13-09-2010 14:06:33 Connecting Delta Cities TO CLIMATE CHANGE SHARING KNOWLEDGE AND WORKING ON ADAPTATION

Connecting Delta Cities aspectserent of oods and storms. Within the next Within oods and storms. of the challenges; one of the lessons erent city each can sometimes substantially, er, At present, more than 50 percent of the world’s of the world’s percent than 50 more present, At the to According in cities. lives population of the thirds two than more Nations, United rising sea to vulnerable cities are large world’s the risk of millions of people to exposing levels, fl extreme number of people living in cities the 30 years, of the world’s 60 percent to will increase living people more in even population, resulting in highly exposed areas. the diff book explores This the various challenges adaptation and climate It investigation an is face. world the in cities delta and adaptation problems of comparative York, New cities of , in the progress , Hong Kong, New Orleans, London, Each city faces and Ho Chi Minh City. Tokyo diff is that while Connecting Delta Cities initiative adaptation paths that may cities will follow diff the others. learn from dtp omslag cdc-II-02.indd 1 SHARING KNOWLEDGE AND WORKING ON ADAPTATION TO CLIMATE CHANGE

Connecting Delta Cities

P IET DIRC KE, Rotterdam University of Applied Sciences

JEROEN AERTS, VU University Amsterd am

ARNOUD MOLENAAR, City of Rotterdam

3 Colophon Authors Applied Sciences and ARCADIS. The Connecting Delta We would like to thank all the authors who Cities network has been addressed as a joint action contributed to this second CDC book and others that under the C40 initiative, a group of the world’s largest helped us to make this a success. In particular we cities and a number of affi liated cities committed to would like to thank: taking action on climate change. For more information on these initiatives and their relation to Connecting Alex Nickson (Greater London Authority), David Delta Cities, see: www.deltacities.com. Waggonner (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Andy Sternad (Waggonner & Ball Architects), Philip Ward Acknowledgements (VU University Amsterdam), Muh Aris Marfai (Faculty We gratefully acknowledge the generous support and of Geography, Gadjah Mada University, Yogyakarta), participation of Jim Hall (Tyndall Centre for Climate Aisa Tobing (Governor’s Offi ce, Jakarta), Pieter Change Research, Newcastle University), Roger Street Pauw (VU University Amsterdam), Maria Francesch (United Kingdom Climate Impacts Programme), (City University of Hong Kong), Bianca Stalenberg Shoichi Fujita (Nagaoka University of Technology, (ARCADIS | Delft Technical University), Yoshito Japan), HCMC University of Technology (National Kikumori (Japan National Institute for Land University HCMC) and Darryn McEvoy (Victorian Centre and Infrastructure Management), Philip Bubeck for Climate Change Adaptation Research, Melbourne). (VU University Amsterdam) and Professor We would also like to thank everyone who contributed Ho Long Phi (HCMC University of Technology in so many ways to make this second Connecting (National University HCMC). Delta Cities book a success. In particular we would like to thank Kim van den Berg, Gertjan Jobse, Jeanna Chapters 1 and 3 of this second CDC book are largely Blatt, Chantal Oudkerk Pool, Lissy Nijhuis, Liek Voorbij, based on the material on the same topics (climate Rick Heikoop, Marijn Kuitert and Marco van Bodegom adaptation in general and New York City) that were (Beau-Design) for their support. presented in the fi rst CDC book. Most of the work on these topics in the fi rst CDC book was carried out by David Major of Columbia University and Malcolm Bowman of Stonybrook University. David and Malcolm as well, and their respective universities, contributed signifi cantly to the success of the fi rst CDC book. Copyright © 2010 City of Rotterdam / ISBN 978-90-816067-1-4

Sponsors All rights reserved. No part of this publication may be reproduced, This book has been sponsored by the City of stored in a retrieval system or transmitted in any form or by any means, Rotterdam, the Rotterdam Climate Proof Initiative, electronic, mechanical, by photocopying, recording or otherwise VU University Amsterdam, Rotterdam University of without the prior written permission of the copyright holder.

CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 5 Contents Colophon 4 Preface 10

1. Climate change in delta cities 12 1.1 Introduction 14 1.2 A changing global environment 16 9 2. Introducing CDC 20 2.1 Introduction 21 2.2 The CDC networkk in practice 23

3. Rotterdam 28 3.1 Introduction 29 3.2 Present situation 31 3.3 Climate and flood risks 32 3.4 Climate adaptation 37 3.5 Rotterdam adaptation strategy 44

4. New York 46 4.1 Introduction 47 4.2 Present situation 50 4.3 Climate and flood risks 51 4.4 Climate adaptation 55

C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 7 5. Jakarta 60 5.1 Introduction 61 5.2 Present situation 63 5.3 Climate and fl ood risks 65 5.4 Climate adaptation 67

6. London 72 6.1 Introduction 73 6.2 Present situation 75 6.3 Climate and fl ood risks 76 6.4 Climate adaptation 79 6.5 From strategy to delivery 81

7. New Orleans 86 7.1 Introduction 87 7.2 Present situation 89 7.3 Climate and fl ood risks 93 7.4 Climate adaptation 97

8. Hong Kong 100 8.1 Introduction 101 8.2 Present situation 103 8.3 Climate and fl ood risks 105 8.4 Climate adaptation 109 9. Tokyo 114 9.1 Introduction 115 9.2 Present situation 117 9.3 Climate and fl ood risks 119 9.4 Climate adaptation 123

10. Ho Chi Minh City 126 10.1 Introduction 127 10.2 Present situation 129 10.3 Climate and fl ood risks 131 10.4 Climate adaptation 135

11. Conclusions on best CDC practices 138 11.1 Introduction 139 11.2 Best practices 140 11.3 Future outlook 146

6 References 154

C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 9 Preface A. Aboutaleb

D. Miller The world is currently facing a new challenge. Climate This book is a sequel on the fi rst Connecting Delta change will have a severe and inevitable impact, even Cities book and builds a bridge between delta cities of if we do succeed in substantially reducing its causes global stature: New York, Jakarta, Rotterdam, London, and mitigating its eff ects. Water levels will rise, both in New Orleans, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh the seas and in the rivers that run through our cities. City. These are just eight of the dozens of cities on this Precipitation levels will increase, and groundwater earth that are confronted with the major challenge of levels will change. Preventing or limiting ensuing developing integrated climate adaptation strategies. damage will require a great deal of eff ort. Each of these cities grapples with its own problems and devises its own solutions. What binds these The delta cities described in this book are thoroughly cities, however, is their common determination to aware of the necessity to step up these eff orts. win this fi ght and to become delta cities of the future; Courage and leadership is required on the part of local sustainable and climate proof. government to make decisions now that will fi ll our children with pride in the future; and to take measures Hosts of the International Conference ‘Deltas in Times to provide safety to our residents and to preserve the of Climate Change’, Rotterdam, 29 September 2010: economic appeal of our cities.

Of at least equal importance as decisive management and leadership is the availability of scientifi c knowledge. Certain measures that are needed fall outside the scope of our current technological ingenuity. Sharing and exchanging insights and experiences with projects in the area of water management and delta technology will contribute A. Aboutaleb to the development of the necessary new expertise. Mayor of Rotterdam, It gives us great satisfaction to observe that, more The and more, cities are willing and prepared to share knowledge and opportunities for improvement.

Rather than copying the insights that are gained, other delta cities subsequently apply adapted versions according to their own situation. This allows individual cities to defi ne ambitious goals and actually realize them. It is for this reason that Rotterdam can state with D. Miller confi dence that by 2025, the city will be fully climate Chairman C40 and Mayor of Toronto, proof. Canada

11

1

Climate change in delta cities by Jeroen Aerts and Piet Dircke

13 At the same time, many delta cities suff er from severe land subsidence. As a consequence of these urban developments, trends and projections for land subsidence and climate change, the vulnerability of our delta cities is expected to increase in the decades to come.G1, G2 Introduction The issue of climate adaptation is very complex, and there is no single readily available adaptation solution applicable to all delta cities. Adaptation is partly a matter of learning by doing of allowing experiments and innovation. On the other hand, there is the need to keep all options open because of the uncertainty of future scenarios – one can never predict exactly 1 how the future will develop and what measures will 1 be needed. Hence, climate-robust and fl exible, no- regret or low-regret measures should be considered. In addition, complicated issues like policy making, stakeholder involvement and fi nancing new measures Currently, more than half of the world’s population may hinder the speedy implementation of adaptation lives in cities, especially in vulnerable delta cities. It measures, and may cut ambitious plans to more is estimated that more than two thirds of the world’s modest levels. It is therefore important to consider a large cities will be vulnerable to rising sea levels and variety of possible measures in the planning process of climate change, with millions of people being exposed climate adaptation, and to learn from the experiences to the risk of extreme fl oods and storms. By the middle of other areas and coastal cities. of this century, the majority of the world’s population will live in cities in or near deltas, estuaries or coastal Cities play an important role in the climate adaptation zones, resulting in even more people living in highly process since they have already developed the ability exposed areas. Such socioeconomic trends further to adapt continuously to change and attract economic amplify the possible consequences of future fl oods, activity and investment. One could say cities have as more people move toward urban delta areas and already been adapting to changing conditions for capital is continuously invested in ports, industrial many years or even centuries, and climate change is centres and fi nancial businesses in fl ood-prone areas. an additional challenge that needs to be addressed It is also expected that the frequency, intensity and in cities’ planning, investments and regulations. duration of extreme precipitation events will increase, Many cities are gradually taking on the issue of as well as the frequency and duration of droughts. climate adaptation and there is a growing interest in sharing and exchanging experience and knowledge adaptation paths that may diffff er, sometimes between cities. Since the choices made today will substantially, each city canlearn from other cities. inflfluence vulnerability to climate risks in the future, it Moreover, while this bookk focuses largerly on coastal is important to linkk adaptation measures to ongoing flooding, it is important to note that each off the CDC investments in infrastructure and spatial planning, cities is also affffected byclimate change inother ways, and to draw up detailed estimates off the benefifits including impacts that occur away from the coast. off adaptation. In this way, adaptation becomes a challenge rather than a threat, and climate adaptation may initiate opportunities and innovations for investors and spatial planners.

This book explores the difffferent aspects off climate adaptation in delta cities. It is an investigation of comparable adaptation challenges and opportunities and off progress in adaptation plans and investments in the eight Connecting Delta Cities (CDC) cities of Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London, New Orleans, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh City. Other climate adaptation networks like The Delta Alliance and recent climate adaptation initiatives and events such as these in Melbourne and Shanghai are also described in the book.

The bookk is second in a series off CDC books. The first CDC book, launched during the Henry Hudson 400 celebrations in New York, was published in 2009 and described climate adaptation in NewYork, Rotterdam and Jakarta. A third CDC bookk is expected to cover the implementation off climate adaptation strategies.

This second bookk focuses on the expanding Connecting Delta Cities networkk and the experiences off coastal cities on the topic off climate adaptation and flood risk. In this regard, each city faces difffferent challenges. One off the lessons off the Connecting Delta Cities initiative is that while cities will follow

Figure 1.1 The first Connecting Delta Cities book.

C L I M A T E C H A N G E I N D E L T A C I T I E S 15 The IPCC fourth Assessment Report states that it is inevitable that flood risks and other climate change impacts will continue to increase, and that adaptation measures and policies need to be developed parallel tomitigation efffforts.G3 The question is not if, but how quickly societies and cities will need toadapt. A changing global Adaptation to changing climatic and socioeconomic conditions is not new; cities have beenadapting to environmentt societal and environmental changes for centuries. However, the world off today is much more complex than it was in the past, and interventions taken to adapt to climate change in one sector have signifificant impacts on other economic sectors and on theenvironment. Adaptation toclimate change, 2 therefore, requires a holistic approach,where all 1 sectors and stakeholders participate in order to include long-term adaptation planning intheir daily operations.

Existing climate policy documents statethat long- term planning is the key to successful adaptation. Effff ective land use planning is crucial for enhancing the cities’’adaptive capacities to climate change. The role off stakeholders in the development and implementation off adaptation measures is a key ingredient. Effff ective adaptation requires the local implementation off measures, and requires collaborating with NGOs to improve interrelationships with local institutions. A participative approach ensures that stakeholders can express their objectives, concerns and visions, and stimulates the development and implementation off innovative ideas in the adaptation process. An adaptation process also increases the commitment of stakeholders to ensure new measures are accepted and implemented. The development off adaptation strategies that focus local water management and climate change issues, on opportunities, and that are based on a holistic but also in the specifific approach and steering of approach, requires strong leadership because it is global issues. Think global and act local is more and about more than just taking measures. It’s about a more a reality. Also in this sense, the CDC can become long-term strategy as a frameworkk for short-term a powerful network. action, a joint approach and vision development. The signifificance off cities and municipalities in climate Urban development change adaptation is increasing because climate Population growth and, as a consequence,urban adaptation requires tailor made local measures development, has an enormous impact on land use. in which urban planning plays an important role. Studies carried out to assess the effffects off population Coastal mega-cities are inflfluential and important for growth and land use change in the lower Netherlands sustaining the environment in which their citizens show that flood risks have increased by a factor of live. Therefore it makes sense to have a CDC network. seven over the last fi fty years due to urbanization and In international forums, like the WWF World Water land use change. Thus, even without climate change, forum, the cities appear more and more prominently fl ood riskk in urbanized deltas will increase simply on the agenda (e.g. the WWF city summit and because residents and businesses continue to settle champion cities network); not only when it comes to in vulnerable locations. Furthermore, research shows that by 2025, loss potentials among the world’s ten largest cities are projected to increase by at least 22 percent (Tokyo), and up to more than 50 percent in Shanghai and Jakarta. A repeat in the year 2025 off the fl oods experienced in Jakarta in 2007 could cause 60 percent higher losses and affffect 20 percent more people because off population and economic growth, independent off climate change. Since economic growth and urban development in these areas is inevitable, and the economic impacts off climate change may not be limited to the city boundaries alone, rising sea levels could have devastating effffects on the worldwide population and economic activity in the future.

Climate change, subsidence and sea levelrise is a natural phenomenon, and historical measurements in several delta cities such as New York

C L I M A T E C H A N G E I N D E L T A C I T I E S 17 and Rotterdam, show an increase in mean sea level rise off 17-22 cm over the last hundred years. Prior to the Industrial Revolution, sea levelrise in New York and Rotterdam could be attributed mainly to regional subsidence off the Earth’s crust, whichis still slowly readjusting to the melting off ice sheets since the end off the last Ice Age.G4, G5 ForNew Yorkk and Rotterdam, land subsidence accounts for 3-4 mm per year, mainly due to these post-glacial geological processes. But much higher subsidence rates occur as well. For example in Jakarta parts off the city are sinking at a rate off 4 cm per year, mainly due to groundwater extraction.

Climate change, however, will accelerate natural sea level rise through the thermal expansion off the oceans,melting off glaciers and ice sheets, changes in the accumulation off snow and melting off the ice sheets in Antarctica and Greenland. It may also change the paths and speeds off major ocean scenarios indicate a sea level rise off 108-140 cm. Large current systems. The Fourth Assessment Report of uncertainty exists about the future behaviour off the the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change G6 large ice sheets in Greenland and Antarctica. Although projected anincrease in global temperature of it is not well understood how quickly the ice sheets between 1.1°C and 6.4°C over the next century. will melt, a theoretical collapse off the Greenland As a result, average sea levels could rise by up to and West and East Antarctica ice sheets through 59 cmby 2100. accelerated glacier flow is expected to lead to a rise in sea level off several metres over the coming centuries. There are regional difffferences in projected sea level rise, and it is expected that sea levels in the northeast Flood riskk vulnerability off the Atlantic Ocean will rise by 15 cm more than the Important elements off flood vulnerability are: (1) the world average by 2100. This can be explained through probability off a fl ood occurring and (2) the possible the weakening off the warm Gulff Stream, gravitational consequences off a flood in terms off casualties, direct effffects and the extra warming off seawater at greater economic damage (such as destruction off houses) and depths. The projected sea level rise for Rotterdam intangible damage (such as production loss and loss and New York, for instance, is estimated at around off natural values). Furthermore, flood vulnerability is 50-85 cm by 2100. The most extreme, low- probability, also determined by (3) the adaptive capacity off a city or system following the event through evacuation, rate at which the water rises and the time allowed recovery, fi nancial aid and insurance relief options. for evacuation largely determine the number of Estimates of fl ood risk and fl ood vulnerability can be casualties.G7 further disaggregated into vulnerability to coastal fl oods, vulnerability to river fl oods and vulnerability Flood damage and infrastructure to extreme rainfall. In all three cases the impact can Looking at the most important consequences of be very high with numerous casualties and much a fl ood for diff erent economic sectors, it appears damage to property. most CDC cities are subject to similar threats from fl ooding, both from oceanic storm surges and from Extreme fl ood events are relatively rare, with typical inland sources. For most ports, both land-based return periods of one hundred years and higher. transportation and the use of inland waterways Extreme precipitation events in non-tropical cities are of importance to connect the port areas with rarely cause casualties, but do frequently cause surrounding . These connections may be damage to property and infrastructure. Tropical threatened as the clearance levels of bridges decrease cities like Hong Kong, however, have interested during a fl ood. Train and subway stations may be historic events recorded where extreme rainfall has fl ooded, coastal highways inundated, emergency caused fl ash fl ooding and mud fl ows, leading to and hospital services curtailed and communications casualties and fl ood damage in parts of the cities. disrupted. Furthermore, fl oods cause direct economic It should be noted that vulnerability is not a static damage to infrastructure and property, with the concept. If fl ood protection is improved or evacuation magnitude of the damage depending on the depth plans are developed, vulnerabilities can be reduced; and duration of the fl ood. Most estimates of fl ood and, with expected advances in scientifi c modelling damage rely on studies that quantify the direct and prediction of storms and storm surges, improved economic damages only. However, other non-fl ooded warnings can be brought to bear in alerting areas may also be aff ected, as the supply of goods communities at risk and in managing evacuations. and services to the fl ooded area may be hindered. Production loss due to fl oods, however, is diffi cult to Sea level rise alone may cause a presently one in a quantify at present. Indirect fl ood damage may be hundred years fl ood event to occur approximately twice as high as the direct economic damage. four times more often by the end of the century. Moreover, by the end of the 21st century, a current 500-year fl ood event may occur approximately once every 200 years.G4 The amount of damage from a fl ood is dependent on, among other factors, the size of the fl ooded area and the water depth. Other factors include the duration of the fl ood and fl ow velocities. Furthermore, the

C LIMATE C HANG E IN DELTA C ITIES 19 Introducing CDC 2

by Piet Dircke and Arnoud Molenaar origin off the CDC initiative The CDC initiative originates from the C40. The C40 is a group off the world’s largest cities and a number of affiffiliated cities committed to taking action on climate change. By fostering a sense off shared purpose, the C40 networkk offffers cities an effffective forum in which to work together, share information and demonstrate Introduction leadership. Through effffective partnership working with the Clinton Climate Initiative, the C40 helps cities toreduce their greenhouse gas emissions through a range off energy effiffi ciency and clean energy programmes (www.c40cities.org).

Many off the world’s major coastal cities are at risk 1 off fl ooding from rising sea levels and a changing 2 climate. Heat-trapping urban landscapes (buildings and paved surfaces) can raise temperatures – and lower air quality – dangerously through the Urban Heat Island effffect. In cities off the developing world, one out off every three people live in a slum, making The Connecting Delta Cities objective is to them particularly vulnerable to the health and establish a network of delta cities that are environmental risks posed by climate change. The C40 cities are taking action both tomitigate climate active in the fi eld of climate change related change by reducing carbon emissions, and by spatial development, water management, adapting to the effffects off climate change so keenly and adaptation, in order to exchange felt in cities. knowledge about climate adaptation and share best practices to support cities in The C40 member cities are: developing their adaptation strategies. Addis Ababa, Athens, Bangkok, Beijing, Berlin, Bogotá, Buenos Aires, Cairo, Caracas, Chicago, Delhi, Dhaka, Hanoi, Hong Kong, Houston, Istanbul, Jakarta, Johannesburg, Karachi, Lagos, Lima, London, Los Angeles, Madrid, Melbourne, Mexico City, Moscow, Mumbai, New York, Paris, Philadelphia, Rio de Janeiro, Rome, Sao Paulo, Seoul, Shanghai, Sydney, Toronto, Tokyo and Warsaw.

I N T R O D U C I N G C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 21

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Affi liate C40 cities (19) are: Delta cities can benefifit from the Connecting Delta Amsterdam, Austin, Barcelona, Basel, Changwon, Cities (CDC) network through: Copenhagen, Curitiba, Heidelberg, Ho Chi Minh City, Milan, New Orleans, Portland, Rotterdam, Q Exchange off adaptation strategies and Salt Lake City, San Francisco, Santiago, Seattle, best practices Stockholm and Yokohama. Q Stimulating adaptation practice and enlarging operation capacity Tokyo 2008: the birth off Connecting Delta Cities Q Creating economic spin-offffs based on the In Tokyo in October 2008, a C40 meeting on climate acquired expertise adaptation offiffi cially adopted the Connecting Q Supporting the inclusion off climate adaptation in Delta Cities (CDC) Initiative proposed by the City of water management and spatial development Rotterdam. It was addressed as“Joint Action 8: Climate Q Contributing to the image off delta cities by Adaptation Connecting Delta Cities.””C40 agreed the enhancing their vision on the future networkk should (initially) consist off a small number of Q Raising awareness amongst citizens and cities that are frontrunners in climate adaptation, with local governments. the objective off exchanging knowledge on climate adaptation and sharing best practices. The CDC Network The CDC network is concerned with solidarity and cooperation between delta cities, and the issues addressed in CDC are demanddriven. Based on these principles, and supported by the commitment of C40, the City of Rotterdam initiated the CDC network and began to invest in knowledge exchange with The CDC network in other CDC cities through meetings and workshops, initiating joint research across diff erent delta cities. practice Currently, the CDC network consists of eight C40 cities (see Figure 2.1). These cities all envisage similar climate related problems, comparable to those addressed by the Rotterdam Climate Proof programme (www.rotterdamclimateinitiative.nll), 2 and also envisage related port-specifi c issues. All of 2 these cities could act, or already do, as frontrunners, thereby providing an example for other cities. They

Figure 2.1 The current cities of the CDC initiative (orange squares) and interested cities (yellow squares).

INTRO D U CING CO NNECTING DELTA CITIES 23 Figure 2.2 Connecting Delta Cities (CDC) organization. The CDC secretariat is based in Rotterdam as the international component of its adaptation programme ‘Rotterdam Climate Proof (RCP)’.

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/FX0SMFBOT )P$IJ.JOI$JUZ are capable of sharing knowledge with other C40 government bodies, and knowledge institutions and cities and share the same sense of urgency with agencies. regard to climate adaptation. At present, the following cities are involved: CDC activities, results and initial Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London, New Orleans, The CDC approach follows a ‘minimum eff ort Ho Chi Minh City, Hong Kong and Tokyo. Cities maximum results’ design, which can be archieved that have shown interest in CDC include Shanghai, through the linking of CDC activities to the ongoing Melbourne, Copenhagen, Lagos, Buenos Aires and activities of cities (e.g. policy actions related to Manila. climate adaptation) and by linking CDC to larger conferences on similar topics or networks with related The CDC network links cities at the local policy level. or comparable objectives. The degree of cooperation Furthermore, scientifi c networks are enhanced diff ers as each CDC city has diff erent priorities and or developed to support the CDC activities by interests. The main activities are: providing information on climate trends, impacts and adaptation options. The CDC involvement of each city 1. Knowledge exchange: Initiating symposia, depends on how the individual cities have organized workshops, student exchanges, and meetings where the development of their adaptation plans. students, scientists, engineers and policymakers can Generally speaking, each city already has or is in exchange expertise and ideas the initial phase of, however developing a pool of 2. Documentation: Supporting the publication of institutes and experts (policy, scientifi c, business) (media)reports, fi lms, publications and books on who can contribute to developing such an adaptation climate adaptation in delta cities plan. For example, the City of Rotterdam has 3. Project support: Mobilizing experts for projects addressed CDC as an integral part of its climate and support the development of projects and adaptation programme Rotterdam Climate Proof supporting proposals relating to climate adaptation (RCP). The CDC initiative is, hence, the international research and implementation component of its adaptation programme. In this way, Rotterdam hopes to inspire and learn from other In 2009 and 2010, CDC organized several expert delta cities, which may lead to economic spin-off s workshops, participated in conferences, published and thus contribute to economically strong delta a fi rst CDC book and co-fi nanced a fi lm on climate cities. adaptation in cities (www.deltacities.com). This documentary ‘Connecting Delta Cities’ examines In order to manage the fl ow of information between climate adaptation in the cities of New York, Jakarta, the CDC cities, a small CDC secretariat has been Rotterdam and Alexandria. The fi lm was fi rst screened installed in Rotterdam. This secretariat is supported at the 5th World Water Forum in Istanbul, Turkey, by an advisory board to ensure CDC activities fi t the in March 2009. Since then, it has been shown at a RCP goals. This committee comprises a mix of Dutch number of conferences such as the UNFCCC COP 15

INTRO D U CING CO NNECTING DELTA CITIES 25 in Copenhagen, and it has been shown on national Delta Alliance: television in several countries. “Understanding and improving resilience across river deltas” The fi rst CDC book, Connecting Delta Cities, described Delta Alliance is an alliance of people and the potential climate impacts and adaptation options organizations committed to improving the resilience for the cities of New York, Rotterdam, and Jakarta, and of the deltas in which they live and work. Members was launched at the US-Dutch H2O9 conference on take part in activities that span the spectrum of climate adaptation and water management during the researching, monitoring, reporting, advising, and Hudson 400 event in New York as part of the Hudson implementing projects on resilience-building in deltas. 400 celebrations (www.henryhudson400.com) in New Delta Alliance integrates knowledge and visions on a York. CDC organized and participated in workshops river delta as a whole, linking information and people and conferences in New York City, New Orleans, from across sectors and jurisdictions for the common Rotterdam, Jakarta, Ho Chi Minh City and Hong Kong. goal of improving resilience. Regional Wings of Delta CDC has also participated in major global events such Alliance are self-organized and include individuals and as the Aquaterra Forum on Deltas in Amsterdam, the organizations from across all sectors. An international UNFCCC COP 15 in Copenhagen, the World Water secretariat coordinates international events and Forum in Istanbul, the Dutch Dialogues in New Orleans communications between the Regional Wings. and the World Expo (with the launch of the WWF World Estuary Alliance and the Holland Water Week) in World Estuary Alliance (WEA): Shanghai. In Indonesia a fi rst research project was set “Increasing awareness about ecological and economic up in conjunction with a workshop dialogue. value of healthy estuaries” The WEA aims to raise awareness of the economic and Network collaboration ecological value of healthy estuaries and to stimulate Connecting Delta Cities is a fl exible network that exchange of knowledge and implementation of best closely collaborates with similar and complementary practices. Where the rivers meet the sea has always initiatives. For example, the Dutch Dialogues program been one of the most important of habitats for has proven to be a successful concept for the humanity, but in the past centuries enormous damage dialogue in New Orleans and in New York during the has been done to the vibrant life in estuaries. There is Henry Hudson 400 celebrations. Furthermore, CDC a need to work together to advance the best thinking collaborates closely with the following worldwide in sustainable estuary development and protection. networks Delta Alliance and World Estuary Alliance. The WEA is a living network, with a shared belief that For this, CDC continuously exchanges information economic development and nature can go hand in with other networks, shares best practices, cooperates hand. The growing network includes representatives in case studies and co-organizing events. The related from NGOs, business, science and policy makers. The networks are: WEA is currently based in Shanghai.

INTRO D U CING CO NNECTING DELTA CITIES 27 3

Rotterdam by Arnoud Molenaar and Piet Dircke One off the main aspects off the Delta Plan was to improve the protection off Rotterdam during an extreme . It was decided to construct the Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier, which protects Rotterdam in the case off an extreme fl ood event but stays open under normal conditions to allow free access to the older port areas as well as the inland shipping canals behind the Introduction barrier. Furthermore, as ships must have free access to the port, the City off Rotterdam and the Port Authority have chosen to develop the port area outside the dike protection system, at such an elevation that most of the port area is well protected against floods. Hence, over the last hundred years, 12,000 hectares off land have been elevated using fill materials to several meters 1 above sea level. Along with the Palm Islands in Dubai, 3 this is the largest area off human-made land in the world to be mostly surrounded by water.

Rotterdam is situated in the heart of the Dutch delta. The city lies largely below sea level (up to 6 meters) and the city, and the low lying area around it, is protected from the sea by a complex and extensive system of dikes, closure and storm surge barriers, which are all part of the famous Dutch Delta Plan. The were established after the disastrous 1953 fl oods, in which over 1,800 Dutch citizens drowned.

R O T T E R D A M 29 “Ourr climate is changing. The consequences off climate change willl also be feltt in Rotterdam. In orderr to confront the challenge off climate change as an opportunity ratherr than a threat, the Cityy off Rotterdam has sett up the Rotterdam Climate Prooff programme thatt willl make Rotterdam climate change resilient byy 2025. Permanent protection and accessibilityy off the Rotterdam are key elements. The centrall focus off the programme is to create extra opportunities to make Rotterdam a more attractive cityy in which to live, work, relaxx – andd invest. Trendsetting research, innovative knowledge developmentt and knowledge exchange with delta cities worldwide willl result in strong economicc incentives.” Alexandra van Huffffelen, Vice Mayorr Cityy off Rotterdam, Sustainability, Cityy Centre andd Publicc Space

“Rotterdam is the perfectt showcase forr climate change adaptation in the Netherlands andd itt is an inspiring example forr delta cities worldd wide. Rotterdam willl prove thatt dealing with climate change in a pro-active and smartt wayy creates opportunities forr an attractive and economicallyy strong delta cityy off the future!”

Piett Dircke, Professorr off Urban Waterr Management Rotterdam Universityy off Appliedd Sciences, The Netherlands Delta’s in Times of Climate Change 29 Septemberr - 1 Octoberr 2010

A major milestone in 2010 is the ‘Delta’s Present in Times of Climate Change’’ conference (www.climatedeltaconference.org) situation in Rotterdam between 29 September and 1 October2010. This supported conference has been organized bythe City off Rotterdam and the Dutch National Knowledge for Climate Programme and pays special attention tothe 2 climate proofifi ng off urban areas, providing a 3 platform for knowledge exchange between scientists, policymakers, politicians and practitioners. CDC celebrated its two-year anniversary at this conference by launching the bookk Connecting Delta Cities 2010 which you are Rotterdam is considered the marine gateway to reading right now. Western in the Dutch delta formed by the rivers and and has a long history as a port. Rotterdamnot only serves as port for the International conference Netherlands but for the whole off , in particular Germany. The rivers provide excellent Deltas in Times of means for inland water transport to transport the Climate Change goods from the port into the hinterland Rotterdam, the Netherlands An important date in the history off Rotterdam is 29 September – 1 October 2010 May 1940, when large parts off the city centre were completely destroyed during a bombardment by the German Air Force. The centre off Rotterdam, therefore, was almost completely rebuilt after the Second World War.

R O T T E R D A M 31 Climate and fl ood risks

3 3

Rotterdam has a temperateclimate inflfl uenced by the history. Inthe Netherlands, 26 percent off the country , with moderate temperatures throughout lies below sea level and 29 percent is susceptible to the year. However, heat waves in which temperatures river fl ooding. Many low-lying parts off the Netherlands rise above 30°C, do occur and will occur more frequently in the future. Summers are moderately hot with short wet periods. Rainfall is almost equally distributed over the year, with an average annual Figure 3.1 Example off a fl ood riskk map off the port area off Rotterdam. rainfall off around 790 mm. A new precipitation record The colors indicate the potential flood losses in euro/m2.R2 was set in August 2006, when almost 300 mm of precipitation fell in one month, causing extensive flooding and damage inthe Rotterdam city area. Winters are relatively wet, with persistent rainfall periods. These periods off excessive rainfall can cause floods in the river basins off the Rhine and Meuse.R1

The low-lying parts off the Netherlands, including Rotterdam, have been fl ooded many times throughout have been reclaimed from former lakes (usually The design surge level is determined at 4 m (the 1953 referred to as ‘polders’) and are protected by so-called generated a surge height off 3 m). To protect against ‘dike rings’’along the main rivers and coastal areas. such a storm, taking both surge levels and breaking Two thirds off the Dutch GDP (need to spell out in fi rst wave heights into account,the average dike along reference) is earned in these low-lying polders, and the Rotterdam coast is more than 10 m in height. most Dutch urban development is concentrated here. This protection level reflflects both the number of For these reasons, the Dutchintend to stay in these inhabitants and the economic value off assets within areas and, therefore, continue to invest heavily in a dike ring; the more people and economic value to fl ood protection, even though the area is one off the be protected by infrastructure, the higher the locations most vulnerable to flood riskk in the world. safety standard. As climate change is expected to increase the frequency and severity off flooding events, Dutch fl ood protection standards are currently the these flood probabilities will accordingly increase highest in the world. Most off the protection system rapidly with sea level rise. Therefore, reinforcing flood around Rotterdam is designed to withstand a storm protection is, and will be, an ongoing concern in estimated to occur once in every10,000 years. Rotterdam and the Netherlands.

Figure 3.2 The potential number off fatalities caused by simultaneous levee breaches at Katwijk, Ter Heijde and The Hague with current land use (left) and possible future land use according to a high economic growth scenario (GE, right).R3

R O T T E R D A M 33

Socioeconomic eff ects of fl ooding The is of vital economic importance for Rotterdam, the Netherlands and Europe. Large parts of the port area and the City of Rotterdam are protected by the Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier. This barrier, however, was designed to cater to a maximum sea level rise of about half a metre. Both the Port Authority and the City of Rotterdam, together with national government, are now considering options for coping with the increasing fl ood risks due to climate change. The port area, as already mentioned, is safe as it is located at several metres above sea level. However the area lies outside the dike protection system, and is only protected only by the barrier. Occasionally, high water levels can be problematic. Figure 3.3 This picture, based on satellite images taken on clear and warm days during the last 25 years, shows that the temperature of the A large proportion of the Netherlands’ economic urban environment is signifi cantly higher than in the rural areas. assets are clustered in the port area of Rotterdam, where the estimated potential damage in the event of fl ooding is in the order of tens of billions of euros the potential number of casualties in the province of (see Figure 3.1). At risk are port facilities, railroads, in the event of dike breaches. tunnels and container terminals. In addition, a large The rise in sea level has a relatively small eff ect on the section of Rotterdam’s working population works in low-lying polders. For example, a sea level rise of the port area, and many businesses strongly depend 30 cm could cause an increase in the fatality rate by on activities in the port. as much as 20 percent, while an expected 87 percent population growth in the area by 2040 is projected to On the other hand, the city is situated inside the dike cause a 156 percent increase in potential fatalities in protection system and very safe. But, because it is the area. The infl uence of the population growth on located below sea level, this high protection level is a the fatality rate is therefore considerably greater than necessity, as a failure of the system can immediately the eff ect of projected sea level rise. cause severe danger. The expected number of casualties as a result of fl ooding in the Rotterdam Veerman Commission: region is regarded as an important indicator of the second Dutch Delta Plan 2008 vulnerability. Figure 3.2 shows the projected eff ects In the Netherlands, sea levels may rise to 0.59 metres of the relatively high growth in urban development in the year 2100 according to the IPCC. At the same in low-lying polders north of Rotterdam by 2040 on time, the Netherlands currently still has dikes that are

R O TTERDAM 35 below the Dutch safety standard and that must be the city off Rotterdam. An Increasing sea levels lead restored. To this end, a newDelta Commission, headed to more frequent closures off the Maeslant Barrier, by former Dutch agricultural minister Cees Veerman, which leads to on increased riskk off fl ooding from the was installed and produced a new Dutch Delta large rivers flowing through Rotterdam that cannot Plan. This national commission studied the future discharge freely into the North Sea under these climate change challenges facing the Netherlands conditions. A number off difffferent scenarios are under and presented new recommendations on fl ood consideration in an open debate known as‘Rhine management and adaptation toclimate change.R4, R5 Estuary Closable but Open’’(see Figure 3.4). Should Based on this plan, the Dutch government will spend Rotterdam be protected by an extended and complex over one billion euros a year until 2100 extending and system off barriers, dams and gates that keep the sea strengthing the countries dikes and improving fl ood out, or should Rotterdam embrace the sea and opt for control. a new balance in the water system and allow the salt The newDelta Plan also indicates there is a need to water to flow freely in and out off the city? build special flood protection around the port and

Figure 3.4 Possible scenarios for the‘Rhine Estuary Closable but Open’. off 30 megatons in CO2 emissions, inconjunction with economic growth. The founders off the Rotterdam Climate Initiative are the Port off Rotterdam, the companies in the industrial port district, the municipality, and the environmental protection agency Rijnmond.

Climate The Rotterdam Climate Prooff (RCP) organization focuses on climate adaptation, and is the adaptation adaptation programme off the Rotterdam Climate Initiative.R7 Within the RCP, water is not only seen as a threat, but also as an asset for developing an attractive and economically strong city.There are three main challenges related to water and climate change 4 described in the RCP plan: fl ood protection; 3 architecture and spatial planning; and rainwater storage and updating the sewerage system.

Flood protection Rotterdam is dealing with the consequences of To protect Rotterdam for the future climate and climate change in a pro-active way by turning climate flood conditions, the city is developing innovative, challenges into opportunities. Rotterdam wants to multifunctional types off urban fl ood protection protect its citizens against the future impacts, such as that are not only safe but also fi t optimally into the climate change, by making Rotterdam‘climate proof’ by 2025. The city also has the ambition to become aims a global leader in water management and climate change adaptation.

For this reason, the ‘Rotterdam Climate Initiative’ (RCI) was launched to develop Rotterdam into a climate- neutral city.R6 The focus off this plan is on mitigating the emission off greenhouse gases and on strengthening the city’s economy through innovative solutions to save energy and store CO2. The goal is to achieve a 50 percent reduction by 2025 (compared to the level off emissions in 1990); this requires an annualreduction

Figure 3.5 City Ports off Rotterdam, living showcase off adaptive and sustainable building.

R O T T E R D A M 37 Figure 3.6 A map from the Rotterdam Water Plan 2030 as part off the adaptation programme initiative ‘Rotterdam Climate Proof’’ (RCP) showing new perspectives for water management. dense urban fabric, not creating a barrier disturbing both enhance flood protection and add value to the urban flow but a structure that adds value to it, the attractiveness off the city. To achieve this, an with new and attractive parking space, green areas innovative integrated adaptation strategy, combining and pedestrian zones. At the same time, 40,000 of spatial planning, architecture and flood protection is Rotterdam’s inhabitants live outside the dike system, being introduced. Rotterdam plans to develop 1,600 only protected only by the Maeslant Barrier. For ha (4.000 acres) off adaptive waterfront locations in these citizens, new types off climate proofifi ng are the old harbour area in the centre off the city. The under development, including retrofifi tting off existing ‘Stadshavens’’or City Ports project currently is one of buildings and new constructed adaptive housing Europe’s largest urban redevelopments (Figure 3.5). types like floating homes. However, these citizens will Through adaptive architecture, this neighbourhood have to live with a certain riskk off getting ‘wet feet’’once can be made climate prooff and serve as a high quality in a while. waterfront living and working area. This requires new ways off developing buildings that, for example, allow Architecture and spatial planning water to move through the neighbourhood in the Rotterdam is looking for alternative options that event off a flood without causing casualties or damage to assets. Floating homes may be part off this new adaptation strategy. These newtechnologies are being developed at knowledge centres like the RDM Campus (Research, Design and manufacturing), an initiative off the Rotterdam University off Applied Sciences, the City off Rotterdam, the Port Authorities and other private and public parties (Figure 3.7). The RDM is now a campus at the old RDM shipping wharff in the heart off Stadshavens, where the education of future generations is combined with innovative and sustainable development off businesses and sciences, and with experiencing best practices. (www.rdmcampus.nll)

Rainwater storage, updating storm water sewerage system For Rotterdam, climate change will result in more prolonged periods off drought and more heavy showers, both in the summer and winter periods. Precipitation is expected to increase by between 7 percent and 28 percent in winter. There is a risk that the current sewerage system may not be able to treat and drain the surplus off water. The Rotterdam Water Plan 2030 (Figure 3.6) requires an additional 600,000 m3 off storm water storage space. At least 80 hectares off extra lakes and canals would be needed to providethis storage in open water. Inthe city centre, open water areas are used forstoring extra water by retrofifitting ponds in city parks, or adjusting canals to store more water, so that in the case off an extreme precipitation event, their water levels may rise without

Figure 3.7 RDM Campus (Research, Design and Manufacturing).

R O T T E R D A M 39 Figure 3.8 Example of a Water Plaza that is used as a playground during normal conditions and as a reservoir in case of extreme precipitation. inundating surrounding areas. An artist’s impression of creating more open water is presented in Figure 3.9.

Additionally, especially in densely built areas, water can also be stored on green roofs, in WaterPlazas or in underground parking garages. Green roofs slow the rate off rooff runoffff and can retain between 10-20 mm off rainwater, which equals an average off 100 m3 to 200 m3 off water per rooff in Rotterdam. After a rainfall event, green roofs gradually release water backk into the atmosphere via evaporation. Rotterdamhas a large government support programme in place for the partial subsidizing off the development off green roofs. Nearly50.000 m2 off additional green rooff has been developed so far.

Figure 3.9 Artist’s impression off creating more open water in the city for storing excess rainwater in the Rotterdam area.R6 Figure 3.10 Reservoir connected to the sewerage and stormwater system being developed as part off a newly builtunderground parking garage R6.

Furthermore, a Water Plaza in Rotterdam can store water in times off peakk rain events but is used as a playground in normal conditions (Figure 3.8).Another example is presented in Figure 3.10, showing the development off a new underground car parkk below which is the sloping entrance a storm water storage basin that is connected to the city’sstorm water and sewerage system. The capacity (10,000 m3) off the reservoir is large enough to store 50 percent off the expected volume off rainwater that falls in one storm on city centre Rotterdam. The construction off this basin will be fi nished by the end off 2010.

R O T T E R D A M 41 Smart Rotterdam important for the residents living next to the river. For Rotterdam is currently developing innovative these citizens, the City off Rotterdam is developing technologies to become a smart city off the future. practical information about fl ood risks and emergency ‘Flood Control 2015,’’a Dutch public private consortium situations. off nine water specialists and experts in the fi eld of water management, ICTT and crisis management Rotterdam NationalWater Centre (www.flfl oodcontrol2015.com), is currently researching As a result off the successful combination of the feasibility off a smart fl ood controlsystem for the climate adaptation implementation and research, city. Smart gaming, a demonstrator control room, Rotterdam will become an innovative center for water decision support systems, application off sensor management and climate change; a truly smart delta technology in dikes, and manyother tools are under city. International collaboration with other delta cities consideration and may be integrated into a new will be intensifified and extended, and will defifinitely smart flood protection system for Rotterdam. At the gain momentum, creating new opportunities for Rotterdam University off Applied Sciences, smart fl ood businesses and knowledge institutions in, and around, control is one off the topics that can be studied on the Rotterdam. The leading role off Rotterdam in the new full time Water Management Bachelor Programme. Netherlands as an international showcase forwater In collaborationwith private firms, students are management and climate change was underlined by currently developing a Rotterdam flood management serious game in a so-called‘Innovation lab’.

Communication aspects Communication is important and required on difffferent levels and difffferent scales. Adequate communication with local (city council), regional (water boards) and national government bodies is crucial in to create awareness and commitment for funding off research and measures. At local level, communication with residents in the early stages off urban planning processes is essential for the public acceptance, and a requirement for successful implementation of innovative solutions such as Water Plazas. These water storage projects in the city’s public spaces require sophisticated communication about the risksof drowning and the possibilities off mosquito plagues. In Rotterdam, a campaign about green roofs resulted in public participation. Good communication is also

Figure 3.11 Floating Pavilion in Rotterdam. Figure 3.12 Inside the Floating Pavilion. the decision off the Dutch Water sector, to establish pavilion, a visible icon and landmarkk for the city will a National Water Centre in Rotterdam. An important automaticallyrise accordingly. This makes thepavilion milestone for the city in 2012 will be the opening of an example off climate change resilient building and the National Water Centre in Rotterdam, as part off the off Rotterdam’s commitment to and expertise on Dutch Delta Design 2012 event. sustainable and climate change resilient construction. In addition to sustainable technology on the inside, Floating Pavilion such as heating and cooling systems that use solar 24 June 2010 Rotterdam witnessed the offifficial opening energy, climatic zones and a separate filter installation, off its fl oating pavilion (see Figure 3.11 and 3.12). The the outside is also sustainable and as the pavilion is pavilion will house the Expofunction off the Rotterdam flexible and can moor at any location. National Water Centre.

The launch off the fl oating pavilion attracted massive public attention both during the trip from the RDM Campus and during the offifficial opening. Crowds off people thronged to the quays to witness this historic moment. As the water level rises, the floating

R O T T E R D A M 43 5 3 Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy (RAS)

Strategy building (rows in Figure 3.11). Measures at diff erent In order to realize a climate-proof city, Rotterdam levels are connected and interrelated has developed the RAS strategy, containing the Q Combine forecasting and backcasting following elements: techniques in order to develop a roadmap which is Q Focus on 5 topics: Water safety, urban water to lead each topic to its specifi c goal management, urban climate, accessibility (in terms Q Learning by doing: continuously develop of transport and infrastructure) and adaptive (scientifi c) knowledge while immediately applying buildings results to practical situations Q Distinguish three types of adaptation options Q Communicate actions. Firstly to exchange (columns in Figure 3.13). 1) Minimizing the knowledge and to stimulate cooperation with probability of a calamity, 2) minimizing the universities, companies and other cities and consequences and 3) improving the recovery secondly, to inform the general public and to show Q Connect potential measures to various spatial what the city is doing and how we can turn climate levels: region, city, quarter/street, individual change from a threat into an opportunity.

Challenges for the future One crucial element is to involve more actors in the to strengthen the city’s adaptation capability region and to transform the Rotterdam Adaptation into main stream city development planning. Strategy into a Regional Adaptation Strategy. At Finally, Rotterdam is also working on designing a the same time, difffferent themes must be prioritized monitoring system as well as a climate barometer, based on progressive insight and the ongoing that will translate all its efffforts and actions into development off the city. Another important action clear results and which will help to access the is to increase awareness among policymakers and extent off Rotterdam’s in closing the gap between city planners and to integrate the need its ambitions and on ever-changing reality. Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy: examples of potential measures

Q relates to water safety Q relates to management of the urban water system

Minimizing chance Minimizing consequences Stimulating recovery

Region Q improve safety level of Q set up an early warning storm surge barrier system Q design an evacuation plan

City Q improve safety level Q fl ood proof infrastructure Q arrange back-up of dikes (utilities) systems Q create space for (inno- Q raise main roads for (e.g. water supply) vative) water storage, e.g. evacuation Q arrange a help desk in underground parkings for damage-related Q greening the city, questions converting paved to Q create fl ood damage unpaved surfaces insurance fund

Quarter / street Q raising surface level Q create safe havens Q install pumps of public space Q create shadow Q apply permeable paving Q raise the pavement / lower the street

Building Q build on mounds and Q install wet or dry proof Q install pumps invest in adaptive ground fl oor building Q promote resilience Q apply less tiles and more green in gardens

Figure 3.13 Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy (RAS).

R O TTERDAM 45 4

New York

by Malcolm Bowman and Piet Dircke its strategic position on the East Coast off the United States, and with its well protected harbour within theHudson River Estuary, this historic metropolis has become one off the most important cities in the world.

The recently published report off the New Yorkk City Introduction Panel on Climate Change (NPCC) indicates that climate change poses a challenge for the development and safety in New Yorkk City, given the uncertain risks of sea level rise and enhanced fl ooding from extreme weather events and climate change. The NPCC states that New Yorkk City is vulnerable to coastal storm surges,which are mainly associated with either late 1 summer-autumn hurricanes or extra tropical cyclones 4 in the winter period (‘nor’easters’).

With almost 2,400 km of shoreline, Metropolitan New York’s historical development has been intimately tied to the sea. Four out of fi ve of New York City’s boroughs are located on islands. Many bridges and tunnels connect these islands to the New York State and New Jersey mainland. The boroughs of Brooklyn and Queens, home to millions of residents, rests on Long Island’s low-lying terminal moraine of sand and boulders, left as the heritage of the last ice age.

N E W Y O R K 47 The CDC New York City Climate Change The Brooklyn-Rotterdam Adaptation workshop Waterfront exchange June 2009 March - November 2010

On 9 and 10 of June 2009, a group of 75 scientists, New York joined forces with Rotterdam and engineers, social scientists, architects, insurance other Dutch partners in the Brooklyn-Rotterdam experts, policymakers and planners gathered Waterfront Exchange. The 2010 exchange, co- at the Stony Brook Manhattan campus in New organized by New York City, the New York and York City to discuss the issue of climate change New Jersey Port Authorities, the City and Port of adaptation in coastal cities at the Connecting Rotterdam, the Netherlands Water Partnership and Delta Cities Workshop. The conference was co- several other parties. It was a much appreciated hosted by Stony Brook and Columbia Universities. forum for sharing experiences, devise innovative Representatives from the cities of Rotterdam, solutions, new strategies, development models New York, Jakarta and London shared their and best practices for reshaping outdated port- experiences in adaptation planning. Innovations related areas. Such factors are necessary elements and bottlenecks in adaptation policies were contributing to the economic prosperity and addressed, and areas were explored with environmental sustainability of the surrounding potential for further extended exchange of metropolitan regions. Well attended and successful experience and expertise. workshops both in New York and Rotterdam were While New York City, Rotterdam, and Jakarta are organized. each vulnerable to climate change, rising sea The Exchange focused on a comparison of plans level and storm surges, and each possess unique and best practices for Brooklyn’s south-western physical and geographic features, there was much waterfront, located at the mouth of the New common knowledge that could be learned and York Harbour, and Rotterdam’s City Ports. The shared. During the workshop, it became clear objective was to select and apply international that the challenges of climate adaptation pose best practices for these two locations and fundamental and diffi cult questions and hard help generate support for long-term decisions choices for research, policy and industry. A clear about key challenges, which include economic need was felt for unprecedented cooperation and development, environmental sustainability, knowledge exchange across all sectors. transportation infrastructure, waterfront uses, and climate change. Another objective was to share expertise about eff ective public policies, which are instrumental in implementing innovative solutions in both cities. “Climate change is reall andd couldd have serious consequences forr Neww Yorkk iff we don’tt take action,”” saidd Mayorr Michaell Bloomberg. “Planning forr climate change todayy is less expensive than rebuilding an entire networkk afterr a catastrophe. We cannott waitt untill afterr ourr infrastructure has been compromisedd to begin to plan forr the effffects of climate change.”

Michaell Bloomberg, Mayorr of Neww Yorkk City

“There are manyy challenges facing Metropolitan New Yorkk relatedd to climate change in the decades ahead. A signifificant portion off the landd area off the cityy lies between 0 andd 3 m above sea levell andd severall million people, especiallyy in the outer boroughs, live in low lying coastal terrain exposedd to the ocean. While Neww Yorkk mayy have the advantage overr its European counterparts off having more time to plan forr future climate change and dangerous levels off sea levell rise, the European experience off coping with naturall flooding disasters tells us thatt manyy decades are neededd to arrive att the bestt solutions to protectt the city’s infrastructure andd the safetyy off its residents. Noww is the time to start planning forr the centuryy ahead.”

Professorr Malcolm Bowman, State Universityy off Neww Yorkk at Stonyy Brook; Memberr off Mayorr Bloomberg’s Neww Yorkk Panel on Climate Change

N E W Y O R K 49 James, Duke off York. In 1783, New Yorkk became the first capital off the newlyindependent United States.

New Yorkk City experienced an exceptional period of growth during the 19th century. In 1800, when the city still consisted primarily off Manhattan, it had a mere 60,000 inhabitants; by 1890, the population had grown Present 25-fold to 1.5 million inhabitants, including Brooklyn, Queens, Staten Island and the West Bronx. The situation opening off the Erie Canal in 1826 provided an effifficient transportation networkk for Midwestern grain and other commodities for domestical use and for export through New Yorkk Harbour. Railways and steamboats were important elements off economic development 2 from the first part off the 19th century, and the opening 4 off the Croton water system (1842) brought clean water to the city’s population, for the fi rst time and improved public health. Since the 1950s, New York’s population has grown to over 8 million inhabitants. After a decline The Italian explorer Giovanni da Verrazzano, is in the cily’s population in the 1980s, nearly 1.2 million believed to have been the fi rst European to explore, immigrants settled in New Yorkk City in the 1990s. The the area now known as the New Yorkk Harbour in projected population in Metropolitan New Yorkk (MET) 1524. Although Da Verrazzano was the fi rst to visit in 2050 could be as high as 23 million residents. the location off present-day New Yorkk City, it was Henry Hudson who claimed Manhattan for the Dutch Government in 1609, sailing his ship The Halff Moon 275 km up the river whichnow bears his name to the state capital off Albany. Over the next twenty years, many Dutch and otherEuropeans settled in New Amsterdam, the principal city and port off New Netherlands. Peter Minuit, a Dutch political director, is credited with making the‘deal off the century’, when he bought Manhattan Island from the Canarsee Indians for just $24. The Dutch continued to control New Amsterdam until 1664, when the British tookk over from the Dutch and renamed the city NewYork, after Storm surges,winter storms and hurricanes Storm surges along the eastern seaboard off the United States are associated with either late summer- autumn hurricanes or extratropical cyclones in the winter period, the so-called nor’easters. The effffects off extratropical cyclones or nor’easters can be large, in part because off their relatively long durations Climate and (compared to hurricanes) lead to extended periods of high winds and high water. In the past, New Yorkk has fl ood risks been hit by manywinter storms coinciding with high tides. The height off the hurricane surge is amplifified if it coincides with the astronomical high tide and additionally occurs at the time off new and full moon 3 (spring tides). A period characterized by many severe 4 hurricanes (Saffiffir-Simpson categories 3-5) in the 1940s to 1960s was followed by relative quiescence

New Yorkk City has a temperate, continental climate, with hot and humid summers and cold winters. Recordsshow an annual average temperature between 1971 and 2000 off approximately 12.8°C. The annual mean temperature in New Yorkk City has risen by 1.4°C since 1900, although thetrend has varied substantially over the decades. Between 1971 and 2000, New Yorkk City averaged 13 days per year with 1 inch (25.4 mm) or more off rain, 3 days per year with 2 or more inches (50.8 mm) off rain, and 0.3 days per year with over 4 inches (101.6 mm) off rain. Regional precipitation in New Yorkk may increase by approximately 5 to 10 percent bythe 2080s. Climate models tend to distribute much off this additional precipitation to the winter months. Because off the effffects off higher temperatures, New Yorkk also faces on Figure 4.1 Hurricanes rated category 3 or higher that made NY2 increased riskk off drought. landfall on the US East and Gulff coasts in the period 1900-1999.

N E W Y O R K 51 during the 1970s to the early 1990s. History of fl ood events Again, greater activity has occurred since the late The August 1893 hurricane completely destroyed Hog 1990s. Although hurricanes strike New York City Island, a barrier island and popular resort area on the infrequently, when they do, generally between July south coast of Long Island that once existed seaward and October, they can produce large storm surges of Rockaway Beach. as well as wind and rain damage inland. Atlantic The worst natural disaster to strike the north-eastern hurricanes are aff ected by the El Niño-Southern US was the hurricane of 21 September 1938, the so- Oscillation (a warming of the ocean surface off the called “Long Island Express” which was estimated to western coast of that occurs every 4 to have killed between 682 and 800 people, damaged or 12 years). Figure 4.1 shows all category 3 hurricanes destroyed over 57,000 homes, and caused property (or higher) that made landfall on the US coast in losses estimated at US$306 million (comparable to the period 1900-1999. It shows that hurricanes $4.72 billion in 2010). This storm struck with little have struck the coastal New York area six times in warning. A wall of water 7-11 m (25-30 ft) high (surge that period,NY1 resulting in severe coastal fl ooding, plus breaking waves) swept away protective barrier damage and destruction of beachfront property, dunes and buildings on the shores of eastern Long severe beach erosion, downed power lines, power Island, eastern Connecticut, and Rhode Island. outages and disruption of normal transportation. More recently, the December 1992 storm produced some off the worst fl ooding seen in Metropolitan early 1990s. However, there has been no appreciable New Yorkk in more than 40 years. The water level at the increase in either the number or severity off storms Battery in Lower Manhattan peaked at 2.4 m over this period.The increase in coastal flooding is (8 ft) above mean sea level; spring tides were already largely a consequence off the regional sea level rise higher than normal due tothe full moon. The flooding during this period (about 30 cm per century) due to off Lower Manhattan, together with heavy winds, led eustatic adjustment off the continent since the last to the almost complete shutdown off the New York age and not due to recent fossil-fuel-related sea level City transportation system for several days, as well rise. It illustrates how rising oceanlevels are likely to as evacuation off many seaside communities in New exacerbate storm impacts in the future as sea level rise Jersey, Connecticut and Long Island. accelerates.NY4 The vulnerability off the regional transportation system to flooding was demonstrated again on 26 August Socioeconomic effffects off flooding 1999, after 6.4-10.2 cm off rain fell on the New York Many off the region’s rail, subway (metro) and tunnel metropolitan area, nearly paralyzing the transport entrance points, as well as some ports off the New system.NY3 York’s major airports, lie at elevations off 3 m above sea level or less. Sea level rise and flooding levels of Storm surge heights and frequency only 65 cm above the level which occurred during A large proportion off New Yorkk City and the surrounding region, lies less than 3 m (10 ft) above mean sea level, and infrastructure in these areas is vulnerable to coastal fl ooding. A one in a hundred years flood could produce a 3 m (9 ft) surge in New Yorkk Harbour and along the south coast off Long Island. Such a surge is more likely to be caused by a hurricane than a winter nor’easter. On the other hand, hurricanes occur much less frequently than nor’easters. Nor’easters are dangerous and can cause considerable damage even though their wind speeds are lower than those in fast-moving hurricanes, as nor’easters cover a much greater area and tend to last several days. This means that sequential high tides will carrythestorm surges further inland at a particular location.

Storm return frequencies along the US East Coast over the last 50 years peaked in the late 1960s, diminished in the1970s, and picked up again inthe

N E W Y O R K 53 combination off these two factors, over time, will result in both increased fl ooding and increased droughts, with the resulting need toadjust system operating rules and drought regulations in order to maintain supply levels NY6. Climate change is also expected to have many possible impacts on water quality, human and ecological health, as a result off increasing temperatures, changing precipitation patterns and changes in turbidity, eutrophication and other water quality parameters. Higher sea levels and storm surges will also affffect the operation off existing wastewater treatment plans and outfalls, with consequent water quality impacts to receiving water bodies.

Maintenance off acceptable water quality standards in New York Harbour, western Long Island Sound, the lower Hudson, Passaic and Hackensackk rivers is dependent on an adequate fl ushing rate driven by the twice-daily flood and ebb circulation off the tides. the December 1992 winter nor’easter will place Most off the city’s treated and untreated sewerage is the area’s low-lying transportation infrastructure eventually discharged into the harbour and waterways at increased riskk off flooding.NY5 Inthe Metropolitan surrounding Metropolitan New York. There are ocean East Coast (MEC) region, some beaches and barrier outfalls in sections off Nassau and Suffffolkk Counties islands are narrowing or shifting landward, partly along the south shore off Long Island. as a result off ongoing sea level rise as well as land subsidence. Accelerated sea level rise will intensify Much off New Yorkk City relies on a combined sewer the rate and extent off coastal erosion. While sea level system, which means that heavy precipitation events rise is obviously an important factor, beach erosion often result in sewage fl ows being routed around is frequently intensifified by human activities such as treatment facilities, and stored in temporary holding coastal development and destruction off wetlands. tanks or released directly into the receiving water bodies. Intense precipitation events can lead to The inland sources off New Yorkk City’s water supply occasional overflflowing off the combined sewers into system (Long Island almost exclusively derives its city streets and subway systems. water supply from underground aquifers) will be impacted by higher temperatures and forecast increased precipitation. It is expected that the compared to 2005 levels. In recent decades, New Yorkk City has acquired a substantial history off efffforts to assess adaptation strategies to address climate change. The‘Metro East Coast Report’, a report for the National Assessment of Climate Variability and Change,NY5 reviewed climate change with many regional stakeholders. The New York Climate City Department off Environmental Protection’s Climate Change Taskk Force, initiated in 2004, surveyed the adaptation entire range off vulnerabilities to climate change off the water system. Its most recent report, the ‘Assessment and Action Plan’, NY6 was published in 2008. Mayor Bloomberg, in partnership with the Rockefeller Foundation, convened the New Yorkk City Panel on 4 Climate Change (NPCC). The NPCC, which consists of 4 climate change and climate impact scientists, as well as legal, insurance and riskk management experts,

In December 2006, Mayor Michael R. Bloomberg challenged New Yorkers to generate ideas for achieving 10 key goals for the city’s sustainable future.NY7 New Yorkers in all fi ve boroughs responded positively. The result isthe most sweeping plan to enhance New York’s urban environment inthe city’s modern history. On Earth Day 2007, the Mayor released PlaNYC 2030, a comprehensive sustainability plan for the city’s future. PlaNYC puts forth a strategy to reduce the city’s carbon footprint, while at the same time accommodating population growth and improving the city’s infrastructure and environment. The combined impact off this plan will not only help ensure a higher quality off life for generations of New Yorkers to come, but will also contribute to a 30 percent reduction in greenhouse gas emissions

N E W Y O R K 55 serves as the technical advisory body for the Mayor and the New York City Climate Change Adaptation Task Force on issues related to climate change, impacts and adaptation. The Task Force has focused its work on critical infrastructure in the city, and the NPCC has developed three workbooks to guide adaptation plan- ning; a full report from the NPCC is forthcoming.NY8

The city has developed a robust, durable framework for eff ective, fl exible and cost-effi cient adaptation planning designed to meet the challenges of climate change in the city.NY9 This framework is based on IPCC GCM model outputs for climate scenarios, and carefully developed adaptation assessment procedures in the context of climate protection levels. On a statewide level, the ClimAID study, sponsored by the New York Energy Research and Development Authority (NYSERDA), includes an assessment of coastal impacts, as does the New York Commission on Sea Level Rise and several other studies. There is a in a way that limits risks to human life and physical growing awareness that all of these recommendations structures. In this respect, fl ood zoning policies and will have to be monitored and adjusted, as new building codes can be powerful tools. New York City research and observations become available as to the waterfronts play a crucial role in this context as a fi rst projected rate of sea level rise. line of fl ood defense, protecting New York City for future challenges. Hence, the way zoning policies Land use zoning and fl ood insurance are applied to waterfronts is directly determining The development of NYC waterfronts continues future vulnerability to fl ood risks and new (re-) zoning because of the attractiveness of locating near the policies for waterfronts can be perceived as option for water for recreational and economic activities. climate adaptation in New York City. Two recent successful examples of waterfront Examples are to reduce urban density near water- developments in New York City are Battery Park, on fronts, allow for additional elevation of buildings near the south side of Manhattan, and Brooklyn Bridge the waterfronts (‘freeboarding’) and to combine levee Park, on the Brooklyn side of the east River, near the systems with residential housing near the waterfront. bridge. The question that arises is how to develop Furthermore, fl ood insurance could be an important future areas and control future land use in such a tool for achieving risk reduction, because it imposes manner that vulnerability to fl ooding is managed the minimum requirements for local governments’ flood zoning and fl ood building codes, and it provides Such‘multi functional land use’developments, incentives to homeowners to invest in riskk reduction however, need new planning regulations and urban beyond these minimum standards. designs that allowfor a less rigid boundary between land and water. For example, most environmental Wetland restoration values are found creating (shallow-) gradients between There is an opportunity in NYC for waterfront land and water. development that enhances fl ood protection levels through applying measures that also enhance The City off New Yorkk has recently initiated the‘Staten environmental values. Current discussions address Island Bluebelt Programme’’to reduce the risks of focusing on waterfront areas where coastal fl ood flooding on Staten Island from storm water, by protection and nature preservation can be co- providing and constructing storm water detention developed. Local government and the state and ponds and enhancing or creating streams, ponds federal policies have a mutual interest here. At the and wetlands. New, separate, storm and sanitary policy level, such an approach could beaddressed sewer infrastructure networks are also included inthe through better integrating Federal and State coastal programme. The 10,000-acre (4,000 hectare) Bluebelt zone protection into local Waterfront Revitalization Programme, at an estimated cost off $37 million, Programs (LWRP). would cost some $39 million less than a conventional underground networkk off storm sewers.NY6

Storm surge barriers One possible long-term measure that might be considered is storm surge barriers spanning the major navigation channels connecting New Yorkk Harbour to the sea. As New Yorkk is generally located on higher ground than other threatened European delta cities such as Rotterdam, London and St Petersburg,New Yorkk City planners enjoy the benefifit off more time to consider options for future fl ood protection. The problems off climate change impacts to be faced in New Yorkk 50 and 100 years from now may be in some respects similar to those off the abovementioned European cities today. Therefore, much can be learned from the European experiences with storm surge barriers before making commitments to ambitious regional solutions. As withany major engineering works, NewYork

Figure 4.2 Paradise Pond in Marshland, preserve Long Island NY.

N E W Y O R K 57

surge Barriers toprotect New Yorkk City’ NY12 include the Verrazano Narrows, which is the main shipping channel, connecting Upper New Yorkk Bay and Port Elizabeth, N.J. with the Atlantic Ocean. Other possible connections include the upper East River to eliminate surges originating in western Long Island Sound, the Arthur Kill behind StatenIsland and or a more ambitious outer barrier system stretching across from Sandy Hook, N.J. to Far Rockaway, Long Island. This latter approach follows the Delta Works design by shortening the length off coastline that needs to be protected as well as safeguarding JFKK Airport and densely-populated communities in Brooklyn, Queens, Jamaica Bay and northern NJ.This barrier would eliminate the need for both the Verrazano and the Arthur Kill barriers (but not the upper East River barrier), provide protection to the outer boroughs off Brooklyn and Queens, additional northern NJ communities, Jamaica Bay and JFK Airport, but would barrier design and emplacement would require have signifificant environmental impact, including comprehensive feasibility/cost/benefifit analyses, augmenting and modifying the Sandy Hookk barrier desired protection level and effifficacy studies.NY11 dune system off the nearby Gateway National New Yorkk City has high ground inall off the boroughs Recreational Area. which could protect against some levels off surge with a combination off local measures (such as dikes), resilient housing, enhanced community resiliency and evacuation plans. Barriers designed to impede oceanic storm surges obviously would not protect against the substantial inland damages from wind and rain that often accompany hurricanes. As with the Dutch Delta Plan, careful decisions would need to bemade about barrier and dyke locations, since all such systems and also do not protect those infrastructure and residents who live outside the barrier. Possible locations for barriers that were considered at a 2009 ASCE conference ‘Against the deluge: storm

N E W Y O R K 59 Jakarta

5 by Philip Ward, Muh Aris Marfai, Aisa Tobing and Christiaan Elings but reports of fl ooding are prevalent throughout this long period.J5 The Government of Jakarta is aware that eff orts to reduce fl oods involve local, national and global factors and Introduction is determined to achieve its objectives. This is quite a challenge, but Jakarta is in the process to develop detailed plans to accommodate more water and increase green retention areas in the city.

1 5

Flooding and fl ood management are not new to Jakarta. The region has suff ered from fl ooding ever since the founding of (the colonial name for the current city of Jakarta) by the Dutch in 1619. Soon after this, a canal system was constructed and by 1725 a had already been built to divert the waters of the Ciliwung westwards. Over the course of the last four centuries, many more technical fl ood managements strategies have been designed and implemented,

Figure 5.1 The location off Jakarta.

J AKAR T A 61 “In Jakarta, we are aiming to reduce flooding in the cityy byy 40 percent byy 2011 and byy as much as 75% byy 2016. Basedd on detailedd calculations modelling, these ambitious goals are achievable iff we are able to increase the proportion off green space in the cityy and improve waterr catchments and groundwaterr recharge in accordance with the Jakarta Spatiall Plan forr 2030. However, itt is importantt to keep in mindd thatt fl ood managementt requires nott onlyy local, butt also regional, nationall andd globall effff orts, andd so we welcome cooperation in managing watersheds thatt transcend our city’s boundaries.”

Fauzi Bowo, Governorr off Jakarta, Indonesia

“From the geomorphologicc pointt off view, Jakarta consists of alluviall plain andd coastall landform, where thirteen rivers flow through Jakarta city. This physicall condition increases the flood hazardd andd vulnerability. Rapid change off landd use on the upper partt off Jakarta and rapidd industriall developmentt contribute signififi cantlyy to increasing surface run offff leads to extensive flood inundation. In the future, with scenario off climate change, fl ood eventt are predictedd to worser. Therefore an integratedd watershed andd coastall zone management, using regional, ecological and spatiall approaches, which is also take into account coordination among the locall governments surrounding Jakarta (Jabodetabek, Jakarta-Bogor-Depok-Tangerang-Bekasi), is required.”

Professorr Dr. Suratman, M.Sc, Dean off the Geographyy Faculty, Gadjah Mada Universityy Yogyakarta, Chairman off the Indonesian Geographers Association lowland area with relatively fl at topography. Jakarta is located in the delta off several rivers. Thirteen rivers flow through the region, the main one being the Ciliwung (Figure 5.2). The Special Capital Region off Jakarta (DKI Jakarta) covers an area off about 662 km2. Over the last halff century the city’s population rose rapidly from 2.7 million in 1960 to 9 million in 2007.J1 GDP projections Presentt for Indonesia as a whole show overall growth rates of 4.5 percent per year between the periods 2005and situation 2030, and the population off Jakarta is expected to grow from 8.8 million to up to 25 million by 2025. This population growth, combined with rapid economic development, has caused extensive land use change in the whole off Java and in Jakarta in particular. During the 2 past three decades, fringe areas experienced extensive 5 land conversion fromagricultural land to new urban and industrial areas,J2, J3 former residential areas in the city centre have been converted into offiffices and business spaces, and open green space in Jakarta has greatly Jakarta, the capital and largest city off Indonesia, is decreased from 28.8 percent off the total area in 1984 to located on the northern coast off the island off Java, in a an estimated 6.2 percent in 2007.J4

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J AKAR T A 63 Figure 5.3 Ciliwung River and adjacent slum settlements.

Figure 5.4 Flood simulation of Ciliwung River for 1.5m and 2m inundation scenarios. problems, the rapid deforestation and urbanizationhas led to increased flood peaks and erosion, resulting in sedimentation in the city’s rivers and drainage canals. Urbanization has also resulted in the narrowing off river basins and floodplains, reducing the discharge capacity off rivers during peakk events. In addition to these problems, huge amounts off garbage clog up Jakarta’s Climate and rivers and drainage canals, partly due to the lackk off a coordinated refuse collection system for large parts of fl ood risks the city. Overflflowing rivers cause inundation off adjacent settlements, especially the slum settlements (Figure 5.3). Figure 5.4 shows the simulated extent off a flood up to 2 m in the area near the Kampong Melayu due to overflflowing waters from the Ciliwung River. J11 3 5

The physical causes off flooding in Jakarta are several and interlinked and include land subsidence, climate change, land use change, and clogged-up rivers and drainage canals. Jakarta is subsiding rapidly, with an average subsidence rate off 4 cm per year in northern Jakarta, and areas where the subsidence rate is even higher.J6 On top off this, the climate ischanging, which is expected to cause an increase inthe frequency off both river flooding and coastal flooding. Climate models project that annual rainfall will increase across most off Indonesia in the future,J7 and that extreme rainfall events will increase in severity and frequency in South-East inthe 21st century.J8 In recent decades, sea level in the Jakarta Bay has risen by about 0.5 cm per year.J9 Furthermore, tropical cyclones are predicted off increased intensities for South-East Asia,J10 which could lead to increased storm surge frequencies and heights.J8 Next to these

J A K A R T A 65 Related sustainability and environmental aspects Several important sustainability and environmental aspects are related tothe fl ood problem. One of Jakarta’s major problems is that off traffiffic and chronic congestion, described by many as the city’s most signififican‘urbannightmare’.J12 During fl oods, this problem ismade even worse: for example, during the fl oods off 2002 and 2007, massive traffiffic jams hampered evacuation, with major thoroughfares being brought to a complete standstill for days. Train and air services were badley affff ected, with around 80 percent off fl ights at the Soekarno-Halta Airport being delayed in 2002. Solid waste is another related environmental issue in Jakarta; off the ca. 23,400 m3 off garbage produced each dayy, only 14,700 are disposed off by the City Sanitation Figure 5.5 Maintaining the drainage system and channels off the city’s Offiffice.J12 Large amounts off this garbage end up in waterways. Trash rackk at Manggarai Flood Gate, Southern Jakarta, before and aftercleaning. J13 the city’s waterways, clogging up drainage channels (Figure 5.5). Poor coverage off piped clean water remains a key problem; a mere 40 percent off the city’s supply is estimated to be piped, with ca. 40 percent coming from bore-holes, and ca. 20 percent from traditionalwater vendors. The increasing demand for water has led to the over-utilization off groundwater resources, exacerbating the land subsidence (and therefore fl ood) problem. Traditionally, government policies on fl ooding in Jakarta have emphazised protection based on technical measures, such as canals, dams, and sluices. Today, such measures continue to form an important part off Jakarta’s adaptation plan. One of the ways in which fl oods will be reduced by 2011 is through the dredging off 13 rivers and 56 drainage Climate canals and the Eastern and Western Canals. By 2016, several developments are planned: the construction adaptation off channels and tunnels to link the Western and Eastern Flood Canals; construction off a polder system; the rehabilitation off existing reservoirs and lakes; construction off a new reservoir; floodplain conservation and re-greening (Figure 5.6); and 4 improving the existing breakwater to prevent the 5 impact off tide water. The Jakarta Public Works Agency has also introduced a project to dredge and remove

Figure 5.6 Re-greening off floodplain areas to increase water retention.

J A K A R T A 67 Figure 5.7 Flood marker in a settlement area to preserve fl ood awareness among citizens. (Figure 5.7). Furthermore, nature restoration schemes are being heralded as innovative ways toprotect against fl ooding. In Jakarta, mangrove conservation is considered a good way to protect the coastal area, not only in terms off flood protection, but also from a sustainability point off view. The Ministry of Forestry has developed a programme to increase the area off mangroves in the coastal area near Jakarta; in some areas these had almost disappeared due to deforestation.

Interaction off climate and water issues with spatial planning At present,Jakarta is working toward the integration off spatial planning and flood management. These issues were discussed when policymakers from Jakarta attended the CDC symposium on flood riskk in New Yorkk City in 2009. In this regard, fl ood riskk management Figure 5.8 Strengthening the capacity off communities through plays a key role. Two key components to a successful training, education, and discussion. flood riskk management plan are: (a) flood riskk maps showing how riskk will change spatially; and (b) sediments and waste from the city’s rivers and assessments off how fl ood riskk mapping can play a role drainage canals (Figure 5.5). On a less technical level, in the decision-making process and communication people living in informal settlements and inthecity with stakeholders. Both off these issues are to be outskirts have installed simple structural devices such covered in an upcoming research programme as part as small dams to protect their houses from tidal floods, off the Dutch programme Knowledge for Climate. The and are building storage areas on the second storey of CDC networkk will play a role in embedding knowledge houses to avoid fl ood damage (Figure 5.9). exchange between cities. A preliminary flood damage model has already been set up by Gadjah In recent years, there has also been more investment Mada University Yogyakarta (Indonesia) and IVM-VU in non-structural measures such as awareness- University Amsterdam (Netherlands).Based on this raising programmes; law enforcement and early model, Figure 5.10 shows the area off northern Jakarta warning and emergency assistance systems; upper that would be inundated as a result off an extreme watershed planning and management; training for coastal flood with a return period off one hundred strengthening community capacity (Figure 5.8);and years under: (a) current conditions; and (b) a future installing fl ood signs to preserve citizens awareness scenario in 2100 whereby land subsidence continues

J A K A R T A 69 Figure 5.9 Houses with storage areas on second storey to avoid fl ood damage. at 4 cm per year and the sea level rises by 59 cm. The total value off assets exposed to such a flood under Delta Dialogues current conditions is estimated at about €4 billion, 2008 - 2009 whilst the scenario for 2100 estimates an exposure of almost €17 billion (excluding the effffects off changes in future population and land use, and socioeconomic developments). In the coming years, more flood risk In 2008 and 2009, a series off four meetings (Delta maps off this nature will be developed to show how Dialogues) were held out in whichIndonesian flood inundation and riskk will change over time, and to decision makers at national, regional, and local assist in the integration off spatial planning and flood levels, civil society stakeholders, and experts management. from Jakarta and the Netherlandswhere brought together. Through a systematic discussion on fl ood risks in Jakarta, opinions were shared and Figure 5.10 Inundation maps off northern Jakarta for people learned about each others’’perceptions two coastal fl ood scenarios. and interests. As no formalagenda or political A) Current conditions decisions were involved, participants could freely brainstorm and share views. Based on the Dialogues, a long-term visionwas formulated on how toreduce flood riskstaking into account land subsidence, climate change and other causal mechanisms. Vietnamese specialists were also involved inthe Dialogues, and this international exchange off knowledge and experience led to the beginnings off Indonesian- Vietnamese collaboration. Sea and permanent water bodies

B) Includes sea level rise and land subsidence

Inundated area

J AKAR T A 71 6

London by Alex Nickson In the last decade, London has experienced fl oods that have damaged homes and infrastructure, a heat wave that killed 600 Londoners and a drought that led to the construction of a desalination plant. Introduction Climate change is expected to increase the frequency and intensity of these existing risks, which unless London adapts, will increasingly aff ect the city’s prosperity, the quality of life of its inhabitants and ultimately London’s reputation as a leading 1 6 ‘world city.’

“Preparing ourr greatt cityy forr the effffects off climate change and adapting ourr homes and workplaces willl improve Londoners’ qualityy off life, with more trees, andd better designed, greenerr publicc spaces. This willl create neww jobs andd industries andd reinforce the capital’s position as the numberr one place to do green business.”

Boris Johnson The Mayorr off London

L O N D O N 73 “We have quantifi ed the synergies and confl icts between adaptation to climate change and mitigation of carbon emissions, for example by examining the contribution that urban energy use makes to the urban heat island. We are using our integrated systems modelling to understand how policies can be devised that yield benefi ts in relation to a number of objectives and avoid undesirable side-eff ects.”

Professor Jim Hall, Professor of Earth Systems Engineering, Tyndall Centre for Climate Change Research, Newcastle University Presentt situation

2 6

From a peakk off 8.8 million in 1939, London’s buffffered from the continental climate by the Gulf population steadily declined to 6.7 million in 1988. Stream, and thus has a marine climate. This means Since then, the population has grown steadily to that winters are less cold and summers are less hot. 7.6 million today and is expected to keep growing This reduced seasonal variation is one off the key to around 8.9 million by 2031.L1 Nearly all off this reasons why much off the UKK is poorly adapted to growth will be accommodated on brownfifield sites, extreme weather, as wide seasonal variations are very or further densifification off development around high uncommon and generally short-lived. transport accessibility nodes. This approach leads to a compact, dense city, but also intensififies vulnerability by concentrating a high number off people and assets within a relatively small area.

London sits astride the RiverThames. While not a traditional delta, the capital is further bisected by 12 tributaries and the tidal inflfl uence off the North Sea extends almost entirely through the city. London, as with much off the United Kingdom, is

L O N D O N 75 droughts than other catchments in the Southeast, as it is able to collect more water. The Thames Basin receives an average off 690 mm of rainfall per year. Off this, two-thirds is lost to evaporation or transpired by plants. 55 percent off the remaining ‘effffective rainfall’’is then abstracted for use, one of the highest amounts inthe country. 82 percent of Climate and the abstracted water is for public supply, with half off this supplied to households and a quarter to non fl ood risks households. The remainder is lost in leakage. This sequence is shown diagrammatically in Figure 6.1 below.

The Environment Agency has classifified the whole of southeast England as‘severely water stressed.’ 3 This means that the amount off water abstracted to 6 meet demands today is causing actual damage to the environment. Under the EU Water Framework Directive (WFD),L2 water companies must contribute to improving the quality off water bodies, which will in Drought effffect limit theabstraction from some watercourses, Eighty percent off London’s water comes from the River meaning that water supply may fall as unmanaged Thames and River Lea and 20 percent from the confifined demand is likely to increase. The Environment Agency chalkk aquifer under the city.The Thames Basin is the is currently assessing what level off‘sustainability largest river basin in the southeast off England. As such, reductions’’will be required to meet the WFD it offffers a more dependable supply off water during requirements.

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Figure 6.1 Diagram from draft water strategy. found that their resource plans have not been fully funded. This can mean there is a potential for short term financial aspects to dominate the longer-term sustainability off balancing supply and demand.

Flood risk London is vulnerable to flooding from three key sources:‘tidal’’fl ooding when tidal surges combine with high tides and onshore winds, ‘flfluvial’’ flooding from the freshwater rivers in London; and‘surface water’’ fl ooding, when heavy rainfall overcomes the drainage system. Figures 6.4 and 6.5 show the observed monthly rainfall and temperature for London for the period 1961-1990 be affected by flooding (grey bars) and then the projected changes to these Catchments <1:20 1:75 - 1:100 variables for the 2020s, 2050s and 2080s (coloured GLA boundary 1:20 - 1:50 1:1000 lines). It can be seen that in the future rainfall becomes

Figure 6.2 Standard off protection provided by the tidal and fluvial deforces.

The UKK water sector was privatized in the UKK in the early 1990s. Four private water companies supply London with water but only one manages London’s wastewater. The water companies are required to produce Water Resource Management Plans (WRMPs), which provide a long-term (25 year) perspective on how the companies will balance their supply and demand forwater. In parallel, the watercompanies must also prepare business plans, setting out how they will fund their WRMPs over a 5-year period.The Environment Agency assesses the WRMPs and OfWat (the financial regulator for water companies) assesses their business plans. There is a statutory requirement for the watercompanies to deliver their business plan, but not their WRMP. In this round or resource and business planning, severalwatercompanies have

L O N D O N 77 more seasonal and that all seasons experience a signifi cant warming. London is protected from fl ooding by a series of fl ood defences and the city’s drainage system. 15 percent of London’s area lies on the former fl oodplains of London’s rivers. The standard of protection provided by the fl ood defences and the area they protect can be mapped and the assets that lie on the protected fl ood plains plotted. Figure 6.2 shows the standard of protection provided by the tidal and fl uvial defences. It can be seen that there is a very variable standard of protection, with the tidal defences providing a high standard of defence to the tidal fl oodplain (green shaded area), but that protection on some of the tributaries to the Thames having a much lower standard of defence (red shaded areas). The standard of protection provided by the drainage system is much lower, commonly between 3-5 percent annual expected probability. An analysis of ‘who and what’ is at fl ood risk today, August 2003 heatwave caused the deaths of 600 shows that a signifi cant proportion of London’s critical Londoners. An analysis L3 of the health impact of the infrastructure lies in areas of fl ood risk and also in heatwave across all the UK regions showed that while addition that some of the poorest Londoners are living London did not experience the highest temperatures, in areas of tidal fl ood risk. This is important because it did result in the highest number of deaths when it underlines that much of the infrastructure London averaged over the population. It is proposed that the would rely on in the event of a fl ood is at risk and that urban heat island (UHI) eff ect was a key factor in this the most vulnerable part of the population also live in excess mortality, as the UHI prevented the city from at risk areas. cooling off overnight and maintained temperatures at a threshold too high for vulnerable people to recover Overheating suffi ciently from the heat of the day. Summers in London are rarely hot enough to cause a signifi cant health impact. However, it is this rare exposure to high temperatures in combination with the poor ability of much of London’s housing stock to maintain comfortable temperatures that causes Londoners’ vulnerability to high temperatures. The to prevent a climate impact (such as a flood) from occurring.

As part off the public consultation on the LCCAS, the Mayor used digital media channels to askk Londoners what they could and should do as individuals, or neighbourhoods, to adapt. This included using Climate YouTube to virally disseminate a video L6 off the Mayor explaining the need to adapt and an interactive adaptation website L7 where Londoners could put forward their ideas and vote on other peoples’’ ideas (see Figure 6.3). This allowed the Greater London Authority to reach a wider audience than normally engaged in policy development and helped raise both 4 awareness off the issue and ownership off the risk. 6

Figure 6.3 Website: www.london.gov.uk/climatechange To identify the climate risksand opportunities facing London, and toprovide a frameworkk to prepare London for climate change, the Mayor off London is developing a climate change adaptation strategy for the city.L4 The strategy assesses the climate risks toLondon today, and then uses climate projections to understand how these risks change, or new opportunities arise, as a result off climate change.

The London Climate Change Adaptation Strategy (LCCAS) uses the Disaster Riskk Reduction frame- work L5 off ‘prevent, prepare, respond, recover’’ to categorie the actions. This approach encourages decision makers toundertake some level of adaptation activity despite the uncertainty off climate projections, and also to consider how to manage the residual riskk that exists even iff the strategy is

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Figure 6.4 and 6.5 Baseline London climate (grey bars) 1961-1990, and projected future climate (generated using UKCP09 50% projections). thresholds for protection against rising sea levels provided by each of the options are then plotted against sea level rise. This approach helps decision makers to understand the suite of options open to them, and how they can be combined into a ‘decision pathways’ to create a portfolio of measures through the century. From strategy Figure 6.6 shows the TE2100 ‘decisions pathway.’ Each to delivery box represents a fl ood risk management option or series of options and the maximum level of water level rise they can protect against. This approach can be replicated for managing other impacts, including droughts and overheating. 5 6 Water neutrality The Greater London Authority has been working with the Environment Agency to look at how to balance London’s water supply in the face of increasing demand and declining supplies. The aim is to improve London is undertaking a wide range the water effi ciency of London’s existing stock of of adaptation actions, the following examples 3 million homes to provide water for the future of which are transferable and scalable to growing population – referred to as ‘water neutrality.’ other cities. In principle this means no net increase in demand despite a growth in the number of inhabitants. To deliver these water savings, the GLA is working with the 33 London boroughs, the 4 water companies and Thames Estuary 2100 (TE2100) the energy companies on a programme to retrofi t The UK Environment Agency has undertaken a study water and energy effi ciency measures into Londoners’ to identify the fl ood risk management options for homes at no cost to the householder. The aim is to protecting London and the Thames Estuary from retrofi t up to 1.2 million homes by 2015. The ultimate tidal fl ooding to the end of the century.L8 The project vision is to expand ‘water neutrality’ to ‘water security,’ has identifi ed a range of possible options – from where suffi cient savings are made to provide a buff er raising the height of existing defences to constructing against the impact of climate change on water a second – and assesses the level supplies (including the sustainability reductions of protection that each option can provide. The referred to above).

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Figure 6.6 The TE2100 ‘decisions pathway’. Drain London Surface water fl ood riskk is considered to be the most signifificant short-term climate riskk to London. Modelling L9 suggests that a one in a twohundred years rainstorm event today would fl ood up to 680,000 properties in London. A study on London’s drainage system L10 concluded that even a small increase in rainfall could require the signifificant modifification of the drainage system to maintain current levels of service.

To manage this existing and increasing risk,the Greater London Authority has brought together all the organizations with responsibility for, and information on, surface water fl ood riskk management and created a frameworkk to facilitate collaborative action. The Drain London project will help every London borough produce its own surface water management plan (SWMP), but ensures that the individual SWMPs are created in coherence with the SWMPs off neighbouring by 10 percent by 2050 and increasing London-wide borough. The project will also identify and prioritize tree cover by 5 percent (an additional 2 million trees the regional fl ood risk hotspots, and workk to develop by 2030). It is anticipated that this urban greening will more detailed plans for the priority areas. helpcool thecity in summer and reduce the frequency and intensity off fl oods. The Greater London Authority Urban greening programme is also working with the Environment Agency and Workk on developing theLCCAS has highlighted that it the River Restoration Centre to restore 15 kilometres is the urban realm and land cover that intensififies many off London’s rivers, L11 increasing fl ood storage and off the climate impacts. For example, it is the loss of improving riparian habitat. permeability caused by the traditional construction of roads and buildings that causes flash flooding, and the Integrating perspectives on adaptation loss off vegetation helps create the UHI effffect. The various perspectives on adaptation that are outlined above cannot be addressed in isolation. They The Greater London Authority is developing an urban interact with one another, in particular via urban land greening programme to offffset the loss off vegetation use. Opportunities exist for integrated approaches, and so manage the climate risks. The Mayor has set which provide resilience to a number off climate risks. a target off increasing green cover in Central London However, the interactions between difffferent risks and

L O N D O N 83 Figure 6.7 urban functions can be rathercomplex. In order to understand these interactions and provide the evidence needed to underpin integrated adaptation solutions, the Tyndall Centre for Climate ChangeResearch has been working with the Greater London Authority to develop an Urban Integrated Assessment Facility (UIAF), which simulates the main processes off long-term change in London (see Figure 6.8).

The UIAF couples a series off simulation modules within a scenarioand policy analysis framework. The UIAF is driven by global and national scenarios of climate and socioeconomic change, which feed into models off the regional economy and land use change. Simulations off climate, land use and socioeconomic change inform analysis off carbon dioxide emissions

(focussing upon energy, personal transport and Legend Water Current Development freight transport) and the impacts off climate change Census CAS Wards Undeveloped Land Future Development (focussing on heat waves, droughts and fl oods). The final component off the UIAF isthe integrated assessment tool that provides the interface between the modelling components, the results and the end- user. This tool has enabled a number off adaptation and mitigation options to be explored within an integrated framework.

Figure 6.8 Tyndall Centre simulations off land use in East London on a 100 × 100 m grid showing existing and future developments i under the baseline land use paradigm,ii under conditions where a policy to reduce exposure to fl ood riskk has led to a ban on future fl oodplain development.

L O N D O N 85 New Orleans

7

by David Waggonner and Andy Sternad New Orleans is the present-day test case for world delta cities. In 2005, Hurricane Katrina brought about the failure of the levee system, fl ooding 80 percent of the city and forcing prolonged evacuation of almost the entire population. Five years later, Introduction BP’s Deepwater Horizon oil rig exploded south of the city, unleashing a torrent of oil from the reservoir beneath the ocean fl oor, threatening fragile, protective wetlands critical to the region’s economy, culture and storm protection. With rising seas and 1 sinking land, a place integral to American 7 history and world culture struggling to reinvent itself and reverse its decline.

“The reason we’re here in the fi rst place is because there’s water here. Instead of turning our backs, barricading ourselves, and treating the water like an enemy, let’s treat it like the friend that it can be and should be – encouraging the beauty, better environmental standards, and value for the people (that come with that approach).”

Mary Landrieu, United States Senator for the State of Louisiana, the USA

NEW O RLEANS 87 DD3 Workshop

The Dutch Dialogues workshops are the outgrowth of extended interactions between Dutch engineers, urban designers, landscape architects, city planners and soils/hydrology experts and, primarily, their Louisiana counterparts. The eff orts of the Dutch Dialogues derive from the participants’ unwavering belief that New Orleans can survive and prosper and grow only when it gets certain fundamentals in order. Dutch Dialogues exposes and hopefully addresses some of those fundamentals.

‘Safety First’ is the key to organizing water management principle in the Netherlands. History repeatedly shows the folly of living in a delta where disasters are common. However, to “The Mississippi River stretches north into Canada and ignore the water’s magic – the unique, abundant South to the Gulf of Mexico, east into New York and North opportunities that can and should be exploited Carolina and west to Idaho and New Mexico. It drains 31 for economic, societal and cultural gain – is states and 2 Canadian provinces. It exceeds by 20 percent equally foolhardy. ‘Living with the water’ has China’s Yellow River, is double that of the Nile and Ganges, recently become an ordering, corollary principle fi fteen times that of the Rhine. In terms of agricultural and of Dutch policy. Adapting a living with the industrial productivity it is by far the most important river water principle is necessary in post-Katrina valley in the world. The river system is America. It directed New Orleans. The Dutch Dialogues posits that the nation’s expansion across the continent. both safety and amenity from water are crucial to It spurred technological developments in fi elds as diverse a future in which New Orleans is robust, vibrant as architecture, experimental physics, and metallurgy. and secure. It created great fortunes. It determined the path of demographic movement. Through blues and jazz, through Twain and Richard Wright and William Faulkner, it created America’s soul.”

John Barry, author of the award-winning book “Rising Tide: The Great Mississippi Flood of 1927 and How It Changed America” On the delta the Mississippi fl ows higher than its surroundings on land off its own creation. The historic French Quarter sits on the slope off the Mississippi levee created as spring fl oods deposited coarse sediments near its banks. As fl ood water spread out and slowed down, lighter clays and fine silt were loosely deposited further away. The result is a natural high ground around Present 15 feet above sea level along the river, that slopes gently downhill, almost imperceptibly, to the backswamp and situation Lake Pontchartrain at sea level a few miles away. Ridges off high ground – sometimes only a fewfeet above sea level – created by former distributary channels off the river crisscross the landscape. New Orleans originally developed along these tenuous bands off elevated earth, 2 and as evidence off early inhabitant’s now-forgotten 7 environmental understanding the historic parts off the city largely escaped Katrina’s inundation.

General characteristics New Orleans is a city on the edge, but it exists for a reason. Guided by the native inhabitants in 1718, French colonist Jean-Baptiste Le Moyne de Bienville founded New Orleans at its present location on the relatively high natural levee along the Mississippi River. Convenient and strategic access to the sea through Bayou St. John and Lake Pontchartrain meant that New Orleans could receive ocean-going commerce in addition to the river trade that chugged past its banks. According to historical geographer Richard Campanella,‘the site (Bienville) fi nally selected represented the best available site within a fantastic geographical situation’. Although the area was predominantly marshland and prone toriver flooding and intense storms, a city at the mouth off the greatest water highway on the continent was inevitable.

Figure 7.1 Mississippi River Delta. New Orleans Metro Area at center.

N E W O R L E A N S 89 Figure 7.2 19th century map of New Orleans. Note the compact city near the river with the backswamp and Lake Pontchartrain behind it.

Culture and slaves lived side by side at the river mouth where New Orleans’ complex identity was formed from North America met the sea. Europeans 4 (Spanish, people of diff erent backgrounds sharing slender French, Irish and Germans) African slaves and free dry space alongside the river. With the slaves the people of colour, French Creoles and American early underpinnings of voodoo, blues and jazz entrepreneurs from across the country coexisted to were imported from . Elaborate Mardi Gras take advantage of the city’s promise. celebrations grew out of French Catholic and African traditions. Culinary specialties, then as now, rely Before the advent of pumping and drainage on local seafood bounties. As a growing centre of technology, the region’s vernacular architecture world commerce, the city also attracted immigrants blended European styles with practical, climate- in numbers second only to New York.NO1 Iconoclasts responsive strategies. French and Spanish infl uences are evident in the scale, streetscape and courtyards off the French Quarter. New Orleans’s characteristic shotgun houses – long and narrow for cross ventilation – were often constructed using dismantled river barges. Most structures, especially outside the city centre, were elevated offff the ground.

At the time off Katrina in 2005, New Orleans had a population off 437,186, down from a peakk off 626,525 around 1960, a reduction off approximately 30 percent. Over the same period, despite population loss, the city’s area increased from approximately 100 square miles to its current size off 180 square miles.NO2 Since Katrina the population has fallen an additional twenty percent, but even before the storm New Orleans was facing issues off contraction, underpopulation and decline.NO3

Economy South-eastern Louisiana’s economy is focused around the oil, gas, and petrochemical industries, shipping traffiffi c, seafood and tourism. Petrochemical production provides over $12 billion annually in household earnings throughout the state. More than 25 percent off the nation’s ocean bound exports pass through Louisiana’s ports, and a quarter off all commercial fishing catches in America land in Louisiana. Additionally, tourism generates $5.2 billion state- wide, mostly in New Orleans, whichwas recently rated the world’s premier nightlife hotspot. Digital media, film-making, and thewater sector are emerging industries.NO4, NO5

N E W O R L E A N S 91

prosperity, yet it also challenges the city’s very existence. In order to exploit its potential, generations off New Orleanians have built , dug canals, and pumped, drained and diverted water across the land to fortify the city against nature’s persistent threat, defensive strategies that have sometimes also counteracted natural processes. In 1866, US Civil Climate and War general A.A. Humphreys became chieff off the US Army Corps off Engineers and developed a policy fl ood risks that predominantly involved the development off a levee system. In 1913, highly effifficient screw pumps were invented by Albert Baldwin Wood and installed at outfall canals that drained the backswamp to the lake. With the deployment off these powerful pumps, 3 the New Orleans drainage system was the most 7 technologicallyadvanced system intheworld.NO9

At 30 degrees north latitude, the region is squarely subtropical. Average annual temperatures fl uctuate between 91°F (33°C) in the summer and 43°F (6°C) in twinter, with annual rainfall totals typically exceeding 60 inches (152 cm).NO6 In addition to characteristically hot and humid weather, the Gulf off Mexico routinely experiences intense hurricanes. Hurricane Katrina in 2005 hit New Orleans almost directly as a massive category three storm with sustained winds up to130 mph and a storm surge approaching twenty feet.NO7 An average off 11 named storms pass through the Gulff each year, and over the next century their frequency and magnitude – and the sea level itselff – are projected to increase.NO8

Response to Environment Water is New Orleans’’source off sustenance and

N E W O R L E A N S 93 With confifidence in this mastered terrain, post-World $125 billion in economic losses on the Gulf War II development near the lakeshore abandoned Coast, and $30 billion inthecity off New Orleans the traditional raised housing type and en-vogue, alone.NO11 The city lost 70 percent off its urban ranch-style; slab-on-grade houses dominated the canopy,NO12 an estimated number off 100,000 trees.NO13 new landscape. Ironically, the newly available land More than 160,000 homes were destroyed or heavily was below sea level and continually subsiding due to damaged and 1,500 lives were lost. Katrina forced the same drainage system off levees and pumps that the evacuation off 1.36 million people, creating a New permitted its development. Today, pile-supported Orleans diaspora across the continent. The suburban box culverts remain high whiletheadjacent land falls developments on former backswamp suffffered most, away. Eventually, concrete floodwalls were required and subsidence off six to seven feet below sea level along the outfall canals to prevent lake surges from in some places worsened the flood’s effffect. Theolder flooding the city. Despite improvements, street neighbourhoods on high ground on the river’s edge flooding commonly occurs during rain storms due in and ridges suffffered little or minor fl ooding.NO9 part to the system’s inherent lackk off water storage. In response to the storm, the US Army Corps On a macro scale, the flood-proof, leveed river can redoubled its levee strengthening efffforts. To date, no longer rebuild and sustain delta soils. Dams and the US Congress has released $14.45 billion for the reservoirs farupstream trap fifty percent off the river’s historical sediment load, and much off the remaining sediment is channelled past wetlands and over the continental shelf.NO10 The comprehensive levee and pump system now encircling the city provides protection but also seals human development into a slowly subsiding bowl. All off New Orleans’s 150 cm off rainfall per year must be pumped out and the dried former backswamp continues to compact and subside at a rate off anywhere from 5mm to almost 2 cm per year.NO9 At once New Orleans’s lifeblood and primary historical antagonist, water has been covered up and walled offff.

Katrina Among New Orleans’ lineage off natural disasters, Hurricane Katrina in 2005 was not only the worst in the city’s history but the most costly ever to occur in the United States. Damage estimates reached devoid off storage capacity, is overwhelmed by recurring rainstorms that can produce two to four inches off rain anhour.

The use off engineered solutions for narrowly defifined problems has in recent times proven insuffifficient to combat the complex, intertwined challenges confronting modern delta living. Considering the fact that climate change may increase the challenges further, New Orleans may need to embrace a more holistic, ecologically-based thinking, with the cultivation off nature’s own lines of defence, not just to sustain the city’s future but also to avoid that the adaptation cost continue to increase and perhaps eventually outweigh the incredible cultural and economic value off habitation on the Mississippi Delta.

Figure 7.3 Damaged homes in the Lower NinthWard.

Louisiana Hurricane Protection System, including levees and floodwalls; outfall canal repairs and closure structures; and pump station repairs and storm proofifing.NO14 With unprecedented speed the Corps set a world record in realizing the Hurricane Protection System within approximately 4 years, around ten times faster than the Dutch built their Delta Plan in about 40 years after the floods off 1953. Full protection from a 100-year storm, equating to a one percent chance off failure in given year, is projected by June 2011. The system within the levees remains unchanged: pumps can handle one inch off rainfall in the fi rst hour and 0.5 inches in each subsequent hour. When combined, Orleans Parish’s three outfall canals can discharge 16,000 cubic feet off water per second, the average fl ow off the Potomac River.NO15 Although impressive, this system, practically

N E W O R L E A N S 95 Orleans Canal Lake Pontchartrain

Levee New Pump Station New Pump Station

Bayou London Avenue Canal

Pump Station

Pump Station

Figure 7.4 Dutch Dialogues proposal for part of a comprehensive water management system in New Orleans. be amplifified, supplemented and built upon in the years and decades ahead. The third component off the storm defence and water management system is the urban water system. Here the balances between existing and envisioned, man- made and natural can be explored.Implementing the idea off living with water instead off fighting Climate against it, the urbanized settlement can over time be transformed. A shift to cherishing the earth and adaptation the roots it provides, and revealing and revering, water is envisioned. Crucial balances in the process of re-evaluation include land and water; habitation and infrastructure; buildings and open spaces; hard and permeable surfaces; fresh and salt water gradients; 4 levees, perimeter defense structures, and storm surge; 7 and the effffect off variable‘sea level’’and higher limits on operating levels for theurban water system.

No place is more in need off a transformative vision and process for climate change adaptation and water management than New Orleans and the Mississippi Delta. After decades off levees and drainage for flood protection and navigation, with channels cut through the marsh for commercial purposes, the wetlands off south Louisiana are quickly receding. A shift in paradigms is fortunately underway. Large- scale diversions off the river’s fl ow and sediment canrevive coastal wetlands downstream. Plans and initiatives to speed and increase these diversions are in progress. The perimeter defence system built by the Corps off Engineers around thecity, though more robust than before Katrina, only provides a one in a hundred years level off protection, perhaps less than the urban area will need for future safety and reinvestment. It is nonetheless a base line that must

Figure 7.5 GIWW waterway closure structure. Example off engineering solutions to complex problems .

N E W O R L E A N S 97 Adaptations are fundamental, but conceivable and Several principles and ideas have risen in ultimately achievable. The planning time frame for consciousness. Lessons have been learned. We must climate adaptation needs to shift from a fi ve-year make space for water. Landscape is not a secondary horizon to about 50 years. A vision-driven, learning- idea but a prime contributor to the health and based approach is nascent, and with nurture can bear sustainability off the settlement. Trees and plant fruit. A recently commenced consensus-based water materials are vital to the liveability off this sub-tropical strategy is a key step in this transformative process. area. Specifific attention must be paid to the underlying To succeed, an integrated approach developed from layers off soil and groundwater. Hydrological units a multi-level perspective is required. Change must or sub-basins, perhaps developed into polders, are encompass the whole system, with targeted starting the district level structure off the city. Planning for points. To succeed, focus should be on windows transportation, infrastructure, and water management off opportunity instead off barriers. Non-interactive should be integrated with spatial planning. There models need to be supplemented and communities is an existing urban form with and from which we should be engaged and encouraged to participate. build. On a larger public scale, a circulating water This will also enhance the resiliency off communities. system is essential, multi-purpose infrastructure. Ecological memory learning from the past is instructive Private as well as public property must contribute to and should be recalled. the water storage solution. New Orleans is inevitably

Key Above 15 ft in elevation -5 to 0 ft in elevation 10 to 15 ft in elevation -10 to -5 ft in elevation 5 to 10 ft in elevation Below -10 ft in elevation 0 to 5 ft in elevation Lower Ninth Ward

Lake Pontchartrain

Figure 7.6 Map off Greater New Orleans. Figure 7.7 Topographical map off New Orleans. French Quarter in yellow. All areas in blue are below sea level. WRDA - IEPR Projects WRDA – IEPR Projects

I

L y o

WBVV 12 Hero WBV 14f.2 –Hwy 45 Canal 100 - Year PS Fronting Protection Loop Caernarvon Canal Levee Chalmette Loop Levee Alternatives & Modifications Floodwall Reach 1 Bayou Dupre to Hwy 46 Levee

Figure 7.8 US Army Corps map off 100-year storm protection upgrades around metro New Orleans. an ecological borderland. With engaged citizens approach, an adaptable and highly desirable water city providing specifific knowledge, a fl exible planning off an expanded, productive garden type is feasible for culture and a commitment to learning, innovation the Mississippi Delta. and feedbackk using a science-based, place-based

N E W O R L E A N S 99 8

Hong Kong by Pieter Pauw and Maria Francesch Hong Kong is situated at the mouth off the delta formed by the Xijiang (West), Beijiang (North) Dongjiang (East) and Zhujiang (Pearl) rivers as they enter the South China Sea. The territory consists off 260 islands spread around 1,104 square kilometres with a total coastline of approximately 730 kilometres. Hong Kong’s population grew at a steady rate from 3 million in 1960 to almost Introduction 7 million in 2008.HK2 Its economy is based on trade and services with people working and living on less than 25 percent off Hong Kong’s total area. The current gross national income of US$ 31.420 per capita (comparable to Spain) and the average life expectancy off 82 clearly show that Hong Kong is a wealthy part off China.HK2 Hong Kong has heavy urban development and a very high 1 population density. Large urbanized areas are located 8 in low lying areas off the territory, making the city vulnerable to sea level rise and fl oods.HK3

Since its foundation, Hong Kong has been dealing with fl oods. As the city grows and develops, the potential consequences of fl ooding increase. Simultaneously, climate change causes sea level rise and increases the probability of extreme precipitation. Past, present and planned adaptation shows how Hong Kong adopted the challenge of climate change.

Figure 8.1 View from Hong Kong International Airport.

O NG K O N G 101 “The Pearl River Delta region is one of the most economically vibrant parts of the world and is also vulnerable to the impact of climate change. Hong Kong has to continue to transform itself into a low- carbon economy to strengthen our resilience towards climate change and adopt a sustainable development pathway. The key to this is concerted eff orts by Hong Kong and our partner cities in the region, as well as cooperation from both the private sector and the general public.”

Mr Edward Yau, Secretary for the Environment of Hong Kong

“The rise of multi-level governance, that is, the diff usion of decision making across multiple levels of government, off ers two challenges for public administrators. First, is the allocation of roles to politicians and civil servants in steering public policy within multilevel regimes – simply put, who governs what? The second challenge is the management of interfaces between levels of government and the multitude of organizations involved in these mediations. How can policies be implemented in a reasonably uniformed way when such leeway is left to cities’ governments and to sectors within them? In analyzing the measures taken so far in Hong Kong in relation to climate change, one observes that the transition from a sectoral and technological governance approach towards an integrated and interactive approach is being realized as the city benefi ts from networking with other delta cities.” Dr. Maria Francesch, City University of Hong Kong The electricity use is expected to rise further due to the increasing temperatures in Hong Kong.HK7 In 2007 99.8 percent off the energy consumed was imported.HK8 This makes Hong Kong dependent on others at times off increasing temperatures and electricity use.

Water Present Water is threatening Hong Kong from all sides (precipitation extremes, river discharge, sea level rise, situation rising groundwater tables), but at the same time the city has a long-standing problem off drinking water shortages. In 1863 the British already built a fi rst freshwater reservoir as local streams and wells did not provide suffifficient water for the growing population. 2 Currently the natural storage capacity is limited 8 and only a quarter off the water supply is provided locally (Figure 8.5). The water demand is expected to

Natural resources The territory’s large population and wealth places high demands on water, energy, food and raw materials, for which Hong Kong is almost completely reliant on imports. This makes the coastal city susceptible to climate stressors hitting these other areas as well.HK5 Energy and water are off particular importance.

Energy Per-capita energy consumption in has more than tripled between 1971 and 2006.HK2 Electricity demand for air-conditioning for example increased to 29 percent off the total electricity use in 2007.HK6

Figure 8.2 Map off Hong Kong.HK4

H O NG K O N G 103 continue to rise under the pressures on an increasing climate change and economic development could population and increasing temperatures. At the same also cause a potential water shortage problem in time, importing water becomes more diffifficult, as Guangdong where demand is outstripping supply.HK9

Figure 8.3 Resources and freshwater consumption 1997-2008.HK10

Resources and fresh water annual consumption

1200 1100 1000 900 800 700 600

3 500

Mm 400 300 200 100 0 1997 1998 1999 2000 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Year

Local Yield DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong Local Yield + DongJiang Water Supply from Guangdong Fresh Water Annual Consumption 15 and 7 in 1980-1999 to 45 and 17 in 2090-2099 in a constant urbanization scenario.HK13

It is likely that temperature rise will increase the city’s energy use. It might also be conducive to extreme events like heavy precipitation and consequent flooding. Although the number off tropical cyclones Climate and affffecting Hong Kong has decreased during the period 1961 to 2002, the annual rainfall and the fl ood risks number off heavy rain days have increased during the period 1947 to 2002.HK12

It is likely that an increase in temperature will increase the energy use in the city. The rise in 3 temperature might also be conducive to extreme 8 events like heavy precipitation and consequent flooding.

Hong Kong has a subtropical climate with average temperatures between 16°C and 28°C over the year, and average annual precipitation levels off 1700-2800 mm.HK11 Records show that Hong Kong has been warming up since measurements started in 1884. Between1980 and 2009, rural areas warmed up at a rate off around 0.2°C per decade. In the heart off urban Hong Kong, however, the corresponding rise was muchhigher at around 0.6°C per decade. This 0.4°C difffference can be attributed to the heat island effffect through which the high density urban area absorbs and retains heat.HK12 Compared with 1980-1999, the temperature is projected to increase by +4.4°C to +5.2°C in 2090-2099 depending on the level of Figure 8.4 One off the earliest sketches off Hong Kong (1842). urbanization. Furthermore, the number off cold days The view is from Victoria Harbour looking towards the Victoria per year will be virtually nil and the number off hot Peak. days and nights will increase dramatically from

H O NG K O N G 105 Figure 8.6 Parked cars swept away by fl oodwater in 1966.

Figure 8.5 Flooding due to a heavy rainfall event in central Hong Figure 8.7 In 1972 a monsoon triggered a landslide of 40.000 cubic Kong, 1880’s.HK15 meters in Po Shan Road, Hong Kong Island.HK15 24.5

24.0 1885-2009 +0.12˚C/decade 1947-2009 +0.16˚C/decade 23.5 1980-2009 +0.28˚C/decade )

(˚C 23.0 e eratur

p 22.5 em T 22.0

21.5

21.0 1885 1895 1905 1915 1925 1935 1945 1955 1965 1975 1985 1995 2005 Year

Figure 8.8 Annual mean temperature recorded at the Hong Kong Observatory Headquarters (1885-2009). Data are not available from 1940 to 1946 (Source: Hong Kong Observatory).

Sea level rise Flooding The Guangdong Province, with Hong Kong located In Hong Kong, typhoons and consequent floods have in the middle off its coastline, predicts a sea level rise been a recurring phenomenon through history: between 9 cm and 31 cm by the year 2030. This will also cause river levels to rise. Rising sea and river Q An unnamed typhoon in 1906 caused vast levels reduce the defense capacities against flooding damage to Hong Kong and resulted in a death toll and storms. This could inundate the coastal areas and off around 10,000 (90 percent off whom were boat cause more sea tidal surges. Exacerbated fl ooding in people). A shockingly high figure for thecommu- its turn would affffect the economy, public works and nity off less than 450,000 people at that time.HK14 promote the spread off disease.HK5, HK9 Saline water intrusion is not really an issue in Hong Kong. Most of Q The villages along the coast off Tolo Harbour were the fresh water supply is imported, and the agricultural severely flooded by the storm surge of the Great and industrial sectors have almost been phased out Hong Kong Typhoon in1937. Over 10.000 lives throughout Hong Kong. were lost. The surge was about 3.8 metres.HK14

H O NG K O N G 107 Q Typhoon Wanda (1962) coincided with a high tide, recurring in 1962. In recent years, Hong Kong has causing a tidal wave as high as 7 metres high. invested heavily in measures to prevent present and The eff ect was disastrous, with over 130 dead future fl ooding (see ‘Flood protection’ page 107). and 72,000 people left homeless.HK15

Q Typhoon Rose came with extreme rainfall, with on 17 August 1971, alone 288 mm of rain, resulting in fl ooding and landslides. 100 people were killed and 5,644 left homeless.HK15

Q June 2008 had the heaviest rainfall in Hong Kong history, with a month total of 1346 mm. A ‘Black Rainstorm Signal was issued on June 7, when 301 mm fell within a day. The damage of the heavy rainfall on this day alone was estimated at EUR 55 million (75 million US$).HK5

The present-day risk of fl ooding in Hong Kong is predominantly determined by intense precipitation from tropical cyclones and monsoons. Every year, two to three tropical cyclones pass Hong Kong. During these rainstorms, the rural low-lying areas and natural fl ood plains in the northern part of the territory and some locations in the older urban areas suff er serious fl ooding.HK9 Residential blocks on higher grounds, slopes and embankments are vulnerable too. Risks increased when fl atlands in the rural areas were converted from fi sh ponds and agricultural land to built-up areas, eliminating a buff er against fl oods.HK15

Although there is no signifi cant change in the number of typhoons passing by Hong Kong,HK16 climate change may increase the rainfall amount during such events and exacerbate the fl ooding problems.HK9 A rising sea level makes drainage into the sea more diffi cult, and can increase the risk of events such as Typhoon Wanda

Figure 8.9 The USS REGULUS, a US Navy ship, as a result of Typhoon Rose (1971). the first drainage system was constructed mainly for health reasons, soon the infrastructure increased, and drainage (flflood protection) systems and sewer systems were explicitly separated. Under the ever-increasing population, newly built gullies, culverts and streams could not reduce the fl ood risk. In 1987, the Director of Civil Engineering became responsible for coordinating Climate all aspects off fl ooding in Hong Kong. Before that time, responsibilities where spread betweennumerous adaptation parties. The new situation led to a drainage and flood control strategy, which was adopted in 1990. Simultaneously, the Drainage Service department was established,and since then investment in flood protection has increased dramatically.HK15 4 8

In his Policy Address in 1999, the Chieff Executive of Hong Kong, Tung Chee-hwa made clear the city’s endeavours to become a clean, comfortable and pleasant place. Every citizen, business, government department and bureau is required to start working in partnership to achieve sustainable development. Furthermore, alongside twentyother Asia-Pacifific Economic Co-operation economies, Hong Kong has set a target to achieve at least a reduction in energy intensity off at least 25 percent by 2030 compared to 2005.HK17

Flood protection Climate change adaptation is a new issue in Hong Kong.Flood protection, on the other hand, has always been an issue and was addressed soon after Hong Kong Island came under British rule in 1841. Although

Figure 8.10 Inflflatable dam at Kam Tin River.HK15

H O N G K O N G 109

Hong Kong’s painful experiences with storm surges dry weather fl ow inceptors that collect polluted water promoted the adoption off stringent design standards in dry times, but allow storm water overflflow.HK15 for coastal infrastructures. Nowadays, reclaimend Other technological measures for reducing the flood land is always raised +4 m above sea level to cater for riskk include fl ood storage tanks (for example under settlement safety and sea level rise. Physical models recreation grounds for example), raising the entrances and computational models are widely applied for the off buildings (see Figure 8.11), pumping stations and design off bridges, coastal infrastructures and drainage. drainage tunnel schemes.HK15 The drainagesystem that copes with intense (cyclone) precipitation has a recurrence interval off flooding A world-class storm warning system has also been prevention off one in a fi fty to twohundred years in installed to monitor and forecast stormy weather. urban areas (see Figure 8.13). Continued efffforts made In combination with warning services, the building to separate the sewagesystem from storm water design off infrastructures and public awareness have drainage for health and safety reasons. Important greatly reduced the threat posed by tropical cyclones measures for so doing include inflfl atable dams and with respect to loss off life (see Figure 8.12).HK9

Figure 8.11 Left: the flood-vulnerable subway system in Hong Kong has lifted entrances. Right: Nathan Road at its junction with Jordan Road flooded in 1997.HK15

H O NG K O N G 111 200

180

160

140

120

100

80 Number of death

60

40

20

0

Year 1960 1965 1970 1975 1980 1985 1990 1995 2000 2005

Figure 8.12 The total number of deaths and missing people reported during tropical cyclone events in Hong Kong from 1960 to 2006.HK14

Types of Drainage Recurrence interval fl ooding prevention (years)

Urban drainage trunk systems 200 Urban drainage branch systems 50 Main rural catchment drainage channels 50 Village drainage 10 Intensively used agricultural land 2-5

Table 8.13. Average recurrence interval of fl ooding prevention in Hong Kong drainage systems.HK9 These are based on land use type, economic growth, socioeconomic needs, consequences of fl ooding, and cost-benefi t analysis of fl ood mitigation measures. Reducing resource dependency In light of its resource dependency, Hong Kong has Climate change governance also initiated a demand management strategy to in Delta Metropolises reduce its water and energy usage. The city set a July 2010 target of a 25 percent reduction in energy use by 2030 (compared to 2005 levels). Public education campaigns focusing on water conservation have been launched. School programmes are being enhanced In July 2010 a two day workshop was held at the with the launch of the ‘Water Conservation Starts from City University of Hong Kong to discuss climate Home’ campaign.HK15 change governance in Delta Metropolises. Scholars from diff erent research institutes and Climate change impact assessment universities in the Netherlands, the UK and The Environmental Protection Department started a Hong Kong gathered to exchange research on comprehensive study in 2008, to conduct an over- issues related to networking and climate change arching and up-to-date study to assess the impact adaptation governance. of climate change on Hong Kong. The study reviews and updates the inventories of greenhouse gas emissions in Hong Kong; projects local emission trends under diff erent scenarios; characterizes the impacts of climate change on Hong Kong; recommends additional policies and measures to reduce greenhouse gas emissions and facilitate adaptation to climate change; and assesses the cost-eff ectiveness of the proposed measures.

The study’s aim is to provide a solid scientifi c basis for the government to formulate long-term strategies and measures for Hong Kong for climate change mitigation and adaptation. It will also provide useful information for preparing a submission to the Central People’s Government to meet the national obligations under the United Nations Framework Convention on Climate Change.HK17, HK18

Figure 8.14 Workshop in Delta Metropolises.HK1

H O NG KO N G 113 9

Tokyo Japan consists of many islands and more than 70 percent of the country is covered with mountains.T2 Around 65 percent of the country has slopes steeper than 14 percent. Japan is subjected to earthquakes which Introduction do not only cause massive destruction within cities, but can also damage the fl ood protection structures or can even cause dike breaches. The Great Kanto earthquake of 1923, for example, caused a series of broken and cracked embankments along 1 the Arakawa fl oodway in Tokyo Metropolis 9 at 28 locations.T3

The Japanese settled in alluvial plains, formed by fl oods, where river water was easily available for irrigation. Due to the natural environment of Japan and the human interventions, the country’s fl ood plains are nowadays densely populated. One side-eff ect of living in these alluvial plains is the constant threat of fl ooding. Nowadays, the fl ood plains cover less than 10 percent of Japan, but contain 51 percent of the population and 75 percent of the country’s assets.T1

T O KYO 115 “A superr levee is an innovative technology, which brings nott onlyy fl oodd controll measures andd a human-friendly environment, butt also an effffective impact against globall warming. Itt cools down the temperature off the land along the river. The gentle slope off the superr levee does not preventt circulation off cooll airr on the river waterr surface to the landside.”

Yoshito Kikumori Chief, Climate Change Research Section, River Division, Nationall Institute forr Landd andd Infrastructure Management, Ministryy off Land, Infrastructure, Transport andd Tourism, Japan

“The challenges Japan faces andd the concrete achievements Japan makes mayy be an interesting example forr otherr countries. International exchange in the fi eldd off urban storm water managementt is increasing in importance. Itt seems likelyy thatt recent changes in storm water managementt came aboutt due to increased internationall awareness off globall environmentall issues. The Japanese wayy is nott onlyy applicable in Japan, but couldd be a leading example forr otherr countries off the world.”

Professorr Shoichii Fujita Departmentt off Civill andd Environmentall Engineering, Nagaoka Universityy off Technology Tokyo Engineering Consultants (TEC) Tokyo is the capital off Japan and was founded in the Kanto region off Central Honshu, next to Tokyo Bay. In this region only a small amount off suitable land was available: a small area off fl at land between the low hills off the Musashino Plain and the marshyshore off the bay.T5 Tokyo is located at the mouth off three domestic large rivers: the Sumida River (nr. 1 in Figure 9.1), the Presentt Ara River (nr. 2 in Figure 9.1) and the Edo River (nr. 3 in Figure 9.1). The Sumida River flows through the situation centre off the Metropolis and is integrated in theurban pattern off the city. The Edo River and the Ara River are located in the outer districts off Tokyo. Figure 9.2 shows that large parts off Tokyo are located below the flood level off its main rivers.T6 These areas are former 2 plains, that were formed when sediment was dumped 9 by rivers. By restricting theriver course no new sediment is carried into these regions, thus creating

Figure 9.1 Map off Tokyo T4 (nr. 1 Sumida river; nr. 2 Ara river; nr. 3 Edo river).

T O K Y O 117 a height difffference. And also ground subsidence due to groundwater pumping and sediment deposition in river channel has a great impact. Japanese rivers are short, steep and flow rapidly down the mountains, across the plains and into the Pacifific Ocean, the Sea of Japan or the Seto Inland Sea.T7 They are fed by rain. The ratio between normal flow volume and that during a storm is extremely great with the maximum discharge is around 100 times as much as minimum discharge. Heavy rainfall, in combination with steep slopes, gives short flood pulses off less than two days in the downstream river sections such as Tokyo Metropolis. Many urban rivers in Tokyo help to drain thecity from floods caused by excessive rainfall. These urban rivers are a ralued asset off this historic low-lying city T5.

The population figure off Japan increased from T8 84 million in the 150s to nearly 128 million in 2009. Figure 9.3 High rise at the river shores off the Sumida river. The proportion off people working in the primary industries such as, agriculture, forestry and fishing, Looking at Tokyo, in 1940 the metropolitan area of fell over frommore than 50 percent at the end of Tokyo counted about 7.4 million inhabitants; this the Second World War to 17 percent in 1970.T9 More fi gure has increased since then to approximately than 50 percent off the population and more than 12.8 million inhabitants in 2008 T8.This is about 10% 70 percent off the nation’s assets are concentrated in off Japan’s total population. The average population the flood plains.T1 About 80 percent off the villages density for the entire metropolis is about 5,750 and cities have to dealwithwater damage caused by people per km2. Tokyo has a large amount off assets fl oods. Today, next to the United States and China, (Figure 9.3), economic value and a highly developed Japan produces the third highest Gross Domestic networkk off infrastructure. Tokyohas an extensive Product (GDP) in the world. This makes Japan one of subway system. The introduction off underground h lhi i h l I 2007 h hi ll h ld i h

Figure 9.2. rainfall and winds associated with tropical cyclones are likely to increase in East Asia. Sea level is expected to rise at the end off this century (2090–2099) by 0.35 m (0.23 to 0.47 m) Due to ocean density and circulation changes, the distribution off sea level rise will not be uniform. Large deviations among models make estimates off distribution across the Caribbean Sea and Climate and the Indian and Pacifific Oceans uncertain.T10

fl ood risks Effff ect off flooding in highly urbanized Tokyo In response to the growing demand for housing in Tokyo Metropolis city’s the residential areas are expanding towards the less-elevated western region and the fl ood prone eastern area. The result 3 is noticeable in the Nakariver basin and the Ayase 9 river basin. Here, urbanized zones have expended enormously from 11 percent in 1965 to 43 percent in

Japan is situated in the East Asian Monsoon region and has a warm and humid climate.T2 Mean annual precipitation in Japan is approximately 1.800 mm, high in some areas experiencing precipitation off up to 3.000 mm.T6 Heavy precipitation takes place during the rainy season in June and July, during the typhoon season withtyphoons originating from the South Pacifific in September and October, and during winter snowfall in northern Japan.T2 About three typhoons hit the country directly each year. Heavy rain often leads to flooding off streets and causes a serious thread for flooding due to overflflow off river water.

Winter precipitation is likely to increase in East Asia and summer precipitation is likely to increase as well. Additionally, an increase in the frequency off intense precipitation events in East Asia is very likely. Extreme

T O K Y O 119 Figure 9.4 Flood gate. covering and storm sewers, accelerated storm water runoffff. The fl ood frequency on thestreets has increased in the newly developed urbanized areas.This has become a major urban problem since the 1960s.T13 The total off urban fl ood disasters has increased signififi cantly. On the riverbanks off the lower Ara River inTokyo a very dense concentration off population and property can be observed. The average population density for the entire Arakawa basin counts 3,400 people per square kilometer. Some areas even reach a density off 9,200 people per square kilometre where a tremendous amount off private assets as well as public functions are concentrated.T3 Thus, embankment failure is bound to cause widespread flooding and tremendous damage inthe Metropolis.

Figure 9.5 Shibuya district in Tokyo.

1995.T11 The original inhabitants off fl atland areas knew, for many generations, which areas the rivers would flood the hinterland during extreme discharges and where itwas relatively save to live. Damage caused by inundation to the newly build houses in these areas isnot compensated by the Japanese government. Still, flood prone land is cheap so many new houses are built in these areas and only a few houses are constructed in a climate prooff manner.

Figure 9.3 and 9.5 shows that rapid urbanization in Tokyo Metropolis has reduced the function off forests and paddy fi elds retention for storm water.T12 Space was scarce, so ponds were used to construct buildings and infrastructure. Many areas were no longer used for storage off storm water. Furthermore, the increase in impervious earth cover, such as asphalt, concrete

T O KYO 121 Figure 9.6 Super levee along the Ara river in Tokyo. The concept off a super levee is designed especially for extreme events in dense urban areas, such as Tokyo Metropolis. A super levee is a wide river embankment with a broad width which can withstand even overflfl ow, so that destruction can be prevented (for principles see Figure 9.7). Main difffference to a conventional dike is the width; a super levee has a Climate mild slope off 1:30.T3 In other words, a super levee with a height off 10 meters will have a width off about adaptation 300 meters. A super levee allows for overtopping as it is resistant to overflfl ow, seepage and earthquakes, whichis one off the main reasons for its construction.T3

Super levee projects are always implemented in 4 conjunction with urban redevelopment, land rezoning 9 projects or other urban planning. Super levees enable multifunctional structures which incorporate both

Next to conventional measures like fl ood walls, several adaptive measures exist in Tokyo against river floods Emergency Sleep slope prevents View Blocked by Dense Residential/ and ponds against storm water fl oods are used to cope with climate change. Examples off such measures are the super levee and multipurpose storage basin against river fl oods, impermeable pavements against storm water fl oods and a mobile evacuation system against fl oods.

The super levee a multifunctional flood defence In 1987, the Japanese government adopted a policy for protection from extreme fl oods exceeding the design levels off regular fl ood protection measures applicable to highly urbanized areas.T14 Due to the expected changes in peak discharge and frequency p earthquake damage due to climate change, such extreme floods are likely to occur on a more frequent basis in the future. Figure 9.7 Principles off a super levee.

T O K Y O 123 the needs of fl ood control and the interests of the a 150-year fl ood. The basin is excavated deeper than inhabitants.T14 It provides usable land and space for the surrounding grounds and has a storage capacity dwellings.T3 This will lead to an added urban value of of 3.9 million m3. In addition to fl ood control, the basin the region through the restored accessibility of the river. serves multiple purposes. It contains a sports venue, a The steep slope of a conventional dike prevents easy recreation area and a park for local residents.T15 Most river access.T3 The outer slope of a super levee is gentler prominent is the International Stadium Yokohama. than the outer slope of conventional dike. Moreover, the This structure has been built on a high foundation to gentle inner slope, in combination open recreational prevent damage during inundation of the detention spaces at crest level provides an open view towards the basis. The primary roads inside the basin are constructed river.T11 Super levees can be found along the Ara River along embankments or are elevated.T15 The Tsurumi and Sumida River in Tokyo. The super levee along the multipurpose detention basis demonstrates that Ara River (Figure 9.6) combines a very broad dike with a combining water storage and urban activities is a park and a small amount of high rise whereas the super feasible solution in urban areas to cope with increasing levee along the Sumida River combines a broad dike river levels and increasing frequencies of peak – fl ood wall with a promenade and a large amount of discharges. It is therefore a promising solution to cope high rise. with climate change in fl ood endangered urbanized regions such as Tokyo metropolis. Multipurpose water storage facility The Tsurumi multipurpose detention basin is a good Permeable pavements as innovative measure example of a multipurpose river water storage facility. against storm water The Tsurumi River is an urban river with a length of Urbanization has resulted in an expansion of 42.5 km and a catchment area of 235 km2, T12 and is impermeable areas such as roofs and pavements.T16 located in the central part of Tokyo Metropolis, close In Tokyo for instance, the runoff coeffi cient increased to Yokohama and in short distance of Tokyo centre. from approximately 0.3 in the beginning of the Until the 1960s most of the basin was covered with Twentieth Century towards 0.8 in 1994.T16, T17 A solution forest and agriculture fi elds, but has been transformed which enables further urbanization and is suitable to into a large dwelling district. The percentage of cope with climate change is the use of a permeable urbanization has increased from 20 percent to 80 pavement. Nowadays, this solution is widely used in percent in only 40 years T12. Storm water run off Japan. The permeable pavement is one of the structures accelerated due to the increase of paved areas and within the Experimental Sewer System (ESS). ESS is a the peak discharge has nearly doubled since the early new sewer system which is capable of controlling storm 1960s. Therefore, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government water runoff by adding infi ltration and storage facilities and the city of Yokohama produced a master plan for to the conventional combined sewer system.T18 an overfl ow location with multifunctional facilities for This system reduces runoff thus causing less threat of dealing with the peak discharge of the Tsurumi River. river fl oods. Additionally, it reduces the frequency and The detention basin is designed to ensure a safety from quantity of overfl ow from the combined sewer system. The pavements can be suffifficiently cleaned with high pressured water. This method restores the pavement with its original infifi ltration capacity. A shortcoming is however that muddy water fl ows into the sewer system. T20 Until 1992, the Tokyo Metropolitan Government has already built about 494,000 m2 off permeable pavements which is about 2.3 percent off the total street area.T18

Experience in damage mitigation measures Next to structuralmeasures which reduce the probability off a flood event, in Tokyo, damage mitigation measures are used to reduce the consequences off a fl ood event. One off the damage mitigation measures to cope with fl oods is the establishment off a warning and evacuation system. Display panels throughout the city and in front off railway, bus and metro stations provide information to local residents about emergencies like Figure 9.8 Permeable pavement in a residential area in Tokyo.T19 fl oods and earthquakes. At home, people are informed through television with special broadcasts and through Also, the ground waterlevelis restored and ground websites to inform local residents about the current water pollution is reduced by the separation off storm state off the rivers. Furthermore, live images off the river water and waste water. It prevents contamination of and charts off the amount off precipitation and water receiving waters.T18 level are disseminated viathe Internet.T3 Additionally, the Internet can be used by local residents to state their Figure 9.7 shows an example off permeable asphalt in a position during a fl ood event. Peoplethroughout Japan residential area. Permeable asphalt has many voids in can access the website to checkk iff their relatives or which storm water is infifi ltrated directly. Unfortunately, friends are unharmed.T3 Another way to inform people it has less strength than ordinary asphalt so the about fl ood conditions is through their cell phones. This application is limited to sidewalks, parking lots and small system allows users to automatically receive disaster roads with a width off no more than 5 meter.T18, T20 Porous prevention information iff they register for this service in concrete blocks are mostly used for the construction advance.T3 In case off a flood hazard, the standby screen off permeable road surfaces. Due to the high void ratio, transforms into the emergency screen and provides the infifiltration rate is similar to therate off permeable the user with information about water levelsand asphalt pavement.T18 Special attention is needed on meteorological information during flood conditions. maintenance off the permeable asphalt pavements. This service has been tested in 2004, and is currently They are easily clogged by soil particles and debris. operational.

T O KYO 125 10

Ho Chi Minh City by Philip Bubeck and Ho Long Phi to the eff ects of climate change. The authorities of HCMC have recognized the importance to undertake accompanying adaptation measures and to consider climate change in the city’s planning Introduction process.

1 10

Ho Chi Minh City (HCMC), located in the delta area of the Saigon and Dong Nai rivers is Vietnam’s largest city and an important economic, trade, cultural and research centre of the country. With its seaport lying at an important intersection of international maritime routes, HCMC is situated at the heart of South-East Asia and has become a traffi c hub for the region and an international gateway. As Ho Chi Minh City continues to grow, more and more urban areas and infrastructures are developed in low-lying areas vulnerable

Figure 10.1 Map off HCMC.

O C H I M I N HCI T Y 127 “As a fast-growing delta city, Ho Chi Minh City recognizes the importance to integrate climate change mitigation and adaptation into the city’s policies. With the Ho Chi Minh City Climate Change Steering Board, we have therefore established an organization that will coordinate all activities related to climate change of the city. Being an active member of the C40, Ho Chi Minh City has also intensifi ed its cooperation with our international partners to jointly address the challenges of future climate change.”

Mister Le Hoang Quan, Chairman, Ho Chi Minh City People’s Committee

“Climate change and especially sea level rise is a major challenge for the delta and the coastal areas around the globe. HCMC can be regarded as a typical example in this regard. As Climate Change Steering Board, we must focus on policies to respond to climate change appropriately and eff ectively to work towards sustainable development. Simultaneously, this challenge should be regarded as an opportunity for development, especially for maritime and seaport economic activities.”

Mr. Dao Anh Kiet, Vice Chairman of HCMC Climate Change Steering Board continuously grown with double-digit growth rates and its economic importance for the country in general and the southern region in particular is exemplifified by the fact that HCMC contributes nearly 30 percent to the national GDP and received 37 percent off total foreign direct investments in 2009.H1 In addition to a substantial increase in population Present density, HCMC’s rapid growth has resulted in a considerable expansion off urban areas into the situation adjacent rural areas. Within the last twenty years only, the extent off urban surfaces has doubled H2 and many off the new urban areas have been developed on low- lying marsh land (Figure 10.2). Today, approximately 60 percent off the urban area is located less than 2 1.5 m above sea level, making it highly vulnerable to 10 projected sea-level rise.

HCMC has a diversifified topography, ranging from mainly agricultural and rural areas in the north to a widespread system off rivers, canals and dense mangrove forest to the south. The urban areas are located approximately 50 km inland from the Pacifific Ocean (also called East Sea by Vietnam) at the banks of the Saigon River (Figure 10.1). Early settlements date backk to the 17th century and were developed close to the Saigon River on slightly higher grounds and thus very favorable areas. Similar to other evolving mega-cities in South-East Asia, Ho Chi Minh City has experienced rapid changes in recent decades, especially after the introduction of economicreforms in the mid 1980s. Within the last 20 years, the city’s population has more than doubled from 3.9 million in 1989 to approximately 8 million inhabitants in 2010.H1 The regional economy has

Figure 10.2 Spatial Development Master Plan Map off HCMC.

H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 129 In the coming decades, HCMC is projected to grow continuously.Even thoughnatural population growth could be slowed down due to reduced birth rates, HCMC keeps attracting migrants from all over Vietnam due to its economic status and could reach up to 10 to 12 million inhabitants in 2025.H3 A particular dynamic could unfold from potential impacts off sea-level rise that could lead to a large inflfl ux off migrants from the low-lying Mekong Delta to the city in search for labor and better living conditions. According to the Spatial Development Master Plan up to 2025 off HCMC, many off the new urban areas will be further developed into the low-lying marshlands exemplifying the need to take accompanying climate change adaptation measures (Figure 10.3).

Figure 10.3 IS distribution from satellite images. H2 HCMC is characterized by a tropical monsoonal climate with two distinct seasons: a rainy season lasting from May to November and a dry season from December to April. The mean annual temperature is 27.4 degrees with an average humidity off about 77 percent. Average annual rainfall is about 2100 mm off which about 90 percent falls during the rainy season.H4 Climate and During recent decades, changes in the regional fl ood risks climate have already been observed. Average annual temperature has increased by 0.6 degrees during the last seven decades from 26.8 degrees for the period 1931-1940 to 27.4 degrees for the period 2000-2007. While the annual volume off rainfall has remained 3 Figure 10.4 Yearly maximum rainfall events at Tan Son Hoa Station 10 (located close to Tan Son Nhat Airport off HCMC, which lies about 7 km to the north from the city centre).

   

 MM   MAX

8  YX    

9EAR       

H O C H I M I N HCI T Y 131 Period 1952-1961 1962-1971 1972-1981 1982-1991 1992-2002 2003-2009

Counts 0 1 2 2 4 8

Table 10.5 Count off rainfall events larger than 100 mm. *7-year period fairly stable in southern Vietnam, the number off heavy projected to remain fairly stable with anincrease of rainfall events has increased remarkably (Figure 10.4 about 1 percent to 1.9 percent by the year 2100, there and Table 10.5). The increase off heavy rainfall events are considerable seasonal changes foreseen. Rainfall coincides with the rapid urbanization process in the is projected to decrease by 9.4 percent-18.2 percent last 20 years and has been attributed to the so-called in the dry-season months from March to May but urban heat island effffect.H5 expected to increase by 8.5 percent to 16.5 percent in the rainy-season months fromSeptember to November The sea level has risen by 20 cm in the last 50 years leading to a higher riskk off both floods and droughts. and with a rate off about 3 mm per year during the Sea levelis projected to rise between 28 cm to 33 cm in period 1993 and 2008.H6, H7 Water levels at river stations 2050 and between 65 cm to 100 cm in 2100,H6 posing a in and around HCMC have shown a notable upward major challenge to low-lying HCMC. trend with an average increase off 1.5 cm per year since Figure 10.6 Hydraulic Modeling Scheme off HCMC.H5 1990. So far, the observed raise off river water levels in and around HCMC and the resulting increase in fl ood riskk has been mainly attributed totheprofound changes that occurred in the catchment during 5PSTREAMFLOOD 5PSTREAMFLOOD the development and urbanization process, which seriously impacted the hydrological characteristics off the basin.H5 Statistical data show that 14.420 ha of agricultural areas, wetlands and water bodies have H3 been sealed during 1997-2006. At the same time, 5RBAN(#-# land subsidence has been observed in several locations 5PSTREAMFLOOD in the city that has been attributed mainly to ground water extraction and overburden pressure off high-rise buildings.

The observed climatic trends are projected to continue under climate change. Annual mean temperature could rise by 1 degree in 2050 and up to 2.9 degrees 4IDELEFFECTAND by the end off this century.H6 While annual rainfall is SEALEVELRISE #OUNTOFFLOOD%VENTS

    #OUNTOFRAINFALL &LOODEVENTS  EVENTWITH  VOLUMEMM     9EAR

#ENTRALDISTRICTS 2ECENTLY5RBANIZED$ISTRICTS 2MM

Figure 10.7 Count off fl ood events in HCMC.

Flood risk First, low-lying areas to the south off the city are Urban flooding has become a wide-spread impacted by tidal peaks, which are projected to phenomenon and a major concern in Ho Chi Minh in-crease under climate changes. According to the City in recent years that has been accompanying the Urban Drainage Authority off HCMC, about 20 sites are city’s rapid growth. Especially since the beginning currently inundated on a monthly basis as a result of off the 1990s the amount off fl ooded locations, fl ood high tides. Second, frequent flooding results from a frequencies and flood duration has steadily increased combination off heavy rainfall events and an insuffifficient and has caused substantial economicand social drainage system. The Urban Drainage Authority of losses,H5 such as damage to infrastructure and assets, HCMC reported more than 100 seriously fl ooded water pollution as well as traffiffic jams. locations after a heavy rainfall event off 127 mm on May 16th, 2004. Many off these locations are subject HCMC faces fl ood riskk from several sources or to frequent fl ooding even with muchlower rainfall combinations off these. An overview off the hydrological intensity (Figure 10.7). Since early 2000 the urban scheme off HCMC is provided in Figure 10.6. Dots drainage system off HCMC’s central districts has been represent nodal points off the hydraulic model and the upgraded as part off a fl ood controlproject. This has red circle the projected urban extension according to resulted in a decrease off fl ood events in the central the General Development Plan off HCMC until 2025.H3 areas (Figure 10.7).

H O C H I M I N H C I T Y 133 factors among which the rising river water levels, rapid and uncontrolled urbanization, land subsidence and the increase in heavy rainfall events have been identifified as the most direct ones.H5 Given its distinct topographical location in the low-lying delta area as well as the projected changes in climate and urban expansion, flood riskk is expected to further increase, putting a major pressure on the city’s development. Assuming a sea-level rise off approximately 25 cm, up to 71 percent off the area off HCMC could be affffected by an extreme flood event in 2050 if no additional measures are taken. Inundation depths and the duration off flood events would increase considerably, resulting in a growing risk for life, infrastructure and assets in thecity.H8 As the vast majority off the growing population will settle in low- lying and thus unfavorable areas as shown in Figure 10.3,millions off people could beat riskk off fl ooding.

Figure 10.8 Flooding in Ho Chi Minh City.

At the same time, flooding sharply increased in newly developed districts showing the negative impacts of urbanization on the fl ooding situation inHCMC. Third,HCMC is prone to river fl ooding, which also affffects the upstream areas that are situated on slightly higher grounds. Theraising river water levels have worsened this problem. In addition, HCMC also faces flood riskk from upstream reservoirs. Heavy rains, accompanying tropical cyclones or typhoons, often not only affffect HCMC but the whole Dong Nai river basin. In such a situation, extra amounts off water are often released from upstream reservoirs at times when tides reach their annual peaks inOctober and November, causing even more severe problems for the urban drainage system.H5

The observed increase in fl ood riskk in HCMC is thus a consequence off both climate and non climate related

Figure 10.9 Flooding inHo Chi Minh City. sustainable solutions. Existing policies and strategic documents, such as the Socioeconomic Development Plan for 2025 are currently revised and updated to integrate climate change adaptation into the planning process. In order to coordinate and integrate all activities related to climate change, HCMC has established the so-called Ho Chi Minh City Climate Climate Change Steering Board.

adaptation At the same time, HCMC is enhancing domestic and international training for its staffff members on climate change and adaptation to improve the city’s management capacity. In May 2010, the ARUP-C40 Climate Change workshop was held in HCMC, covering 4 aspects off water resource management under climate 10 change, including urban flooding, groundwater depletion and water salinity (Figure 10.10).

HCMC faces major challenges in terms off infrastructure development, public transport, flood prevention and the provision off other public services due to its ongoing rapid growth.These challenges will be amplifified given the projected changes in climate. Vietnam in general, and HCMC in particular have been identifified as one off the most severely affffected places by future climate change and especially sea level rise.H9, H10 In order to address these challenges Vietnam has adopted a National Target Programme to Respond to Climate Change (NTP) in December 2008.H7 As part off this NTP, HCMC along with other provinces in Vietnam is currently developing an Action Plan on Climate Change that shall defifine adaptive responses to safeguard the city’s development. In this context, further research is currently undertaken examining the effffects off climate change on HCMC to arrive at

Figure 10.10 ARUP-C40 Climate Change Workshop inHCMC.

H O C H I M I N HCI T Y 135 Along with institutional arrangements, HCMC is undertaking and planning concrete measures to adapt to climate change. In order to reduce the vulnerability off future urban areas, which will be mainly developed on low-lying marshlands, a policy has been decreed in 2008 that requires all new developments to be elevated 2 m to 2.5 m above mean sea level. To protect the city from rising sea water levels, a MasterPlan of Tide Control forHCMC has been approved by the Prime Minister in 2008 that proposes to build a polder system around HCMC (Figure 10.11). Almost 200 km off dikes and hundreds off tidal gates would be constructed. As the project is not yet implemented, the effffects off such a polder system are currently studied in detail and concerns regarding ecological aspects, city planning and the timing have been raised.

Figure 10.11 MasterPlan off Tide Control forHCMC. Ho Chi Minh City Moving Towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation

HCMC’s sea-harbour, being located in the central both technical aspects but also institutional districts on the banks of the Saigon River is processes, the two cities are currently engaging in economically crucial for Southern Vietnam in a strategic partnership as part of the Connecting general and HCMC in particular. To ensure further Delta Cities Initiative. The partnership shall also harbour and economic developments one has to address other aspects of climate-proofi ng urban create room for urban planning in central districts, (re-) development. HCMC currently plans to move its harbour facilities southwards towards the sea. As such, a shift into On June 14th and 15th 2010, representatives from low-lying areas also means that vital infrastructure both cities met in HCMC together with a wide of the city will be moved to areas highly vulnerable range of stakeholders from the private sector, to climate change and especially sea-level rise, knowledge institutes and national and local public HCMC recognizes the importance to climate-proof authorities to explore needs and opportunities for these activities. further cooperation. The workshop resulted in an Similar developments are currently implemented agreement on the key issues and next steps to be by the city of Rotterdam that already shifts taken by HCMC and Rotterdam. This cooperation its harbour facilities toward the sea. To share is part of a wider Strategic Partnership Agreement respective knowledge and experiences regarding (SPA) between Vietnam and the Netherlands.

Figure 10.12 Consultations: HCMC Moving towards the Sea with Climate Change Adaptation, June 2010.

HO CHI MINH CITY 137 Conclusions on best CDC practices 11

by Piet Dircke, Arnoud Molenaar and Jeroen Aerts Delta cities are increasingly keen to share their experiences and knowledge with the CDC network. In addition to CDC, other networks and initiatives on climate adaptation in cities and deltas have emerged, demonstrating a growing interest Introduction in the issue of climate adaptation. There is a particular interest in climate adaptation best practices and in the methods for developing, implement and fi nance those examples. This chapter provides an overview of some of the best practices described by the eight 1 CDC cities in the previous chapters and 11 provides an outlook on how the CDC network will proceed.

“Climate change adaptation willl be one off the major challenges forr delta cities this century. Coastall cities need a holistic approach forr their adaptation strategies and leadership to gett this implementedd andd to keep itt on the agenda. International knowledge exchange is crucial. We willl have to actt now. Think global, act local, CDCC delta cities willl bring itt into practice.”

Arnoud Molenaar, Programme Managerr Rotterdam Climate Proof, Climate Offiffice, Cityy off Rotterdam

C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 139 standards. The adaptation planning process also requires a multidisciplinary systems approach with the full participation off stakeholders. Iff stakeholders and the scientists and engineers involved are aware off the risks off climate change, it will be much more feasible to jointly develop a workable adaptation plan for a city.

Best Coastal cities continue to grow in exposed locations near and at the coast. Attractive waterfront develop- practices ment appeals to the desires off people who can afffford to live in vibrant large cities with easy coastal access, high environmental quality and convenient transpor- tation. For many others, who are less fortunate, there is simply no option but to live in a vulnerable locations. 2 To meet these demands off living near the waterfront, 11 both off the wealthy and the poor, new forms of adaptive planning and architecture are needed to maintain public safety, to limit the impact off floods and facilitate large-scale evacuation iff neccessary. Urbanplanning and waterfronts The role off urban planners in the implementation of CDC best practices include the PlaNYC in New York, adaptation policies and management is vital for the with a broad scope on city-wide climate adaptation successful construction, operation and maintenance options, ranging from zoning regulations, fl ood off essential infrastructure and services in coastal insurance and raising awareness through active cities impacted by the challenges off climate change. citizen participation. Well known recent examples of Careful urban planning, creative engineering solutions waterfront developments in New York are Battery Park and effffective emergency management systems can and Brooklyn Bridge Park. London has produced a substantially reduce the consequences off climate Climate Change Adaptation Strategy with a far reaching change. However, this requires the embedding of planning horizon and has used a new concept that climate change and adaptation considerations and identifi es tipping points beyond, which adaptation long-term policymaking into the daily operations of options are less eff ective. New Orleans illustrates how to urban planners and policy makers. It also requires use a city network to increase its knowledge on climate a flexible approach towards newtechnologies and adaptation through the Dutch Dialogues, a unique experiments and the careful review off legislation and cooperation between American and Dutch architects new urban building codes to ensure that plans are and planners to develop a better urban future through effff ectively implemented to meet new climate-proofifi ng remarkable best practices. Finally, seasonalwater storage areas are increasingly Coastal protection and restoration seen to create so-called climate buffffer areas that Wetlandsand beaches have a natural buffffer function will have the appearence off urban wetlands. These to protect land and people from fl ood risk. However, multipurpose areas may have recreational functions due to land use change and coastal erosion, wetlands and contribute totheecological quality off the city are disappearing at a high rate. The United States for suburbs. In conjunction with the WWF, Rotterdam is example, continues to lose approximatelyy 100,000 studying the possibilities off no regrets measures as acres off wetlands each year. However, increasingly part off the Rotterdam Adaptation Strategy. In addition, the natural buffffer function off wetlands and beaches is Jakarta withits enormous challenges as a mega city is acknowledged and projects and protective regulations a showcase for the future for showing how to develop are developed to restore wetlands. Furthermore, sand more open space and green buffffer zones. Other nourishment projects represent another measure to examples are the storage reservoirs and permeable mitigate coastal erosion and to provide protection pavements off Tokyo and the green roofs and the against storm surges. The required sand is mined from floating pavilions in Rotterdam. A good exampleof offffshore bars, usuallyy located within several kilometers CDC spatial planning practice is the HCMC Master Plan off the beach. If possible, the texture and grain size off the Polder System. mined sand is closelyy matched with the original beach sand. Sand nourishment is relativelyy cheap compared to othermeasures but has onlyy a temporaryy effffect and therefore has to be repeated on a regular (annual) basis.

Some of the best CDC practices on wetland restoration include the Mangrove restoration projects in Ho Chi Minh City and in Jakarta. Also the Staten Island Bluebell programme in New York is a successful and recognizable ecological restoration eff ort.

Dunes, dikes and flood walls For low lying parts off delta cites, in particular those below sea level, an adequate protection against flooding by dunes, dikes, levees or fl ood walls is indispensable, though protection strategies may diffffer from city to city. For instance Rotterdam mainly relies on fl ood measures such as levees and storm surge barriers. In the United States, the emphasis has always been more on disaster response and mitigation measures, while the London approach is a mix of

C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 141 prevention, response and mitigation. Since Hurricane economic value off assets within a dike ring; the Katrina, the Netherlands and the US intensively more people and economic value to beprotected by exchanged knowledge on this topic. The Lessons levee infrastructure, the higher the safety standard. Learned from Katrina resulted in a new multiple lines As climate change is expected to increase the off defense strategy in both countries that is more or frequency and severity off flooding events, these less comparable tothe strategy in London. fl ood probabilities will accordingly increase rapidly with sea level rise. Therefore, reinforcing dikes is an Dunes are a natural system for flood defense and ongoing concern in the Netherlands and other deltas therefore preferable and also often cheaper then that are protected by dikes and flood walls. expensive technical flood protection works. Their protection level can be enhanced through vegetation, Some of the best and most innovative CDC practices sand nourishment off the beach in front or through include the super levee in Tokyo and the Hurricane widening. In the Netherlands the first projects with a and Flood Risk Reduction System that is now under protective dike constructed inside a dune are being construction In New Orleans, in an impressive program- built. me with unprecedented speed and determination. Also Dikes and fl ood walls – with the exception off the the multifunctional and smart urban fl ood protection Super Levees inTokyo – can fail, and such a failure can that Rotterdam is working on to protect its inner city is cause considerable damage. Therefore dikes and fl ood an example of a best CDC practice. walls need careful planning, design, construction and operation and management. The level off protection is also crucial to lowering the riskk off overtopping and subsequent failure. The fl ood protection system in Rotterdam has a safety norm off 1/10,000, meaning that the system has been designed to withstand a fl ood with an estimated probability off occuring once in every10,000 years. Other cities have signifificant lower protection levels. New Orleans, for instance, has a protection level off one in a hundred years, although the new Hurricane Protection System now under construction is so solid that althoughit will be overtopped once in one hundred years, it is expected to have a resiliency against failure off the dikes and fl ood walls off one in a fivehundred years.

Safety norms diffffer from country to country and reflflect both the number off inhabitants and the

Figure 11.1 The Maeslant Storm Surge Barrier. Storm surge barriers hazard-prone areas, and by building structures that Storm surge barriers can play an important role in are better able to withstand natural hazard impacts. the protective system of delta cities. Barriers provide For example, damage may be limited by constructing suffi cient protection, while maintaining accessibility, elevated houses and building with water resistant both for economic activities like navigation and for materials in fl ood plains or by strengthening roofs ecological processes. On the other hand, they are in order to prevent hurricane damage. Studies expensive and complicated, and bear one signifi cant showed that potential hurricane or fl ood damage risk that has to be kept as low as possible: the risk of a can signifi cantly be reduced if existing building code closure failure. When designing a barrier, the required standards would be implemented or if households future protection level, including sea level rise should undertake (low-cost) adaptation measures, such as be taken into account. Large constructions, such as installing temporary water barriers and adapting the Dutch Eastern and Maeslant barriers, were existing buildings through retrofi tting to fl ooding. designed to function for at least 100 years, taking The projected rise in damage challenges the insurance the observed sea level rise of 30 cm per century into industry and off ers them new business opportunities account. in providing aff ordable insurance against natural disasters. Insurers need to incorporate changes in A faster rise of the sea level would shorten the natural disaster risk caused by climate change in the functional period in which the barriers remain within assessment and management of their risk exposure. set norms. Renewal costs would, as a consequence, Governments can promote aff ordability of insurance occur sooner than expected. in the face of climate change by investing in risk reduction. In addition, public-private partnerships Some of the best CDC practices on storm surge barriers to insure natural hazard risk may be established, as part of the protective system can be found in New for example, with a role for the government as an Orleans, London and Rotterdam. In New Orleans insurer of last resort. The experience of the insurance new barriers are under construction right now, while sector with assessing, managing, and spreading risks London and Rotterdam rely for the protection of their may be useful in fostering adaptation of societies citizens and ports already for some decades on their to climate change. Insurance could provide tools to barriers. With ongoing sea level rise also New York assess natural hazard risk, which can be useful to City might consider the construction of barriers. But guide adaptation policies, such as spatial planning. being built above sea level, New York can take it’s time Well-designed fi nancial compensation arrangements and consider various alternatives and learn from the can speed up the recovery process after natural experiences of the other CDC cities. disasters have struck and provide fi nancial security to the insured. Moreover, insurance with risk-based Zoning regulations and fl ood insurance premiums can provide economic incentives to Damage caused by fl oods can be limited by land limit damage by acting as a price signal of risks. For use planning, such as preventing development in example, insurance can provide higher coverage or

C DC NETWO RK IN PRACTICE 143 reductions in insurance premiums to homeowners climate and socioeconomic change. Many large- who invest in measures that limit potential damage scale infrastructure works take 10 to 20 years or due to natural disasters. Insurance could also play an more to design, plan and implement. Postponing important role in requiring or promoting the adoption adaptation planning and policy development to of stricter building codes and other adaptation future generations will only exacerbate the problems measures. of vulnerable city communities and expose them to unacceptable threats to life and property. But Some best CDC practices on zoning regulations and there is also money to be made, as creative and insurances are the design standards in Hong Kong, the pro-active adaptation will stimulate new business High level of urban water management in high rise and environmental opportunities and innovations in city with exceptional urban challenges and extreme economic activities. Thus, there are many challenges environment in Tokyo, the elevation of all developments and opportunities for both business interests and on low lying areas in HCMC and the US national fl ood researchers to feed policy makers with new ideas insurance policy to stimulate elevating buildings above and solutions. the 100 year fl ood levels or higher, for example in New Orleans and New York. Best CDC practices of dealing with the fi nancial aspects of climate adaptation are to be found in Financial aspects of climate adaptation London, with the Disaster Risk Reduction Framework Most coastal cities are still in the planning phase and in Rotterdam, were the Rotterdam Climate Proof of climate adaptation. An estimate of the total cost Programme has integrated the aspects of estimating for fl ood management adaptation is mostly not and fi nancing costs of climate adaptation into their available yet and adaptation costs are often seen planning. Important is to involve private business and as a large share of the budget. Apart from making investors in the early stages of the climate adaptation more reliable cost benefi t studies, cities can explore process to ensure commitment and to continuously to mainstream adaptation policies into current and seek for mutual interests. planned investments. In this way, adaptation measures can be effi ciently implemented. For example in most Capacity building, public awareness and CDC cities billions of dollars are spent on updating and communication expanding the cities infrastructure. Climate adaptation An important element of a Climate Adaptation related measures might be integrated into these Strategy is public awareness, as pointed out at the eff orts. CDC workshop in June 2009 in New York. Public awareness is therefore one of the non-technical Choices made today will infl uence the vulnerability measures that should become part of the climate to climate risks of assets and people far into the adaptation strategies. Awareness amongst future. Therefore, it is important to study impacts politicians and civil servants is even more crucial, as and adaptation options under long-term trends in they are respectively the decision makers, architects think about there own contribution to make their city climate proof.

A good example of a CDC best practice on awareness raising can be found in Ho Chi Minh City that is now working on capacity building and is investing in training their staff from diff erent departments of the Peoples Committee. In New Orleans the Dutch Dialogues proofed to be a unique tool for communication and interaction between American and Dutch architects, planners and engineers, jointly striving for a better city’s future. CDC best practices on warning systems can be found in Hong Kong and Tokyo; both cities developed a world class storm warning and evacuation system. The way London and its Mayor is using modern communication tools such as YouTube is a useful example for other CDC-cities. In New York Mayor Bloomberg used modern media like internet to and implementers off the climate adaptation plans. challenge the New Yorkers to generate ideas for An important awareness component is to create achieving the key goals for the city’s sustainable multidisciplinary teams and enough capacity as future, and New Yorkers from all boroughs responded critical mass to anchor the climate adaptation positively, creating public support for the city’s strategy in key parts off the local government sweeping climate plan. Rotterdam and Jakarta are organization. Also warning and evacuation systems both actively communicating climate change, raising are important tools. awareness and communicating the importance of integrated spatial and land-use planning. Communication plans, brochures and the use off media like TV and radio are useful to raise awareness. The use off the new social media such as You Tube, Twitter, Linked In and Facebook for climate change communication purposes is not widely spread yet. Use off these media will even further increase awareness and create commitment for the city government spending money on climate adaptation. It also will inspire people to

C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 145 Climate change adaptation is considered one off the largest challenges for mankind in 21st century. CDC was erected to give delta cities a platform for dialogue, exchange off knowledge and joined actions. Doing nothing is not an option, but whatever has to be done needs to be part off a long term strategy and as well as a short term action plan, both based on an integrated Future climate change adaptation strategy. Knowledge development and exchange are indespensable in outlook this approach. The CDC-publications including this bookk contribute to this knowledge exchange, as they visualize the approaches and the best practices in difffferent cities and make a comparison possible. At the same moment these publications contribute to raising 3 awareness. 11 This book, therefore, explores the difffferent aspects off climate adaptation in delta cities. It is an investigation off comparable adaptation challenges and opportunities and off progress in adaptation plans and investments in the eight Connecting Delta Cities (CDC) cities off Rotterdam, New York, Jakarta, London, New Orleans, Hong Kong, Tokyo and Ho Chi Minh City. Also other climate adaptation networks like The Delta Alliance and recent climate adaptation initiatives and events like in Melbourne and Shanghai are described in the book.

The first CDC bookk marked the launch off the CDC networkk and a first reconnaissance. It described how climate change adaptation was dealt with in the three CDC cities New York, Rotterdam and Jakarta. This second bookk focuses on the expanding Connecting Delta Cities networkk and the experiences and best practices off eight CDC cities with climate change adaptation, as well as wit a fi rst assessment off their strategies. Continuing this development, it makes sense to plan the writing off a third CDC bookk to cover the implementation off climate change adaptation strategies. This third bookk could also focus on specifific topics like communication or climate prooff spatial planning and give a report on fruitful knowledge exchange between CDC cities. Your input, comments and ideas about this proposed follow up are more then welcome and will be highly appreciated. Send us your opinion and help us decide on the content off the third CDC book.

Connecting Delta Cities is a fl exible networkk that closely collaborates with similar and complementary cities and initiatives. Some off them were already described in this book, the following text boxes describe two more examples off succesful climate change adaptation and knowledge exchange, in Figure 11.2 DutchPavilion Shanghai World Expo 2010. Melbourne and at the Shanghai World Expo 2010.

C D C N E T W O R K I N P R A C T I C E 147 Melbourne

Figure 11.3 Melbourne dock – city skyline (courtesy of Port of Melbourne)

Melbourne, the capital of the State of Victoria, is the Melbourne’s recent experience of climate- most southerly of Australian mainland capital cities. The metropolitan area is dissected by the Yarra River related hazards such as drought and which then empties into Port Phillip Bay, one of the bushfi res, and the need to plan for the world’s largest bays. Beyond the bustle of the central threat of future sea level rise, is driving business district, the city gives way to suburbs which new thinking and action on climate change sprawl 40 km to the south (following the curve of the adaptation. bay), 30 km eastwards, and a further 20 km onto the northern plains, covering an area of well over 8,000 km2 and almost 4 million inhabitants. The city can be characterized as being of low-density urban form with high levels of car use. Urban containment is an important contemporary debate in this fast growing city.

Melbourne is well known as a cosmopolitan city with inhabitants coming from 140 nations around the world. The earliest inhabitants were members of the ‘Kulin’ nations – Melbourne is actually settled on an area that was a regular meeting place for local Indigenous clans. However, they were rapidly displaced by English settlers in the 1830s, with more arriving as a result of the 1850s gold rush. In more recent times, large numbers of Second World War refugees from south Europe and the Baltic regions brought with them a rich Mediterranean culture. Diversity of urban life was further enhanced by refugees from Vietnam and Cambodia in the late 1970s. A strong Asian infl uence continues to this day, evidenced by large numbers of international students who add a youthful vibrancy to the city centre.

Melbourne is also Australia’s busiest cargo port and largest container port.M1 An area adjacent to the port area has been reclaimed and a new suburb, comprising Figure 11.4 Melbourne (© City of Melbourne 2010). high rise apartments and corporate headquarters, has sprung up on the river frontage. Port activity is forecast fatalities and signifi cant impacts on key elements of to grow fairly rapidly, one consequence of which was a urban infrastructure, the electricity sector being the controversial decision to dredge the narrow entrance most severely aff ected. This was also the year that of Port Phillip Bay and deepen the shipping channels saw a heat wave of unprecedented intensity and to allow access at all tides for large container vessels. duration, with three consecutive days reaching above Legislation introduced to State Parliament in June 43°C, followed by the hottest day ever recorded, 2010 has also set in motion plans to merge the ports of reaching 46.4°C. It is this peak in temperature that Melbourne and Hastings which would act to increase concurred with the outbreak of the bushfi res around shipping capacity, taking advantage of Hastings Melbourne. In response to this extreme event, roles natural location outside of Port Phillip Bay. and responsibilities for emergency management were clarifi ed, and a review of the heat wave action plan is Temperatures have, on average, risen by about 1°C now being conducted by the Victorian Department of over the past 50 years in Australia. Although located Health in the more temperate south, Melbourne has had to cope with a 13 year drought, serious bush fi re Scenarios supporting the City of Melbourne’s episodes in peri-urban areas in 2007 and 2009, and adaptation strategy suggest an increase in a heat wave in 2009 which resulted in scores of temperature (up to 2.6 degrees Celsius by 2070),

CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 2010 149 though in line with many of the major Australian cities, Melbourne has also turned to technical fi xes to address problems of water shortage. These include a new energy intensive desalinization plant which will become operational in 2011 and the Sugarloaf pipeline which will transfer water from the north of the State to meet the needs of metropolitan Melbourne.

Current day fl ood risks are mainly confi ned to extreme storm events and the failings of storm-water systems. Periodically Melbourne is subjected to heavy rain and widespread fl ash fl ooding due to its natural fl oodplains, the reduction of permeability by suburban development, and an aging storm-water infrastructure. However, with over 40 km of the urban area exposed to a beachfront, the threat of sea level rise is now being taken very seriously by Melbourne

a corresponding increase in the number of days of extreme heat (an extra 20 days over 35 degrees), reductions in rainfall most notably in spring, and an uncertain rise in sea levels. This is currently suggested as between 26 cm and 59 cm, though 80cm is being used to inform coastal planning decisions.M2

Given the recent history of drought conditions it is perhaps of little surprise that Melbourne communities have become accustomed to the need to conserve water. High profi le awareness-raising campaigns, the promotion of ‘water sensitive urban design’, and behavioral change initiatives such as promotion of domestic rain tanks, are refl ective of an underlying cultural shift and an increased public acceptance of the need to modify behavior in order to manage an increasingly scarce resource. More controversially, authorities. The Victorian Coastal Strategy (2008) M3 has highlighted sea level rise and the combination of population growth and development pressures as key issues to be addressed. Sea level rise is currently recorded as between 2.4 and 2.8 mm per year, with planning guidance recommending the consideration of a minimum rise of 0.8 meters by 2100 (to be refi ned as new knowledge becomes available). High- resolution risk assessment is being carried out as part of the Future Coasts programme M4 in order to better understand likely future impacts and to design coastal adaptation strategies. Sea level rise will have signifi cant implications for commonly affl uent bayside suburbs and it has also been recognized that these impacts could have signifi cant implications for the structural and functional resilience of Melbourne’s major commercial ports (the Port of Melbourne being the largest of these). In response to current and future climate risks, the adaptation agenda is also being driven by important “Climate change presents particular challenges for policy initiatives at the sub-national scale. In 2009, delta cities. Rising sea levels, increasing temperatures the City of Melbourne released a municipal Climate and increased frequency of storm surges and other Adaptation Strategy noting that operational climate related events will place new pressures on ports, research was needed to assess localized risks and infrastructure, and communities. Eff ective adaptation to identify suitable adaptation responses in the city. these challenges will require diff erent approaches to the Adaptation is also being supported at the State level future management of our urban environment.” with the Victorian government releasing a Climate Change Green Paper in 2009. Victoria is the only Professor Rod Keenan State in Australia to have committed to supporting Director, Victorian Centre for Climate Change and funding adaptation research through the Adaptation Research establishment of the Victorian Centre for Climate Change Adaptation Research (VCCCAR). Activity includes funding research projects to analyze regional priorities, hosting an international research fellow, organizing regional think tanks, and holding an annual adaptation forum for interested stakeholders.

CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 151 Shanghai-Rotterdam Water Conference at On Thursday, 10 June 2010, the ‘Happy Street’ Holland World Expo 2010 Pavilion at the 2010 Shanghai World Expo was the venue of the Shanghai-Rotterdam Water Conference. The offi cial opening was performed by Paula Verhoeven, Climate Director of the City of Rotterdam, and Zhu Shiqing, Deputy Director of the Shanghai Water Authority. Reason for the conference was that Shanghai and Rotterdam both face the challenge off preserving the attractive qualities off their cities, despite climate change, by implementing innovative water management. The Shanghai-Rotterdam Water Conference therefore offffered an excellent opportunity to share and exchange knowledge and experience gained from best practices. Students from the Netherlands and China exchanged and compared best practices on climate change adaption from their countries in public classes. A number off lectures addressed topics such as storm-surge barriers, adaptation strategies, rainwater storage and ecologically sustainable fl ood management. Cases were presented from Shanghai, Rotterdam and New Orleans, al looking for to make these low lying delta regions safeand resilient from fl oods.

C O N N E C T I N G D E L T A C I T I E S 153 References

General references

G1 Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W. and Hammer S. First UCCRN Assessment Report on Climate Change in Cities (ARC3), forthcoming. G2 Nicholls, R.J., S. Hanson, C. Herweijer, N. Patmore, S. Hallegatte, J. Corfee-Morlot, Jean Château and R. Muir-Wood (2008). ‘Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes Exposure Estimates.’ OECD Environment Working Papers No. 1, 19/11/2008, November. G3 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. G4 NPCC (2009). Climate Risk Information. New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC). www.nyc.gov/html/om/pdf/2009/NPCC_CRI.pdf. G5 Aerts, J., Sprong, T., Bannink, B. (2008). Attention for Safety. www.adaptation.nl. Report for the Dutch Delta committee pp. 258. G6 IPCC (2007). Climate Change 2007. The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. G7 Jonkman, S.N., Bočkarjova, M., Kok, M., Bernardini, P. (2008). Integrated hydrodynamic and economic modeling of fl ood damage in the Netherlands. Ecological economics, 66(1), 77-90.

References Rotterdam

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References New York

NY1 Neumann, C.J., Jarvinen, B.R., McAdie, C.J., Hammer, G.R. (1999). Tropical Cyclones of the North Atlantic Ocean, 1871-1998. Historical Climatology Series 6-2. National Climatic Data Center, pp. 206. NY2 Coch, N.K. (1994). Hurricane hazards in the Northeast US Journal of Coastal Research, 12, 115-147. NY3 New York Times, August 27, 1999. NY4 NPCC (2009). Climate Risk Information. New York City Panel on Climate Change (NPCC). www.nyc.gov/html/om/pdf/2009/NPCC_CRI.pdff. NY5 Rosenzweig, C., Solecki, W. (2001). Climate Change and a Global City: The Potential Consequences of Climate Variability and Change, Metro East Coast. Report for the US Global Change Research Programme, Columbia Earth Institute. NY6 New York City Department of Environmental Protection Climate Change Programme (2008). Assessment and Action Plan, May, 2008. NY7 City of New York (2007) PlaNYC 2030. www.nyc.gov/html/planyc2030/html/plan/climate.shtml. NY8 Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change, 2007, Climate Change 2007: Impacts, Adaptation and Vulnerability, Contribution of Working Group II to the Fourth Assessment Report of the IPCC, Cambridge, UK: Cambridge University Press. NY9 New York City Panel on Climate Change, Adapting to Climate Change: The New York City Experience, William Solecki and Cynthia Rosenzweig, eds., forthcoming. NY10 PlaNYC 2008. Sustainable Stormwater Management Plan 2008. NY11 Colle, B.A., Buonaiuto, F., Bowman, M.J., Wilson, R.E., Flood, R., Hunter, R., Mintz, A., Hill, D., 2008. New York City’s vulnerability to coastal fl ooding. Bull. . Met. Soc. 89, 829-841. NY12 Jagtar s. Khinda et al, 2009. Against the Deluge: Storm Surge Barriers to Protect New York City. Proceedings of the March 2009 ASCE Seminar an exhibition in New York City.

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CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 155 References London

L1 GLA (2009) Draft Replacement London Plan. www.london.gov.uk/shaping-london/london-plan/strategy/ L2 http://ec.europa.eu/environment/water/water-framework/info/intro_en.htm L3 Armstrong B, Chalabi Z, Fenn B, Hajat S, Kovats S (2010) Association of mortality with high temperatures in a temperate climate: England and Wales. www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/20439353 L4 GLA (2010) London Climate Change Adaptation Strategy, Draft for Public Consultation. www.london.gov.uk/climatechange/strategy L5 www.unisdr.org/ L6 www.youtube.com/watch?v=WplvSvvGXRA L7 www.london.gov.uk/climatechange/ L8 The draft TE2100 plan can be downloaded from www.environment-agency.gov.uk/te2100 L9 Areas susceptible to surface water fl ooding modelling undertaken by JBA consulting for the Environment Agency L10 UKWIR (2004), Report 03/CL/10/2 L11 www.therrc.co.uk/lrap.php

References New Orleans

NO1 Campanella, Richard. Delta Urbanism: New Orleans. The American Planning Association. Chicago, 2010. NO2 US Census Bureau. ‘Orleans Parish, Louisiana’. 2000. http://quickfacts.census.gov/qfd/states/22/22071.html. [accessed 20 July 2010]. NO3 Times Picayune, 2009. Recovery by the Numbers 2009 [Online] Available at: http://blog.nola.com/news_impact/2009/08/katrina-recovery-year4.pdf [Accessed 18 July 2010] NO4 Division of Administration, State of Louisiana. ‘Louisiana Economy’. http://doa.louisiana.gov/about_economy.htm. [accessed 19 July 2010]. NO5 New Orleans City Business. ‘New Orleans’ Nightlife Ranked #1 in World’. http://neworleanscitybusiness.com/ blog/2010/05/07/new-orleans-nightlife-ranked-no-1-in-world. [Accessed 20 July 2010]. NO6 The Weather Channel Interactive. ‘Monthly Averages for New Orleans, NAS LA’. www.weather.com/outlook/health/fi tness/wxclimatology/monthly/graph/USLA0339 NO7 National Weather Service. ‘The Saffi r-Simpson Hurricane Wind Scale’. www.nhc.noaa.gov/sshws.shtml. [accessed 19 July 2010]. NO8 National Hurricane Center. ‘Tropical Cyclone Climatology’. www.nhc.noaa.gov/pastprofi le.shtml. [accessed 19 July 2010]. NO9 Campanella, Richard. Bienville’s Dilemma: A historical geography of New Orleans. Centre for Louisiana Studies. Lafayette, 2008. NO10 Coastal Wetlands Planning, Protection, and Restoration Act (CWPPRA) Programme, USGS National Wetlands Research Center. ‘Mississippi River Delta Basin’. www.lacoast.gov/landchange/basins/mr/. [Accessed 19 July 2010]. NO11 American Society of Civil Engineers. The New Orleans hurricane protection system: what went wrong and why: a report by the American Society of Civil Engineers Hurricane Katrina External Review Panel. American Society of Civil Engineers. Reston, 2007. NO12 Lerardi, K. Beyond receding waters: devastated by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita, the Gulf Coast fi nally grows green again The Free Library [Online] 22 September 2008, www.thefreelibrary.com NO13 Hike for KaTREEna; Replanting New Orleans 4,980 trees and counting. www.hikeforkatreena.com. [Accessed 18 July 2010]. NO14 US Army Corps of Engineers. June 2010 Status Report. NO15 US Army Corps of Engineers. Rebuilding Snapshot 2009. NO16 Beyond receding waters: devastated by Hurricanes Katrina and Rita,...-a0187926856 [accessed18 July 2010]. NO17 Kelman, Ari. ‘Boundary Issues: Clarifying New Orleans’s Murky Edges’. Journal of American History, 94. December 2007. PP 695-703. NO18 State of Louisiana Press Release. ‘Just the Facts: Drilling Moratorium’s Impact on Louisiana’s Families and Economy’. 14 June 2010. http://emergency.louisiana.gov/Releases/06142010-moratorium.html. [accessed 18 July 2010]. NO19 Stromberg, Meghan. ‘Putting the Water to Work’. PLANNING Magazine, American Planning Association. July 2010. PP 34-36. NO20 US Army Coprs of Engineers. Greater New Orleans hurricane and storm risk reduction system [map]. US Army Corps of Engineers. New Orleans, 2008. References Hong Kong

HK1 Department of Public and Social Administration, City University of Hong Kong, 2010 HK2 World Bank (2010). World Development Indicators. http://data.worldbank.org/data-catalog/world-development-indicators?cid=GPD_WDI HK3 Climate Change Business Forum (2010) www.climatechangebusinessforum.com/en-us/hong_kong_context_aff ected) HK4 CIA Fact Book, Map of Hong Kong, www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/hk.html HK5 Greenpeace China (2010). The ‘Climate change bill’. Economic costs of heavy rainstorm in Hong Kong. Greenpeace China report. HK6 Electrical and Mechanical Services Department (2009). Hong Kong energy end use data 2009. Electrical and Mechanical Service Department, September 2009. HK7 Lee, T.C., Kok, M.H. & Chan, K.Y. (2010). Climatic infl uences on the energy consumption in domestic and commercial sectors in Hong Kong. Presented in the 16th Annual International Sustainable Development Research Conference, Hong Kong, China, 30 May - 1 June 2010, Hong Kong Observatory Reprint No.903 HK8 IEA (2007). Selected 2007 Indicators for Hong Kong (China) www.iea.org/stats/indicators.asp?COUNTRY_CODE=HK HK9 Fung Wing Yee (2004). Provision of Service for characterizing climate change impact in Hong Kong. The Hong Kong Polytechnic University, September 23, 2004. HK10 Water Supplies Department (2009). Statistics. www.wsd.gov.hk/en/publications_and_statistics/statistics/key_facts/miscellaneous_data/graph/index.html#2 HK11 Hong Kong Observatory (2010). Climate of Hong Kong. www.hko.gov.hk/cis/climahk_e.htm HK12 Leung, Y.K., Yeung, K.H., Ginn, E.W.L. & Leung, W.M. (2004). Climate Change in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Observatory technical note no 107. HK13 Leung, Y.K., Wu, M.C., Yeung, K.K. & Leung, W.M. (2007). Temperature projections in Hong Kong based on IPCC Fourth Assessment Report. Hong Kong Meteorological Society Bulletin, Vol. 17. HK14 Lee, T.C. & Wong, C.F. (2007). Historical Storm Surges and Storm Surge Forecasting in Hong Kong. Hong Kong Observatory. Paper for the JCOMM Scientifi c and Technical Symposium on Storm Surges (SSS) in Seoul, 2007. HK15 Drainage Services Department (2008). Sewerage and Flood Protection. Drainage services 1841-2008. The Government of Hong Kong Special Administrative Region. HK16 Ginn, W.L., Lee, T.C. & Chan, K.Y. (2010). Past and future changes in the climate of Hong Kong. ACTA Meteorologica Sinica, 24(2), 163-175. www.cmsjournal.net/qxxb_en/ch/reader/view_abstract.aspx?fi le_no=20100203&fl ag=1 HK17 Environmental Protection Department (2009). Climate change. Actions in Hong Kong. www.epd.gov.hk/epd/english/climate_change/hkactions.html). HK18 Environmental Protection Department (2010). A study of climate change in Hong Kong – Feasibility Study. www.climatechange.com.hk HK19 Hong Kong Observatory (2002). Tropical Cyclones in 2001. Published in April 2002. www.hko.gov.hk/publica/tc/tc2001.pdf HK20 Water Supplies Department (2009). Meeting demand for water. Year in Review. Annual report 2008-2009.

References Tokyo

T1 Nakamura, K., K. Tockner, et al., 2006. River and wetland restoration: lessons from Japan. BioScience 56(5): 11. T2 Yoshimura, C., Omura, T., Furumai, H., Tockner, K., 2005. Present state of rivers and streams in Japan. River research and applications, 21. T3 Arakawa - Karyu River Offi ce and MLIT, 2006. The Arakawa: River of the Metropolis; A comprehensive guide to the lower Arakawa, Arakawa - Karyu River Offi ce Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. T4 Google, 2009. http://maps.google.nl. T5 Hooimeijer, F., 2008. History of urban water in Japan, in Hooimeijer, F. and De Graaf, R. (ed.) Urban water in Japan. London: Taylor & Francis Group. T6 River Bureau, 1990. Rivers in Japan and other countries. Tokyo: Ministry of Construction. T7 Takahasi, Y. and Uitto, J. I., 2004. Evolution of river management in Japan: from focus on economic benefi ts to a comprehensive view. Global environmental Change, 14. T8 Statistics Bureau of Japan, 2010. Japan Statistical Yearbook 2010. T9 Kundzewicz, Z. W. and K. Takeuchi. 1999. Flood protection and management: quo vadimus? Hydrological Sciences Journal 44(3): 16 T10 Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M. Tignor and H.L. Miller., 2007. IPCC Fourth Assessment Report (AR4); Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis; Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change. Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom and New York, NY, USA. T11 Infrastructure Development Institute-Japan and Japan River Association. Rivers in Japan. Japan: Ministry of Land, Infrastructure and Transport. T12 Nakao, T. and K. Tanimoto, 1997. Comprehensive Flood Control Measures in the Tsurumi River Basin in Japan. Water International 22(4): 7

CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 157 T13 Ando, Y. and Y. Takahasi, 1997. Recent Flood Control Measures for Urban Rivers in Japan: Case Study of the Kanda River in Tokyo. Water International 22(4): 7. T14 Takahasi, Y. and Uitto, J. I., 2004. Evolution of river management in Japan: from focus on economic benefi ts to a comprehensive view. Global environmental Change, 14. T15 Keihin Offi ce of Rivers, -. Tsurumi river multipurpose retarding basin. Retrieved July 25th, 2007, from www.keihin.ktr.mlit.go.jp/english/tsurumi/oasis_01.htm. T16 Fujita, S., 1984. Experimental sewer system for reduction of urban storm runoff . Chalmers University of Technology: 10. Goteborg, Sweden). T17 Kiguchi, K., Maeda, M., et al., 1994. Sewer system for improving fl ood control in Tokyo: a step towards a return period of 70 years. Water science and technology 29 (1-2): 8. T18 Fujita, S., 1994. Infi ltration structures in Tokyo. Water science and technology 30(1): 9. T19 Fujita, S. 2010. T20 Fujita, S., 1997. Measures to promote storm water infi ltration. Water Science and Technology, Volume 36, No. 8-9.

References HCMC

H1 General Statistics Offi ce of Vietnam H2 Tran Thi Van and Ha Duong Xuan Bao (2010). Study of the Impact of Urban Development on Surface Temperature Using Remote Sensing in Ho Chi Minh City. Geographical Research, 48(1):86-96. H3 Report on the revised General Development Plan of HCMC until 2025. Institute of Construction Planning. Department of Planning and Architecture, HCMC. In Vietnamese. H4 Southern Meteorology and Hydrology Centre H5 Ho Long Phi (2007). Climate change and urban fl ooding in Ho Chi Minh City. In: Finish Environment Institute (SYKE), Proceedings of the Third International Conference on Climate and Water, September 3-6, 2007. Pp. 194-199. Helsinki. H6 MONRE (2009). Climate Change, Sea level rise scenarios for Vietnam. Ministry of Natural Resources and Environment. Hanoi. H7 NTP (2008). Decision No: 158/2008/QĐ-TTg. National Target Programme to Respond to Climate Change. Hanoi. Department of Natural Resources and Environment of Ho Chi Minh City H8 ICEM (2009). HCMC Adaptation to Climate Change Study Report – Volume 2: Main Report – Draft 4. International Centre for Environmental Management. Hanoi. H9 Dasgupta, S., Laplante, B., Meisner, C., Wheeler, D., Yan, J. (2009). The impact of sea-level rise on developing countries: a comparative analysis. Climatic Change, 93:379-388. H10 Nicholls, R.J. et al. (2008). Ranking Port Cities with High Exposure and Vulnerability to Climate Extremes: Exposure Estimates, OECD Environment Working Papers, No 1, OECD Publishing.

References Melbourne

M1 Port of Melbourne Corporation (2009) Port Development Strategy 2035 Vision: www.portofmelbourne.com/portdev/portdevstrategy.asp M2 Maunsell Australia Pty Ltd (2008) City of Melbourne Climate Change Adaptation Strategy City of Melbourne: www.melbourne.vic.gov.au/AboutCouncil/PlansandPublications/strategies/Pages/Environmentalpolicies.aspx M3 Victorian Coastal Strategy: www.vcc.vic.gov.au/vcs.htm M4 Future Coasts programme: www.climatechange.vic.gov.au/Greenhouse/wcmn302.nsf/childdocs/-0A075FE0F68F56D6CA2575C40007BF74-A2C8013E5CEDE429CA25766D0016E286

References illustrations

The publishers gratefully acknowledge the following for permission to use the illustrations indicated: 30 Figure 8.11 - Roel Dijkstra; 32 RDM Campus - Fotografi e Marijke Volkers; 60 Figure 5.3 (left) Marfai (right) Novira; 66 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 67 Figure 5.6 - Marfai; 70 Figure 5.9 - Marfai; 71 Mayor of London - James O. Jenkins; 92 Flood - ANP Photo’s; 95 Photo left - Bas Jonkman; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 103 Figure 8.4 - DSD; 111 Figure 8.11 - Fotografi e W.P. Pauw; 126 HCMC - Peter Stucking; and iStockphoto. Contact Information CDC secretariat Ms. Chantal Oudkerk Pool

Address WTC Beursplein 37, 3011 AA Rotterdam, the Netherlands

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CONNECTING DELTA CITIES 159

13-09-2010 14:06:33 Connecting Delta Cities TO CLIMATE CHANGE SHARING KNOWLEDGE AND WORKING ON ADAPTATION

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