350 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2018; 16 (4): 350–358

© Wydawnictwo UR 2018 http://www.ejcem.ur.edu.pl/en/ ISSN 2544-1361 (online); ISSN 2544-2406 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine doi: 10.15584/ejcem.2018.4.14 Eur J Clin Exp Med 2018; 16 (4): 350–358

REVIEW PAPER

Wojciech Domka 1(ABDFG), David Aebisher 2(DFG), Adrian Truszkiewicz 3(FG), Dorota Bartusik-Aebisher 4(FG)

Medicinal & Aromatic

1 Department of Otolaryngology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Poland 2 Department of Human Immunology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Poland 3 Department of Electroradiology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Poland 4 Department of Experimental and Clinical Pharmacology, Faculty of Medicine, University of Rzeszów, Poland

Abstract Introduction. The objective of this study is to discuss the potential of plants species in medical applications. Aim. The main purpose of this study is to discuss ethnobotanically selected plants used in medicine. Materials and methods. We analysed literature and collected information, data, and examples of selected plants used in med- icine. Results. The literature shows that for several decades, the properties of have been investigated and reported in the biomedical and pharmaceutical literature. Conclusions. This review includes studies on plants material. The properties of various plants physiology were discuuses with the option for the use in phythotherapy. Keywords. phytotherapy, medicinal plants, otorhinolaryngology

Introduction to plants and they properties increase risk. A regimen of up to five osteopathic ma- The use of medicines may influence many nipulative treatments does not significantly decrease therapies by inducing interacting with other medi- the risk of acute otitis media.2 The aim of Schapowal cations.1 Despite concerns over its safety or efficacy, et al. study was to assess the relative efficacy of a sage/ and cost-effectiveness, the use of Herbal medicines is echinacea spray and a chlorhexidine/lidocaine spray common among patients undergoing otolaryngolog- in the treatment of acute sore throats.3 An echinacea ic and head and neck surgery.1 Echinacea and osteo- preparation is as efficacious and well tolerated as a ch- pathic manipulative treatment have been proposed as lorhexidine/lidocaine spray in the treatment of acute preventive measures.2 In otitis-prone young children, sore throats.3 treating colds with this form of echinacea does not de- Little data is available on complementary and al- crease the risk of acute otitis media, and may in fact ternative medicine use in children attending otolar-

Corresponding author: Dorota Bartusik-Aebisher, e-mail: [email protected]

Participation of co-authors: A – Author of the concept and objectives of paper; B – collection of data; C – implementation of re- search; D – elaborate, analysis and interpretation of data; E – statistical analysis; F – preparation of a manuscript; G – working out the literature; H – obtaining funds

Received: 8.08.2018 | Accepted: 12.10.2018 Publication date: December 2018

Domka W, Aebisher D, Truszkiewicz A, Bartusik-Aebisher D. Medicinal & Aromatic Plants. Eur J Clin Exp Med. 2018;16(4):350– 358. doi: 10.15584/ejcem.2018.4.14 Medicinal & Aromatic Plants 351 yngology services.4 Despite concerns regarding the used for black color dyes in textile are: Northern Catal- efficacy, safety and cost effectiveness of complementa- pa, Sumac, May Apple and Sand Evening Primrose. Black ry and , its use among the pediat- plants are in fact very dark shades of red, blue, purple ric otolaryngology population is more common than and brown. Some examples of black plants by botani- many providers may realize.1 To evaluate the effective- cal name and common name are Zantedeschia (known ness and safety of a preparation containing echinacea, as Calla Lily) and Tacca Chantrieri called Cats Whis- propolis, and vitamin C in the prevention of respiratory kers. These plants start out with a green bloom and as tract infections in children during a 12-week winter pe- it ages, the bloom turns purple, black, maroon, brown, riod.4 The total number of illness days and duration of or bronze. individual episodes were also significantly lower in the Hairy Coneflower, Red Mulberry, Mountain alder, Chizukit group. Adverse drug reactions were rare, mild, Summer Grape and Black Locust can be used to create and transient. A preventive effect of a product contain- blue and purple dyes. Blue colors range from cool- ing echinacea, propolis, and vitamin C on the incidence icy to deep royal blues. Adenophora is a genus of flower- of respiratory tract infections was observed. 4 ing plants in the family Campanulaceae, the Bellflowers. Plants of this genus are native to eastern Asia, with a Pigments of plants few species occuring in Europe. Many are endemic to One of the most common pigments is called chloro- either China or Siberia. The blue color has a calming phyll, and it is responsible for the green color of plants effect and gives the impression of cool freshness. A list which means that most other colors are absorbed. When of blue plants by botanical name and common name is thinking of plants, there is a spectrum of colors. Al- presented in Table 1. though plants do tend to be green in color due to the chlorophyll, plants have pink, red, white, yellow, or even Table 1. Botanical and common names of representative highly patterned leaves and flowers. Leaves change col- blue plants or in autumn because chlorophyll is the first pigment to Common name Botanical name degenerate when trees overwinter. Aechmea Blue rain Non-green plants do not need sunlight to create Agapanthus African lily chlorophyll and can display an array of different rain- Cineraria Airplant bow colors. Sunlight is made up of all wavelengths such Hyacinthus Hyacinth 5 as ultraviolet (UV-A, UV-B, UV-C) and infrared. Each Muscari Grape hyacinth non–green plant can selectively absorb certain wave- Primula veris Primrose lengths for photosynthesis and reflect others that are deemed less useful. For example, chlorophyll absorbs To produce brown dye the following plants were of- mainly reds and blues, while reflecting green. Non- ten used: Rickly poppy, Texas Paintbrush, Elderberry and green plants have many other pigments that absorb Downy Phlox. Brown seems like an obvious color for green wavelengths and reflect red or yellow. In art but plants, especially trees. Each year in the fall you can see not in nature all colors are considered to be “trans-sea- all the beauty in brown plants, with shades of auburn, sonal.” That is, they can span the season and are no lon- mahogany and chestnut (Table 2). ger limited to specific times of year. However, we live in a multi-hued world where nature provides the colors. Table 2. Botanical and common names of representative The seasons such as spring bring nautical shades and brown plants pastels, while winter is about jewel tones and more cold Botanical name Common name textures. A living kaleidoscope of seasonal color begins from pistachio green; porcelain blue through mandarin Anigozanthos Kangaroo orange, copper brown, and buckskin ending with ultra Anthurium Flamingo flower violet and black coffee. Cordyline Mountain cabbage For each garden, it is worthwhile to consider a few Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid rules for combining individual colors in the plant com- Gerbera Barberton daisy position. Plants in gray shades usually are inconspicu- ous but they are the perfect backdrop for other plants. Native plants that produce green dye are Butterfly In plants, gray or silvery-gray color is most common on Milkweed, Texas Paintbrush, Basket flower, Sagebrush, leaves. Stinging Nettle and Goldenrod. Probably the most com- Throughout the past and current century, the tech- mon color of plants in the world due to chlorophyll niques of natural dyeing in many ancient cultures have which emparts a green coloring. Aloe, which is used in been discovered. Textile fragments were dyed using countless beauty and medicinal products around the flowers leafs and roots. Native plants that continue to be world, is the one of the most well-known green plants. 352 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2018; 16 (4): 350–358

Table 3. Botanical and common names of representative Table 4. Botanical and common names of representative green plants orange plants Botanical name Common name Botanical name Common name Adiantum Maidenhair Anthurium Painter’s palette Alocasia Elephant’s ear plant Begonia Painted leaf Aloe Barbados aloe Capsicum Ornamental pepper Clivia Kaffir Lily Anigozanthos Kangaroo paw Cybidium Cymbidium orchid Anthurium Flamingo flower Euphorbia pulcherrima, Poinsettia Asparagus Ming fern Gerbera Barberton daisy Asplenium Birds nest fern Gloriosa Flame lily Beaucarnia (Nolina) Elephant’s foot Guzmania Scarlet star Blechnum gibbum Tree fern Hibiscus China rose Calathea makoyana Cathedral windows Hippeastrum Amaryllis Calathea zebrine Zebra plant Impatiens Busy Lizzie Capsicum Ornamental pepper Ixora Flame of the woods Ceropegia woodii Rosary vine Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy Lilium Lily Chamaedorea Parlour palm Oncidium Dancing orchid Chlorophytum Spider plant Primula veris Primrose Codiaeum Joseph’s coat croton Ranunculus Turban buttercup Cordyline Mountain cabbage Solanum capsicastrum Winter cherry Crassula Money tree Vriesea splendens Flaming sword cryptanthus Earth star Zantedeschia Calla lily, arum Ctenanthe Never-never plant Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid Cyperus Papyrus Plants that grow vegetables also fall into this category such as Asparagus or Onion. Shades of green in plants Dieffenbachia Dumbcane are as varied as any other color and you can have tones Dionaea Venus fly trap ranging from deep jade to light mint (Table 3). Dracaena fragrans Corn lily It has to be said that orange plants get some of the Euphorbia trigona Tree euphorbia coolest common names out of all plant colors. Trees Ficus benjamina Weeping fig and plants that grow orange colored fruits and vegeta- Ficus elastic Rubber plant bles, like ornamental peppers or Pyracantha are a pop- Ficus lyrata Fiddle-leaf fig ular choice for gardeners who wish to inject a bit of Ficus pumila Creeping fig sunshine into their allotments. Native plants for orange Fittonia Snakeskin plant dye extraction include: Western Comandra, Prairie Blu- Heptapleurum (chefflera) (Chefflera),Umbrella plant ets, Bloodroot, Sassafras and Eastern Cottonwood. Below Hedera Ivy a list of orange plants by botanical name and common Hypoestes Polkadot plant name (Table 4). Monstera Swiss cheese plant One of the most delightful plant colors is pink. A Musa Banana presentation of white with pink color gives the impres- Nephrolepis Boston fern sion of freshness. Brighter shades of purple also com- Nolina recurvata Elephant’s foot patable in the company of white color. Those gardeners Opuntia Bunny’s ear cactus fond of contrasts can try to connect pink with gold or Peperomia Green-ripple plant orange (Table 5). Philodendron scandens Sweetheart vine Purple plants can fit into a garden with any color Philodendron selloum Lacy philodendron scheme to add a dramatic touch to any garden land- Phoenix Date palm scape. They come in many shades and tones, from pale Platycerium Staghorn fern lilac to a vibrant velvety rich violet. Here below a list Rhipsalis cassutha Mistletoe cactus of purple plants by botanical name and common name Sarracenia Pitcher plant (Table 6). Schefflera Umbrella plant Using Ozark chinkapin, Sumac, Chokecherry, Prai- Sedum Stonecrop rie parsley, Slippery elm and Black Willow, red dyes were Syngonium Goosefoot plant obtained for textile dyeing. Red plants can vary from Tolmiea Piggyback plant pale, almost pink varieties to intense rich red shades and Tradescantia Wandering jew there are a number of species that you can grow in your Medicinal & Aromatic Plants 353

Table 5. Botanical and common names of representative Table 7. Botanical and mmon names of representative red pink plants plants Botanical name Common name Botanical name Common name Aechmea, Urn plant (bromeliad family Anigozanthos Kangaroo paw Anigozanthos Kangaroo paw Anthurium Flamingo flower Anthurium, Flamingo flower Begonia Painted leaf Begonia Painted leaf Apsicum Ornamental pepper Cineraria Dusty miller Codiaeum, Joseph’s coat, croton Cyclamen Sowbread Cryptanthus Earth star Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid Cyclamen Sowbread Euphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid Fittonia Snakeskin plant Dionaea Venus fly trap Fuchsia Lady’s eardrops Euphorbia milii, Crown of thorns Gerbera Barberton daisy Fittonia Snakeskin plant Hibiscus China rose Gerbera Transvaal daisy Hippeastrum Amaryllis Gloriosa Flame lily Hyacinthus Hyacinth Guzmania lingulata Scarlet star Hypoestes Polkadot plant Hibiscus China rose Impatiens Busy Lizzie Hippeastrum Amaryllis Jasminum Jasmine Hypoestes Polkadot plant Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy Iimpatiens, busy Lizzie Busy Lizzie Lilium Lily Ixora Flame of the woods Medinilla magnifica Rose grape Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy Pelargonium Geranium Lilium Lily Phalaenopsis Moth orchid Neoregelia Crimson cup Primula veris Primrose Primula veris Primrose Primula Polyanthus Ranunculus Buttercup Rhododendron simsii Azalea Rhipsalidopsis Easter cactus Saintpaulia African violet Rhododendron simsii Aazalea Sedum Stonecrop Sarracenia Pitcher plant Schlumbergera Christmas cactus Schlumbergera Christmas cactus Streptocarpus Cape primrose Solanum capsicastrum Winter cherry Tradescantia Wandering jew Vriesea splendens Flaming sword Zantedeschia Calla lily, arum

Table 6. Botanical and common names of representative garden or keep as houseplants. Below we have a list of purple plants the flowers you can find blooming in red (Table 7). Botanical name Common name White is a popular color, howewer, a native white Achimenes Hot water plant dye is unknown. Only White Iris, Butternut and Can- Campanula Bell flower aigre Dock are able to produce light grey to silver color Cineraria Dusty miller dye. White is a winter color and white plants can look Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid, amazing when distributed through a lush green garden. Dendrobium Dendrobium orchid We have compiled a list of the white flowers (Table 8). Dianthus Pink Bright bold and yellow plants inject a good dose of Exacum Persian violet sunshine into garden. Yellow gives a feeling of warmth Gerbera Barberton daisy Hyacinthus Hyacinth and sunshine. The sky maybe reflected in a combination Impatiens Busy Lizzie of yellow with blue. Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy It is also interesting to combine yellow blossoming Pelargonium Geranium flowers with plants with gray leaves. Yarrow, Honey Lo- Primula veris Primrose cust, Golden wild-indigo, Tall cinquefoil, Pecan, Indian- Primula Polyanthus grass produced yellow color. Botanical and common Rhipsalidopsis Easter cactus names of representative yelllow plants are presented in Saintpaulia African violet Table 9. Schlumbergera Christmas cactus A variety of colors can be obtained from different Sinningia Gloxinia parts of the one plant. Roots, nuts and flowers are com- Streptocarpus Cape primrose mon natural ways to get many colors from the entire Zantedeschia Calla lily, arum spectrum. 354 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2018; 16 (4): 350–358

Table 8. Botanical and common names of representative Examples of applied phythotherapy white plants Ryeong and coworkers analyze the effects of Eucalyptus Botanical name Common name aroma therapy on relieving allergic rhinitis symptoms Agapanthus African lily among university students and found that Eucalyp- Anthurium Painter’s palette tus aroma therapy is effective and enhancing the qual- Begonia Painted leaf ity of life of university students.6 The purpose of the Campanula Bell, flower next study was to understand the role of pollen allergy Chrysanthemum Frutescens marguerite in Taiwan. It was shown that pollen allergy is believed Cyclamen Sowbread to be less common in East Asia, Latin America, and Cymbidium Cymbidium other tropical areas.7 In this study all indywiduals re- Dendrobium Dendrobium orchid Euphorbia milii Crown of thorns, ceived a 30-item skin test panel that included perennial Euphorbia Pulcherrima poinsettia allergens (house dust mix, Dermatophagoides pteron- Exacum Persian violet yssinus, Dermatophagoides farinae, dog epithelium, cat Gardenia Cape jasmine hairs, cockroach mix, and Candida albicans) and pol- Gerbera Barberton daisy len allergens (acacia, pine mix, eucalyptus, beefwood, Guzmania Scarlet star juniper mix, willow, mulberry mix, pepper tree, cedar, Hippeastrum Amaryllis, Johnson grass, Bermuda grass, ragweed mix, Timothy Hyacinthus Hyacinth grass, spiny pigweed, cocklebur, sage mix, sheep sorrel, Hypoestes Polkadot plant dog , pigweed mix, English plantain, castor bean, Impatiens Busy Lizzie , and dandelion).7 Most patients with allergic rhi- Jasminum Jasmine nitis in Taiwan are sensitive to perennial allergens, and Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy pollens are a less common allergen.7 Immunological ap- Lilium Lily Muscari Grape hyacinth proach to extra-mural environmental naso-bronchial 8 Narcissus tazetta Paperwhite allergy was alsomnvestigated. Phalaenopsis Moth orchid Primula veris Primrose Garlic in laryngology Primula Polyanthus The most important observation is that allicin, the main Ranunculus turban Buttercup uttercup biologically active compound derived from Garlic, Rhododendron Simsii azalea could prevent hearing loss induced by other drug such Saintpaulia African violet as cisplatin.9 There is still growing interest in alternative Schlumbergera Christmas cactus medicine with the use of Garlic to treat common illness- Spathiphyllum Peace lily es like the common cold and asthma.1 Stephanotis Madagascar jasmine Zantedeschia Calla lily biloba in laryngology extract treatment was used to treat tin- Table 9. Botanical and common names of representative nitus. Since there is no objective method to measure yelllow plants the symptom, the search for an effective drug can only Botanical name Common name be made on an individual basis.10 This study aims to Anigozanthos Kangaroo paw Anthurium Flamingo flower investigate the efficacy of trimetazidine, betahistine Begonia Painted leaf, and ginkgo biloba extract in the treatment of tinni- 11 Capsicum Ornamental pepper tus. To investigate the clinical efficacy of Ginkgo bilo- Codiaeum Joseph’s coat, croton, ba injection combined with traditional therapy in the Cymbidium Cymbidium orchid treatment of explosive deafness.12 Compared with tra- Euphorbia milii Crown of thorns ditional therapy alone, combined Ginkgo biloba extract Eeuphorbia pulcherrima Poinsettia injection and traditional therapy can significantly im- Gerbera Barberton daisy prove tinnitus symptom and overall response rate in the hibiscus China rose treatment of explosive deafness in coal miners, which Ixora Flame of the woods suggests that the combination therapy is worthy of clin- Kalanchoë blossfeldiana Flaming Katy ical application.13 Oxidative stress is involved in the de- Lilium Lily velopment and progression of otitis media. In this study, Narcissus, Paperwhite, we investigated the effect of Ginkgo leaf parenteral solu- Oncidium, Dancing orchid Phalaenopsis Moth orchid tion on blood and cochlea antioxidant and immunity 14 Primula veris Primrose, index in rats. The patient’s subjective assessment of the Vriesea splendens Flaming sword treatment with regard to improvement in hearing and Zantedeschia Calla lily, arum reduction in tinnitus suggested that Ginkgo biloba ex- Medicinal & Aromatic Plants 355 tract was more beneficial than pentoxifylline.15 Ginkgo beneficial effects, including ischemia, stress, and aging. biloba does not benefit patients with tinnitus.15 It was Cisplatin, an effective antineoplastic drug, can cause ir- noticed the effect of Ginkgo biloba on the expression of reversible sensorineural hearing loss and serious tinni- intermediate-early antigen (c-fos) in the experimentally tus in humans; thus cisplatin-induced ototoxicity is a induced anosmic mouse.16 Kumar and coworkers stud- useful experimental model for ototoxicity.24 ied the role of ginkgo biloba extract in acquired sensori- neural hearing loss.17 The effect of blood flow promoting Pelargonium drugs on cochlear blood flow, perilymphatic pO2 and The antibacterial effect of the drugs with active ingredi- auditory function in the normal and noise-damaged ents of Pelargonium sidoides on different bacterial species hypoxic and ischemic guinea pig inner ear.18 The effect (72 Streptococci, 48 Stapyhlococcus, 32 Neisseriae spp, 20 of blood flow promoting drugs, such as hydroxyethyl Moraxella catarrhalis, and 20 Haemophilus) isolated from starch either of low or high molecular weight pentoxi- the throat cultures of patients with upper airway infection fylline, Ginkgo biloba, naftidrofuryl and betahistine, and was observed.25 The roots of Pelargonium sidoides were various combinations of the drugs was studied in un- used in the cold showed that all patients (100%) in the ac- exposed and noise-exposed.18 The efficacy systemic in- tive treatment group judged the subjective tolerability of jection of Ginkgo biloba extract, EGb761, in idiopathic Pelargonium sidoides as good or very good.26 Pelargonium sudden sensorineural hearing loss was also investigat- sidoides, is a herbal remedy thought to be effective in the ed.19 Steroids are currently the most frequently accept- treatment of acute.27,28 Bachert et al. evaluate the efficacy ed agents for idiopathic sudden sensorineural hearing and safety of the herbal drug preparation from the roots loss.19 The effect of Korean red on Symptoms of Pelargonium sidoides. Patients with sinonasal symptoms and Quality of Life in Chronic Tinnitus shows that the of at least 7 days duration, and radiographically and clin- major mechanism of inner ear cell damage is the pro- ically confirmed acute rhinosinusitis of presumably bac- duction of reactive oxygen species (ROS).20 Korean red terial origin with a Sinusitis Severity Score of at least 12 Ginseng has an anti-ROS effect; thus we hypothesized out of 24 points at inclusion.29 Bereznoy et al. seek to con- that KRG may be of use for the treatment of chronic firm that treatment with an extract of Pelargonium sidoides idiopathic tinnitus.20 These results suggest that Korean (EPs 7630) is superior to placebo for treatment of non- Red Ginseng may improve tinnitus symptoms and men- GABHS tonsillopharyngitis in children.30 tal wellbeing in chronic tinnitus patients. Since Korean Red Ginseng has been proven to protect against gen- tamicin-induced vestibular and hearing dysfunction, The aim of Sienkiewicz and coworkers was to charac- the effects of KRG on age-related inner ear disorder in terize the ability of essential oils to support antibiotics C57BL/6 mice were investigated.21. Numerous studies of against pathogenic bacteria in wounds. Gram-positive Korean Red Ginseng attempts to improve radiation-in- and Gram-negative bacteria obtained from wound in- duced oral mucositis.22 The protective effects of Korean fections were identified according to standard microbi- Red Ginseng were caused by inhibition of the apoptot- ological methods.31 ic signal transduction pathway linked to caspase-3. In conclusion, Korean Red Ginseng protects the oral mu- Spirulina cosa and SMG from radiation-induced damage by Spirulina represents a blue-green alga that is widely pro- inhibiting caspase-mediated apoptosis in rats.22 Radia- duced and commercialized as a for tion-induced oral mucositis is a dose-limiting toxic side modulating immune functions, as well as ameliorating effect for patients with head and neck cancer.22 Ginseng a variety of diseases.32 To our knowledge, this is the first polysaccharide has multiple immunoprotective effects.22 human feeding study that demonstrates the protective The authors evaluated the protective effects of Korean effects of Spirulina towards allergic rhinitis.32 Ten dif- red ginseng against gentamicin induced unilateral ves- ferent types of herbal supplements were identified, with tibular and hearing dysfunction and investigated its stinging nettle (Urtica dioicath), black elderberry (Sam- effective mechanism using in vitro cell cultures.21 Quan- bucus nigra), and Spirulina being the most common titative analysis of hair cell damage in the scanning elec- (12.6%, 6.1%, and 5.7%, resp.). This study found a high tron microscopy was closely related with vestibular and prevalence of herbal treatment usage for the relief of al- hearing functional results. Korean red ginseng is report- lergic rhinitis symptoms in Turke.33 Compared to the ed to have anti-allergic properties, including beneficial control group, the tinnitus scores increased significant- effects on asthma and atopic dermatitis. 23. 3-Nitropro- ly, however, the salicylate-induced tinnitus could be re- pionic acid, a mitochondrial toxin, has been reported to duced significantly by spirulina water extract.34,35 induce an acute cochlear damage. Korean red ginseng The study demonstrates that cancer regression is is known to have protective effects from some types of also accompanied by a significant induction of tumor hearing loss.21,22 Ginseng extract is known to have many necrosis factor in macrophages in the tumor area, sug- 356 European Journal of Clinical and Experimental Medicine 2018; 16 (4): 350–358 gesting a possible mechanism of tumor destruction by of either the essential oil of or its constituent thy- algae extract.36,37 The various agents were injected into mol, especially under anaerobic conditions. Antagonistic the tumor bearing right buccal pouches twice-weekly effects of thymol against Staphylococcus aureus were also for four weeks. Total tumor regression was found in 30% greater under anaerobic conditions. In the presence of of phycotene animals, 20% of beta carotene animals and thymol, the viable counts of Salm. typhimurium obtained 15% of canthaxanthin animals after four weeks. Partial on a minimal medium were lower than those obtained tumor regression was found in the remaining 70% of on NA. Addition of bovine serum albumin neutralized phycotene animals, 80% of beta carotene animals and the antibacterial action of thymol. It is suggested that the 85% of canthaxanthin animals. None of the 13-cis-ret- effects of BSA or Desferal are due to their ability to bind inoic acid animals had total tumor regression, but 70% phenolic compounds through their amino and hydroxyl- showed partial regression.37 amine groups, respectively, thus preventing complexation An enhancement of IgA antibody production by reactions between the oil phenolic constituents and bac- Spirulina extract was also observed in culture superna- terial membrane proteins.45 Among other disorders, these tant of lymphoid cells, especially in the spleen and mes- alternative treatments are used in bronchitis and rhinitis, enteric lymph node from mice treated with Spirulina including some topical applications. Thyme oil did not af- extract for 4 weeks before antigen stimulation. These re- fect CBF, whereas the presence of all other essentials oils sults suggest that Spirulina may at least neither induce resulted in an increase in CBF; the effect was higher at nor enhance allergic reaction such as food allergy de- 0.2% than at 2.46 The antifungal effect of the essential oil pendent on an IgE antibody, and that when ingested from Satureja montana L., Lavandula angustifolia Mill., both concurrently with antigen and before antigen stim- Lavandula hybrida Reverchon, Syzygium aromaticum ulation, it may significantly enhance the IgA antibody (L.) Merril and Perry, Origanum vulgare L., Rosmarinus level to protect against allergic reaction.38 officinalis L. and six chemotypes of Thymus vulgaris L. on Candida albicans growth were studied. The most ef- St John’s wort ficiency was obtained with the essential oil from Thymus The results indicate that St John’s wort (Hypericum per- vulgaris thymol chemotype (MIC 80% = 0.016 microL/ foratum) lowers blood concentrations of cyclosporin, mL and Kaff = 296 microL/mL).47 Essential oils extracted amitriptyline, digoxin, indinavir, warfarin, phenprocou- from ten Algerian plants were analyzed for their potential mon and theophylline; furthermore it causes intermen- activity against Candida albicans. The highest efficiency strual bleeding, delirium or mild serotonin syndrome, was obtained with the essential oil from Thymus numid- respectively, when used concomitantly with oral contra- icus which showed antifungal effect 1357 fold stronger ceptives (ethinylestradiol/desogestrel), loperamide or than that measured with amphotericin B. 48 Carvacrol, selective serotonin-reuptake inhibitors (sertaline, par- eugenol and thymol are major components of plants such oxetine, nefazodone).38 Phytomedicine uses remedies as , savory, clove and thyme. When applied to the possessing significant pharmacological activity and, tongue, these flavors elicit a warm sensation.49 The results consequently, potential adverse effects and drug inter- show aromatherapy to be a safe and effective treatment actions. Several herbal medicines, such as gel, for alopecia areata.50 Thymus oil and its components are contain pharmacologically active ingredients that may becoming increasingly popular as naturally occurring an- aid in wound healing.39-40 timicrobial and antioxidant agents. Histologic examina- tion results show that the formation of new tissue in rats Thyme receiving thymus oil was more than other burned groups, Chronic rhinosinusitis is a common disease which caus- and this finding supports our hypothesis.51 The antioxi- es persisting inflammatory conditions of one or more si- dant activity was evaluated as a free radical scavenging nuses. Thyme honey nasal spray seems to be a low-priced capacity. A significant rate of antifungal activity of all of potential adjuvant remedy with excellent safety profile, to the examined essential oils was also exhibited.52 reduce inflammation and polyp formation and also fos- tering mucosal healing for patients suffering from chronic Conclusions rhinosinusitis.41 Antimicrobial properties of plants essen- This review includes studies on plants material. The tial oils including Thyme have been investigated through properties of various plants physiology were discuuses several observations and clinical studies which purpose with the option for the use in phythotherapy. them as potential tools to overcome the microbial drug resistance problem.42 The use of phytopharmaceuticals Acknowledgements based on an investigated essential oil from thyme in the Dorota Bartusik-Aebisher acknowledges support from prevention and treatment of various human infections the National Center of Science NCN (New drug de- may be reasonable.43,44 The viable counts ofSalmonella ty- livery systems-MRI study, Grant OPUS-13 number phimurium on nutrient agar decreased upon the addition 2017/25/B/ST4/02481). Medicinal & Aromatic Plants 357

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