Lekha P, Jayashree B, Pande S, MK et al (2013)Achievements and prospects of genomics- Hiremath PJ et al (2010)The first setof EST resource for assisted breeding inthree legume crops of thesemi-arid gene discovery and marker development in pigeonpea tropics. Biotechnology Advances 31:1120–1134 (CajanuscajanL. Millsp.). BMCPlantBiol10:45 Yuste-Lisbona F, Gonzalez AM, Capel C, Garcia-Alcazar M, Rao PU, Belavady B (1978) Oligosaccharides in pulses: Capel J, De Ron AM, Santalla M, Lozano R (2014) Genetic Varietal differences and effects of cooking and germination. J variation underlying pod size and color traits of common Agri Food Chem26:316-319 bean depends on quantitative trait loci with epistatic effects. Molecular Breeding, DOI 10.1007/s11032-013-0008-9 Roman B, Torres AM, Rubiales D, CuberoJI,Satovic Z (2002) Mapping of quantitative trait loci controlling broomrape Zuber MS, Darrah LL (1987) Breeding, genetics and seed (OrobanchecrenataForsk.) resistance in faba bean (Viciafaba cornproduction.In: SA Watson and Ramstad PE (eds), Corn: L.). Genome 45:1057–1063 Chemistryand Technology. AACC, St. Paul, MN, pp. 31–51

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Page 32 www.commodityindia.com   Sledge et al 2002 et Sledge Valderrama et al 2004 et Valderrama Tar’an et al 2003 et Tar’an Miklas et al 2006 Miklas et Chowdhery et al 2001, Tar’an et al 2003; Rubeena et al 2001, Tar’an et Chowdhery al 2006 et Millan et al 2003, Cobos et al 2005; al 2003, Cobos et Millan et al 2003 et Rakshit Young et al 1993, Chaitieng et al 2002, Humphry et et al 2002, Humphry al 1993, Chaitieng et Young al 2003 Basak et al 2004 Basak et Cho et al 2004; Iruela et al 2007 al 2004; Iruela et Cho et Boukar et al 2004 et Boukar References Cho et al 2004, Iruela et al 2007; Flandez-Galvez et et al 2007; Flandez-Galvez al 2004, Iruela et Cho et al 2009 al 2003, Anbessa et Schneider et al 2001 Schneider et RFLP STS, RAPD STS, SSR, RFLP STS, SSR, RFLPSTS, al 2010 Saha et SSR, SRAP, RAPDSSR, SRAP, al 2010 Saha et RAPD, SCAR RAPD, RAPD, SCAR; AFLP RAPD, RAPD RAPD, ISSR, SSR, RGARAPD, al 2007 et Radhika AFLP, RFLP AFLP, STS-RGA SSR SCAR Marker Type Marker SSR RAPD PR2 v , QTL AR3 PR1, P v - Ocp 1,Ocp 2 QTL R P QTLs QTL bc-1, bc-2, bc-3 Ra/2, QTL QTL, AR19 QTL, Sfl, Spp, QTL Sfl, Spp, Monogenic foc-4, foc-5 foc-4, Rsg 1 QTL/gene Aluminium toxicity Orobanchecrenata Ascochyta blight Ascochyta Rust resistance Rust Fusarium wilt Fusarium Stemphyliumblight Bean common mosaic Bean common virus Ascochyta blight Ascochyta Ascochyta blight Ascochyta Seed traits Powdery mildew resistance mildew Powdery QTL Yellow Mosaic Virus Yellow (YMV) Fusarium wilt Fusarium Traits Medicagosativa Pisumsativum Phaseolus vulgaris Lens culinaris Cicerarietinum Vignaradiata Vignamungo Vignaunguiculata Strigagesneriodesresistance Scientific Name Scientific Alfalfa Pea Common bean Lentil Chickpea Mungbean Black gram Cowpea Crop Table1. QTLs identified in different cultivated legumes cultivated in different identified QTLs Table1. [email protected], [email protected], at [email protected], be contacted The author can [email protected] [email protected], are personal Views Disclaimer-

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Production and productivity of pulses: Indian perspectives

S.K. Datta, B.B. Singh, Pro-Vice Chancellor and Asst. Director General ICAR, New Delhi

The grain legumes are of tonnes and 789 kg/ha respectively. The area of pulse crops has high value and low input not increased much during the past 60-65 years except in 2010- requiring crops and play vital 11 and 2011-12 it showed an increase of 1.5 to 2.0 m ha. The role in crop diversification. total production of all the pulse crops has remained between 10 The pulse crops occupy a to 13 m tonnes. However, during the past 6 years a significant unique position in Indian increase in total production is observed. agriculture by virtue of their higher protein content (20 to Among the pulse crops, chickpea, pigeonpea, mungbean, black 25%) than cereals and their gram, lentil and field pea are considered as major pulse crops capacity to fix atmospheric as these are widely grown. However, the other pulse crops nitrogen. In the developed including grass pea (lathyrus), moth bean, horse gram, rajmash, Swapan Kumar Datta countries, grain legumes are rice bean and adzuki bean contributes to 2.8 mha area and important indirect source of protein being animal feeds of good about 1.4 m tonnes of production. There average productivity in biological value. However, for many developing countries pulses 2012-13 was 491 kg/ha. constitute the cheap and readily available source of dietary protein.

In India more than a dozen pulse crops are grown, which are integral part of cropping system and are of great significance in sustainability of largely cereal based agriculture. These are grown in pure culture as well as in mixed culture not only with cereals but with oilseeds and other crops. Pulses are important for the nutritional security of the cereal based vegetarian diet of large population. Dry seed (whole or split) are consumed as dahl or used as flour (besan) for various food preparations. The stalks both green and dry are used as fodder. The seed coat and broken cotyledons are used as animal feed.

Production trends In order to ensure self-sufficiency, the pulse requirement in the Globally pulse crops are grown in area of >76 m ha with a country is projected at 27.5 mt by the year 2025. production of about 68 m tonnes. In India, the total pulse area is about 25 mha which produces about 18 m tonnes. The Constraints in pulses production average productivity at the global level is about 800 kg/ha and Detoriating production base: Most of the cultivated areas of India is >750 kg/ha. In 2012-13 the total area, production and have started showing signs of stress with production fatigue average productivity of all pulse crops was 23.3 m ha, 18.1 m and deterioration of soil. An experimental result shows that deficiency of micronutrients, especially sulphur and zinc is widespread among pulse-growing regions. About 50% pulse growing districts having Zn deficiency. These nutrients are important for increasing pulse production in the country. Appropriate measures are required for sustained pulse production by maintaining soil health with diversification, balanced fertilization and use of bio-fertilizers.

Resurgence to insect pest and disease: An array of diseases (wilts, root rots, stem rots, downy mildews, powdery mildews, leaf spots, blights, rusts, mosaics and stunted growth resulting from attack by root knot nematodes) caused by fungi, bacteria, viruses and nematodes adversely affect the yielding potential of

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the pulse crops. However, some of International Nurseries of chickpea and lentil provided by ICRISAT these diseases like Fusarium wilt and ICARDA and of mungbean provided by AVRDC. This has (FW) in chickpea and pigeonpea, helped in the development of new cultivars with improved traits MYMV in mungbean and black like; seed size, early maturity and plant types etc (Singh, 1997). gram are damaging these crops throughout the country. Similarly Among the major pulse crops largest numbers of varieties from the insect-pests like pod-borers recombination breeding have been developed in chickpea (134) damage chickpea and pigeonpea in followed by mungbean (69), pigeon pea (62), black-gram (36), the entire country. field pea (34) and lentil (24).

B B Singh Abiotic stresses: Pulse crops are Inter-specific hybridization: In India the wild species/relatives grown on marginal lands under rainfed agriculture, hence have been used for the genetic enhancement of the cultivated are prone to abiotic stresses. The pulse crops are sensitive varieties of pulse crops. The wide crosses were made to increase to temperature stress especially at full bloom stage and variation beyond parental limits and for developing CMS exposure to high temperature and moisture stresses which system and to transfer gene(s) for biotic and abiotic stresses are responsible to heavy yield reductions. Winter pulses; like and rarely have been used for the improvement of yield traits. chickpea, lentil and fieldpea are often prone to two types The usefulness of wild species/relatives has been now realized of drought i.e., intermittent and terminal. Pigeonpea is very (Singh et al. 2014; Pratap et al. 2014). sensitive to water-logging at seedling stage in all maturity groups (early, medium and late) and to low or high temperature Mutation breeding:Pulse crops have been grown on marginal stress at reproductive stage in medium and late maturity lands which are also poor in the fertility. Therefore, it is possible groups. High sensitivity to photoperiod and temperature is that the genes for higher productivity could have been lost due another major bottleneck achieving the yield potential and to overriding role of natural selection for adaptation. Induced predicting desired harvest index in most of the legumes and mutations have been found useful in creating useful variability particularly in mungbean (Singh and Singh 2011) for yield traits, plant type and resistance to various stresses. So far 52 varieties have been developed through mutation The major economic constraints were: production under breeding in different pulse crops. Most of these have been rainfed situation, low yield and value productivity, higher developed from already released and adapted varieties. In risk in pulses production, low income level from pulses general, gamma-irradiation has ben used and rarely chemical cultivation, low level of technology adoption, susceptibility mutagens have been used. to pests and diseases and large price spreads in case of pulses. In order to increase productivity of pulses it would Transgenic development: Genetic engineering is one of the be essential to develop/evolve high yielding varieties, shift fastest adopted technologies, benefitting 18 million farmers the risk involved in adoption of new technology by covering in 27 countries worldwide. Pulses suffer heavy losses due to pulses under crop insurance scheme. several abiotic and biotic stresses. Efforts have been made to make chickpea and pigeonpea transgenics for Helicoverpa Research achievements resistance using cry1Aabc and cry1Ac or the recent work on Selection of useful germplasm: Selection from germplasm fusion cry genes driven by the pod specific promoter (Ganguly (indigenous and exotic) as well as from land races has played an et al 2014). Besides Helicoverpa resistance, drought tolerance in important role in the development of superior cultivars of pulse chickpea and blackgram using DREB1A and nematode tolerance crops. The improved lines were evaluated for yield, reaction to in pea using RNAi techniques are underway at ICRISAT and JNU, diseases and the best pure line was released for cultivation. This respectively. At present several Indian institutes/University/ practice has been further improved after the establishment of All SAU which include Assam Agricultural Univ, Univ of Calcutta, India Coordinated Pulse Improvement Project (AICPIP) in 1966-67. IIPR, NRCPB, NBRI etc. are actively working for development of transgenic pulses for different traits. Deployment of useful genes for genetic enhancement: Hybridization involving one adapted cultivar of the area/region Genomics enabled improvement: Genomic resources help to and the other parent is the donor for specific trait(s) of interest understand the genetics of traits of interest. It leads to identify like biotic or abiotic stress or quality and/or yield trait has been the markers linked to genes/QTL controlling a trait or a group of used for developing superior varieties and phenotyping of pulse traits of interest. Consequently, genetic manipulation of traits crops (Basu et al. 2014). can be done more precisely and effectively through marker assisted back-cross breeding (MABC); marker assisted recurrent AICPIP made access to genetic resources easy. Some of the selection (MARS) and advanced backcross (AB) breeding (Dutta exotic lines/cultivars were selected by Indian breeders from et al. 2011). Most recently, draft genome sequence has been

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made available in pigeonpea (Singh et al. 2012; Varshney et al. V (2011) Development of genic-SSR markers by deep 2009), chickpea (Varshney et al. 2013) and similar efforts are transcriptome sequencing in pigeonpea (Cajanus cajan (L.). BMC currently underway in lentil. Plant Biol 11:17

NGS helped to accelerate linkage mapping, whole genome Ganguly M, Molla KA, Karmakar S, Datta K, Datta SK (2014) association (WGA) studies (Varshney et al. 2009). Targeting Development of pod borer-resistant transgenic chickpea using a induced local lesions in genomes (TILLING) or deletion-TILLING pod-specific and a constitutive promoter-driven fused cry1Ab/ resources have been developed in several legume species and Ac gene. Theor. Appl. Genet. 127(12):2555-65. doi: 10.1007/ are valuable resources for functional genomic in order to know s00122-014-2397-5 the function of gene(s). Pratap A, Kumar J and Kumar S (2014) Morpho-physiological Strategy for increasing pulses production: In order to achieve evaluation of wild accessions of lentil. Legume Research 37: self-sufficiency in pulses, the projected requirement by the 11-18. year 2025 is estimated at 27.5 Mt. To meet this requirement, the productivity needs to be enhanced to 1000 kg/ha, and Singh DP and Singh BB (2011) Breeding for tolerance to abiotic an additional area of about 3-4 M ha has to be brought stress in mungbean. J. Food Leg., 24: 83-90. under pulses besides reducing post-harvest losses (Ali and Kumar 2005; ICAR Annual Report 2014). This requires a Singh NK, Gupta DK, Jayaswal PK, Mahato AK, Dutta S (2012) proactive strategy from researchers, planners, policy-makers, The first draft of the pigeon pea genome sequence. J. Plant extension workers, market forces and farmers aiming not Biochemistry Biotechnology DOI 10.1007/s13562-011-0088-8 only at boosting the productivity but also the reduction the Singh M, Bisht IS, Kumar S, Dutta M, Bansal KC, Karale M, Sarker production costs. A, Amri A, Kumar S and Datta SK (2014) Global Wild Annual Lens Collection: A Potential Resource for Lentil Genetic Base Conclusion: Compared to cereals, yield breakthrough in pulses Broadening and Yield Enhancement. PLoS One. 2014; 9(9): has not been achieved, although breeding efforts in the past e107781, doi: 10.1371/journal.pone.0107781 were rewarding in terms of insulation of varieties against Varshney RK, Close TJ, Singh NK, Hoisington DA, Cook DR. major diseases and reducing crop duration which has helped (2009). Orphan legume crops enter the genomics era! Current stabilizing the yield and promoting crop diversification and Opinion Plant Biol, 12:1-9 intensification. For a major breakthrough in yield, there is urgent need to broaden the genetic base by strengthening Varshney RK et al (2013) Draft genome sequence of chickpea prebreeding and developing core sets of germplasm; harnessing (Cicer arietinum) provides a resource for trait improvement. hybrid vigour through development of CMS-based hybrids in Nature Biotechnol doi:10.1038/nbt.2491 pigeonpea; mapping and tagging of genes/ QTLs and marker- ...... assisted selection for resistance to insect pests and diseases, The author can be contacted at [email protected] yield and grain quality; gene pyramiding for stable resistance; Disclaimer- Views are personal development of transgenics in chickpea, pigeonpea for problems hitherto unsolved through conventional means like Helicoverpa pod borer and drought, and genomic research for understanding the structure and function of genes. Highyielding and input-responsive genes are yet to be searched and transgressed in common varieties ...... Reference

Ali M and Kumar S (2005). Chickpea (Cicer arietinum) research in India: accomplishments and future strategies. Indian J. Agric. Sci., 75 (3): 125-133.

Basu PS, Srivastava M, Singh P, Porwel, P, Kant, R and Singh J (2014). High precision phenotyping under controlled versus natural environments. In: Phenomics in Crop Plants: Trends Options and Limitations (eds., J. Kumar, S. Kumar and A. Pratap). Springer India (in press). Dutta S, Kumawat G, Singh BP, Gupta DK, Singh S, Dogra

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Pulses production and productivity in India

Purushottam and Deepak Singh, Senior Scientist and Scientist (SS), Indian Institute of Pulse Research

Introduction (Further, the area under chickpea is lower this year (2014-15) by Pulses are important crops for farm 14.8 lakh hectares from last year’s may be due to low minimum production systems as they add support price or more production in previous year etc.) Also, the nitrogen in the soil and provide food rains in northern India in last week of February 2015 will reduce and nutritional security to large fieldpea, lentil and chickpea production. number of vegetarians and weaker sections of the society those cannot Figure.1 : Perecent share of major pulses in India afford other sources of protein. The incredible development in pulses Purushottam research and policy support during the last few years led to increased production from 14 million to over 18 million tonnes in the country. In order to ensure self sufficiency, the pulses requirement in the country is projected at 50 million tonnes by the year 2050 which necessitates an annual growth rate of 4.2%.

Present status Pulses are grown on 24.7 million hectares of area with an annual production of 16.7 million tonnes (TE 2009-11). India accounts for 33% of the world area and 22% of the world production of pulses. About 90% of the global pigeonpea, 65% Pulses scenario in different states of chickpea and 37% of lentil area falls in India, corresponding Presently the total pulse production is around 18.45 million to 93%, 68% and 32% of the global production, respectively tones covering area of about 24-25 million hectare (majority and contributing 11% of the total intake of proteins in India. A study showed that presently, chickpea and pigeonpea is grown of area is under rainfed condition). The major pulse producing under 22 and 24 states and 1-2 Union Territories in India. The states (figure) are Madhya Pradesh (27%), Uttar Pradesh uradbean is cultivated in 20 states and mungbean in 19 states. (13%), Maharashtra (13%), Rajasthan (11%), Andhra Pradesh The lentil, fieldpea, lathyrus farming is being done in 15, 18, 5 (9%) followed by Karnataka (7%) which together share about states respectively. 80% of total pulse production and the remaining 20 percent is Table 1: Area, production and yield of major pulses in India 2012-13 2011-12 Crops Chickpea Pigeonpea Mungbean Urdbean Lentil Peas Lathyrus Horsegram Mothbean Area (mha) 8.7 3.81 2.75 3.19 1.42 0.76 0.58 0.24 1.37 Prod (mt) 8.83 3.02 1.19 1.9 1.13 0.84 0.43 0.1 0.47 Yield (kg/ha) 1014 792 432 596 797 1105 742 485 346

The analysis of 2012-13 shows that highest area (mha) was contributed by Gujarat, Chhattisgarh, Bihar, Orissa, Tamil Nadu, under chickpea (8.7) followed by such pigeonpea (3.81) and West Bengal and Jharkhand. lowest was in pea (0.76) and other pulses as mothbean, horse gram and lathyrus. Similarly, production (mt) was highest The analysis of 2012-13 data showed (Table 2) the average in chickpea (8.83) followed by pigeonpea (3.02). The pea yield, production and area of different states was 786.8 kg/ha, productivity (kg/ha) was maximum (1105 kg/ha) followed by 13.2 lakh ton and 16.8 lakh ha, respectively. Further, the major chickpea (1014 kg/ha) whereas, mothbean and mungbean have pulse producing states were classified on the basis of more and lower productivity (Table 1). less than the average area, production and productivity. It was found that the three states (Uttar Pradesh, Madhya Pradesh and The latest data (figure 1) showed that percent share of chickpea Andhra Pradesh) have better performance with other states as was higher (45%) followed by pigeonpea (15%), urdbean (9%), there area, production and productivity was higher than the mungbean (7%) and other pulses 24% among total pulse production. average of yield, production and area simultaneously.

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Figure.2 : Production of pulses in various states Outcome of the XI Plan The significant improvement in production and productivity of total pulses has been observed in Jharkhand, Gujarat and Andhra Pradesh. In chickpea, there was a positive growth in area, production and productivity in Andhra Pradesh, Gujarat and Maharashtra. Production of pigeonpea was enhanced by about 2.53 lakh tonnes in Karnataka, 1.26 lakh tonnes in Gujarat and 1.13 lakh tonnes in Andhra Pradesh. Significant area expansion of pigeonpea by 1.13 lakh ha was noticed in Karnataka and 0.74 lakh ha in Andhra Pradesh. With the Table 2: Classification of states on the basis average yield, development of short-duration varieties, there was expansion of production and area of pulses mungbean in summer season under rice-wheat system in north

Average Yield Average production Average Area 786.8 (kg/ha) 13.2 (Lac ton) 16.8 (Lac ha) More Less More Less More Less Chhattisgarh Chhattisgarh Jharkhand Others Madhya Pradesh Gujarat Madhya Pradesh Orissa Uttar Pradesh Maharashtra Uttar Pradesh Jharkhand Maharashtra Gujarat Bihar Chhattisgarh Maharashtra Bihar Rajasthan Others Madhya Pradesh Rajasthan Rajasthan Others Uttar Pradesh Tamil Nadu West Bengal Karnataka Andhra Pradesh Orissa Karnataka Jharkhand Gujarat Orissa Karnataka Tamil Nadu Andhra Pradesh Bihar Andhra Pradesh Tamil Nadu West Bengal West Bengal

Demand and supply scenario of pulses India. There was a significant increase in area and production Though India being the largest producer (around 25% of global of peas in Uttar Pradesh (1.17 lakh ha and 1.8 lakh tonnes). production), consumer (27%) and importer (around 14%) of Development and adoption of appropriate varieties led to pulses, the yield of pulses in India is at 781 kg/ha which is quite increase in area, production and yield of lentil in Jharkhand and low compared to average requirement of 1 ton/ha to make Rajasthan. pulses production internationally competitive. India’s rank in pulses productivity is 24, 9, 23, 104, 52th in chickpea, pigeon Research and development issues pea, lentil, dry bean, field pea, respectively and 98th in total To carry the projected targets of 50 million tonnes by the pulses. year 2050 the major research and development issues were identified for pulses are low genetic yield potential, poor and Even though pulses production increased by 3.45% per annum unstable yield, huge post-harvest losses, inadequate adoption during 2000-10, the subsequent increase in cost of production of improved technologies and low profitability which need to and steep increase in prices of pulses due to supply constraints be tackled through integration of conventional approaches with has made unaffordable for the common man of India. The cutting adage technologies such as genomics, molecular marker growth rate for area, production and productivity has remained assisted breeding, transgenic, molecular approaches for stress very low (0.06%, 0.65% and 0.59%) as compared to cereals due management, high input use efficiency, quality improvement, to which India has to import 3-4 million tonnes (mt) of pulses resource conservation technologies, value addition and food every year to meet its domestic demand. safety. Exploitation of heterosis and yield genes from wild relatives have also been identified as promising avenues for During the 1980s there was negative growth in area of total breaking yield plateaus. pulses and growth in production and yield was 1.52 percent and 1.61 percent respectively. During the period 2000-01 to According to Indian Institute of Pulses Research’s Vision 2011-12, the indices of area, production and yield of pulses document, India’s population is expected to touch 1.68 billion have grown up by 1.70 per cent, 3.47 per cent, and 1.91 per by 2030 and the pulse requirement for the year 2030 is cent respectively. projected at 32 million tons with anticipated required annual growth rate of 4.2%.

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Early maturing chickpea agro-ecosystem of this region is becoming fragile and posing The releases of early maturing chickpea varieties has played a potential threat for pulses cultivation. Some of the major pivotal role in diversification of cereal based cropping systems underlying reasons for deteriorating conditions are as follows. in Indo-Gangetic plains (IGP). Due to late onset of monsoon, • Extensive rice-wheat cropping systems re-placing pulses. often it becomes difficult to sow kharif crops on time. In such • Farmers’ choice towards more remunerative crops. situation, ample scope exists for popularization of high yielding • Over-use of groundwater enhancing salinity. and early maturing varieties of chickpea after harvest of rice and • Increased incidence of ascochyta blight aggravated with other companion crops in different agro-ecological zones of the low temperature. country. The research advancement in elite chickpea breeding • Excessive fertilizers, pesticides and irrigation deteriorated lines will address the issues in late sown conditions of Northern soil quality India. • Fast depletion of micronutrients (Zinc, Sulphur and Boron) • Cereal based cropping system has little scope to break Zone specific lentil varieties the disease cycle. Inadequate or deficient rainfall during Lentil is generally grown as rainfed crop during rabi season monsoon season after rice, maize, pearl millet or kharif fallow. In northern parts • Asymmetric pattern of temperature increase i.e. night of the country, lentil is also cultivated as paira crop with rice. minimums is increasing more rapidly than day time Lentil has a great promise in rice fallows of Assam, West Bengal, maximums. Bihar, Chhattisgarh, Eastern UP and Jharkhand. The high yielding • High yielding long duration pulses varieties bred for varieties as small and large seeded those shown tolerance to northern conditions are no longer suitable under changing wilt have been developed. The present focus is to develop shot scenario of climate change. duration; early vigour coupled with high biomass, rust and wilt ...... resistant varieties for NWPZ and NEPZ for sequential cropping The author can be contacted at [email protected] in rice–fallow. Further, to develop the large seeded and wilt Disclaimer- Views are personal resistant lentil for rainfed areas of Central India.

Success of spring/summer pulses The development of short duration, photo thermo insensitive and disease resistant varieties has led to their cultivation as a sole or intercrop during spring or summer season in North India. The success of summer mungbean has been well documented and appreciated at various levels under the 6000 pulses demonstrations progarmme. Further, summer mungbean has become one of the success stories among farmers in Indo-Gangetic plains of the country. The estimates of ACRIP (MULLaRP) show that over 16 lakh ha area is available for introducing summer mungbean in rice-wheat system of irrigated plains. Summer mung is also becoming the candidate crop as sole and relay in new delta area under rice fallows of southern peninsula.

Further, there is vast potential for urdbean cultivation in rice fallow situation of peninsular India. Thus need to accelerate efforts for developing suitable varieties and appropriate production and protection technologies to promote mungbean and urdbean in new nitches. The recent initiative for International Mungbean Network is a welcome step in technological strength and material in the mungbean crop.

Factors determining reduction in pulses area in North India Critical analysis of the north Indian environments revealed that

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Production of pulses in Asia: sustainability issues

Subash Dasgupta, Senior Plant Production Officer, FAO Regional Office for Asia and the Pacific, Thailand

Summary: The paper presents cholesteremic response, mitigation of diabetes and colonic a framework for enhancing cancer, and weight control. Enhanced dry bean utilization sustainability of production of focused on improved dietary health is an opportunity for the pulses in Asian farming systems people of both developing and developed countries.Pulses made up of three components. The provide significant nutritional and health benefits, and are first component analyses the trend known to reduce several non-communicable diseases such as of production, productivity and colon cancer and cardio-vascular diseases.In most developing cropped area under pulse crops in countries, pulses play a fundamental role as a low-fat, high-fibre Asia over the period 1990–2010. source of protein, an essential component of traditional food While, on an average, production and area under pulse crops baskets. in South Asia, (the sub-region holding the largest concentration of pulse production in Asia), grew steadily over this period at Pulses are regular part of diet of millions of people consumed aggregate level, there were great variations across countries in by both vegetarian and non-vegetarian segments of population the sub-region. Growth in yield was, however, not consistent. in various form. Over 60 percent of total utilization of pulses is Growth of pulse production in South Asia was largely propelled for human consumption. But the importance of pulses in human by increase in area and yield, albeit slowly, recorded in India. diets varies from region to region and country to country, In contrast, aggregate pulse production in Southeast Asia, grew with a general trend of higher consumption in lower income at a faster rate thanks to dramatic increase of production in nations. The share of food use in total utilization of pulses in Myanmar due to increase in both area and productivity. the developing countries is over 75 percent, compared with 25 percent in the developed countries. The second component examines the constraints of pulses production in the backdrop of emerging issues – climate change, Pulses contribute about 10 percent of the daily protein intake shortages of labour, lack of mechanization – and analyses a and 5 percent of energy intake and hence are of particular range of trade-offs to identify potential opportunities for pulse importance for food security in low income countries, where the crops to continue their roles in framers’ cropping systems and major sources of proteins are non-animal products. In addition, farming systems. pulses also contain significant amount of other essential nutrients like calcium, iron and lysine. Pulses are locally adapted The third component presents options for way forward and can be grown by farmers for their own nutrition as well as consisting of overhaul of the mindset of agricultural policy- for sale, which is important to improve food security. They are makers, boosting investment in pulse research and extension highly accepted crops which can keep well in storage. services, bridging the existing yield gaps, development of climate smart technologies and fostering value chain approach Pulses also play an important role in improving soil health, in production and utilization of pulses. long-term fertility and sustainability of the cropping patterns. They meet up to 80 percent of the irnitrogen requirement by Introduction biological nitrogen fixation from air and leave behind substantial Pulses have unique nutritional profile rich inhigh quality protein. amount of residual nitrogen and organic matter for subsequent Pulses contain 22–24 percent protein, which is almost twice crops. the content of protein in wheat and three times that in rice. In addition, pulses are excellent source of essential aminoacids, Inclusion of pulse crops in the cropping system improves the fatty acids, mineral and vitamins. They also contain several organic carbon content of the soil. Pulses can be grown under a anti-nutrients believed to play a role in energy regulation. Pulses wide range of soil and climatic conditions.They play important are also relatively low in energy density and a good source of roles in crop rotation, mixed and inter-cropping, maintaining digestible protein. Their carbohydrates are slowly digested, soil fertility through nitrogen fixation, release of soil-bound which allows some of the lowest glycemic index (GI) among phosphorous, and thus contribute significantly to sustainability carbohydrate-containing foods. of the farming systems.

In recent years, pulses have been cited for imparting specific Pulses, such as dry peas, lupins and beans are also used as positive health potentiating responses, such as hypo- feedstuff. Some 25 percent of the total use of pulses goes for

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feeding animals, namely pigs and poultry. Complementing Table 2: Pulse production, yield and areas in Southeast Asian animal feed with improved varieties of pulses has (shown to countries significantly improve animal nutrition too), yielding better Production Area harvested Yield (t/ha) livestock, which in turn supports food security. Country (million tonnes) (million ha) 1990 2000 2010 1990 2000 2010 1990 2000 2010 Despite having superior nutritional quality over the cereals and being well adapted under local conditions, the cropped area Cambodia 0.04 0.02 0.07 0.96 0.66 1.11 0.05 0.02 0.06 under pulse crops and their productivity in this region have Indonesia 0.46 0.29 0.29 1.30 0.85 1.13 0.36 0.34 0.26 been slowing down lessening food and nutrition security of millions of smallholder and other farming communities. In many Lao PDR 0.03 0.02 0.02 2.23 1.25 1.11 0.02 0.01 0.02 countries these crops are still surviving in subsistence farming Myanmar 0.42 1.66 4.39 0.70 0.71 1.17 0.61 2.34 3.78 thanks solely to the initiatives of poor farmers. There is a real danger that if this trend continues, production of pulses may Philippines 0.04 0.06 0.06 0.80 0.72 0.76 0.04 0.08 0.08 become extinctin in future. Thailand 0.46 0.28 0.17 0.74 0.84 0.92 0.63 0.34 0.18

Viet Nam 0.20 0.25 0.33 0.67 0.71 0.84 0.30 0.34 0.39 Trends in production, productivity and area under pulse crops Average 1.65 2.58 5.33 1.06 0.82 1.01 2.01 3.47 4.77 South Asian countries account for the largest share of pulse The Southeast Asian countries were a distant second in terms production in Asia and the Pacific region (Table1) with of production. In 2010, they produced 5.33 million tonnes of maximumarea under pulses in India. Steady growth of pulse pulses followed by East Asian countries producing 4.13 million production in India thanks largely to area expansion was the tonnes from 3.04 million ha lands. The major producer of pulse engine of growth of aggregate pulse production in this sub- crops in Southeast Asia is Myanmar. Myanmar also exports region. In contrast, Bangladesh and Sri Lanka witnessed drastic pulses abroad. Table 3 shows the world scenario of production, reduction in production of pulse crops. During the period yield and areas under pulse crops. 1990–2010, average production in South Asian countries rose at 1.4 percent annually and productivity at 1.75 percent Table 3: Production, yield and area under pulses by regions annually. and sub-regions, 2010 Production Yield Area Region and Sl No (million (tonnes/ harvested Table 1: Pulse production, yield and areas in South Asian sub-region tonnes) ha) (million ha) countries Central Asia Production Area harvested (Kazakhstan, Yield (t/ha) 1 1.50 1.36 1.11 (million tonnes) (million ha) Russian Federation Country and Uzbekistan) 1990 2000 2010 1990 2000 2010 1990 2000 2010 East Asia (China, DPR Korea, 2 4.13 1.60 3.04 Afghanistan - 0.05 0.05 - 1.89 1.03 - 0.02 0.04 Mongolia, Republic of Korea) Bangladesh 0.51 0.50 0.23 0.69 0.76 0.93 0.74 0.66 0.24 3 Pacific Islands 0.009 0.71 0.013 India 12.93 13.38 17.11 0.56 0.56 0.65 23.10 23.90 26.17 Southeast Asia (Cambodia, Nepal 0.18 0.22 0.24 0.60 0.77 0.80 0.46 0.30 0.30 Indonesia,LaoPDR, Myanmar, 4 5.34 1.12 4.79 Pakistan 0.77 0.92 0.86 0.52 0.60 0.55 1.49 1.55 1.57 Philippines, Thailand, Timor- Sri Lanka 0.07 0.03 0.02 0.73 0.92 1.10 0.10 0.04 0.02 Leste and Viet Nam) Average 14.46 15.10 18.51 0.62 0.92 0.84 25.59 26.47 28.34 South and Southwest Asia In 2010, pulses were grown in 28.34 million ha compared with (Afghanistan, Bangladesh, 25.59 million ha in 1990, recording just 0.55 percent annual 5 19.07 0.66 29.13 Bhutan, India, Iran, growth rate over the last two decades. South Asian countries Maldives, Nepal, occupied 36 percent of the global pulse areas in 2010/2011, Pakistan and Sri Lanka) contributing 30 percent of its production.

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efforts in support of these crops contributed to erosion of Developed countries their competitiveness inbeing components of commercial/ 6 2.02 1.12 1.81 (Australia, Japan, intensive agriculture. This process isreinforcing conditions for New Zealand) squeezing pulsesout of traditional faming systems and also from Asia and the Pacific 7. 32.07 0.804 39.88 commercial farming. If this trend continues unabated, it will region trigger serious problems in attaining food and nutrition security 8. World 67.166 0.877 76.597 of millions of poor people in this region. Source: FAO Statistical Yearbook 2014 Emerging issues Long standing problems associated with pulse production in In addition to meager research and extension support, Asia poor public budgetary allocations and government policies, Since time immemorial, pulses were well integrated in Asian marketing and pricing mechanisms,pulses production is beset farming systems as farmers could produce themwithout any with following emerging problems which make their production external inputs and using minimum family labourwith a belief more vulnerable than before and extremely risky. that these crops do not need any external inputs. Broadcasting and harvesting were the only two activities that required manual Climate change labour and the whole production system looked relatively simple Negativeeffects of climate change are more pronounced in and within the family control. The otherreason that prompted pulse crops than in any other agricultural crops. These crops farmers to include pulses in their cropping patterns is to enhance are vulnerable even to fluctuations of weather conditions, not soil fertility and environmental conformity. But production of to speak of climate change. Changes in the rainfall patterns, pulses in Asia started suffering setbackswith the advent of green particularlylate onset of monsoon and rainfall at the beginning revolution (GR) in the mid-1960s. of winter season make these crops difficult to grow as they cannottolerate even short-term waterlogging. As a result, The traditional cropping patterns and cropping systems became theland vacatedin between two consecutive rice crops in increasingly stressed due to the pressure to accommodate intensive rice cropping systems due to availability of short modern varieties of rice and wheat and associated management duration varieties of riceis being occupied by potatoes, maize technologies that emphasized application of external inputs and other crops which are more climate resilient than pulses. and modification of crop growing environments to suit modern varieties.As the cropping systems turned more cereal-intensive, Shortage of human labour pulse crops were rapidly displaced from prime fertile landsto It is well known that due to relentless migration of labour to make space for cereals and pushed to the marginal lands. This cities fuelled by industrialization and urbanization, the rural resultedin decline of their productivity, land degradation and heartlands of tropical Asia are acutely suffering from shortages deepening of environmental footprint. of labour. This poses a serious challenge for agricultural production to continue and sustain rural livelihoods. Although, During the era of GR, the entire research and extension systems production of pulses requires far less labour than most other were geared towards increasing production of rice and wheat. crops, mostly at sowing, the demand of labour is high during The single-minded focus on cereals resulted in neglect of pulses harvesting as pulses are harvested manually and mainly by and other food security crops by the research and extension women. Additional problems arise during post-harvest handling. systems and government policy-makers. This realization dawned Most of the women farmers nowadays have to give more time in the beginning of the 1990s when yield growth of cereal crops to the activities related to cereal and other profitable crops started decelerating and there werefew new options available rather than pulses because most men are either migratingto that scientists could bank on to avert this scenario. In addition, cities or abroad and are also involved in non-farm activities. the countries that adopted green revolution technologies became deficit in other essential crops – pulses, oilseeds, Lack of mechanization vegetables –and the goal of achieving self-sufficiency even in Post-harvest handling of pulses is complicated and labour- cereal cropsseemed as elusive as ever. intensive. The situation can be improved if mechanization can be introduced gradually in this sector. It will not only save labour Despite ongoing efforts, the situation is yet to improve at but also increase production and productivity of pulses. Labour desired level. The trend of commercialization of agricultural shortage at family level will be solved to a large extent giving production that became dominant since the 1990s was one room to devote their time to more productive and profitable of the main obstacles to regaining the lost status of pulses areas. and other non-cereal crops in traditional farming systems. Poor productivity of these crops due to non-availability of Trade-off high-yielding varieties and grossly inadequate extension There is a number of trade-offs that need to be examined in

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the context of dwindling role of pulses crops in rapidly changing concernsare not taken into account during crop selection which cropping patterns/cropping systems of the farmers and the is more prominent in the case of commercial farming. Pulse emergence of commercial farming and intensive production crops are most adaptable to local landscapes than any other systems. The pertinent question to ask is whether these crops crops due to their wide diversity within pulse crops and a long are set to lose their places in both production systems.If yes, history of cultivation under local conditions. what would be other options to enhance nutrition security of million people living in the areas where these crops are grown Yield gap versus nature gaps and widely adapted. The unending quest for ever higher yields may be justified to produce more to meet rising demands for food, but this also Carbohydrate versus nutrition wrecks natural ecosystems undermining their capacity for The trade-off here lies in striking a balance between service provision in the long term that is vital for sustaining consumption of mostly carbohydrates as source of dietary both livelihoods and environment. The consequences will energy and essential nutrientsand diversification of diets by be reflected in drastic reduction of future yields, diminishing including more nutritious foods like pulses. Although, such returns from investment in purchased inputs, and ultimately factors as rapid urbanization, increase in per capita income and irreversible ecological disasters. The challenge here is to search a general awareness about diversification of food basket have for win–win situations that help enhance crop yields without created favourable conditions for moving toward this goal, there inflicting damages to natural ecosystems through promoting will not be steady improvement in the absence of public policy sustainable crop production intensification systems. directed at reduction of the share of carbohydrates in diets. Way forward Commodity versus system productivity It is evident that a combination of factors – low productivity, In the globalized world under liberalized trade regimes, vulnerability to climate changes, competition from other agricultural crops are becoming more of a commodity. In these remunerative crops and the emergence of more productive complicated systems, pulses will hardly have comparative and profit-oriented production systems – have created a vicious advantages over some other crops,particularly high value crops. cycle for pulse crops that sent their production nose-diving The only way to sustain production of pulses is to find out ways and threatening their meaningful existence in farming systems. and means to fit them in the farming systems of smallholder However, the challenge of untangling the future of pulse farmers. production from this pessimistic scenario remains acute given the need to develop inclusive and environmentally friendly Broad eco-systems versus local landscape production systems.Such systems should emphasize not only In many developing countries, modern varieties of pulse crops productivity but also maintenance of soil fertility, nutritional are developed through natural selection or hybridization. status of the people, environmental sustainability and concern However, their adaptation at farmers’ levelis poor due to of smallholder farmers. a variety of reasons,some of which are discussed earlier. These varieties are more suitable for broad eco-systems and Changes in the mindset of policy-makers not suitable for local landscapes, besides being low-yielding For any meaningful changes to occur and take root at national compared with other competitor crops. Existing breeding levels, agricultural policy making must be anchored in changing programmes and systems adopted in many developing countries the mind set of policy-makers moulded over the years in the are not appropriate to develop location-specific varieties. The frame of increasing production of cereal staples and thus challenge here is to develop and adopt varieties they could suit attaining food security. But time has arrived to consider food local landscapes. security inseparably from nutrition security, which remains dire for vast segments of both rural and urban populations. Crop suitability versus ecological concern This calls for publicly funded research and extension system in The whole Asian region has been experiencing rapid changes the Asia-Pacific region to review priorities of research agenda in the cropping patterns and cropping systems. The criteria to and allocation of research budgets that acknowledge the select crops for cropping patterns and systems largely depend overarching importance of boosting productivity of pulses and on economic conditions of farmers, land suitability, availability addressing other constraints that stand in the way of improving of technologies, social structures, prices, market and many competitiveness of pulse crops and making them economically other factors. Moreover, crop choices also vary depending on attractive. the production systems. At the subsistence level of farming, food security, input costs and availability of family labour Research receive priority, as opposed to commercial/intensive farming, Pulses are less researched crops both at national and where comparative advantage and competitiveness of the international levels than any other crops. It is evident from crops dominate selection priority. It is evident that ecological dwindling share of pulse crops in the portfolios of donor-

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supported research programmes. A renewed thrust should produce enough to enhance food security both at national be given to initiating a vibrant breeding programme to and household levels. This demands that suitability of any new develop varieties not only with high-yielding attributes but crop variety for farmers should be judged not from its stand- also with characteristics that allow fitting them in existing alone performance but rather its performance when grown farming systems of the smallholder farmers. Such varieties as a component of cropping patterns and crop rotations. should also be very location-specific. Modern tools and The determinants of cropping patterns are technological techniques of biotechnology should be used in developing development, availability of short duration variety of different modern varieties with novel traits that would make them crops,options for reducing turnaround time facilitating climate smart. This would require more collaboration and inclusion of additional crops in their cropping patterns. In cooperation of national programmes with international view of that for farmers productivity at systems levels is agencies and CGIARcentres. far more important than at individual (variety) levels. It is a researchable issue. Unfortunately less research has been done Pulse germplasm so far at systems level. It is time to step up efforts on research Collection, conservation and utilization of pulse germplasm on cropping patterns and cropping systems to fit pulses in the hardly received due attention from institutional plant farming systems of smallholder farmers. Finally, by improving breeding for a long time. The emphasis on collection and the cropping patterns using pulses, farmers can improve their characterization of germplasm of cereal crops to underpin the yields and address soil degradation that poses long-term green revolution and orientation of scientific crop breeding threat to their food and nutrition security. to meet this goal diverted the focus away from other crops, including pulses. It is widely believed that this neglect resulted Research on multiple cropping in loss of many valuable pulse germplasm. The second wave Pulses are most suitable crops for multiple cropping in the of erosion of pulse germplasm started at the beginning of form of inter-cropping, relay-cropping and mixed-cropping the 1990s when agricultural production systems moved from because of their short duration and less requirement of subsistence to semi-intensive and intensive farming. What is human labour and other inputs. As cropping patterns and more dangerous is the third wave of losses due to changes farming systems are dynamic because farmers keep them in the climate. Two specific issues that need urgent attention changing based on their evolving circumstances, they should are renewed emphasis on collection of pulse germplasm and have choices of multiple cropping that best suit their farming their characterization to identify climate smart germplasm. systems. Research results show that through intercrop and At country level, topmost priority should be given to double crop systems, production of pulses can be increased increasing awareness on the importance and contribution of without unduly sacrificing the yields of cereals and other pulse genetic resources to food and nutrition security and crops of the pattern. In India, it was found that inclusion of challenges and opportunities in integrating genetic resources black gram and green gram in rice-based cropping system into national breeding programmes. increased the yield of succeeding crop of rice.

Variety development Extension services Enhanced utilization of pulse germplasm will remain central Extension services, in general, are poor in most developing to developing more productive and location-specific pulse countries and particularly lag behind when it comes to varieties, which is the most pressing need of the time. It meeting the specific requirements of smallholder farmers. is a very weak point of research. Availability modern tools The reasons for poor services are more or less documented and techniques of biotechnology open up new opportunity but very few initiatives have been taken so far from the to make break throughs in this area neglected so far. The government to improve the situation in public sector important point that should be borne in mind that high- extension services. At the same time, extension services in the yielding varieties of pulses, whatever their yield potential, private sector are at the nascent stage of their development would be of little practical use, if they are unsuitable for fitting and yet to take off the ground. However, private sector into farmers’ cropping patterns and crop rotation. Rainfed extension service providers are likely to be reluctant to deal lands will, therefore, remain the major source for the supply with pulses as these crops are less remunerative.Smallholder of millets, pulses, and oilseeds to the growing population. farmers are also less likely to be the client of private sector extension services because of the profit-oriented nature of Cropping pattern development such services. This leaves the poor and smallholder farmers In this region, farmers regardless of their categories practice solely at the discretion of public extension services with cropping patterns and crop rotation systems in their farming limited ability to reach them with their current institutional systems and not mono-cropping. It is mainly because of capacity, infrastructures and knowledge base. In other words, land scarcity and government policy of not keeping arable there is a long way to go to make public extension systems lands fallow to ensure maximum utilization of lands so as to capable of working for the poor.

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Bridging yield gap Despite the yield capacity of modern varieties of pulses in developing countries is comparatively low; the existing yield gaps are also significant. Efforts to minimize yield gap could be an important viable strategy to increase productivity and production of pulses. Non- monetary inputs, including improved agronomic practices, such as timely availability of all inputs and their application in the fields, timely sowing, regular mechanical weeding, timely harvesting and post-harvest handling also could help increase pulse production.

It may be mentioned that in France farmers harvest more than 3.8 tonnes/ha pulse yield indicating considerable untapped potential in harnessing gains in productivity. Pulse productivity in Asian countries is lower than the world average.

Climate smart technology Although, high-yielding varieties of pulses will continue to play key role in moving further these crops in the farming systems, developing management technologies is also equally important. It will not only assist in achieving higher yield but also allow adjusting to changing crop growing environments likely to be increasingly unfavourable due to adverse impacts of climate change. Crop management technologies that permit crops to cope with and thrive under stressed environmental conditions by nature should be location-specific by drawing on supporting elements arising from local ecosystems and landscapes.

Value chain approach The value chain approach has emerged as a way of empowering smallholder farmers by linking them with markets and other upstream post-production activities that boost their overall income and strengthen rural economy. This requires a closer look at the processes and operations that start from on-farm production of primary commodities and span post-harvest handling, processing, packaging, transportation and marketing. At each stage of this chain, there is opportunity for adding value to the primary product and thus benefit smallholder farmersby fostering horizontal and vertical linkages that integrate them in the value chain. The focus on product quality and end-use characteristics within a value chain perspective will also create preconditions for commercialization thus improving competitiveness of pulse crops...... The author can be contacted at [email protected] Disclaimer- Views are personal

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Environment and pulses

PS Basu, Principal Scientist, Indian Institute of Pulses Research, India

Introduction Unless and until, serious efforts to be made for preventing the Grain legumes form an rise in the CO2 due to human activities, the increase in the important part of staple temperature and consequently aberrant climatic conditions diet especially in Asia declining agricultural productivity at alarming rate and shortage and sub-Saharan Africa. of country’s food grains production is inevitable. Therefore, The productivity and development of high yielding varieties with short maturity adaptability of legumes period and identification of drought tolerant varieties with are seriously affected by inherent ability for thermotolerance have been suggested as range of abiotic stresses one of the important strategies to improve yield of pulses under including heat, drought warm climate besides adoption of appropriate management and salinity. Pulses are practices to mitigate different abiotic stresses. predominantly grown under rainfed situation Vulnerability of pulses to climate changes and are often exposed Pulses in general being rainfed crops are subjected to multiple to harsh environment like drought, high temperature, frost, stresses in the changing scenario of climate. The cool-seasoned cold, salinity and solar radiation. These situations are further legumes like chickpea, lentil, fieldpea are more prone to expose aggravated and more unfavourable abiotic constraints have at high temperature exceeding 40 oC during reproductive phase. been recorded to be intensified due to climate change which The reproductive parts such as pollen germination, ovule are unpredictable and often extreme situations prevails viability, anthesis, pod set and grain development are adversely in the pulse-growing environment. The rise in the global affected above 35 oC. Nitrogen fixation through symbiotic temperature due to increasing concentration of CO2 is likely association of rhizobium is virtually declined at temperature to have an adverse impact on productivity of pulses which exceeding beyond 35 oC. Therefore at extreme temperature is now becoming a serious concern. The anticipated rise pulses are subjected to nitrogen starvation and consequently in temperature is also influencing the hydrological cycle, photosynthesis is drastically declined. Since major proportion consequently monsoon pattern of Indian-subcontinent has been of leaf soluble nitrogen constitute enzyme RuBP carboxylase also predicted to be changed in future and particularly rainfed necessary for carbon fixation, any limitation of the formation of pulses are likely to be worst affected. The benefits of high CO2 this enzyme affects chlorophyll synthesis and photosynthesis. in the atmosphere are not yet evident or realized in terms of Among winter pulses, fieldpea is highly sensitive to high enhanced photosynthesis or productivity in agricultural crops temperature followed by lentil and chickpea in respect to ability because of the dominating negative effects of high temperature to set pods > 35 oC. Pigeonpea is highly sensitive to temperature on plant metabolism. The climate change has both direct and extremities both below 7 oC and above 40 oC. Stunted growth, indirect effect on crop plants. Among direct effects, the CO2 scorching of apical meristem, forced maturity, induced and temperature are the major climatic variables affecting the senescence, reduced or incomplete grain, pod abortion, empty productivity of the crops. While, shifting of rainfall pattern, pods, hardening of seeds, reduced pollen germination etc are hydrological cycles, depletion of soil organic content due to typical visible symptoms observed in pulses subjected to high enhanced soil microbial respiration and massive changes in temperatures. Genotypes with early phenology have advantages the pest and disease incidence are indirect effects of climate over late flowering groups in terms of avoiding heat stress. The change and are considered to be more severe impacts on moisture conserved in soil after withdrawal of monsoon under crop productivity associated with rise in the temperature. The rainfed quickly evaporates due to high dry weather condition indirect effects of climate change causing erratic distribution of which necessitates application of pre-sowing irrigation in pulse rainfall, suboptimal precipitation, early or delayed monsoon, field. Abnormally high average night temperature during winter shifting of south-west monsoon, temperature extremities; months has been reported to be shortening the crop cycle and all are combinedly becoming the major causes of recurrent forced maturity. The impact of climate adversities is relatively drought events in many agro climatic zones of India. According less for the crops growing under assured irrigation due to high to projection of IPCC (Intergovernmental Panels on Climate evapotranspiration rate bringing down the canopy temperature Change) the CO2 concentrations of the atmosphere will be down below the damaging effect of high temperature. However, increased by 735 ppm from the present level of 380 ppm pulses being the rain fed crops, there are no coping mechanisms with a concomitant rise in temperature to 3-4 oC by 2080. for rainfall variability. Therefore, reduction in yields as a result of

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climate change are predicted to be more pronounced for rainfed start decreasing above 35 oC in most of the winter legumes. The pulses being cultivated in areas frequently prone to drought. fieldpea is more sensitive to high temperature than chickpea When drought and high temperature interacts together, the and lentil. The complete termination of pollen germination damaging effect of both the stresses is far more severe than does occur at temperature 38 oC. If high temperature prevails individual effect. Among pulses, greengram (mungbean) and even couple of days under field condition during reproductive blackgram (uradbean) being summer and kharif crops grown phase may cause drastic reduction in the productivity of winter under irrigation are also frequently exposed to very high pulses. The optimum photosynthetic rates in most of the cool- temperature above 44 oC causing immature seed development. season legumes falls between 15-35 oC and photosynthesis In vigna groups, the thermal regimes do not change drastically decreases beyond this range of temperature, however, beyond from vegetative to reproductive phase as the total crop duration 40 oC, irreversible changes occur at membrane level causing is very short. In contrast the winter pulses (rabi), there is a degradation of chlorophyll, induce senescence and crops are distinct phase transition from one thermal regime to another subjected to forced maturity. In general, more than 60% carbon when these crops shift from short day vegetative to long day and nitrogen remobilize to developing grains in chickpea and reproductive stage, Therefore winter pulses such as chickpea, lentil from pre-anthesis stored photosynthates in leaves and lentil and fieldpea are more sensitive to abrupt changes in the stems. Due to high respiratory activity during summer months temperature during podding stage. The winter legumes under and sudden increase in the temperature coinciding with rainfed in northern plains are altogether experiencing a different flowering time, pre-stored photosynthates are rapidly utilized kind of hidden stress that is atmospheric drought associated as substrates for respiration resulting in massive depletion of with insufficient or lack of dew precipitation, as a result of high carbon reserve in the vegetative parts. The grain sizes reduce winter night temperature. The moisture available in the air due to insufficient supply of carbon and nitrogen from source termed as “Invisible water reservoir of nature” which can be leaves and stems. The nitrogen fixation in nodules also retards easily accessed by the crops provided night must be sufficiently at high night temperature. Among pulses, pigeonpea is highly cooled to form dew that fulfils the water-requirement of the sensitive to water-logging. pulse crops to a large extent. With changing scenario of climate, the phenomenon of dew precipitation is gradually diminishing in Being rainfed crops, pulses are subjected to various types of the northern rainfed regions, consequently crops are subjected abiotic stresses particularly terminal drought and heat are major to more dry weather, with high evapotranspiration loss during among those. The recent trend of climate change is not only day time. The water deficits in the atmosphere increases as responsible to increase temperature but also more severely a result of high temperature causing excessive loss of water affecting the rainfall pattern and as a consequence rainfed through transpiration and soil evaporation. The uppermost layer agriculture is facing recurrent drought and is at high risk. Due to soil tends to dry up quickly thus imposing drought surrounding high and significant Genotype x Environment (GXE) interaction, the microclimate of the crop. the grain yield of major pulses tend to destabilize across the different environment. Sensitivity to photo thermo period is Responses of different pulses to climate change the major factor responsible for high GXE interaction. Therefore Long term field observations on pulses, analyzing the climatic for climate resilient pulses, development of photothermo data across the country and crop behaviour when subjected insensitive genotypes is the primary requirement to address to different abiotic stresses under All india coordinated trials the issues related to climate risk on pulses productivity. conducted in different agro-climatic zones, indicated that Winter legumes are more threatened by observed climatic reproductive parts and grain filling process are extremely changes as a result of sudden temperature increase during sensitive to temperature extremities. When high temperature reproductive phase from cooler vegetative stages of growth. is superimposed with drought, the productivity declined Detailed studies using chickpea as a model crop showed that drastically. The pigeonpea, in particular is highly sensitive to anthesis, pollen germination and grain development partially temperature fluctuation, causing massive flower drop, forced or almost completely terminate when day time temperature drying and bending of apical leaves subjected to cold stress exceeded beyond 35 oC which has become a recurrent feature (<7 oC). In greengram, temperature exceeding beyond 42 oC in the entire northern plains. Grain legumes are categorized as during summer, causes hardening of seeds due to incomplete per their thermo tolerance in the order of Mungbean>pigeo sink development. Except fieldpea, other winter pulses like npea>Uradbeen>Chickpea>lentil>rajmash>fieldpea based on lentil and chickpea showed complete termination of vegetative physiological studies. The high yielding plant types of medium growth when winter temperature falls below 10 oC under field to late chickpea genotypes developed in NWPZ and NEPZ zone condition. Often the daytime maximum temperature reaches need to be restructured in view of the changing climates which beyond 40 oC during reproductive phase of chickpea, lentil require early flowering, short duration vigorous root system and fieldpea resulting in complete failure of anthesis, pod and large seed size with quick biomass accumulation which are setting and hardening of developing seeds. Pollen germination, experimentally proven to be well-adapted to warmer climates. receptivity of stigma, pollen load on stigma and ovule viability A large number of pulses germplasm are being evaluated for

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identifying high temperature and drought tolerance for crossing shoot growth and causes damage to fruits/pods. Further, programme besides attempting to develop crop models for leaf senescence and abscission are increased under high predicting productivity of pulses in long term. temperature conditions; all these adversely affect the grain yield. In cowpea, under warmer temperatures leaf area index Anticipated impact of climate change on pulses increased and leaf death occurred sooner. Under heat stress The impact of climate change on pulses is quite indirect and conditions in legumes the amount of root mass produced appears to be more serious. Present climate pattern may likely is reduced, fewer lateral roots are observed and the roots to induce frequent drought or drought like situation. Rainfed produced are thin and unbranched. High soil temperature agriculture is expected to suffer severe water crisis due to (38 0C) in groundnut reduces dry matter accumulation and delayed monsoon, uneven distribution and above all complete individual seed mass coupled with decreased flower production. failure of rain as a result of climate change. Pulses being the rain fed crops; there are no coping mechanisms for rainfall Effect of high temperatures on reproductive development variability. Therefore, reduction in yields as a result of climate The impact of high temperature is severe on reproductive change are predicted to be more pronounced for rainfed pulses processes when compared to the vegetative development being cultivated in areas frequently prone to drought. When in many crops. Particularly, male reproductive development drought and high temperature interacts together, the damaging is more prone to high temperature damage compared to effects of both the stresses are far more severe than individual the female. A reduction in number of flowers borne and the effect. For the past few decades average rainfall in rainfed duration of flowering and pod filling was observed in chickpea conditions is inadequate to sustain agricultural productivity under high temperature conditions. The high temperatures and particularly rainfed agriculture is pushing towards cause reduction in pod set by reducing pollen viability and desertification. India during the period 1951–2007 reveals an pollen production per flower. The pollen of heat tolerant increased propensity in the occurrence of “monsoon-breaks” chickpea genotype (ICCV 92944) was viable at 35/200C (41% over the subcontinent. Annual rainfall, especially during winter fertile) and at 40/250C (13% fertile), whereas the pollen of and monsoon months (June to July), has decreased in over 68% heat sensitive genotype (ICC 5912) was completely sterile at of the country (Indian Institute of Tropical Meteorology, Pune). 35/200C with no in vitro germination and no germination on the stigma. However, the stigma of the sensitive genotype Effect of high temperatures on physiological traits/processes (ICC 5912) remained receptive at 35/200 C and non-stressed High temperature stress affects the crop growth and pollen (27/16 0C) germinated on it during reciprocal crossing. development by affecting wide range of physiological processes These data indicate that pollen grains were more sensitive to and altering plant-water relationship. Several studies have high temperature than the stigma in chickpea. Both anthers reported the reduction in growth and development of legumes and pollen showed more structural abnormalities under stress due to high temperature stress. such as changes in anther locule number, anther epidermis wall thickening and pollen sterility, rather than function (e.g. in vivo Cellular membrane stability has been shown to have reduced pollen tube growth). The critical temperature for pod set was ≥ under high temperature conditions in cowpea and groundnut; 370C in heat tolerant genotypes (ICC 1205 and ICC 15614) and ≥ affecting photosynthetic/mitochondrial activity and ability of 330C for heat sensitive genotypes (ICC 4567 and ICC 10685). plasmalemma to retain water and other solutes. Exposure of different legume crops (groundnut, chickpea, pigeonpea and In other legumes like mungbean high temperature conditions soybean) to 35 0C for 24 hrs reduced the membrane stability, increase flower shedding. High temperatures during flowering in but the degree of decrease differed among the species. cowpea can cause pollen sterility and in dehiscence of anthers. Chlorophyll fluorescence analysis (maximum quantum yield Heat stress affects the different reproductive processes (flower PSII-Fv/Fm) that indicates thylakoid stability/photochemical initiation, flowering, pollen formation, fertilization and pod efficiency reduces under heat stress and among the three set/development) in common bean. High night temperatures important grain legumes (groundnut, pigeonpea and particularly affect pod and seed set in legumes, including chickpea) groundnut seems to be least affected and chickpea common bean, lima bean and cowpea. In groundnut, heat stress the most affected. In common bean, high temperatures can severely affects microsporogenesis, hypanthium elongation, affect nitrogen fixation and plasma membrane integrity. In pollen development, anther dehiscence and pollination. temperate legumes high heat stress affects structure and Temperatures >330C in groundnut affects pollen viability and function of nodules whereas, it affects nitrogen fixation germination. efficiency in tropical legumes. Even under moderate day/ night temperatures (30/20 0C; in Phaseolus vulgaris) rapid Progress made towards developing climate resilient pulses degeneration of nodules occurs affecting the nitrogen fixing The IIPR, Kanpur in collaboration with ICRISAT has already efficiency of the plant. assessed large chickpea and pigeonpea germplasm from The studies indicate that high temperatures affect root/ diverse sources for heat and drought tolerance. Screening

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methodologies have been perfected for drought tolerance. below. A number of drought tolerant chickpea genotypes have i. Narrow adaptability been identified based upon root based traits and osmotic ii. Highly photo thermo sensitivity adjustment. A wide genotypic variation in the heat tolerance iii. Temperature extremities, drought, salinity and water was observed in chickpea germplasm evaluated for the logging are recurrent events in pulse growing agro reference set developed by ICRISAT. One of the heat tolerant climatic zones of the country variety of chickpea JG 14 performing well under late sown iv. Growing environment largely confined to rainfed warmer climate has been adopted and already under farmer’s resource poor condition field. Trials for assessing genotypes for heat tolerance in lentil v. Poor harvest index and grain yield in existing released and fieldpea are already on the way. Phenotypic plasticity i.e. varieties adjusting flowering time depending upon the climatic condition vi. Lack of efficient plant types to cope with changing (day length and temperature) is one of the best strategies for climates adaptation of pulses in diverse climates. This character needs to vii. Little or non-availability of germplasm with high water be overexploited to develop many short duration varieties that and nutrient efficiency can avoid terminal drought and heat. The range of phenotypic viii. Poor response of major nutrients (nitrogen, plasticity in chickpea is from 20 to 90 days and similarly it also phosphorus and potassium) exists in other pulses. ix. Indeterminate growth and asynchronous flowering. x. Inefficient in carbon and nitrogen partitioning to Strategies to improve productivity of winter pulses in changing developing sink due to indeterminate growth habit scenario of climate xi. Changing disease and pest incidence in respect to Except fieldpea, chickpea and lentil are more resilient and are climate change. well-adapted to diverse climatic conditions from sub-tropical to semi-temperate regions. Recent geographical shifting of Crop specific problems chickpea from north to south also indicate that chickpea may In addition to common generalized problems as mentioned able to adapt under warmer climates of south. The significant above, crop specific problem in respect to abiotic stress are increase in the area and productivity of chickpea in south is mentioned below primarily due to regionally adapted varieties available there. Abiotic constraints under growing Crops Critical analysis showed that chickpea plant types for higher environment yield developed in central and south India are different from Chickpea, lentil Terminal heat and drought during north. Most of the central and south zones varieties are and fieldpea reproductive stage characterized by short duration, early flowering, vigorous root Temperature extremities such as cold, frost Pigeonpea system with early vigour, profuse nodulation and large leaf size and heat, drought and water-logging for accumulation of more photosynthates. While north Indian Green gram Photothermo sensitivity, heat stress during chickpeas are medium or long duration type. Therefore, new and Black gram grain filling strategies are required to be made for restructering efficient Rajmash Low temperature, frost plant types for northern India taking into consideration of the example of chickpea adaptation in warmer climates of India. Based on the constraints analysis of pulses, issues, critical research gaps and possible strategies to improve productivity Major challenges for pulses under changing climate have been outlined below. Anticipated low productivity of pulses under growing environment could be due to multiple factors as indicated

Issues Critical gaps Strategies High priority areas in pulses More than 80% Drought tolerant varieties in Huge germplasm of pulses need Wide adaptation for yield stability rainfed pulses face pulses are very few. to be evaluated at hot spots for Drought and heat tolerance: recurrent terminal Heat tolerant varieties are their adaptive potentials under chickpea, lentil and pigeonpea drought causing not yet available in pulses harsh environment. substantial yield loss

Rabi pulses often Geographical information coincides with high of pulse growing areas and temperature >430C Development of Crop model in Multiple abiotic stress tolerant long term effect of climate affecting anthesis, relation to climate change varieties change on productivity of grain filling/ pod pulses are not known settings

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High Genotype Resistant against water-logging and x Environment Screening of well adapted Plant types best adapted flower drop in pigeonpea interaction, the grain genotypes to different to hot spots are yet to be Mitigation and moisture conservation yield of the pulses environments for higher tolerance conceptualized techniques for pulses are not stable across against drought & heat the country Local adaptation in pulses is dominant. Effective Phenotyping Breeding for higher tolerance Climate change and its impact on While wider for drought is not yet and improved yield using widely pests of major pulse crops adaptability in pulses standardized adapted and stress tolerant lines is rare. The disease and pest incidence Photoinsensitive varieties in Crop models in relation to are likely to be pulses are not adequately climate change integrated with more severe due identified which can give GIS, remote sensing & long-term to unprecedented Stable yield across the meteorological data temperature rise environment during crop season Temperature Identification of genes for stress extremities (high Sprinkler/drip facilities for tolerance and development of and low) causes life saving irrigation is not yet chickpea transgenic for drought massive flower drop used tolerance in pigeonpea Information on effect of Study on major pests under climate change on major temperature extremities, elevated No irrigation facility pests , disease & new pests CO2 and GHGs under growing & pathogen threats damaging Assessment and mitigation of environment of pulses are not known but green house gas GHGs pulses likely to have devastating emission from long-term pulse consequences based cropping systems

Under ICAR commissioned programme on National Initiative NA1, IPAC 79, IPAC 42, IPAC 76 and LRG 30 showed relative on Climate resilient Agriculture (NICRA), a large number of tolerance against water logging in the initial growth stage. genotypes have been identified in different pulses based Genotypes ICP 929 B, VKS-14/19-2, IPAC 234, IPAC 210 and IPAC upon multi location trials and controlled environments 114 showed better recovery after frost damage. Pigeonpea showing tolerance to drought, high temperature, water- genotypes such as VKS11/24-1, TGT-501, BSMR 853, BDN 708, logging, frost resistance in addition to photothermo Bennur local, JKM 7, MAL 13, Bahar have been identified as insensitivity. These are thermotolerant and photo insensitive drought tolerant based upon osmotic adjustment. genotypes in black gram PGRU 95016, IPU 99-89, IPU 94-1, IPU 99-79, BGP- 247; thermo tolerant genotypes in Several drought tolerant lines of chickpea e.g ICC 4958, RSG greengram e.g Samrat, IPM 02-3, IPM 02-10 and PM -5, 143-1, RSG 888, PG 5, K 850, PG 96006 , Katila and large photothermo insensitive in vigna wild sps V. glabrescens (IC number of thermotolerant chickpea lines e.g. ICC 1205, 251372), V. umbellata (IC251442), two extra early greengram ICC 15614, ICC 8950 have been identified. A heat tolerant genotypes IPM 409-4 (INGR 11044) and IPM 205-7 (INGR variety JG 14 (ICCV 92944) has been released for late sown 11043) have been identified which are useful for summer condition. These lines are being heavily utilized as potential cultivation and intercropping in crops like sugarcane that can donors for developing climate resilient pulses. Screening avoid terminal heat stress. Early harvesting of mungbean can germplasm for resistance against major abiotic stresses save 1-2 irrigations. (drought, high temperature, salinity and cold) is primary strategies for resistant breeding programme essentially Some wild accessions of pigeonpea C. Scaraboeides showed requiring source of resistance from diverse origin for high tolerance to heat and combined tolerance to drought and crossing. In chickpea, large numbers of germplasm have been heat together. Promising heat tolerant pigeonpea genotypes identified for drought, cold, high temperature and salinity. based on variable chlorophyll fluorescence have been identified For developing multiple resistant varieties, parents having such as WRP-1, JKM-7, ICP-8700, JSA-59, BENNUR LOCAL, JKM- different attributes of tolerance could be used for crossing 189, MAL-13, ICP-995, JSA 59. Five pigeonpea lines, namely through conventional breeding.

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Heat tolerance screening and identification and development therefore two pronged strategies are to be made to improve of heat tolerant varieties the productivity under anticipated climate change. First Delayed sowing was proposed for heat tolerance screening in strategy is to improve reproductive stage tolerance through chickpea and it has been found effective in identification of heat selection and secondly, development of short duration varieties tolerant germplasm. A large number of germplasm/breeding which are able to escape terminal heat and drought through lines have been screened for heat tolerance by delayed sowing early maturity. One of the heat tolerant variety of chickpea and synchronizing the reproductive phase of the crop with the is JG 14 performing well under late sown warmer climate is occurrence of higher temperatures (≥35°C). A screening of 180 already under farmer’s field for evaluation. Trials for assessing genotypes at Patancheru during 2007/08 and 115 genotypes at genotypes for heat tolerance in lentil and fieldpea are already Patancheru and Kanpur (northern India) during 2008/09 revealed on the way. Phenotypic plasticity i.e. adjusting flowering large genotypic variation for heat tolerance in chickpea. The time depending upon the climatic condition (day length and genotypes that showed high heat tolerance and gave higher yields temperature) is one of the best strategies for adaptation than the best known heat tolerant line ICCV 92944 over two years of pulses in diverse climates. This character needs to be at Patancheru included ICCV 07104, ICCV 07105, ICCV 07110 overexploited to develop many short duration varieties that and ICCV 07115. About 280 lines from the reference collection can avoid terminal drought and heat. The range of phenotypic of chickpea germplasm were screened for high temperature plasticity in chickpea is from 20 to 90 days and similarly it also tolerance at two locations in India (Patancheru and Kanpur) exists in other pulses .The weather is most unpredictable, during 2009/10.There were large variations for heat tolerance extreme events of very high and low temperature, deviation index (HTI) phenology, yield and yield components at both the and erratic distribution of rainfall, flood and drought have locations. Several genotypes with high levels of heat tolerance become most frequent and recurrent. Under this situation, were identified. Experiments conducted at ICARDA and in no single strategy is successful. There are multiple dimensions collaboration with its NARS partners have identified heat tolerant of the climatic variables which appear sometimes solely or faba bean, chickpea and lentil genotypes. Evaluation of kabuli superimposed each other. In the context of pulse productivity chickpea lines under delayed planting in field during 2009-10 has under the present scenario, development of short duration resulted in identification of putative heat tolerant genotypes such varieties, gene mining for tolerance to abiotic stresses, as S051708, S00998, S03308, S03525, S051702, S051412, S03302, restructuring of plant types for climatically vulnerable regions, S02266, S051685, and S051703., with yield more than 2 t/ha. changing in the cropping pattern, efficient nutrient and water Similarly, testing in Sudan with full irrigation identified FLIP87-59C, management, seed bank for alternate legume crops, watershed which is also resistant to drought, as heat tolerant genotypes. management, micro irrigation facilities for rainfed condition are some of the better options to address climate change. In chickpea, development of recombinant inbred lines (RILs) is in progress at ICRISAT for mapping of quantitative loci (QTL) Concluding remarks controlling heat tolerance. The phenotypic and genotypic The screening of germplasm for heat and drought tolerance data available on the reference set will be used for association across important grain legumes, indicates that sources of mapping. heat tolerance are available in cultivated germplasm, which can be used in the breeding programs for development of In lentil, evaluation of germplasm under delayed planting tolerant varieties. Molecular markers will be soon available with and without irrigation at regular interval has resulted for major heat tolerance QTL in some legumes and these will in identification of putative tolerant genotypes for heat (ILL further facilitate breeding for heat tolerance. Good agronomic 3597, Sel # 33108, 33109, 33110 and 33113) and drought management including integrated nutrient and drought (ILL1878, ILL 6002, ILL 759 and ILL 6465). In lentils, International practices are being developed to mitigate abiotic stress. The Center for Agricultural Research in the Dry Areas (ICARDA) is cropping system need to be modified in order to include many targeting genotypes with rapid ground cover, early phenology, short duration pulses having tendency to escape terminal a prolonged flowering and podding period leading to increased heat and drought stress. Research efforts are on the way to dry matter production, more pods, high harvest index, efficient strengthened availability of potential donors for stress breeding water use and large seeds to adapt to heat stress. Most of the programme. progress in breeding for terminal heat escape has been made in ...... development of short duration varieties such as Precoz, Idleb 3, The author can be contacted at [email protected] Bakaria, BARI M4, BARI M5 and BARI M6 without compromising Disclaimer- Views are personal yield level.

As most of the winter pulses are quite recurrently experiencing both terminal drought and heat stress under rainfed situation of northern India coinciding with the reproductive stage,

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Section -2 Pulses Processing Technology 

Modern pulses milling technology

Juan Carlos Arriola, Technical Specialist , Milling Technology, Cigi (Canadian International Grains Institute)

The pulses production has been growing in a constant way going through the sieve perforation can go out, the size, shape, during the last 25 years, and Canada is one of the biggest thickness and speed of the rotor will define the final particle size producers worldwide. for the finished product.

Approximately 25% of the Canadian production of pulses is Generally speaking, using higher rpm’s, smaller sieve consumed locally, the rest is exported to different countries. perforations, and thicker sieves, you can produce finer products.

Even if the pulse production in Canada includes peas, lentils, The usual advantages of this milling method are: beans and chickpeas, around 65% of the total produced • Simple operation corresponds to peas, followed by lentils with approximately 16%. • One step size reduction • High yield The main market for pulses is basically divided in three biggest • Low investment cost participants: Feed, Food and Ingredients. The main disadvantages are the high power consumption, The percentage of these markets might be different from and the lack of control of the particle size distribution in final country to country, as an example, in Canada around 90% of the products. peas used domestically are processed into feed, but in other countries are used in the food market or in processed products Stone mill: for human consumption. The stone mill is one of the oldest methods to mill grains. There is information about The ingredients market processes pulses to get added value ancient cultures using stones to manually ingredients like starch, fibre and protein that you can use after mill grains using a handheld stone over a in several applications for food, feed or industrial goods. bedrock.

With the increasing concerns about nutrition, allergies and The stone mill has evolved into a modern healthy issues, we can see the consistent growth in the use of machine in our days but still using the pulses to improve protein levels in different foods and as an same principle of size reduction, using the important element for the development of gluten free products shearing, compression, and abrasion forces like pasta, bread, etc. caused by stones, but in this case two grooved stone disks.

Many of the final products where pulses are used, require The product is fed in the center of the machine right into the a milling process in order to reduce the particle size. The grinding gap between the two stones, there is usually a fixed equipment used in the process will depend mostly on the final stone and a gyrating stone, the product is forced through the physical and functional properties of product you are trying to grinding gap by the centrifugal force, the shearing effect and the achieve. groove profile, going from the center to the outer side of the stones while being milled. We are going to see the four most commonly applied milling methods for pulses: The machine has a grinding gap adjustment, this system moves the grinding surface of the stones closer or further The Hammer mill: away, providing a bigger or smaller grinding gap depending The operation principle of this machine on how fine you need the granulation of the final products is reducing the particle size of the to be. products by impacting them with metal beaters called hammers. This hammers Main advantages of stone milling: are attached to a shaft rotating from • Easy to operate 1000 – 7200 rpm. A perforated metal • Low maintenance sieve covers the rotor forming a milling • Low cost compared with other milling systems chamber where only the particles • One step size reduction www.commodityindia.com Page 55  

The basic disadvantage in this milling process is the lack of This shifting process separates particles according to its size control of the particle size distribution in final products. allowing a more efficient adjustment in the grinding gapon the following milling passages and at the same time allows the Pin Mill: production of different streams of flour, providing the possibility The pin mill is a machine with a milling to have final products with different qualities and protein levels element formed by two disks with through the same milling process. perpendicular pins aligned in rows attached to each disk. Usually one of the Being able to have final products with a controlled particle size disks is fixed, and the other one rotates distribution through the shifting process, offers the flexibility at speeds going from 2000 – 4000 rpm to deliver granular materials (like semolina) to be used in the in commercial size equipment and up to extrusion process for snacks or pasta processing. 20,000 rpms in laboratory equipment. The reduction in particle size is achieved by the impact of the pins Common advantages of roller milling: with the product. • Good control of the particle size distribution on final products through the shifting process. The product is fed axially to the center of the disks where the • It is possible to obtain several products with different impact of the pins, the centrifugal force and the shearing effect properties at the same time using the streams from the between the fixed and the rotating pins, reduce the particle size sifting process. and conveys the product to the outside of the disks, where the reduced material is collected with the frame of the machine and The disadvantages of this processing system are basically the is sent to the outlet. high initial investment, space requirements and the need of trained personal to operate the machinery. It is possible to change the functional properties of the final product, and the granulation, modifying the pin configuration, The pulses department of the Canadian International Grains the speed of rotation and the feed rate. Institute under the management of MSc. Heather Maskus, made studies about the effects of the different milling methods in the Main advantages of pin milling: final flours from different pulses, the following tables show the • Possibility to produce finer particles results for Split Red Lentils and Yellow Peas. • Easy operation • One step particle size reduction process

On the negative side, it requires constant supervision because the pins may wear down.

Roller mills: Roller milling is the most used method in the industry to produce cereal flours all over the world.

Roller mills reduce the particle size of the incoming material using a pair of rolls with opposite rotation, pushing the material trough a grinding gap between them, with a differential speed between rolls that can go commonly from 1:1.125 to 1:2.5. Depending on the particle size and cleanliness of the incoming material, the rolls should be corrugated or smooth.

Nowadays you can find on the market a limited amount of double pair or even triple pair roller mills, designed to have a one-step single machine particle size reduction process, but most of the milling processes using roller mills are designed to have an intermediate shifting between the different reduction steps.

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We can conclude from all the information presented, that the milling process to use will depend on the required properties of the pulse flour or final product we are aiming to produce. Often, milling plants use a combination of the milling process presented and adjust their operation to achieve a final product that meets their specifications or standards...... The author can be contacted at [email protected] Disclaimer- Views are personal

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Pulses processing scenario in India

Kempa Reddy and Abhijeet Anand, Agri-Business Analysts, Foretell Business Solutions Pvt. Ltd.

Pulses are rich in proteins and are mainly consumed in dehusked As per the Table 1, there will be a price difference of 6 percent split form. The major steps in pulses milling comprises, removal as compared to miller who cleans the material at processor of the outer husk and splitting the grain into two equal halves. point. On an average there will be a loss of 8 percent while De-husking makes pulses digestible (removal of anti-nutritional primary cleaning to remove foreign matter, other edible grains, components) and removes bitter taste. The important byproducts damaged grains, weevilled grains etc. If primary processing of pulse milling process are husk, peel, germ, broken etc. happens at processor level means, processor has to incur additional cost such as commission and transportation charges The taste, quality and recovery of processed pulses mainly including wastage while doing primary cleaning. So there is depend on the production region, variety of pulses cultivated need for primary cleaning infrastructure at trader’s level to under irrigation or rain-fed condition and type of process.The minimize the additional costs of the processor and to economize average recovery of dal varies from 75-80 percent depending on the raw material cost. the grades of pulses processed. The Hi-Tech cleaner/grader, gravity separator, color sorters and Most of the pulses processing units arelocated in production elevator system are the major up-gradation or modernization regions mainly to minimize the transportation cost and easy seen in the pulses processing industry. The demand for the color accessibility of the raw material. Most processing units are sorted product has increased in the market as customers prefer running on traditional technology, which requires 3 to 4 days per sorted pulses and are willing to pay a high price for the sorted batch of pulses processing except in case of red gram it takes product. Machinery manufacturers are therefore focusing on 4 to 6 days to process, instead of 2 days or so using the latest this segment as the same is growing very rapidly. technology. Key factors driving technology upgradation in pulses are (a) While processing pulses, cleaning of raw material always remains growing health consciousness, (b) preference for quality a major challenge for the processor, due to its tremendous products in packaged form and (c) shortage of labour. Millers impact on the final quality of output. Cleaning through traditional look for solutions that minimize power consumption, compress machineries requires passage of grains through a number of production cycle, reduce brokens/waste and efficient in sieves which is both labour and time intensive. In modern operation and maintenance. technique, there is an automatic cleaner, destoner which separates the grains from all dust, stone and foreign material. The Processing steps time required is also very less as compared to traditional cleaner.

Table: 1 Price variation at primary level processing stage Primary Primary Aspect processing at processing at traders point millers point Who does Trader Miller Trader Miller Total kg 100 92 100 100 Wastage 8 08 percentage Percentage 92 92 100 92 recovery Purchase price 4500 4600 4500 4670 Processing cost 100 100 Commission 84.64 90 charges (@ 2%) Transportation (@ 73.6 80 Rs.0.80/kg) Price per kg 46.00 47.58 46.70 47.70 www.commodityindia.com Page 59  

Table: 2 Recovery percentages of various components of pulses The processing industry is divided into three segments, mainly Recovery in kg per large scale, medium scale and small scale processors based Component 1000 kg on processing capacity (Table 4). The large scale processors Pigeonpea Chickpea are equipped with all the latest equipments including color sorter. Some of these large scale processors have more than Grade 1 380-400 650-680 one unit running in the region. While the medium and small Grade 2 280-300 98-100 scale industries are the combination of traditional and modern Grade 3 250-270 38-40 technology with slight modifications. The modifications such as Wastage dust free processing, use of elevators to minimize labour usage, 28-30 18-20 (sticks, mud, shriveled grains etc.) use of sorters etc., Husk (cattle feed) 150-160 Total in kg 1000 1000 Table: 3 Various Pulses processed in major states of India States Major pulses processed Despite the advantages of modern technology for cleaning, Andhra Pradesh Tur, Gram, Urad, Moong milling and sorting pulses, the average processors are very less interested in the full setup of modern machinery as the Bihar Masur, Tur, Gram high investment is a deterring factor. Even the subsidies from Delhi Gram, Moong, Tur, Masur, Urad, Peas the Govt. of India on pulses processing machinery has been reduced in few states. Earlier, it was up to 40 percent subsidy Gujarat Tur, Gram, Moong on machineries and currently it’s reduced to 10 percent. The Karnataka Tur, Gram, Mung, Urad average processors therefore go for selective mechanisation Madhya Gram, Tur, Masur, peas (a combination of locally fabricated machines and modern Pradesh automatic machinery). Maharashtra Tur, Moong, Urad, Gram, Peas, Masur

The requirement of machineries is very less compared to Rajasthan Gram, Peas, Moong, Urad rice milling sector. Generally millers use to build based on Tamil Nadu Tur, Urad, Gram, Moong, Peas their requirement and capacity with a combination of local fabricators, local machine manufacturer companies and Uttar Pradesh Masur, Gram, Moong, Peas, Tur branded machine manufacturers. West Bengal Dry pea , Moong, Masur (Lentils), Gram

Region-wise major pulses processing areas in India The cost of machineries varies based on scale of operation and option of machineriessuch as branded, local manufacturers or fabricatorsfor the installation of processing plant.

Table: 4 Capacity-wise approximate range of machinery cost

Particulars Small scale Medium scale Large scale

Capacity 10 20-25 Above 25 (Tonnes per day) Cost of 90 and machinery 25 to 30 45 to 50 above (in INR Lakhs)

The fabricators are well distributed in almost all the processing regions of India and they are giving tuff competition to the branded player in terms of cost. Looking at the efficiency level, no doubt branded machinery is more efficient.

The recent trend in the pulses industry is the introduction of mini dal mil which is gaining popularity in last five years. The investments requiredare smaller and are mostly preferred by the farmers and small-scale operators. These mini dal mill models are developed by CFTRI, PKV, IIPR etc.

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Value addition in the processing industry to export, i.e. export of Kabuli Chana, organic pulses and lentils; Over a period of time, the pulses industry had a makeover. but with a ceiling of 10,000 MTs per annum), proper packaging Earlier processors were confined to processing, not giving and marketing for finished products are some of the needs of much emphasis to the quality processing. But with the passage the hour.It will take a conscious effort mainly by processing of time, quality becomes the priority for the customer. And machinery manufacturers,dal mill associations anddal millers this lead to the introduction of the color sorter, machinery across India to implement suggestions that will best work packaging, and polisher machine in the pulses industry and towards the up-gradation of the dal milling industry. health consciousness led to emergence of dust free processing units. Few large scale processors are also following certification This article is based on pulses processing industry in India. of processed pulses products with ISO standards under their However, broad concepts are equally applicable to processing in own brands. other origins as well.

Perception of processor towards latest technology For additional information on the article or consulting related to Most of the processors believe that level of investment is high agribusiness, please contact at [email protected] or call in case of branded machinery which they can’t afford in case +91 80 25276152/53 of small and medium processors. The medium and small scale ...... processors are being dominated in the major processing hubs, Disclaimer- Views are personal which are operating in small scale.

Space constraint is another major problem in all processing region. Modern/Branded mills require a large space for setup. The increase in the number of mills in the region has lead to reduction in the utilization capacity mainly due to low availability of raw material.

The small scale mills are operates mainly in the major pulses production seasons and raw material availability is problematic as low domestic production of crop. Hence capacity expansion will not be easy decision for the millers. Only medium and large millers can go for it.

Conclusion The dal milling industry in India needsto updateits milling technology to improve product quality and comply with emerging food safety standards, to improve process efficiencies anddeal with shortage of quality labour. Enough and easy accessibility to raw materials, financial support for the up- gradation, opportunities for exports (there are two exceptions

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Overview of pulse milling and processing technologies Sathyendra Rao. B.V and Srinivas. A, Senior Principal Scientists in Department of Grain Science & Technology, CSIR, Mysuru

Rich in fiber and protein, and enzymatic and hydrothermal having high levels of minerals such methods. as iron, zinc, and phosphorous as well as folate and other Chemical conditioning with sodium B-vitamins, grain legumes provide bicarbonate, sodium carbonate, nutritional complementarity with urea, sodium hydroxide, acetic cereals and tubers. They also acid/vinegar, enzymatic pre- play a major role in the nutrition treatment with xylanase, protease security, crop diversification and have been investigated but are sustainability. India is the largest yet to be established as viable producer, consumer, importer alternative methods. Pre- and processor of pulses in the processing is a must for pulses Sathyendra Rao B.V world. About 20% of the country’s which could be either by wet or Srinivas A internal demand for pulses is being met through imports. It is dry method. In the wet method, estimated that by 2050, domestic requirements would reach a pulses are soaked in water for a specified time followed by mammoth figure of 26-27 Mt. It is essential not only to improve sun-drying and milling. In the dry pre-milling treatment, pulses agricultural production but also adapt appropriate processing are pitted, vegetable oil added (0.2 to 0.3%), tempered, dried, technologies/ machinery for optimal utilization. Dry pulses are tempered once again for 6–8h and then milled. Drying is done also a major food staple of populations in India, the Middle East, either using a mechanical dryer or in the sun. Africa and South America. About 70-80% of the pulses produced in the subcontinent is milled and converted to Dhal (dehusked, Dhal mills, by and large, employ emery rollers for dehusking split cotyledon). There are more than 14000 such mills in India and splitting. After dehusking, husk is aspirated off from the with varying capacities. Pulse milling is the third largest food resultant mixture. Grading is done to get Dhal, dehusked whole processing industry after rice and wheat flour milling. pulse (gota) and small brokens. Combination of rotary and reciprocating screens is used commercially for separation of Primary goal of pulse processing is gota. CSIR-CFTRI (CSIR – Central Food Technological Research converting these highly nutritious Institute) has developed a `gota separator’ which employs crops into acceptable, healthy, differences in the bouncing properties of the constituents. functional products. In the Gota is fed again to the conditioner for subsequent splitting. subcontinent, more often than Dehusking and splitting is incomplete in one step and requires not the fibrous seed coat (hull) is multiple passes, at times with intermittent conditioning and removed and the grain is split into two halves (Dhal) before grain is scoured in each pass resulting in brokens and fines. To cooking or further processing. In addition to reducing the remove portions of husk still adhering on to the surface, Dhal fiber content, milling improves appearance, texture, quality, is polished (optionally) to impart uniform look and sheen to palatability and digestibility of pulses and reduces cooking time the grains and improve consumer appeal. Dhal is polished in as well. Based on the strength of the bond (mucilage and gum) different ways viz., nylon polish, oil/water polish, leather and between hull and cotyledons, pulses are classified as ‘difficult- makhmal polish. Color sorting of Dhal is the recent development to-mill’ (red gram and black gram) or ‘easy-to-mill’ (green gram and the demand for such dhal has increased in the market. Yield and chick pea). Processing methods change accordingly. of split and pulses in traditional mills are low as against the potential yield of 78 to 82%. Cleaning, grading, drying, conditioning, dehulling, packing and storing are the major operations performed during pulse There is no common pre–processing method applicable to milling (See Figure 1). Conditioning or pre-milling treatment all the pulses. Processing differs from crop to crop, cultivar is to loosen the husk (from the cotyledon) so that it can be to cultivar and place to place. This is because of the lack of easily separated by mechanical means. It is aimed at increasing thorough understanding of all the responsible factors. As ease of milling, reducing breakage and improving quality of a result, milling industry has the following difficulties: non Dhal without affecting the shape, colour or the cooking quality. availability of high quality grains (with improved milling Pre-milling treatments are classified as wet, dry, chemical, characteristics), dependence on climatic conditions, low milling www.commodityindia.com Page 63  

yield due to improper processing techniques and machinery, greater attention. Reduction of dust pollution and carbon foot poor quality of end product, loss of nutrients, unhygienic print also needs to be addressed. Newer technologies like cryo- working conditions, high labour inputs, higher specific energy grinding, enzymatic milling needs to be studied. Appropriate consumption, poor plant utilization, high cost of processing etc. technologies to mitigate anti-nutritional factors for effective utilization of the lesser known pulses and development of value To cater to the milling requirements of tiny added products delivering nutrition also needs greater thrust. and very small processors, a large number of low-capacity Dhal mills have also been In short, legume processing industry needs to be given a shot in developed. Notable among them are the arm to bring its cultivation, processing and utilization on par splitting and dehusking machines of IARI, with the technologies adapted for other grains like wheat and rice. CIAE, Mini Dhal mills by PKV, Pantnagar, IIPR and versatile Dhal mill and versatile mini The article explains in detail about technologies of pulses Dhal mills of CFTRI. Large scale processing processing and new technologies evolved in various milling units by and large still depend on traditional technological innovation institutes of India. The variety of new milling methods and equipment. food products emerged through various pulses ingredients and there nutritional aspects. Improvements required in the post Many processing technologies have been employed to generate handling of pulses. products from pulses.

They include (but not restricted to) blanching, boiling/cooking, roasting, fermenting, germinating, shaping and extruding, puffing, frying (normal and vacuum), etc. A variety of products in varied shapes, sizes, forms and flavours have been developed from pulses. The spectrum of products include namkeens (fried spicy snack), soup, RTE low fat snacks, pasta, nuggets, extruded products, ready mixes for Pongal and Urdbhath, dry powder for Idli and Dosa, quick cooking germinated pulses, legume flakes (plain and/or with spices), papad, composite lentil chips, puffed moth bean snacks and Dhal, etc. Puffed chickpea Dhal and Chickpea flour is used in many culinary preparations.

Deterrents in the use of a number grain legumes is the hard- to -cook phenomenon that leads to long cooking time, presence of anti-nutritional factors such as phytates that affect digestion, flatus and at times toxins. A classic example is the Khesari pulse (Lathyrus sativus) which has a toxic amino acid (β-N-oxalyl-L- alanine) known to cause Lathyrism, a crippling disease in human beings. CFTRI has developed a technology to reduce this toxin to safe levels.

Lesser known pulses like horse gram, cowpea, lentil etc are known for their nutritional content. Use of such pulses in wellness and therapeutic foods is well documented. Ex., anti- hyperglycemic properties and ability to reduce insulin resistance renders horse gram a highly recommended food for the diabetics. Even though a few horse gram based products like soup mix, expanded (puffed) gram are developed, emphasis should be provided to develop and popularize new foods. Some of the pulses also find non-food applications. While Cluster beans is consumed as a vegetable in the unripe condition, mature seeds are processed to extract the gum for industrial uses.

Improving the availability and utilization of pulses in a protein deficient population is a major concern. There is a need to ...... improve the post-production technology of grain legumes to The author can be contacted at [email protected] reduce the losses. Modernization of milling technology needs Disclaimer- Views are personal

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New pulse processing technologies meet changing world needs

Prasad Jaripatke, Head of Bühler’s Pulses Business Segment

Next year has been declared the farms. This is partly to address growing local demand, but also International Year of Pulses, following for international trade. on from similar initiatives for rice and potatoes. Prasad Jaripatke* of Despite the increase in global production, pulses are still Bühler expects to see a significant mostly used as staple food in some parts of the world, and rise in the global awareness of the are less commonly eaten in others. This suggests that there is potential of pulses to help nourish the considerable potential for growth in their consumption. The world’s growing population, safely and chances of realising their potential are heightened by the fact sustainably. that pulses are very versatile. They can be eaten as whole grain, de-skinned splits, or as pulse flour. They can be part of the Over the next two generations, the world’s population is main meal, as in a curry, or can be a side dish like salad, soup expected to grow from 7bn to 9bn, with 70 percent adopting an or snacks. They can be used germinated, roasted or fermented, ‘urban lifestyle’, in which they take little or no part in growing and can be a part of a purely vegetarian dish or cooked with and producing food. To meet its needs, it will not be sufficient to meat or fish. just increase the amount of produced food. Food products will have to become more efficient, more sustainable, and satisfy Pulses can be sold to consumers as ingredients for home new food habits. cooking, or incorporated into manufactured foods by downstream processors, thereby adding to the value chain. Fortunately, pulses and other foodstuffs have the potential to Interestingly, people’s taste varies by region around the world, meet this transformation, although many issues have still to be and the versatility of pulses means they are easily adaptable to addressed, including improving processing technologies and different tastes. greater integration of the value chain. The global food industry is becoming ever more aware of the Perhaps the first thing to appreciate is the attractiveness potential offered by pulses to deliver innovative food products, of pulses in the global food environment. Pulses are highly with strong consumer attributes. Both the nutritional and nutritious, being rich in protein, minerals and vitamins and environmental profile of food can be strongly augmented by are increasingly recommended by health organisations including pulses in the formulation. New applications are being around the world, as part of a healthy diet to combat obesity developed, such as the processing of pulses and their fractions and help address chronic diseases like diabetes and coronary into extruded or baked snacks, pasta, noodles and other conditions. protein-rich products, which can be produced in high volume for mass consumption. A significant advantage of this is that Pulses also contribute significantly to improving the new techniques often reduce the amount of waste, so can add environmental footprint of our daily diet. Like many plant- significantly to the overall efficiency of pulse production. An based foods, they are more efficient to produce than meat. example of this is the incorporation of the hulls of de-skinned Per gram, meat uses up to six times the water required by pulses into conventional products, supplementing dietary fibres. pulses. Further, pulses are a nitrogen fixing crop, which considerably reduces the need to add artificial fertilisers to Significantly, pulses are gluten-free and in recent years have the soil, which produce nitrous oxides that have nearly 300 found a new market value for end consumers avoiding gluten. times the global warming potential as carbon dioxide. However, the lack of gluten also means that pulses make poor dough, and to date have been unsuitable for bread and similar Regardless of these impressive nutrition and environmental products. Food scientists and technologists are working on new advantages, pulses are often still relegated to a secondary role solutions that will address this drawback and should in time in the global food landscape. Pulses are a traditional crop in Asia produce whole new classes of pulse-based end products. and Africa. About 70% of production takes place in developing countries, on farms of under five acres, producing 100-300kg Pulses require accurate processing in order to be transformed of pulses a day, for a return of about USD$5. More recently, into nutritious and safe food. After harvesting, they undertake production has been increasing in other parts of the world, such a series of processing steps, including cleaning, grading, hulling, as Australia, America and Canada, with large-scale industrialized splitting, polishing and optical sorting, depending on the final

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form required for the particular market. This processing ensures Cleaning and grading section that they are free from impurities, uniform in size and colour, within a Bühler 4-story fully nutritional, easy to cook and digest. automated, hygienic and dust free plant In the past, the processing industry was run as something of a cottage industry, based on many small, inefficient mills. This traditional pulse processing industry is now transitioning to a new form, based on two types of mill: on one side, modern Bühler hulling machines – the high-volume mills, achieving efficiency through economies of heart of the process line scale to address the mass markets, on the other side, smaller specialist mills - modern, hygienic and efficient - to satisfy niche markets.

The older mills can be characterised as manually operated with high labour costs, poor energy efficiency, low yields and product wastage. Additionally, they have poor dust extraction About Bühler and machinery is prone to break down. Fortunately, all of these Bühler is a global leader in the field of process engineering, in issues are addressable, using state-of-the-art technologies. particular production technologies and services for making foods Modernised mills will be more sustainable (both economically and advanced materials. Bühler operates in over 140 countries and environmentally), more commercially viable and help to and has a global payroll of over 10,000. In fiscal 2013, the generate wealth for their local communities. company generated sales revenue of CHF 2,322 million

In the near future, automation will be increasingly used to Bühler in Pulses ensure consistent quantity and quality of throughput. There Bühler provides cutting edge technology at every stage of will also be technological solutions for reducing processing the production process, from pre-cleaning, cleaning, grading, time, improving hygiene, increasing productivity and enhancing hulling, drying and splitting, through to optical sorting, nutrition. These developments can be classified as improving polishing and final bulk packing, for the world’s vast array of existing techniques and systems, but there is also considerable pulse products. Additionally, Bühler provides solutions for the effort going into creating true innovation, which will drive production of extruded products, pasta and noodles, as well as revolutionary new solutions into the industry and open up new drying and roasting technologies. Specialising in turnkey as well markets. as individual solutions, Bühler represents the perfect technology partner for pulse and food processors everywhere. Besides conventional processing, further, well-established food ...... technologies can be applied to pulses, to create innovative *About the author products, such as extrusion, baking, pasta making, roasting or Prasad Jaripatke is head of pulses, spices and sesame at Bühler. pre-cooking. He has worked for Bühler India for 19 years, across various divisions and business units. The International Year of Pulses 2016 is definitely a strategic In 2001, Prasad and his team began developing processing and well-timed initiative. There are a lot of recent advances solutions for a variety of commodities. These solutions have to promote to potential markets, and many new avenues to contributed to higher levels of yield and productivity, as well as explore, for which great momentum can be generated during providing safer food products for the end consumer. the Year. Previous International Years have proven successful in the food industries, and other similar initiatives have helped Prasad graduated as an Engineer in Production Technology stabilise food production in countries like India. and is Bühler’s expert in pulses processing. He has been instrumental in providing new concepts, processes and products The changes in the food market, driven by global population to the pulse industry. and environmental trends, as well as the advantages of pulse Contact for the media processing, provide the perfect framework for a very successful Tracey Ibbotson, PR Executive, Buhler Sortex, London, England and impactful International Year of Pulses. The challenge is now Phone +44 (0)1992 537421, to set high targets for this initiative, and catalyse the forces of e-mail: [email protected] the pulse community - private sector, governmental bodies and ...... scientific community - to achieve them. If we can do that, the The author can be contacted at [email protected] ultimate goal of worldwide food security within the foreseeable Tel: +91 2066497710 future will come a big step closer to being realised. Disclaimer- Views are personal.

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Branding of minor pulses in India

Nirali Bhatt, Global Agro Commodities

High quality healthy food is important Global Agro Commodities, A leading US Based grower, processor & exporter of U.S. Pulses has expanded its capability to supply premium U.S. Pulses all the way from farm to retail stores, hyper markets, cash’n’carry stores all over India with its launch of premium Pulses under the brand name of “American Topnotch” for Peas & Lentils (Healthier Dals), the company is selling retail packaged premium pulses – Green Peas, Chickpeas, & Lentil Splits known as Yellow Dal, Dark Red Kidney Beans & Black Eye Beans.

Pulses are rich in protein, fiber, minerals and vitamins and (American Topnotch Premium Pulses advertisement at Goa we are proud to bring these high quality healthier pulses into Airport in February 2014) Indian retail landscape. International presence Premium quality pulses from U.S. Very limited percent of pulses are sold in India are branded and U.S. has been recognized by markets world wide as a high American Topnotch is the very first international brand from quality producer of Peas & Lentils (Pulses) for many years U.S. which is being launched in India. We are looking at creating and U.S. has been supplying over half a million tons of Peas a national presence, Said Mr. Divyesh K. Patel, Chief Executive of & Lentils (Pulses) to India annually with its consistent high Global Agro Commodities. quality for few years now. This is the first time, efforts have been made to bring the same quality and care in smaller By bringing these premium quality healthier U.S. pulses into package all the way “from farm to consumer” under one India, Global Agro Commodities is helping to bridge the gap large umbrella. in demand and supply of Pulses in India. India is not only the world’s largest producer of pulses, but also the country that As stated on its retail packs: “Our quality originates from the accounts for the second-highest per capita consumption of regions where pulses flourish naturally and purely – in the pulses after Brazil. It is a reflection of the priorities of Indian best cultivation areas of U.S.A. agriculture that the country had to import pulses to satiate demand between 2004 and 2010. It continued to rely on Selected carefully by our experts, their journey leads to imports, for 8.8 million tons of pulses between 2007 and 2009. one of the most modern plant in America for gentle further ...... processing – at which American Topnotch family thrives on a The author can be contacted at [email protected] tradition dating back over hundred years. In this way quality Disclaimer- Views are personal. of American Topnotch emerges, and in your hand it becomes a unique healthy pleasure.

Indian housewives would enjoy this consistent high quality and effective price advantage.

The American Topnotch brand has priced the pulses between Rs. 50 to Rs. 95 for a one-kg pack depending on the product.

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Section-3 Health, Nutrition & Food Innovation  

Health benefits of pulses

Charan Wadhawan, Senior Scientist, Agricultural Utilization Research Institute (AURI), USA

Pulses are defined pulse intake significantly reduces LDL cholesterol levels. by the Food Lowering cholesterol levels reduces the risk of heart disease. and Agricultural Organization of the 2. Cancer risk United Nations (FAO) According to The Cancer Project, a diet that includes plenty as annual leguminous of insoluble fiber can regulate bowel movements, promote crops yielding from digestive system health and may significantly decrease the risk one to twelve grains or of colon, breast, throat and esophageal cancer. This may also be seeds of variable size, attributed to lignans and saponins, resistant starch, antioxidants shape and color within and a variety of phytochemicals in legumes. Foods containing a pod. Pulses are used folate help to reduce the risk of pancreatic cancer perhaps due for food and animal to its role in healthy cell division and repair of damaged cells. feed. Research is going on in the anticancer effects of phytochemicals.

The term pulses, as used by the FAO, are reserved for crops 3. Celiac disease harvested solely for the dry grain. This, therefore, excludes Pulses are naturally gluten free, therefore, can form a part of green beans and green peas, which are considered vegetable daily diet for people with celiac disease. There are lot of gluten crops. Also excluded are crops which are mainly grown for oil free products coming into the market that are made from pulse extraction (oilseeds like soybeans and peanuts), and crops flours blends. which are used exclusively for sowing (clovers, alfalfa). 4. Diabetes Pulses are known to be part of healthy diet. Pulses such as Soluble fiber helps stabilize blood sugar levels by slowing down chickpeas, lentils, beans (kidney, Mung, Urad, Black beans etc.) the digestion of carbohydrates. Pulses have a lower Glycemic are inexpensive source of many nutrients including protein, Index (GI) which provides a slower release of glucose into the complex carbohydrates, and dietary fiber. They are the best blood. For diabetics, pulses are a great choice for regulating source of lean vegetarian protein. Eating pulses with whole blood sugar levels. wheat bread or rice for a meal, provides complete protein. They also contain significant levels of vitamins and minerals such as 5. Control high blood pressure folate, iron, potassium and magnesium. Although minerals are Studies have indicated a beneficial effect of both dietary partially bound with phytic acid in pulses but can be released protein and dietary fiber on level of blood pressure. Magnesium by soaking and cooking, thus increasing their absorption by the prevents migraine headache and with potassium, it helps body. Traditionally pulses are soaked before cooking them. Fat in lowering blood pressure. Pulses are good source of these content of pulses is generally very low and of course they don’t nutrients, thus are linked to lowering blood pressure. contain any cholesterol. 6. Prevent birth defects 1.Heart Health Pulses are rich in Folate, also known as folic acid or vitamin B-9. Pulses contribute to heart health due to significant levels of It supports nervous system health, helps in energy metabolism fiber, folate and magnesium. Folate lowers the homocysteine and synthesis of DNA, RNA and red blood cells. Pregnant levels, which are a risk factor in heart disease. Magnesium women who consume pulses daily may lessen the risk of their improves blood flow, oxygen and nutrients in the body. Low child born with birth defect. levels of magnesium have been associated with heart attack. Lentils also help to reduce blood cholesterol since it contains 7. Increase energy high levels of soluble fiber. According to a recent study Iron levels in pulses boost iron stores in women especially. published in Canadian Medical Journal (April 2014), dietary Although it is non-heme iron but when taken with vegetables,

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a source of vitamin C, body can absorb iron better to produce Sourcing equipment and Ingredients. Dr. Wadhawan holds a red blood cells and ATP (adenosine triphosphate) and iron Bachelor of Science in Food and Nutrition, Masters of Science transports oxygen throughout the body for energy production in Food Technology and a Ph.D. in Cereal Chemistry; as well as and metabolism. People who are deficient in iron may develop being a member of the American Association of Cereal Chemists anemia or ADHD. and Institute of Food Technologists. She worked for almost 9 years at the Canadian International Grains Institute as a cereal 8. Weight management chemist and has been with AURI for almost 25 years. Since pulses are high in fiber and protein which can keep you ...... feeling fuller for longer period of time. Low glycemic index of The author can be contacted at [email protected] pulses prevents you from feeling hungry soon, therefore, you Views are personal would eat less, thus helps in controlling weight.

Using pulses as ingredient Pulses are very versatile in applications and can be used in a variety of food products to enhance their nutritional value. Whole beans can be used as entrees, in combination with rice, vegetables and meat or as side dishes, salads, soups, stews, dips, condiments and sweet goods. Ground pulse flours can be blended with other flours for use in Pizza, crust, pasta, tortilla, breads, pita bread, bagels, muffins, cookies, crackers, breakfast cereals, snacks, meat and meat analogs, beverages, desserts, batters and breading especially for gluten free products.

Pulses can be milled and fractionated into highly functional protein, fiber and starch for use in other foods to enhance their nutritional value, improve glycemic index of products and cooking profiles.

Pulse protein concentrates can be used to replace eggs in foods for people who are allergic to egg and for vegetarians who don’t eat eggs. Pulse ingredients can be used in baby foods for infants who are lactose intolerant and allergic to soy products.

Pulses are somewhat unique as a plant food because in addition to high amount of fibre and complex carbohydrates, pulses typically contain about twice the amount of protein found in whole grain cereals like wheat, oats, barley and rice. They have higher amounts of the essential amino acid lysine, whereas cereals have higher amounts of the essential amino acids methionine and cysteine so blending pulses with cereals or nuts results in a better quality protein that contains all essential amino acids in appropriate amounts. ------Dr. Charan Wadhawan, Ph.D., Senior Scientist, Food and Nutrition: Dr. Charan Wadhawan serves as the Foods and Nutrition Scientist for Agricultural Utilization Research Institute (AURI) at the Crookston, Minnesota. She is experienced with assisting food companies with Product Development and Processing, Product Commercialization, Compliance with regulations including labeling, quality control, Shelf-life,

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Reserve mobilized pulses– a timely addition to the nutrient-deficient Indian diet

R. Sujatha, Consultant – Diet and Food Processing, India

Malnutrition is a major threat to the fast growing Indian stages of growth. When the seeds are dry, there is no metabolic Economy. According to National Family Health Survey activity. A cascade of metabolic events happen as soon as the (2005–2006) NFHS-3, malnutrition and anemia have increased seeds get hydrated and most of them are directed towards considerably since 98-99 among Indians especially, among breaking down the stored reserves of energy such as starch children and women. More than 50% of the population is and oils and converting them into readily utilizable simpler malnourished. energy molecules. During this process, the seeds also release the reserves of mineral ions and proteins which are stored in Malnutrition is the condition that develops when the body bound form to certain phytochemicals. These phytochemicals does not get the right amount of the vitamins, minerals and which bind the mineral ions act as Anti Nutritional Factors other nutrients like proteins needed to maintain healthy tissues (ANF) to humans and other herbivorous animals. Mineral ions and organ function. It is a state of imbalanced nourishment. and proteins are made available to the system only when these Malnutrition occurs in people who are either undernourished or binding phytochemicals are broken down. overnourished. Surveys cited by FAO (Food and Agricultural Organization of As a Consultant for Diet and Food processing, my observations United Nations) and USDA (U.S.Department of Agriculture) pinpoint as a contributing factor to malnutrition, to the estimate 20%–42% of the Indian population to be vegetarian. poor quality of foods which are extremely deficient in minor These surveys indicate that among those who do eat meat, nutrients such as minerals and vitamins and major nutrients less than 30% consume it regularly and the reasons are mainly such as proteins. This condition is more prevalent in the cultural and partially economic. The Indian population largely Southern States where, rice is the staple food. Deficiency of depends on pulses (Peas, Beans and Lentils) as its protein vitamins and minerals can seriously hamper certain enzymes source. Pulses are imported into the country in spite of India which require them as cofactors in order to function resulting being a major producer of pulses. But, ironically, per capita in major disorders. Deficiency of proteins can have a wide range consumption of pulses remains low because of economic of consequences. The alarming increase in the prevalence of reasons and changing life-style. obesity, hormonal disorders and other life-style based disorders can very confidently be attributed to the foods that are deficient Pulses contain a similar amount of proteins to meat. The in minor and major nutrients, dietary fibers and extremely rich nutritional quality of the proteins of pulses is considered only in carbohydrates. second to those of meat since they lack certain amino acids like methionine and cysteine needed by the body. To add to this Poor quality of foods has a great deal to do with our agricultural difficulty, pulses have very poor digestibility because of high anti practices and food processing methods which have been nutritional factors. Pulses have a wide variety of Anti Nutritional evolved taking only the quantity in to consideration sidelining Factors making them poor sources of proteins. In this context it the nutritional quality of the products produced. The need of is worthwhile to consider producing different kinds of products the hour is to develop processing methods in which the stored containing pulses in which nutrients reserves have been reserves of vitamins, minerals and other nutrients in the grains made available for ready absorption by reserve mobilization are mobilized, in other words, converted to the forms which are processes. Reserve mobilized pulses not only provide proteins absorbed efficiently. Though fortifications of the products with with improved digestibility and absorbability, but also the minor minerals and vitamins have been in practice, the results have nutrients. An added advantage of pulses is that they are free of not been promising. This is because the vitamins and minerals gluten. added are not absorbed and incorporated into the system Point to be noted efficiently. So, we are left only with the option of mobilizing The protein content of pulses is about 20% to 25% about twice the natural reserves of proteins, minerals and vitamins in the as much as that of cereal’s, making them the most economical seeds which are easily absorbed by the system since they are in source of proteins. biologically absorbable forms. Different pulses have different ANFs. Though hydrating the Reserve mobilization is a natural process that happens in seeds by soaking in water followed by germination remove seeds when they are soaked in water and then germinated. majority of ANFs, different methods are to be adopted to It is a preparatory process to facilitate germination and early remove tougher ones. Apart from the nutritional requirement

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of the society, the need for easy-cooking pulses products and Variety of products has been produced from soya. Like that, snack items is to be considered in order to increase the per product formulations are to be developed for Indian pulses. capita consumption of pulses, since the traditional foods and Whole pulses, pulse flours, protein isolates and protein methods of cooking are becoming burdensome because of concentrates are the major categories of products which can priority shift. be used for the development of a wide variety of products that are easy to cook, ready to eat etc. Innovative foods such as Apart from processing practices, the genotypes of the pulses bakery products, snack products, extruded products etc., can also influence the nutritional quality and process ability. be developed using whole pulses, pulse flours, various fractions Different genotypes have different nutritional factors and of the pulses such as fibre, starch, proteins etc. Since pulses are cooking properties. These differences are due to the differences gluten free, they can be used to enrich gluten-free products in the hardness of seed coat and hardness of the cotyledons with proteins and other minor nutrients. among the genotypes.Genotypes with suitable qualities that are inheritable are to be selected and popularized. This will The Indian food processing sector has not explored into these facilitate easy standardization of pre-conditioning methods and fully yet. processing methods which will ensure consistency in qualities...... The author can be contacted at [email protected] Disclaimer- Views are personal

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Various gluten-free food applications of pulses

H.D Maskus and T.B Loader, Project Manager, Pulse Flour Milling & Food Applications, Cigi (Canadian International Grains Institute), Canada

Rationale Materials and methods In recent years, the gluten-free The selection of gluten-free ingredients is food market has witnessed a critically important in formulating gluten staggering growth in product free bakery products. Often blends of sales. From 2009 to present, the gluten-free ingredients are used.Physical gluten-free product category and functional characteristics of the has grown 40% annually, and is blend ingredients complement one expected to continue to grow at another to createfunctional synergies to this rate for another three years contribute to quality in the final product. Common gluten-free ingredients include (Food Navigator USA Forum, T.B Loader 2014). Due to extensive media rice, corn, potato, tapioca and other H.D Maskus promotion of the gluten-free diet starchy or refined flours (Gallagher et al, 2004).Table 1 includes and increased diagnoses of Celiac Disease and wheat allergy, information on several common gluten-free ingredients. Pulse more consumers are purchasing gluten-free food products from flours such as chickpea, pea, lentil and bean often can be their local supermarkets. The most sought after gluten-free food used at levels of 10-60% inclusion in gluten-free formulations. products in the US are pasta, bread and rolls, breakfast cereals, However, as recommended by Watson et al (2009) flours with pizza, and cakes and pastries (Food Navigator USA Forum, 2014). strong flavors, such as pulse flours, should be incorporated However, according to IRI Worldwide, the top selling gluten- into gluten-free blends at a maximum of 30% inclusion. Table free products in 2013 were (in descending order): crackers, 2 illustrates gluten-free flour blends developed at 30% pulse salty snacks, breads and rolls, pasta, cookies, baking mixes, flour inclusioncompared to blends with no added pulse flour. ready-to-eat cereal, ancient grains, snack bars, flour, and frozen An example of a gluten-free formulation for tortillas has been pizza (Watson, 2014). Consumers expect the food industry to provided in Table 3. Observations through several Cigi trials deliver high quality and nutritious gluten-free food products for indicate that pulse flours increase stiffness in doughs and themselves and their families. However, the current selection batters improving the handling characteristics when used in of gluten-free tortillas in stores is limited and products are gluten-free formulations. often lacking in nutritional value. Evidently, there is room for to improve the quality, price, and diversity of gluten-free products Table 1. Examples of common Gluten-free ingredients and available in the UK market. For future product development, their characteristics* manufacturers should look to these three UK consumer trends: Oil Absorption Average Approx. 1) consumers are looking for convenience, they want to be Protein Flour Type Capacity Particle Size Cost/kg able to easily find and purchase foods and easily prepare (%) (g oil/g (µm) (CAD) them; 2) consumers are taking control of what they put in flour) theirs and their children’s bodies through the diet and are amaranthflour 22.2 1.29 248.0 NA therefore seeking healthful alternatives; and 3) consumers are sorghum flour 11.1 0.90 110.2 1.00-1.75 looking for enjoyment foods, such as foods with intensified millet flour 13.5 0.73 192.3 1.15-2.00 taste and texture and that provide an indulgent experience quinoa flour 13.2-13.9 1.00-1.01 197.2-249.7 2.50-14.00 (Canadian Trade Commissioner Service, 2014). These issues coconut flour 20.6 0.73 217.0 3.50-5.50 can be resolved through the development of new gluten-free brown teff flour 10.3 0.82 187.3 3.25-4.25 products that incorporate pulse flours in the formulation. Pulse chickpea flour 25.2 0.89 172.1 1.50-2.25 flours contain more protein, fibre, and essential micronutrients brown rice flour 9.1 0.64 164.9 1.15-1.75 than many of the gluten-free flours that are commonly used white rice flour 8.0 0.73 172.1 1.15-1.75 in gluten-free food product development today. The Canadian arrowroot 0.2 0.94 16.6 2.00-3.00 International Grains Institute (Cigi) located in Winnipeg Canada starch has recently undertaken a project to assess the functional and tapioca starch 0.3 0.73 15.5 1.00-1.50 nutritional benefits of the addition of pulse flours to popular potato starch 0.2 0.62 44.0 1.25-2.00 gluten-free food product formulations. Considerations in corn flour 9.2 0.80 195.8 0.85- 1.25 reformulating gluten-free products using pulse ingredients as fava bean flour 33.4 0.85 198 1.50-2.50 well as advantages of the inclusion of pulse flours in gluten-free *Testing results from Cigi’s Analytical Services Lab. Cost per kg formulations will be discussed in this article. will vary widely with ingredient quality and certifications www.commodityindia.com Page 75  

Table 2. Composition of Control and Pulse Flour Blends used in were cooked for one minute per side then allowed to cool on a Gluten-Free Tortilla Processing wire rack. After cooling, tortillas were stored in plastic bags and 30% Pulse Addition kept at room temperature until time of analysis. Control Flour Blend Flour Blend Flour Type Inclusion Inclusion Amount Gluten-Free Product Analysis Amount (g) (%) (%) (g) In order to properly identify high quality of gluten-free products Tapioca 30 60 21 42 containing pulse flours it is important to identify the quality Brown Rice 40 80 28 56 attributes and quality targets required in the final product. White Rice 30 60 21 42 Often when pulse flour ingredients are included in a formulation Pulse* 0 0 30 60 the physical properties of the product are altered; for example Total 100 200 100 200 bread loaf height, tortilla diameter and thickness and cookie * Pulse flours included whole yellow pea, whole chickpea, whole spread ratio. Sensory characteristics of gluten-free products pinto bean, whole navy bean, and whole green lentil flours such as appearance, colour, aroma, flavour and mouthfeel may also vary depending on ingredients used in the formulation. Table 3. Formulation for Gluten-Free Tortillas Containing 30% Product texture can also be altered with the use of pulse Inclusion of Pulse Flour ingredients in gluten-free products. Compression and shear Ingredient Bakers (%)1 Amount(g) testing can help to build understanding of the effects of pulse Flour Blend 100 200 flours on these textural characteristics of gluten-free foods. Potato starch 5 10 Xanthan gum 2 4 Gluten-free tortillas formulated with pulses, illustrated in figure Baking powder 1.5 3 1, exhibited the following quality characteristics. Pulse inclusion Table salt 0.5 1 caused some differences in tortilla diameter and thickness Vegetable oil 12.5 25 although only navy bean flour tortillas were significantly smaller Water 60 120 in diameter than the control and only chickpea flour tortillas 1Percent based on flour weight were significantly thicker than the control. No significant differences were observed for the sensory traits (opacity/ Gluten-Free Product Preparation translucency, toasted spots, puffing, and overall eye appeal) Gluten-free food processing often requires novel approaches of pulse containing tortillas from the control. The inclusion of and unique equipment due to the fluid or batter-like consistency pulse ingredients in gluten-free tortillas had a significant effect of many doughs created from gluten-free ingredients (Gallagher on the tortilla texture. The firmness (force to puncture in g) of et al, 2004). If the formation of a gluten-free dough is possible, the control tortilla was significantly greater than all formulations the doughs created for gluten-free applications are often with pulses with the exception of 30% green lentil flour. very fragile and require delicate handling. An example of a However, rollability of tortillas after day 5 was improved with methodology developed at Cigi to prepare gluten-free pulse the addition of 30% chickpea and navy bean flours. tortillas is explained below.

Five pulse flours were tested in the tortilla formulation at 30% inclusion with a gluten-free flour blend containing brown rice, white rice, and tapioca flours (Table 3). The pulse flours tested were purchased from Best Cooking Pulses (Portage la Prairie, Canada) and included: whole yellow pea, whole chickpea, whole pinto bean, whole navy bean, and whole green lentil flours. A KitchenAid stand mixer with a hook attachment was used for ingredient mixing. First, the dry ingredients were combined and Figure 1: Gluten-free tortillas made at the Canadian mixed for 1 minute on speed 1. Oil was incorporated next, and International Grains Institute (Winnipeg, Canada). Left-right: mixed for 1 minute on speed 1. Finally, water was added, and control, 30% yellow pea flour, 30% chickpea flour, 30% pinto mixed for 4 minutes on speed 2. A spatula was used to scrape bean flour, 30% navy bean flour, 30% green lentil flour. the mixing bowl between ingredient additions and as needed. After mixing, the dough was rounded by hand into large dough Nutritional quality mass and allowed to rest, covered, at room temperature for 10 The nutritional content of a food product is one of the main minutes. After resting, the dough was divided into 8 dough balls driving forces behind consumer purchasing decisions. A growing and flattened using a non-stick rolling pin and white rice flour demand in India was observed for foods that: are organic, for dusting. Dough balls were rolled out to a size large enough contain antioxidants, have bone healths or cardiovascular to be pressed with a round cutter (17.5 cm diameter) into a claims, and are gluten-free (Whitehead, 2012). Food products tortilla shape. Using an electric griddle set to 400°F, tortillas

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with high fibre, protein, and micronutrient contentsare Conclusions desirable.The nutritional quality of gluten-free products The inclusion of pulse flours as ingredients in gluten-free product changes dramatically when pulse flours are included in these formulations affects end-product quality including some of the formulations. In this example, nutritional content of the tortillas physical, sensory, and compositional quality characteristics. was estimated using Genesis R&D Software (ESHA Research, This was demonstrated in Cigi’s research results on gluten-free version 9.12.1). Nutrient contents were based on 55 g of tortilla, tortilla formulations. These gluten-free tortillas, containing a base which is the standard reference serving for tortillas as defined formulation of brown rice, white rice, and tapioca flours, can be by Health Canada. The addition of pulse flour to gluten-free improved by the inclusion of pulse flours in the formulation. It helped to improve the product’s nutritional contents. Per 55g was shown that tortilla thickness, total sensory score, texture, serving of tortilla, fibre content was either doubled or tripled rollability, and nutritional content were enhanced by the addition when pulse flour was added to the formulation and protein of pulse flours. Pulse flours significantly improved the nutritional was increased from 2g in the control to 3g in the pulse flour quality of these tortillas. Pulse flour tortillas had greater fibre, tortillas (Table 4). In addition, contents of potassium, iron, protein, potassium, iron, riboflavin, folate, magnesium, and zinc riboflavin, folate, magnesium, and zinc were also increased after contents than the control. These nutritional benefits can be the inclusion of pulse flours in formulation (Table 4). Navy bean applied to many gluten-free food formulations. In addition to flour appeared to have the most positive effect on increasing nutritional enhancement, pulse flour also offers a unique colour the nutritional value of the gluten-free tortillas. to the tortillas, which would play a large role in the marketability of the product. It is the gluten-free product manufacturer who Table 4. Nutrition Facts Generated by Genesis R&D Software for will ultimately decide what quality characteristics are most Gluten-Free Tortillas Containing 30% Inclusion of Pulse Flour important for their product and which pulse flour would be best Gluten-Free Tortilla Formulation suited for their consumer. Pulses have great potential to play an 30% 30% important role in the gluten-free food industry as ingredients in 30% 30% 30% Nutrient Navy Green product development. Control Yellow Chickpea Chickpea Bean Lentil Pea Flour Flour Flour Flour Flour Acknowledgement Calories 160 160 160 160 160 160 Funding for this work has been provided by Saskatchewan (kcal) Pulse Growers, Manitoba Pulse and Soybean Growers, Alberta Total Fat (g) 4.5 4.5 5.0 4.5 4.5 4.5 Innovates Bio-Solutions and the Government of Canada’s Agri- Saturated Fat 0.4 0.4 0.4 0.5 0.4 0.4 Innovation Program. (g) Trans Fat (g) 0 0 0 0 0 0 Literature cited Cholesterol Canadian Trade Commissioner Service (2014, June 6).Webinar: 0 0 0 0 0 0 (mg) Business Opportunities in the UK for the Canadian Agri-Food Sodium (mg) 105 105 105 105 105 105 Industry – Gluten-Free Bakery. Potassium 45 120 110 160 210 125 (mg) Food Navigator-USA Forum (2014, April 30). Webinar: Gluten- Total Free in Perspective. Carbohydrates 28 26 26 26 26 26 (g) Gallagher, E., Gromley, T.R. and Arendt, E.K. 2004. Recent Total Fibre advances in the formulation of gluten-free cereal-based 1 3 2 3 3 3 (g) products. Trends in Food Science and Technology. 15:143-152 Sugar (g) 0 0 0 0 0 0 Watson, E. (2014, July 17). Half of new product sales in Protein (g) 2 3 3 3 3 3 gluten-free are from snacks, but are we close to saturation Vitamin A 0 0 0 0 0 0 point? Bakery and Snacks. Retrieved from http://www. (% DV) bakeryandsnacks.com/Markets/Half-of-new-gluten-free- Vitamin C 0 0 0 0 0 2 product-sales-in-US-are-from-snacks (% DV) Calcium 4 4 4 4 6 4 Watson, F., Stone, M. and Bunning, M. 2009. Gluten free baking (% DV) fact sheet No. 9.376. Colorado State University Iron (% DV) 2 6 6 6 10 8 Thiamine 6 8 8 6 8 6 Whitehead, R. (2012, October 10). India’s ‘free from…’ food (% DV) claims lead the way for Asia-Pacific. Food Navigator. Retrieved Riboflavin 0 2 2 2 2 2 from http://www.foodnavigator-asia.com/Markets/India-s-free- (% DV) from-food-claims-lead-the-way-for-Asia-Pacific Folate (% DV) 2 15 15 8 20 20 ...... Magnesium 8 10 10 10 15 8 The author can be contacted at [email protected] (% DV) Zinc (% DV) 4 6 6 6 8 8 Disclaimer- Views are personal Kcal = kilocalorie; % DV = percent of daily value

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Pulses as food ingredients in India

P. Vennila, Professor (FSN) in Agricultural Engineering College and Research Institute, India

Introduction: India is the top pulse minimizing losses due to respiration and growth. For malting, producing country with 26.17 the pulses need to be germinated, dried, devegetated and million ha area and producing powdered. Malted pulses rendered more easily digestible by 17.11 million tones of pulse in year the process of germination have great nutritional potential. 2010. With this India contributes Enzyme elaboration facilitates degradation of macro-molecules to 34% of cultivable area and like carbohydrates and proteins making them easily available to 25% production of world food the body. In addition, antinutritional factors get diminished to legumes. Chickpea, pigeon pea, a great extent. Bioavailability of certain minerals and vitamins green gram, blackgram, lentil and also enhanced. Malting not only provides nutritional advantage field pea are the important pulse but also reduces the viscosity of the gruel made out of grains crops contributing about 39, 21, 11,10,7 and 5% respectively. so processed. This reduction is brought about by ‘amylase’ an According to sources in the Indian Pulses and Grains enzyme. Malted foods are suitable for making several kinds of Association, 2014 the area under pulses cultivation in India 26 malt based foods, value added products, beverages or health million hectares, estimated yield 19.57 million tonnes (kharif: drinks, low cost weaning and supplementary foods, amylase rich 6.12 million tonnes, rabi: 13.45 million tonnes), average yield foods and health foods. per hectare 650 to 700 kg, Average yield in advanced countries 1800 kg and quantity of pulses imported every year 3 to 3.5 Extruded foods: Extrusion is a process that combines several million tonnes. unit operations, including mixing, kneading, shearing, heating, cooling, shaping and forming.Infant foods, breakfast foods, Composition: The chemical composition of edible pulse pasta products, snack foods and textured vegetable proteins are seeds depends upon the species. Pulses contain moisture prepared through this technology. 8.1 -13.4g, protein 17.1 -42.2g, fat 0.5 -19.5g, minerals 2.1 -4.5g, fibre 0.9 -5.3g, carbohydrates 20.9 -61.4g, energy 321 Fermented foods: The term fermentation refers to break down -423Kcal, calcium 60 -287mg, phosphorus 230 - 690mg, iron of carbohydrate and carbohydrate like materials under either 2.7 -11.5mg, carotene 12 -426µg, thiamine 0.30 -0.73 mg, aerobic or anaerobic conditions. Fermented products are idli, riboflavin 0.09 -0.39mg, niacin 1.3 -3.4mg and vitamin C 1 dosa, dhokla, tofu, soya sauce, miso, tempe natto and wari. -3mg per 100g respectively. Pulses are increasingly becoming important in human nutrition, because they are less expensive Papads: These are thin wafers like products prepared from a sources of proteins than the animal proteins especially in the variety of base ingredients such as black gram, or black gram developing countries. In addition, they are valuable sources and other pulse combinations with and without spices. These of carbohydrates, minerals and vitamins. Their protein quality are mostly prepared at homes or in cottage scale industry. for food is low, however, when mixed with cereals the total A stiff dough made from black gram flour is made into small diet quality can be improved upto 70 per cent of casein or pieces and rolled into thin round discs by means of rolling pins lactalbumin. In India, judiciously mixing cereals and pulses to and dried to a level so that it still remains pliable. The moisture provide a good quality diet was in practice long before people content in the papads is around 14-18% and their water activity understood the nutritional importance of that practice. Pulses is quite near to critical limit of mould growth (0.70). Before are one of the major ingredient in the preparation of culinary consumption, papads are either deep-fat-fried or toasted on a products viz., dhal, sambar, rasam, chutney and sundal and hot plate or on open flame. several commercial products such as malted foods, extruded foods, fermented foods, papads, traditional sweets and fried Traditional sweets: Traditional sweets prepared from pulses products. which are consumed as snacks besides biscuits and cookies. Sweets like Laddu, Boondi, Jilebi, and Jhangiri are prepared by Malted foods: Malting is defined as the controlled germination deep-fat-frying. Bengal gram, black gram batters after passing of a grain to produce enzymic and flavour compounds while through thin orifices to impart different shapes. The fried

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products are dipped in concentrated sugar syrups for varying a new set of products in the international market. Most of periods of time to impart sweetness. These products have the traditional foods that are commercially available in our moisture range of 15-25% and equilibrate between 0.65- country are being prepared/ processed by cottage industries 0.80 water activity. Because of intermediate moisture range, and by some of the multinational companies. The various these are susceptible towards yeast and mould growth and types of convenience foods/instant mixes that are presently remain stable under ambient temperature only for few days. being processed marketed and consumed all over the country. Incorporation of sorbic acid in syrup would definitely help in Supplementation with protein rich sources and preparation of extending their shelf life. Some more sweets like Mysore Pak, acceptable ready-to-eat snack foods would not only correct its Besan Burfi, Finni and Boli are also important items among nutritional inadequacies, but would also provide a variety. traditional sweet preparations from grain products. References Fried products: Fried dhals and whole legumes are prepared • Arya, S.S.1992. Convenience foods-Emerging Scenario. by soaking in water along with salt and sodium bicarbonate Indian Food Industry 11(4): 31 - 40. • Gopalan, C., B.V. Ramasastri and S.C. Balsubramaniyan, solution, and frying in vegetable oils and mixing with spices. 2002. Nutritive value of Indian foods National Institute of Bengal gram, green gram, horse gram and black gram dhals Nutrition, Hyderabad, India: 20 - 50. are most frequently used. Fried dhals are highly crisp. Chakli, • Laiqh.A.Khan (2014). Canada to meet India’s demand for (Murukku), Tengolal, Boondi and sev are some of the popular pulses. The Hindu paper 24.12.2014:13. fried products prepared from legume flours. A stiff dough is • Mangaraj,S., D. Mohapatra and R.T.Patil. (2013). Processing extruded through a hand operated press and fried. Crispness of pulses: Equipments and Technology. Indian Food and soft texture are the most desirable characteristics, and Industry. 32(2): 27 these are mostly determined by the dough composition. • Padmashree, A, AD. Semwal, S.P. Srihari, T, Govindaraj and G.K. Sharma, (2013). Development and Evaluation of Pulses have a high protein content ranging from 20-40% and Shelf stability of infra red processed instant mung bean this makes them important in human food from the point (Phaseolus Aereus) curry mix. Indian Food Packer. 67(6): of view of nutrition. There is widespread protein-calorie 106 -111. malnutrition in developing countries and pulses can play an • Manbir Singh,Sukhbir Singh, Sandeep Singh and Gursharan Kaur.2013. Heritage Foods and its Significance: Papad and important role in bridging the protein gap. Warrian. Processed Food Industry. 16(11): 20-26. • Umaid Singh and B.S.Khatkar (2008). Processing of grain Instant mixes and precooked dehydrated products: These legumes for value addition. Indian Food Industry. 27(4): are gaining popularity in recent years as they are very easy 44-49. to handle, time saving, easy to prepare, require minimum ...... storage space and are attractive. Instant mixes include dosa, The author can be contacted at [email protected] idli, adai mix, vada mix, pakoda mix, bonda mix and dhokla Disclaimer- Views are personal mix belong to this category. These products are produced by blending various ingredients in required proportions along with chemical leavening agents in a planetory or any other type of dry mixer. Control of granularity, moisture and adequate mixing are essential for product acceptability and shelf life. These are simple mixtures of rice, black gram or bengal gram flour blended with salt and spices. Pre-cooked dehydrated products includes instant bisibelebhat, curried dhal, peas, curried chholay and sambhar. These products are prepared by precooking of ingredients preferably under pressure followed by dehydration and mixing of the dehydrated ingredients, salting and spicing. Depending on the dehydration conditions employed and nature of the product mix, these can be reconstituted in around 6-20 min in boiling water.

Conclusion: Pulses as a main source of ingredient in a number of convenience foods. Convenience foods have emerged as

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Section-4 Security & Creating Awarness  

Pulses for food security of India

C. S. Praharaj and Ummed Singh, Principal Scientist Indian Institute of Pulses Research

India is the largest producer, production/productivity of crops and/or decrease in the cost of consumer, importer and production (or increase in the farm income). Thus, efforts are processor of pulses in the world. also made to develop production technologies with innovative Ironically, the country’s pulse plant geometry to harness the energy sources. Pulses are such production has reached at 19.5 crops which are having less input requirements (for water, Mt from the acreage of 24.5 nutrient etc) which enable them to fit into cropping system(s). Mha (2013-14). However, the Depending upon the amount and distribution of rainfall, pulses country is importing pulses to could be grown under double cropping (annual rainfall >750 the tune of 2.5–3.5 Mt every mm); intercropping (600–750 mm) and mono-cropping (< 600 year for meeting its domestic mm rainfall) systems. In addition, efficient intercrops for pulses demand. Strong upward trend have been identified and popularized among the farmers so in the import of pulses is a cause of concern, since an increase as to compensate against a possible crop loss through pure in demand from India has shown to have cascading effect or monoculture. Moreover, large-scale on farm trials in India on international prices, thus draining the precious foreign have also shown superiority of new technologies over the exchange. By 2030, the domestic requirements for pulses would local practices. Adoption of these technologies can increase be 26.50 Mt, necessitating stepping up production by 7.0 Mt pulse production by at least 13–42% in the country which also of additional produce. This uphill task has to be accomplished interprets about the increase in protein quantitatively and under more severe production constraints, especially abiotic substantially (Table 1). stresses, abrupt climatic changes, emergence of new species/ strains of insect-pests and diseases, and increasing deficiency Table 1: Seed yield advantages (%) from improved techs of of secondary and micronutrients in the soil. This is however, pulse crops under FLDs (2006-09) achievable under the existing climatic/agro-physiology. Technology Chickpea Pigeonpea Lentil Mungbean Urdbean Fieldpea Improved 22.4 24.7 23.6 23.3 21.9 20.0 India is the leading country for high consumption of pulses with varieties an average consumption of 35 g/person/day, but there is wide S application 15.4 17.4 20.3 19.0 19.9 24.1 variation among states. Intake per day ranged from 16g in Tamil Rhizobium 13.4 13.5 21.0 11.1 14.2 13.2 Nadu to 55g in Madhya Pradesh. The highest intakes tended to Inoculation be in northern states. The daily per capita availability of pulses Weed 40.0 30.0 24.7 29.6 18.3 26.4 in India has decreased however, to a meagre of 35g against Management FAO recommended dose of 80g/day. It is a matter of concern to Integrated all of us. Hence there is a need to increase both production and Pests 19.9 28.1 13.1 20.4 17.6 20.2 consumption of pulses or pulses protein- a key for vegetarian Management mass- in India. Full Package 24.9 34.6 41.9 33.9 27.8 40.1 Number of 3480 3773 1454 1640 1098 686 Enhancing productivity in pulses: It has been amply Demonstrations demonstrated that good agronomic practices alone can lead to increase in yield to the tune of 25–40% in many field crops Enhancing consumption of pulses:In the recent past, food including pulses. However, development of efficient production consumption pattern has undergone considerable change technologies is further required/ refined with special emphasis owing to various factors like increase in income, urbanization, on adequacy in crop nutrition. There is also a need to develop change in consumer taste and preferences, awareness about appropriate production technologies for non-traditional safe and healthy food, etc. As a result, the composition of diet areas, crops and the cropping systems involving pulses i.e. and nutrition intake has changed considerably. It is evident from relay cropping rice fallows, summer/spring cultivation and the fact that the dietary plan has shifted away from cereals introduction of compatible crops in cropping systems. Since the and pulses toward fruits, vegetables, processed food and food availability of labour for farm operations is reducing and cost of items of animal origin. Therefore, the consumption of pulses labour is increasing, there is need to develop crop management has come down due to various possible reasons like poor technologies for reducing the cost of production. It also suits availability, high prices and availability of cheaper alternatives the two pronged strategy of crop production viz., increase in of animal origin. Although the shift in consumption towards

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horticultural crops and food items of animal origin has no doubt Pulses for food and nutritional security: Therefore, the need of contributed towards higher intake of calories, but the intake of the hour is to increase production, availability and consumption protein at the same time has come down mainly due to decline of pulses by adopting various innovative measures. This will in the consumption of pulses, which are major source of quality ensure food and nutritional securityby bringing sustainability protein compared to other food items. The concern is reduction in agricultural production in the country. In order to increase the in consumption of pulses for predominantly vegetarian society growth in production of pulses, institutional and policy support and poor like that of India due to high price and fluctuation is also required for enhancing area under pulses, development in supply of pulses. Moreover, pulses could act as a low cost of high yielding varieties, supply of quality inputs, intercropping, substitute during high prices of vegetables and food items of proper extension of production technologies, development animal origin. Though, the production of pulses has registered of value chain, etc. The supply of pulses can also be increased an impressive growth in the recent decade but it is not in pace by having orderly marketing of pulses. The availability of with the increase in the population. information being a vital component will make farmers to respond more effectively to the various initiatives of the Protein malnutrition is a worldwide phenomenon occurring Government. With the advent of technology, the information in every nation around the globe. Deficiencies of vitamin A, flow could reach to the lowest level of farming community. iron, and zinc affect over one-half of the world’s population. Popularising low cost technology of production, promotion of Biofortification is the development of protein/micronutrient- high yielding varieties and marketing related issues will be more dense staple crops using the best traditional breeding practices, effective using ICT. The elasticity of the demand for high value modern biotechnology and to some extent by appropriate agro-technologies. This approach has multiple advantages. It commodities is highly price sensitive and hence, in the event in capitalizes on the regular daily intake of a consistent and large the rise in price of such commodities, pulses will act a substitute amount of food staples by all family members. Since staple for cheaper protein. Also, considering the fact that, wide spread foods predominate in the diets of the poor, this strategy targets malnutrition prevailing among children and women in India, low-income households. After the one-time investment to there is need to promote consumption of pulses by linking develop seeds that fortify themselves, recurrent costs are low, to programme like mid-day meal and rural health mission by and germplasm can be shared internationally which makes it incorporating either free distribution of pulses or by subsidising cost-effective across time and distance. Moreover, once in place, the food. Moreover, one such aspect is supplementation of the biofortified plant system is highly sustainable as nutritionally food legumes per se in human or animal protein nutrition and improved varieties will continue to be grown and consumed biofortification of such food/seed crops for raising the protein year after year, even if government attention and international density. funding for such (micronutrient) issues fade. Pulses are relatively a cheaper source of protein than milk, In addition, biofortification provides a feasible and viable cheese, cashew, almonds, meat, fish etc., and thus, valuable for means of reaching undernourished populations in relatively developing countries. The seeds of pulses are most commonly remote rural areas, delivering naturally fortified foods to people eaten part and most of them can be economically stored well with limited access to these fortified foods. As biofortification for future use. The food value of seed of pulses is high; they and commercial fortification are highly complementary, it is have about the same caloric value per unit weight as cereals also critical that improved agronomy or breeding approach and are fair sources of some vitamins and minerals. Their for biofortification in seeds should not incur a yield penalty. protein contents are generally about double that of most They may have either important spin-off effects for enhancing cereals. Consumption of pulses is highest in India as compared farm productivity or renders yield stability in food crops in an to other pulse growing countries due to low purchasing power environmentally sound way. Trace minerals embedded in seed and religious restrictions on non-vegetarian diet. Pulses contain through biofortification should be essential in enabling plants to about 18.0 to 32.0% protein (Table 2) and about 1 to 5% fat. resist pests, diseases and other environmental stresses as these The pulse protein in isolation have somewhat lower nutritive plants should survive under stress with rapid initial growth and value than most other classes of protein like meat, fish and vigour (and consequently produce similar or higher yields). milk but they contribute substantially in fulfilling the protein requirement when combined with other proteins in a mixed Biofortification is the process by which the nutritional quality diet. Pulses are considerably richer in calcium than most cereals of food crops is improved through biological means such and contain about 100 to 200 mg of calcium per 100 g of grain. as conventional plant breeding. It differs from conventional They are also considerably rich in iron, thiamine, riboflavin and fortification in that biofortification aims to increase nutrient nicotinic acid as compared to cereals. Young sprouts of pulses levels in crops during plant growth rather than through like, mung bean, mothbean and chickpea are popular foods in manual means during processing of the crops. many places.

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Table 2: Comparative account of energy, protein and others in The protein in pulses have low digestibility. The protein pulses (per 100g edible part) digestibility and nutritive value can be enhanced by subjecting Energy Protein Carbohydrate pulses to cooking or some other form of heat treatment. Low Pulses (Dal) Fat (g) (K Cal) (g) (g) protein value and digestibility is due to presence of protease Chickpea 360 17.1 60.9 5.3 inhibitors and other anti-nutritional factors. The digestibility Blackgram 347 24 59.6 1.4 of protein and availability of amino acids can be improved by Cowpea 323 24.1 54.5 1.0 Beans 347 24.9 60.1 0.8 certain processing techniques like, soaking, cooking, roasting, Greengram 334 24 56.7 1.3 germination and fermentation. Lentil 343 25.1 59 0.7 Horse gram 330 23.6 56.5 1.1 Peas (green) 93 7.2 15.9 0.1 Towards realizing self-sufficiency in pulses Peas (dry) 315 19.7 56.5 1.1 The National Development Council (NDC) in its 53rd meeting Rajmash 346 22.9 60.6 1.3 held on 29th May, 2007 adopted a resolution to launch a Food Red gram 335 22.3 57.6 1.7 Security Mission comprising rice, wheat and pulses to increase (Arhar) Soybean 432 43.2 20.9 19.5 the production of rice by 10 million tons, wheat by 8 million tons and pulses by 2 million tons by the end of the Eleventh Plan Pulse protein usually contain more than adequate levels of (2011-12). Accordingly, a Centrally Sponsored Scheme, ‘National some of the nutritionally important amino acids such as lysine Food Security Mission’ (NFSM), was launched in October 2007. that are deficient in most cereals and other edible plant foods. The Mission is being continued during 12th Five Year Plan (2012- Therefore, the combination of cereals and pulses provide a good 17) with new targets of additional production of food grains of balance of amino acids since cereals usually supply adequate 25million tons of food grains comprising of 10 million tons rice, 8 methionine. Pulses are good source of dietary fiber also. Pulses million tons of wheat, 4 million tons of pulses and 3 million tons contain several anti-nutritional factors, such as trypsin and of coarse cereals by the end of 12th Five Year Plan. The National chymotrypsin inhibitors, lectins, polyphenols, flatulence factors, Food Security Mission (NFSM) during the 12th Five Year Plan lathyrogens, saponins, anti-vitamins and allergens. The protease will also include NFSM-Pulses besides its four other components inhibitors, lectins and other anti-nutrients cause toxicity. Heat viz., Rice, Wheat, Coarse cereals and commercial crops. The treatment has been well established to destroy proteinaceous technology enabling for achieving the mission targets are distinct anti-nutrients, such as protease inhibitors and lectins, but and are needed to be adopted in totality. heat treatment destroys some of the amino acids and vitamins as well. For maintaining the nutritional value of food, it is So far adoption of existing technology for bridging the yield gap necessary that heating temperature and length of processing is concerned, it is established that farmers generally apply sub- do not exceed the optimum temperature required to eliminate optimal doses of fertilizers, insecticides and limited irrigations the effect of inhibitors. Moreover, proteins in pulses are known for pulses after meeting the requirements of wheat, rice and to interact with lipids, tannins, phytates, flavor compounds and vegetable crops. Therefore, wide gaps also exist between pigments. These interactions occur when pulses are processed yields realized in experimental plots, frontline demonstration and converted into products which decrease the bioavailability plots and farmers’ fields. Improved varieties of different of proteins. Similarly, tannins and phytates interact with pulse crops hold promise to increase productivity by 20–25%, minerals and vitamins resulting in a decrease in bioavailability of whereas package technology comprising improved varieties minerals and vitamins. and integrated management of nutrients and pests has shown 25–42% yield advantage over the farmers’ practices in a large Wide variability in seed protein also exist as chickpea has protein number of frontline demonstrations conducted across the content varies from 18.0 to 30.6 % with an average of 21.5 %. country (Table 1). Therefore, improved production technologies Protein quality of a crop depends on its amino acid composition have been advocated for enhancing productivity of pulses. and the most limiting amino acids determine the nutritive Therefore, for any effort to succeed the institutional value. Pulses are deficient in sulfur containing amino acids and support plays a key role. Besides institutional support via tryptophan, but are rich in lysine in which cereals are relatively infrastructural and other means, improving seed replacement deficient. Lentil has the lowest amount of methionine, whereas rate, provision for a single or a few life-saving irrigation in pigeonpea has the lowest amount of tryptophan (Table 3). pulse-growing season, ensuring availability of critical inputs during critical periods, involving machines for mechanization Table 3: Major essential Amino Acid content (g/100 g seed) of in pulse production (to reduce cost of cultivation) and Policy some important pulses support for value chain etc are other appropriate propositions so as to have a secured pulse programme in our country. These Pulses Lysine Methionine Tryptophan Threonine have a bearing on both establishing pulses as an essential food Chickpea 1.47 0.28 0.17 0.76 Pigeonpea 1.54 0.24 0.10 0.82 item in our country and enabling India food secure. Mungbean 1.69 0.28 0.20 0.78 ...... Lentil 1.57 0.20 0.20 0.91 The author can be contacted at [email protected] Pea 1.75 0.29 0.26 0.91 Disclaimer- Views are personal

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Pulses as an essential food ingredients and ways to increase food consumption

Jagdish Singh* & RajaniKanaujia,*Principal Scientist (Biochemistry) & Head, Division of Basic Sciences, IIPR, India Introduction: India shares associated consumption of pulses with a decreased risk for around 2.4 % of the total a wide variety of chronic and degenerative diseases such as global area and 18 % of cancer, obesity, diabetes and cardiovascular diseases. The food the world population. It values of seeds of pulses are high providing 1040 to 1430kJ has an impressive record of energy per 100 g, about the same calorific value per unit of producing enough food weight as cereals. Their protein contents are generally about for an ever-increasing double that of most cereals, however, they are poor source of population with the sulphur-containing amino acids, methionine and cysteine, but available resources, thanks they have high lysine and tryptophan contents. Therefore, when to the advances made in they are used along with cereals, which are poor in lysine and food grains production, tryptophan, the proteins complement one another, giving a more so in rice and wheat better quality protein by supplying the respective limiting amino Jagdish Singh during the past three and acids. Since pulse proteins are rich in lysine with an average a half decades. The food grains production in the country has of 65+7 mg per gram of protein as compared to 29+7 mg in more than doubled from 95.5 million tonnes in 1967-68 to 260 cereals. Therefore, as long as cereals remain the staple food for million tonnes in 2011-12. Over the years, while the country millions of people in the country, the pulses would continue has accumulated a huge surplus of wheat and rice, the pulses to play a critical role of complementation in the vegetarian remain in short supply. Consequently, the per caput availability diets as blend of both provides balanced amino acids with high of pulses has progressively declined from 69 g a day in 1961 to biological value. merely 31.6 g in 2010 whereas availability of cereals has gone up from 394 to 444 gin 2009-10 (Fig.1). Pulses are rich source of dietary fibre, complex carbohydrates, resistant starch and a bevy of vitamins and minerals such as Figure.1 : Availability of Pulses -Per capita per day folate, all the 15 essential minerals required by man including selenium, potassium, Fe and Zinc and hence also known as power-house of nutrients. All pulses have a low glycemic index (i.e. the carbohydrate is slowly digested) which has been shown to lower glucose and insulin levels. For example, compared to white bread with a GI value of 100, the approximate GI values for chickpea are 40, lentil 42 and pea 45, while GI for beans can vary from 40 to 55. They are low in fat and contain no cholesterol. Pulses are good source of folate - useful in the prevention of diseases, such as heart disease, cancer. The B Source: http://www.indaagristat.com vitamin folic acid significantly reduces the risk of neural tube defects (NTDs) like spina bifida in new born babies. Pulses India is the largest producer and consumer of pulses in the contain antioxidants - vitamin E, selenium, phenolic acids, world. Pulses form an integral part of diet as a source of protein phytic acids, copper, zinc and manganese. Pulses also contain in the Indian subcontinent. The production of pulses hovered other compounds like enzyme inhibitors, lectins, Pre-biotic around 10 to 11 million tonnes during 1970-71 to 1980-81. carbohydrate, Galacto-oligosaccharides and resistant starch, In the recent past the domestic production has increased polyphenols, phytates and saponins- that are considered tremendously. During 2012-13, the domestic production of as anti-nutrient factors (ANF’s)- that affect the digestibility pulses was at an all-time high of 18.45 million tonnes. India is and bioavailability of nutrients in humans and animals. In still dependent on the imports of pulses from other countries. this new era of intense bioactive research, the same ANF’s Presently we are importing around 3 to 4 million tonnes of are undergoing a reappraisal. Many of these non-nutritive pulses every year to meet the domestic demand. bioactive components have been found to have positive health effects associated with their consumption. Phytic acid exhibits Pulses and human health: antioxidant activity and protects DNA damage, phenolic Interest in the use of pulses for human nutrition has grown compounds have antioxidant and other important physiological considerably in the last decade. Recent researches have and biological properties, saponins have hypocholesterolaemic

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effect and anti-cancer activity. Pulses are gluten-free - they at risk of vitamin A, iodine, and/or iron deficiency, with the offer a great variety for those on a gluten-free diet (eg for Celiac most severe problems found in developing countries.Iron (Fe) disease, a gastro-intestinal disorder). The ongoing research is deficiency is the most prevalent nutrient deficiency, affecting examining how whole pulses and the individual components as many as four billion individuals worldwide, with women offer protective and therapeutic effects to such chronic health and preschool-aged children the most vulnerable. Typically, conditions such as obesity, cardiovascular disease, diabetes and populations and individuals at risk for iron deficiency are those cancer and how consumption of legumes could potentially let that consume high levels of grains such as rice (Oryzasativa L.), people live longer. Importance of pulses in Indian diets can be maize (Zea mays L.), and cassava (Manihotesculenta L.) as their judged from the fact that about 10% of the dietary protein is major source of calories. In these regions, the cropping systems met from pulses as compared to 4% in Asia and 4.4% in World. have also changed and over the past 30 years where cultivation and consumption of pulse crops has declined because high Non-nutritive bioactive components in pulses affecting human yielding grain varieties have displaced them in the farming health system. A variety of phytochemicals are increasingly being recognized for their potential benefits for human health, which includes Essentially, the diversity of staple food crops was reduced polyphenolic compounds, lectins, phytates and trypsin and pulse crops, which are relatively high in iron, declined in inhibitors, among others. Lignansand isoflavoneshave production and consumption. In addition, processing of grains anticarcinogenic, weak oestrogenic, and antioxidant properties. such as rice and wheat removes much of the iron from these Phenolic compounds, including tannins found mainly in foods and unfortunately, many populations prefer the processed the seed coat have antioxidant activity. Phytoestrogens in products, lowering their consumption evenmore.Research pulses may play a role in the prevention of hormone-related efforts are now underway to improve the food supply in many cancers, such as breast and prostate cancer. The lectins or countries through a process known as biofortification. In the haemagglutinins in some pulses are toxic when taken orally. past few years, biofortification for Fe, Zn and provitamin A has They can cause vomiting, diarrhoea, nausea and bloating in emerged as a cost-effective, sustainable remedy for deficiency humans. The enzyme inhibitors and lectins can even reduce of these micronutrients in developing countries, with an impor- protein digestibility and nutrient absorption, respectively, but tant emphasis on reaching those in rural areas.Pulse crops such both have little effect after cooking. Phytic acid can diminish as lentil (Lens culinaris L.) are staples in the developing world, mineral bioavailability. Some phenolic compounds reduce and excellent candidates for biofortification.Lentils are high in protein digestibility and mineral bioavailability, while galacto- complex carbohydrates, rich in protein, and are an excellent oligosaccharides may induce flatulence. The lathyrustoxin in source of micronutrients, including Fe. certain drought-resistant chickpeas can cause lathyrism, a neurological disorder, when consumed in large amounts. On the Value addition in Pulse other hand, the same compounds may have protective effects Pulses are available in a number of forms: dried, canned, flour, against cancer. Phytic acid has antioxidant and DNA protective fibres, starches and proteins can all be used to create new and effects.An increasing amount of research is showing that the inspiring menu options.Pulse flours and fractions can be used in components in pulses can help reduce the risks associated with a variety of recipes including cakes, breads, muffins and cookies. a variety of diseases.” For instance, studies indicate that pulse Using pulse flours (pea flour, bean flour, chickpea flour lentils consumption may reduce the risk of such health problems as flour) and fraction ingredients (pea fibre, starch and protein) cancer, diabetes, cardiovascular disease and osteoporosis. can boost the protein, fibre and vitamin & mineral content of many recipes.Dried and canned whole pulses can be added to Micronutrient malnutrition and pulses traditional items like salads, soups and chilies. Pureed pulses Micronutrient malnutrition, also known as hidden hunger, can be added to sauces and baked goods, and can even replace reduces learning and cognitive ability; impairs growth; butter in some recipes.New, innovative food products featuring reduces immunity; decreases working capacity; causes pulses are popping up on store shelves everyday. The reason several pregnancy complications, blindness, and goiter; is clear. When food manufacturers add pulses to their product and raises the risk of mortality.The populations most at risk formulas, the nutritional benefits are boosted and the product of such deficiencies are infants and children, women of becomes more desirable to consumers.The properties of pulse reproductive age, pregnant women, and the elderly.Lack ingredients open the doors wide to opportunities for product of dietary diver¬sity (i. e, monotonous diets), poor mineral development. Pulses can be milled and separated (fractionated) bioavailability in plant foods, incidence of illness and disease, into highly functional components (protein, fiber, and starch) and increased physiological demands are the main contributors utilized to enhance processed foods.Utilization of pulse flours to micronutrient deficiencies.Of global concern are deficiencies and fractionated pulse ingredients in food manufacturing is in iron, vitamin A, zinc, folate, and iodine. The World Health an emerging trend. Pulse ingredients are being utilized in an Organization (WHO) reported that over two billion people are increasing number of products, including pasta, breakfast

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cereal, snack food, deep frozen dishes, dressings, extruded intolerance and allergies to soy products.Products made from bakery products, cookies, crackers, sauces, instant soups, and pulse crops have added market appeal because pulse crops are puddings. Some companies are exploring the production of economically, environmentally, and socially sustainable. Beyond things like flours, starches and protein extracts from pulses positive economic impact to communities, farms, and food that can be used as ingredients in food formulation.As more manufacturers, pulse crops provide other benefits to society. and more manufacturers use these ingredients in foods, there Products containing pulse ingredients can enhance nutrition and would be increasing consumption of pulses in the diet and, as a are derived from crops that use less natural resources (water consequence, health benefits to consumers.” and fossil fuels) and conserve cropland through improved soil health. Pulse protein is “green” because the nitrogen that pulse Pulse Protein crops synthesize into protein comes from the atmosphere, not Protein from pulse crops can be used to increase the protein from synthetic fertilizers made from nonrenewable natural content in processed foods and to make concentrated protein gas and because pulse protein is synthesized more efficiently ingredients. Lentil flour is being incorporated into a nationally than animal protein.On environmental perspective, pulses distributed, premium line of pasta. Compared to traditional provide various benefits. For example, pulses and other pasta, this pasta is higher in protein and fiber, with a lower legumes fix nitrogen, so they reduce fertilizer needs, lowering glycemic index, and has a full protein profile. The lentil flour non-renewable energy inputs into the cropping system. Also, gives the pasta some very favorable cooking attributes that adding legumes to diversify a crop rotation can help break make it firm and less likely to become waterlogged and disease, weed and insect pest cycles. Legumes have a positive soft when overcooked. Pea protein ingredients have been effect on the soil organism community, which can help improve successfully demonstrated to be a viable replacement for eggs crop production. Pulse crops are transforming crop rotations in some food products. in environmentally-responsible ways that expand agricultural production to meet the world’s increasing demand for food. Pulse Fiber ...... Fiber from pulse crops can be used to increase the fiber content The author can be contacted at [email protected] in processed foods.Pulse crops contain high amounts of both Disclaimer- Views are personal soluble and insoluble fiber. The use of pulse fiber is economical compared to fiber-fortifying gums or soy protein products.

Pea hulls (Pea Fibre isolate)have high water binding capacity, Modifies texture, Veggie burgers, hamburgers, sausages, nutritional bars, sauces, fillings, baked products

Pulse Starch Starch derived from pulse crops, particularly peas, has functional properties that can make it useful for manufacturing processed foods.Pulse starches can be used to improve (lower) the glycemic index of products. Pulse starch ingredients can enable food manufacturers to reduce carbohydrates. For example, gels made from pulse starch can be prepared with 50% less starch than corn starch.Pulse starches can be used to modify food texture, which is important for both processing and consumer acceptance. For example, food manufacturers can utilize pulse starches to reduce fat in products and mimic the mouth-feel of fats.Pulse starch properties include good stability at high temperatures, high viscosity compared to cereal and tuber starches, excellent gel strength and bland taste (pea starch isolates), and ability to contribute to increased volume and expansion in extruded products and puffed snacks.

Pulses are gluten free. Pulse protein concentrates can be used to replace eggs as food ingredients in some applications. Eggs are the fourth most common food to trigger allergic reactions in adults. Pulse ingredients may become important ingredients for baby food manufactured for infants with lactose

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Section-5 Outlook, Markets and Trade 

Australian pulses crop outlook

Peter Wilson, CEO Australia Milling Group, Australia

“The Australian Industry Despite the decrease in hectares planted, this season represents is excited to have 2016 another positive year for yields in pulses such as desi chickpeas. designated as the This is due to the increased investment from bodies such as International Year of the pulse Australia Limited and Pulse Breeding Australia, aiding in Pulses. Such a focus on this the development of new varieties and improvements in on farm sustainable group of beans, management techniques. Despite the decreased number of lentils, chickpeas and peas is hectares planted, yield potential has increased over the past five long overdue. We all know years and has against increased by 8% for the 2014 harvest. This how valuable these crops is shown in the below graph. are to sustainable farming systems, the environment and Figure 2: Desi Chickpeas - Area planted vs yield human nutrition.”

The 2014/2015 season has been an overall, challenging year for Australian pulse producers who experienced below average rainfalls perpetuated by an already below average moisture profile in the soils, adversely affecting their ability to plant on time. This season has been characterised by late plantings with a quick, dry finish. In areas that have had sufficient rainfall, it has been poorly timed, adding to the risk of water damage, especially on crops such as mung beans. These factors have had a direct impact on total production as shown in the below Table 1. Source: Pulse Australia Table 1: Pulse Planting Figures

Year Product 2011/2012 2012/2013 2013/2014 2014/2015 Area (HA) Prodn(MT) Area (HA) Prodn (MT) Area (HA) Prodn (MT) Area (HA) Prodn (MT) Desi 524,000 623,000 508,000 630,000 343,000 435,000 289,650 396,870 Chickpeas Lentils 167,000 250,000 169,000 254,000 173,000 202,000 147,200 170,045 Lupins 594,000 738,000 387,000 625,000 468,000 564,000 406,300 541,500 Faba Bean 156,400 295,000 153,000 328,000 167,000 244,000 168,100 336,900 Source: Pulse Australia and ABARES

In addition, there is a push to increase hectares planted to Figure 1: Total MT Produced by Commodity pulses for human consumption. This has ensured that despite poor conditions, export of pulse products have remained steady or generally increased. There is a projected increase as technologies are adapted to manage those drier seasons.

Chickpea exports account for over 80% of the product produced (shown in the below graph in red). This exported figure is expected to increase with demand for desi chickpeas into key export markets. These markets are India (35%), Bangladesh (31%) and Pakistan (20%), with smaller volumes also going to Nepal and the United Arab Emirates. www.commodityindia.com Page 89  

Figure 3: Export vs domestic use desi chickpeas The past season has shown a pricing increase between spot and present values of 34% for Peas, 15% for lentils, 15% for faba beans and 25% for chickpeas between the months of December 2014 and March 2015.

The amount of new crop area planted will be dependent on the volume of rainfall received, as shown in the below soil moisture map. Areas in the East and South of Australia which are important in pulse production again are characterised by well below average soil moisture, causing potential issues with timing of planting and increasing the risk of a smaller crop as a direct result of the reduced area planted.

Source: Statpub

Figure 4: Soil Moisture Map

Sourced: http://wxmaps.org/pix/soil7.html (02/03/2015) ...... The author can be contacted at [email protected] Disclaimer- Views are personal

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Australian 2015 pulse outlook

Tim Edgecombe (CEO Pulse Australia), Cindy Benjamin (Pulse Australia communications consultant), Australia

The Australian pulses industry is desi chickpeas we have seen prices recover well.” enjoying a positive outlook for the 2015 winter cropping season Australia desi chickpea is well-accepted in the Indian marketplace, following difficult conditions last being genetically very similar to locally grown chickpea. The year. Although the 2014 season Australian product is visually distinct to product from Africa and in Australia began with plentiful Pakistan. early season rainfall in southern and western regions, there was Wheat remains the main competitor for winter cropping land in little follow up rain mid-season Australia. When wheat prices are strong, the area sown to pulse and a hot dry finish with damaging crops usually drops, however, many wheat growers are convinced frosts in some districts. Much of the of the many benefits that pulses bring to their production system, northern growing region suffered cash flow and farm business profitability. Australian growers taking under low soil moisture conditions a long-term view across their rotation are likely to maintain, or that deterred some growers from planting pulses. possibly increase, their area sown to pulses in 2015.

As a consequence the total pulse crop was estimated at around 1.7 “There is no question that pulses add value to the system,” said million tonnes, down 21% on the previous year. However, it was Mr Wilson. “While price is an important consideration it is not the pleasing to note that despite the lack of rain during the growing only motivation for crop selection. Taken over a full rotation pulses season the yields and grain quality were still respectable in most pay their way in soil health and integrated weed, pest and disease areas. This is a reflection of how far the industry has progressed management, even when they are not attracting stellar prices.” in its ability to put in place breeding programs and agronomic Lentil expansion expected practices that support crop development under difficult conditions. Key points: • Summer rains (50 to 100mm) has boosted soil moisture Prospects for 2015 chickpea, lentil and field pea crops are • Canola price has fallen promising and, provided sufficient rain falls in the coming months, • Increase in lentil area with very good market support Pulse Australia expects the area sown to pulses to be maintained or to increase. The lower Australian dollar is supporting pulses Australia is a relatively small global exporter of lentil. Pulse export prices with strong demand for Australian pulses. Australia industry development manager, Mary Raynes says the soaking January rains this year will support growers interested in Hopes high for solid chickpea plantings accessing the buoyant lentil market. “Lentil prices are currently Key points: well over $900 per tonne, a very attractive option in the face of • Soil moisture varies across Queensland and New South Wales declining canola prices,” she says. • Rain is needed to plant in April and May • Chickpea area could rise by 15% due to strong market and Ms Raynes is predicting a 5 to 15 per cent increase in the area rotational needs sown to lentils over the 2014 sown area of 170 thousand hectares. She says lentil growers now have more choices in varieties that suit Pulse Australia chairman, Peter Wilson believes that Australia, a broad set of agronomic situations. the leading global exporter of desi chickpea, may be in the best position to fill a likely production shortfall in India this year. “There is a far wider selection of varieties now on offer, with improved and varied agronomic traits,” she says. “Growers can “Chickpea planting is complete for this season in India and reports select a variety that best suits their farming system and locality.” indicate that the planted area is down about 10–15 per cent on Three new lentil varieties available commercially for the first time the long-term average,” he said. “Australian growers will seriously in 2015 offer growers more high yielding options with greater consider desi chickpea as an option this season as current prices diseases tolerance and other valuable agronomic traits. “PBA look likely to hold, and represent good value to growers.” GiantA is a high yielding large green lentil, PBA GreenfieldA is a high yielding disease resistant medium-sized green lentil and Reflecting on the desi chickpea market over the last three years, PBA Jumbo 2A is high yielding disease resistant large red lentil to Mr Wilson acknowledges that the industry has faced market replace PBA JumboA and Aldinga,” says Ms Raynes. challenges. “Desi chickpea markets have recovered extremely well after a combination of large crops, the strong Australian dollar and While 2014 was a difficult season for grain growers in many a weak Indian rupee saw prices come under pressure,” he said. districts lentils are a proven performer in less extreme years. The “However, with supply and demand coming back into balance for lentil resurgence, which began in 2010, has seen the sown area

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increase to about 160–170 thousand ha. is likely to assist with the negotiations surrounding the other barriers. GIMAF is developing a strategic plan for India to focus on Field pea exports remain small market access problems is a priority for 2014–15. Field pea yields in southern Australia were well down on average but interest continues to grow in new varieties. Increased plantings of PBA Wharton and the white field pea, PBA Pearl, are expected in 2015. Field pea crops in central west NSW enjoyed good growing conditions with yields ranging from 1 t/ha to 4 t/ha.

Field pea plantings in Australia are particularly sensitive to price comparisons with wheat. Domestic demand for field peas as stockfeed provides peas with a solid demand mix and therefore price stability. Only very small quantities are exported, with India as the main buyer.

The relative profitability for field pea has risen as the canola price decreased, however Pulse Australia expects growers to increase their area sown to lentils rather than field pea.

Australian Free Trade Agreements The last 12 months have seen some remarkable changes occurring in the international trade of agricultural produce, including pulses.

After many years of negotiations several free trade agreements (FTAs) and economic partnership agreements have come to fruition in Australia and others have taken meaningful steps forward. Pulses have been included in all three of the Free Trade Agreements (FTA) that Australia has signed this year with Korea, Japan and China.

Tony Russell is Executive Manager for Grains Industry Market Access Forum (GIMAF), which draws together peak industry bodies, including Pulse Australia, to work with the Australian government and its agencies to develop and implement international market access plans for the grains, fodder and seeds industries.

He says that while the reduction or removal of tariffs is significant it does not remove all barriers to trade. Nor does it mean that huge new markets will suddenly open up to demand Australian pulses.

In March 2014, after years of lobbying efforts by Pulse Australia and CBH, along with technical negotiations by Department of Agriculture officials, processed lupin for human consumption (split or ground) was granted market access to India. Lupin production in Australia has declined over the last decade due to a lack of markets prepared to value the commodity at a level that provides a competitive return to growers.

Recent publicity around the unique nutritional benefits of lupin in a human diet may have encouraged Indian authorities to consider the inclusion of lupin in the mix of pulses marketed and consumed in India. This announcement of the acceptance of lupin for human consumption in India may kindle a renewed interest in the production of lupin as an important broadacre rotational crop.

Most recently Australian Prime Minister Tony Abbott announced More information: Tim Edgecombe, Pulse Austalia CEO plans to progress with the India–Australia FTA. Other trade barriers Phone: +61 425 717 133 [email protected] also exist for pulses into India however having an FTA in place www.pulseaus.com.au

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Australian Faba bean to Egypt trade accounted for around 250 000 tonnes,” he says. “Faba bean Key points: colour and size are the most important traits when it comes to • Soils are dry in central and southern NSW, some rain in South marketing the grain into the human consumption market.” Australia and Victoria • Substantial rain, 150 to 250 mm, needed before May The faba bean harvest in France in September was followed by • Faba bean area will rise in Queensland, though area remains the United Kingdom in October and finally the Australian crop in small (5–8 thousand ha) November. Egypt consistently purchases around a third of their • Faba bean area in NSW will be at least average supported by requirement from Australia due to the preferred colour and size of strong prices • Faba bean area in Victoria will rise, 20 to 30% Australian faba beans, which command a premium. This demand will be slightly more or slightly less depending on the supply and After an exceptional season in 2013, there is no question that the quality Egyptian buyers can achieve from Europe. faba bean crop in southern Australia endured a difficult season in 2014. Early estimations suggested that the average yield across the “For the 2014 season, with ample European supply, we anticipate growing regions would be down 50 per cent. the Egyptian requirement from Australia will be slightly less than a third, which will complement our smaller harvest this season,” says After last season’s success the sown area increased 15–20 per Mr Poutney. cent in 2014 but a combination of hard frosts and a hot dry finish affected crops across the region. Following the severe conditions this season and the long-term outlook indicating another dry season ahead Mr Poutney is According to Nick Poutney, GrainCorp’s head trader for pulses, the encouraging growers to stay with faba bean, which he believes will smaller crop in Australia was supportive of local values because remain a profitable option for growers. “Faba bean are also good the main importer, Egypt, had already sourced a significant for the soil and are the best-fit pulse for the irrigation areas in proportion of their requirements for the year from the UK and southern Australia,” he says. France, which both had more product than usual to export. The Fiesta-type faba beans—Farah, Fiesta, Nura and PBA RanaA— “If Australia also had a large crop we may have suffered a price are the most commonly grown across southern Australia. PBA slump due to an over-supply of the market,” he says. “As it was the SamiraA, released in spring 2014 for high prices of $430 plus per tonne stayed firm as the harvest came to a close.” the high rainfall regions, is also suitable for markets like Egypt that favour the Fiesta-type faba beans. Egypt imports about half a million tonnes of human consumption grade faba beans each year, roughly one-third of which is sourced Pulse Australia helped develop the market in Egypt through from Australia. The level of demand is very consistent from year to the negotiation of product specifications with the Egyptian year so the major influences on prices are supply-driven factors. Government over a decade ago. Production estimates for faba bean show a 5-year average planting area of over 160 000 ha and Mr Poutney believes there is growth potential for faba beans an average yield of 1.7 t/ha, and up to 3.0 t/ha in more favourable outside the Egyptian market, particularly in Saudi Arabia and areas and under irrigation. Indonesia. “Faba bean flour adds significant nutritional benefits to many baked foods and I expect the market to grow as the benefits are promoted in the lead-up to the International Year of Pulses in 2016.”

“Unlike cereals, pulse markets are often aligned to a single importer, such as faba bean to Egypt and chickpea to India,” he says. “In faba bean we see Egypt dominating global trade, buying over half of the faba bean traded internationally. This type of market dominance is quite common in pulses but very rare in cereals.”

The vast majority of Australian faba bean are delivered direct to packers rather than to the bulk handling facilities...... The author can be contacted at [email protected] “Of the 300 000 tonnes exported from Australia in 2014, only Disclaimer- Views are personal about 50 000 tonnes was exported in bulk while the containerised

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Myanmar pulses industry

Soe Win Maung, Consultant, Myanmar Pulses, Beans and Sesame Seed Production, Myanmar

Pulses industry is the top foreign exchange earning industry of Myanmar, second to the oil and gas. Annually, Myanmar exports about 1.0 to 1.5 million metric tons of pulses at a value of about 900 million to 1 billion US $. Development of the pulses industry depicts the responses of this important industry to the transformation of Myanmar’s economic system from the planned economy to the market-oriented one.

Myanmar Pulses Market Structure- Major Pulses Growing Hubs Pulses are grown all over Myanmar however it concentrates in the areas like central dry zone, delta and high land areas. Depending on the production areas, accessibility conditions and proximity to the trading ports, markets are established accordingly. Markets in Yangonand Mandalay are the major markets while regional markets such as: Monywa, Shwebo, Myingyan, Pakokku, Magway, Hinthada, Pyay, Taunggyi, and Museare well known markets for pulses trading.

Myanmar produces over 20 varieties of beans and pulses. How ever, in the country consumption requirement of pulses is relatively low and most of the pulses are exported mainly Insights on Myanmar Pulses Processing Technologies within the ASEAN region. Although Myanmar stands as a global supplier of pulses, pulses processing technologiesremain at its initial stage. The reasons Current season pulses (toor, black matpe and moong) may be requirement of buyers, production for export rather than local consumption, high investment in processing facilities, Production technology know-how, and limited information of value-added In Myanmar, pulses are grown in both rainy season and winter products demand. Consequently, there are limited number of season, depending on the pulses and growing regions. Toor processing facilities and share in export of value-added products is usually grown only in rainy season while black matpe and stands at 5 to 10 percent. It is an urgent need of Myanmar to moong are sown in both seasons. Larger acreages are generally improve its pulses processing technologies particularly for the grown in winter, for example, 99% of black matpe are grown in exportation of value-added pulse products. winter. But for moong it is different since about 47% of the crop is sown in winter. This year production of toor is estimated to In Myanmar beans and pulses processing usually involve be a little lower than the last year by 0.9 %. Similarly, current two steps. Primary processing consists of receiving, cleaning season (2014-15, winter season) black matpe is estimated to and quality sorting of seeds. Secondary processing consists show a negative growth of 1.6% while moong production is of preparing seeds for consumer use and can include dry expected to increase by 2.5%. It is comparable to this year’s packaging, canning and the making of soup mixes, powders rainy season production of black matpe and moong, registered and flour. The secondary processing is minimal with the at the growth rate of (-) 15.7% and (+) 3.6% respectively. processing sequence ending at dry packaging.

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Pulses Export Growth of Myanmar to Different Countries With reference to the data from International Trade Centre (ITC), overall annual growth of Myanmar pulses export during 2008 to 2012 has been subdued at 2%. And pulses export to India shows stagnant growth and export to China declines 11% while exports to Philippines, Australia, and Indonesia have shown the growth of extraordinary rate.

Myanmar’s pulses and beans exports (2012)

Exported Ranking Share of Exported Share in Total import growth Sl Exported growth in of partner partner value 2012 Myanmar’s in value of partner No. Importers quantity value countries countries (US$, thou- exports countries 2008-2012 2012 2008- 2012 in world in world sands) (%) (%, p.a) (%, p.a) imports imports (%)

Total 804083 100 1147661 2 100 8 1 India 596172 74.1 887362 0 1 23.6 8 2 Pakistan 45367 5.6 63422 10 5 4.2 21 3 Indonesia 37628 4.7 46793 32 27 0.8 37 4 Malaysia 28209 3.5 33623 16 26 0.8 17 5 China 20569 2.6 25650 -11 2 6 43 6 Japan 14025 1.7 15974 14 14 2.1 12 7 Philippines 10117 1.3 12132 47 42 0.4 8 8 Chinese 9927 1.2 14686 19 43 0.4 11 Taipei 9 Thailand 9502 1.2 13369 15 51 0.2 17 10 Singapore 6938 0.9 7331 6 57 0.2 9 11 Republic of 6664 0.8 9556 15 38 0.5 16 Korea 12 United 5946 0.7 5520 13 11 2.4 0 Kingdom 13 Sri Lanka 3207 0.4 3524 21 17 1.3 -3 14 Australia 1774 0.2 1508 37 61 0.2 4 15 Russian 1460 0.2 1295 28 47 0.3 6 Federation

Source:ITC calculations based on UN Comtrade statistics

Myanmar produces beans and pulses in three quality grades: sometimes higher than the freight cost from port to destination first quality (FQ), special quality (SQ), and fair average quality because of inefficient transport system and poor infrastructure. (FAQ). The majority of FAQ beans are sent to India with most Importance of Indian Market to Myanmar Pulses Industry FQ and SQ beans sent to higher quality demanding markets The key international destinations of Myanmar pulses are India, such as Korea, Japan and China, etc. The major export Pakistan, Indonesia, Malaysia, China, Japan and the Philippines. destinations of Myanmar is India (>70%), followed by Pakistan, In 2012, Myanmar exported 1.15 million metric ton of pulses Indonesia and Malaysia. of which 0.89 million metric ton shipped to India. In terms of value, it accounted for about 74% of total pulses export. Costs Involve in the Shipping Pulses Container to India (Mumbai, Chennai, Kolkata, etc.) New pulses type of pulses which is demanded the most in the Myanmar pulses exporters usually sell pulses in FOB Yangon importing countries basis. The prices reflect the supply and demand of pulses in the Based on diverse agro-ecological conditions, Myanmar market and prevailing exchange rate. In the shipping of pulses produced various types of pulses apart from traditional container to India or any other foreign markets, costs such as: pulses like pigeon pea, black matpe, green moong, chickpeas buying prices from the merchants, transportation cost, ready and lentils. Among non-traditional pulses, red kidney bean, cargo cost and 2% income tax. Currently, transportation cost black-eyed bean, butter bean, lablab bean, soybean, cowpea, may becomparatively higher and fluctuating than in neighboring horse bean, bocate, sultani, sultapya, Pegya, garden pea, countries, for example, transport cost from warehouse to port is penaukaremost demanded pulses in the importing countries.

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How pulses market operates in Myanmar during international year and after 2016 would determine how Pulse markets could be found all over the country and in the much to supplement the global pulses demand and to enhance major producing areas, Crop Exchange Centers (CExC) play trade relations among countries and thus support the role of important role. Currently 11 centers have been established pulses in soil conservation, health and nutrition, environmental in Yangon, Mandalay, Hinthada, Pyay, Myingyan, Magway, conservation, and animal feed industry. Aunglan, Pakokku, Monywa, Shwebo, Taunggyi and Muse...... These centers are managed by the local trader representatives The author can be contacted at [email protected] with the support of the Ministry of Commerce. Of these Disclaimer- Views are personal centers Yangon and Mandalay are major centers for local and international trading while Muse center stands as a main center particularly for border trade with China.

Potential Risk The beans and pulses trade is badly regulated. It’s mainly due to lack of focus in general on organization or research and development in the sector has hindered its development in contrast to the more blossoming rice trades.

Message for the International Year of Pulses 2016 Based on rich land and water resources and market demand, Myanmar became a major global supplier of pulses. At present, pulses are not only major export items of the country but also most important cash crops for farmers. To develop the pulses sector of the country is at the top priority agenda of the government. With the opening of economy and relaxation of trade restrictions, Myanmar pulses industry is trying to step up again. Foreign investment, technical cooperation, financial assistances are invited to improve this potential industry particularly in productivity, quality, food safety, and processing. Cooperation, collaboration, knowledge sharing among countries

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Myanmar pulses market and its trade

Shyam Narsaria, CEO, Arvee International Pvt Ltd. (Yangon Branch), Myanmar

UNO proclaimed 2016 as 3 banks which are functional, through them only we have to international year of pulses. do all our transactions. Secondly labour cost is very high and How will it help pulses availability of labour is very low with poor skills. January to industry to prosper? March is the major pulses arrival season, during that time it is United Nations Organisation very difficult to get labours for loading, unloading and cleaning. and IPGA are working hard to The labour cost has been increased by 5 times from last 5 years. promote pulses. Definitely it Thirdly electricity/power is also another problem, so most of will create awareness about the machines run under generators and there are no major pulses and its nutrition benefits problems other than these. for human health. Most of the people are becoming diet Give us some Insights about Myanmar pulses processing conscious and looking towards technologies. vegetarian food and pulses are There are only 2 or 3 dall mills with average production capacity the major source of vegetarian protein. So both producers and of 1000 tons/month and others are very small and are cottage consumers of pulses will be benefited. industry which process only 50 to 60 tons/month. There is still long way to go, for the dall factories and processing industries Myanmar is the second largest producer of pulses. Pulses in Myanmar. As per the news, Indian Govt. is planning to start area, production and yield are increasing at other growing export of processed pulses in coming years, so in that way hubs like Canada, Australia and China, given increasing trend I don’t think the processed pulses industry will develop in in consumption of pulses. So to meet the vegetarian protein Myanmar because India is technically advanced and developed requirement of the world, the UNO initiative will help pulses by more than 15 to 20 years than what Myanmar is today. So industry to grow to the next level. far Myanmar failed to maintain the quality of processed pulses due to unavailability of skilled labours and technically long way Tell us in breif Myanmar pulses Market Structure and major to develop under processing. Even the cost of processing is also pulses grown. higher, on an average it will be around $1050-1100, which will Myanmar market is still not open and will not open. Here be produced at $1000 at other countries. the system is 100% cash transactions in advance, within 2-3 working days. In other countries LP and BP system is practiced. What is your projection of Pulses output during current In Myanmar if we buy a cargo today, then within 2-3days season? we have to make the whole payment and then its buyer’s Myanmar will be harvesting good pulses crop during current choice when to load, transport and it will vary from a week to season, which will be 25-40% higher than last year. 2months time. Production % change from Pulses The market is risky, small and un-organized. Though they say it (in ‘000’ tons) previous season is opening up, still long way to go. In Myanmar 10-15 Singapore Tur (Red gram) 200-250 25-30% based companies are doing business. Local producers and Black matpe 700 25% suppliers are not up to International standards. Even they face (Black gram) financial constraints. Green mung 400 30-40% (Green gram) On the production side, Myanmar has three major pulse crop Chickpeas 40-50 Unchanged such as Black matpe (Urad) is around 600 to 700 ‘000’ tonnes, How do you manage the quality parameters of pulses Tur is around 200 to 250 ‘000’ tonnes and Green gram is around throughout the supply chain? 400 to 500 ’000’ tonnes. There are other pulses also available We have got about 20 well experienced employees and they have here with a very small quantity like Black-eyed beans, Brown thorough knowledge on quality aspects of pulses. The material beans, Red kidney beans, chickpeas, etc. loaded to the cargo will be devoid of weed seed, damaged seed, insect seed and mud particle. We also depend on technology Tell us about market access challenges for the pulses crops of gravity machine to maintain and clean the pulses as per Non-tariff barrier (NTBs), Technical Barrier to Trade (TBTs) and international standards. Then with collaboration with SGS, the Sanitary and Phytosanitary barriers etc. Major barrier in Myanmar is banking; here there are only 2 to renowned inspect agency, we maintain quality of pulses.

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Generally after loading cargo, fumigation is done in Myanmar. We have heard of spot market in India and their way of Our Fumigation is slightly different. Once cargo arrives to our operations. Can we understand how pulses market operates in premise, fumigation is done and it will be airtight for 72hours. Myanmar? Then the packed material will be loaded to container, which will There is a local exchange or local mandi for domestic sale but be subjected to another round of fumigation. not for outsiders. Farmers will bring produce to the country side stockiest and from it will be sold to market and exporters. Can you brief about Myanmar Pulses growing season? There is no much seasonal difference of pulses production between India and Myanmar. Here growing culture of pulses is slightly different. The main crop is paddy and once the completion of the paddy crop, with the residual moisture, fertile soil of the crop helps farmers to go for pulses during September, October and November. The harvesting season starts from January and February is the major harvesting season of pulses in Myanmar. In case of India the black matpe comes in August, September but in Myanmar it comes during February and March. The Green mung will be round the year, however February is the major season. What is the role of Singapore in pulses trade? Myanmar pulses growing season Singaporeans have major role in trade because they are the Season\ financiers, due to advance cash transactions in the market. So Jan Feb Mar Apr May Jun Jul Aug Sept Oct Nov Dec month the Singapore has got very big role to play in finance and get Sowing cheap finance from them (3% per annum). Harvesting Whether there is any incentive by Myanmar Government for How is the Myanmar Pulses export trend over the years? pulses Industry? From last 5 years the average export from Myanmar is around There are no restrictions and incentives from the Government. 1.2 million tons, but from last (2014) year there is small variation Actually there was 10% tax on export and it has reduced to 2%, because of local stockiest speculation. During 2015, exports will which has been named as commercial tax. be around 1.4 million tones, because of bumper crop production this year, which is higher by about 25 to 30% more. During 2014, India is the major buyer of Myanmar pulses. Who are other Myanmar exported 1.25million tons of pulses. major buying countries? In recent time, Dubai and China are importing pulses from What is the freight Costs for shipping container from Yangon to Myanmar, mainly because of sanction by India on export of Mumbai? pulses. In Dubai processing plant has been set up with average During last 2-3years the freight cost has been dearer. The freight capacity of 100 ’000’ tons. charge has been reduced from 30 to 40% in last two years, which was around $30/ton for shipping container from Yangon to Mumbai Whether there is existence of research institutes on pulses in Myanmar. but now it has declined to $20/ton during last two years. There are institutions to do research to increase production and The main reason for the decline is the surplus availability of vessels productivity in Myanmar but not up to the mark and also there due to higher imports of other commodity from Myanmar. So to is negligible demand of pulses domestically. ship commodity from Yangon to Mumbai the freight cost is around $350/20ft container, but to ship commodity from Mumbai to What is your Message to CICILS-IPTIC pulses conclave 2015. Yangon will be around $750/20ft container. To and fro it will cost India is the major consumer of Myanmar pulses and it should around only $1000/20ft container. rule the world pulses market, because market should be rule by the consumer or buyer. Currently pulses price depends on Apart from traditional pulses like pigeon pea, black matpe, other stockiest like Canada, Russian markets etc. Recently there green mung, chickpeas and lentils, kindly brief about new was talk about allowing export of pulses by India, which will be pulses type which is demanded the most by the importing great decision for the pulses industry, if it is allowed. There is countries. apprehension, that decision will increase pulses price volatility. According to me, by allowing export of pulses from India, there There are two kinds of beans such as Butter bean, Lab Lab beans will be stabilization in pulses prices globally. nowadays started exporting, there price and quality is also good...... Nowadays the production quantity has been increased of these The author can be contacted at [email protected] pulses. Disclaimer-Views are personal

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Outlook on lentils and peas

Harsha Kukreja Rai, Vice President Sales, Mayur Global Corporation

Pulses play a vital role in The country’s agriculture department has estimated almost 8% our lives. Pulses are the hit in the production area. Most of the damage is in Rajasthan, cheapest source of dietary with roughly 532,000 hectares hurt by untimely rains. Losses proteins. The high content in Uttar Pradesh were pegged at 393,000 hectares and in of protein in pulses makes Madhya Pradesh at 200,000. Looking at other states, India’s the diet more nutritive for agriculture department estimates 5,000 hectares were lost in vegetarian when taken with Haryana, 2,500 in Himachal Pradesh and just 150 hectares in other cooked food items. Uttarakhand. This should be reflected in the country’s third crop The pulses are also known estimate for the 2014-15 production cycles. for increasing productivity of soil through fixation of India-Pulses Supply Forecast (in MT) nitrogen from atmosphere, Production Season 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 addition of biomass to soil and secretion of growth promoting Tur Kharif 2650000 3020000 3290000 2740000 substances. Gram Rabi 7700000 8830000 9880000 7930000 Urad Kharif 1230000 1430000 1070000 1150000 World Pulses Production Summary Rabi 540000 470000 450000 405000 Product (MT) 2014 2015 Total 1770000 1900000 1520000 1555000 Lentils 42,49,000 49,79,000 Moong Kharif 1240000 790000 980000 710000 Peas 105,46,000 114,72,000 Rabi 390000 400000 510000 459000 Chikpeas 135,53,000 119,12,000 Total 1630000 1190000 1490000 1169000 Beans 224,71,000 232,10,000 Other Kharif 940000 620000 680000 600000 Rabi 2400000 2730000 2410000 2169000 India: Total 3340000 3350000 3090000 2769000 Red lentils: This year was a dry year for India but still acreage All Pulses Kharif 6060000 5860000 6020000 5200000 for lentils was higher as compared to last year. Contrary Rabi 11030000 12430000 13250000 10963000 unseasonal rain and hail storms was reported in some of India’s Total pulse growing region in mid march. This had the potential to Total 17090000 18290000 19270000 16163000 adversely impact quality, as the crop was ready to harvest in Production a week or two. There were also reports of frost and snowfall Pulse Peas 1457000 1690000 1469000 1763000 in some northern regions of India. Quality and quantity both Imports were affected due to changing weather conditions at harvest Chickpeas 244000 677000 426000 341000 time. Hence bringing production not higher than 5,50,000 Lentils 259000 793000 637000 811000 MT including all growing areas. This year India will again be Beans 1067000 1272000 960000 1098000 dependent on imports from other origins. Total All 3027000 4432000 3492000 4013000 Imports Pulses Green Lentils: India imported approx 80,000 MT green lentils Total Supply Pulses 20117000 22722000 22762000 20176000 form canada for the period of Aug-Jan 2014-15. Green lentils imports are higher as compared to last year. Govt tenders Calculations are based on historic data of India’s agriculture combined with short pigeon peas production resulted in department, trade estimates, FAO & exporting nation’s data. continuous buying for major south ports of India. Green lentils is used as a substitute of pigeon peas and hence we could see Australia: continuos demand for same in India this year. Import price Lentils: varied a lot with huge difference between No1 No2 and Extra 3 Most lentils grown in Australia are red. Australian lentil crop size and No3 grade lentils. This year quality in Canada was affected estimation was higher in 2014.Though production is up from by weather and hence crop had more of extra 3 and no3 earlier estimate of 2,55,000 MT , it remained well below last product. year’s 2,99,400 MT crop. Export is expected to be strong in first

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half of 2015. Looks like Australia will once again be sold out on next year in Canada which is just half the acreage as compared red lentils and hence we could see increased planting this year. to last year , production is expected to be 4,50,000 MT with carryover from this year at around 80,000 MT. New crop trades Canada: have already started for August September 2015 shipping Red lentils : production stood 12,84,100 MT from 21,20,000 window. Hectare. USA : India imported around 38,000 MT for the period of USA: Sept- Jan 2015 from USA. Quality this year was a problem too Lentils output in the United States was down 35% at just under in USA due to rain at the time of harvest but again good quality 148,000 metric tons (MT) in 2014. Combined with a small No1 and No2 peas got very good premium. China is one of the carry-over from the previous marketing year, available supplies another volume buyers for USA green peas but this year china of lentils were down 39% at almost 153,000 MT. Exports has been very quite in terms of imports as lot of inventory in movement was strong in first quarter, Sept-Jan export number there in China from last year’s imports. says 103000mt already exported. Looks like Ending stock would be negligible and hence seeding area should increase next year. Indian market has good inventory of green peas due to its own production and imports this year. At the moment stocks in India Lentil markets will remain sensitive to growing conditions is higher than demand and this is pushing prices towards south. around the world in the medium term, until the Canadian crop is safely in the bin. The next major piece of market-making news Logistics : will be Saskatchewan lentil acres, with State’s Canada’s first Logistics is one of the most important factors to be considered. estimates to be released April 23rd. Weather will again play a As seen from last 2 years, with record crop and trade logistics very important role. This will decide on how much would be became the major issue at Canadian USA port. Huge back logs turkey crop and what would be weather situations in Canada at and continuous demand from exporters for railcars to move the time of seeding and harvest. their product remained the major concerns. Situation eased this year but could not be solved completely and looks like it’s Yellow Peas : still is a problem. With long ongoing issues at USA port affected For 2015-16 seeded area in Canada is forecast to rise by nearly shipments from Canada also equipment availability always 4% from 2014-15 to 1.6 Mha because of higher potential returns remained an issue. relative to other crops, good logistical movement and solid export demand. Production is expected to increase by 10% , due Canada’s railways are still not making progress on decreasing to a return to higher expected yields. Supply is forecast to rise outstanding orders for hopper cars from field crop shippers marginally due to lower carry-in stocks. Exports are expected to in western Canada, according to the last data accumulated be slightly lower than 2014-15 and as a result, carry-out stocks by the Ag Transport Coalition. Though railway performance are expected to rise sharply but not to be burdensome. has improved as compared to last year but still it looks like transportation and handling logistics will again likely be The yellow pea market has also grown quieter recently, with bit difficults in coming months and will remain one of the a couple of factors looking to keep the short-term outlook important factor affecting pulses prices in Canada. Lot of sales bearish. is already made for new crop for peas and lentils already and movement should start quickly after the harvest in Canada. Despite projections for a smaller rabi crop, India is currently Suppliers are keeping in mind the logistics issue which might be sitting on a fair bit of inventory at major ports in India. Indian faced again with new crop in terms of railways and equipments importers bought heavily earlier in the winter as they were availability and hence choosing selling shipping window concerned about their domestic harvest due to weak monsoon accordingly. this year but now appear to be pulling back. Weather : China has been very quite in terms of imports and it could With changing weather pattern it’s very important to keep track be seen that Chinese buyers are backing away from bulk of weather forecast for all growing areas. Unseasonal rain at shipments. China is again one of the other market which has the time of harvest in India or extremely dry weather forecast potential to lead aurally in peas in coming months ahead as for Canada going forward in June to August is very important market expect buying from this destination. factor to watch. Quality and yield both may be affected with such weather pattern. This accounts for one of the major factors The medium term outlook remains flat to higher, due to strong which accounts for price change. exports and very tight ending stocks forecast for yellow peas ...... through to the end of 2014/15. The author can be contacted at [email protected] Disclaimer- Views are personal Green Peas : Canada : Exports have been steady. With domestic disappearance accounting for it looks like ending stock for green peas in Canada would be low. Also with projected seeding for

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Towards the holistic development of pulses economy

Pallavi Oak, Dy. Manager- Knowledge Management, NCDEX

It is an irony that despite being the realities have made futures trading effective for hedging. Moreover, world’s largest producer of pulses, India settlement of chana futures through (compulsory) physical delivery has not achieved self-sufficiency in it. A has ensured sync between futures and spot prices and in turn has number of initiatives taken to augment added sanctity to the prices discovered on the exchange making domestic supply, including substantial them more realistic. hikes in minimum support prices (MSP), use of improved seed varieties and High correlation (more than 90%) between NCDEX chana futures crop management techniques, allowing and spot prices, gives market participants a platformto hedge imports at zero duty and banning efficiently. exports, among others have not yielded the desired results. With net availability Futures trading in pulses – Augmenting support service of pulses still lagging behind their requirement and price pressures infrastructure at intermittent intervals, India continues to be the world's largest Thrust on deliveries, besides increasing integrity of futures prices, importer of pulses. has promoted back-end infrastructure development. A robust network of accredited warehouses has increased the holding The crucial missing link here is an efficient marketing and capacities of producers reducing incidences of distress sales, while supply management system which can incentivize cultivators by helping traders and dal millers efficiently manage their inventories. guaranteeing fair returns and assured purchase of their produce, while simultaneously making pulses easily accessible and affordable to consumers. This calls for developing pulses market enabling robust procurement and backed by an efficient distribution. Therein lies the role of commodity derivatives market.

Regulated commodity futures markets have been around in India for more than 10 years. Serving as a platform for efficient price discovery and risk management, commodity exchanges have driven numerous reforms creating an environment that enables market participants to grow their business with utmost confidence and trust.

Electronic mode of trading and standardized quality and quantity parameters of futures contracts have helped establish a centralized Stringent quality accreditation norms stipulated by the exchange market place accessible to producers, millers, importers on real-time for empanelling a warehouse service provider have instilled basis irrespective of their geographies. Participation of multiple buyers confidence in the participants and also provided them easy access and sellers and the availability of market information in real time has to pledge finance to meet short-term liquidity needs. created a competitive environment that facilitates transparent price discovery. Further, the availability of mid-month, far-month and near- Further, the practice of assaying and grading of a commodity has month futures contracts, givesa year round reflection of the market ensured the delivery of fair quality produce to the buyers and has sentiments and demand-supply scenario. created quality consciousness among the sellers.

Near-real time dissemination of the futures prices through various Futures trading in pulses – Fuelling business growth through information channels viz. price ticker boards, kisaan call centres, institutional capacities television channels, etc. provides participants with a direct Modern clearing and settlement mechanism of the exchange access to price information. This reduces information asymmetry has ensured time-bound payment to seller and delivery of and empowers them to take well-timed and informed business goods to buyer. Online monitoring and surveillance mechanism decisions. of the exchange has facilitated orderly functioning of trading operations. Thus, trading in chana futures has improved the Futures trading in pulses – Availability of a competitive market confidence to trade. Moreover, facilitating better coordination system through a centralized market structure, trading in chana futures NCDEX Chana futures, launched in 2004, have helped farmers have reduced transaction costs associated with identifying take sowing decisions,millers and traders decide on how much to market outlets, physically inspecting product quality, and finding stockor import. Cues from Futures markets serve as early warning buyers or sellers. signals which are verycrucial given that different variety of pulses, to a great extent, are substitutes of each other. Chana futureshave Impetus to Spot Market also enabled every stakeholder in chana value chain mitigate A credible futures platform depends on the robustness of the spot their price risks effectively. Close alignment of chana futures with market. Path breakinginitiatives introduced by the spot market physical market as a result of contracts designed to reflect market arm of NCDEX, NCDEX e-Markets Limited (NeML) , are helping

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modernize the entire eco-system for spot commodities’ trading, a forward contract of chana on the exchange platform. He can enter making it a transparent, fair and objective marketplace. Electronic the contract at flat price or link it to the NCDEX chana futures contract trading platform of NeML is not only reducing manual intervention quoting a premium or discount. Moreover, he can choose to give and intermediary costs, but has become a trigger for a complete delivery at rake point or truck point. He can also opt for direct delivery overhaul of the supply chain system from purchase of commodity mode or may deliver at exchange-approved warehouses through to payment. COMTRACK® to track the movement of goods online. With multiple modes of delivery he can conveniently take deliveries at those Mandi modernization initiated by NeML, beginning with Gulbarga locations which are not covered by existing delivery network under APMC market of Karnataka in December 2011 has transformed the futures market and save his transportation costs. spot trading system for turfrom manual auctioning to a web based e-auction platform along with option of grading. Automation not A buyer can enjoy additional benefit of assaying the quality, be only has saved time bringing in transparency but also has facilitated assured of receiving produce of his desired quality. A dal miller can quick and confident off-site bidding. The project has covered 51 be rest assured of timely procurement, as delivery is compulsory APMC markets in Karnataka, two APMC markets in Telangana and one under exchange traded forwards and contracts are settled within APMC market in Andhra Pradesh in last two years and has positively a specified time period. At present exchange traded forwards are impacted life of more than 1.5 lakh farmers with graded produce available in chana (in reference and fixed price contracts), tur, urad fetching 10-12% more than ungraded produce of FAQ quality. and yellow peas (only in fixed price contracts).

Unified Market Platform (UMP) introduced by ‘Rashtriya e-markets Members can participate in this new segment for ‘Pro’ trading with and Services Private Limited’ (ReMS), a joint venture company of their existing membership codes. Clients also can execute their NeML and Govt. of Karnataka, in February 2014 is further driving forward trades with their existing client codes. Alternatively, a the efficiency of spot transactions by facilitating inter connection of special membership category, ‘Commodity Participants Members’, state-wide APMCs to create ‘one state one market’. is also available for participating in forward segment.

By providing an online auction platform, NeML has helped the State Forward transactions have recorded total turnover of Rs 967.62 Food and Civil Supplies Department, Government of Karnataka (KFCSC) lakh with trade volume touching 5, 156 tones by the end of to procure tur dal under the mid-day meal scheme for students of February 2015. 24 commodity participants members (out of which government schools at reduced costs with processors across Karnataka 11 are farmer producers’ organizations (FPOs)) are actively trading as well as from Maharashtra offering their produce. Purchase of in forwards, 18 more (nine of which are FPOs) have applied for 12,500 MT of tur dal through e-auction mode has resulted to a net membership. Forward trading is available in 26 commodities on the saving of around Rs. 13 crore for KFCSC in FY 2013-14. Exchange.

NeML has helped Karnataka Togari Abhivrudhi Mandali Limited Exchange traded forwards, along with the electronic spot and (KTAML/ Tur Board) to purchase tur (FAQ quality) to enhance futures segments are poised to accelerate the pace of growth of efficiency of procurement operations by refining the process to pulses economy and synergies of the three segments that create introduce objective assaying and grading of tur, near real time seamless ability to trade that would help improve domestic tracking of operations through Video monitoring, electronic mode supplies reducing country’s dependency on import. of payment to farmer account. Since its introduction in 2011-12, Innovations at NCDEX e-procurement services of NeML have benefited 15,142 tur growers • COMTRACK®, a user-friendly web-based commodity accounting in Karnataka by reducing overhead and intermediary costs. system developed by NCDEX, facilitates holding and transfers of commodities balances in an electronic form. It helps market NeML through its e-pledge services has successfully addressed participants trace their stocks in the clearing and settlement issues related to warehouse receipts, warehouse accreditation, and network through seamless linkages between entities involved in collateral management by enabling online tracking and traceability the process. of pledged lots. E-pledge has been functional in six states across • Exchange of Futures for Physicals (EFP) mechanism offers 150 warehouses directly benefitting 66 farmer producers’ the industry stakeholders the comfort of doing business with organizations (FPOs) 443 borrowers including 340 farmers 17 known entities customizing the trading terms, while enabling to exchange their futures position for physical one. processors and 76 small traders and small processors. • Limit Spread Order type functionality available on NCDEX platform facilitates trading in calendar spreads using spread day Accelerating efficiencies of forward segment orders. Since a calendar spread position is given, it gives the Forward transactions are very common in pulses market, where benefit of lower margin. For example, this functionality can help imports account for almost 40% of total domestic supplies. Forward a Chana trader to trade without needing to place buy/sell orders sales of the imported pulse varieties involve high risks of defaults, if separately in individual contracts. While the Exchange ensures export prices of those pulse varieties subsequently rise vis-à-vis the execution of both the legs of the trade, the system reduces risk prices for domestic forward sales. exposure and saves his time of analyzing tick-movement in price. • Small size contracts (Chana 2 MT) replica of full-size contracts Exchange traded forwards available on NCDEX, are a refined version (except for contract period and lot size) and yet are cash- of the existing forward trades, providing a structured, regulated settled, enables retail investors to hedge only price risks without having to take physical delivery and related hassles bringing in framework to the trade, backed by legal sanctity and guarantee. diversification into their portfolios and benefit from the same. This helps to reduce counter party default risk by assuring compensation guarantee to the extent of margin collected. The author can be contacted at [email protected] A dal miller willing to buy chana can negotiate price, date, quality Disclaimer- Views are personal parameters, delivery location and mode of delivery, as he enters into

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Price outlook on lentils and peas

Venkatraman S, Sr. Commodity Analyst, FBSPL

Canadian production of pulses for 2015-16 (Aug’15-July’16) is likely to increase due to increase in area. Dry pea production is forecast to increase to 3.8 million tons as against 3.44 forecasted in 2014-15 (Aug’14-July’15). Lentil production is forecasted higher at 2.15 million tons in 2015-16 as against 1.84 million forecasted in 2014-15.

Canada’s dry pea exports in 2014-15 are estimated to increase to 2.9 million tons and for 2015-16 a tad lower at 2.8 million tons. India, China and Bangladesh are the top three Canadian exporting markets.

For 2014-15, Canadian lentil exports are forecast to fall by 6% to 1.65 million tons. India, Turkey and the United Arab Emirates are currently the top three export markets. 2014. Since then, price has recovered substantially to currently Lentils Red overall bullishness intact traded level of 8.45 $/bu as on February-18-2015. Since February-2012 (when it reached the bottom of 15.65 dollars/cwt), price of Lentils Red Canada has been on a gradual In the short-term, peas yellow is likely to move higher towards 9 upward bias. Currently it is trading well above the consolidation $/bu. But to maintain the current bullishness it has to stay well formation, basis the weekly chart, signaling room for further above 9 $/bu for at least two consecutive weeks on closing basis. bullishness. In that scenario expect yellow peas to move higher in the region of 10 and 10.5 $/bu. As on February-18-2015, Lentils Red is quoted at 34.04 dollars/ cwt. On the weekly chart, red lentil is traded well above multi- Support is seen in the region of 7 and 6.5 $/bu. Overall peas is year consolidation phase, and is likely to move higher towards expected to trade in the broader region of 6.5 and 10.5 $/bu and 42-44 dollars/cwt either in Q2 or Q3 of 2015. At the same time this is valid till Q3 of 2015. downside is limited to 30 dollars/cwt. Overall, Lentils red Canada is all set to move higher in sight of 42-44 dollars/cwt and may In the chart yellow peas seems to be following four year cycle. even retest theJune-2008 high of 52 dollars/cwt in the long run. First cycle - Jan-2006 to March-2010 Second cycle – April-2010 to Jan-2014 Third cycle is in progress since Jan-2014 From the weekly chart, one can infer that the current overall bullishness is likely to stay at least till Q1 of 2016, before it starts to reverse its trend to complete the four year cycle probably in Q4 of 2017. If our assumption is indeed true then peas yellow is likely to retest March-2008 high of 11.38 $/bu before Q1 of 2016.

...... Disclaimer: The mentioned ideologies in this report are based on the research done at Foretell Business Solutions Private Limited, Bangalore. Foretell will not be responsible for any kind of losses incurred by any party either directly or indirectly based on our research results, though we have presented the best of our knowledge.

Peas Yellow Price of Peas Yellow reached the low of 5.40 $/bu during January- www.commodityindia.com Page 105  

Pulses markets and trade in India

Gaurav Bagdai, Tha. Gopaldas Popatlal, General merchant and commission agent, India

Introduce about your company briefly? then which are the factors that are supporting the supply and Myself Gaurav G Bagdai representing G P Agri Brokers and Tha demand flow? Gopaldas Popatlal Rajkot, dealing in pulses specially in Desi Chickpeas, Tuver, Moong , Yellow Peas are the pulses in demand Chick Peas and Kabuli Chick Peas Broking and trading business at Gujarat. Though agro climatic conditions are conducive for at Rajkot Marketing Yard for 25 years. such crops, farmers at Gujarat are primarily have preference towards Cotton & Oilseeds. Due to such preference of farmers What type of Pulses your agency is trading in Indian and in Gujarat, the market is continues under constrains of supply international Market? side from neighboring states. Desi Chickpeas & Kabuli Chickpeas are the pulses which we are trading in Indian and International markets. Is there any new policy that is changing the Gujarat market structure or Indian Pulses market structure? If yes, then What are the customer preferences in Domestic and elaborate it in few lines? International market for the Indian pulses? Presently, there is ban on exports of the pulses. Now in light of Domestic Market- Rates & Quality lifting of the Ban, there could be substantial rise in pricing of International Market – Rates, Quality & Regulatory the pulses in local market and that could lead the farmers to requirements viz. certification etc. be attracted towards it. Additionally, presently there is ZERO import duty on import of pulses, and change in the structure How the Gujarat market is being influenced by the neighboring can significantly influence the local market. states supply and demand factors? Gujarat is a major consumer state of India of pulses especially The current market scenario of Gujarat is traditional or some Desi Chickpeas, Moong, Toor, Urad & Yellow Peas (as whole, new pulses are being emerging? If emerging then please name Dall and Flour ) Demand of such pulses are higher viz. its the variety/type of pulses and please specify the demand in production and hence majority of the demand is being met with the local market. neighbouring states such as Maharashtra, MP, Rajasthan. Pricing Yellow peas are slowly and gradually making its place in Gujarat is primarily influenced by supply from such neighbouring states Pulses Market. It has been well accepted in the market of North also. East India. Favorable pricing and adoption to the taste are major factor in emerging Yellow peas as new pulses in local market. What are the major constraints Indian buyers are facing while importing pulses? Outlook of Rabi Pulses 2015-Chickpeas, lentils & Peas. Mostly importes are not facing any major constraint now a days. We expect production of 5 Million MT of Desi Chickpeas & 0.4 Yes clearance of Methyle Promide certificate is taking too much Million MT of Kabuli Chickpeas, 0.6 Million MT Lentils and 0.5 time and some harrassment are there for clearance. Million MT Yellow Peas in Rabi 2015 ...... What is the current scenario of the branded and unbranded The author can be contacted at [email protected] pulses market in Gujarat and India? Disclaimer- Views are personal Market share of Branded players are growing in the local market at phenomenal phase and hence the local brands are geared up in value addition of packaging etc. Large corporates players are making their present felt and their share are growing, Adani Wilmar, Reliance, Future Group, Metro & Tata’s are the corporate houses making their mark in the organized pulses market. Branded players's market share is around 5% and growing at the average rate of 10 % per year.

Which pulses are locally demanded pulses in Gujarat? And whether the local pulses demand and supply channel is smoothly flowing or there are some disturbances? If there is some disturbances then what are the key factors and if not

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Pulses Imports of India

Peas Green & Black gram Values in US$ Values in US$ Quantity in tonnes Quantity in tonnes Country Million Country Million 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 AUSTRALIA 38 25 82429 54576 AFGHANISTAN TIS 6 3 6644 2505 CANADA 404 529 939227 1287719 ARGENTINA 4 4 3896 3463 MYANMAR 3 1 4308 1385 AUSTRALIA 20 4 19085 3327 RUSSIA 62 28 147234 70642 CANADA 1 0 2369 54 UKRAINE 9 22 20314 54250 CHINA P RP 2 0 1452 25 U S A 59 79 111429 174301 ETHIOPIA 0 3 188 2679 Others 10 2 25485 4887 INDONESIA 0 3 42 2085 Total 585 686 1330426 1647761 KENYA 21 5 22202 5250 MALAYSIA 0 0 240 240 Red Gram MYANMAR 359 393 517110 428736 MOZAMBIQUE 9 7 10063 7856 Values in US$ Quantity in tonnes TANZANIA REP 23 33 26446 32922 Country Million THAILAND 0 1 160 624 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 UGANDA 0 0 103 364 AFGHANISTAN TIS 0 0 96 528 U S A 1 0 1736 132 AUSTRALIA 0 0 95 92 UZBEKISTAN 11 9 10753 7682 KENYA 5 3 8370 4028 Others 2 2 1743 1920 MALAWI 12 26 21103 36657 MYANMAR 162 172 239336 232111 Total 468 624232 499865 0 MOZAMBIQUE 39 39 68474 55819 Kidney Beans TANZANIA REP 73 72 127868 98356 Values in US$ Others 0 12 480 16263 Quantity in tonnes Country Million Total 291 324 465342 427592 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 Chickpeas CHINA P RP 70 52 47759 47025 ETHIOPIA 13 10 16447 12018 Values in US$ Quantity in tonnes KENYA 4 3 4559 3794 Country Million MYANMAR 11 7 9834 6595 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 MEXICO 1 6 886 5924 AUSTRALIA 84 73 169647 135750 TANZANIA CANADA 1 2 821 4304 1 3 1495 3367 REP ETHIOPIA 0 2 480 4939 U S A 5 1 4839 1031 MYANMAR 12 9 17675 12248 Others 2 2 2421 2365 MEXICO 0 3 24 2266 Total 109 84 88240 82118 RUSSIA 26 53 62886 116352 TANZANIA REP 11 7 21669 14975 Red Beans TURKEY 0 1 50 2370 Values in US$ U S A 1 9 1298 9597 Quantity in tonnes Million Others 1 3 1580 6913 Country Total 136 163 276131 309713 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 BRAZIL 1.93 17.68 2,658.00 26,023.21 Lentils CHINA P RP 0.39 0.17 371.15 150 Values in US$ Million Quantity in tonnes ETHIOPIA 0.22 0.28 262 372 Country 2013-14 2014-15 2013-14 2014-15 MADAGASCAR 1.76 6.07 2,744.50 7,947.40 AUSTRALIA 46 39 69874 50484 MYANMAR 2.94 7.50 3,922.30 11,278.52 CANADA 352 307 562250 461197 MOZAMBIQUE 0.08 0.08 138 141 U S A 0.05 0.21 40 144 U S A 45 61 75861 96134 Others 0.52 0.05 941 67.74 Others 1 1 723 1224 Total 7.89 32.04 11,076.95 46,123.87 Total 445 408 708708 609039 Note: 2014-15 year = Apr 2014- Dec 2014

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U.S. Pulses export destinations by Country wise export quantity of volume (1,000 pounds) Canadian pulses (‘000’ metric tonnes)

Ranking based on prior 4 annual market year* totals 2014- 2013- 10-Yr Peas Dried 2010/11 2011/12 2012/13 2013/14 2014/15 15* 2014 Average United austrian 35.8 53.6 13.2 ANN ANN ANN ANN Dec YTD States winter peas Western Mexico 2.1 6.1 2.8 India 7,250 990 0 Hemisphere Cuba 53.9 39.3 61.1 Taiwan 1,260 2,032 1,432 459 513 Colombia - - 14.5 Japan 470 510 368 541 India 839.8 865.1 1,025.7 China 159 0 0 129 1,207 Kuwait - 4.8 4.8 Total 1,889 2,542 9,050 2,119 1,720 United Arab 11.0 50.3 23.3 Dried split Emirates ANN ANN ANN ANN Dec YTD peas China P.R. 285.0 547.4 307.4 Kenya 41,353 21,132 44,149 6,231 0 Asia Indonesia - 11.0 11.0 Ethiopia 22,418 44,883 21,533 6,523 8,357 Bangladesh 212.7 206.7 192.4 Peru 16,984 20,467 26,655 12,930 16,445 Pakistan - - 47.4 Pakistan 13,793 15,302 31,197 4,421 703 Malaysia - - 36.2 Djibouti 3,356 7,246 9,628 6,010 9,477 Turkey - - 16.4 Other 91,827 52,270 57,606 97,174 16,947 Nepal - - 20.9 Countries Belgium - 63.7 28.0 Total 189,731 161,300 190,768 133,289 51,929 Spain 4.1 - 189.6 Dried whole ANN ANN ANN Dec YTD Dec YTD Germany - - 11.3 green peas Western Norway - - 28.9 India 113,493 114,195 115,399 79,543 102,234 Europe Denmark - - 22.6 China 24,726 16,351 52,560 62,023 42,350 Italy - - 7.5 Philippines 31,200 30,501 16,470 17,036 13,609 France - - 8.1 Canada 25,950 11,680 13,893 19,295 8,620 Netherlands - - 10.6 Colombia 11,006 2,220 9,948 3,635 3,958 Africa Algeria - 13.8 Other Total 1,848.0 1,780.3 65,740 46,396 55,812 116,154 38,386 Countries 2014- 2013- 2012- 9-Yr Total 272,115 221,343 264,082 297,686 209,157 Lentils 15* 2014 2013 Average Dried whole ANN ANN ANN Dec YTD Dec YTD United yellow peas 7.0 13.4 2.9 4.4 Western States India 96,141 617 112,487 80,484 217,477 Hemisphere Mexico 13.7 11.6 0.3 3.1 China 51,470 3,912 7,829 33,134 58,742 Colombia - - 14.1 Egypt 33.7 40.0 - 22.3 Pakistan 33,941 0 19,535 1,421 0 Africa Algeria - - 7.9 Indonesia 20,905 1,507 8,431 677 1,553 Turkey 141.6 203.5 36.5 102.3 South Africa 16,490 0 10,781 3,049 1,759 Asia Bangladesh 36.4 38.4 20.6 18.0 Other India 103.8 133.5 171.2 93.6 49,330 50,858 61,762 66,768 15,348 Countries Italy - 0.4 0.4 Western Belgium - - 1.8 Total 268,277 56,894 220,825 185,533 294,879 Europe Spain - - 10.7 Note: ANN=Jul-June Total 440.3 231.9 139.2

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Trends in balance sheet of Urad/Black matpe in India Canada’s Total Pulses (in million tons) (Million tonnes) Year 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2015-16 Open Closing Year Production Imports Total Consumption Production 5.72 4.55 5.68 6.88 6.07 6.72 stocks Supply Stocks Export 4.79 3.78 4.95 5.24 5.27 5.18 2010-11 0.11 1.76 0.32 2.27 1.8 0.47 Import 0.17 0.12 0.14 0.14 0.14 0.13 2011-12 0.47 1.81 0.42 2.53 1.9 0.63 Total 7.06 6.16 7.07 7.66 6.84 7.20 2012-13 0.63 1.9 0.46 2.99 2.08 0.91 availability Domestic 2013-14 0.91 1.7 0.4 3.01 2.05 0.96 0.78 1.30 1.47 1.81 1.25 1.32 Demand 2014-15 0.96 1.61 0.4 2.97 2.15 0.82 Carry out 1.49 1.08 0.64 0.63 0.36 0.72 stocks Trends in balance sheet of Moong/Green gram in India Source: www.agr.gc.ca (Million tonnes) Open Year Production Imports Supply Consumption Stock Total Pulses in Australia (in ‘000’ tons) stocks Year 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 2010-11 0.07 1.8 0.18 2.05 1.94 0.11 Production 1666.01 1715.74 1997.37 1591.68 1596.60 1501.89 2011-12 0.11 1.63 0.23 1.97 1.78 0.19 Export 998.97 952.56 1216.87 1476.48 846.93 845.70 2012-13 0.19 1.19 0.18 1.56 1.34 0.22 Import 3.76 2.78 3.50 3.84 3.65 3.41 2013-14 0.22 1.61 0.2 2.03 1.43 0.6 Total 18.34 20.81 20.53 21.98 23.09 21.06 2014-15 0.6 1.39 0.2 2.19 1.5 0.69 availability Demand 18.29 19.08 19.91 20.90 21.77 23.00 Trends in balance sheet of total Pulses in India Source: www.agriculture.gov.au (Million tonnes) Year 2009-10 2010-11 2011-12 2012-13 2013-14 2014-15 Production 14.70 18.24 17.21 18.34 19.78 18.43 Export 0.13 0.21 0.18 0.20 0.34 0.23 Import 3.76 2.78 3.50 3.84 3.65 3.41 Total 18.34 20.81 20.53 21.98 23.09 21.06 availability Demand 18.29 19.08 19.91 20.90 21.77 23.00

Trends in balance sheet of Gram in India (Million tonnes) Opening Closing Year Production Import Consumption Stocks Stocks 2010-11 0.5 8.22 0.1 8.521 0.3 2011-12 0.3 7.7 0.21 7.956 0.25 2012-13 0.25 8.83 0.7 9.527 0.26 2013-14 0.26 9.53 0.28 9.12 0.95 2014-15SAE 0.95 8.28 0.28 9.1 0.41

Trends in balance sheet of Tur/Red gram in India (Million tonnes) Opening Closing Year Production Imports Exports Consumption stocks stocks 2010-11 0.3 2.86 0.35 0 3.283 0.22 2011-12 0.22 2.65 0.47 0.001 3.272 0.067 2012-13 0.067 3.02 0.51 0.002 3.294 0.301 2013-14 0.301 3.17 0.47 0 3.356 0.585 2014-15 0.585 2.75 0.47 0 3.402 0.403 Source: Ministry of Agriculture, GoI, Export Import Data Bank, Ministry of Commerce & Industry

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INDIA ...... Name of the firm: Lalji Hirji & Sons Name of the firm: Sreenidhi Impexp Contact person: Mr.Navinchandra Lalji Nandu (Partner) Contact Person: Ms. Babitha Chintala Address: NO. D-5/6, APMC MARKET-II, PHASE-II, SANPADA Address: 47/5, Air India Colony, Kalina Navi Mumbai - 400703, Santa Cruz East Maharashtra, India Mumbai-40029 Phone no:91-22-41558000 Maharashtra, India Fax no: 91-22-41558045 Phone no: 91-22-26157902/91 - 9892616337 Mobile no: 9820097116 Fax no: 91-22-26157902 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected]/[email protected] ...... [email protected] Name of the firm: Tirupati food Industries Pvt. Ltd. Website: www.sreenidhiimpexp.com Address: B-17, Lawrence Road, Industrial Area, ...... Delhi - 110035, India Name of the firm: Rite food products Phone no: 91-11-27152547/27180952/27152561 Contact Person: Mr. Eish Garg Fax no: 91-11-27152547/27180952 Address: 1006, EcoStar, Behind Udipi Rest...... Off Aarey Road Name of the Firm: Paramanand & Sons Food Products Pvt.Ltd Goregaon (East) Contact Person: Mr.Puneet Mumbai - 400063 A-23/1,Lawrence Road Indl.Area, Delhi-110035(INDIA) Maharashtra, India Phone no: +91-11-27188883, 271888884 Phone no: 91-22-29272018/19 Mobile no: +91-9911199966 Mobile: 09820214770 Fax no: +91-11-27194220 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.Ritefood.com Website: www.panbrand.org ...... Name of the firm: Himatlal Hirji & Co MYANMAR Address: D-7, APMC Market 2, Danabunder, Vashi Navi Mumbai 400703 Name of the firm: Sun Impex Maharashtra India Address: Olymphic Tower Phone no: +91-22-27831379 8th Floor/802, Bo Aung Kyaw Street Email: [email protected] Kyauktada Township Yangon, Myanmar Website: www.ehhco.com Email: sales@sunimpex/[email protected] ...... Website: www.sunimpex.biz Name of the firm: Indentors.in group ...... contact Person: Rasesh Tanna Name of the firm: Pyai Phyo Aung Co., Ltd Address: 57/59 Kazi Sayed Street Contact Person: Mr. aung myat ko - Director Garud Chambers, 1st Floor Address: 74, War tan st, Mumbai - 400003 Yangon, Myanmar MaharashtraIndia Phone no: (+95-1) 228584, (+95-1) 223097, (+95-1) 211124 Phone no: 91-22-23423122/91-22-23424449 Fax no: (+95-1) 211821 Fax no: 91-22-23427627 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.ppagroups.com Website: www.indentors.in ...... Name of the firm: Myawaddy Trading Limited Name of the firm: Shri Enterprise Address: No.55/61, STRAND ROAD, Contact Name: Mr. Hitesh Sayta SEIKKAN TOWNSHIP, YANGON. Address: 504, Jolly Bhavan No:1, 10, New Marine lines UNION OF MYANMAR. Mumbai: 400 020 Phone no: 95-01-373255,237265,373267,373291 Phone nos. : +91 22 2200 8866 / +91 22 2200 2131 / +91 22 Fax no: 95-01-373257 2200 4828 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] Website: www.myawaddytrade.com Skype id: hiteshsayta ...... Website: www.shrienterprise.com

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Name of the Firm: Phoenix Myanmar Co., Ltd Fax no: (+95-1) 299 955 Contact person: Mohammed Imran Email: [email protected] Address: 28/30, Banya Dala Street, Website: www.supersoeexoporter.com Mingala Thungnyunt Township. Yangon [MYANMAR] ...... Phone no: 95 1 290762 Name of the firm: U Kyu Family Grains and Manufacturing Co., Ltd. Fax no: 95 1 294046 Address: No. 17/19 Hledan Street, ...... Lanmadaw Township,Yangon, Myanmar. Name of the firm: Ziwaka Trading company Ltd Phone no: 951- 226108, 211011 Address: No. 262/286, Room-2, Ground Floor, Konzaydan Street, Fax no: 951- 226047, 227423 Pabedan Township, Yangon, Myanmar. Email: [email protected]/[email protected]. Phone No: (+951) 246412, 243425, 384093, 384835, (+959) mm, [email protected] 5004982, 5021318 Website: www.uqfamilyflourmill.com Fax no: (+951) 253234 ...... Email: [email protected] CANADA Website: www.ziwaka.com ...... Name of the Firm: Agrocorp Exports Ltd. Name of the Firm: Mani Zaw Ta Co., Ltd & Maharnadi Address:5 Parkshore Drive Contact Person: U Zaw Hlaing/ U Zaw Min Brampton Address: Block 5,# 03-201, Thirimon Plaza 5th street, Ontario, L6T 5M1 Mayangon Township, Yangon, Canada The republic of the union of Myanmar. Phone no: 905.458.4551 Phone no: (+95) 01 9688923 Fax no: 905.458.4055 Fax no: (+95) 01 683150 Email: [email protected] HP: (+95) 09 5130808, 09 5108575 ...... Email : [email protected] Name of the firm: Agricom International Inc. Website: www.manizawta.com Address: 213-828 Harbourside Drive ...... North Vancouver, BC, Canada Name of the firm: New Golden Gate V7P 3R9 Address: No. 46, 19th Street, Latha Township, Yangon, Myanmar. Email: [email protected]/[email protected] Phone no: 95-1-382320. Phone no: 604-983-6922 Fax no: 95-1-382331. Fax no: 604-983-6923 Email: [email protected]/[email protected] ...... Website: www.agribizmm.com Name of the firm: Agrican International ...... Address: 45 Gardiner Ave, Name of the firm: Great Luck Co., Ltd Regina, Saskatchewan, S4S 4P5 Address:119 Lower Kyeemyindaing Road, Yangon, Myanmar (Burma) Phone no: +1 306 205 6755 Phone no: 95 1 214533, 215556, 215589 Fax no: +1 306 205 6756 Fax nO: 95 1 215589, 214533 E-mail:[email protected]/[email protected] Email: [email protected]/[email protected] Website: www.agri-can.ca Website: www.greatluckmm.com ...... Name of the firm: Belle Pulses Ltd Name of the firm: Silver Top Star Co., Ltd. Contact Person: Tony Gaudet Address: No.(219),12th St, 1st Ward Thamine,Mayangone Tsp, Yangon. Box 65Bellevue, Sask. Phone no: 95-1-95408243, S0K 3Y0 Fax no: 95-1-522765 Phone no: 306-423-5202 Email: [email protected] Fax no:306-423-6212 Website: www.silvertopstar.com Email: [email protected] ...... Name of the firm: Super Soe Company Limited Name of the firm: Cheemat Trading Co Contact person: U Soe Lwin @ S.KAYAMBU - Managing Director Address: Regina, Canada No.83, Yegyaw Road, Phone no: 306-501-6799 Mingalar Taung Nyunt Township, Email: [email protected] Yangon, Myanmar. Website: www.cheematrading.ca Phone no: (+95-1) 293 063, 203 430, 203 411 ......

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Name of the firm: Monaco Traders Inc. Name of the firm: Steele & Company Contact Person: Mr. Naresh Verma Contact Person:Candy Willett Address: 3336 155 St Surrey, Bc V3s 0g4, Canada Address:4956 Stewart Road Phone no: +1-604-5357080/ PO Box 800 Mobile: +1-604-880-4488 Sterling MI 48659 Email: [email protected] Phone no: 989-654-2717 Website: www.monacotraders.com Fax no: 989-654-3329 ...... Mobile no: 509-869-6424 Name of the firm: Zeghers Seed Inc Email: [email protected] Contact Person: Clément Hacault. - Sales Manager ...... Box 426Holland, Manitoba, Canada R0G 0X0 Name of the firm:Tumac Commodities Office: 204 526 2145 Address: 805 SW Broadway, Suite 1500 Hm. office: 204 255 4303 Portland, Oregon 97205 USA Mobile: 204 799 2762 Phone no: 1-800-925-7993/ 503-226-6661 Email: [email protected] Email: [email protected] ...... Website: www.zeghersseed.com AUSTRALIA ...... USA Name of the firm: PARSRAM BROTHERS Address:724 Curtin Avenue East, Eagle Farm, Qld. 4009. Australia Name of the firm: Central Valley Ag. Exports, Inc. Phone no: +61 7 3632 7400 Contact Person: Didier Vivies - Chief Executive Officer Fax no: 61 7 3632 7466 Address: 345 East Tulare Avenue, Suite D Email: [email protected] Visalia, CA 93292 Website: ww.parsram.com Website: www.cvae-inc.com ...... Phone no: 559-734-1754 Name of the firm: PARSRAM BROTHERS Fax no: 559-734-0754 Address: 724 Curtin Avenue East, Eagle Farm, Qld. 4009...... Australia Name of the firm: Columbia Grain Inc. Phone no: +61 7 3632 7400 / Contact Person: Jeff Van Pevenage Fax no: +61 7 3632 7466 (Senior Vice President/General Manager) Email: [email protected] Address:900 2nd Avenue North Website: www.parsram.com Great Falls, Montana 59401 ...... Phone no: 406-453-6506 SOUTH AFRICA Website: www.columbiagrain.com Name of the firm: Agrilis (Pty) Ltd ...... Address: 2 Lategan Street - Hout Bay, Western Cape 7806 Name of the firm: Inland Empire Milling Co., Inc. Phone no: 021 790 4536 Contact Person: David Schauble/JR Drayage LLC Fax No: 021 790 3196 ! Address: 226 S. Donald Ave. Email: [email protected] Arlington Heights, IL 60004 ...... Phone no: (847) 749-3834 Office TURKEY Fax No: (847) 749-1053 Mobile no: (509) 953-2537 Name of the firm: Istanbul Agro Email: [email protected] Address: Kazanlı Mahallesi Cumhuriyet Bulvarı no:71 mersin/ Website: www.iemc.com TURKEY ...... Tel no: +903244514030 Name of the firm: JP Westam Export Inc. Fax no: +903244514030 Address:18323 Bothell-Everett Hwy. Email: [email protected]/[email protected] Suite #350, Bothell, WA 98012 skype: istanbulagro ...... Phone no: 425.481.2913 Name of the firm: Hatti Food Fax no:. 425.949.1724 Address: Manas Bulv. Adalet Mah. No: 47 Folkart Towers A Kule Mobile no: 425.753.2900 D:3509 TR-35530 Bayrakli / Izmir – TURKEY Email: [email protected] Phone no: 0090-232-489 39 73 Website: www.jpwestam.co Fax no: 0090-232-489 39 58 ...... Email: [email protected]

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