Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera

Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the ConcurrentJurnal Regional Ilmu SosialElection dan in West Ilmu Sumatera Politik Volume 21, Issue 1, July 2017 (57-73) ISSN 1410-4946 (Print), 2502-7883 (Online) doi: 10.22146/jsp.28701

Power Network of Penghulu Adat in The Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera

Asrinaldi•1

Abstract This article describes the power network of Minangkabau’s penghulu adat in West Sumatera. As known in West Sumatera, the penghulu has a strategic position in the Minangkabau community. Its position in traditional institutions is of utmost importance, especially in bridging the interests of the community in the political and governance processes in the nagari. This is deemed feasible as penghulu adat is capable of optimizing their power network and utilizing traditional institutions that they congregate in. In explaining the power network of penghulu, this study used a descriptive type of qualitative approach. Furthermore, this research found various types of formation in penghulu’s power network which serves as the basis for their involvement in the political process of the village. Firstly, the establishment of penghulu power networking through personal capabilities recognized by the community in the village. Secondly, the establishment of penghulu power networking through traditional authority. Thirdly, the establishment of penghulu power networking which originates from the additional legitimacy of local governments, particularly for penghulu considered to represent the local government’s interests in the village. Fourthly, the establishment of penghulu power networking based on the recognition of their peers by bestowing the title of sangsako in the tribe.

Keywords: power; network; politics and penghulu adat.

Abstrak Artikel ini menjelaskan jaringan penghulu adat dalam masyarakat Minangkabau di Sumatera Barat. Sebagaimana diketahui, penghulu memiliki posisi yang sangat strategis dalam masyarakat Minangkabau. Bahkan posisinya dalam kelembagaan adat sangat penting, terutama menjembatani kepentingan masyarakat dalam proses politik dan pemerintahan di nagari. Hal ini dapat dilakukan karena penghulu dapat mengoptimalkan jaringan kekuasaan yang ada pada diri mereka dan kelembagaan adat tempat mereka berhimpun. Untuk menjelaskan jaringan kekuasaan penghulu ini, maka penelitian ini menggunakan pendekatan kualitatif deskriptif. Dari kajian ini ditemukan bahwa terdapat empat proses pembentukan jaringan kekuasaan penghulu adat yang menjadi dasar bagi mereka untuk terlibat dalam proses politik dalam Pilkada, khususnya di nagari tempat mereka berdomisili. Pertama, pembentukan jaringan kekuasaan melalui kemampuan personal penghulu yang memang diakui oleh komunitas di nagari. Kedua, pembentukan jaringan melalui otoritas tradisional karena garis keturunan. Ketiga, pembentukan jaringan kekuasaan karena adanya legitimasi tambahan dari pemerintah daerah, khususnya kepada penghulu adat yang dianggap dapat mewakili kepentingan pemerintah daerah di nagari. Keempat, pembentukan jaringan kekuasaan karena pengakuan rekan sejawat melalui pemberian gelar adat sangsako di dalam suku.

• Department of Political Science, Faculty of Social and Political Sciences, Andalas University Email: [email protected]

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Kata kunci: jaringan; kekuasaan; politik dan penghulu adat.

Introduction power vested in their selves. In order to achieve Traditional power in modern political an understanding with other individuals in the activities constantly incites the attention of community, power needs to be actualized into scientists. This is due to the extensiveness of forms of strategies which will ultimately result power legitimacy in traditional society which is in a mutual agreement among them (Foucault, often abused by power holders and utilized for 1982). This is also the case in the penghulu political interests. In the contemporary context, adat (customary chief) who acts on behalf of the use of traditional power is often linked to themselves and also on behalf of their status activities of General Election (Pemilihan Umum as local leaders of the cultural and customary – Pemilu) or Regional Election (Pemilihan Kepala institutions who assume certain roles and Daerah – Pilkada) by involving the masses functions in the community. (Sulistiyanto & Erb, 2009). In Indonesia, In developing countries, traditional the influence of traditional elites remains authorities represented by informal leaders profound in the daily lives of the community. indeed remain a necessity to the government. This becomes even more prevalent as the The involvement of informal leaders has authority wielded by traditional elites in their strong connections to the limited capability of communities tends to form a very strong bond the government in encouraging community of patronage subsequently viable to be used for involvement in program implementation. political interests (Aspinall & Sukmajati, 2016: Additionally, traditional communities are still 4-6). As an example, Aspinall & Sukmajati bound with cultural value systems which can emphasize that patronage strategy became the only be understood by the penghulu adat. Herein main option for every candidate running in lies the government’s difficulty in garnering the legislative election of 2014. They tended to public support, especially in implementing use their informal networks through brokers development programs. The government is in the constituencies to collect votes (2016: fully aware that the influence these traditional 5). The established relationship becomes a leaders have remain relevant in the practice of substantial part in the mobilization of power modern democracy. Aside from having power used for the political elite’s interests. In line in the community one leads, the penghulu adat with this view, Sulistiyanto & Erb (2009) also also possess power networks which can be found patronage tendencies throughout the utilized for political interests. Nevertheless, the electoral democracy process in Indonesia. The power of penghulu adat has actually undergone number of political elites utilizing traditional a transformation to becoming a part of modern power networks through patronage patterns as power/authority. Particularly, in a number one of the means in mobilizing support during of cases, dominant power relations between the regional elections were quite substantial (cf. the holder of traditional power and holder of Prasad, 2016: 23-24). modern power such as the government have To the pluralists, power is not actually been observed to occur. owned by a particular class, such as the state. The presence of penghulu adat and the Power, in its general limitation, is also owned power they wield have actually gained the by the community and even by individuals in attention of previous researchers. Graves (2010) the community who interact on behalf of the and Hadler (2010) have explained the matter

58 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera although not in the context of practical politics This phenomenon can also be observed in the utilization such as the regional election. Graves, implementation of penghulu adat power in West for instance, has thoroughly stressed evidence Sumatera. Even the regional election which is an showing colonial administration politics taking important process of democratic consolidation advantage of penghulu adat influence for their has altered the behavior of penghulu adat in own interests in the Minangkabau region. The political activities at the regional level as of colonial administration had significant interest current. The power politics of penghulu adat no in the legitimacy owned by penghulu in the longer exists merely in socio-cultural spheres, Minangkabau community in order to control but it touches on dimensions of politics and the community through the power of penghulu administration (Asrinaldi, 2016: 31). Therefore, adat they recognize. This is why maintaining the a more in-depth study on the shift in the status quo of penghulu who were proponents utilization of penghulu adat’s political power of the colonial government was a substantial and power networks is imperative, particularly strategy for the Dutch colonial administration in the effort of reconstructing the influence of in Minangkabau. In a number of activities in penghulu adat’s power network in activities of the nagari (village), the recognized penghulu modern politics. was even appointed as the head of a territorial This article strives to explain the tendency political unit known as kelarasan (2010:75-85). of power utilization by penghulu adat as Kelarasan is a government system conducted in individuals exerting their power and functions the customary administration of Minangkabau in customary institutions, mainly in the which consists of two forms of kelarasan namely regional election activities. The argument to bodi caniago and koto piliang. The position of be established in this study is that there is a laras head (lareh) entailed a salary provided by utilization of power networks by political elites the colonial administration hence binding the to mobilize support in the concurrent regional penghulu adat as the head of the laras. election of 2015 by involving penghulu adat in According to Hadler (2010), the Dutch nagari (villages) throughout the West Sumatera colonial government took advantage of the Province. These power networks were formed nagari head (wali nagari) to force communities by utilizing existing traditional authority in the nagari to grow coffee plant and imposed derived from the personal capacity of the coffee tax on the Minangkabau community. penghulu adat. Hence, there are two problems Additionally, “In the 1860s, a more recent that will be explained in this article, namely: position of penghulu suku rodi was introduced how was the penghulu adat power networks to manage both the collection of coffee and the established in the administrative and political implementation of slave labor duties” (2010: activities of the West Sumatera Province; and, 56). Observing this term, the ethnic penghulu how did the utilization of these power networks indirectly became entrenched in political work in and out of their ethnic group. and administrative activities, particularly in strengthening the position of the reigning Methods government at the time. The analysis in this article is based on field Contemporary development reiterates study data by using a descriptive qualitative that the power of traditional authority has approach. This approach was purposely chosen currently experienced a transformation in to explain the phenomenon regarding the its leadership role and has adapted to global utilization of traditional power networks by influences such as democratization process penghulu adat during the concurrent regional occurring in many countries (Hughes, 2000). election held in West Sumatera. The character

59 Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 21, Issue 1, July 2017 of this descriptive qualitative research is to Discussion explain factual and realistic aspects in social, Upon examination of the patronage cultural and political activities of penghulu adat relation established between patron and who tended to involve themselves in regional client in the community, it is indicative that election activities due to them being involved the said relation demonstrates the presence by the regional head candidates or due to of a dominant power wielded by a few their own personal intent to be involved for individuals over that of many. This dominance particular goals. can be observed through the behavior of a The research data was gathered through majority in a region acting in accordance to in-depth interviews with sources that the interests of the group assuming the role of directly understand the subject matter such patron. Conceptually, “Patron client relationship as interviews with regional head candidate are legitimated by traditional conceptions of involved in the concurrent regional election personalized power and a system of political and the penghulu adat serving as a member deference embodied in religious and cultural values. of that candidate’s campaign team. As much Traditional patrimonial leaders supply security and as 24 individuals were interviewed in this protection that is remunerated by the followers’ study as a basis to analyze the phenomenon. passive loyalty.” (Deasy Simandjuntak, 2013: Some of the interview excerpts were included 99). It is not uncommon that this resource is in the analysis section to strongly illustrate utilized by the patron for the sake of their own actual events occurring in the community. political interest, or utilized by political elites Data collection was conducted from the month having interest with the resources owned by of April until July of 2016 in several regions the patron. For instance, in the local context holding concurrent regional elections that are of West Sumatera, the patronage relationship assumed to have been witness to intensive can be established from traditional authority involvement of penghulu adat in places such owned by penghulu adat due to the network of as Solok Municipality, Dharmasraya Regency, power he wields. Solok Regency, Tanah Datar Regency and West The discussion in this section is elaborated Sumatera Provincial level regional election. into two parts, firstly, regarding the concept and Additionally, the winning regional head utilization of penghulu adat power network in candidates in these regions were also penghulu West Sumatera. A review of this concept is adat in their respective tribe and ethnic group. substantial in understanding the shift in the Therefore, the sociological background of the concept of penghulu adat power, which has been elected regional head candidate in the research commonly known in the social life of nagari area, who were also penghulu adat, undoubtedly in West Sumatera, with the current practice influenced the formation of thepenghulu power of modern government. Subsequently, the networks in their election. A triangulation construction of the concept of power through the process or data validity test was also employed formation of the penghulu adat power networks in order to ascertain that the acquired data will be more easily identified. Secondly, the has valid reliability, that is by reviewing the discussion regarding the formation of network relevance of concept and data sources obtained and its utilization in the administrative and in the field. For triangulation of data sources, political processes. In the political context, the a number of interviews were also carried out formation of the penghulu adat power network with political party committees who were part will be observed through the regional election of the regional head candidate campaign team. process which involved them as well.

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Power Network and Traditional Authority of (2012:4-5) clarified the presence of traditional Penghulu Adat power influence on general election dynamics Power network is the relation of dominant in Ethiopia. The fact of the matter is that power prevailing in the community. The both the government and the opposing party accumulation of power possessed by every tended to use traditional authority to mobilize individual tends to be used to accomplish voters, particularly during general elections. a particular interest. Even more so in the The involvement of traditional authority political context, wherein the individual power elites even provided legitimacy to candidates is bound in the network that is purposively suggested by political parties. This is meant formed or that forms naturally. Foucault further to secure votes given by electorates bound elaborated that individuals play an active role under the traditional authoritative power for in articulating the power that shapes them. the suggested candidates during the general Bearing in mind that power is the mechanism election. In other words, tradetional authority and strategy that regulates life to be more became one of the instruments utilized in orderly and mutually habitable. Hence, it is conducting pre-selection of candidates before necessary to have a mutually agreed upon set the start of general elections. of rules called the normalization process for The position of the elites with their these power wielded by individuals to run well. traditional authority is quite revered in As an example, in the Minangkabau communities that still adhere to clientelism ethnic group the power of penghulu adat is not culture. Particularly when general elections merely limited to social and cultural context. are held, the function of these traditional The power of the penghulu also permeates the authority wielding elites is highly sought after administrative and political spheres, because by candidates—due to their strategic position penghulu in essence are also free individuals in mobilizing supports. It is obvious from assuming the role of political subjects. this trend that the elites bearing traditional Penghulu, in certain cases, can intervene the authority are not mere remnants of the past, implementation of formal administration but they are elites assuming dynamic roles under the control of wali nagari who are directly in bridging the past, present and future of a elected by the community. This intervention in community (Tronvoll & Hagmann, 2012: 5). authority can undoubtedly be done due to the In general, the ongoing phenomenon in prevailing power network he possesses, that is the context of controlling individual power as an individual bearing traditional authority within a traditional community is also a part of and as an individual assuming the role of a political patrimonialism. This patrimonialism rational political being. This is the form of is clearly a form of elite domination over active role penghulu adat possess in articulating the political system by utilizing their power, the power they hold. including utilizing traditional culture, religion One of the source of power which became and kinship network that are connected to the basis of establishing the penghulu adat power social and cultural values. Furthermore, network is their ownership over traditional patrimonialism aims to create stability in the authority. The concept of traditional authority system of politics and government according has indeed caught the attention of scientists. to certain interests. The leaders produced from This interest refers to the role of authority such patrimonial understanding tend to be holder in a traditional community who tends dominating as they obtain legitimacy from their to use power for political ends such as general clients based on the traditional authority they elections. For instance, Tronvoll & Hagmann possess (Vel, 2008).

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There are numerous studies looking into long been known by many experts. Graves (2010: the influence of this primordialistic cultural 31), for instance, explained that the position of relation on political activities. This culture penghulu in the tribe or ethnic group is inherited of primordialism is even considered as the based on the matrilineal lineage. The penghulu is driving force in mobilization of the masses. responsible to his clan, including in preserving This can happen because of the traditional inheritance and relations with other clans in leaders’ dominance who have inherited the nagari. As elaborated by Benda-Beckmann power from a noble family, local elites or & Benda-Beckmann (2013: 48) penghulu has royal descendants. These noble group, local “...the basic constituent units for economic and elites or royal descendants are commonly political organisation.” Even so, this traditional revered so that whatever their attitudes and authority of penghulu in West Sumatera is views are, their followers will abide by them. undergoing a shift due to the strong influence This primordialism also restrengthens the of modern power/authority. One of them being patron-client relationship of communities in the strong interference of the government in developing countries, particularly those living conducting modern administrative functions in the rural regions. It is often the case that to the lower level, namely in the nagari which their position is utilized to influence political consequently influences the power ofpenghulu decisions made by the community. Even the adat. Nevertheless, under some conditions, use of money or goods in general elections the implementation of cultural and customary to mobilize support frequently occurs, as systems in each of the nagari is still given the written by Wang (2014:14) that “...villagers’ high attention they need so that the legitimacy of participation rate can be due to either government the nagari administrators are still maintained. mobilization (by paying money to villagers who Actually, the study on the penghulu’s vote) or by mobilization of village elite (by using traditional authority ownership has also the influence of personal relationships).” been previously explained by Max Weber. In the Minangkabau community, the In his book, The Theory of Social and Economic practice of patrimonialism can be observed Organization (1947), Weber explained that the from the position of penghulu adat in the nagari. prevailing legitimacy in traditional authority The penghulu adat are usually the leaders of their will result in legitimacy from its followers tribes. As a leader, they are fully responsible because the said authority/power is derived not only to the nibling, but also in the use of the from the belief in the sanctity of tradition noble cultural legacy (Navis, 2015). The title of which has been practiced for a long time in the penghulu is generally inherited from generation to community. The practiced tradition is believed generation, but there are also other requirements to have the capacity to lead them to the desired which must be fulfilled in order to become a objectives in life. The belief in traditional power penghulu such as having righteous character, originates from values the community have being intelligent and knowledgeable, honest, and faith in and are practiced to become developing fluent in speech (Idrus Hakimy, 2001: 7-10). This culture and customs. Through the actualization serves as the basis for penghulu to take actions of cultural and customary values, a leader that are subsequently followed and obeyed by obtains legitimacy to lead the community. the community he leads. The penghulu who has The power legitimacy of penghulu adat fulfilled these requirements would usually have in Minangkabau is generally derived from strong legitimacy. customs and culture that serve as a guide for The influence of penghulu’s traditional the community. In the Minangkabau tradition, authority in the Minangkabau community has the penghulu are men who are descendants

62 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera from the mother’s ancestry (matrilineal). In relation between the actors will produce power the mother’s lineage, he is the mother’s brother in real life. That would also be the case when who becomes the mamak (uncle) to the mother’s we observe the power of penghulu adat wherein children (Graves, 2007). This is why in the the power they possess is not only imbued in Minangkabau culture “the leadership of the the penghulu’s self but also in the relations that tribe and group in the community belongs to are established because of the power vested the mamak. The definition of mamak is literally upon him. As an example is the power formed the mother’s brother. Even sociologically between the penghulu adat and the regional speaking, all men of older generations are government. In order to understand their mamak” (Navis, 2015: 130). It is in the hands relationship, we must be aware that there is of the penghulu that all decisions relating to power which mutually influences and supports sako, pusako and activities of the children and one another. But, specifically forpenghulu adat, nibling in the clan are considered. Indeed, as long as that power/authority is used for the at glance, it seems that penghulu has quite a interest of their ethnic group and community substantial power in the Minangkabau ethnic with a righteous objective, the legitimacy of the group. However, the power wielded in the penghulu’s power will see an increase. On the hands of penghulu certainly cannot be exerted contrary, the penghulu’s power legitimacy will to his heart’s content. Particularly because in the cease to be if it were merely used for his own penghulu’s exercise of power, the philosophy of self interest. As a result, the advice and opinion adat nan sabana adat (true custom/norm), that of the penghulu would no longer be heard by is “Adat Bersendikan Syarak, Syarak Bersendikan his community and tribe. In the most extreme Kitabullah” (custom is based on sharia, whilst cases, the penghulu would not be involved in sharia is based on the Holy Quran), becomes the decision making process of consultation the indisputable main guide to lead. assembly held by his people. On the other hand, Although the power of penghulu adat is the nibling who are the penghulu’s responsibility legitimized by values of custom and culture, to begin with would no longer seek his advice in practice and its development the penghulu’s and opinion, especially regarding issues or power could also wax and wane. This is in problems they encounter.3 line of what has been revealed by Irwan In the modern context, the spread of Prayitno Datuak Bandaro Basa—the penghulu penghulu adat’s legitimacy to power in the of Tanjung Kenagarian Pauh IX clan, who is Minangkabau customary life has also been also the elected Governor of West Sumatera influenced by its surrounding environment. in the concurrent regional election. In his Particularly with the advent of modernization opinion “the rise in customary power is closely which is signified by progress in knowledge related to the network owned by a penghulu and technology which impacted on the whether he uses customary power, personal existence of penghulu adat. This means that relations and other social relations in the mastery over knowledge and technology is also community.”2 Particularly when in his daily an inseparable part in strengthening penghulu life, the penghulu has broad social and cultural adat’s legitimacy to power in Minangkabau. It is relations in other tribes and clans in the nagari. often the case that apenghulu ’s power will rise in This is in accordance to the essence of power stature and influence if he were to possess high as Foucault (1982) explained that power has competency in knowledge. This is because the a relational dimension between actors. Every 3 Interview with Marlon Martua Datuak Rangkayo 2 Interview conducted on June 25, 2015 at the governor’s Mulie, campaign organizer for the elected regent/vice rd residence. regent pairing of Dharmasraya, on July 3 , 2016.

63 Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 21, Issue 1, July 2017 social status of the penghulu in his community brought about tensions which shook the and clan would also gain more strength and solidity of power network in the nagari. significance (cf. Abdullah, T., 2009: 5-12). Thus, it is clear that the existence of Contrarily, if the community he leads were to penghulu in the community is very dependent possess more advanced mastery of knowledge on the utilization of the power network and technology than him, the presence of the they wield. This network of power emerges penghulu’s influence would indirectly be less as a form of implementation from their substantial. This is the reality in the practice of function as penghulu which originates from penghulu adat’s power. In line to this condition, traditional authority acknowledged by their Idrus Hakimy clarified that penghulu should community. Even in the context of modern possess “knowledge about the people he life, this traditional legitimacy is still required leads, harto pusako, about the korong kampong by government and political institutions for and origins as well as the negari [nagari]. Be short term political interests. For instance, to knowledgeable about the sharia and customary a regional head candidate, the utilization of law, and be capable of implementing them power network owned by penghulu adat directly in resolving disputes occurring in the living relates to their access to the nibling of that tribe surroundings of his people and negari”(2001: and group, particularly in the nagari. We can 26). Without all of the above, the existence imagine the amount of support which can be of penghulu would merely be a symbolic one acquired by a regional head candidate from the within the tribes and people of Minangkabau. nibling of a penghulu adat in a nagari. Particularly From another aspect, the existence of if the mobilization of support carried out by penghulu adat is also influenced by government the penghulu adat received full response from policy, specifically following the issuance his nibling. Because of this, the traditional of Law No. 6 year 2014 on Village. Prior to legitimacy possessed by penghulu adat often this, the election system of wali nagari (village became the key to a regional head candidate’s head) in West Sumatera had also been subject success in winning the regional election. to change based on Law No. 32 year 2004 on Thus is also the case in the implementation Regional Government which was eventually of administrative functions, the assistance followed by Governmental Regulation No. 72 of penghulu adat becomes necessary to carry year 2005 on Village. The wali nagari were no out the functions of political institutions and longer elected based on the primus inter pares governments in the West Sumatera area. principle because of their personal excellence being acknowledged by their community The Formation of Penghulu Adat Power through a deliberation process but through Network community support in a direct election of wali One of the strength penghulu adat wield nagari. The result of this direct election was is their network. The penghulu’s power network that there were quite a lot of rivalries observed is formed in their traditional community which between the penghulu adat and ninik mamak to concurrently affords them the legitimacy to support wali nagari originating from their tribe take actions. Additionally, this network is or community. It was not seldom that even also formed due to their informal relations to penghulu adat were tempted to participate in the government authority/power. The power of wali nagari election because they are confident penghulu adat in West Sumatera is a substantial with the influence of their traditional authority necessity, particularly in assisting to resolve that they consider influential due to the support problems encountered by government of their nibling. These competitions frequently administrators. Cases of nibling disputes

64 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera among nagari which is rooted in horizontal and wealth they own. It is often the case that a conflicts are commonly resolved through penghulu with such network will obtain a noble customary means involving the penghulu. As stature among the life of his tribe and people.6 an example, the conflict of land boundary Additionally, penghulu adat also serve as dispute between Nagari Muaro Pingai and mamak that the nibling depend on, specifically, Nagari Saning Baka in the Solok Regency which in the economic aspect. This results in the was leading to a riot was resolved through difficulty of nibling to refuse the penghulu’s customary means by involving penghulu adat wish and refuse their request for support. This of the respective nagari and facilitated by the patron-client relationship frequently occurs regent and local police force.4 and tends to be used for political interests. For Another example is the conflict between example, in the context of regional election, the the people of nagari and the security apparatus opinion of the winning penghulu who indeed regarding the case of illegal mining in does have authority in customary matters, Sijunjung Regency, South Solok Regency and knowledge, and economic resource tends to be Dharmasraya Regency which was also resolved heard. Their nibling won’t even hesitate to ask through the involvement of penghulu adat. The which candidate they support in the general mediation undertaken by the penghulu adat election (Pemilu) or regional election (Pilkada) with the security force was successful due held in the nagari. This is in line with the to the Head of Indonesian Police Regulation Minangkabau custom of kamanakan saparintah No. 3 2015 on Community Policing. In this mamak (the nibling obeys the uncle). There case, the penghulu adat who also acted as the were usually a lot of opportunities in which the leader of the clan from the nibling who were in penghulu adat disseminated support regarding dispute strived to resolve the problem through the regional head candidate they choose to their negotiations with the police so it does not nibling or to community figures in the nagari. become a legal issue. The resolution process These actions the penghulu took is in accordance went smoothly in avoiding a more intense to their function illustrated in the philosophy of conflict between thenagari community and the pai tampek batanyo, pulang tampek babarito (when local police.5 you leave you (for his advice), when you return It is interesting to note that the existence of you report (recent news and information)). On penghulu adat will in fact gain more significance the contrary, if the penghulu adat did not have due to the power network they wield. Hence, resources such as sufficient knowledge or these power networks will serve as social and control over customary land, the nibling would political capital for the penghulu in carrying usually pay little attention to thepenghulu adat’s out their cultural and customary functions demands. There is, instead, a tendency for the as well as in fulfilling their own personal penghulu’s demands and actions to be criticized interests. It can subsequently be understood and evaluated by the nibling if it were deemed that these power networks were formed due unsuitable to their interests.7 to the personal capacity of penghulu adat. Their Secondly, the formation of penghulu adat personal capacity is closely related to the power network is a result of the traditional resources they have such as the knowledge legitimacy they maintain. As already known, the penghulu adat are leaders of clans and tribes 4 https://issuu.com/haluan/docs/hln280113/4, accessed on October 11, 2016. 6 Interview with Syamsu Rahim, Solok Regent for the rd 5 http://harianhaluan.com/news/detail/44528/tambang- 2010-2015 period in Padang on June 23 , 2016. emas-ilegal-di-sumbar-ibarat-bom-waktu-, accessed 7 Interview with H. Rusli Khatib Sulaiman Head of the on October 11, 2016. LKAAM Solok Municipality on April the 5th, 2016.

65 Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 21, Issue 1, July 2017 in a nagari. There are usually four or more clans second case an ethnic group adjusts with its respective penghulu adat in a negari. to the new realities by reorganizing The interactions among the penghulu adat can its own traditional customs, or by strengthen the power network owned by a developing new customs under traditional symbols, often using penghulu adat. It is in this context that power traditional norms and ideologies to network becomes strengthened even further. enhance its distinctiveness within The extent of kinship in each clan of the nagari contemporary situation.” (2004: 1) has its own advantages for the penghulu adat for mobilization purposes on behalf of his clan’s In the highly dynamic customary interests. The penghulu adat power network community of nagari, the change in norms is seen as a means to strengthen the basis of and values tends to occur, particularly in political support in the general and regional political activities they participate in. Along elections (cf. Aspinall & Sukmajati, 2016). with the involvement of their penghulu in In fact, the mutual influence of power practical politics, this more or less has an networks among penghulu adat also takes place influence in their perspective on the political in the nagari. Emotional proximity among reality currently occurring in the nagari. The penghulu adat in the nagari is also utilized to existing government policies strengthen the mutually support the interests of each penghulu. political role of the people up till the village The relational pattern happening among them level through the election of village head or is indeed not claimed to be done on behalf of election of wali nagari in West Sumatera based their respective clan and people. But, it is more on Law No.6 year 2014 on Village, and this of a closeness as peers in the nagari who jointly has changed their past views and habits which manage customs and culture in the nagari. The seemed to have distanced themselves from similarity in roles undertaken as penghulu adat political activities. and even similarity of interest in the nagari are Particularly, the strengthening the fundamental background in the formation of the community’s politics through the of mutual collaboration among them. In implementation of decentralization, political reality, the pattern used by a penghulu adat in decentralization to be exact, is capable of mobilizing the nibling will easily become a providing space for the community to be model for other penghulu adat to garner the involved in every available political activity. same support from their own nibling. This is Even political parties are becoming more the impact of the ongoing interaction in the intense in broadening their political networks penghulu adat community found in the nagari. to the village or nagari level. This phenomenon The tendency to replicate is nothing new extremely differs from the New Order policy in traditional communities. The general idea which had indeed restrained political activities is that the ethnic groups mutually adapt and undertaken by the party up to the village level. adopt values, customs or behavior that are This, however, was not applicable to the Golkar applied in their everyday lives. This is in line party which was the party in support of the with Cohen’s elaboration in his book Custom New Order regime. The village head at the and Politics in Urban Africa: time was even a major actor in mobilizing the masses affiliated to Golkar (Jones, 2010: 345). “In the one case an ethnic group Government policies in the political aspect are adjusts to the new social realities by adopting customs which are indirectly stipulated in the Village Law and shared with other groups. In the the Regional Government Law which aims at raising political awareness of the community

66 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera as a prerequisite to quality local democratic implementation of development programs in life. Over the last three years, even political the nagari which are included in the regional dynamics at the lowest level, such as the nagari government’s programs and activities. It is in West Sumatera, have been undergoing rapid often the case that the assistance given to progress and development. This can be observed the nagari administration also involves the in their enthusiasm in following the extremely consideration of the penghulu adat in the nagari. dynamic wali nagari (village head) election. Even the political lobbying undertaken by the In the practice of the wali nagari election, all penghulu becomes a substantial part of the attributes of power and traditional authority political process in order to obtain assistance were employed to bring certain candidates to from the head of the region. victory. While previously, attributes of the clan/ The close relationship between the tribe’s traditional power/authority were only penghulu adat and regional government used to strengthen customary and cultural is nothing new in the political context of values within the confinement of the nagari Minangkabau. In the ethnical history of area. Ever since the direct election of regional Minangkabau, the relationship between the head had been carried out, its influence can be penghulu adat and colonial authority had directly observed through the strengthening of already been established, particularly to the clan’s political identity in various regions. mutually maintain their respective interest. The Thirdly, the formation of penghulu Dutch colonial government did indeed utilize power network took place due to additional the influence of penghulu adat to strengthen acknowledgement from the regional their position in the nagari (Graves, 2010). government to the position of penghulu who Conversely, the relationship established with are considered to be capable of assisting the the Dutch colonial government was also government. Although the appointment of utilized by the penghulu adat to broaden their penghulu adat falls under the mandate of influence in the community’s activities. the customary community, in a number of During the colonial era, the penghulu of the issues the influence of regional government nagari were chosen and selected by the colonial in providing additional “legitimacy” to the government to be appointed as spokespersons penghulu is no less significant. The presence for the Dutch to the community in the nagari as of penghulu adat, especially those that are well as to collect taxes from them. They are called recognized to be capable in assisting the the head penghulu by the Dutch with the main implementation of government programs in objective of assisting in the interest of the colonial the nagari will become a matter of importance to administration. The appointment was aimed at the regional administration. Upon observation facilitating the Dutch colonial interests in the of this reality, the regional government has nagari in implementing slave labor of planting indirectly provided recognition to the penghulu coffee. Even so, the acknowledgement given by adat that are appointed by their tribe and the Dutch colonial government also impacted clan in the nagari. Surely, the government’s the social mobility of the penghulu adat which acknowledgement will also ease the penghulu consequently increased their access to wealth and adat in carrying out their functions among power (Biezefeld, 2007: 209; also see Hadler, 2010: their tribes and people.8 Particularly when 56-57). Thus, the additional legitimacy provided the position of the penghulu is linked to the to the penghulu had taken place for a long time with particular purposes. 8 Interview with Zul Elfian Datuak Tianso, elected Mayor This phenomenon can be compared of Solok in the 2015 concurrent regional election, on June 29th, 2016. to the current period, wherein the regional

67 Jurnal Ilmu Sosial dan Ilmu Politik, Volume 21, Issue 1, July 2017 government also provides recognition to the political wiggle room they have as stipulated penghulu adat. As an example, the government’s by the restriction for ASN to engage in politics acknowledgement to the penghulu adat is given by (Asrinaldi, 2016:61-65). appointing them as public officials in the scope Fourthly, the formation of penghulu adat of regional administration. It is often the case power network can also be understood from that the penghulu adat also work as State Civil the environment of colleagues or peers they Apparatus (Aparat Sipil Negara – ASN) and their interact in. In the nagari, there are individuals position as ASN can be utilized by the regional possessing greater capabilities than other head to support development programs in the figures which leads to them being looked up regions. For example, by appointing them as as role models in social and cultural activities echelon officials in the regional government, of the nagari. By having greater capacity, a the regional head can indirectly intervene in the person can even be appointed as penghulu even implementation of the penghulu adat’s functions. though he does not have direct lineage with the As for the penghulu adat also serving as ASN, head of the penghulu adat. In this context, the the acknowledgement to their authority will title of penghulu adat can be given to someone increasingly strengthen their position in the who is considered to have contributed to community. Particularly because the current developing the customs and culture of a tribe development in the life of the people and of the and community thus affording him with the nation following Indonesia’s independence has title sangsako. The title of sangsako is indeed reduced the power and authority of traditional different to the title of sako which indicates figures seeking for alternative legitimacy, direct lineage to the Minangkabau ethnic especially from the state. group. According to Idrus Hakimy (2001: 31), the title of sangsako is “a title of nobility given “After independence local leaders by the joint assembly through a consensus, and whose authority had become partly it is not inheritable as the sako title is.” This based on positions provided by means that this title can be removed based the national state had to find new on the joint decision of the council of elders ways to connect to the national centre. Traditional leadership is no in accordance to customs if a person were no longer sufficient to remain in power longer considered worthy of bearing the title locally.” (Vel, 2008: 8) as it is said in the traditional philosophy that sangsako pakai-mamakai, manuruik barieh balabeh. This is why it is no surprise that penghulu However, there is one concern regarding the adat serving as ASN intend to be politically matter, apenghulu with the title of sangsako has affiliated during general or regional elections as no relations whatsoever with the noble cultural a shortcut to accomplish their goal of obtaining legacy (pusako tinggi) which is the responsibility legitimacy and restrengthening power and carried by penghulu afforded the title sako. authority in their tribes and community. Even so, the involvement of penghulu Although there are not many of them, ASN adat with the title of sangsako tends to be officials with a background as penghulu adat carried out in order to successfully implement did indeed furtively involve themselves in development programs in the government regional elections by providing support to the agenda. It is often the case that those given regional head candidate that serves as their the title of sangsako are government officials patron. Nevertheless, the support given by considered to have assisted in the development the ASN officials who were also penghulu adat of the nagari that afforded the title in the first was not too significant due to the limitation of place. Additionally, the title of sangsako is also

68 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera given to political leaders who participated in In a number of issues, the customary assisting and developing the Minangkabau title of sasangko given to figures regarded to custom and culture which consequently have contributed to the Minangkabau tribes reserves them the honor to be afforded this title. and communities can indeed provide positive The formation of power networks through impact to the nagari in the form of assistance their peers also has an influence on the political or protection. It is interesting to note that when activities in the tribes and communities. the person given the title sangsako by the nagari Particularly when the person given the title of run as a candidate in the general or regional sangsako is a public official or a political figure. elections, assistance from the penghulu adat will The procession of bestowing the sangsako title subsequently come, including mobilization of is only carried out among penghulu adat of the electoral support from the community in the tribes and communities. This means that the nagari with the purpose of bringing the said assembly held to reach a consensus on behalf candidate to victory. This exchange of resources of nibling is represented to the penghulu adat is obviously a part of the unavoidable political of tribes and communities in the nagari. That patronage in the context of contemporary is why, in relation to the general and regional politics in the nagari. This is in line to what has elections, the support expected by a person been clarified by Hanif (2009: 330). appointed as a penghulu adat with the title sangsako tends to be carried out among peers “A relationship signified with the of penghulu adat who appointed the penghulu provision of political and economic with the sangsako title. The reason for this being resources from the patron who usually wields personal power/ that the penghulu adat with the title of sangsako authority to the beneficiaries of do not truly have direct access to nibling or ‘charity’ who provide their loyalty communities in the nagari. and political support.” Upon observation of the above phenomenon, it is clear that the power network Upon observation of factual occurrences of penghulu adat who have direct access to in numerous nagari in West Sumatera, the mobilize nibling are those that have networks formation of penghulu adat power networks deriving from traditional authority; they have through traditional authority is not substantially the personal capacity of penghulu adat; and supported by the personal capacity of the their traditional existence is acknowledged penghulu adat. As a result, the authoritative by the regional government. Meanwhile, the function of the customary leaders which power network derived from a peer of penghulu should be implemented in the nagari becomes adat has very weak influence in the nagari degraded. This is undoubtedly an issue for community. Nevertheless, those who bear the penghulu adat in carrying out their customary title of sasangko afforded by theirpenghulu adat functions in the face of their nibling. Particularly peers still hold substantial position, especially because the ongoing modernization process in strengthening the position of the nagari in also brings about progress in knowledge and the administrative and political processes. technology which more or less has an impact There are quite a number of them with the on the nibling’s point of views regarding customary title of sasangko who wield influence the penghulu adat’s traditional authority in in the political, economic, and social fields. The the nagari. In general, the penghulu adat in nagari community usually takes advantage of Minangkabau remain dependant on traditional the position of the figure they had afforded the authority that is inherited through their lineage. sangsako title to help them develop the nagari. Meanwhile, another source of legitimacy is also

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Table 1. Formation of Penghulu Adat Power Network and Its Implications Formation Process Relations with the Community Power Implications Personal capacity Bearing direct influence on the nagari Mobilization process for political power is community as their personal capacity is viable as the penghulu adat has strong influence needed by the nagari community. in the community. Traditional authority Bearing influence on the community as Mobilization of power is very dependent the lineage of the penghulu with traditional on the personal authority and capacity of authority is very strong in the tribe and the penghulu adat in the eyes of the nibling, community. particularly those with higher education level. Strengthening of Bearing quite a strong influence on the A strong access to the regional government regional government community as acknowledgement of the will ease the mobilization of support from legitimacy penghulu-ship is also given by the regional nibling and the tribe so it tends to be utilized government, particularly in assisting the tasks for the interest of administrative and political of the regional government. activities, especially during period of general and regional elections. Appointment by peers Bearing weak influence on the community. Direct access is in fact in the power of of penghulu adat The influence of penghulu whose power the penghulu adat with basis of traditional network is formed through this process tends authority. This network tends to be utilized for to utilize the penghulu network appointed administrative and political interests. through traditional authority because the people bestowing the customary title of sasangko are their peers in the traditional penghulu adat. Source: Primary Data, 2016 necessary in order to strengthen this traditional constantly be asked for their input, opinion and authority, namely knowledge and technology assistance in order to implement government which are in fact developing in the lives of programs. Even in the political context, as their nibling. This is one of the reason why the explained above, the influence ofpenghulu adat influence of traditional authority in the life of is also necessary to gain support from their the nagari community begins to decrease along nibling in the tribe and community. with the constant progress of modernization. Lately within the constellation of Additionally, the power network customary politics in West Sumatera, there is phenomenon prevalent in the Minangkabau a tendency of bestowing the customary title of ethnic group is also strengthened by influences sangsako to individuals or figures considered to from outside of their tribe and community. have contributed to the life of a tribe or clan in This can be seen in the historical relationship Minangkabau. Although the bestowing of this of penghulu adat with the Dutch colony which title of sangsako also adheres to the traditional instead strengthened the position of penghulu ceremony attended by nibling of the tribe and adat in carrying out their customary functions clan providing it, there is little to almost no and the function of the colonial administration direct influence exerted upon the nibling. This (Graves, 2010). Meanwhile, in the current honorary customary title is merely a political modern context, the position of the penghulu symbolization of a tribe and clan so that their adat is also very much determined by the existence remains acknowledged outside their acknowledgement of the regional government, own community. Thus, the influence ofpenghulu especially in assisting the implementation with the title sasangko is very low, particularly if of the administrative function in the region the power network they form is used to mobilize their tribes and community reside in. usually support to their nibling in the nagari. the penghulu adat that are recognized will Conclusion

70 Asrinaldi, Power Network of Penghulu Adat in the Concurrent Regional Election in West Sumatera

The role and function of penghulu adat consequence of direct access to nibling who in the nagari community have undeniably are their supporters in the running for the undergone a significant shift. Penghulu are no general and regional elections taking place in longer exercising their cultural and customary the nagari. In reality, there are a lot of regional functions in the tribe and community. Penghulu heads utilizing the power networks of penghulu adat have gone further and have begun to adat for their interest in winning the regional be involved in practical politics although it election. Penghulu adat are appointed as part of is still being done discreetly. This is the case the campaign team or as volunteers managing at hand because there are still many nibling field operations to mobilize the nibling’s who are unhappy with the involvement of support. penghulu adat in activities of practical politics. Meanwhile, the utilization of power Particularly if this involvement is linked to networks owned by penghulu adat who also private and familial interests of the penghulu gained recognition from the government adat. Nevertheless, the involvement of penghulu due to their good personal character is given adat in practical politics has become a necessity, legitimacy by the regional government. These even more so since the issuance of Law on penghulu adat are usually appointed as regional Village, wherein the administrative activities government officials so they can assist to ease at this lowest level of government are also the implementation of regional government’s steeped in practical politics activities. As an development programs in the nagari where the example, the political agenda in the nagari penghulu adat resides in. Thus is also the case regarding the direct election of wali nagari has with the bestowing of the sasangko title to an in fact involved the penghulu adat. Even political individual which tends to be used for the sake contestation involving the nibbling in the nagari of government program implementation. It is is conducted openly so that political rivalries usually to exercise the development function can be easily observed. in the nagari so that the implementation of It is often the case that this rivalry the program can run smoothly, wherein the bears an impact on horizontal tension in the penghulu adat tends to be the facilitator in community which also effects the psychological disseminating information regarding the relations between penghulu adat and their development program. Particularly in certain nibling in the nagari. The direct election of aspects, the regional government can intervene wali nagari process is already an inseparable by utilizing the position of the penghulu adat part of political life in the nagari today. This who is also an ASN legally bound to remain is why it is no surprise that there are rivalries loyal to the superior. among penghulu adat in obtaining the position For that reason, the power network of wali nagari. These rivalries could become wielded by the penghulu adat becomes a means more intense, particularly if each penghulu adat utilized in mobilizing support within a tribe utilizes the power network they wield. Almost or community in West Sumatera. Although in every penghulu adat strive to form their power practice, there are certain conditions required of network in order to accomplish their intentions. the penghulu adat in order for the mobilization Based on the four processes of power to be carried out according to the penghulu network formation elaborated in the above adat’s interests. If these conditions are not met, passages, the penghulu adat possessing it will be a bit difficult for penghulu adat to traditional authority and supported by mobilize their nibling, particularly in activities personal capacity is the one who will usually of practical politics such as the general election win the contestation. This phenomenon is a or regional election.

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