East Coast Colleges Social Science Association

INEQUALITY - THE PATHWAY TO POWER

Dr. Jose Aybar COLLOQUIUM PRESENTER

2/25/21

● To provide an overview of the status of racism and discrimination in higher education

● To examine the rationale that led to innovation and reform in academia for two major systems

● To provoke thought on major structural constraints that may be critical in determining present stagnation in the knowledge transmittal process

● To pose major factors driving change in the US socio-economic milieu, and posit a thesis regarding their impact and the creation of a new inequality

● To promote the urgent need for the reconsideration of either “structure creates function or is it that function begets structure” for the developing inequality in academia post COVID-19

Objectives ● Knowledge has NO color or gender

● Students have an insatiable curiosity to learn

● “Learning does not take place in a steady upwards projection

● The infrastructure of learning is an impediment to the learning process “In the banking concept of education, knowledge is a gift by those who consider themselves knowledgeable upon those whom they consider to know nothing. Projecting an absolute ignorance onto others, a characteristic of the ideology of oppression, negates education and knowledge bestowed as a process of inquiry.” Paulo Freire ● No Agreement and Uniformity in College Education

Assumptions Racism and Discrimination RACISM IS ALIVE AND WELL IN ACADEMIA!

The Structure of Inequality Racism and the damage it does to people of color nevertheless “ persists at Princeton as in our society, sometimes by conscious intention but more often through unexamined assumptions and stereotypes, ignorance or insensititvity, and the systemic legacy of past decisions and policies.

further ”

“Racist assumptions from the past remain embedded in structures of the University itself.”

Princeton President Christopher Eisgruber Secretary of Education DeVos launched an inquiry of Princeton’s Racist Activities: ● Based on its admitted racism, The US Department of Education (“Department”) is concerned Princeton’s nondiscriminatory and equal opportunity assurances in its Program Participation Agreements from at least 2013 to the present may have been false...

● The Department is further concerned Princeton perhaps knew, or should have known, these assurances were false at the time they were made. Finally, the Department is further concerned Princeton’s many nondiscrimination and equal opportunity claims to students, parents, and consumers in the market for education certificates may have been false, misleading, and actionable substantial misrepresentations in violation of 20 U.S.C. 1094 (c) (3)(B) and 34 CFR 668.71 (c).

Therefore, the Department’s Office of Postsecondary Education in consultation with the Department’s Office of the General Counsel, is opening this investigation. Systemic Reactions

Big Brother is Watching You

“Reconceive the Faculty Advisory Committee on Diversity to provide further leadership and oversight regarding departments recruitment and retention procedures, financial resources, and curriculum development” Princeton Letter from the President to faculty and staff 9/2/20

Higher Education’s Institutional Response

Over 80 colleges sent a letter to the Department of Education asking that it abandon its civil rights investigation into Princeton University.

As presidents of colleges and universities: “We stand together in recognizing the work we still need to do if we are ever to ‘perfect the union’ and we urge the Department of Education to abandon its ill-considered investigation of Princeton University.” Bamboo Ceiling at Dartmouth, Brown, Harvard and Yale 2016 - 2020

● In 2016 the US Department of Justice joined another complainant, the Asian American Coalition for Education, in filing papers against Dartmouth, Brown, Harvard, and Yale.

● The allegation was that the policies of these universities held the Asian and White student admissions constant to the benefit of Hispanic and African Americans.

● The case against Dartmouth and Brown was dismissed early on because of lack of sufficient evidence. However, Yale and Harvard provided some insight into the nature of the admission challenges.

● The Justice Department to the District Court of Connecticut stated in its brief that “Yale’s race discrimination injures applicants and students. Yale does this in various ways. Yale subjects applicants to Yale College to discrimination on the ground of race. And, because Yale claims that its race discrimination is necessary to admit sufficient numbers of racially-favored applicants, mostly Black and Hispanic applicants, Yale signals that racially-favored applicants cannot compete against Asian and White applicants. This kind of race discrimination relies upon and reinforces damaging race- based stereotypes.”

● Yale signals that racially favored applicants cannot compete against Asian and White applicants.

● This kind of race discrimination relies upon and reinforces damaging race-based stereotypes. ● Yale, denied any activity outside of established policy, but brought in a consultant Yale Continued on diversity. He concluded in short order that the diversity infrastructure at Yale was “sorely lacking” and that the proposed diversity training is of “little long-term utility.”

● Yale did not file an answer to the Department’s complaint. And it will not have to. The DOJ dropped the lawsuit in a Notice of Voluntary Dismissal without giving reasons for its action. Harvard:

● The DOJ found in its complaint that Harvard University had a “race-based admissions process.”

● The DOJ noted that in part that: “Harvard’s use of race benefits African American and Hispanic applicants….triples the likelihood of being admitted for African American applicants….doubles the chances of admissions for Hispanics.”

● DOJ further observed that “Harvard achieved this by systematically and impersonally marking all Asian applicants as having: Less integrity; Being less confident; Assuming they are less qualified leaders…”

● A US Court of Appeals subsequently ruled that “the school’s admission process was flawed, it was not on account of racial bias conscious prejudice.” (2021) Racism by self-admission and a rush to superficially correct the symptomatic perceptions of discrimination lead one to the following preliminary provoking conclusions: ● Racism is structurally present in our colleges and universities.

● Taxpayers, by virtue of billions of Federal Dollars being allocated to the colleges and universities in the US, are paying for a hierarchy of structural racism in our higher education system.

● Changes in the Presidency of the United States have reversed the various inquiries that were being carried out or in process, and reversed the proceedings; thereby consciously allowing the flow of Federal dollars in violation of the tenets of the Civil Rights Act.

● Colleges and Universities banded together out of fear of losing their privileged status in the pathway to inequity.

● Colleges and universities have quickly established band aid committees on Diversity so that they can show that there are “bona fide efforts” to address the issue, setting the stage for political correctness purges.

It is interesting that training programs in diversity, according to Benjamin Reese from Duke University, are singularly ineffective in changing the culture of discrimination and racism. how could this be so? how is this carried out? For example: ● The appointment of the Chair of the Search Committee

● Scrutiny of the Chancellor of a college’s candidate list for hire prior to submitting to the Board of Trustees

● Outside direct intervention to hire one specific person in the proposed hire submission list

Racism and Discrimination has existed from time immemorial. The inequality it creates is a pathway to power. The point of the level of equality is how close can you get to the limits of an infinite line. We keep getting closer to equality but ultimately it is unattainable - equation limits of infinity. We are nowhere near equality. We are in the process of drafting what that may look like within a hierarchical structure, and in the process creating a new inequality!

Reforms in US Higher Education have other goals that of further the cause of equality. Inequality Measure GINI INDEX

The GINI Index measures the extent to which the distribution of income or consumption expenditure among individuals or households deviate from a perfect equal distribution.

The closer you get to zero, the more equal the distribution. Inequality Measure Nation Comparison: GINI Analysis of Finland, France, and the US.

note: the closer you get to zero, the more equal the distribution

Finland has a higher degree of income equality.

The US in comparison has a much higher degree of income inequality. DIstinctive Outcomes to Address Inequality

● Finland GINI Index 27.4 ● US GINI Index 41.1

● Collaborative System of Education ● Deposit System of Education

● Status of Teachers/Faculty- at a par with Doctors and ● “Those who can’t teach” Lawyers

● EIU1 Ranking in Education - 1 ● EIU Ranking in Education - 17

______1 Economist Intelligence Unit For more than a century, ideological extremists, at either end of the political spectrum, have seized upon well-publicized incidents, such as my encounter with Castro, to attack the Rockefeller family for the “ inordinate influence they claim we wield over American political and economic institutions. Some even believe we are part of a secret cabal working against the best interests of the United States, characterizing my family as ‘internationalists’, and of conspiring with others around the world to build a more integrated global and economic structure - one world, if you will. If that is the charge, I ” stand guilty, and I am proud of it.

David Rockefeller on the Use of Power Has Anything Changed?

Memoirs, David Rockefeller We are grateful to the Washington Post, The New York Times, Time Magazine and other great publications whose directors have attended our meetings and respected their promises of discretion for “almost forty years...It would have been impossible for us to develop our plan for the world if we had been subjected to the lights of publicity during those years. But the world is more sophisticated and prepared to march towards a world government. The supernational sovereignty of an intellectual elite and world bankers is surely preferable to the national auto determination practiced in the past ” centuries.

David Rockefeller on the Use of Power Has Anything Changed?

Memoirs, David Rockefeller

● These two quotes candidly speak volumes about the existence of elite powerbrokers that seem to set the agenda for the direction of the US. It is no less so in the ACADEMIC INDUSTRY.

● The quotes also speak to the collusion between the media and the powerbrokers. Colleagues, have you ever raised the question as to why the newsworthy controversial items in your respective college communities never see the light of day? This, of course, becomes less of an issue, as social media becomes more rabid in the hands of angry and righteous users.

Powerbrokers and Inequality Innovators Racism and and Discrimination Shakers ● Chancellor of the University of Chicago

● Creator of the Junior College concept of education in 1905

● Applied the concept in the undergraduate curriculum at the University

● Divided the coursework into a Junior and Senior College

● Introduced the associate degree for graduates of undergraduate education

William Rainey Harper Movers and Shakers 1856-1906 ● Chancellor of the University of Chicago

● Created the Great Books Program at Shimer College

● Applied the Junior College concept structurally at Shimer College

Robert Maynard Hutchins 1899-1977

Movers and Shakers Andrew Carnegie 1895-1919

● Developed the Carnegie Unit

● The Pension System he created for Academia became the precursor to TIAA-CREF

Movers and Shakers Seymour Martin Lipset Gabriel Almond Sydney Verba 1922 - 2006 1911-2002 1932-2019

● Authors who developed seminal writings around the concept of the “Civic Culture” promoting same.

● These works were widely read in graduate schools across the nation and had a pervasive influence in the development of a mass concept of democracy in the US.

Movers and Shakers ● Lack of standards and uniformity across institutions

● Lack of agreement as to what was to be taught

● No agreement as to what constituted time on task

● No agreement on grade/college boundaries from one educational institution to another

Challenges 1870 -1892

Lack of Consistency!!! ● Before 1892 there was little agreement as to what constituted education in the US. There were issues of “inadequate rigor and quality,” as well as boundaries, between “high school and college.” James Ratcliff

● Rainey Harper, Chancellor of the University of Chicago, divides the undergraduate curriculum into Junior and Senior Years

■ Hutchins carries out pilot at Shimer 1896, 1909-10 ■ Joliet Junior College is founded in 1905

● Four-year colleges are encouraged to abandon the first two years

● Two models emerged with similar curricular structures but divergent instructional philosophies

Innovation: Junior Colleges 1892 -1905 ● Frances Shimer Academy of the University of Chicago -1896

● Chancellor Hutchins - Great Books Curriculum/Socratic Method

● The Academy was an “experimental pilot junior college” 1901-1950

● Founding of Shimer College as a four-year institution 1950

● Distinction: Shimer College was ranked No. 3 in the nation in the percentage of graduates who go on to earn doctorates (1981-1990)

Innovation: Competing Paradigm - Shimer College Has the Carnegie Unit outlived its usefulness?

Contact Hours 1901

Carnegie Unit 1906

Banking/Deposit 1906 - 2021 Infrastructure terminal constraint that is not meeting the requirements of the information. The CU is not meeting the demands of the information age - it is a measure of time and not of KNOWLEDGE ● Carnegie Unit was created by the Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching to run the pension system

● It was a quid pro quo for the purpose of standardizing instruction across all colleges in the US

● “It sought to standardize student’s exposure to subject matter by ensuring they received consistent amounts of instructional time” Elena Silva, et al.

● This is an input-based model that is now being “forced” to accept output function

● No consideration has been given to the cognitive aspects of learning, i.e, how students learn

Innovation: Carnegie Unit and the Information Economy

The Carnegie unit is a system developed in the late nineteenth and early twentieth centuries that based the awarding of academic credit on how much time students spent in direct contact with a classroom teacher.

The standard Carnegie unit is defined as 120 hours of contact time with an instructor—i.e., one hour of instruction a day, five days a week, for 24 weeks, or 7,200 minutes of instructional time over the course of an academic year.

The Carnegie Unit: Does Time = Knowledge? A system designed to measure input cannot be expected to measure output Formative Elements: Input and Institution Building

Junior College Civic Culture

Curriculum

Divergent Pathways

Structural Constraint Shimer College Carnegie

● This slide captures the main creations taking place during the 1892-1905 period. ● The concept of the “Civic Culture” emerged later in the aftermath of WW II. It left an imprint on the role of education lasting well into the 21st Century. Innovators Reform Racism and and and Discrimination Shakers Evolution Japan Defeats World War II GI Bill

Russia Selected Historical Highlights

Influencing Social Change

1905 1938-45 1944-56 General High Command Purges McCarthy Trials Sputnik in the US

Academics in Japan

1945-51 1950-54 1957 George Floyd

COVID-19 Civil Rights A Nation at Risk

Academia in

Crisis

1964 1983 2019

● Eells was the Advisor on Higher Education in the Civil Information Section At General Quarters for the Supreme Commander for the Allied Power.

● Eells was in charge of what the Japanese have called the “Eells Typhoon (“Iruzu senpu”) which called for the immediate dismissal of communist professors across all the universities in post-war Japan.

● Subsequent loss of face as a result of this purge resulted in various Japanese professors committing suicide.

● Eells comes back to the US and becomes a central figure in drafting the objectives of the Junior Colleges. Central among them was the inculcation of American democratic principles and emphasis on “civic responsibilities” to the returning GI’s.

Impact of Walter Crosby Eells 1947-1951 Walter C. Eells 1890-1963

The Hatchet Man Censorship is Acommin’

Threat and Peril

“Reconceive the Faculty Advisory Committee on Diversity to provide further leadership and oversight regarding departments recruitment and retention procedures, financial resources, and curriculum development”

Princeton President Eisgruber’s Letter to Staff and Faculty, 2020 Big Brother IS Watching YOU Japan defeats Russia and Sputnik

● In both of these cases, they led to a governmental and Academic response.

○ In the first case, this led to the Academic recognition of Japan as a field of study which was manifested at Harvard by the teaching of language courses.

○ In the case of Sputnik, the US government opened its coffers to fund the field of Soviet Studies which then began to flourish all over the US. As a result, governmental grants then became available for the development of Centers for International Affairs.

● In brief, the Academic system was induced to acknowledge the existence of fields study outside the Eurocentric approach that has marked its history.

Terms of Inclusion Ideological Influences in Academe

● Another such confluence was the marked concern for Academic leadership in concert with government and business that the US needed to have “ideological uniformity” inculcated into education system. Eells was the leader of that movement. The proponents of the “Civic Culture” implicitly endorsed it, and its application continued well into the Twentieth Century.

● A major factor which gave impetus to the Junior College movement was WW II. This was not only because of the defeat of Japan, but also because it raised the question as to what to do with the millions of Standard American Males (SAM’s) who returned from the war. The response was the GI Bill which served over 7.8 million veterans. The degrees were skill intensive and tied structurally and politically to the high schools. In fact, the superintendent of schools was the head of the “board”of the emergent college system.

Terms of Inclusion continued ● Civil Unrest. The US still had a crisis brewing in the shape of two Civil Rights Acts. This crisis continues on today and goes well beyond the events that have been marked by George Floyd. The issue in simple terms is that all human beings have the right to be treated equally in every aspect of their socio-economic inclusion as citizens of the US. This is still in process and it is too early to assess its long-term impact.

● The US system of education, already lacking in uniformity of outcomes when faced with a major issue, has been unable to find a minimally acceptable solution to the existence to institutional racism. The inability of the system to develop and maintain quality standards while living within the constraints of the Carnegie Unit led to fewer graduates ready to enter college and ultimately led to the publication of “A Nation at Risk.” ● The outcome was a continuous stream of underprepared diploma-bearing graduates of the Carnegie Unit system who had to take remedial education in order to place at the college level. The four-year colleges and universities avoided having to do extensive remediation and that burden was passed on to the community colleges who were already underfunded and overburdened. The end result is a community college system whose success is marred by the fact that it cannot agree on which mission to fulfill or serve fully. Another way of stating this is that they are overextended in goals and lacking the means by which to achieve their ends effectively.

● Another side effect was the development of a training cottage industry in the private sector. With a need for labor, the private sector set up training within their organizations to bring the “graduates” up to minimum business standard. Billions have been spent by the private sector and this cost is passed on to the customer, to be more exact, the taxpayer.

● We, you and I, are paying twice for the same education product, once in high school and a second time in the remedial education program. Japan Defeats World War II GI Bill

Russia Selected Historical Highlights

Influencing Social Change

1905 1938-45 1944-56 General High Command Purges McCarthy Trials Sputnik in the US

Academics in Japan

1945-51 1950-54 1957 George Floyd

COVID-19 Civil Rights A Nation at Risk

Academia in

Crisis

1964 1983 2019 Educational Reform in the US is very SLOW

Rote Learning and Core undergraduate New General Education Constant Drilling and elective system Program

205 yrs 107 yrs L 1841 31 yrs 1979 30 yrs 2021

1636 1948 2009 Lecture Method Replaced General Present

Introduced Education with a Core Curriculum

Example - Harvard University Can you expect Academia to exact change on its own?

Or does it have to be shaken by a catastrophic event to begin major change?

Is this the legacy of COVID-19? Summary Innovators Reform Racism and of Forces and and Discrimination Impacting Shakers Evolution Academia 2020 has been described as:

THE YEAR OF THE CORONAVIRUS

THE YEAR OF PROTESTS AGAINST SYSTEMIC RACISM

THE YEAR OF THE MOST DIVISIVE ELECTION IN US HISTORY

Len Jessup President Claremont Graduate University Is the System still intact?

Does it remain a ‘closed’ system?

Academia

What has been described so far is a closed system that has been beset by a number of elements alien to its initial mission.

As a result, Academia is in survival and crisis mode. Effects on Academia

There is no question that Academia has been assailed by the effect of all of these events and has attempted to use palliative measures to keep the system going.

These efforts have been heroic, particularly with the short time response that has been required to keep minimal operations going.

The impact on Academia has been recorded in terms of “short term effect” such as:

decreases in enrollment loss of revenue inability to meet degree requirements Classic Economic Pyramid

...When they really mean: The visual on the impact includes bankruptcy for some colleges and universities. There are two other major factors that are impacting Academia causing exacerbation:

● Redistribution of wealth

● Rate of change The pandemic has caused a massive transfer of wealth which is seriously affecting the demographic distribution of the US socio-economic pyramid. The cumulative effect reported is that:

+ =

“the top 1% of Americans have taken $50 trillion from the bottom 90%” Hanauer and Rolf Another process that is having an increasing effect on society as a whole, specifically academia is the rate of design to product completion. Salient examples of that are:

■ Production of the COVID 19 vaccine

■ Production of a new fighter plane in the Air Force’s Next Generation Air Dominance Program (from ten years to one year).

■ Self-driving trucks (already a reality in Arizona (UPS))

■ Bitcoin

■ In fact, it has been noted by Eric Wade: “What has, and holds value, changes radically as technology develops.”

Can you expect Academia to exact change on its on? Or does it have to be shaken by a catastrophic event to begin major change? Is this the legacy of COVID 19?

The increase in the pace of technological innovation has increased. In both the rate of change and re-distribution of wealth, the implications are enormous in terms of innovation, but ultimately have a spillover effect into academia.

These are discrete examples that signal a new wave of innovation even as the US is being rocked by the impact of the crisis. Rate of Change

Economic Displacement of Population Academia COVID-19 Segments

Loss of Revenue

● Continuous social unrest as the powerholders wage war on each other while the mass movement develops a new social dynamic for evolving social compact

● 5G

● Global warming

● The currency divide between Bitcoin and national currencies

● Global microchip shortage

And waiting in the sidelines are: Summary Innovators Reform Racism and of Forces Theoretical and and Discrimination Impacting Possibilities Shakers Evolution Academia

Academia has been behaving as closed system. It’s existing structure, based on an input model, is being over stressed by the superimposition of output requirements and the expectancy of a new dynamism without a base consensus on what the end result should look like.

Academia Stages of New System Development

Academia Academia Academia

Fig I Fig. 2 Fig 3 Represents the current closed Represents the closed system opening Represents the end result of a input system constrained by the up out of necessity and being forced system drastically changing to Carnegie Unit being bombarded to re-examine values as a result of the take into consideration the new by outside forces and attempting rupture of its boundaries. and emerging needs of the to use palliative measures to stem Information Age. the flow of blood. There is an urgent need for reconsideration of “structure creates function or is it that function begets structure” for the developing inequality synthesis for Academia in the post COVID-19 world. The Renaissance of Academia is HERE! How will you contribute? Thank you

Before I close, I want to acknowledge the assistance of my daughter, Dr. Lydia T. Aybar, in the preparation of this presentation both as a thought partner and with the manipulation of the technology.

[email protected] Section I

Office of Communication, 2020. “Letter From President Eisgruber on the University’s efforts to combat systemic racism.” Princeton University. September 2. Lela Gallery, 2020. “Colleges beg Department of Education not to investigate Princeton.” Campus Reform. October 13. David Blackmon, 2020. “Hilarious: Princeton President Brings a DOE Investigation Down on His Own School.” DB-Daily Update. September 17. Bonchie, 2020. “Epic: Princeton Declares Itself Racist, Betsy Devos Immediately Opens and Investigation Into Their Racism.” Red State. September 17. Frederick Hess, 2020. “Princeton’s President Says His School is Racist-So Betsy DeVos Launched an Investigation.” Forbes. Sept.21. Marina Medvin, 2020. “DOJ Accuses Harvard of Racism, Files Scathing Brief.” VIP. March 2. Michael Feldberg, 2012 “Anti-Semitism in the US: Harvard Jewish Problem.” Jewish Virtual Library Project AICE. Caitlin Yilek, 2020. “Justice Department Concludes Yale is Rejecting Whites and Asians to Boost Black and Hispanic Enrollment.” Zenger. August 17. Jennifer L. Hochschild, “Race, Ethnicity, and Education Policy.” Oxford Handbook of Racial and Ethnic Politics in America. New York: Oxford University Press; 2014. No author, 2020. “DOJ Lawsuit Had Alleged…..” CBS Weekend News. February 3. James C. Martin, 2021. “Exposing Critical Race Training in Higher Education.” The James G. Martin Center for Academic Renewal. Feb. 12. Srinidhi Seshadri and Rachel Wu, 2018. “Uncovering the effect of race on college admissions.” The Epic. November 9. Heather Mac Donald, 2019. “At Yale, ‘Diversity’ Means More of the Same.” The Wall Street Journal, April 24. Lisa O’Malley, 2020. “Justice Department Accuses Yale of Discriminating Against Asian American and White Applicants.” Insight Into Diversity. August 19. Kenya Evelyn, 2021. “Biden administration drops Trump-era discrimination lawsuit against Yale.” The Guardian, February 3. Michael Balsamo, 2020. “Feds say Yale discriminates against Asian, white students in admissions.” USA Today. August 13. Rose Horowitz, 2020. “Solovey sets issues of diversity, equity and inclusion as crucial for Yale’s coming years.” Yale Daily News. June 9. David Rockefeller, Memoirs. Amazon Kindle, PDF. United States of America v. Yale University, Case 3:20-cv-o1534 Doc. 1, US District Court, District of Connecticut (10/08/20).

References Section II

David Southwell, 1998. “Shimer College’s graduates go far.” Chicago Sun Times. January 23. No author, 2021. “History of Shimer College.” Wikipedia. February 6. Arthur Levine, 2015. “The Waning of the Carnegie Unit.” Inside Higher Education. October 8. Ulcca Joshi Hansen, 2019. “Why Does Education Assessment Revolve Around the Carnegie Unit?” Education Reimagined. June 5. Colleen Flaherty, 2016. “Undergraduate curricular reform at Harvard and Duke suggest there’s no one way to do it well.” Inside Higher Education. March 10. Richard L. Drury, 2003. “Community Colleges in America: A Historical Perspective.” Inquiry. Vol. 8, Num. 1. Spring. Martin Lugton, 2015. “Paulo Freire: Pedagogy of the Oppressed-the banking and libertarian models of education.” Word Press. January 2020. Paulo Freire. “The ‘Banking’ Concept of Education.” In Pedagogy of the Oppressed. 2021 No author,2021. “Community Colleges, The junior college and Research University, Community College Mission.” https://education.stateuniversity.com. Ruriko Kumano, 2020. “Anticommunism and Academic Freedom: Walter C. Eells and the “Red Purge” in Occupied Japan.” In History of Education Quarterly. Vol 50, no. 4. George B. Vaughan, 1982. “The Community College in America: A Short History.” AACJC.

References Continued Section III

Steven Brint,2003. “Few Remaining Dreams: Community Colleges Since 1985.” The ANNALS of the American Academy of Political and Social Science. Luis Miguel, 2021. “The Left’s Plan to Purge Military of Conservatives Under Guise of Fighting ‘Hate Groups’.” New American. January 12. James C. Martin, 2021. “Exposing Critical Race Training in Higher Education.” The James G. Martin Center for Academic Renewal. Feb. 12. Fen Cai and Ghulam Murtaza Khan,2018. “Reference on the Undergraduate Curriculum Reform in American Research Universitities—Taking Curriculum Reform at Harvard University as an Example.” International Journal of Education and Research. Vol. 6, No.1. January. John S. Rosenberg, 2017. “The Harvard College Curriculum.” Harvard Magazine. July-August. No author, 2020. “A Brief History of Harvard College.” Harvard College Handbook for Students. 2020-1. Risheng Xu, 2004. “Constructing the Core Curriculum.” Crimson. July 2004 Lenore Sobota and Kelsey Watznauer, 2021. “Watch now: Illinois may get new graduation requirements. These Bloomington-Normal-area superintendents are concerned.” The Pantagram. January 29. National Commission On Excellence in Education, 1983. “A Nation at Risk: The Imperative for Educational Reform.” A Report to the Nation and the Secretary of Education, US Department of Education. April.

References Continued Section IV

Len Jessup, 2020. “The Power of the Pivot.” The Flame. Fall. Kyle Mizokami, 2020. “The Air Force’s Secret New Fighter Jet May Not Even Be a Fighter at ALL.” Popular Mechanics, September 25. Nick Hanauer and David M. Rolf, 2020. The Top 1% of Americans Have Taken $50 Trillion From the Bottom 90%- And That’s Made the U.S. Less Secure.” Time. September 14. Ellen Sheng, 2020. “The $68 trillion transfer of wealth in America is evaporating amid crisis.” Small Business Playbook. November 5. Michael Simmons, 2021. “Google Director Of Engineering: This is how fast the world will change in ten years.” Medium, February 16. Richard Tafel, 2020. “America’s ‘Great Wealth Transfer’:How to pass on values and purpose.” Big Think Big Think Big Think. February 27.

Section V

James G. Miller, 1978. Living Systems. MacGraw Hill.

References Continued