Rural Development 2009 ISSN 1822-3230

THE FOURTH INTERNATIONAL SCIENTIFIC CONFERENCE

RURAL DEVELOPMENT 2009

PROCEEDINGS

Volume 4, Book 2

15-17 October, 2009 Akademija, Kaunas region, Lithuania Rural Development 2009 ISSN 1822-3230 Committees

Scientifi c committee:

Chairperson – prof. dr. habil. Romualdas Deltuvas – Rector of Lithuanian University of Agriculture Vice-chairperson – prof. dr. habil. Albinas Kusta – Vice-rector of Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Members: Prof. dr. John Bachtler (European Policies Research Centre, United Kingdom) Prof. dr. Klaus von Gadow (Georg-August University of Göttingen, Germany) Prof. dr. Roman Kisiel (University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland) Prof. dr. habil. Antoni Kozuch (Agricultural University of Cracow, Poland) Prof. dr. Vytautas Pilipavičius (Lithuanian University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. Petras Punys (Lithuanian University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. Jadvyga Ramanauskienė (Lithuanian University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. habil. Edvardas Riepšas (Lithuanian University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. habil. Peters Rivža (Latvia University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. Vlada Vitunskienė (Lithuanian University of Agriculture) Prof. dr. habil. Vitaly Zinovchuk (Zhytomyr National Agroecology University, Ukraine) Assoc. prof. dr. Sébastien Gadal (University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines, France) Dr. Vilis Brukas (Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences)

Organizing committee:

Chairperson – prof. dr. Vlada Vitunskienė Members: Assoc. prof. dr. Audrius Aleknavičius Assoc. prof. dr. Vaclovas Bogužas Assoc. prof. dr. Laima Česonienė Assoc. prof. dr. Jonas Čėsna Assoc. prof. dr. Antanas Dumbrauskas Assoc. prof. dr. Giedrė Klimovienė Assoc. prof. dr. Stasė Motuzienė Assoc. prof. dr. Asta Raupelienė Assoc. prof. dr. Linas Stabingis Assoc. prof. dr. Svetlana Statkevičienė Assoc. prof. dr. Neringa Stončiuvienė Assoc. prof. dr. Egidijus Šarauskis Lect. dr. Remigijus Žalkauskas Dr. Gintautas Mozgeris Lect. M. Sc. Rasa Rukuižienė M. Sc. Darius Jazepčikas M. Sc. Vitalija Kardokaitė

© Lithuanian University of Agriculture Rural Development 2009 ISSN 1822-3230

Dears Participants and Guests of the Conference

The aim of the fourth international scientifi c conference “Rural Development 2009 Transitions towards Sustainability” is to provide scientifi c interdisciplinary discussion and present new ideas for rural development processes in pursuance of sustainability.

Issues of effective sustainable development will be discussed in different conference sections: Integrated and Sustainable Rural Development; Agriculture in Transition towards Sustainable Development: Economics, Management and Policy; Cultural Trends in Contemporary Rural Settings; Challenges and Solutions in Sustainable Farming; Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges; Rural Landscape Management Trends; Sustainable Development of Forestry; Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications; Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Areas; Biosystem Engineering and Environment.

It’s a pleasure for us to welcome at our conference the scientists from our neighboring countries and those coming from the Czech Republic, Egypt, Estonia, Finland, Germany, Hungary, India, Italy, Lebanon, the Netherlands, Romania, Russia, Turkey, Ukraine, the United Kingdom, the United States and other countries.

All the participants will be awarded the possibility to express their attitude towards the scientifi c issues related to sustainable agriculture and rural development. We expect this conference will serve as a successful beginning for further fruitful cooperation.

I wish You productive discussions and a pleasant staying at our University and in Lithuania.

Prof. dr. habil. Romualdas Deltuvas Rector of Lithuanian University of Agriculture Chairperson of Scientifi c Committee Rural Development 2009 ISSN 1822-3230 Reviewers

Prof. dr. habil. Uldis Iljins Assoc. prof. dr. Rūta Petrauskienė Prof. dr. habil. Eugenija Kupčinskienė Assoc. prof. dr. Romualdas Povilaitis Prof. dr. habil. Albinas Kusta Assoc. prof. dr. Rita Pupalienė Prof. dr. habil. Algirdas Raila Assoc. prof. dr. Asta Raupelienė Prof. dr. habil. Juozas Ruseckas Assoc. prof. dr. Kęstutis Romaneckas Prof. dr. habil. Sigita Urbienė Assoc. prof. dr. Antanas Sakalauskas Prof. dr. Algirdas Augustaitis Assoc. prof. dr. Svetlana Statkevičienė Prof. dr. Juozas Bukšnaitis Assoc. prof. dr. Aloyzas Stepanas Prof. dr. Pavelas Duchovskis Assoc. prof. dr. Dainius Steponavičius Prof. dr. Iraida Jakušovaitė Assoc. prof. dr. Egidijus Šarauskis Prof. dr. Gvidonas Labeckas Assoc. prof. dr. Edvardas Vaiciukevičius Prof. dr. Juozas Padgurskas Assoc. prof. dr. Egidijus Zvicevičius Prof. dr. Vytautas Pilipavičius Assoc. prof. dr. Jan Žukovskis Prof. dr. Arvydas Povilaitis Lect. dr. Jonas Saladis Prof. dr. Petras Punys Lect. dr. Remigijus Žalkauskas Prof. dr. Jadvyga Ramanauskienė Lect. Ilze Pelece Prof. dr. Algirdas Sliesaravičius Dr. Jūratė Aleinikovienė Prof. dr. Ignas Šateikis Dr. Marius Aleknavičius Prof. Georges Nicolas Dr. Eugenija Bakšienė Assoc. prof. dr. Rūta Adamonienė Dr. Laima Česonienė Assoc. prof. dr. Audrius Aleknavičius Dr. Midona Dapkienė Assoc. prof. dr. Adelė Astromskienė Dr. Sébastien Gadal Assoc. prof. dr. Vilma Atkočiūnienė Dr. Dalia Girdauskienė Assoc. prof. dr. Biruta Bartaševičienė Dr. Albertas Kasperavičius Assoc. prof. dr. Rolandas Bleizgys Dr. Zita Kriaučiūnienė Assoc. prof. dr. Gediminas Brazaitis Dr. Romanas Lamsodis Assoc. prof. dr. Jonas Čėsna Dr. Jurgita Lekavičiūtė Assoc. prof. dr. Antanas Dumbrauskas Dr. Gintautas Mozgeris Assoc. prof. dr. Algirdas Jasinskas Dr. Aurelija Paulauskienė Assoc. prof. dr. Eglė Jotautienė Dr. Sigitas Petkevičius Assoc. prof. dr. Sonata Kazlauskaitė Dr. Gediminas Pupinis Assoc. prof. dr. Paulius Kerpauskas Dr. Andželika Raškauskienė Assoc. prof. dr. Giedrė Klimovienė Dr. Daiva Rimkuvienė Assoc. prof. dr. Almantas Kliučius Dr. Nomeda Sabienė Assoc. prof. dr. Aušra Marcinkevičienė Dr. Laima Taparauskienė Assoc. prof. dr. Vitas Marozas Dr. Jūratė Vedegytė Assoc. prof. dr. Mindaugas Martinkus Dr. Kęstutis Venslauskas Assoc. prof. dr. Juozapas Mažeika Lect. M. Sc. Neringa Čepaitienė Assoc. prof. dr. Stasė Motuzienė Lect. M. Sc. Gintautas Činga Assoc. prof. dr. Jūratė Nadzeikienė Lect. M. Sc. Dalia Perkumienė Assoc. prof. dr. Juozas Navickas Lect. M. Sc. Rasa Rukuižienė Assoc. prof. dr. Kęstutis Navickas M. Sc. Darius Jazepčikas Assoc. prof. dr. Henrikas Novošinskas M. Sc. Antanas Karbauskas Assoc. prof. dr. Edmundas Petrauskas Rural Development 2009 Contents Contents Book 1

I. Integrated and Sustainable Rural Development

Rūta Adamonienė, Rūta Čiutienė Agricultural Workers Career: Factors and Possibilities ...... 15 Kateryna Antoniuk Development Problems of International Scientifi c and Technical Cooperation as Condition of Economic and Territorial Unity ...... 22 Vilma Atkočiūnienė The Rural Community Role in Sustainable Tourism Development ...... 28 Karolina Babuchowska Economic and Social Cohesion in the Context of Development of Rural Areas Development – Current and Future Perspectives ...... 34 Jadvyga Čiburienė Agriculture and Food Production: Employment Aspect ...... 39 Rimantas Dapkus Theoretical Aspects of Lithuanian Employment Policy ...... 44 Andrew Fieldsend Towards a better Understanding of Employment Issues in Rural Areas ...... 51 Kati Hinkkanen, Eeva-Liisa Viskari Improvement of Environmental Performance through Village Houses ...... 58 Vilma Karvelytė-Balbierienė, Aušra Mlinkauskienė, Indrė Gražulevičiūtė-Vileniškė The Present State of the Built Historic Environment of Lithuanian Rural Settlements and Its Potential for Sustainable Socioeconomic Development (Case of Sudovia Region) ...... 61 Kinga Kerekes, Mária Vincze Dilemmas of Rural Development in Europe and Romania ...... 68 Harald Knauer Strategic Approach Idea for Innovation Performance in Declining Rural Hinterland Areas ...... 74 Wiesława Lizińska, Roman Kisiel Regional Diversifi cation of Investment Attractiveness and Activity of Institution and Perception of Poland among Foreign Investors ...... 79 Lina Marcinkevičiūtė, Rūta Petrauskienė Staff Motivation at Kaunas County Local Authorities: Practical Aspects ...... 84 Emilia Marks, Iwona Polucha, Agnieszka Jaszczak, Marek Marks Agritourism in Sustainable Development: Case of Mazury in North-eastern Poland ...... 90 Judit Oláh, Miklós Pakurár Presentation of Balkány City’s State of Employment ...... 95 Dalia Perkumienė, Antonio Silva Sánchez , Jolanta Vilkevičiūtė Social and Legal Evolution of Ancient Rural Family: a Comparative Perspective ...... 98 Iwona Polucha, Janas Žukovskis, Agnieszka Jaszczak, Emilia Marks Rural Tourism in the Areas with Valuable Resources: Systematic Approach ...... 105 Tarek Saad Ragab Farm Land-Use Change in Egypt’s Peri-Urban Regions: the Stakeholders’ Role ...... 111 Julius Ramanauskas, Audrius Gargasas, Vytautas Vaznonis Greenhouse Sector Development Strategy: Establishment of a Cooperative Logistics Center ...... 117

5 Rural Development 2009 Contents

Jadvyga Ramanauskienė, Mantas Narkus Improvement of Service Variety and Service Quality Management in Rural Tourism ...... 121 Asta Raupelienė, Darius Jazepčikas Typologies of Rural Areas in EU-27 for Spatial Analysis: Rural Labour Market Approach ...... 127 Rasa Rukuižienė Rural Tourism Service Quality Management: Theoretical Approach ...... 135 G. Savthri, P. Sujathamma, N. Vijaya Kumari Sericulture for Sustainable Rural Development – in Indian Percepective ...... 141 Jurgita Zaleckienė Farm Diversifi cation Role in Rural Area Development ...... 145 Jan Žukovskis Goals and Objectives of the Rural Development in the European Union and Lithuania: a Systematic Approach ...... 151

II. Agriculture in Transition towards Sustainable Development: Economics, Management and Policy

Svitlana Andros Methodical Approaches to Estimation of Production Resources Cost ...... 157 Tatiana Blinova, Svetlana Bylina Regional Differences in Rural Areas: Demographic Development in Russia...... 163 Angelija Bučienė, Lina Rindokienė Researching the Ecological Food Supply and Demand in the Sea-shore Region of Lithuania ...... 167 Neringa Čepaitienė, Valerija Vinciūnienė Conceptual Issues of Comparative Analysis of Agriculture Income in Lithuania ...... 172 Jonas Čepinskis, Ignas Masteika Global Logistics Trends in Lithuanian Agricultural Products Exports and Imports ...... 178 Vasyl Gerasymchuk, Taras Sakalosh Effectometery of Innovation Development ...... 183 Dalip K. Gosain Agriculture in Transition towards Sustainable Development – A Study of Haryana State of Northern India ...... 191 Darius Jazepčikas, Asta Raupelienė, Vlada Vitunskienė Institutional Model of Employment System in a Rural Area ...... 196 Antanas Karbauskas, Roel Jongeneel Analysis of the Impact of the Decoupling of the CAP (and the State) Payments on the Behavior of Dairy Farmers of Lithuania ...... 203 Andrea Karcagi-Kováts, Kinga Odor, Istvan Kuti The Problem of Rural Exodus in the National Sustainable Development Strategies and National Rural Development Plans of EU Members ...... 208 Bernardas Kniūkšta Preconditions for Developing a Knowledge-based Bioeconomy in Lithuania ...... 214 Tiina Köster, Katrin Vask, Pille Koorberg, Iiri Selge, Eneli Viik Do We Need Broad and Shallow Agri-environment Schemes? – Outcomes of Ex-post Evaluation of Estonian Rural Development Plan 2004-2006 ...... 219 Leonid Kozhushko, Olha Mandziuk Transformation of Property Relations in Agricultural Land-reclamation in Ukraine as a Way to the Development of Innovation Activity in this Field ...... 225

6 Rural Development 2009 Contents

Leonid F. Kozhushko, Petro M. Skripchuk, Galyna M. Shevchuk Ecological Audit and Certifi cation of Agricultural Lands: Actuality, Economic Effi ciency ...... 230 L. F. Kozhushko, T. A. Velesik Land Improvement and Land Market Formation ...... 234 Renata Marks-Bielska Conditions of Changes in the Agricultural Real Property Market in Poland During the Years 1992-2007...... 240 Janis Ozolins Application of Protectionism Measures for Sustainable Dairy Sector Development in the Baltic States ...... 245 Irina Pilvere, Zane Bulderberga Results of Rural Development Programme 2007-2013 Implementation in Latvia ...... 252 Alexander S. Selishchev, Tamara A. Selishcheva Problems and Prospects of Russian Agrarian Sector ...... 258 P. S. Shehrawat Diversifying Agriculture – Prospects and Constraints ...... 264 N. Skorobogatova System Estimation of Projects in the Context of Sustainability Conception ...... 270 Jiří Strouhal Do We Tend to Hedge the Prices more upon the Financial Crisis Period? Some Czech Evidence about Derivatives ...... 276 Egidijus Šarauskis, Edvardas Vaiciukevičius, Kęstutis Romaneckas, Antanas Sakalauskas, Rima Baranauskaitė Economic and Energetic Evaluation of Sustainable Tillage and Cereal Sowing Technologies in Lithuania...... 280 Ilze Upīte Results of Introducing Investment Support Measures under Programs Co-fi nanced by the EU in Latvia...... 286 Yelto Zimmer, Janina Krug On-farm Competitiveness of Rapeseed – Selected Results of the agri benchmark Cash Crop Report 2008 ...... 292

III. Cultural Trends in Contemporary Rural Settings Elena Bacvinkienė The Development of Flax Industry in Lithuania ...... 299 Sigitas Daukilas, Daiva Vaišnorienė Factors Infl uencing the Development of E-learning Technologies in Lithuanian Countryside ...... 304 Rita Garškaitė Village Cemetery: Cultural Heritage and the Present ...... 311 Ingrida Jakubavičienė The Development of Rural Areas in Lithuania during the 3rd and 4th Decades of the 20th Century ...... 316 Stasė Navasaitienė, Dalia Perkumienė Cooperation of Cultural Centres and Community Organizations in the Nurturance of the Ethnic Culture in Rural Areas ...... 321 Franciszek Pawlak, Kazimierz Wojnowski The Rules and Procedures of Measuring the Quality of School Functioning and It’s Evaluation ...... 327 Romualdas Povilaitis, Asta Steikūnienė The Youth and Countryside – Possibilities and Orientations ...... 331 Svetlana Statkevičienė, Asta Steikūnienė Academic Youth and Ethnic Culture ...... 337

7 Rural Development 2009 Contents

IV. Challenges and Solutions inSustainable Farming

Eugenija Bakšienė, Almantas Ražukas, Teresė Laimutė Nedzinskienė, Olga Salina, Jūratė Repečkienė Effects of Organic Farming Systems and Crop Rotations on Crop Productivity and Properties of Haplic Luvisol ...... 345 Biruta Bartaševičienė, Juozas Pekarskas The Infl uence on the Yield and Quality of Ecologically Cultivated Various Kinds of Carrot ...... 351 Elena Jakienė, Virginijus Venskutonis Formation of Summer Rape Productivity by Applying Biological Growth Regulators ...... 356 Sonata Kazlauskaitė, Vytautas Tamutis, Jolanta Sinkevičienė, Aurelija Šaluchaitė, Algimantas Žiogas, Algirdas Amšiejus, Povilas Mulerčikas Sugar-beet Cyst Nematode Heterodera schachtii a Prevalent Pest in Winter Rapeseed ...... 362 Teresė Laimutė Nedzinskienė, Eugenija Bakšienė Intensive Cultivation of Crops for Green Forage on the Sandy Loam Soil ...... 368 Aurelija Paulauskienė, Viktoras Pranckietis, Živilė Tarasevičienė, Valė Butkutė Productivity of Actinidia Kolomikta Cultivars and Fruits Chemical Composition ...... 372 Juozas Pekarskas, Ona Kazlienė, Anželika Raškauskienė, Algirdas Gavenauskas Organic Farming in Lithuania: Context of the Rural Development Programme ...... 376 Juozas Pekarskas, Ernestas Petrauskas, Vytautas Petkus Research of Defi ciency of Manganese in Summer Wheat Applying Physical Optical Methods ...... 381 Juozas Pekarskas, Jolanta Sinkevičienė, Aurimas Krasauskas Infl uence of Biological Preparation on Viability Germination Energy and Fungi Contamination of Organic Winter Rye Grain ...... 385 Juozas Pekarskas, Algirdas Sliesaravičius Infl uence of Organically Grown Winter Rye Kinds on Grain Productivity and Yield Quality ...... 390 Jūratė Repečkienė, Olga Salina, Teresė Laimutė Nedzinskienė, Eugenija Bakšienė Microorganism Communities in Low Productivity Soil, where Willows (Salix L.) are Growing ...... 393 Vishwambhar Prasad Sati Traditional Farming Systems and Sustainability Issues: A Case for the Garhwal Himalaya, India ...... 399 Gerald Schwarz, Ron Wilson, Pete Goddard, Luz Maria Lozada-Ellison Review of the Effectiveness of Axis II Animal Welfare Measures - First Evidence from the Animal Health and Welfare Management (AHWM) Programme in Scotland...... 408 Akvilė Urbonavičiūtė, Pavelas Duchovskis, Aušra Brazaitytė, Giedrė Samuolienė Photophysiological Investigations Using Light Emitting Diode Illumination ...... 414

Book 2

V. Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Anatolijus Eisinas, Ernestas Zaleckas, Kęstutis Baltakys, Valdas Paulauskas Adsorption of Cadmium Ions from Cd-EDDS Solution by Using Gyrolite ...... 15 Orest Furdychko, Natali Makarenko, Valeri Bondar, Vladimir Makarenko, Andrij Vdovychenko, Marina Kovalenko Outlook for Qualitative and Safe Production by Organic Farming Method in Ukraine ...... 20 Brunonas Gailiušis, Jūratė Kriaučiūnienė Runoff Changes in the Lithuanian Rivers Due to Construction of Water Reservoirs ...... 24 Grybauskienė Vilda Measurement and Estimation of Evapotranspiration for Spruce (Pice abies) Seedlings ...... 29

8 Rural Development 2009 Contents

Saulius Kutra, Aurelija Rudzianskaitė Organic Matter Concentration in Water of the Karst Zone Dug Wells ...... 34 Kristina Lingytė, Laima Česonienė Effect of New Organic Fertilizers on the Nutrient leaching into Groundwater ...... 38 Algirdas Radzevičius, Evaldas Trainavičius Effi ciency Research of Laundry Waste Water Treatment by Dissolved Air Flotation Method ...... 43 Rytis Skominas, Vincas Gurskis Research of Mortars Designed for Repair Works of Hydraulic Structures ...... 46 M. E. Soltan, E. M. Fawzy, M. N. Rashed Assessment of the Extraction Effi cacy of Phosphate Minerals and their Granulometry on Metal Immobilization in Contaminated Soil ...... 51 M. E.Soltan, A. I. M. Koraiem, M. M. Ahmed, M. A. Mahfouz Distribution and Accumulation of Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Plants at Northern Egyptian Lakes ...... 59 Laima Taparauskienė The Evaluation of the Humidity of Vegetation Period ...... 66 Josef Tybursky, Laima Česonienė, Midona Dapkienė Dynamics of Nitrogen Compounds in the Soil ...... 71 S. Vaikasas, K. Palaima Ecohydraulic Criteria for Small HPP Impact on Biotic Environment ...... 76 Žydrūnas Vyčius, Eimantas Dargenis, Diana Young Infl uence of Mathematical Net Step on Calculation of Grounwater Depth ...... 82 Ernestas Zaleckas, Valdas Paulauskas, Nomeda Sabienė, Gedrimė Kušlienė Copper and Zinc Removal from Sewage Sludge Using Different Organic Acids ...... 87

VI. Rural Landscape Management Trends Edita Abalikštienė Analysis of Free State Land in Kaunas County ...... 95 Audrius Aleknavičius Possibilities for Rural Development Implementing Land Consolidation Projects in Lithuania ...... 99 Pranas Aleknavičius, Marius Aleknavičius Problems in Managing Agricultural Land in Lithuania ...... 106 Virginija Gurskienė, Giedrė Ivavičiūtė Establishment of the Natura 2000 Sites ...... 111 Agnieszka Aleksandra Jaszczak, Iwona Połucha The Role of Rural Landscape in Tourism Development ...... 117 Evelin Jürgenson, Siim Maasikamäe Progress of Land Reform in Estonian Rural Municipalities – Results of Preliminary Study ...... 121 Jūratė Kamičaitytė-Virbašienė, Jurga Vitkuvienė Formation of Public Recreational Spaces in National and Regional Parks of Lithuania while Developing Cognitive Tourism ...... 128 Darius Pupka The Analysis of Cadastral Measurements in Kaunas, Klaipėda and Vilnius Districts during 2003-2008...... 133 Vilma Sudonienė The Selling of the State Agricultural Purpose Land in Lithuania ...... 138 Vilma Sudonienė, Virginija Atkocevičienė The Topicalities of the Preparation of the Territory Planning Documents for the Deposits of Mineral Resources ...... 145 Vilma Sudonienė, Daiva Matonienė Land Use Planning in Lithuania and in the United States ...... 153

9 Rural Development 2009 Contents

VII. Sustainable Development of Forestry

Ligita Baležentienė, Vaida Šėžienė Germination Responses on Phenols Content of Pine Forest Clear Cuttings Dominants ...... 161 Vitas Marozas, Jolita Abraitienė Broad-leaved Forest Vegetation Seasonal Dynamics of Different Years ...... 165 Algimantas M. Olšauskas, Ramunė Urbonienė Vegetation Development in Different Landscape Element of the Lithuanian Mainland Seacoast ...... 171 Nataliya Pavlyuk Changes in Vegetation Due to Age and Density of the Beech Stands in Ukraine (Lviv Region) ...... 176 Kęstutis Pėtelis, Gediminas Brazaitis, Remigijus Žalkauskas Some Aspects of Evaluation the Infl uence of Region and Forest Level Landscape Structure on the Moose (Alces alces L.) and Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L.) Distribution ...... 180 Kęstutis Pėtelis, Jolanta Stankevičiūtė, Gintarė Narauskaitė Keeping Wild Animals in Captivity in Lithuania: Business or Pleasure? ...... 186 Heinz Röhle, Wael Ali Production Potential of Poplar in Short Rotation Plantations in Saxony ...... 190 Lina Straigytė, Girmantė Jurkšienė, Kęstutis Armolaitis Decomposition of Oak and Maple Leaf Litters: Comparative Study of Native and Alien Species ...... 196 Lina Straigytė, Remigijus Žalkauskas, Mantas Pilkauskas, Jurgita Sasnauskienė Diversity and Condition of Woody Plants in Raseiniai Green Areas ...... 201 Emilia Wysocka-Fijorek Conception of Management of Private Forests in Poland ...... 205

VIII. Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Algirdas Augustaitis, Gintautas Mozgeris, Marijus Eigirdas, Mantas Sajonas Color Infrared Aerial Images to Evaluate Tree Crown Defoliation ...... 213 Ina Bikuvienė, Gintautas Mozgeris, Remigijus Žalkauskas The Infl uence of Forest Cover Characteristics on the Accuracy of LiDAR Based Digital Terrain Model ...... 217 Sébastien Gadal Remote Sensing Monitoring of Rural Urbanisation in Jaipur Region ...... 222 Alfredas Galaunė, Gintautas Činga, Gintautas Mozgeris Some Methodological Aspects of Cost-Benefi t Analysis of the GIS Application in Lithuanian Forest Inventory ...... 226 Regina Gražulevičienė, Audrius Dėdelė Traffi c-related Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure Modelling in Kaunas Cohort Study ...... 229 Donatas Jonikavičius, Gintautas Mozgeris Estimation of Volumes for Mature Forests Using the K-nearest Neighbor Technique and Satellite Image ...... 235 Jurgita Lekavičiūtė, Sébastien Gadal Forest Cover Changes during 1974–2005 in the Lithuanian Coastal Region ...... 241 Donatas Šumskis, Gediminas Staugaitis, Jonas Mažvila, Gintautas Mozgeris Geostatistical Study of Soil pH Using Different Sampling Approaches ...... 247 Gitana Vyčienė Generating Continuous Surfaces of Runoff Depth Applying Different Interpolation Methods ...... 252

10 Rural Development 2009 Contents

IX. Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Uldis Iljins, Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Feliksas Mikuckis, Juozas Navickas, Marius Zeilia The Dependence of Properties of the Samples Made of Unburnt Clay with Sapropel Additives on the Amount of Sapropel...... 261 Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Juozas Navickas, Julius Vilkas Investigation of Thermophysical Properties of Unburnt Clay Samples with Sapropel Additives ...... 266 Rimantas Kavaliūnas, Ona Martišienė, Stasys Martišius Development of Information Infrastructure Using Optical Fibre Network Created by RAIN Project .....271 Gražina Masionytė, Stasė Motuzienė Development of the Information Society and Rendering the Public Electronic Services for People and Business ...... 277 Arnoldas Užupis, Kęstutis Nemčiauskas Investigation in-situ Natural Ecosystems Using Physical Measuring Methods ...... 283

X. Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Rolandas Bleizgys, Indrė Prakupimaitė Research of Manure Gas Emission ...... 289 Nerijus Ciganas, Algirdas Raila, Egidijus Zvicevičius, Henrikas Novošinskas Research of Physical Properties of Osier Willow Chops ...... 294 H. Gerath, R. Böttcher, J. Köhn, L. Peter, A. Sakalauskas On the Infl uence of Mechanical and Chemical Input Preparation on the Effi ciency of Biogas Production from Organic Beach Wastes ...... 301 Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharib-Zahedi, Seyed Mohammad Mousavi, Seyed Hadi Razavi, Mona Akhavan-Borna Determination of Nutritional and Physical Properties of Sesame Seed (Sesamum Indicum L.) ...... 304 Voldemaras Girdvainis, Jonas Buk naitis Electromagnetic Effi ciency of Asynchronous Motor Windings and their Power Indexes ...... 310 Prutenis Petras Janulis, Irina Kazanceva, Milda Gumbytė Biodiesel Fuel Production Applying Biotechnological Method ...... 315 Prutenis Petras Janulis, Eglė Sendžikienė, Rūta Dainienė, Egidijus Šileikis Application of Sewage Sludge in the Production of Biogas and Biofertilizers ...... 321 Algirdas Jasinskas, Ignas Šateikis Evaluation of Plant Biomass Potential and Technologies of Biomass Preparation and Utilization for Energy Purposes in Lithuania ...... 327 Bronius Kavolėlis, Rolandas Bleizgys, Jonas Čėsna The Predicted and Observed Temperature and Humidity Regime of Uninsulated and Partly Insulated Cowsheds ...... 333 Aurelija Kemzūraitė, Algirdas Raila, Egidijus Zvicevičius, Ona Ragažinskienė, Kristina Bimbiraitė, Olga Kornyšova, Audrius Maruška Impact of Drying Modes on Preservation of Essential Oils in the Medicinal Raw Material of Hyssopus offi cinalis L...... 338 Paulius Kerpauskas, Algimantas Sirvydas, Regina Vasinauskienė, Jūratė Nadzeikienė Technological Aspects of Thermal Weed Control ...... 344 Armins Laurs, Juris Priekulis Milking Capacity of Milking Robots ...... 351

11 Rural Development 2009 Contents

Jonas Matijošius, Marius Mažeika, Saugirdas Pukalskas Calculation Methodology of Working Cycle Parameters of the Diesel Engine Operating on Multicomponent Mixture ...... 355 Stanislovas Merkevičius, Eglė Jotautienė, Rimas Vaičaitis, Saulius Tamokaitis Acoustic Environment of Low Power Wind Turbines ...... 360 Kęstutis Navickas, Kęstutis Venslauskas, Vidmantas Župerka Potential and Possibilities of Biogas Production from Agricultural Raw Materials in Lithuania ...... 365 Ilze Pelece, Imants Ziemelis, Uldis Iljins Surface Temperature Investigations of Semi-spherical Solar Collector ...... 370 Gediminas Pupinis, Algirdas Raila, Vytautas Steponaitis Analysis of Grain Air-drying Process Using Active Airing Method ...... 374 Mathias Schlegel, Norbert Kanswohl, Denny Wiedow, Antanas Sakalauskas A Modifi ed Gompertz-Function Used for Description of Postnatal Growth of Barrows ...... 379 Alfredas Stašelis, Stanislovas Merkevičius, Virginijus Stašelis Terrain Pollution by Electromagnetic Fields from High Voltage Aerial Power Lines ...... 383 Dainius Steponavičius, Remigijus Zinkevičius, Vidmantas Butkus, Mindaugas Martinkus Investigation of Liquid Droplets Drift Affected by Side Airfl ow ...... 389 Egidijus Šarauskis, Edvardas Vaiciukevičius, Antanas Sakalauskas, Mindaugas Martinkus Investigation of Soil Cultivation Impact on Winter Wheat Growth and Grain Yield ...... 395 Liudvikas Špokas, Dainius Steponavičius, Saulius Sagatys Fuel Consumption While Harvesting of Crops with Axial Flow Combine-harvester ...... 401 Inga Ulozevičiūtė, Algirdas Jasinskas Bioenergy Plants Harvesting and Evaluation of Physical-Mechanical Properties of Stems Chaff ...... 406

12 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

V Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Adsorption of Cadmium Ions from Cd-EDDS Solution by Using Gyrolite

Anatolijus Eisinas*, Ernestas Zaleckas**, Kęstutis Baltakys*, Valdas Paulauskas** * Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania ** Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

o The sorption properties of synthetic pure gyrolite (CaO/SiO2 = 0.66; 96 h; 200 C) for cadmium ions has been examined in aqueous solution of Cd-etilendiaminedisuccinic acid. It was determined that the cation exchange capacity of gyrolite is equal to 72 mg Cd2+/g when the concentration of Cd2+ ions in initial solution is 1.0 g/l and the sorption time is 120 min at 25oC. Moreover, the cation exchange reactions are not reversible and specifi c to chemisorption process. Furthermore, the crystal structure of gyrolite is unstable in acidic solution. The products of sorption were characterized by X–ray diffraction analysis, thermogravimetry–differential scanning calorimetry and scanning electron microscopy. Key words: cadmium, sorption, gyrolite, cation exchange reaction, crystal structure

Introduction

Research in the fi eld of wastewater purifi cation is very important. Processes commonly used for wastewater treatment can be improved and innovative technologies, especially environment-saving processes, should be developed. Wastewater management focuses on the development and testing of processes for advanced wastewater treatment. Adsorption is very effective for the treatment of wastewater containing low concentration of heavy metals (Babel et al., 2003; Yabe et al., 2003; Wang et al., 2003). Activated carbon has been the standard adsorbent for the reclamation of municipal and industrial wastewaters, however, it requires regeneration and its adsorption capacity for heavy metals is usually less than 50 mg/g (Kikuchi et al., 2006; Moon et al., 2005; Babel et al. 2004; Rajeshwarisivaraj et al., 2002). For the fi rst time, calcium silicate hydrates were used for ion exchange almost three decades ago (Komarneni et al., 1983; Roy at al., 1985; Tsuji et al., 1989). These compounds created a new family of inorganic cation exchangers. The ion exchange capacity of calcium silicate hydrates depends on its chemical composition as well as on the structure of its crystalline lattice. Many studies have been devoted to the exchange properties of synthetic tobermorite, a mineral that is commonly used for modeling the C-S-H structure (Taylor, 1997). An 11-Å tobermorite substituted with Na+ and Al3+ allows cation exchange with alkaline (Cs+, Rb+, and K+) and alkaline earth elements (the selectivity decreasing from Ba2+ and Sr2+ to Mg2+) (Komarneni et al., 1982; Brown et al., 1996). 27Al NMR and 29Si NMR experiments have shown that 15% to 20% Al3+ ions can be substituted with Si4+ ions inside silicate chains, the positive charge defi cit being compensated by the presence of Ca2+ or Na+ ions in the interlayer space (Komarneni and Tsuji, 1991). Exchange of Na+ and Ca2+ seems facilitated by the presence of interlayer “cavities” (≈4.7 Å in diameter) due to Si–O–Si bridges between the chains of the main tobermorite layer. Supposedly, gyrolite can absorb more chemical elements, because the interlayer sheets with a thickness of about 2.2 nm (one of the largest in all the calcium silicate hydrates group) in gyrolite are available for the intercalation of a new guest by controlling the charge of the host (Meyer et al., 1961; Merlino 1988). Recently, the cation uptake reactions of transition metal ions Mn2+, Fe2+, Co2+, Ni2+, Cu2+, Zn2+, Pb2+, Cd2+, Hg2+ with some synthetic crystalline calcium silicates such as xonotlite, gyrolite and β-wollastonite have been studied (Swaw et al., 2002). The total amount of ions uptaken by these solids has been found in a descending order: xonotlite > gyrolite > β - wollastonite. Moreover, amounts of Fe2+, Co2+ and Ni2+ taken up by xonotlite and wollastonite were found to be higher than the other cations. On the other hand, gyrolite showed a low selectivity towards different elements. The signifi cance of the present work was to demonstrate the possibility to use a low base calcium silicate hydrate – gyrolite for cadmium ions adsorption from aqueous solution of Cd-etilendiaminedisuccinic acid (Cd-EDDS). This chelating agent is a member of the polyaminocarboxylic acid family of ligands and usually binds to a metal cation through its two amines and four carboxylate groups and therefore, forms strong chelate complexes with heavy metals. Moreover, the data about the relation of solution (Cd-EDDS) with the stability of calcium silicate hydrate crystal structure was presented.

Materials and methods

Pure gyrolite was synthesized after 96 hours at 200oC temperature from a stoichiometric composition (CaO/

SiO2 = 0.66) of calcium oxide (CaO was produced by burning calcium oxide at 950°C for 0.5 hours, specifi c surface area 2 . 2 Sa = 548 m /kg by Blaine) and fi ne-grained SiO2 nH2O (ignition losses 21.43 %, Sa = 1560 m /kg) mixture. Dry primary mixture was mixed with water in the vessels of stainless steel (water/solid ratio of the suspension W/S = 10.0). The product was fi ltered off, dried at the temperature of 50±5°C and sieved through sieve with a mesh width of 80 μm. These synthesis conditions were chosen according to previously published data (Siauciunas and Baltakys, 2004).

15 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Ion exchange experiments were carried out at 25°C temperature in the thermostatic absorber Grant SUB14 by stirring 1 g of gyrolite in aqueous Cd-EDDS solution containing 1 g/l of Cd2+ ions for 120 min. The percentage of exchange was determined on the basis of the concentration variation of the cations in the solution and in gyrolite. The saturated adsorbent was rinsed with distilled water, dried at the temperature of 50±5°C and dissolved in conc. HCl acid (1:1). The concentration of Ca2+ and Cd2+ ions was determined by using a Perkin-Elmer Aanalyst 100 spectrometer. The X-ray powder diffraction (XRD) data were collected with a DRON–6 X-ray diffractometer with Bragg–

Brentano geometry using Ni-fi ltered Cu Kα radiation and graphite monochromator, operating with the voltage of 30 kV and emission current of 20 mA. The step-scan covered the angular range 2–60o (2θ) in steps of 2θ = 0.02o. Simultaneous thermal analysis (STA: differential scanning calorimetry–DSC and thermogravimetry–TG) was also employed for measuring the thermal stability and phase transformation of synthesized products at a heating rate of 15 oC/min, the temperature ranged from 30oC up to 1000oC under air atmosphere. The test was carried out on a Netzsch instrument STA 409 PC Luxx. The ceramic sample handlers and crucibles of Pt-Rh were used. FT-IR spectra have been carried out with the help of a Perkin Elmer FT–IR Spectrum X system. Specimen were prepared by mixing 1 mg of the sample with 200 mg of KBr. The spectral analysis was performed in the range of 4000–400 cm-1 with spectral resolution of 1 cm-1. Scanning electron microscopy (SEM) JEOL-JSM-6301F) of the samples was performed using an accelerating voltage of 9 kV and a working distance of 15 mm. The specifi c surface area of the raw materials was determined by the Blaine method with air permeability apparatus (Model 7201, Toni Technik Baustoffprufsysteme GmbH).

Results and discussion

o The results of XRD studies confi rmed that in the CaO–SiO2·nH2O–H2O system within 96 h at 200 C pure gyrolite was formed (Fig. 1). Intensive peak with d-spacing–2.2 nm is attributed to gyrolite, i.e. this diffraction refl ection is not characteristic to other calcium silicate hydrates. Moreover, in the X-ray diffraction pattern the peaks which are also typical for gyrolite were determined (d-spacing–1.13; 0.84; 0.42; 0.37; 0.35; 0.28; 0.21 nm, Fig. 1, a).

a b

c d

Figure 1. X-ray diffraction pattern (a), STA (TG–1; DSC–2) curve (b), FT-IR spectrum (c) and SEM (d) of pure gyrolite. Duration of hydrothermal synthesis at 200oC is equal to 96 h. Indices: G – gyrolite

16 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The results of XRD were confi rmed by other analyses. On the DSC curve, a broad endothermic peak at 145oC temperature refl ects the loss of physisorbed and interlayer water from the crystal structure of gyrolite (Fig. 1, b). The second exothermic peak at 853oC is associated with recrystallization of this compound into wollastonite. The shape of absorption bands of the FT-IR spectrum, its multiplicity and width also are specifi c to gyrolite (Fig. 1, c). SEM analysis results show plate crystal structure of gyrolite (Fig. 1, d). The results of ion exchange experiments showed that cation exchange capacity of gyrolite depends on the duration of the sorption process. It was found that ion exchange in the gyrolite was the most intensive during the fi rst minutes of exposure – more than 50 % (54.0 mg Cd2+/g) of cadmium ions were adsorbed from metal-contaminated solution (Fig. 2). Prolonging the duration of interaction, cadmium ion adsorption rate slowed down, and after 2 h of exposure cadmium ion concentration was equal to 72.0 mg Cd2+/g (Fig. 2).

ab

2+ Figure 2. Differential (a) and integral (b) kinetic curves of Cd ions adsorption from Cd(NO3)2+EDDS solution when the initial concentration of Cd2+ ions is 1.0 g/l

Furthermore, calcium ions are released from the crystal lattice of gyrolite into the solution when the charge of the host is changed in order to maintain its neutrality. The amount of released Ca2+ ions was more than 40 mg Ca2+ /g after 3 min in the solution (Fig. 3). The desorption process of calcium ions ended after 60 min (75 mg Ca2+ /g), because the concentration of ions was almost the same when the duration of sorption was prolonged.

ab 2+ Figure 3. Differential (a) and integral (b) kinetic curves of Ca ions concentration in Cd(NO3)2+EDDS solution when the initial concentration of Cd2+ ions is 1.0 g/l

It should be noted that gyrolite acts as a chemisorbent but not like usual adsorbent because during cation exchange reactions proceed only partial exchange (Ca2+↔ Cd2+), i. e. in these reactions the exchange of Ca2+↔ Cd2+ was found to be non-stoichiometric (Fig. 2, 3). In order to confi rm this fact, after sorption process gyrolite saturated with Cd2+ ions was dried up and immersed in distilled water. It was proved that Cd2+ ions did not appear in the solution after 120 minutes at 25 oC. Thus, our research allows to state that the cation exchange reactions are specifi c to chemisorption process. In order to identify the stability of gyrolite, the products of sorption were characterized by numerous methods of instrumental analysis. X-ray diffraction analysis showed that the crystal structure of gyrolite was destroyed and new compounds (gyrolite gel and undefi ned composition semicrystallline C-S-H(I)) were formed (Fig. 4, a). The results of XRD were confi rmed by STA and SEM analysis (Fig. 4, b – c).

17 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

a b

c Figure 4. X-ray diffraction analysis (a), Simultaneous thermal analysis curves (1 – TGA, 2 – DSC) (b), SEM analysis (c), of gyrolite after adsorption (25 °C, 120 min) when the concentration of Cd2+ ions was 1.0 g/l. Indices: Gg – gyrolite gel, C – C-S-H(I), ? – unidentifi ed component

Conclusions

1. The cation exchange capacity (ΣX) of gyrolite is equal to ΣX = 72 mg Cd2+/g when the concentration of Cd2+ ions in initial solution is 1.0 g/l and the sorption time is 120 min at 25 oC. Moreover, the cation exchange reactions are not reversible and specifi c to chemisorption process. 2. It was determined that in aqueous Cd-EDDS solution containing 1 g/l Cd2+ of ions, the interlayer sheet of gyrolite structure was destroyed after 2 h of sorption and precipitates of gyrolite gel and undefi ned composition semicrystal C-S-H(I) was formed.

References

Babel S., Kurniawan T.A. (2003). Low-cost adsorbents for heavy metals uptake from contaminated water: a review, J. Hazard. Mater. 97, pp. 219– 243. Babel S., Kurniawan T.A. (2004). Cr(VI) removal from syntheticwastewater using coconut shell charcoal and commercially activated carbon modifi ed with oxidising agents and/or chitosan, Chemosphere 54, pp. 951–967. Kikuchi Y., Qian Q., Machida M., Tatsumoto H. (2006). Effect of ZnO loading to activated carbon on Pb(II) adsorption from aqueous solution, Carbon 44, pp. 195–202. Komarneni S., Roy D.M. (1983. Tobermorites: a new family of cation exchangers, Nature 221, pp. 647-648. Komarneni S., Roy D.M. and Roy R. (1982). Al-substituted tobermorite: Shows cation exchange. Cem. Concr. Res. 12, pp. 773–780. Komarneni S., Roy D.M., Fyfe C.A., Kennedy G.J., Bothner-By A.A., Dadok J., Chesnick A.S. (1985. 27Al and 29Si magic angle spining nuclear magnetic resonanse spectroscopy of Al-substituted tobermorites, Materials Science 20, pp. 4209-4214. Komarneni S., Tsuji M. (1989). Selective cation exchange in substituted tobermorites American Ceramic Society 72, pp. 1668-1674. Ma W., Brown P.W. and Komarneni S. (1996). Sequestration of cesium and strontium by tobermorite synthesized from fl y ashes. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 79, pp. 1707–1710. Merlino S. (1988. Gyrolite: its crystal structure and crystal chemistry, Mineralogical Magazine 52, pp. 377-387. Meyer J.W., Jaunarajs K.L. (1961). Synthesis and crystal chemistry of gyrolite and reyerite, American Mineralogist 46, pp. 913-933. Moon C., Lee J. (2005). Use of curdlan and activated carbon composed adsorbents for heavy metal removal, Process Biochem. 40, pp. 1279–1283.

18 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Rajeshwarisivaraj V., Subburam M. (2002). Activated parthenium carbon as an adsorbent for the removal of dyes and heavy metal ions from aqueous solution, Bioresour. Technol. 85, pp. 205–206. Shaw S., Henderson C. M. B., Clark S. M. (2002). In-situ synchrotron study of the kinetics, thermodynamics, and reaction mechanisms of the hydrothermal crystallization of gyrolite, American Mineralogist 87, pp. 533-541.

Siauciunas R., Baltakys K. (2004). Formation of gyrolite during hydrothermal synthesis in the mixtures of CaO and amorphous SiO2 or quartz , Cement and Concrete Research 34, pp. 2029-2036. Taylor H.F.W. (1997). Cement Chemistry (second ed.), Thomas Telford, London. Tsuji M. and Komarneni S. (1989). Alkali metal ion exchange and selectivity of Al-substituted tobermorite. J. Mater. Res. 4, pp. 698–703. Tsuji M., Komarneni S. and Malla P. (1991). Substituted tobermorites: 27Al and 29Si MASNMR, cation exchange, and water sorption studies. J. Am. Ceram. Soc. 74, pp. 274–279. Wang Y., Lin S., Juang R. (2003). Removal of heavy metal ions from aqueous solutions using various low-cost adsorbents, J. Hazard. Mater. 102, pp. 291–302. Yabe M.J.S., Oliveira E. (2003). Heavy metals removal in industrial effl uents by sequential adsorbent treatment, Adv. Environ. Res. 7, pp. 263–272.

Anatolijus EISINAS. PhD student, Department of Silicate Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology. Address: Radvilenu 19, LT – 50270 Kaunas, Lithuania Tel. (8-37) 300164. E-mail: [email protected]. Ernestas ZALECKAS. Junior Researcher of the Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, Institute of Environment, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 08. E-mail: [email protected]. Kęstutis BALTAKYS. Associate Professor, Department of Silicate Technology, Faculty of Chemical Technology, Kaunas University of Technology. Address: Radvilenu 19, LT – 50270 Kaunas, Lithuania Tel. (8-37) 300164. E-mail: [email protected]. Valdas PAULAUSKAS. Head of the Department of Chemistry, Associate Professor at the Department of Chemistry, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 22 15. E-mail: valdas.paulauskas@ lzuu.lt.

19 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Outlook for Qualitative and Safe Production by Organic Farming Method in Ukraine

Orest Furdychko, Natali Makarenko, Valeri Bondar, Vladimir Makarenko, Andrij Vdovychenko, Marina Kovalenko Ukraine Academy of Agrarian Sciences

Abstract

Research results show that man-made pollution of Ukrainian territory has local character and a level of pollution of certain lands is way smaller than that of the Western European countries, which makes it possible to grow products in compliance with the world standards. The main aim of the research this is effi cient implementation of organic farming at the governmental, regional and local levels. Tasks: 1. Development a methods of estimation of the accordance of rural land to organic farming on regional and local levels; 2. Creation the Database of the technologies of cultivation of agricultural crops for organic farming in different region of Ukraine. The Object of Research: agroecologycal condition of the rural lands. For carrying out the study on regional level in Ukraine was select Kyiv oblasts, on local level was selected next farms in this region: PLC “Syniavske”, LLC “Agrosvit”, LLC “Pologivske”. Estimation of the accordance of rural land to the requirements for organic farming on regional and local levels was conducted with the use of results of monitoring soils, agrochemical passport system of rural lands, information about use pesticides and chemical fertilizers, location of industrial enterprises and units, which can pollute environment and main roads. On the basis fi ndings was creation a map of appropriateness Kyiv oblast for organic farming. And also on the basic of study the technologies of crop production was creation the Database of the technologies of cultivation of agricultural crops in organic farming in different regions of Ukraine.

Introduction

Today, Ukraine has all prerequisites for a large-scale implementation of principles of organic farming in the farming industry. These are: - availability of large areas of fertile lands, - low level of use of mineral fertilizers and pesticides, - suffi cient quantity of manufacturers willing to produce organic farming products and their potential consumers, - signifi cant scientifi c achievements in development of organic farming systems. The large-scale implementation of organic farming in Ukraine faces a number of challenges related to - designation of territories suitable for organic farming - development of special technologies of organic products manufacturing. For organic farming agricultural lands must meet a number of requirements as to the level of their fertility and contamination with hazardous substances: pesticides, heavy metals, radionuclides etc. Research results show that man-made pollution of Ukrainian territory has local character and a level of pollution of certain lands is way smaller than that of the Western European countries, which makes it possible to grow products in compliance with the world standards. Preliminary works in Ukraine specifi ed the main regions suitable for conduction of organic farming. These primarily include: - North-Poltava region; - Vinnytsya-Prykarpattya region stretching for approximately 100 km from Zhytomyr oblast to Vinnytsya, Khmelnytsk and Ternopil oblasts; - South-Podillya region – includes a small south-eastern part of Vinnytsya oblast, south-western part of Kirovograd oblast, north of Mykolayiv oblast and northern half of Odesa oblast; - Certain parts of Kharkiv, Sumy, Chernigiv, Kyiv and Cherkasy oblasts. Overall, there are approximately 7 ml hectares. The aim of research – Effi cient implementation of organic farming at the governmental, regional and local levels. Tasks: 1. Development a methods of estimation of the accordance of rural land to organic farming on regional and local levels; 2. Creation the Database of the technologies of cultivation of agricultural crops for organic farming in different regions of Ukraine. The Object of Research – agroecologycal condition of the rural lands.

Methodology

For carrying out the study on regional level in Ukraine was select Kyiv oblasts, on local level was selected next farms in this region: PLC “Syniavske”, LLC “Agrosvit”, LLC “Pologivske”.

20 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Estimation of the accordance of rural land to the requirements for organic farming on regional and local levels was conducted with the use of results of monitoring soils, agrochemical passport system of rural lands, information about use pesticides and chemical fertilizers, location of industrial enterprises and units, which can pollute environment and main roads. Depending on the values of indices, rural lands was divided on 3 categories of the accordance: suitable (rural lands, whose agroecological condition does not prevent obtaining high-quality agricultural products); partially suitable (rural lands in which characteristic of soil fertility do not answer an optimum condition and require measures for their improvement); unsuitable (rural lands on which it is impossible to get ecological safe products). The maps of the agroecological estimation of Kiev oblasts according to the indices of the fertility of soils, pollution by radionuclides, location of industrial enterprises, municipal and other potentially ecologically perilous objects were built with geographically system Map Іnfo Professіonal 8.0 and graphics editing program Adobe Photoshop CS. The non scale symbols were brought the objects, which can pollute natural environment. The Database of the technologies of cultivation of agricultural crops for organic farming was created with use the program Mіcrosoft Vіsual FoxPro (7.0). Statistical processing of experimental data was accomplished with the program Mіcrosoft Offіce Excel 2007.

Results of research

For this purpose, the Institute of Agroecology of UAAS created a database broken up by administrative oblasts of Ukraine containing information about accounting of quantity of lands based on forms of ownership and use, categories and types of lands; accounting of quantity of irrigated and drained lands; availability of especially valuable lands; characteristics of lands based on humus and nutrients content, grain size distribution of soils, steepness of slopes, degree of erosion, salinity, acidity, contamination including by radionuclides. The database allows to identify spreading of degradation processes related to agricultural and industrial activities and to make a reliable forecast as to spreading of such effects in the future. For instance, today 58% of Ukrainian lands are effected by erosion (19m ha of agricultural lands are defl ationary dangerous, 13m ha are subject to water erosion, 2m ha suffer from joint action of water and wind erosion), and it can be forecasted that annually as a result of erosion around 11m t of humus will be lost, while the quantity of eroded lands will decrease by 80–90 thousand ha. The most vulnerable are agricultural landscapes of the center and south of Ukraine, which is proved by considerable spreading of water erosion and defl ation process on these territories that cover 45 – 90 percent of tillage accordingly. This must be taken into account when establishing organic farms. The Institute of Agroecology conducts a evaluation assessment of agricultural lands as to their suitability for conditions of organic production of agricultural products at the local level. The following factors are taken into account: fertility level of soils based on humus, nitrogen, phosphorus and potassium content, reaction of environment, density of pollution of the oblast territory with cesium – 137, and facilities which can pollute the environment, such as enterprises employing aggressive toxic agents, pesticide depots, storages of industrial and construction wastes, dumping grounds etc. According to the developed methodical approaches a number of Ukrainian oblasts, and Kyiv oblast in particular, have been evaluated (Fig.1). In the meantime, it is not enough to have lands suitable for conduction of organic farming. Technologies of receiving agricultural products introduced in organic farming play quite an important role. Today, there are certain warnings about possible decrease of yielding capacity, decrease of soil fertility level, spreading of pests, diseases, weeds [1]. For instances, according to the data of the US National Agricultural Chemicals Association banning the use of pesticides will result in decrease of supply of fruits and vegetables by 50%, wheat – by 40%, corn – by 43, soya – by 36, cotton – by 73% [2]. According to the FAO data, switching to organic farming may lead to decrease of productivity of grain crops by 10–20%, potato and sugar beet – by 35% [3]. In the opinion of certain native researchers, fertilization system in organic farming based on the use of manure and byproducts of plant growing causes decrease of phosphate and potassium potentials of the soil, results in structural reorganization of bacterial cenosis of the soil. According to the offi cial opinion of the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements (IFOAM), maintenance and increase of soils’ fertility is key in implementation of organic farming technologies. Measures that ensure achievement of this goal include: а) raising leguminous plants, green manure crops or plants with developed deep root system in adapted multicourse rotation;

21 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

b) applying in-house fertilizers of animal origin obtained in organic farming; c) applying other organic materials, if necessary, after composting obtained at enterprises operating on the principles of biological farming [4]. The Institute of Agroecology developed main agroecological requirements to technologies used in organic farming. These requirements constitute a system of bans, limitations and restrictions related to genetically modifi ed organisms, multicourse rotations, soil cultivation, use of varieties adapted to unfavorable conditions, systems of fertilization and protection of crops etc. Main ecological risks of planned technological operations have been defi ned.

Figure 1. Suitability of administrative areas of Kiev region for organic farming

A comprehensive scientifi cally substantiated system of evaluation of specifi c technological operations and technologies in general has been developed; criteria of compliance of the soil condition, product quality, processes running in components of agroecological systems with ecological, sanitary and hygienic, agrochemical and other norms have been established [5]. As a result of conducted research, a structure has been developed and fi lling of electronic database of agricultural technologies of growing crops for receipt of organic products is carried out taking into account soil and climatic specifi cs of the territory and biological features of crops. This database foresees selection of multicourse rotations, varieties, manner of soil cultivation, sowing conditions, fertilizing system and plant protection taking into account specialization of a farm and soil and climatic conditions (Fig.2).

22 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Figure 2. The interface of the fi rst page of an electronic database of the technologies of cultivation of agricultural crop in organic farming

One of the important assignments during elaboration of organic farming technologies is refusal from synthetic fertilizers and pesticides. Biological preparations can be an alternative. The Institute has developed scientifi c and methodical principles of creation of polifunctional bacterial preparations for ecologically safe integrated systems of protection and fertilization of plants. Polifunctional complexes of biological preparations for soya, winter wheat and sunfl ower have been chosen. They improve nitric and phosphoric nutrition, stimulate growth and protect crops from diseases. A positive impact of complexes on ecological condition of soil has been noted, namely activation of edaphic and agronomically precious microbiological processes in a root area of plants in contrast to chemical means of fertilization and plant protection. The Institute carries out works aimed at establishment of the degree of impact of varieties on the quantity of phytopathogenic structures that are main factors of aggravation of a phytosanitary state of crops. A method of estimation of an impact of varieties and hybrids on formation and accumulation of infectious structures by phytopathogenes has been developed, which enables selecting varieties and reducing the use of pesticides in organic farming. These are only some of the fragments of work aimed at development of social technologies for organic farming.

Conclusions

Therefore, alongside with development of legal and regulatory basis maximally integrated to the ready norms and standards of the EU and the International Federation of Organic Agriculture Movements, establishment of a guarantee system to include standards and directions concerning inspection and certifi cation, an important issue is designation at the governmental, regional and local level of territories that are most suitable for conduction of organic farming, as well as development of technologies of organic production of agricultural products.

References

Кисіль В.І. Агрохімічні аспекти екологізації землеробства. / В.І. Кисіль – Харків: Вид. «13 поліграфія». 2005р. – 167с. Шикула М.К., Балаєв А.Д., Доля М.М. та ін.. Наукове забезпечення сталого розвитку сільського господарства. Полісся. Київ - 2004р. Research in arable farming systems in europe acquired and new stakes / Title: Research Methodologies in Organic Farming. The Internet a resource: http://www.fao.org/docrep/003 /X6089E /x6089e03.htm Ґрунтозахисна біологічна система землеробства в Україні: Монографія / За ред.. М.К.Шикули. – К.: Оранта, 2000. – 389 с. Агроекологічна оцінка відповідності сільськогосподарських підприємств органічного агровиробництва / За ред. д.с.-г.н. Н.А. Макаренко.– К., 2007.– 37 с. – (Методичні рекомендації).

Orest FURDYCHKO. Academician, professor, director of Institute of Agroecology UAAS. Address: Metrologichna Str. 12, Kyiv, 03143, Ukraine, Tel/Fax +038-(044)-526-23-38, e-mail: [email protected] Natali MAKARENKO. Doctor of sciences, head of Department of Agroecology Monitoring, Institute of Agroecology UAAS. Address: Metrologichna Str. 12, Kyiv, 03143, Ukraine, Tel/Fax +038-(044)-526-23-38, e-mail: [email protected]

23 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Runoff Changes in the Lithuanian Rivers Due to Construction of Water Reservoirs

Brunonas Gailiušis, Jūratė Kriaučiūnienė Lithuanian Energy Institute

Abstract

Development of hydropower has impacts on river ecology: river connectivity disruption (changes of hydrological regime), impact of fl ow regulation on biological elements (minimum fl ows, hydropeaking), and modifi cations of sediment transport. Constructed water reservoirs have impact on the tailwaters. There are 83 hydroelectric power stations (HPS) and more than 1000 water reservoirs in Lithuania presently. The intention is to install HPS on the existing water reservoirs because water energy is an important renewable energy source. The task of investigation is to describe the changes of hydrological regime in rivers due to construction of water reservoirs. The differences of the hydrological regime are determinated in tailwaters when the water reservoirs are installed with and without HPS. Expected changes of hydrological regime are water level variations, changes of the annual, maximal and low fl ow, redistribution of river runoff in a year period. Tailwater fl ow regimes and their changes have been described according to hydrological data of 12 water reservoirs with HPS and 13 reservoirs without HPS. Changes of the river hydrological regime due to construction of water reservoirs were evaluated by statistical and modelling methods (hydrological model RiverWare). The statistical analysis of river runoff changes confi rmed that the annual and maximum discharges have decreased and low fl ow has increased in the tailwaters. Modelling results of water balance of the reservoirs have indicated that the reservoirs without HPS have decreased the low fl ow discharge more than the reservoirs with the HPS. Infl uence on the maximum discharges of tailwater is more signifi cant if the reservoir has the installed HPS.

Introduction

Development of hydroenergy is associated with Renewable Energy Directive and Water Framework Directive (WFD) for European waters. On the one hand, hydropower is strategic issue for energy production as a renewable energy. On the other hand, hydropower has impacts on river ecology: river connectivity disruption (changes of hydrological regime), impact of fl ow regulation on biological elements (minimum fl ows, hydropeaking), and modifi cations of sediment transport. Energy policies have to consider regarding to water resources management and WFD requirements (Good Ecological Status). Constructed water reservoirs on the rivers are usually classifi ed as heavily modifi ed water bodies. There are 83 hydroelectric power stations (HPS) and more than 1000 water reservoirs in Lithuania presently. The intention is to install HPS on the existing water reservoirs because water energy is an important renewable energy source. The impact of the water reservoir and HPS on the tailwater is fundamentally different. The infl uence of the HPS on the river depends on the water level regulation in reservoir. In particular, the degree of impact depends on potential of runoff regulation and operating mode of HPS. Lithuanian HPS, except Antalieptė HPS, are constructed on small water reservoirs with a low level of runoff regulation. The water reservoirs of small HPS have very limited opportunities to change the river runoff regime, mainly because the turbines operate with permanent capacity, passing the reservoir infl ow in the tailwater. When the infl ow into the reservoir exceeds the turbine fl ow, water is accumulated in the reservoir and can be used later. Another circumstance altering the natural river fl ow is the environmental discharge, which should be passed to the tailwater, regardless of the amount of infl ow. Such a regime is created by the reservoirs without HPS, and this is their essential difference from the reservoirs with HPS. The task of investigation is to describe the changes of hydrological regime in rivers due to construction of water reservoirs. The article will discuss the differences of the hydrological regime in tailwaters when the water reservoirs are installed with and without HPS. Expected changes of hydrological regime are water level variations, changes of the annual, maximal and low fl ow, redistribution of river runoff in a year period.

Data and methodology

Changes of the river hydrological regime due to construction of water reservoirs could be evaluated by comparison method. Two sequences of the hydrological parameters before and after anthropogenic activity are compared together. These sequences can be either observed or modelled. In the fi rst case, the statistical methods are applied for evaluation of signifi cance of runoff changes. The disad- vantage of this method is insuffi cient monitoring set of hydrological data. For this reason the difference between natural and modifi ed hydrological regimes of the river is only a statistical hypothesis. Many of the HPS have been installed after 2000. Therefore there is not enough hydrological data, which could be used for statistical comparisons. This situation leads to the modelling of hydrological regime of the tailwater when water reservoir is with and without HPS. In the second case, the modelling of HPS operation is performed according to the observed infl ow series. A river basin modelling was done by universal hydrological model RiverWare (Zagona et all, 1998), developed by CADSWES (University of Colorado Center for Advanced Decision Support for Water and Environmental Systems). This model allows to assess the dependence of hydrological characteristics of the water reservoir and the tailwater on the amount

24 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges of energy produced. Hydropower is calculated along with turbine release in the reservoir‘s mass balance calculations according to Simple Power Method. The hydroelectric power depends on the following parameters:

P = α(H, Q) . Q . H, (1)

where α is an empirical coeffi cient which captures the properties of water and the HPS effi ciency, Q is turbine fl ow, and H is operating head, given by headwater elevation minus tailwater elevation. The models of Angiriai Reservoir (Šušvė River, 24.6 km from the mouth) and Antanavas Reservoir (Šešupė River, 177 km from the mouth) are based on the description of the methodology. These models are hypothetical since the some initial information required for calculations is not fully known. However, modelling of hydropower is done for various initial conditions (scenarios). The relative changes of hydrological regime are obtained and can be compared with each other. Thus, the hypothetical models are useful to determine the best conditions for exploitation of water reservoir resources in order to produce more energy and to do the least possible impact on the tailwater. Hydrological calculations of the river runoff have been performed using the data of water measuring stations (Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service). Tailwater fl ow regimes and their changes have been described according to data of 12 water reservoirs with HPS and 13 reservoirs without HPS.

Results

Impact of water reservoirs on the hydrological regime of tailwaters according to observation data

Changes in annual river runoff. The construction of the water reservoir in the river valley has changed the water balance of river because of increased evaporation from the surface of water. Table 1 shows the average annual evaporation from the soil and the water surface. Evaporation losses from the surface area of water reservoir can consist of 0.33% from the annual runoff in the dam site. Signifi cantly higher fl ow losses due to evaporation are in the monthly scale. In the hottest and driest summer months (July, August) the river runoff decreases from 0.5% to 13% comparing with the environmental fl ow (Gailiu is et all, 2001).

Table 1. Distribution of evaporation (mm) III IV V VI VII VIII IX X XI XII-II Year Evaporation from soil 29 58 80 94 93 68 37 23 8 22 512 Evaporation from water 23 47 80 105 143 120 76 44 32 23 693 Difference of evaporation -6 -11 0 11 50 52 39 21 24 1 181

Changes of the maximum discharge. The duration of runoff regulation in the water reservoir with HPS is one of the most important factors in determining the maximum fl ow change. In Lithuania almost all investigated water reservoirs have only short-term regulation, with the exception of reservoirs of Antalieptė, Angiriai, Baltoji Ančia and Kupiškis. In the all studied rivers the maximal fl ow values have decreased after the construction of water reservoirs. The tailwaters with most affected maximum discharges were below of the water reservoirs with the largest useful volume. According to empirical data the calculated theoretical discharge curves have shown the decreasing of spring fl ood maximum discharge (Fig. 1) and the increasing of the minimal fl oods after construction of the water reservoir.

Figure 1. Theoretical discharge curves of the maximum fl ood discharge before and after construction of the Antalieptė reservoir on the Šventoji river

25 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Changes in the minimum discharges. According to the act of Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania (LAND 22-97, 2005), the water discharges from the reservoir into the tailwater have to be larger than environmental discharges. Minimum discharges in the tailwater may increase or decrease depending on the operating regime of HPS. As the study has shown, the summer discharges of the 30 driest days have a tendency to increase after construction of the water reservoirs. The biggest changes of minimum discharge were defi ned in the Akmena – Danė river below the Tūbausiai reservoir (increased by 122%), the Lėvuo river below the Kupiskis reservoir (increased by 90.9%) and below the Tauragė reservoir (increased by 69.1%) (Rimavičiutė, 2000). Minimum discharges have not changed only in the Šventoji river below Ukmergė. Since the minimum discharge is infl uenced by the water abundance, the calculation of fl ow values may be inaccurate for the periods before and after the damming of river, and the infl uence of the water reservoir can be overstated. Changes of annual runoff distribution. The runoff distribution throughout a year is an important factor in both economic and ecological point of view. Anthropogenic activities do not coincide with the natural hydrological regime of rivers, so it aims to redistribute the river runoff. Accumulated water reservoir resources during wet seasons are used during the defi cit period. This situation affects the natural course of the river runoff. Therefore the balance of water ecosystem can be destroyed. The spring season river runoff has decreased and the winter season runoff has increased after construction of the water reservoirs (Table 2). These tendencies were identifi ed in the monthly runoff distribution of tailwaters: - in April the discharges of the western and central Lithuanian rivers have decreased after construcion of water reservoirs (for example, tailwater of the Šušvė river below the Angiriai reservoir (Fig. 2a)); - in June or July the river discharges have increased (for example, tailwater of the Lėvuo river below the Kupiskis reservoir (Fig. 2b)); - runoff distributions of some rivers‘ tailwaters have the opposite trends, related to the exploitation rules and individual features of water reservoirs.

Table 2. Seasonal distribution of runoff (% from annual) before (numerator) and after (denominator) regulation of the river Akmena- Bartuva- Jūra- Šustis- Lėvuo- Mituva- Nevėžis- Šušvė- Vilnia- Tūbausiai Skuodas Tauragė Jonaičiai Kupiškis Žindaičiai Panevėžys Josvainiai Santakai

34.4 36.9 39.7 34.6 65.4 54.2 49.5 56.4 34.9 Spring 26.1 33.5 36.6 30.9 51.8 50.2 42.8 50.3 20.3 Summer - 32.6 33.9 32.1 34.5 16.5 20.8 31.9 22.2 44.2 autumn 35.8 30.2 33.0 36.2 20.8 20.1 30.7 21.9 55.9 33.0 29.2 28.2 30.9 18.1 25.1 18.6 21.4 20.9 Winter 38.1 36.3 30.4 32.9 27.5 29.7 26.5 27.8 23.8

a) b)

Figure 2. Ditribution of the monthly discharges before and after construction of the water reservoir: a) the Šušvė river at Josvainiai; b) the Lėvuo river at Kupiškis

Impact of water reservoirs on the hydrological regime of tailwaters according to modelling results

The assessment of hydrological regime changes due to instalation of HPS is often based on short data series (up to 5-8 years). Therefore, the testing procedure of null hypothesis is not reliable on the issues raised. The real impact of installation of HPS has been evaluated by modelling of the water balance of the reservoir according to the different

26 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges scenarios of hydropower production. Therefore, modelling of outfl ow from the water reservoirs was done with Riverware model (Zagona et all, 1998), taking the following assumptions: 1. The reservoir without HPS has passed only environmental discharge or the water surplus when the water level of reservoir is higher as normal water level. 2. The HPS has produced hydroenergy, using all infl ow into the reservoir. In dry periods, the HPS has passed the environmental discharge into the tailwater. These assumptions allow to identify infl uence of the water reservoirs with and without HPS on the hydrological regime of the tailwaters. For comparison with the statistical results, the water balance has been modeled for the water reservoirs of Angiriai and Antanavas. The infl ow into the reservoirs was calculated according to data of water measuring stations (the Šušvė in Josvainiai from 1939 to 2007 and the Šešupė in Marijampolė from 1937 to 2007). Hydrographs of the dry and average years are made depending on a water abundancy (Table 3).

Table 3. Infl ow into water reservoirs and production of hydroenergy Water reservoir Probability of year, % Annual infl ow into reservoir, m3/s Annual production of hydroenergy, MWh Angiriai 93 2,65 1854 54 4,78 4662 Antanavas 89 7,06 2111 50 10,0 2893

Outfl ows from the water reservoirs of Angiriai and Antanavas have been compared in the situations of the natural river, reservoir with and without HPS. The probability curves of outfl ow from the Antanavas reservoir are represented in Fig. 3. Simulation results of water balance of the reservoirs confi rmed the following conclusions: 1) maximum discharges of the tailwaters have decreased in comparison with the natural river regime; whereas the installed HPS allow to exploit more effi ciently the river runoff for the hydroenergy production and thus make a greater impact; 2) a low fl ow of tailwaters has been reduced more by water reservoir without HPS; 3) operation of HPS has decreased uneven distribution of the tailwater runoff since summer and autumn fl ood runoff can be exploited more effi ciently.

Figure 3. The probability curves of outfl ow from the Antanavas reservoir in the dry year (natural river, water reservoir with and with-out HPS)

There are daily changes of the water levels in tailwaters, caused by operation of HPS. The small HPS do not produce the peak hydropower energy in Lithuania, but sometimes the turbines of HPS operate with full capacity for a few hours, and in the remaining time the HPS passes only environmental discharge. Such operation regime of HPS is particularly unfavorable for environmental conditions, because large parts of river valleys is fl ooded and the tailwater fl ow velocities increase. The threat of new bottom erosion places is on the rise. The trophic relationships of aquatic ecosystems can be disturbed. From the environmental point of view (Halleraker et all, 1999) the events of “hydropeaking” could be tolerable only in the case if the discharge through the turbines of HPS exceeds the environmental discharge of tailwater just 3-6 times. Meanwhile, the turbines of the Angiriai HPS, operating only with 25% of installed discharge, exceeds the environmental discharge by 7 times (Fig. 4). It is important to make the discharge curve of tailwater for more correct evaluation of operation regime of the HPS.

27 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Figure 4. Outfl ow from the Angiriai reservoir in the average abundance year (water reservoir with and without HPS)

Conclusions

1. The statistical analysis of river runoff changes confi rmed that the annual and maximum discharges have decreased and low fl ow has increased in the tailwaters. Modelling results of water balance of the reservoirs have indicated that the reservoirs without HPS have decreased the low fl ow discharge more than the reservoirs with the HPS. Infl uence on the maximum discharges of tailwater is more signifi cant if the reservoir has the installed HPS. 2. Hydroelectric power stations have reduced the uneven distribution of the tailwater runoff and increased the variation of the daily water levels. Such fl uctuations of tailwater water levels could be restricted only by installation of new turbines with correct capacity in order to avoid signifi cant changes in hydromorphology of the river valley, the increasing of fl ooded areas and bottom erosion risk. In each specifi c case, the decision on the installed turbine capacity of the new HPS has to be based on the data accumulated in the environmental assessment and design phases.

References

Gailiu is, B., Jablonskis J., Kovalenkovienė M. (2001) Lithuanian rivers. Hydrography and runoff. Lithuanian Energy institute. Kaunas. Halleraker J.H., Alfredsen K., Arnekleiv J.V., Fjeldstad H.P., HarbyA., Saltveit S.J. (1999) Environmental impacts of hydro peaking – with emphasis on river Nidelva in Trondheim, Norway. Optimum use of run-of-river hydropowers schemes, pp. 1-7, Trondheim. Rimavičiūtė E. (2000) The reservoir impact on hydrological, chemical and thermal regime of Lithuanian river tailwaters. Doctoral disertation, Lithuanian Energy institute. Zagona E.A., Fulp T.J., Goranfl o H.M., Shane R.M. (1998) RiwerWare: a general river and reservoir modeling environment. Proceedings of the First Federal Interagency Hydrological Modeling Conference, pp. 5-113-120, Las Vegas, Nevada.

Brunonas GAILIU IS. Prof. Dr. Habil, the main research activities: water resources management, environmental impact, processes of waves, hydrodynamic and sediment transport; Lithuanian Energy Institute, Breslaujos 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania, e-mail hydro@ mail.lei.lt, tel. +370 37 401961, fax +370 37 401963. Jūratė KRIAUČIŪNIENĖ. Dr., the main research activities: water resources management, modelling of waves, hydrodynamic and sediment processes, climate change impact on water resources; Lithuanian Energy Institute, Breslaujos 3, LT-44403 Kaunas, Lithuania, e-mail [email protected], tel. +370 37 401962, fax +370 37 401963.

28 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Measurement and Estimation of Evapotranspiration for Spruce (Pice abies) Seedlings

Grybauskienė Vilda Lithuanian University of Agriculture Kaunas Technology University, Lithuania

Abstract

The water balance of agro ecological systems is a key parameter for most physical and physiological processes within the system soil–crop– climate. Therefore it is of grate importance to calculate the water budget parameters in the required scale. The fi eld study was conducted in the period of 2002–2005. Seedlings were planted in Land reclamation department experimental fi elds at the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Seedlings were grown under standard nursery cultural practices until being transplanted into new fi elds in mid of April 2002 and 2004. In 2002 the mean temperature during the vegetation period was 2.2oC above the long-term average (+15oC). In the same period of 2003 mean daily temperature during the vegetation period was 0.7oC above the long tem average, 2004-0.6oC les than average, at 2005-0.3oC above the long tem average. The precipitation at 2002 was 233 mm (average-337 mm) and at the same period at 2003-301 mm, 2004-312 mm, 2005-378 mm. Having analyzed the total evapotranspiration of individual months it was determined that fi rst year seedlings growing under natural conditions have evaporated approx 10-30 mm.decade-1 during May-June months, whereas during July and August months –10-30 mm.decade-1, in September the evaporation varied (during the decade) within the limits of 7-14 mm.decade-1. After compare values of biological coeffi cients at different seedlings grooving year it was determinate that biological coeffi cients for fi rst year seedlings at the average of 23% smaller than coeffi cients of second growing year seedlings. Such bigger differences good seemed at May, and then differences reach from 56% of 1 decade, till 30% - third. At the next months differences reach about 15%, but it wasn’t defi ning difference smaller than 10%. So it possible to say that biological coeffi cients for fi rst grooving year seedlings can not by used for second growing year seedlings. Key words: biological coeffi cients, evapotranspiration, seedlings

Introduction

In Lithuania Picea abies seedlings are usually planted in spring, when they are dormant and soil water is available. The planting period lasts usually for only 2 or 3 weeks (i.e. from the beginning to the end of May) before seedlings start to grow and soil is considered too dry for survival and growth. However, in May, soil temperature is often too low (< + 8oC) for root growth, as well as for uptake of water and nutrients by roots (Helenius et. all, 2002; Kramer, 1969). Theoretically, it would be advantageous to plant actively growing seedlings in summer for several reasons. First, soil temperatures close to +15oC in July are good for root growth, water and nutrient uptake. Second, the ability of actively growing spruce seedlings to root development is high in July. Third, planting in summer is economical for mechanized treatment reasons. In Lithuania precipitations is the main source of moisture. If the summer is warm, and the precipitation and capillary rise of water from deeper soil layers are insuffi cient to compensate for transpiration, seedlings may undergo water stress. The water balance of agro ecological systems is a key parameter for most physical and physiological processes with the system soil–crop–climate. Therefore it is of grate importance to calculate the water budget parameters in the required scale (Addiscot et. all., 1995; Aggarwal, 1995; Kramer, 1969). One of the most critical parameters is evapotranspiration (ET); it has a grate impact on water loses, depending on various and complex factors (Moneith and Unsworth, 1990; Morby, 1981; Margolis and Grand, 1990). One of factors for calculation evapotranspiration is biological coeffi cients, but its take time for calculations. The lack of absorption capacity in the roots of planted seedlings as a result of poor root to soil contact, can limit the uptake of the water necessary to satisfy the evaporative demand, even when soil water is plentiful (Moneith and Unsworth, 1990). The young plant may suffer from water stress, one of the most important components of what is generally known as post-trans-plant shock (Bernier, 1993; Burdet, 1990; Kaushal and Aussenac, 1989). The effect of seasonal, and seedling growing conditions upon the survival of the transplanted seedlings is obvious. Aspects such as temperature and humidity in the air and soil after planting may condition the success of root elongation in a signifi cant manner (Hobbs, 1984; Kaushal and Aussenac, 1989). The distribution of vegetation over the earth’s surface is controlled more by the availability of water than by any other single factor (Kramer, 1969). The use of quality seedlings in reforestation programs has a major effect on forest plantation establishment, physiology, survival and growth (Margolis and Grand, 1990). Irrigation is among the cultural techniques that affect seedling quality, but are diffi cult to optimize in forest nursery practice. So why, the calculation of biological coeffi cients will necessary for Lithuanian nurseries’ (Peeper, 1996). The main objective of nursery irrigation is to avoid unwanted seedling moisture stress and its negative consequence for seedlings. The secret of effective nursery irrigation is to keep soil pores fi lled with the proper balance of water and air to minimize moisture stress (Morby, 1981).

Material and methods

The fi eld study was conducted in the period of 2002–2005. Seedlings were planted in Irrigation engineering department experimental fi elds at the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Seedlings were grown under standard nursery cultural practices until being transplanted into new fi elds in mid April 2002 and 2004. 75 spruce seedlings 2+0 were planted in the plots of 1 m2 each. 2+0 years seedlings grew in nursery from seeds, after that they were transplanted, and

29 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges start new grooving period for next 2 years, after 4 years thy becomes 2+2 seedlings. There were three plots with three trials essay. Two irrigation treatments included a combination of soil water depth as thresholds for initiating irrigation and varying water application rates. At the variant No.1 irrigation started, when the moisture of the 0.3 m soil layer reached 80-100% of fi eld capacity, in the variant No.2 – 70-100 % of FC. The variant 3 - control. The irrigation norm shifted for 1 year growing seedlings –from 100-250 m3/ha., and for second year seedlings fi xed - 250 m3/ha. The measurements of water content in the soil were conducted by sampling to a depth of 30 cm, with a division of the soil profi les in to 10 cm layers. The moisture percentage of the soil samples was measured gravimetrically, and then calculated to mm. Total evapotranspiration is defi ned with the help of weighted evaporators every fi ve days at accuracy of 0.5 mm. The height of the soil monolith in evaporators is 1.1 m, the area of cross-section – 1.0 m2. The evaporators of such a depth and cross-section fully correspond to the natural plant-growing conditions. The amount of water permeated through the soil monolith is defi ned in volumetric way. Precipitation is measured with soil rain-gauges. The data of air temperature and moisture defi cit is received (during the vegetation period) from Kaunas Meteorological Station. Spruce seedlings biological coeffi cients were calculated by equation:

K=Efakt/Eo, (1)

-1 there: Efakt – evapotranspiration calkulated from weighted evaporators mm·dec ; Eo – teoretikal evapotranspiration. In Lithuania is possible to use theoretical evapotranspiration calculation method:

E=K(0,5 ∑d +7). (2)

there: K – biological coeffi cient.; E – evapotranspiration mm·dec-1.; ∑d – the decade sum, of average of atmospheric humidity mb.; 0,5 and 7 – coeffi cients.

Results

Seedlings growing conditions

In Lithuania the main moisture source is precipitation. Forest tree seedlings are most affected by soil moisture and it is the most important factor to get higher seedling quality. In vegetation period precipitation distribution is very unequal and in the same periods of different years seedlings are affected soil moisture stress. For optimum spruce seedlings growth, soil moisture at 30 cm depth should be 80-100 % of fi eld capacity. At 2002, fi eld No.1 was irrigated 8 times, irrigation tare was 100, 150 and 250 m3/ha and seedling got 1750 m3/ha water. Field No.2 was irrigated 6 irrigation norm -1500 m3/ha. In 2003 year fi elds No.1 and No.2 were irrigated 4 and 3 times and seedlings got 1000 and 750 m3/ha water. In 2003 precipitation was more intensive than in 2002 and seedlings got less water by irrigation. In 2002 the mean temperature during the vegetation period was 2.2oC above the long-term average (+15oC). In the same period of 2003 mean daily temperature during the vegetation period was 0.7oC above the long tem average, 2004- 0.6oC les than average, and 2005-0.3oC above the long tem average. The precipitation at 2002 was 233 mm (average-337 mm) and at the same period at 2003-301 mm, 2004-312 mm, 2005-378 mm.

Evapotranspiration under natural’s conditions

In order to determine the infl uence of irrigation upon water uptake by fi r-tree seedlings the total evapotranspiration under the natural plant-growing conditions during the vegetation period of 2002–2005 was defi ned. During the investigation period only precipitation made up moisture yield in evaporators. During May and September month’s fi rst year seedlings on average evaporated 230 mm of water under natural conditions, whereas the amount of evaporated water of second year seedlings on average made up 270 mm. Every month seedlings evaporated approximately 40-60 mm of water per month. Having analyzed the total evapotranspiration of individual months it was determined that fi rst year seedlings growing under natural conditions have evaporated approx. 10-30 mm.decade-1 during May-June months, on the average 17.5 mm.decade-1, whereas during July and August months – 10-30 mm.decade-1, on the average 15.9 mm.decade-1, in September the evaporation varied (during the decade) within the limits of 7-14 mm.decade-1. The smallest amount of total evapotranspiration within ten days was 7 mm.decade-1 (in September). During different years of growth under different climatic conditions fi rst year seedlings have evaporated 26-27 mm/month or on the average 50 mm/month. The smallest amount of evaporated water seedlings evaporated in September, on the average 30 mm, the largest amount was evaporated in July – 53 mm. The largest amount of evaporated water second year seedlings evaporated during July-August months – 60 mm, and the smallest amount of water they evaporated in September – 40 mm.

30 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Total evapotranspiration in irrigated variants

During the fi rst year of the seedling growth in 2002 (when they were planted in spring), the total evapotranspiration made up 382 mm of water in the 1 st. watering variant, whereas in 2004, the total evapotranspiration of fi rst year seedlings made up 323 mm of water. The total evapotranspiration of the second year seedlings was 383 mm in 2003, and in 2005 it was 341 mm of water. In the second watering variant the total evapotranspiration of the fi rst year seedlings was 367 in 2002, and in 2004 it was 307 mm (Fig. 2). In 2003, the total evapotranspiration of second year seedlings was 383 mm in the second variant, and in 2005 – 341 mm of water (Fig. 2). During different years of growth the amount of air temperatures and precipitation infl uenced watering terms and norms of irrigation. The year 2002 appeared to be the driest, therefore, the seedling planted in the fi eld No.1 were watered 8 times, whereas in 2003 the fi eld No.2 was watered 3 times, however, these years (according to the year-long hydrothermal coeffi cient HTC) are classed as the years of suffi cient moisture, whereas the year 2002 was considered as insuffi ciently moist one, i.e. 0.91 according to HTC, however, during this vegetation period 8 decades have been fi xed, when HTC was <0.4 (dry) and that factor infl uenced such heavy irrigation.

Figure 1. Spruce Seedlings evapotranspiration under different irrigation konditions

The seedlings planted in the spring of 2002 intensely evaporated water not only because of high air temperatures but because of conditionally small amount of over ground part as well; therefore, evapotranspiration from soil surface and seedlings was rather signifi cant. The total evapotranspiration in May made up 53 mm, in June – 90 mm. During June seedlings were watered twice, therefore, decade total evapotranspiration made up not less than 26 mm. In 2002 the most intense total evapotranspiration in the fi eld No.1 was observed in July and made up 111 mm. Over 35 mm.decade-1 of water was evaporated every decade of this month, seedlings were watered 3 times, whereas in the control variant, where seedlings were not irrigated, the decade total evapotranspiration fl uctuated above 19 mm.decade-1, therefore, one can state that with the replenishment of moisture resources evapotranspiration went on intensively (while the weather was hot and dry), and when moisture resources were not replenished - evapotranspiration went on slowly. In variant No.2, the most intensive total evapotranspiration was observed in the month of June of 2002 as compared to variant No1 and made up 106 mm. The intensity of evapotranspiration was close in both variants, the difference was only 5 mm. Comparing the total evapotranspiration of the seedlings growing in both variants (comparing May and August) the differences from 2 up to 7 mm were determined within a month. Due to such difference of total evapotranspiration the seedlings growing in variant No.1 evaporated 15 mm of water more as compared to variant No.2. at the end of the vegetation period, however, variant No.2 was watered 7 times, and variant No.1 was watered 8 times. The total evapotranspiration of the fi rst year seedlings planted in the fi eld No.1 in 2004 made up 323 mm. The most intense total evapotranspiration was observed in August and July months. The total evapotranspiration of the seedlings growing in variant No.2 was 307 mm in 2004 and it is by 16 mm less as compared to variant No.1. Comparing the total evapotranspiration within a month it was noticed that in variant No.1 (where seedlings of bigger mass and height were fi xed) it was on the average by 6 mm higher as compared to that in variant No.2. The small difference between total evapotranspiration in both variants was observed only in September – 0.6 mm. The total evapotranspiration in 2003, in variant No.1 (where seedlings have been growing for the second year already) made up 382 mm. In the variant No.2 the total evapotranspiration of second year seedlings made up 22 mm less as compared to variant No.2 (total – 360 mm). In variant No.1 the total evapotranspiration was more intense during the entire vegetation period. The total evapotranspiration in this variant was by 4.5-7.7 mm higher as compared to variant No.2.

31 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

In variant No.1 at the total evapotranspiration of second year seedlings was 358 mm during the vegetation period of 2005. The most intensive total evapotranspiration occurred during June and April months. The average total evapotranspiration in the 1st and 2nd decades of June reached above 23 mm.decade-1, and in the the 3rd decade – 33 mm.decade-1. The second year seedlings in variant No. evaporated 341 mm from the soil surface covered by the crown of seedlings. It is by 17 mm less than in variant No.1. Summarizing the received data, the following tendencies were noticed: the total evapotranspiration of the seedlings growing in variant No.1 was more intense as compared to variant No.2. The differences during the vegetation (not taking into account September) between the variants on the average made up 5 mm. It can be explained by the fact that when irrigating seedlings (when soil moisture is allowed to drop up to 80-100% LDI) they do not feel any shortage of moisture, moisture resources are equally replenished and the main root mass existing in the depth of up to 30 cm is being moistened.

Biological Coeffi cient calculation

Such type of calculation was made fi rst time in Lithuania, till that there now any biological coeffi cients for spruce seedlings. Biological coeffi cients was calculated after 4 year experiments, coeffi cient K was calculated practical evapotranspiration in mm.decade-1 divided from theoretical evapotranspiration mm.decade-1 from 2 equation after elimination K. We get biological coeffi cients for 10 days periods.

Figure 2. Biological coeffi cients for 1 year grooving seedlings Figure 3. Biological coeffi cients for 2 year grooving seedlings

Determination coeffi cient in both equation are strong, so after calculation biological coeffi cients are presented at 1 table.

Table 1. Biological coeffi cients for spruce seedlings Month V VI VII VII IX

Decade 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3 1 2 3

Coeffi cients for 0,37 0,42 0,46 0,53 0,67 0,69 0,71 0,66 0,67 0,65 0,58 0,62 0,57 0,54 0,54 the 1 year Coeffi cients for 0,66 0,68 0,68 0,70 0,70 0,82 0,79 0,80 0,76 0,81 0,82 0,76 0,67 0,64 0,61 the 1 year

After compare values of biological coeffi cients at different seedlings grooving year it was determinate that biological coeffi cients for fi rst year seedlings at the average of 23% smaller than coeffi cients of second growing year seedlings. Such bigger differences good seemed at May, and then differences reach from 56% of 1 decade, till 30% - third. At the next months differences reach about 15%, but it wasn’t defi ning difference smaller than 10%. So it possible to say that biological coeffi cients for fi rst grooving year seedlings can not by used for second growing year seedlings. It was calculated evapotranspiration using No.2 equation with biological coeffi cients and compare with practical evapotranspiration every observation year. Differences through year differed about 26 mm per vegetation period. More particular information was given at table 2.

32 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Table 2. Differences’ between calculated and estimated evapotranspirations at 2002-2005 year E, practical E, teoretical Compare with E, practical Year mm mm coicident % 2002 (fi rst growing year) 382,6 417,3 91,6 2003 (second growing year) 383,1 382,2 100,2 2004 (fi rst growing year) 323,7 251,7 128,6 2005 (second growing year) 358,8 371 96,7

After evapotranspiration of vegetation period compare, we get that both evapotranspirations results (practical and theoretical) coincident for the fi rst year seedlings 110% range, for second year - 94%.

Conclusions

Having analyzed the total evapotranspiration of individual months it was determined that fi rst year seedlings growing under natural conditions have evaporated approx. 10-30 mm.decade-1 during May-June months, whereas during July and August months –10-30 mm.decade-1, in September the evaporation varied (during the decade) within the limits of 7-14 mm.decade-1. The total evapotranspiration of the fi rst year seedlings planted in the fi eld No1 in 2004 made up 323 mm. The total evapotranspiration of the seedlings growing in variant No.2 was 307 mm in 2004 and it is by 16 mm less as compared to variant No.1. It was determinate that biological coeffi cients for fi rst year seedlings at the average of 23% smaller than coeffi cients of second growing year seedlings. Such bigger differences good seemed at May, and then differences reach from 56% of 1 decade, till 30% - third reach about 15%, but it wasn’t defi ning difference smaller than 10%. So it possible to say that biological coeffi cients for fi rst grooving year seedlings can not by used for second growing year seedlings.

References

Addiscot, T., J Smith and N. Bradbury, 1995:Critical evaluation of models and their parameters.- Journal Environmental Quality 24, 803-807. Aggarwal. P.K., 1995: Uncertainties in crop, soil and weather inputs used in growth models implications for simulated outputs and their applications. Agricultural systems 48 [3], 361-384. Baker. G. C. and N. J. Ledgard. 1991. Douglas fi r seedlings quality, handing, and establishment-practices for the South Island Moutlands. New Zealand. N.Z.For. Serv. For. Res. Inst. Bull. 156:p. 134-140. Bernier P.Y. 1993. Comparing natural and planted back spruce seedlings. I. Water relations and growth. Can. J. For. Res. 23: 2427-2434. Burdet A.N. 1990. Physiological processes in plantation establishment and the development of specifi cations for forest plnting stocs. Can. J. For. Res. 20: 415-427. Duryea, Mary.L. and Thomas D. Landis (eds.). Forest nursery manual: Production of bare root seedlings. - Martinus nilhoff/drW. Junk publishers, the Hague/Boston/Lancaster: Corvallis, 1984 - 386 p. Helenius. P., J. Luorenen., R. Rikala., and K. Leinonen. 2002. Effect of drought an growth and mortality of actively growing Norway spruce container seedlings planted in summer. Scand. J. For. Res. 17: p. 218-224. Hobbs S.D. 1984. The infl uence of species and stoctype selection on stand establishment: an ecophysiological perspective. In: Duryea M.L and Brown G.N. (eds), Seedling Physiology and Reforestation success. Nijhoff\Junk. Publ. pp. 177-224. Kaushal P. and Aussenac G. 1989. Transplanting shock in Corsican Pine and Cedar Atlas seedling: internal water defi cits, growth and root regeneration. Forest Ecol. Manag. 27: 29-40. Kramer, P. I. 1969. Plant and soil water relationships: a modern synthesis. McGraw-Hill Book Co., New York. 390 p. Margolis, H.A. and D.G Grand. 1990. An ecophysiological basis for understanding plantation establishment. Can. J. For. Res. 20:p. 375-390 Moneith, J.L. and M-H. Unsworth, 1990: Principles of environmental physics.-Sec.Edition, London:Edward Arnold. Morby, F. E. 1981. Irrigation regimes in a bareroot nursery. Pages 55-59 in Proc., 1981 Intermountain nurserymen’s assoc. meeting, Edmonton, Alberta, Aug. 11-13. Can. Dep. of Environ. Inf. Rep. NOR-X-241. 121 p.

Peeper I.L., C.P. Gerba, M.L. Brusseau and J.W. Brendocke/ 1996. Pollution Science. Academic Press, San Diego, 397 p.

Vilda GRYBAUSKIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture; Faculty of Water engineering and Land management, Department of Land Reclamation. Address: Universiteto str. 10, E-mail: [email protected]; Kaunas Technology University, Faculty of Civil Engineering and Architecture, Department of Geotechnical Engineering. Address: Studentų g. 48-438.

33 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Organic Matter Concentration in Water of the Karst Zone Dug Wells

Saulius Kutra, Aurelija Rudzianskaitė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract The article presents the research data of the dug well water quality in the karst zone glacial lacustrine clay and moraine sandy loam in the four years (2004-2007).The amount of organic substances in the well water depended on fl uctuation of the ground and the level of water. The largest amount of organic matters was established in the wells (6 and 7) which were in glacial lacustrine clays and in the shallowest well (4) of moraine sandy loams.The greatest amounts of organic substance were determined when the level of water fl uctuated nearest the earth’s surface (could get together with a surface fl ow) and nearest the ground of well (the amount of organic substances in the water has increased through ground deposits). Where the level of water fl uctuated in the greatest amplitude, the least amounts of organic substance were determined.

Introduction

There are lots of organic compounds in nature and anthropogenic environment. Over 2000 of them are identifi ed in water, 750 of which were found in drinking water. The majority of them are pharmacologically active, they have carcinogenic or other characteristics harmful to human organism (Guidelines for…,1984). There are two main groups of sources of organic material origin and accumulation in underwater: 1) outside sources – pollution and surface water of rivers, canals, seas and marshes; and 2) inside sources – products in rocks and those of live activities of microorganisms (Klimas, 2002). Precipitation and runoff of different origin pass into the ground and aquifers, change chemical composition and quality of underwater. Such changes are most visible in the areas of intensive anthropogenic activities – urbanized territories, fertilized fi elds and the zones of intensive underwater extraction (Juodkazis and Kučingis, 1999; Pulido-Bosch et all, 1999). Large quantities of organic albumen pass into the ground water in the locations of intensive pollution. Due to its oxidation the concentration of carbon dioxide, hydrocarbonates and nitrates in water increases. With an increased amount of carbon dioxide in water it becomes more aggressive and starts dissolving calcium and magnesium present in rocks (Juodkazis and Kučingis, 1999). The run of karst sinkholes in the karst zone make favourable conditions for surface water as well as pollution components to enter underwater. The rural dwellers (53% of all rural population in Birzai and 70% in Pasvalys districts) are mainly using the ground water from individual dug wells. There are over 19000 dug wells in Biržai district. They can be characterized as wells in which the admissible water pollution rates are exceeded two or more times. In 2004 microbiological analyses were carried out in 77 town and 278 village wells. The analyses showed, that drinking water did not correspond to the hygienic standard in 28,5% of town and 20,5% of village wells. Town wells had increased chemical pollution and village wells – increased microbiological pollution of water (Kazitėnas, 2007). Distances from a well to an outside toilet, barn, manure yard and kitchen garden, water level in the well and the quality of well installation have the greatest infl uence on the pollution with nitrogen and organic compounds (Arustienė, 2004; Rutkovienė et all, 2005; Richards et all, 2006). The composition of karst ground water depends on Devonian rock lythology – it has more sulphites, however, the distribution of organic material is determined by a well’s anthropogenic environment (Arustiene and Juodkazis, 2001). The wells more sensitive to pollution are located in the areas, the mother rock of which is composed of limestone and dolomites. A well construction is also a very important factor determining the quality of well water (Conboy and Goss, 2000). The work objective is establishing the variation of the amount of organic matter in the dug water of the active karst soils.

Methods

The research was carried out on two main active karst soil types in Biržai district: moraine sandy loam in lands of Paežeriai, Lyglaukiai and Liesiškiai villages and glacial lacustrine clay in land Kirdonėliai village (Fig.1). The layers of gypsum-dolomite occur at 5-10 m depth from the soil surface (gypsum layers occur deeper) of the research site (Narbutas et al., 2001). The quality of groundwater in moraine soils is identifi ed in 5 wells of homesteads and 2 wells are located in glacial lacustrine clays. Their depths are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Depths of investigated wells Well No Index Moraine sandy loam Lacustrine clays 1234 5 6 7 Depths, m 5.9 11.0 8.7 3.0 4.1 6.4 9.5

34 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The amount of organic material in the well water was established once per month using oxidizer potassium permanganate in acidic media. Potassium permanganate oxidizes only easily oxidized organic compounds which often account for 25-50 % of the total amount of organic matter. 42 water samples were taken in each investigation spot. The well water level was measured once a month during taking water quality samples. Meteorological conditions were characterized on basis of the data of the Meteorological Offi ce in Biržai.

Figure 1. Scheme of investigated area: 1 – forest; 2 – roads; 3 – stream; 4 – homestead; 5 – dug well

Results

The minimum water levels (0.15 and 0.40 m from the ground surface) were identifi ed in the water of the wells in glacial lacustrine clays. The water level in the majority of wells irrespective of the soil type was nearest the ground surface in January 2005, March 2007 and in October 2006 it was in the deepest position. In August 2006 well 5 dried out (Fig. 2). The largest amount of precipitation fell in July (121 mm) and October (108 mm) 2004, and the least amount – in June 2006 (12 mm), the highest average air temperature was observed in July 2006 (21 o C), the lowest – in February 2007 (-8,8 o C). This proves there is no direct dependence between monthly water levels and meteorological factors (precipitation and average air temperature). The effect of these factors occurs after some time. Variation of the water level in a dug well correlates with the amount of precipitation during 7 days in spring and 28 days in autumn (Rutkoviene, 2005). The effect on groundwater level fl uctuation was mainly made by precipitation in cold season and air temperature in warm season. The impact of meteorological factors (average air temperature and amount of precipitation) on well water level was higher in March – April or October – November. The water level was higher in March – April, when the average air temperature and the amount of precipitation increased and in October – November, when the average air temperature decreased but the amount of precipitation increased. Some wells are distinguished for high fl uctuations of water levels. There were cases, when water level increased by 5.2 m in well 2, 3.0 m in well 3 and 3.2 m in well 7. High water level fl uctuations, especially in an unused well (well 7) show that it can be related not only with water consumption but with soil features and meteorological conditions too. The annual amplitudes of water level in wells ranged from 0.9 to 6.5 m.

Figure 2. Dynamics of water level in dug well

The amount of organic matter (OM) in three wells (well 4 – 2 times, 6 – 18 times and 7 – 2 times) exceeded the maximum admissible concentration (MAC=5.0 mg O2/l Lithuanian Hygiene…, 2003) (Fig.3.). The largest amount of

35 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges organic matters was established in the wells (6 and 7) which were in glacial lacustrine clays and in the shallowest well of moraine sandy loams. Larger amounts of organic matter could pass into the water of the investigated wells by two different ways: with surface runoff in the case of the shallowest well and as adsorbed organic material in the wells in glacial lacustrine clays. Clay particles can sorbed organic matter, however, during infi ltration of precipitation the adsorbed organic matter can become a secondary source of this matter in ground water. These processes could determine higher amounts of organic matter in the water of glacial lacustrine clays. It is proposed in the literature (Cloutier et. all, 2008) that the impact on the hydrochemical variation of ground water is made by the type of rocks, hydraulic gradient, etc. The amount of organic matter in underwater does not only depend on its emission sources but also on hydro/ bio/geochemical processes in which organic matters take part (Juodkazis and Kucingis, 1999; Klimas, 2002). The highest pollution of well water with organic matters is observed in summer (Rutkovienė et all, 2003).

The highest concentration of organic materials in the water of well 4 (6.7 mg O2/l) was established, when the water level had dropped to the minimum (295 cm, the well was nearly dry in summer), and in the water of well 3 (1.8 mg

O2/l) – when the water level had dropped dramatically as well (700 cm depth). In this case the sediment accumulated on the well’s bottom could be the source of organic materials in the water of the mentioned wells. It is stated in the literature (Radzevicius and Kadunas) that the ground deposits of shaft-wells, especially with an increased amount of organic substance; distinguish themselves with their good sorption capacities, i.e. they accumulate elements-contaminants getting into wells together with ground or surface water. Deposits accumulating in wells for a longer time become secondary hotbeds of potable water contamination, especially in shallower wells. In ground deposits of wells, the amount of organic substance is changeable; its amount in the same wells is different each year.

Figure 3. Variation of organic matter amount in well water

In both types of soils the amounts of organic matter were highest in those wells, where the level of water fl uctuated closer to the soil surface (Table 2). This fact shows that organic matter can enter together with the surface runoff. In the second well, where the level of water fl uctuated in the greatest amplitude, the least amounts of organic substance were determined.

Table 2. Average water level and amount of organic matters during investigation period Well No Index 1 234567 Water level, cm 259±119 403±230 501±145 173±77 309±53 85±56 339±200 ± ± ± ± ± ± ± Concentration, mg O2/l 1.31 0.37 0.87 0.38 1.22 0.37 2.1 1.45 0.98 0.47 5.8 3.2 3.0 1.11 Note. Average ± standard deviation

The substantial difference in the means of well water quality was checked using Student’s t-test for two independent samples (Cekanavičius and Murauskas, 2003). While comparing the differences between the amounts of organic matter in the wells the highest substantial differences were established between the wells in moraine loamy sands (wells 1, 2, 3, 4, 5) and in glacial lacustrine clays (wells 6 and 7) (Table 3). This proves the infl uence of the ground on the quality of well water in terms of the variation of organic matter amounts. Higher or lower substantial differences in water quality were established between all wells. Therefore, a supposition can be made that the quality of well water is related with the depth of a well (3.0 – 11.0 m) and the fl uctuation of water level from the soil surface (0.55–9.38 m).

36 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Table 3. Matrix of evaluating statistical signifi cance (Student’s t-test) of organic matter amount Well No 1 23456 1X 2 3.05 X 3 1.82 4.79 X 4 4.68 5.69 3.92 X 5 1.94 0.73 3.48 5.24 X 6 9.17 9.55 8.64 6.49 9.25 X 7 10.11 11.34 9.06 2.68 10.55 5.26

Note. Student’s t-test tactual.>t95%=1.66

Conclucion

The amount of organic matter in the well water depended on fl uctuation of the ground and the level of water. The largest amount of organic matters was established in the wells (6 and 7) which were in glacial lacustrine clays and in the shallowest well (4) of moraine sandy loams. The greatest amounts of organic substance were determined when the level of water fl uctuated nearest the earth’s surface (could get together with a surface fl ow) and nearest the ground of well (the amount of organic substances in the water has increased through ground deposits). Where the level of water fl uctuated in the greatest amplitude, the least amounts of organic substance were determined.

References

Arustienė J., Juodkazis V. (2001). Gėlo požeminio vandens organinės medžiagos suminių rodiklių koreliaciniai ryšiai. Geologija 36, pp. 44-55. Arustienė J. (2004). Požeminio vandens kokybės apžvalga. Lietuvos požeminės hidrosferos monitoringas 2003. Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. Conboy MJ.; Goss MJ.(2000). Natural Protection of Groundwater Against Bacteria of Fecal Origin. Journal of Contaminant Hydrology 43 (1), pp. 1–24. Cloutier V., Lefebvre R., Therrien R., Savard MM. (2008). Multivariate Statistical Analysis of Geochemical Data as Indicative of Hhydrogeochemical Evolution of Groundwater in a Sedimentary Rock Aquifer System. Journal of Hydrology 353 (3–4), pp. 294–313. Čekanavičius V., Murauskas G. (2003). Statistika ir jos taikymai. I dalis. Vilnius, TEV. Guidelines for Drinking Water Quality (1984). Health Criteria and Other Supporting Information. 2 Geneva. World Health Organization. Juodkazis V., Kučingis Š. (1999). Geriamojo vandens kokybė ir jos norminimas. Vilnius, Vilniaus universiteto leidykla. Kazitėnas A. (2007). Šulinių vandenyje – nuodų kokteilis. Available at http://www.siaure.lt/article/articlearchiveview/244/2007/05/{article_url}. Klimas A. (2002). Oksidacijos-redukcijos procesų vaidmuo formuojantis požeminio vandens cheminei sudėčiai. Geologija 40, pp. 46–54. Lietuvos higienos norma HN 24:2003 Geriamojo vandens saugos ir kokybės reikalavimai (2003). Valstybės žinios Nr.79-3606. Narbutas V., Linčius A., Marcinkevičius V. (2001). Devono uolienų karstas ir aplinkosaugos problemos šiaurės Lietuvoje. Vilnius, Agora. Pulido-Busch A., Lopez-Chicano M., Calaforra JM., Calvache ML., Machkova M., Dimitrov D., Velikov B., Pentchev P. (1999). Groundwater Problems in Karstic Aquifers of the Dobrich Region, Northeastern Bulgaria. Journal Hydrological Sciences 44 (6), pp.913-927. Radzevičius A., Kadūnas V. (2008). Panevėžio miesto gyventojų šachtinių šulinių dumblo taršos monitoringas 2008. Available at: http://www.panevezys. lt/Portals/57ad7180-c5e7-49f5-b282-c6475cdb7ee7/ekologsachtiniusuliniumonitoringas2008.doc Richards RP, Baker DB, Creamer NL, Kramer JW, Ewing DE, Merryfi eld BJ, Wallrabenstein LK. (2006). Well Water Quality, Well Vulnerability, and Agricultural contamination in the Midwestern United States. Available at http://cat.inist.fr/?aModele=affi cheN&cpsidt=3093107 Rutkovienė V., Kusta A., Kutra S., Česonienė L. (2003). Šachtinių šulinių vandens taršos sezoninė kaita. Vandens ūkio inžinerija 22, pp. 15–29. RutkovienėV., Kusta A., Česonienė L. (2005). Evaluation of the Impact of Anthropogenic Factors on the Pollution of Shallow Well Water. Ekologija 4, pp.13-19. Rutkovienė V. (2005). The impact of precipitation on pollution in water shallow wells. Vagos, 68 (21), pp. 128-135.

Saulius KUTRA, the Head of the Water Protection Department, Water Management Institute of Lithuanian University of Agriculture, doctor of technology sciences, associate professor. Research interests – environmental engineering and landscape management, GIS, pollution modelling, application of remote sensing. Address: Parko 6, Vilainiai LT – 58102, Kedainiai district, Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected]. Aurelija RUDZIANSKAITĖ, senior researcher of the Water Protection Department, Water Management Institute of Lithuanian University of Agriculture, doctor of technology sciences. Research interests – environmental engineering, relations between the regime and pollution of surface and subsurface water. Address: Parko 6, Vilainiai LT – 58102, Kedainiai district, Lithuania. E-mail: aurelija@ water.omnitel.net

37 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Effect of New Organic Fertilizers on the Nutrient leaching into Groundwater

Kristina Lingytė, Laima Česonienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Groundwater is located closest to the earth surface and that is the reason why it is greatly pollutes with fertilizers used in agriculture. Additional nutrient getting into the soil might cause environmental problems because nutrient leaching from soil into environment would increase. The aim of the research is to determine nutrient leaching after application of organic fertilizers (Horn Shavings). Tasks: 1. To determine nutrient leaching without use of organic fertilizers and after application of organic fertilizers. 2. To determine effect of meteorological conditions on washout of nutrition materials. Piezometric research was carried out from fi ve monitoring bores (piezometers) No. 40878 – 40882 in the area of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical research establishes in 2006 at Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Monitoring bores were positioned in the form of envelope at the distance of 25 m for one another (1 he). In the period of 2007-2008 fertilizers were not used in the area of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical (piezometric) research and nutrient leaching under natural conditions was observed. In July 2008 organic fertilizers-horn shavings- were applied. Results of the research suggest that after application of organic fertilizers (horn shavings) concentrations of nitrates, nitrites, ammonium ions and phosphates increased in piezometric water. Meteorological conditions had effect on concentrations of ammonium ions, nitrites and nitrates before application of fertilizers while after application of fertilizers (horn shavings) effect of meteorological conditions was observed in concentrations of ammonium ions and phosphates in piezometric water.

Introduction

Groundwater is the only source of drinking water in Lithuania. Its quality is infl uenced by many natural and anthropogenic factors. Their infl uence is very different in time and space – some factors are more important for more shallow horizons of ground water, while others affect deeper basins, the water of which is often used in systems of centralized water supply. (Rutkoviene et al., 2004). Quality of ground water is assessed by evaluating concentration of nitrogen compounds (nitrites, nitrates, ammonium ions), which is relatively low under natural conditions. Compounds like that accumulate in ground water mainly due to human action (Geological Service of Lithuania, 2007). Concentration of nitrates in groundwater depends on intensity of agriculture, amount of fertilizers applied, time and methods of insertion, on crop rotation and irrigation (Hubbard & Sheridan, 1989). However, nitrates are very mobile and soluble and for this reason they leaching easily from soil but are also easily appropriated by plants (Clawges & Vowinkel, 1996; Česonienė, 2004). As metabolism of nutrient goes on, nutrient are leach into deeper layers of soil, as well as into the water of drainage and groundwater, so their amount differs all through the growth period of plants. This is predetermined by three factors: 1) mineralization process of soil’s organic matter which is closely connected to organic remains of plants that grew in the same soil before and application of organic fertilizers; 2) leaching of nitrates into deeper layers of soil; 3) amount of nitrogen taken from soil during the vegetation period of plants (Pleseviciene et al., 1997). In the areas of agricultural activity where intensive agriculture is developed, nutrient leaching becomes faster (Svedas, 1990). Quality of groundwater is also affected by meteorological conditions. Due to the movement of air masses, great diversity and instability of weather conditions is characteristic to Lithuanian climate and meteorological conditions have an infl uence on nutrient leaching (Askinis and Miseviciene, 2003). Determinated that the during thunderstorms level of nitrate nitrogen to the soil fall about 10 kg / he per year (Raskauskas, 1991). The main source of soil water is water from precipitation oozed into soil. A part of chemical materials in already present in the water of precipitation. As it gets into soil and oozes down, water changes its chemical composition and characteristics even more, because it melts minerals and organic compounds found in soil. Besides, organic matters have a great effect on physical and agrochemical characteristics of soil. This also has infl uence on the nutrient leaching (Askinis et al., 2002). Aiming to use organic fertilizers rationally without polluting environment, it is very important to balance the use nitrogen. If additional nutrient get into soil every year, environmental problems will appear without any doubt, because the nutrient leaching into environment will increase and plants will accumulate unpermitted amounts of biogenic matters (Kumazawa, 2002). The aim of research – nutrient leaching after application of organic fertilizers (horn shavings) Tasks: 1. To determine the nutrient leaching when no fertilization was applied and in the case when organic fertilizers were applied; 2. Effect of meteorological conditions on the nutrient leaching; The Object of Research – Piezometric research was carried out in the area of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical research at Lithuanian University of Agriculture in 2006. Five bores of monitoring or piezometers (Nr. 40878 – 40882) were installed. Bores of monitoring were placed in the form of envelope within 25- meter distance from one another (1 he). Heights of ground vary from 76.40 to 77.48 m. Winter wheat formed the surface. Groundwater under the area of research fl ow from south-east towards the region of water stream charge- ditches of land-reclamation. i.e. in the direction of north-west.

38 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Methodology: Fertilizers were not applied in 2007-2008 in the established area of hydrodynamic and hydrochemical research (piezometers) and the leaching process was observed under natural conditions. In July 2008 organic fertilizers- horn shavings- were applied at a rate of 900 kg/1 he. Organic fertilizers-horn shavings composition: Organic material 97 %; Total nitrogen (N) 15,82 %; Phosphorus (P) 0,047 %; Potassium (K) 0,030 %; Calcium (Ca) 0,125 %; Magnesium (Mg) 0,011 %. At the moment of fertilization, the surface was a meadow (goat’s rue grew there). Samples of water were taken + - every month and analyzed at the Laboratory of Environmental Research to establish indexes of water quality NH4 , NO 2; - 3- NO 3; PO 4. Quality of piezometric water was determined with the program of statistical processing “STATISTICA’. To check the signifi cance of variations of water quality indexes before and after application of fertilizers, Student t-criterion was used. If p>0.05, the difference was held signifi cant. To assess the strength of relationship between meteorological conditions and quality indexes of piezometric water, was assessed by calculating coeffi cient of correlation.

Results of research Dynamics of nutrient leaching Concentration of ammonium ions in piezometric water before and after application of organic fertilizers is shown in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Concentration of ammonium ions in piezometric water a. before application of fertilizers; b. after application of fertilizers.

As it can be seen from the data presented in Figure1, before fertilizers were applied (fi gure 1 a.) concentration of ammonium ions varied in the interval between 0.001 mg l-1 and 4.72 mg l-1. The greatest concentrations were found in September. In the second year of research (in 2008) concentration of ammonium ions decreased greatly and varied in the interval between 0.001 mg l-1 and 0.67 mg l-1. The least concentrations of ammonium ions were found in winter and spring. Having applied fertilizers (fi gure 1 b.), concentration of ammonium ions varied in the interval between 0.02 mg l-1 and 0.84 mg l-1 and statistically signifi cant differences (p<0.05) were only found in two piezometers after application of fertilizers. The greatest amounts were found in summer and autumn, while they decreased in winter and spring. Concentration of nitrites in piezometric water is shown in Figure 2. As it can be seen from the data before the fertilizers were applied (fi gure 2 a) concentration of nitrites varies in the interval between 0.01 mg l-1 and 0.31 mg l-1. During the fi rst year of research (in 2007), concentration of nitrites varied from 0.01 mg l to 0.31 mg l. The greatest amounts of nitrites were found in piezometer No.40879 (0.31 mg l-1) in September. In the second year of research (in 2008) concentration of nitrites became even smaller, the greatest concentration found was 0.1 mg l-1 detected in February. After application of organic fertilizers (Horn Shavings), concentration of nitrites increased in the water of all piezometers. The differences were statistically signifi cant p<0.05. Nitrite concentration varied from 0.01 mg l-1 to 0.32 mg l-1. In the third year of research (2009) dispersion of nitrite concentration is greater and varies in the interval from 0.05 mg l-1 to 0.57 mg l-1.

39 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Figure 2. Concentration of nitrites in piezometric water; a. before application of fertilizers; b. after application of fertilizers

Concentration of nitrates in piezometric water is shown in Figure 3.

Figure 3. Concentration of nitrates in piezometric water a. before application of fertilizers; b. after application of fertilizers

As it can be seen from the data shown in fi gure3, nitrate concentration before application of fertilizers varies in the interval between 1 mg l-1 and 80 mg l-1. The greatest concentration of 46 mg l-1 was found in piezometer No. 40880. In the second year of research (2008) nitrate concentration found in all fi ve piezometers was much greater. It varied from 10 mg l-1 to 80 mg l-1. After application of fertilizers, nitrate concentration was greater in all fi ve piezometers (differences were found statistically signifi cant p<0.05) and it varied from 12 mg l-1 l to 87 mg l-1.

40 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Concentration of phosphates in piezometric water is presented in Figure 4.

Figure 4. Concentration of phosphates in piezometric water; a. before application of fertilizers; b. after application of fertilizers

As it can be seen from the data presented in fi gure 4, a, concentration of phosphates is similar all the time. During the fi rst year of research (2007) interval of variation is not very big varying from 0.04 mg l-1 to 0.47 mg l-1. The greatest concentration was observed in July in piezometer No.40880. During the second year of research (2008) phosphate concentration was found slightly increased, varying from 0.01 mg l-1 to 0.71 mg l-1. Both the smallest concentration (in January) and the greatest concentration (in May) were detected in piezometer No.40878. After application of Horn Shavings (fi gure 4a) phosphate concentration signifi cantly increased in all fi ve piezometres (the differences were found statistically signifi cant p<0.05) and they varied in the interval between 0.15 mg l-1 and 0.86 mg l-1.

Effect of meteorological conditions on nutrient leaching

Having calculated correlation between amount of precipitation (mm/number of days between research sessions), average air temperature (0C average between research sessions) and quality indexes of piezometric water, value coeffi cients (average values) were obtained and presented in the table below.

Precipitation (mm/number of days between Average air temperature (0C average between research sessions) research sessions Before application of After application of Before application of After application of fertilizers fertilizers fertilizers fertilizers Ammonium r =0.6165 r = 0.28 r = 0.6244 r = 0.23 + ions, NH4 p=0.046 p=0.464 p=0.0490 p=0.042 r =0.3817 r = 0.1391 r = 0.8449 r = 0.2812 Nitrites, NO - 2 p=0.221 p=0.721 p=0.001 p=0.464 Phosphates, r =-0.3113 r = -0.4282 r = -0.1202 r = -0.7893 +3 PO4 p=0.325 p=0.250 p=0.710 p=0.011 Nitrates, r =-0.614 r = -0.3162 r = -0.4594 r = -0.2474 - NO3 p=0.034 p=0.407 p=0.133 p=0.521

41 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Results suggest, that values of ammonium ions concentrations and concentration of nitrates correlate with precipitation before application of fertilizers (strong positive correlation was found r= 0.6165, p= 0.046, and strong negative concentration with the value of nitrate concentration r= -0,614, p= 0,034). Average air temperature had an effect on concentration of ammonium ions in piezometric water before and after application of fertilizers (a strong positive correlation was found r= 0.6244, p= 0.0490; r= 0.23, p= 0.042). A strong positive concentration (r= 0.8449, p= 0.001) was found between nitrites and the average air temperature before the application of fertilizers. The results obtained demonstrate that concentrations of phosphates were the only ones to be effected by meteorological conditions after application of fertilizers (strong negative correlation was found r= -0.7893, p= 0.011).

Conclusions

1. After application of organic fertilizers (Horn Shavings) concentrations of nitrates, nitrites and phosphates increased in piezometric water (differences were found statistically signifi cant p<0.05),but the greatest amounts of ammonium ions were only found in two piezometers after application of fertilizers (p<0.05). 2. Amount of precipitation (mm) effected concentration of ammonium ions before application of fertilizers (strong positive correlation was obtained r= 0.6165, p= 0.046) and concentration of nitrites before application of fertilizers (strong negative correlation was found r= -0.614, p=0.034). After application of fertilizers (Horn Shavings) amount of precipitation did not have effect on nutrient leaching (p>0.05). 3. Average air temperature had effect on concentration of ammonium ions in piezometric water before application of fertilizers (strong positive correlation was found r= 0.6244, p= 0.0490). Nitrite concentration in piezometric water was also found vulnerable to air temperature change (strong positive correlation was found r= 0.8449, p= 0.001). After application of fertilizers, only concentrations of ammonium ions and phosphates in piezometric water were found affected by average air temperature (p<0,05).

References

Aškinis, S., Misevičienė, S. 2003. Fosforo išplovimo tyrimai skystuoju mėšlu tręštuose sėjomainos laukuose. Vandens ūkio inžinerija. Mokslo darbai. 22(44). P. 58 – 65. Aškinis, S., Čižauskienė, M., Misevičienė, S. 2002. Maistingų medžiagų dinamika dirvožemyje tręšiant skystuoju mėšlu. Vandens ūkio inžinerija. Mokslo darbai. 20 (42). P. 41 - 48. Česonienė, L. 2004. The impact of environmental factors on the dynamics of pollution in shallow well water. Disertacijos santrauka. Akademija. Clawges, R. M., Vowinkel, E. F. 1996. Variables Indicating Nitrate Contamination in Bedrock Aquifers, Newark Basin, New Jersey. Water Resources Bulletin, 32 (5), P. 1055 – 1066. Hubbard, R. K. and Sheridan, J. M. 1989. Nitrate movement to groundwater in the southeastern Coastal Plain. Journal of Soil and Water Conservation. 44. P. 20 – 27. Kumazawa, K. 2002. Nitrogen fertilization and nitrate pollution in groundwater in Japan: present status and measures for sustainable agriculture. Nutrient cycling in agro ecosystems. 6392 – 30. P. 129 – 137. Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba, 2007 Plesevičienė A. K., Veitienė R., Lenkšaitė E., Arlauskienė E. A., Čiuberkis S., Janušienė V. 1997. Vidutiniškai pajaurėjusių velėninių jaurinių nekalkintų ir pakalkintų dirvožemių agrocheminių, fi zinių bei biologinių rodiklių pokyčiai sistemingai tręšiant mėšlu. Žemdirbystė. Mokslo darbai. 60. P. 38 – 59. Raškauskas V. 1991. Bendroji ekologija. Vilnius. P.238. Rutkovienė, V. M., Česonienė, L., Kusta A., Kutra S. 2004. Šachtiniai šuliniai. Kaunas P. 69. Švedas A. 1990. Žemdirbystės ekologija. Vilnius

Kristina LINGYTĖ. PhD student of the Laboratory of Environmental Research, Institute of Environment, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 08, e-mail: kristina.lingyte@gmail. com Laima ČESONIENĖ. Assoc. Prof at the Department of Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studenų g. 11, Akademija, Kaunas district.. LT – 53361Tel. (8 37) 75 22 02 E-mail: [email protected].

42 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Effi ciency Research of Laundry Waste Water Treatment by Dissolved Air Flotation Method

Algirdas Radzevičius, Evaldas Trainavičius Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

To protect environment from industrial pollution, are creating strictly requirements for waste water treatment. The purpose of research is to establish optimal ratio from saturated liquid and laundry waste water, than achievable the highest effi ciency results. Results of research were carried out in 2008. For research was chosen’s laboratory and experimental models. For experimental model was chosen JSC “Traidenis” fl otation wastewater treatment system. The best’s ration of wastewater and saturated liquid in laboratory model were 4:1 and 1:1, than continuous time in fl oatation chamber is 5 minutes. Repeatedly analysis done in experimental model confi rmed laboratory model results. The optimal wastewater and saturated liquid ratio was 4:1. By this ration was achieved 96 % effi cient by ChDS removal. Key words: Flotation system, fl otation, laundry waste water, waste water treatment

Introduction

Each year environmental protection law and standards refl ect a growing concern for waste water management. In this context the fl otation, which is well known in the mining industry, has caused great interest in the wastewater treatment fi eld (Zobouis, 2002). Flotation by dissolved air (DAF) is a process whereby all or part of the effl uent to be treated has been previously saturated with air in a tank under pressure. Next, the liquid effl uent saturated with air is discharged into the fl otation equipment through a valve, where it undergoes sudden decompression, giving rise to small air bubbles (in the range of 10-120 µm) and producing the fl otation process (Richter, 1976). For saturated liquid preparing can be used clean water or treated wastewater (Metcalf, 2001). The biggest infl uences of water pollution have domestic waste water, because daily rate is high. From the other hand, industrial wastewater from chemical, leather, textile, food, fertilizers, petroleum processing industry are most dangerous, because enough low fl ow rate for higher negative environmental infl uence. Laundry wastewater like other industry wastewater is polluted with high concentrate of suspended solid, synthetic surface active substances, biological compound (BOD and COD). The objective of this study was to establish optimal ratio of saturated liquid and laundry wastewater, than achievable the highest effi ciency results.

Methods

Investigating optimal ration of laundry wastewater and saturating liquid was observing effi ciency of COD pollution treatment. COD concentration was determined by titrimetric method. For investigation was chosen’s laboratory (Figure 1.) and experimental (Figure 2.) models. For experimental model was chosen JSC “Traidenis” waste water treatment system, which was installed in JSC “Lindstrom” laundry.

Figure 1. Laboratory wastewater treatment system by fl otation method: 1- compressor, 2- funnel, 3- valve, 4- pressure tank, 5- monometer, 6- reduction valve, 7- fl otation tank, 8- tap

First of all, investigation was carried out in laboratory model. The fl otation tank has been previously loaded by fi xed volume with the wastewater from the top. Next, the liquid saturated with air from the tank is discharged into the fl otation tank, producing the fl otation process. After that by different times moments (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30 minutes) were taking samples for establish treatment effi ciency. For this study were choosing fi ve different ratios of wastewater an saturated liquid Qw:Qsl: 1:2, 1:1,5, 1:1, 2:1 and 4:1.

43 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Figure 2. Experimental model of wastewater treatment by fl otation method: 1- wastewater tank, 2-pumps, 3- chemicals dosing system, 4-fl okulator, 5- saturating liquid preparing system, 6- fl otator

According by laboratory wastewater treatment model results was constructed the experimental model, which is operating in laundry. Firs of all laundry wastewater from the tank were pumping to folulator, where it mixing with coagulant and fl occulent. Finally prepared wastewater is mixing with saturated liquid and discharged to fl otation tank. Effi ciency analysis samples were taking from fl oculator after wastewater mixing with saturated liquid. In this system repeatedly done ration investigation of wastewater and saturated liquid reaction duration time. For this study were choosing just two different wastewater and saturated liquid ratios Qw:Qsl: 1:1 and 4:1.

Results

Analysis results carrying out in laboratory model are showing in fi gure 3.

Figure 3. Variation of wastewater treatment effi ciency in laboratory model

From the fi gure 3 we can see that treatment effi ciency is irrespective from laundry wastewater and saturated liquid ratio, than reaction continuance time is fi ve minutes. At this continuance time, wastewater treatment effi ciency of biological compound treatment, dominates between 92 and 96 percents. At this analysis was observe, that than continuance time are longer, wastewater treatment effi ciency lower, except Qw:Qsl ratios: 1:2 and 1:1,5. The optimal ratios than continuance time in fl otation chamber is fi ve minutes were 4:1 and 1:1. By laboratory model results, was create experimental model and repeatedly done two different experiments with 3 3 3 different fl ow ration of laundry wastewater and saturating liquid Qw:Qsl: 1:1 (Qw-5 m /h, Qsl- 5 m /h ) and 4:1 (Qw-8 m /h, 3 Qsl- 2m /h ). Analysis results are showing in Figure 4.

44 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Figure 4. Variation of wastewater treatment effi ciency in experimental model

The researches showed that than wastewater and saturated liquid continuance time in fl otation chamber is until

5 minutes independently from Qw:Qsl ration , wastewater treatment effi ciency is increasing. After fi ve minutes, effi ciency decreasing the same like in laboratory model. The highest effi ciency achieve, than continuance time in fl otation chamber is fi ve minutes, independently from Qw:Qsl ration . By this achieve results we can observe that much more effective use

Qw:Qsl higher ratio (in our case, 4:1), where are treating more wastewater in shorter treatment time.

Conclusions

1. By Laboratory studies we found that the optimal wastewater and saturated liquid ratios are 1:1 and 4:1, than continuance time in fl otation chamber is fi ve minutes 2. Investigation of experimental wastewater treatment model, confi rmed results obtained in laboratory model studies. 3. Experimental wastewater treatment plant studies determine that most valuable ratio of wastewater and saturated liquid is 4. Laboratory and experimental studies have also shown weaknesses in the fl otation system as wastewater and saturated liquid mixing method and saturated liquid insertion site selection infl uence for fl otation effi ciency.

References

Richter, H., Flotation: A Modern Process for Wastewater Treatment, International Chemical Engineering, vol. 16, no. 4, pp. 614-619.1976. Metcalf and Eddy, Wastewater Engineering: Treatment, Disposal and Reuse. 7th End. McGraw-Hill Book Co. Inc., Boston, MA. ISBN 9780072545470. 2001

Zobouis, A.I. and A. Avrans, 2002. Treatment of oil in water emulsions by coagulation and dissolved air fl otation. J. Mineral Eng., 15: 100-105.

Evaldas TRAINAVIČIUS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water engineering and Land management, Department of Hydraulic engineering. Tel +370 674 17772, e-mail: [email protected] Algirdas RADZEVIČIUS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water engineering and Land management, Department of Hydraulic engineering, Assoc. prof., Dr. Addres: Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kauno raj. Tel +370 37 752393, e-mail: ht@ lzuu.lt

45 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Research of Mortars Designed for Repair Works of Hydraulic Structures

Rytis Skominas, Vincas Gurskis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

In order to stop the deterioration of reinforced concrete constructions and restore the reliability and theirs safety, the repair of the structure is necessary to be carried out. When repairing reinforced concrete constructions, it is very important that the old concrete and new repair materials should bond well and form monolithic construction. In the investigation there are analysed hydraulic repair systems. Evaluating hydraulic repair systems were determined the infl uence of concrete surface roughness, bonding grout and expansive admixture to the bond of hydraulic mortars with concrete. Key words: Concrete, repair system, bond strength

Introduction

When building hydraulic structures in Lithuania, reinforced concrete (which is already 30-50 years old) was used for the construction of main structures. Presently, the technical maintenance and running repairs of CC2 and CC3 consequence class hydraulic structures are carried out periodically; however, the majority of the CC1 consequence class structures are derelict. This consequence class encompasses various structures of hydraulic engineering, pisciculture, water supply etc. The CC1 consequence class hydraulic structures are important for the functioning of various systems and hydro schemes. Therefore, it is important for them to remain safe and reliable. For the achievement of this aim, it is important to determine the variation of construction under the infl uence of various defects occurring because of the impact of the environment. In order to stop the deterioration of reinforced concrete constructions and restore the reliability and safety of them, the repair of the structure and protection from atmospheric impact are necessary to be carried out. Taking into the account the type and purpose of the structure, the reasons of the appearance of defects and deterioration, safety and other factors, various repair materials, strategies and ways can be used. The repair of constructions will become successful if the reasons for the occur of defects will be clearly understood and appropriate repair materials will be chosen as well as repair works will be properly carried out. Only in such a case the further deterioration of structures will be stopped for a long time. Repair materials should be distinguished for their appropriate characteristics in order to form an effi cient physical and chemical barrier against the penetration of harmful materials. The durability (which depends upon the good bond of repair materials with old concrete during the entire predicted time period) of the carried out repair works is a very important factor. Having chosen the inappropriate technology (when the surface of concrete is not roughened enough and adhesive layer isn’t used as well as repair materials are not coordinated with the old repaired concrete), very often repair occurs to be ineffi cient. Therefore, it is very important to choose appropriate repair materials, technologies and methods for the repair of reinforced concrete structures. At the present time many researches have been carried out in this fi eld. Some scientists suggest to modify a bonding grout with fl y ashes, silica fume or pozzolans (Al-Manasir et al., 1994; Bastien et al., 1997; Haung, 1997; Shannag, 2002; Xiong, 2002). Others scientists offer to use polymer cement (PCC) or polymer (PC) mortars as repairing material. These mortars have better properties (density, frost and wear resistance, compression, fl exure and bond strength) as usual mortars (Barluenga et al., 2004; Fowler, 1999; Gao et al., 2002; Mangat et al., 1999; Monteny et al., 2001; Muthukumar et al., 2004; Ohama et al., 1997; Pei et al., 2002; Saccani et al., 1999; Smetonaite 2004; Wu et al., 2002; Zhong et al., 2002). However, in the literature it was not found the data on the infl uence of roughness and shrinkage deformation upon bond strength. Purpose of the research. To evaluate the infl uence of different repair technologies upon the bond of hydraulic mortars and concrete. Tasks of the research: 1. To determine the infl uence of bonding grout to bond strength between repair mortars and concrete; 2. To evaluate the infl uence of shrinkage deformations of mortars to bond strength between repair mortars and concrete; 3. To determine the infl uence of roughness of concrete surface to bond strength between repair mortars and concrete; Object of the research. Hydraulic mortars designed for the repair works of the CC1 consequence class reinforced concrete hydraulic structures.

46 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Materials

Concrete. In the presented investigation were used standards concrete (strength class C30/37, frost resistance mark F150, water resistance mark W≥6) specimens (300x300x100 mm). The concrete was made with Portland cement CEM I 42,5R. Sand (size range 0/4 mm), crushed gravel (size range 4/16) were used as concrete aggregates. Repair systems. The repair systems used at present, which basis is cement mortars, were chosen for the work. The following materials were used for the production of hydraulic mortars: - Cement CEM II/A-LL 42,5R; - Sand (fraction 0/2 mm); - Super plasticizer STACHEMENT 2066; - Air-entraining admixture MICRO AIR G (LP); - Expanding admixture ETRISAN. Mortars were prepared at ratio 1:3 (one part of the mass was cement, 3 parts of the mass – sand). The water-cement ratio was chosen rather small (W/C =0.45) to make mortar as strong as possible and as less permeable to water as possible. In order to evaluate the infl uence of shrinkage deformations of hydraulic mortars (occurring during the solidifi cation) upon the bond strength between mortar and concrete, part of samples was prepared with expansive admixture. Evaluating the infl uence of bonding grout upon bond between concrete and hydraulic mortar, one part of samples were not grouted, another part of samples were covered with adhesive layer. The grout was made using acrylic latex bonding agent SikaLatex.

Test methods

The main characteristics (density, water absorbability, compressive strength, shrinkage) of hydraulic mortars were determined according test methods described in European Standards: EN 12390-7, EN 13057, EN 12390-3, EN 12617-4. In order to determine the infl uence of the roughness of concrete surface upon the bond between hydraulic mortars and concrete, the surface of samples was prepared in four different variants. In fi rst and second variants, samples were incised through the length and breadth with diamond disc. In the third variant, the surface of samples was prepared using piercer. Sandblaster was used for the preparation of the surface of last samples. The achieved roughness of sample surfaces was evaluated according to the roughness index RI, which was determined with reference to standard method. Repair materials were cast on prepared concrete substrate with thickness of 1 cm. Before casting repair material the bond agent was applied on the surface of the part of concrete specimens. To measure the bond strength between concrete substrate and repair material there are some test methods and they can be divided into several categories. The fi rst category of test measures the bond under tension stress. Pull-off, direct tension and splitting are the main tests under this category. The second category of test measures the bond under shear stresses, and is called direct shear methods. In this category we can mark L-shaped, mono-surface shear tests (Momayez et al. 2004 ). However, the most popular and simplest is pull-off test (Bonaldo et al., 2005). Therefore this method was used in our research. When the repair materials attained for the age of 28 days, the partial cores were drilled with diameter of 50 mm and with approximately 15±5 mm of depth into the substrate. The pull-off test was carried out according to Standards (EN 1542; EN 1504-3) and (Bonaldo et al., 2005). Aluminium disks were bonded to the specimen surface with the epoxy resin. To test the bond strength was used CONTROLS apparatus. For each specimen was carried out fi ve bond strength tests. Failure types were evaluated too. Types of failures are listed below: - A – cohesive failure through concrete substrate; - A/B – adhesive failure between concrete substrate and fi rst layer of repair material; - B – cohesive failure through fi rst layer of repair material; - B/C – adhesive failure between fi rst and second layers of repair material; - C – cohesive failure through second layer of repair material; - C/Y – adhesive failure between second layer of repair material and epoxy resin; - Y – cohesive failure through epoxy resin; - Y/Z – adhesive failure between epoxy resin and disk. The bond strength was not valuated if failure type was C/Y, Y or Y/Z.

Results and discussion

Properties of hardened mortars

As we can see from results (Table 1) the expansive admixture increased density by 3 %, compression strength by 10 %, and decreased water absorbability by 0,3 %. This admixture infl uenced drying shrinkage deformations too. Test results shows us (Fig. 1) that mortars with and without expansive admixture shrank during solidifi kation. However, the modifi ed mortar shrank less. So the expansinsive admixture decreased a shrinkage deformations approx. by 40 %.

47 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Table 1. Properties of mortars

3 No. Density ρ, kg/m Water absorbability Wm, % Compression strength fc, MPa Mortar without expansinsive admixture 1 2120 7,9 43,80 2 2160 8,0 40,51 3 2210 7,9 46,87 Average 2160 7,9 43,73 Mortar modifi ed with expansinsive admixture 4 2260 7,8 53,46 5 2240 7,5 46,12 6 2230 7,6 45,32 Average 2240 7,6 48,30

Bond strength

In order to improve the bond between hydraulic mortars and old concrete, the surface of concrete is usually covered with adhesive layer. Evaluating the infl uence of the bonding grout upon the bond of hydraulic mortars with concrete, the surface of some samples was covered with adhesive layer. As one can see from the results of investigations (Fig. 2), the adhesive layer has increased the bond strength. The bond of hydraulic mortars (without expansive admixture) with the surface of concrete has increased by an average of 30%, whereas the bond of the hydraulic mortars with expansive admixture with concrete has increased by an average of 10%. It is dependent on better adhesive features (as compared to hydraulic mortar) of the used bonding grout. The bonding grout used for the investigations was made with polymer (latex) admixture, due to which the mixture of adhesive layer is characteristic for its better absorption features than the mortar itself. Components used for the adhesive layer mixture are smaller than those used for mortar (0/1 mm sand fraction was used for adhesive mixture and 0/2 mm sand fraction was used for the production of mortar), due to which the bonding agent better fi lled concrete surface inequalities and stronger mechanical relations formed between concrete and mortar. Consequently, absorptional and mechanical interaction between concrete and mortar particles is improved during the bonding grout of concrete surface, as a result of which the bond strength between these materials increases as well.

Figure 1. Drying shrinkage progress of mortars during the time

Evaluating the infl uence of the expansive admixture upon the bond strength, it is possible to see from the investigation results (Fig.2) that mortars with expansive admixture had created stronger adhesive relation with concrete. Even the bond strength of the samples, which have not been covered with adhesive layer, increased approx. by 42%, whereas the bond strength of the samples, which have been primed, increased approx. by 25%. Such fl uctuation of strength is connected with shrinkage deformations, which occur during the solidifi cation of mortar. Adhesive connection weakens in the mortar prepared without expansive admixture due to different shrinkages of concrete and mortar. The shrinkage of the solidifi ed concrete is lower during its drying as compared to hydraulic mortar during its solidifi cation. Using the expansive admixture, the comparative shrinkage deformation has decreased approx. by 40% as compared to the mortar prepared without expansive admixture. Consequently, the difference between concrete and mortar deformations has decreased, what strengthened the connection between concrete and mortar particles. With the weaker shrinkage,

48 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges acting intermolecular forces become weaker as well, due to which mortar particles loose contact with concrete particles, thus weakening the bond. These forces infl uenced the origin of micro-cracks in the hydraulic mortar, where the expansive admixture has not been used. During the solidifi cation process, mortar particles bonded with concrete do not allow it to freely shrink therefore, tensions occur inside the mortar and not so strongly bonded particles lose touch with each other. These occurring cracks are dangerous in the environment affecting structures, because the water appearing in micro- cracks will erode repair materials while cyclically freezing and thawing during wintertime. In such case, the repair will be short-lived and the construction will need a repair once more.

Figure 2. The dependency between bond streght and roughness of concrete surface

Evaluating the infl uence of the surface roughness of concrete samples it was determined that the increasing roughness index RI increased the bond strength between hydraulic mortars and concrete substrate (Fig. 2). When the surface is rougher, hydraulic mortar has better fi lled concrete inequalities and has better bonded with concrete. In that case, the larger area of contact zone surface between sample and mortar is achieved and that infl uences the stronger bond. Following the presented requirements of EN 1504-3, the bond strength between the repair material and concrete surface should meet the condition fh≥1.5 MPa (while carrying out the constructional repair).

Referring to the dependency between the bond strength fh and the concrete surface roughness index RI (Fig. 2), it is possible to calculate the necessary minimum roughness index RI allowing meeting minimum bond strength requirements, i.e. fh≥1.5 MPa. Results of these calculations are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Limits of bond strength fh values and roughness index RI, when carrying out the constructional and non-constructional repair The bonding grout The expansive The limit of bond strength f value, while The limit of No h was performed admixture was used carrying out constructional repair, MPa roughness index RI 1 - - 1.5 3.48 2 + - 1.5 1.00 3 - + 1.5 0.34 4 + + 1.5 0.13

With reference to the calculation results presented in Table 2, the minimum roughness index of concrete surface RI should not be less than 3.48 (during the performance of constructional repair), if the mortar used for the repair is without the expansive admixture and the bonding grout is not performed. In order to achieve such roughness of concrete, large labor expenditures are necessary, therefore it is more convenient to use hydraulic mortars with expansive admixture for the repair of constructions (when suffi cient roughness index is RI=0.34), to carry out the bonding grout of concrete surface (when suffi cient roughness index is RI=1) or use hydraulic mortars with expansive admixture and perform the bonding grout of surface (when suffi cient roughness index is RI=0.13).

Conclusions

The adhesive layer has increased the bond strength approx. by 20%. It is dependent on better adhesive features (as compared to hydraulic mortar) of the used bonding grout.

49 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The expansive admixture has increased the bond strength approx. by 30%. Such fl uctuation of strength is connected with shrinkage deformations, which occur during the solidifi cation of mortars (the mortar modifi ed with expansive admixture shrank less approx. by 40%). The increasing roughness index RI of concrete increased the bond strength between hydraulic mortars and concrete substrate. The stronger bond was infl uenced by the larger area of contact zone surface between sample and mortar. During the investigations of the bond of hydraulic mortars it was determined that the strongest bond between repair material and concrete was received when carrying out the bonding grout of concrete surface and using hydraulic mortar with expansive admixture. The roughness index of the surface of concrete should be RImin=0.13 in order to meet the requirements of the bond for constructional repair.

References

Al-Manasir A. A., Keil L. D. (1994). Physical properties of cement grout containing silica fume and superplasticizer. ACI Materials Journal 89, Iss. 2, pp. 154-160. Barluenga G., Hernández-Olivares F. (2004). SBR latex modifi ed mortar rheology and mechanical behaviour. Cement and concrete research 34 Iss. 3, pp. 527 - 535. Bastien J., Dugat J., Prat E. (1997). Cement grout containing precipitated silica and superplasticizers for post-tensioning. ACI Materials Journal 94, Iss. 4, pp. 291-295. Bonaldo E., Barros J. A. O., Lorenco P. B. (2005). Bond characterization between concrete substrate and repairing SFRC using pull-off testing. International journal of adhesion and adhesives 25, Iss. 6, pp. 463-474. EN 12390-3:2001 Testing hardened concrete - Part 3: Compressive strength of test specimens. EN 12390-7:2000 Testing hardened concrete - Part 7: Density of hardened concrete. EN 12617-4:2002 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods - Part 4: Determination of shrinkage and expansion. EN 13057:2002 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods - Determination of resistance of capillary absorption. EN 1504-3:2005 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Defi nitions, requirements, quality control and evaluation of conformity - Part 3: Structural and non-structural repair. EN 1542:1999 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods - Measurement of bond strength by pull-off. EN 1766:2000 Products and systems for the protection and repair of concrete structures - Test methods - Reference concretes for testing. Fowler D.W. (1999). Polymers in concrete – a vision for the 21st century. Cement and concrete composites 21, Iss. 5-6, pp. 449-452. Gao J.M., Qian C.X., Wang B., Morino K. (2002). Experimental study on properties of polymer-modifi ed cement mortars with silica fume. Cement and concrete research 32 Iss. 1, pp. 41-45. Haung W.H. (1997). Properties of cement-fl y ash grout admixed with Bentonite, silica fume, or organic fi ber. Cement and concrete research 27 Iss. 3, pp. 395-406. Mangat P. S., O’Flaherty F. J. (2000). Infl uence of elastic modulus on stress redistribution and cracking in repair patches. Cement and concrete research 30, Iss. 1, pp. 125-136. Momayez A., Ehsani M. R., Ramezanianpour A. A., Rajaie H. (2005). Comparison of methods for evaluating bond strength between concrete substrate and repair materials. Cement and concrete research 35, Iss. 4, pp. 748-757. Monteny J., De Belie N., Vincke E., Verstraete W., Taerwe L. (2001). Chemical and microbiological tests to simulate sulfuric acid corrosion of polymer- modifi ed concrete. Cement and concrete research 31 Iss. 9, pp. 1359 - 1365. Muthukumar D., Mohan D. (2004). Studies on polymer concretes based on optimized aggregate mix proportion. European polymer journal 40, Iss. 9, pp. 2167-2177. Ohama Y., Demura K., Kawabata K. (1997). Infl uences of process conditions on strength properties of polymer-modifi ed mortars using unsaturated polyester resin. Polymers in concrete. Proceedings of the second East Asia Symposium on Polymers in concrete. Koriyama Japan, pp. 333-342. Pei M., Kim W., Hyung W., Ango A. J., Soh Y. (2002). Effects of emulsifi ers on properties of poly(styrene – butyl acrylate) latex-modifi ed mortars. Cement and concrete research 32 Iss. 3, pp. 837 - 841. Saccani A., Magnaghi V. (1999). Durability of epoxy resin-based materials for the repair of damaged cementitious composites. Cement and concrete research 29 Iss. 1, pp. 95 - 98. Shannag M. J. (1999). High-performance cementitious gruots for structural repair. Cement and concrete research 32 Iss. 5, pp. 803 - 808. SmetonaitE E., Vektaris B. (2004). Strength properties of the polymer – cement systems. Materials science 10, Iss. 1, pp. 55-59. Wu K. R., Zhang D., Song J. M. (2002). Properties of polymer-modifi ed cement mortar using pre-enveloping method. Cement and concrete research 32 Iss. 3, pp. 425 - 429. Xiong G., Liu J., Li G., Xie H. (2002). A way for improving transition zone between concrete substrate and repair materials. Cement and concrete research 32 Iss. 12, pp. 1887 - 1881. Zhong S., Chen Z. (2002). Properties of latex blends and its modifi ed cement mortars. Cement and concrete research, Vol. 32 Iss. 3, pp. 1515 - 1524.

Rytis SKOMINAS. Doctor of technology sciences; Department of Building Constructions, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Adress: Universiteto 10, LT-53361, Akademija, Kaunas dist., phone: +370 37 752322, e-mail [email protected] Vincas GURSKIS. Associated professor at the Department of Building Constructions, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Adress: Universiteto 10, LT-53361, Akademija, Kaunas dist., phone: +370 37 752298, e-mail [email protected]

50 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Assessment of the Extraction Effi cacy of Phosphate Minerals and their Granulometry on Metal Immobilization in Contaminated Soil

M. E. Soltan, E. M. Fawzy, M. N. Rashed South Valley University, Aswan, Egypt

Abstract

The effi ciencies of different grain sizes (< 63, 63-93, 93-106 and 106-125 µm ) of mined rock phosphate (RP), in addition to the vital role of different phosphate sources ( < 63 µm rock phosphate, processed and biogenic ) as an effective remedial technology (based on solubility, percentage of metal/metalloid impurities and availability of impurity metal/metalloids) were assessed in contaminated urban soil. The results demonstrate that the application of RP substrate with smaller grain size (< 63) was signifi cantly more effective than larger grain size for Cu, Co, Cd and Pb immobilization. Depending on phosphate solubility, the reduction of metals availability were highest in biogenic and processed phosphates than mined rock phosphate, while the lower dissolution of rock phosphate may be advantageous for long term maintenance. Key words: Soil treatment; Phosphate sources; Grain size; Heavy metals; Immobilization

Introduction

Pollution of the environment with heavy metals is a major environmental problem which requires our immediate attention. As a result of global industrialization, soil pollution with toxic metals such as cadmium has accelerated dramatically. Clean up of the polluted areas is necessary in order to remediate these soils and to minimize the entry of potentially toxic elements into the food chain (Manousaki et al., 2008). While soil clean-up methods such as isolation and containment, mechanical separation, chemical treatment, or soil fl ushing have proven to be effective in small areas, they require special equipment and are labor intensive. Furthermore, these technologies are not only costly, but they also cause soil disturbances, and they are not readily accepted by the general public (Torresdey et al., 2004). In soils, toxic metals are present in various chemical forms and generally exhibit different physical and chemical behaviors in terms of chemical interactions, mobility, biological availability and potential toxicity. This chemical speciation plays a vital role in the solubility and potential bioavailability of metals in soils (Tandy et al., 2004). Unlike organic compounds, toxic metals are not degradable in the environment, and can persist in soils for decades or even centuries. The contamination of soils by metals can have long-term environmental and health implications (Le tan et al., 2007). It is highly desirable to apply suitable remedial approaches to polluted soil, which can reduce the risk of metal contamination. The demand for soil treatment techniques is consequently growing and the development of new low-cost, effi cient and environmentally friendly remediation technologies has generally become one of the key research activities in environmental science and technology. In selecting the most appropriate soil remediation methods for a particular polluted site, it is of paramount importance to consider the characteristics of the soil and the contaminants to consider the characteristics of the soil and the contaminants. (Le tan et al., 2007). Stabilization involves fi xing up the contaminants in stable sites by mixing or injecting inorganic or organic soil amending agents (e.g., liming agents, organic materials, aluminosilicates, phosphates, iron and manganese oxides, coal fl y ashes, etc.). Due to the effects of a change in pH, such agents are effective at decreasing the bioavailability of metals by introducing additional binding sites for toxic metals. Stabilized metals then become less available for plants, and their bioconcentration through the food chain is reduced (Guo et al., 2006). However, the toxic metals remain in the soil and can be harmful when soil dust is ingested or inhaled. Many of the amendments used in soil stabilization are by- products of industrial activities, and are therefore inexpensive and available in large amounts. Overviews on previously successfully applied amending agents and their effectiveness for different metals have been given by Knox et al. (2001) and Puschenreiter et al. (2005). In the last few years, signifi cant research has focused on this topic. Several soil additives have been tested: eight substrates (calcium carbonate, bentonite, kaolinite, charcoal, manganese oxide, iron oxide, zeolite, phosphate) to reduce metal availability and to study the change of metals speciation in different forms (Fawzy, 2008), zeolites (Chlopecka and Adriano, 1996b; Boisson, et al., 1999), beringite (1995a,b, 1996; Mench et al., 1994a ), and steel shots (Sappin-Didier et al., 1997). Laperche et al. (1996) showed that the application of synthetic hydroxyapatite (HA, Ca10 (PO4)6(OH) 2) led to immobilization of dissolved Pb in contaminated soils. In aqueous solutions HA led to an immobilization of Al, Cd, Cu, Fe (II), Ni and Zn as well (Ma et al., 1994b; Xu et al., 1994). HA seems therefore a promising soil additive for immobilizing metals in polluted soils. Many studies have been conducted to understand the mechanism of this immobilization (Laperche et al., 1996). However, a chemical and physical evaluation of the effi ciency of HA application as a remediation technique is not suffi cient. Biological evaluation methods are necessary to assure that immobilization results in lower soil to plant transfer and phytotoxicity. Moreover, these methods can give indications about possible adverse effects (toxicity, defi ciency of other elements) of HA application. Chlopecka and Adriano (1996a,b) showed that the addition of apatite 0.4% by weight) to a Zn, Cd and Pb polluted soil led to an increasing yield and lowered the Zn, Cd and Pb content in three week- old- maize plants (Zea Mays), in mature maize tissues (roots, young leaves, old leaves, stems, grains) and in barley (Hordeum vulgare). The addition of HA (0.6%, 1.16%, 1.74%, and 2.32% by weight) to Pb polluted soils led to a strong decrease of

51 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges the Pb concentrations in shoots of sudax (Sorghum bicolor L. Moench) while the Pb concentrations in the roots decreased only at low application rates of HA. Rock phosphates (RP) are natural inexpensive sources of phosphorus but their solubilization rarely occurs in non- acidic soils. However, microbiallymediated processes involving chelation and exchange reactions are able to solubilize inorganic P forms (RodrõÂguez et al., 1999) The main objectives of this study were: 1. To evaluate the effectiveness of grain size fractions of rock phosphate in decreasing heavy metals (Pb, Cd, Co and Cu) mobility; 2. Quantifying of Purity of Different Phosphate Sources; 3. Comparing of suitability of different Phosphate sources for remediation of contaminated soils by determine the total metals concentration in different phosphate sources, the tendency of these trace impurities to leach, and the apparent amendments for stabilizing contaminants.

Experimental

Samples Collection

Surface soils (0–30 cm in depth) were collected from a rural area (ca 20 samples), in Aswan city, in southeastern Egypt. The soils are enriched with heavy metals, including Pb, Cd, Co and Cu; due to the population densities are high. We also studied three types of phosphate: mined, processed, and biogenic. Mined phosphate referred to as rock phosphate (31%), Processed rock phosphate fertilizers were in granular form (125μm) and the biological phosphate (Tilapia nilotica), Lake Nasser, Egypt (i.e., ground fi sh bones, 125μm).

Analysis of Soil Chemical Properties

The soil samples were air-dried and then ground to pass through a 2-mm sieve prior to use. Soil pH (soil: water; 1:2.5) using a pH-meter (Orion Research, Model SA520, U.S.A.). Electrical conductivity was measured in the sample suspension obtained in the pH determination using conductivity meter (HANNA Instruments, HI 8033 Italy. Calcium carbonate and organic matter contents were determined by back-titrating an excess of 0.5M HCl added to 1 g of the sample (Nelson, 1986), and wet oxidation (Nelson and Sommers, 1982), respectively. Particle size analysis was carried out using the Particle size distribution (percent sand, silt, and clay) was determined by the micro-pipette method. The physicochemical properties of the studied soil are listed in Table (1).

Table 1. Some Chemical Soil Properties

1 -1 -1 Item pH EC (μS cm− ) O.M mgg CaCO3 mgg Mechanical Analysis %- Sand 35 Urban Soil 6.8 920 23 2.5 Silt 36 Clay 38

Phosphate Analysis

Mined rock phosphate (RP) was sieved through < 63, 90-63, 106-90, 125-106 μm, respectively. Each phosphate source (rock phosphate, processed, and biogenic) was analyzed for pH (in 1:1 mineral/water equilibration solution), solubility, total metal content and toxicity characteristic leaching procedure (TCLP) (Table 2).

Experimental design

Sequential extraction procedure

Mobility of metal in contaminated (T0), treated soil with mined RP of grain size 125-106μm (T1), 106-90μm (T2), 90-63 μm (T3) and < 63 μm (T4), processed (T5) and biogenic (T6) was evaluated using sequential extraction scheme. This scheme is used to operationally defi ne heavy metal into different geochemical phases, usually in order of increasing stability. A fi ve-step sequential chemical extraction procedure was proposed for harmonization and validation the methods used to speciation studies in soils and sediments. It was designed based on MgCl2, pH7 (step1), hydrogen peroxide oxidation and ammonium acetate extraction (step2), sodium acetate, pH5 (step3), 0.175M ammonium oxalate and 0.1M acetic acid (step4) and conc. Acids mixture, HCl/HNO3/HF (3:1:2, v/v/v). These extractions have been associated with the exchangeable, organic-bound, acidic, amorphous Fe/Al oxides-bound and the residual form, respectively. It is acknowledged that the reactivity and potential bioavailability of heavy metals generally increases with increasing solubility. Thus, the fi rst form is usually considered the most mobile form of metals in soils and the other three fractions are relatively immobile and more stable, but may sometimes become mobile and bioavailable with changes of soil conditions.

52 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Table 2. Display of Total, Water Soluble and TCLP Mean Concentrations (μgg-1) of Impurities in Different Sources of Phosphate Materials Mined Processed Biogenic Average Shale, TCLP regulatory Element Mean Mean Mean 1961 limit pH 8.89 6.41 6.98 Water Soluble Pb 0.03 0.05 0.02 Cd 0.011 0.02 0.0 Co 1.12 0.22 0.005 Cu 0.005 2.01 0.017 Total Digestion Pb 2.15 3.93 1.15 20.0 Cd 0.13 0.09 0.021 00.3 Co 16.23 0.76 0.021 19.0 Cu 45 3.6 2.3 45.00 TCLP Pb 1.0 0.27 0.23 5.0a Cd 0.067 0.01 0.01 1.0a Co 0.087 0.52 0.11 Cu 3.0 1.2 0.088 TCLP: Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure limits (a — 40 CFR 261.24, U.S. EPA, 1999).

The sequential extraction was carried out, in triplicates, on 1 g of soil, in 85 ml polyethylene tubes. After each extraction step, the suspensions were centrifuged at 8000 rpm for 15 min. The supernatants were carefully removed and stored in polyethylene bottles at 4 C°. The residues were washed with ultrapure water before the addition of the next extracting agent.

Chemical Analysis of Phosphate Sources

The measured metal solubility of each phosphate source was tested in 25 mL polyethylene tubes with 1 g of well mixed phosphate sample and 10 mL of dis. water. The samples were placed on a shaker for 12 days, centrifuged and decanted. Consequently metal concentrations in the decanted solutions will be referred to as the apparent solubility of these elements. The samples were placed on a shaker for 12 days, centrifuged, and decanted. Total metal concentrations were determined using complete acids attack (digestion of 0.6 g of phosphate material with concentrated acids, 10 mL of HNO3, 4 mL of H2SO4 and 2 mL of HCl). The same elements were also extracted from the phosphate materials with the standardized TCLP; (U.S. EPA, 1992). The TCLP leaching solution consisted of 0.1 M glacial acetic acid and 0.0643 M NaOH and had a fi nal pH of 4.93. Forty milliliters of leaching solution were added to 2 g of phosphate material; the mixture was agitated on a shaker for 18 h at 25 8C and then centrifuged. All tests were duplicated.

Elemental Analysis and Instrumental Technique

Metal concentrations in all extracting solutions of contaminated and amended soil samples were determined by atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Model Solaar 969, ATI Unicam Comp.) equipped with a digital and direct concentration read out and air – acetylene burner was used. The standard addition calibration method and extraction blanks were employed to avoid interferences in the measurements.

Results and discussion

The effect of grain size of rock phosphate as amendment

Sequential extraction procedure. The percent distribution of measured metals in contaminated (T0) and amendments soil (T1-T6) with RF were displayed in Fig (1). Metal levels indicate relatively high metal contamination of the study area because it subject to urban and wastewater effect. The application of the sequential extraction technique can help to investigate the metal distribution in the various soil compartments. To illustrate the results in more detail, we compared the extraction forms as a function to determine the effi ciency of different grain size for remediation of the contaminated soil.

53 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The leached metals concentrations in different forms are in the order: residual > amorphous Fe/Al oxides-bound > organic bound > acidic > exchangeable (Fig1). The residual metals content is signifi cantly high as compared with the available metals in exchangeable phase or that bond to Fe/Mn oxides fraction. Total metal content is still used as an important index in the long run, which, together with the changing environmental condition (both soil and plant factors), determines the bioavailability of heavy metals (Haiyan and Stuanes, 2003). Elevated concentrations of heavy metals in soils are of potential long-term environmental and health concerns because of their associated toxicity to biological organisms (Wong and Li, 2003). In general, the analytical results of the sequential chemical extraction indicate that all measured metals were primarily associated with residual and amorphous Fe/Al oxides fraction and secondary with the organic fraction, and the Pb, Cd, Co and Cu in the exchangeable fraction represented small percentage of the total metal content (Fig.1).

Figure 1. Percentage of Pb, Cd, Co and Cu in Contaminated and Treated Soil

Although results suggest that high percentages of measured metals were relatively signifi cant associated with the non-residual fractions (Table 3), that the contaminated metals in these fractions might be moderately soluble and potentially bioavailable (with changes of different soil characteristics that infl uence the heavy metals solubility e.g. pH, organic matter, CEC, carbonate and clay mineralogy), representing a potential environmental concern. Fawzy, et al (2006) studied the relation of the mobility and distribution of metals between Tamarix parts and their crystal salts – soil system and applied sequential extractions on the different soil samples to obtain a better understanding of the geochemistry of heavy and trace metals in soil. They concluded that, the hydrous Fe and Mn oxides may hold signifi cant proportions of some heavy metal ions. These oxides are known to exist as separate phases, and there is evidence from electron microprobe analysis of surface soils that Pb is concentrated in the Mn oxides, whereas Cu is concentrated and distributed approximately equally between the Fe and Mn oxides. Comparing the concentrations of metals in the non--residual fraction (the sum of the fi rst four fractions) by residual fraction (RES), it indicated that, the available form concentration as a relatively substantial fraction of measured metals in the contaminated soil decrease in the treated soil with different rock sizes (Table 3). The proportion of Pb in the non-residual fractions of control soil represented about 31.86% of the total metal concentration (Table2); this leached Lead content was lower than the control, because it was shifted from the mobile fractions to residual fraction. Lead stabilization may have been due to the formation of sparingly soluble lead phosphate mineral phases (Badawy et al., 2002; Spuller et al., 2007). As further important lead sequestering

54 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

minerals of very low solubility lead hydroxypyromorphite (log Ksp= -76.8) and lead chloropyromorphite (log Ksp=-84.4) have been identifi ed in phosphate amended soil (Spuller, et al. 2007). A pronounced immobilization of Co and Cu were observed in the phosphate amended samples compared to the control (Table2). Cadmium has the same trend (Fig.1). Makino et al. (2006) developed a new, three-step soil-wash process for Cd-contaminared paddy fi elds. They assumed 2- 2- 3- that, Cadmium has a good capacity to form complexes with various anions, such as Cl, SO4 , CO3 , PO4 , organic acids, and fulvic acid. Immobilization or transformation of soil metals especially Pb to low soluble species that reduces metals dissolution and leachability in soil system may be a remedial strategy for metal contaminated soil, which safeguards human and ecosystem from the contamination (Yang and Mosby, 2006). The real effectiveness of in situ remediation of metal-contaminated soils can be assessed using a fractionation scheme (Chen et al, 2006). Among the four treatment Rock phosphate RP, T4 (< 63μm) was the most effective in transferring metals from the non-residual fractions to the residual fraction, while T1 (125-106 μm) was the least effective, indicating that the potential bioavailability of Pb, Cd, Co and Cu in RP treatments decreases with increasing rock grain size.

Table 3. Measured Metals Percentage in the Non-Residual (EX+OB+AC+OX) and Residual Fractions (RES) Element Pb Cd Co Cu Treatment EX+OB+AC+OX RES EX+OB+AC+OX RES EX+OB+AC+OX RES EX+OB+AC+OX RES T0 31.86 68.15 27.2 72.8 28.3 71.73 24.8 75.20 T1 30.84 69.17 26.45 73.6 26.98 73.00 23.27 75.73 T2 29.4 70.6 26.4 73.6 26.08 74.00 22.43 77.60 T3 28.85 71.15 25.84 74.2 25.72 74.30 21.5 78.50 T4 27.53 72.5 24.3 75.7 19.13 80.88 19.6 80.43 T5 25.2 74.9 6.34 93.7 17.97 82.03 19.3 80.70 T6 23.37 72.64 5.59 94.41 14.94 85.1 16.76 83.24

Comparing of Suitability of Different Phosphate Sources for Remediation of Contaminated Soils. As Above processed (T5), phosphate fertilizers-treated soil and biogenic (T6) showed markedly reduces contaminant metals concentrations compared to the control (Table 2), a similar trend were observed in these substrates. All determined metals decreased in the following order: mobile < acidic organic bound < Amorphous Fe/Al oxides-bound < residual (Fig 2).

Figure 2. Comparison of Metals Percentage in Different Phosphate Sources

55 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The difference in extraction effi ciency of metals concentrations between the six substrates (T1-T6) refl ect that, biogenic phosphate is the most effective amendment for contaminated soil (Fig. 3). This ability of biogenic phosphates to readsorption of metals from the contaminated soil may be result from the capacity of induce metal-binding role such as metallothioneins (Canli and Atli, 2003). By mixing different phosphate sources by contaminated soil, biogenic phosphates are preferentially for readsorbing metals from contaminated soil. Soltan et al., (2004) studied nilotica fi sh as a bio- indicator to evaluate heavy metal concentrations in the ecosystem of some bight at Lake Nasser, Egypt. They proved that Tilapia can be used as a useful bioindicator species due to its abundance and accumulation capacity for heavy metals.

Figure 3. Comparison of Percentage of Pb, Cd, Co and Cu, respectively in the Non-Residual Fraction of the unamended and Treated Soil

Evaluation of Purity of Different Phosphate Sources

Availability of metals in Phosphate Sources. Soluble impurities pose a greater hazard than strongly bound materials because they readily enter soil pore water where they are potentially available for plant or animal uptake. Chabbi (2003) studied metal concentrations in pore water of the Lusatian Lignite mining sediments and internal metal distribution in Juncus Bulbosus and indicated that, iron in the pore waters was very likely present as iron oxhydroxides or being bound to phosphates, Cu were probably in oxidized form. From the monitoring results of analysis of different phosphate sources, the concentration of Co, Cd show signifi cantly low content in solubility test (Table2), it could be assumed that some other binding sides in phosphate might be associated with the remaining Cu (Yu et al., 2001). Available metal concentrations refl ected relatively high lead and copper levels (Table3). Elevated lead in soil has been identifi ed as a threat to human health and ecosystem (Cotter-Howells and Thorton, 1991; US Environmental Protection Agency, 1998). The ecological threat is associated with Pb mobility in soil system (Yang and Mosby, 2006), which is controlled by the chemical or mineralogical associations of soil Pb and their solubility (Ruby et al., 1992; Davis et al., 1993). Immobilization of soil Pb can be achieved by formation of pyromorphite through phosphate amendments. Based on the results, a pronounced mobilization of Pb, Cd, Co and Cu was observed high in mind phosphate compared with other phosphate sources (Table3). This characteristic points the release of mobile constituents into aqueous phase during solubility test. The solubility of phosphate materials is important because dissolution may be, depending on the contaminant, a necessary step in the immobilization of contaminants (Knox et al., 2006). Total concentration of impurities in phosphate sources. As in the solubility test, the results (Table3) showed markedly higher Cd, Co, Pb and Cu concentrations in mined and processed phosphate sources than those in uncontaminated soils. The fi nding concentration of measured metals in the mined, processed and biogenic phosphate sources was higher than measured concentrations in the soluble form. These elevated concentrations of metals in some phosphate materials were expected because of isomorphic substitution into the fl exible structure of apatite minerals (Knox et al., 2006). The biogenic phosphate contained low levels of most elements (Pb, Cd, Cu and Co) compared with the other phosphate sources. Mined and processed sources had relatively with higher levels of elements (Table3); this would be expected to increase impurity levels because of the tendency of phosphate to scavenge elements. Some of the variation among the metals content phosphate sources likely resulted from the different geological origins of the phosphate rock materials (Knox et al., 2006).

56 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The observed cadmium content in processed phosphate may be expected because the phosphate fertilizers are considered the most important sources of metal contamination in agricultural lands (Adriano, 2001). Fertilizers made from magmatic phosphate tend to have only negligible concentrations of Cd, whereas those from sedimentary phosphate tend to have higher Cd concentrations (Adriano, 2001). Metals content readsorbed in mined and processed phosphate sources refl ect large differences between total and soluble contaminant levels. Overall the studied trace metal concentrations were lower than natural back ground levels (Table 3). The TCLP Test. The TCLP was designed to determine the mobility of both organic and inorganic analytes present in liquid, solid, and multiphasic wastes. This test refl ects the availability of contaminants under extreme environmental conditions, such as low pH, that could cause the release of contaminants that would otherwise be stable. Displaying the data in Table (3), it was found that metal concentrations in the TCLP extracts were much lower than concentrations in the total digestion extracts and similar to or slightly higher than concentrations in the water soluble extract. The TCLP is a regulatory test used widely to classify solid waste materials as hazardous or nonhazardous (U.S. EPA, 1992) based on their potential to leach certain toxic elements. Measured metals in mined and processed showed relatively higher concentrations than corresponding values in biogenic phosphate (Table 3). However, even in this case measured metals content in different phosphate sources still under EPA regulatory levels (U.S. EPA, 1992). Knox et al., (2006) studied the suitability of Phosphate sources for remediation of contaminated soils. They concluded that rapid phosphate release would be advantageous when a rapid immobilization of contaminants is necessary. Conversely, a slow-release phosphate source may be preferred for long-term treatment. Combining phosphate sources with high and slow dissolution rates may provide a rapid immobilization of contaminants while providing a slow release of phosphate for continued long-term treatment and maintenance.

Conclusion

According to the results, it can be concluded that: 1. The rock phosphate (RP) substrate with smaller grain size (<63μm) was more effective than larger grain size in transforming large amounts of Pb, Cd, Co and Cu from non-residual fraction to residual one. 2. Biogenic apatite has lower concentrations of impurities than mined and processed phosphate. However, these differences between mined, processed, and biogenic phosphate are obvious in total impurities concentrations test (TCLP Test) 3. Stabilization mechanisms future work should also consider the durability of surface complexes and precipitates amendment of contaminated soil under changing soil conditions, e.g. acidifi cation, to evaluate long-term stability.

References

Adriano, D.C. 2001. Trace Elements in Terrestrial Environments: Biochemistry, Bioavailability and Risks of Metals. Springer, New York. Badawy, S.H.; Helal, M.I.D.; Chaudri, A.M.; Lawlor, K. and McGrath, S.P. 2002. Soil solid-phase controls leads activity in soil solution. j. Environ. Qual.31, 162-167. Boisson, J.; Ruttens, A; Mencha, M. and Vangronsveld, J. 1999. Evaluation of hydroxyapatite as a metal immobilizing soil additive for the remediation of polluted soils. Part 1. Infl uence of hydroxyapatite on metal exchangeability in soil, plant growth and plant metal accumulation. Environmental Pollution, 104, 225-233. Canli, M. and Atli, G. 2003. The relationships between heavy metal (Cd, Cr, Cu, Fe, Pb, Zn) levels and the size of six Mediterranean fi sh species. Environmental Pollution, 121: 129 – 136. Chabbi, A. 2003. Metal concentrations in pore water of the Lusatian lignite mining sediments and internal metal distribution in juncus bulbosus. Water, Air, and Soil Pollution 3: 105 – 117. Chen, S.B.; Zhu, Y.G and. Ma, Y.B. 2006. The effect of grain size of rock phosphate amendment on metal immobilization in contaminated soils Journal of Hazardous Materials B, 134, 74–79. Chlopecka, A., Adriano, D.C. 1996a. Mimicked in situ stabilization of metals in a cropped soil: bioavailability and chemical forms of zinc. Environ. Sci. Technol. 30, 3294-3303. Chlopecka, A., Adriano, D.C. 1996b. Infl uence of zeolite, apatite and Fe-oxide on Cd and Pb uptake by crops. Sci.Total Envir. 207, 195-206. Cotter-Howells J, Thorton I. 1991.Source and pathways of environmental lead to children in a Derbyshire mining village. Environ Geochem. Health,13(2):127–35. Guo, G., Zhou, Q., Ma, L.Q. 2006. Availability and assessment of fi xing additives for the in situ remediation of heavy metal contaminated soils: A review. Environmental monitoring and assessment. 116, 513-528. Davis A, Drexler JW, Ruby MV, Nicholson A. 1993. Micromineralogy of mine wastes in relation to lead bioavailability, Butte, Montana. Environ Sci Technol, 27, 1415–25. Fawzy, E. M.; Soltan M. E. and Sirry, S. M. 2006. Mobilization of different metals between Tamarix parts and their crystal salts – soil system at the banks of river Nile, Aswan, Egypt. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, Oct.–Dec., 88(4), 603–618. Fawzy, E.M. 2008. Soil remediation using in situ immobilization techniques. Chemistry and Ecology, 24, 2, April, 147–156. Haiyan, W. and Stuanes, A. 2003. Heavy metal pollution in air-water-soil-plant system of Zhuzhou city, Hunan Province. China,Water Air Soil Pollut., 147, 79–107.

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Laperche V, Traina SJ, Gaddam P, Logan TJ. 1996. In situ immobilization of lead in contaminated soils by synthetic hydroxyapatite: chemical and mineralogical characterizations. Environ Sci Technol, 30, 3321– 6. Knox, A.S., Seaman, J.C., Mench, M.J., Vangronsveld, J. 2001. Remediation of metal-and radionuclides-contaminated soils by in situ stabilization techniques. In: Iskandar, I.K. (Ed.), Environmental Restoration of Metals-Contaminated Soils. CRC Press LLC, Boca Raton, 21-60. Knox, A.S.; Kaplan, D.I. and Paller, M.H. 2006. Phosphate sources and their suitability for remediation of contaminated soils Science of the Total Environment, 357, 271– 279. Laperche V, Traina SJ, Gaddam P, Logan TJ. 1996. In situ immobilization of lead in contaminated soils by synthetic hydroxyapatite: chemical and mineralogical characterizations. Environ Sci Technol. 30, 3321– 6. Lesătan, D.; Luob, C.; Lib, X. 2007. The use of chelating agents in the remediation of metal-contaminated soils: A review. Environmental Pollution 1-11. Ma QY, Traina SJ, Logan TJ, Ryan JA. 1994. Effects of aqueous Al, Cd, Cu, Fe(II), Ni, and Zn on Pb immobilization by hydroxyapatite. Environ Sci Technol, 28, 1219–28. Makino, T.; Sugahara, K.; Sakurai, Y.; Takano, Kamiya, T., Sasaki, K., Itou, T. and Sekiya, N. 2006. Remediation of cadmium contamination in paddy soils by washing with chemicals: Selection of washing chemicals. Environmental pollution, 144, 2-10. Mench, M., Didier, V., LoÈ .er, M., Gomez, A., Masson, P.J. 1994a. A mimicked in situ remediation study of metal contaminated soils with emphasis on cadmium and lead. J. Environ. Qual. 23, 58-63. Miller WP, Miller DM. 1987. A micro-pipette method for sediment mechanical analysis. Commun Sediment Sci Plant Anal, 8 (1), 1 –15. Manousakia, E.; Kadukovab, J. 2008. Papadantonakisc, N. and Kalogerakis, N.:Phytoextraction and phytoexcretion of Cd by the leaves of Tamarix smyrnensis growing on contaminated non-saline and saline soils. Environmental Research 106 326–332. Nelson, R.E. 1986. Carbonate and gypsum, in Methods of Soil Analysis, A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, and D.R. Keeney, eds., Part 2, ASA, 181–197. Nelson, D.W. and Sommers, L.E. 1982. Total carbon, organic carbon and organic matter, in Methods of Soil Analysis, Part 2. Chemistry and Microbiological Properties, 2nd edn,A.L. Page, R.H. Miller, and D.R.Keeney, eds.,Agronomy Monograph, 9, 539–577. Puschenreiter, M., Horak, O., Friesl,W., Hartl,W. 2005. Low-cost agricultural measures to reduce the heavy metal transfer into human food chaine a review. Plant, Soil and Environment 51, 1e11. RodrõÂguez, R.; Vassilev, N.; and AzcoÂn, R. 1999. Increases in growth and nutrient uptake of alfalfa grown in soil amended with microbially-treated sugar beet waste. Applied Soil Ecology 11, 9-15. Ruby MV, Davis A, Kempton JH, Drexler J, Bergstrom PD. 1992. Lead bioavailability: dissolution kinetics under simulated gastric conditions. Environ Sci Technol, 26, 1242–8. Sappin-Didier, V., Mench, M., Gomez, A., Lambrot, C. 1997. Use of inorganic amendments for reducing metal availability to ryegrass and tobaco in contaminated soils. In: Iskandar, I.K., Adriano, D.C. (Eds.), Remediation of Soils Contaminated with Metals, Science and Technology Letters. Northwood, UK, 85-98. Soltan, M.E.; Moalla, S.M.N; Rashed, M.N. and Fawzy, E.M. 2005. Physicochemical characteristics and distribution of some metals in the ecosystem of Lake Nasser, Egypt. Toxicological & Environmental Chemistry, April–June, 87, 2, 167–197. Spuller, C.; Weigand, H. and Marb, C. 2007. Trace metal stabilization in a shooting range soil: Mobility and phytotoxicity. Journal of Hazardous materials, 141, 378-387. Tandy, S., Bossart, K., Mueller, R., Ritschel, J., Hauser, L., Schulin, R., Nowack, B. 2004. Extraction of heavy metals from soils using biodegradable chelating agents. Environmental science and technology. 38, 937-944 Turekian, K.K.; Wedepohl, K.H. 1961. Distribution of the elements in some major units of the Earth Crust., Bull. Geol. Soc. Am., 72: 175 – 192. US Environmental Protection Agency, Jasper County site area wide baseline ecological risk assessment, Jasper County, Missouri. Kansas City, KS7 US EPA Region VII. 1998. U.S. EPA. 1992. Toxicity characteristic leaching procedure Method 1311, Rev0 In SW-846: test methods for evaluating solid waste, physical/chemical methods. Washington7 Offi ce of Solid Waste. U.S. EPA. Identifi cation and listing of hazardous waste, toxicity. Vangronsveld, J., Sterckx, J., Van Assche, F., Clijsters, H. 1995a. Rehabilitation studies on an old non-ferrous waste dumping ground: e.ects of revegetation and immobilization by beringite. Geochem. Expl. 52, 221-229. Vangronsveld, J., Van Assche, F., Clijsters, H. 1995b. Reclamation of a bare industrial area contaminated by non-ferrous metals: in situ metal immobilization and revegetation. Environ. Pollut. 87, 51-59. Vangronsveld, J., Colpaert, J.V., Van Tichelen, K.K. 1996. Reclamation of a bare industrial area contaminated by non-ferrous metals: physicochemical and biological evaluation of the durability of soil treatment and revegetation. Environ. Pollut. 94, 131-140. Yang, J. and Mosbyb, D. 2006. Field assessment of treatment effi cacy by three methods of phosphoric acid application in lead-contaminated urban soil. Science of the Total Environment 366, 136– 142. Wong, S. C. C. and Li X. 2003. Analysis of heavy metal contaminated soils. practice periodical of hazardous, Toxic and Radioactive Waste Management, January. Wong, C.X.; Moa, Z., Wanga, H.; Wanga, Z.J and Caob, Z.H. 2003. The transportation, time-dependent distribution of heavy metals in paddy crops. Chemosphere 50, 717–723. Yu, K.; Tsai, L.; Chen, S.H. and Ho, S.T. 200. Chemical binding of heavy metals in Anoxic River sediments. Water Research 35 (17): 4086–4094.

M. E. SOLTAN. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley University. Aswan 81528, Egypt. [email protected]

58 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Distribution and Accumulation of Heavy Metals in the Aquatic Plants at Northern Egyptian Lakes

M. E. Soltan, A. I. M. Koraiem, M. M. Ahmed, M. A. Mahfouz South Valley University, Aswan, Egypt

Abstract

Aquatic plants are known to accumulate metals from their environment and affect metal fl uxes through those ecosystems. The main objectives of this study are to follow up the distribution of some heavy and major metals in aquatic plants in the four river Nile delta lakes namely Mariut, Edku, Burullus and Manzala, the sites of the last Egyptian use of the Nile water before fl owing to the Mediterranean sea. Many samples from these plants were collected then analyzed for Fe, Mn, Mg, Zn, Pb, Cd, Ni, Co, Cu, using atomic absorption spectrophotometeric technique. The bioaccumulation factor (BF) was applied on the results of analysis. Many plant species were found in the northern Nile delta lakes, Potamogeton crispus in Manzala lake; Ceratophillum demersum in Mariut and Edku, while the water hyacinth was found in Manzala, Edku and Mariut. Mariut lake was found to be very rich in phytoplankton abundance, though trace metals were also found to be higher than other stations. Distribution of measured metal concentrations in the different lakes refl ect high content of most of these metals in Mariut compared with other lakes. Mariut lake is the most polluted lagoon in the Nile delta. Domestic pollution and heavy industry release large volumes of untreated waste, and an increasing load of agricultural runoff is introduced into the lake via canals and drains. The aquatic plants in the lake recorded elevated concentrations of Mn, Fe and Cu compared with all other measured metals. Appreciable amounts of Cd are accumulated in Ceratophillium demersum in Mariut lake. Mariut lake has become a hazard to the ecological equilibrium of the region and to the health of the inhabitants of the city and its environment because of its pollution. Key words: Egyptian lakes; aquatic plants, heavy metals, pollution

Introduction

As the proximate reservoirs of the Nile water before fl owing to the Mediterranean sea, the four River Nile delta lakes namely Mariut, Edku, Burullus and Manzalah are the sites of the last Egyptian use of the Nile water before fl owing to the Mediterranean sea. The quantity and quality of water available to the lakes are not only governed by the up-river activities, but also by the requirements of the productive activities within the lakes themselves Contaminants in aquatic ecosystems can be investigated by analysis of the various compartments (water, biota, suspended material and sediments) and by comparison with their natural background data (Mwamburi, 2003). Macrophytes are aquatic plants, growing in or near water that are either emergent, submerged or fl oating. Macrophytes are benefi cial to lake because they provide food and settler for fi sh and aquatic invertebrates (Vardanyan and Ingole, 2006). They also produce oxygen, which helps in overall lake functioning, and provide food for some fi sh and other wildlife. Macrophytes are considered as important components of the aquatic ecosystem not only as food source for aquatic invertebrates, but they also act as an effi cient accumulator of heavy metals. They are unchangeable biological fi lters and play an important role in the maintenance of the aquatic ecosystem. Aquatic macrophytes are taxonomically closely related to terrestrial plants, but are aquatic phanerogams, which live in a completely different environment. Their characteristics to accumulate metals make them an interesting research object for testing and modeling ecological theories on evolution and plant succession, as well as on nutrient and metal cycling (Vardanyan and Ingole, 2006). Phytoplankton also was found to absorb signifi cant amounts of dissolved organic matter from the seawater. Hence, phytoplankton has been found to be highly susceptible to various contamination, viz, hydrocarbon, crude oil, and industrial effl uent, etc (Bu-Olayan et al., 2001). Biological monitoring of metal pollution requires knowledge of the spatial distribution of metals among biota to establish the association between metals in biota (Vesk and Allaway, 1997), metals in the environment and the availability of metals to biota (Whitton and Kelly, 1995); for this, the magnitudes and scales at which spatial variability occurs are required. Plant metals levels are often found to be highly correlated with metal levels in the sediments (Jackson and Kalff,1993), although other studies have produced equivocal results (Campbell et al.,1985). Metals in sediments are known to vary at a variety of scales and similar spatial variation might be expected to apply to plant metal concentrations. Results from studies of free-fl oating aquatic macrophytes are less numerous than those for rooted submergent and emergent plants. Laboratory studies of the water hyacinth found that metal concentrations of the plant and the water column were correlated, and demonstrated the potential use of this species in removing metals from polluted water (Vesk and Allaway, 1997). Accumulation of metals in the roots and leaves of water hyacinth has also been shown in fi eld studies, where water hyacinth was used as a biological monitor of metal pollution (Ajmal et al., 1987; Gonzalez et al., 1989; Zaranyika and Ndapwadza, 1995). Metal mine tailings are generally fi ne - grained, with enriched metals and low nutrients and lacking vegetative cover. They have become potential sources of pollution caused by wind and water erosion (Deng et al, 2006). Restoration of a vegetation cover can provide benefi ts for environmental stabilization, pollution control and improved aesthetics. Many organisms have the potential to bioaccumulate heavy metals from ambient waters to extremely high levels. Because of the widely different environments which they inhabit, species of Mytilidae have been considered as appropriate sentinel organisms for pollution monitoring studies (Szefer et al., 2006). The main objectives of this study are to follow up the distribution of some heavy and major metals in aquatic plants in the four river Nile delta lakes namely Mariut, Edku, Burullus and Manzala and Calculation of the bioaccumulation factors in the aquatic plants to take attention against the pollution dangers on the human health, in

59 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges addition to search for bioindicators for the pollution from the ecosystem components via ability of these components to accumulate specifi c metals. Data and methods

Aquatic plant (Potamogeton crispus, Ceratophillum demersum and Water hyacinth) samples (eight samples of each site) were collected from the suggested sites at the four lakes (Mariut, Edku, Burollus, Manzalah). All plant samples were washed with tap and bidistilled water (the Water hyacinth samples were then divided into leaves, areal and roots parts), then dried at 110 °C for 48 hr, crushed and powdered in an agate mortar. The plant samples were kept in polyethylene bottles till analysis. Digestion of plants was performed using the chemical analysis of ecological materials (Allen, 1989). One gram of each wet ashed aquatic plant (Potamogeton crispus, Ceratophillum demersum) or each different parts (leaves, areal and roots parts, for

Water hyacinth)) was digested with 10 ml of acids mixture of cone. HNO3 / HC1O4 (3 : 1) in a Tefl on reactor under pressure (Allen, 1989). This is to prevent any atmospheric contamination or loss volatile elements during dry ashing technique. After complete digestion, cooling, the solution was diluted with 2% nitric acid solution and then completed to 25 ml with deionised water. Metal concentrations (Fe, Mn, Ca, Mg, Zn, Co, Ni, Cu, Cd, Pb and Cr) in water and extracting solutions of sediment, sediment pore water, shell samples, aquatic plants and fi sh samples were determined by an atomic absorption spectrophotometer. A fl ame atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Model Solaar 969, ATI Unicam Comp.) equipped with a digital and direct concentration read out and air - acetylene burner was used. Single element hollow cathode lamps and standard instrumental conditions were used for each element.

Results and discussion

Concentrations of Metals in Different Species of Plant Samples

Aquatic plants are known to accumulate metals from their environment (Ali and Soltan, 1999) and affect metal fl uxes through those ecosystems (Jackson et al., 1994; St-Cyr et al., 1993). Many plant species were found in the northern Nile delta lakes, Potamogeton crispus in Manzala 1 lake; Ceratophillum demersum in Mariute A, Edku no.5 and Edku labani while the water hyacinth was found in Manzala 1, Manzala 2, Edku labni., Edku no.5, Edku Balad and Mariute B. Mariute lake was found to be very rich in phytoplankton abundance, though trace metals were also found to be higher than other stations (Table 1). However, phytoplankton species, Potamogeton crispus and Ceratophillum demersum, which are considered as indicators for pollution, were also noted in abundance in Manzala, Edku no.5 and Edku labani. Such indicators have been found to play a role in the marine ecosystem, causing detrimental effect to fi n and shellfi shes. Distribution of measured metal concentrations in the different lakes refl ect high content of most of these metals in Mariut A compared with other metals (Table 1). This is an effect of the lake pollution level (Sorour, 2001) that, Mariut lake is the most polluted lagoon in the Nile delta (Saad et al., 1984). Domestic pollution and heavy industry release large volumes of untreated waste, and an increasing load of agricultural runoff is introduced into the lake via canals and drains (Saad et al., 1984). Appreciable amounts of Cd are accumulated in Ceratophillium demersum in Mariut A lake (Table 1). Mariut lake has become a hazard to the ecological equilibrium of the region and to the health of the inhabitants of the city and its environment because of its pollution (Loizeau and Stanely, 1994).

Table 1. Distribution of the Total Elements Contents (µ g /g)to the Different Plant Species Location Species Fe Mn Co Ni Cu Zn Pb Cd Mg Potamogeton Manzalah (1) 687.5 1016.25 12.073 4.6 11.32 22.95 0.153 0.0 3395.8 crispus Ceratophillium Mariut A 1672.5 4187.5 21.653 19.85 10.673 47.88 0.038 0.028 10352 demerisum Ceratophillium Edku no.5 5652.5 1822.5 10.875 9.91 13.49 53.308 5.57 0.0 9147.5 demerisum Ceratophillium Edku lab. 3910 2176.5 11.133 15.958 9.675 65.195 0.068 0.0 10862.3 demerisum

Maria et al. (2001) reported that macrophyte species of the region that have effi ciency in Cd uptake could be used for its removal in artifi cial systems or could be used as bioindicators. Relatively, high amounts of Fe, Cu and considerable concentrations of Pb were measured in Ceratophillium demersum of Edku no.5 (Table 1). This higher iron concentrations is due to either oxidation of dissolved Fe II and accumulation of Fe III oxide, or simply by the interaction of suspended colloidal iron oxides with the plant surface (Vincent et al., 2001). Iron localization in external granules and the epidermal walls is consistent with reports of plaques of Fe oxyhydroxides formed by oxygen evaluation by roots and microbial metabolism in a range of rooted emergent and rooted submerge aquatic plants, the occurrence of Fe deposit within epidermal cells, it mean epidermal cytoplasmic granules, may be results of damaged cells (Vesk et al., 1999). They

60 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges also reported that, oxidation is believed to be a mechanism of avoiding toxicity of reduced forms of Fe and Mn to roots under fl ooded conditions. Plants give an integrated indication of the available amounts of metals both in the water and in the bottom sediment (Lewander, 1996). Meanwhile, it is interesting to note that some northern delta lakes such as Burollus lake was found to be very poor in phytoplankton, despite has low trace metals. This being attributed to the nonhindered unidirectional fl ow of water current and less nutrient deposition in the lake bed (Bu-Olayan et al., 2001). Water hyacinth [ Eichhornia crassipes (Mart.) Solms ] is highly effective in removing heavy metals (Vesk and Allaway, 1997; Vesk et al., 1999; Ali and Soltan, 1999 & Soltan, 1999) and toxic metals (Soltan and Rashed,2003). Plaques of iron and manganese oxyhydroxides are often formed on waterlogged roots (S-Cyr et al., 1993). Magnesium content ranged between 7960.75 to 9341 µg g-1; 6060.5 to 8626.25 µg g-1 and 4828.25 to 10107.81 µg g-1 in leaves, aerial parts and roots of water hyacinths, respectively, implying that Mg concentrations in water hyacinths obey the following order leaves > aerial parts > roots (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Measured Mg, Mn And Fe Concentrations (µg/g) in Different Parts of Water Hyacinth ( M e a n o f T h r e e S a m p l e s )

This is in agreement with the results reported by Soltan (1999). He reported that nutrient ions have high mobility than heavy metals, thus the translocation of Mg to the leaves or areal parts are normally high, while the relatively low concentrations in the root zones may be due to phytochelations in the roots. Low cadmium concentrations (0.0288 µg g-1) are measured in water hyacinth areal while it undetected in their leaves and roots (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Measured Cd, Zn and Cu Concentrations (µg/g) in Different Parts of Water Hyacinth ( M e a n o f T h r e e S a m p l e s )

This leads to minimization of its uptake rate compared with the other metals (Soltan and Rashed, 2003), this also refl ects low Cd levels in northern delta lakes water and sediment. Manganese contents are ranged between 359.50 to 813.30 µg g-1, 367.0 to 1024.0 µg g-1 and 498.56 to 18208.0 µg g-1 for water hyacinth leaves, areial parts and roots, respectively. The high Mn contents in roots is due to its high concentration in mucilage, particulate such as clays, and a diversity of micro-organisms, including bacteria, protozoa’s and diatoms, the components of the redish brown layer which covered the root surface (Vesk et al., 1999). Relatively high Pb concentrations are measured in water hyacinth roots (Fig. 3). This implys that lead being mostly bound to the cell wall of the plant, thus rendering it ineffective in acting as a strong metabolic inhibitor. Cu and Zn exhibit high concentrations in water hyacinth roots compared with their contents in leaves (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Measured Pb, Ni And Co Concentrations (µg/g) in Different Parts of Water Hyacinth (Mean of Three Samples)

61 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

With exception of Cd and Mg, all other measured metals refl ect high concentrations in water hyacinth compared with other parts (Table 2). This can be explained by the results given by Dushenkov et al. (1995). They reported that, the roots of plants have an intrinsic ability to absorb and precipitate heavy metals from aqueous streams, whereas the plant roots utilize several mechanisms for metal removal. These mechanisms are not necessarily similar for different metals. Analysis of data on water hyacinths refl ects higher concentrations of Fe, Mn, Co, Ni, Cu, Zn and Pb in the roots than in leaves or in the aerial parts (Table 2) of the plants. The Co-precipitation of metals in the plaques of iron and manganese on the roots is one process that can explain the elevated concentrations found in the roots (Vesk and Allaway, 1997).

Table 2. Descriptive Statistics (minimum, maximum, mean and standard deviation (SD)) for Measured Metals (µg/g) in Different of Water hyacinth (mean of three samples) Standard deviation Parts Elements Minimum Maximum Mean (SD) Fe 145.24 2047.5 774.6997 839.8183 Mn 359.5 813.3 602.5188 161.0818 Co 4.17 8.0 6.8183 1.3644 Ni 4.29 12.51 7.1180 2.9577 Cu 6.17 15.78 10.7763 3.5211 Leaf Zn 14.9 27.27 20.1818 4.7530 Pb 0.0 0.63 0.1913 0.2903 Cd 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mg 7960.75 9341.0 8633.6042 487.9011 Fe 208.7 5090.0 1618.0265 1904.354 Mn 367.0 1024.0 750.5625 229.8566 Co 7.48 8.86 8.2945 0.5074 Ni 3.15 5.78 4.8810 0.9472 Cu 4.47 9.83 7.1860 2.4919 Aerial Zn 14.32 235.71 60.6545 86.1185 Pb 0.0 0.45 0.1395 0.1843 Cd 0.0 0.17 0.0288 0.071 Mg 6060.5 8626.25 7352.9272 878.3883 Fe 259.49 27571.88 12613.977 9364.6403 Mn 498.56 18208.0 7604.6138 6834.0232 Co 8.49 29.3 18.5378 8.4085 Ni 10.08 26.42 17.0293 5.8461 Cu 12.63 29.74 20.8953 5.8714 Root Zn 32.52 538.32 188.4338 192.4603 Pb 0.0 9.0 1.8083 3.5487 Cd 0.0 0.0 0.0 0.0 Mg 4828.25 10107.81 7175.323 1740.8509

In an overall view, a surge in trace metal concentrations has been observed recently all along the northern delta lakes due to the rapid industrialization and thus, such pollution activities were found susceptible to environmental hazards in the marine ecosystem. Laboratory study on the survival of water hyacinth under several conditions of heavy metal concentrations was investigated. The results indicated that water hyacinth plays an outstanding role as a heavy metal decontaminator; in addition, its role as a pollutant by releasing metal ions into the aquatic environment was also noted (Soltan and Rashed, 2003).

Bioaccumulation Factors

Data show that the highest value of bioaccumulation factor for aquatic plants derived from water are iron and manganese, this means that aquatic plants undergo bioaccumulation of these elements from the lakes water. The bioaccumulation factors in Potamogeton crispus, obey the following order : Mn > Fe > Cu > Co > Ni > Pb > Mg > Zn > Cd (Fig. 4) This order Data show that the highest value of bioaccumulation factor for aquatic plants derived from water

62 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges are iron and manganese, this means that aquatic plants undergo bioaccumulation of these elements from the lakes water. The bioaccumulation factors in Potamogeton crispus, obey the following order : Mn > Fe > Cu > Co > Ni > Pb > Mg > Zn > Cd (Fig. 4) This order shows the great ability of Potamogeton crispus to accumulate Mn, this indicates that the manganese tolerance by this aquatic plants and this is the basis for reclamation of metallic ferrous waste (Soltan, 1999).

20000

15000

BF 10000

5000

0 i g e b n n N F P Z Co Cd Cu M M

Figure 4. Bioaccumulation Coeffi cient of Measured Metal (Mean) in Polamogeton Crispus

All aquatic plants showed a strong ability to accumulate Mn, they are also able to concentrate Fe, Cu, Co and Ni while Ceratophillum accumulated considerable amounts of Pb (Fig. 5).

50000

40000

30000 BF 20000

10000

0 i g b e n n N P F Z Cd Co Cu M M

Figure 5. Bioaccumulation Coeffi cient of Measured Metal (Mean) in Ceratophillum Demersum

Mn acts as cofactor, activating about 35 different enzymes (Burnell, 1988) and as well its particular role in photosynthesis (Kriedemann, 1985 & Soltan, 2002) The different amounts of heavy metals accumulated in Potamogeton crispus Ceratophillum demersum and different parts of water hyacinth, indicating that the ability of these plants to accumulate the heavy metals does not dependent on the concentration of metal in water (some of these metals have a same concentration of water, but a different bioaccumulation coeffi cient) but on the metal tolerance by plant. Some metals (Mn and Cu) are essential to plant life, but the non–essential elements can also be accumulated and can interact with the essential elements in their biochemicals functioning (Driel and Nijssen, 1988). All aquatic plants show affi nity to accumulate Cd in comparison with other heavy metals; thus, cadmium is considered to be the critical element, and the increase of Cd accumulation probably refl ects the breakdown of some physiological barriers in the root because of the toxic effects of Cd (Kumar et al, 1995). Bioaccumulation factors in different parts of Water hyacinth for leaves, areial parts and roots, respectively (Fig. 6) gave the following orders: Mn > Fe > Cu > Ni > Co > Pb > Mg > Zn > Cd Mn > Fe > Cu > Ni > Co > Pb > Mg > Cd > Zn Mn > Fe > Cu > Pb > Ni > Co > Zn > Mg > Cd

Leaves 140000 Roots 14000 Ar e ial Par ts 12000 120000 12000 10000 10000 100000 8000 80000 8000 BF BF BF 6000 60000 6000 4000 40000 4000 20000 2000 2000

0 i i n 0 0 i e b g n g g e b n b e n n n N N N F Z P F P P F Co Cu Cd Z Z Co Cd Cd Co Cu Cu M M M M M M

Figure 6. Bioaccumulation Coeffi cient of Measured Metal (Mean) in different parts of Water Hyacinth

More lead was accumulated in the root than in the leaves or areial parts, indicating a relatively low mobility of lead through the plant systems (Soltan and Rashed, 2003).

63 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Conclusion

The aquatic plants in the lake recorded elevated concentrations of Mn, Fe and Cu compared with all other measured metals. Based on the obtained data, the distribution of heavy metals and bioaccumulation factors in aquatic plants indicated that the concentrations of these metals are derived from water. The different amounts of heavy metals accumulated in Potamogeton crispus Ceratophillum demersum and different parts of water hyacinth, indicating that the ability of these plants to accumulate the heavy metals does not dependent on the concentration of metal in water, but on the metal tolerance by plant All aquatic plants show affi nity to accumulate Cd in comparison with other heavy metals; thus, cadmium is considered to be the critical element, and the increase of Cd accumulation probably refl ects the breakdown of some physiological barriers in the root because of the toxic effects of Cd To minimize environmental hazards, the current levels of potentially toxic elements need to be continuously monitored and primary treatment of waste effl uents at the sites from where toxic metals originate. Continuous evaluation of microelements accumulation including toxic heavy metals in aquatic ecosystem as a whole is of great importance for the assessment of pollution level.

References

Ajmal, M.; Kahn, R. and Kahn, A. U. (1997)Heavy metals in water, sediments, fi sh and plants of river Hindon, UP, India. Hydrobiologia 148, pp 151-157. Ali, M.M. and Soltan, M.E.(1999). Heavy metals in aquatic macrophytes, water and hydrosoils from the river Nile, Egypt. J. Union Arab Biol. Cairo,pp. 99-115. Allen, S.E.(1989). Chemical analysis of ecological materials ,Blackwell Scientifi c Publications, Oxford. Bu-Olayan, A. H.; Al-Hassan, R.; Thomas, B. V. and Subrahmanyam, M. N. V. (2001). Impact of trace metals and nutrients levels on phytoplankton from the Kuwait Coast. Environment International 26, pp. 199-203. Burnell, J. N.(1988). The biochemistry of manganese in plants. In: Manganese in soil and plants ( R. D. Graham, R. J. Hannam and N. C. Uren eds. ). Kluwer and Academic, pp.125-137. Campbell, p. G. C.; Tessier, A.; Bisson, M. and Bougie, R.(1985). Accumulation of copper and zinc in the yellow water lily Nuphar variegatum: relationships to metal partitioning in the adjacent lake sediments. Can. J. Fish. Aquat. Sci. 42,pp.23-32. Deng, H.; Ye, Z. H. and Wong, M. H.(2006). Lead and zinc accumulation and tolerance in populations of six wetland plants. Environmental Pollution 141, pp. 69-80. Driel, W. V. and Nijssen, J. P. J. (1988)Development of dredged material sites: Implications for soil, fl ora and food quality.Chemistry and Biology of Solid Waste (Eds. W. Salomons and U. Frostner). ,Springer-Verlag, Berlin Heidelberg.. Dushenkov, V.; Kumar, P. B.; Motto, H. and Raskin, I. (1995).The use of plants to remove heavy metals from aqueous streams. Environ. Sci. Technol. 29, pp. 1239-1245. Gonzalez, H.; Lodenius, M. and Otero, M.(1989). Water hyacinth as an indicator of heavy metal pollution in the tropics. Bull. Environ. Contam. Toxicol. 43, pp. 910-914. Jackson, L. J. and Kalff, J.(1993) Patterns in metal content of submerged aquatic macrophytes: the role of plant growth form. Freshw. Biol. 29,pp.351-359. Jackson, L. J.; Rasmussen, J. B. and Kalff, J.(1994). A mass balance analysis of trace metals in two weedbeds. Water, Air & pollut. Soil 75, pp. 107-119. Kriedmann, P. E.; Graham, R. D. and Wiskich, J. I.(1985). Photosynthetic disfunction and in vivo changes in chlorophyll- a fl uorescence from manganese- defi cient wheat leaves. Aust. J. Agric. Res. 36, pp.157-169. Kumar, N. P. B.; Dushenkov, V.; Motto, H. and Raskin, I.(1995). Phytoextraction: the use of plants to remove heavy metals from soils. Environmental Science 8 Technology 29,pp 1232-1238. Lewander, M.; Greger, M.; Kautsky, L. and Szarek, E.(1996). Macrophytes as indicators of bioavailable Cd, Pb and Zn fl ow in the river Przemsza, KatoWice region. Applied Geochemistry, 11, pp. 169 – 173. Loizeau, J. I. And Stanley, D. J.(2003) Bottom sediment patterns evolving in polluted Mariut lake. Nile Delta, Egypt. J. Coast. Res. 10, pp. 416-439. Maria, A. Maine; Maria, V. Duarte and Noemi, L. Sune.(2001). Cadmium uptake by fl oating macrophytes. Wat. Res. 35, pp. 2629 – 2634. Mwamburi, J.(2003) Variations in trace elements in bottom sediments of major rivers in Lake Victoria,s basin, Kenya. Lakes& Reservoirs Research and Management 8, pp.5-13. Saad, A. H. M.; El-Rayis, O. A. and Ahdy, H. H.(1984). Status of nutrients in Lake Mariut, a delta lake in Egypt suffering from intensive pollution. Marine Pollution Bulletin 15 , pp. 408-411. Soltan, M. E.(1999) Behaviour of water hyacinth in river Nile water ( Egypt ). Proceedings of V. Conference on” Engineering in the Chemical Industry”, pp. 228-235, Technical University of Budapest. Soltan, M.E. Environmental chemical study on the marsh of Fatimid cemetery at Aswan City, Egypt. Journal of Environmental Science 14, pp. 464-473. Soltan, M.E. and Rashed, M.N.(2003). Laboratory study on the survival of water hyacinth under conditions of heavy metal concentrations. Advances in Environmental Research 7, pp.321-334. Sorour, J.(2001) Ultrastructural variations in lethocerus niloticum ( Insecta: Hemiptera ) caused by pollution in lake Mariut, Alexandria, Egypt. Ecotoxicology and Environmental Safety 48, pp. 268-274 St-Cyr, L.; Fortin, D. and Campble, P. G. C.(1993). Microscopic observations of the iron plaque of a submerged aquatic plant ( Vallisneria Americana Michx ). Aquat. Bot. 46, pp.155-167.

64 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Szefer, P.; Fowler, S. W.; Ikuta, K.; Osuna, F. P.; Ali, A. A.; Kim, B. S.; Fernandes, H. M., Belzunce, M. J.; Guterstam, B.; Kunzendorf, H.; Wolowicz, M.; Hummel, H. and Deslous-Paoli, M. (2006).A comparative assessment of Heavy metal accumulation in soft parts and byssus of mussels from subarctic, temperate, subtropical and tropical marine environments. Environmental Pollution 139, pp. 70-78. Vardanyan, L. G.and Ingole, B. S.(2006) Studies on heavy metal accumulation in aquatic macrophytes from Seven (Armenia) and Carambolim (India) lake systems. Environment International 32, pp.208-218. Vesk, P. A. and Allaway, W. G.(1997). Spatial variation of copper and lead concentrations of water hyacinth plants in a wetland receiving urban run-off. Aquatic Botany 59 , pp. 33-44. Vesk, P.A.; Nockolds, C.E. and Allaway, W.G.(1999). Metal localization in water hyacinth Rroots from an Urban Wetland. Plant, Cell and Environment 22, pp. 149 – 158. Vincent, C.D.; Lawlor, A.J. and Tipping, E.(2001). Accumulation of Al, Mn, Fe, Cu, Zn, Cd and Pb by the bryophyte Scapania undulata in three upland waters of different pH. Environmental Pollution, 114, pp.93 – 100 . Whitton, B. A. and Kelly, M. G.(1995). Use of algae and other plants for monitoring rivers. Aust. J. Ecol. 20, pp. 45-56. Zaranyika, M. F. and Ndapwadza, T.(1996). Uptake of Ni, Zn, Fe, Co, Cr, Pb, Cu and Cd by water hyacinth (Eichhornia crassipes) in Mukuvisi and Manyame Rivers, Zimbabwe. J. Environ. Sci. Health A 30, pp. 157-169.

M.E. SOLTAN. Chemistry Department, Faculty of Science, South Valley University. Aswan 81528, Egypt. [email protected]

65 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The Evaluation of the Humidity of Vegetation Period

Laima Taparauskienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The fertility of agricultural vegetation basically depends on the terms and hydrologic conditions of vegetation period. These conditions are determined by warmth and precipitation and its distribution. This article analyzes the methods of the evaluation of these conditions in the period of active vegetation (in May-September). The calculations received applying these methods are presented and the differences between the last 60-80 vegetation periods are shown. In order to defi ne the differences between the indirect methods of humidity evaluation, the methods used in Lithuania – G.Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTC) and A. Dirsė’s coeffi cient of complex humidity (K), which evaluates the resources of the soil moisture – are analyzed and compared. It is noticed that the humidity, evaluated applying HTC and K, is different. The periods in January, evaluated applying HTC, make 18% and, evaluated applying the complex coeffi cient K, make 27% of the total investigated period, or accordingly – 28% and 15% characterizing the period of one month. According to the results of the analysis, it is stated that the complex coeffi cient K is more precise in evaluating the period of humidity in the climatic Lithuanian conditions. In addition, it is suggested to specify the methodology of the evaluation of the humidity of vegetation periods, relating the applied K and HTC coeffi cients with the actual soil moisture content.

Introduction

Climatic conditions in Lithuania are characterized by a considerable variability in weather during long periods of time as well as short periods. The variation of precipitation distribution during vegetation period can access 40 % and 60-80% during one-month period (Dirse, 2001). During some periods, precipitation exceeds evapotranspiration resulting in surplus of water and contrarily – if evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, water defi cit occurs. Both of these situations have undesirable effects on agriculture. The variation in precipitation is one of the most signifi cant factors causing agricultural droughts (Liverman, 1990). Due to the unfavorable weather conditions during the period of 2000- 2006, the losses of plant productivity in Lithuania reached 116 millions litas (Radzevicius, 2007). Beside the fact that the humidity of vegetation period is hardly predictable, it is diffi cult to forecast the term of occurrence, duration, territorial range and intensity of the drought or wet period. The main attention in foreign countries is given to agricultural drought management, and weather conditions are described as drought indexes. Until now, many kinds of drought indices were developed, using classical meteorological variables. Farago et al. (1989) classify drought indexes into four groups: precipitation indices, supply/demand (water balance) indices, soil moisture indices and “recursive” indexes. Dunkel (2009) appends two more groups – atmospheric and remote sensing. If an index is properly formulated and its limitations are well recognized, the index can be very useful. For many years in Lithuania, the humidity of vegetation period has been described using Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTC). According to Farago’s classifi cation, it belongs to drought indices of water balance group “supply/demand” (Farago et al., 1989) as it uses daily values of precipitation and air temperature for the calculation of the period. HTC is often employed for agrometeorological investigations. But in the humid climatic zone, HTC values are not always adequate, especially the evaluation of total vegetation period. Dirse A. (2001) suggested using the coeffi cient of humidity (K) as it evaluates productive soil moisture content which during the humid periods, especially at the beginning of vegetation period, can access 80-120 mm. It is quite a big amount of moisture which should be taken into consideration evaluating humidity of vegetation period. Soil moisture data are more important than precipitation data for monitoring agricultural droughts, but soil moisture data are not as readily available as precipitation data are (Boken et al., 2005). Despite the limitations of Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient, it is still used for the evaluation of the humidity of period in the Lithuanian climatic conditions and it is confi rmed to be a drought index by the Lithuanian Government’s decision. The purpose of investigation was to evaluate the humidity of vegetation period and to compare the evaluation of the humidity of vegetation period applying the Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient and Dirses’ coeffi cient of humidity in the Lithuanian climatic conditions.

Methods

The evaluation of the humidity of vegetation period and meteorological conditions was based on the data registered at the Meteorological station in Kaunas from 1924 until 2007. The humidity of the experimental period was evaluated according to: 1) Coeffi cient of humidity (K): P + ∆W K = (1) ET where P – the sum of precipitation for the examined period mm, ∆W – soil moisture content mm,

66 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

ET – evapotranspiration in mm: = Σ + ET 0,5 d 105 (2) where Σd – the sum of average daily humidity defi cit during vegetation period mb. When K is less than 0.7, the period of vegetation is dry, 0.7-1.0 moderate humid and more than 1.3 – wet (humid).

2) Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTC) (Голцберг, 1966): P HTC = (3) ∑ 0,1 T10 where P – the sum of precipitation for the examined period mm, T – the consecutive daily mean air temperature above 10 oC. The threshold values of HTC for categories of drought or aridity are 0.3-0.5 – very dry; 0.6-0.7 dry; 0.7-1.0 insuffi cient humid category; 1-1.5 suffi cient humid and > 1.5 – wet.

Results

It was found that the humidity of vegetation period varies strongly (Fig. 1.). During the period of 1924 – 2007, the average coeffi cient of humidity was 0.9, but during separate years, it differed to 3.7 times (from 0.38 till 1.41), and the coeffi cient of variation was 0.23. 45% of the total investigated period were moderate humid, 35% - wet and 20% - dry. Very wet periods were in 1935, 1954, 1960, 1962, 1986, 1987 and very dry in – 1951, 1964, 1971, 1975, 1992, 1999, 2002. Usually, after the wet years followed dry or moderate humid years; however, the situations when several years consecutively were wet or dry were noticed which exacerbated the agricultural activities. During the period of 84 years, there were consecutive four wet years (1984-1987), two times for three (1956-1958, 1960-1962) and three times for two years (1924-1925, 1932-1933 and 1945-1946). Dry periods repeated four times for two consecutively (1938-1939, 1963- 1964, 1975-1976 and 1991-1992).

1,5

1,3

1,1

0,9 K

0,7

0,5 Separate years Moving 5 years average 0,3

1924 1927 1930 1933 1936 1939 1942 1945 1948 1951 1954 1957 1960 1963 1966 1969 1972 1975 1978 1981 1984 1987 1990 1993 1996 1999 2002 2005 Year

Figure 1. Dynamic of coeffi cient of humidity

In order to highlight the frequency of dry and humid periods better, the method of moving averages was used. According to the moving 5 years average (Fig. 1), the recurrence cycles of wet periods with intervening single dry or moderate humid periods can be seen. Such a twenty-year period can be noticed in 1943-1962 and a seven-year period at 1984-1990. A well-marked dry period prolonged for 15 years (1963-1977) and resulted in the drop of ground water level, dried wells, shallow lakes and rivers. Another dry period started in 1991 and might still take some time. The general trend shows that the humidity of vegetation periods slightly decreases, while the number of dry period increases. Such tendencies are also confi rmed by the observations in Lithuanian Hydrometeorological Service as the result of climate changes. The values of Selyaninov’s hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTC) during the periods of 1996-1999 and 2001-2007 were calculated in order to compare it with Dirse’s coeffi cient of humidity (K). As it can be seen (Fig.2), during the investigated period K values ranges from 0.47 (in 2002) till 1.11 (in 2007), and HTC – from 0.9 (in 1999) till 1.87 (in 2007). The index of humidity, according to K, was different in 36% of the cases in comparison with the index of humidity according to HTC. According to HTC, 46% of periods were wet, according K – 18%, as well dry periods make 18 % according to HTC and 27 % according to K.

67 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

2,00

1,60

1,20

0,80

Index of humidity 0,40

0,00 1996 1997 1998 1999 2001 2002 2003 2004 2005 2006 2007 HTC 1,35 1,48 1,48 0,90 1,67 0,91 1,30 1,62 1,75 1,70 1,84 K 0,69 0,78 0,93 0,52 1,05 0,46 0,77 0,94 0,93 0,80 1,11

Year

Figure 2. Humidity of vegetation period during 1996–2007 Note: According to HTC , 0.3 - 0.5 – very dry; 0.6 -0.7 dry; 0.7-1.0 insuffi cient humid category, 1 -1.5 suffi cient humid and > 1.5 – wet. According to K, < 0.7 is dry, 0.7-1.0 moderate humid, > 1.3 – wet (humid)

The period in 1996 was moderate humid according to HTC, but according to K, it was dry. The beginning of vegetation period in 1996 was rainy. Soil moisture content was suffi cient for plants from May until August, and only in August evapotranspiration exceeded precipitation amount leading to depression of soil moisture. The K of period from May until August was 0.74 and from May until September it was 0.69 (dry). In 1997, the period of May-August was similar to the one in 1996. The K was 0.72, although the beginning of September was very rainy and eventually determined that the humidity of the total period was moderate. Moderate humid period was in 1998 and 2003, according to both indices too. Dry periods were in 1999 and 2002, but the average air temperature in 1999 was 16.2 oC or in 2002 – 17.3 oC (by 2,6 oC above multi-rate). The period of vegetation in 2001, 2007 was wet according to both indices. According to HTC, the wet period was in 2004, although at the beginning of period the rate of precipitation was lower than multi-rate, but the humidity of period was determined by low air temperature. The temperature in May was only once higher than 10o C. As it can be seen, the periods of 2004, 2005 and 2006 are described differently, according HTC – they were wet periods, according K – moderate humid. When analyzing crop water requirements, it is useful to evaluate the humidity of one month period as it allows the assessment of soil moisture defi cit. For that the humidity of one month conditions was compared according to HTC and K. Soil moisture amount was evaluated according to simplifi ed water budget considering the difference between precipitation and reference evapotranspiration. If evapotranspiration exceeds precipitation, the initial (for loamy soils – 100 mm) soil moisture amount decreases and conversely – if evapotranspiration does not exceeds precipitation, soil moisture amount increases by the difference between the amount of evapotranspiration and precipitation during the examined period considering that soil moisture amount can not be greater than 100 mm. The evaluation of the humidity of vegetation period under HTC does not meet the assessment under the K, although the relationship between values is strong (Fig. 3). According to dependency, it can be observed, if the period according to K is evaluated as moderate humid (between 0.7-1.0), HTC evaluation can be as wet (more than 1.5) as dry or insuffi cient humid (between 0.6-1.0). This trend has become more apparent in comparison of month values. In summary of 54 month, there were 15 (28%) droughty, 19 (35%) moderate humid and 20 (37%) wet periods according to HTC and respectively 8 (15%) – dry, 32 (59%) – moderate humid and 14 (26%) – wet according K. It is obvious that not only the total amount of dry, humid or wet periods differs; 43% of the same periods were evaluated differently too.

Figure 3. The relationship between hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTK) and coeffi cient of humidity (K)

68 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The evaluation of extremely wet or dry periods is more or less the same according to both indexes. Differences become apparent analyzing the evaluation of vegetation period with the high variation of meteorological conditions. Without soil moisture data, it is diffi cult to say which index is more precise, although after the comparison of the amount of month precipitation, it can be stated that HTC tends to overestimate as dry or wet periods, i.e. moderate humid periods are evaluated as dry or wet. It is confi rmed by drought review done in 1961-1995 when HTC did not mach the criteria of primitive drought in 1971 and 1994. However, all the others criteria of drought were observed, and the losses of plant production appeared to reach 50% (Buitkuviene, 1998). Some inadequate evaluation of the humidity of the period is presented in Table 1. First of all, inadequate evaluation of the humidity of the period, according to HTC, can be seen after the periods with low precipitation as in 1996 and 1997 (August-September), in 1999 and (July-August), in 2002 (May- June) and vice versa – after wet periods in 1998 (September), 2002 and 2005 (July).

Table 1. The comparison of evaluation of vegetation period according hydrothermal coeffi cient (HTC) and coeffi cient of humidity (K) Month Year Index May June July August September Precipitation 71 64 89 1734 1996 HTK 1.96 1.42 0.98 0.30 2.37 K 0.89 0.87 1.83 0.61 0.71 Precipitation 69 75 63 45 74 1997 HTK 2.60 1.56 0.85 0.76 2.59 K 0.88 0.93 1.10 0.76 0.92 Precipitation 36 60 1188422 1998 HTK 1.02 1.18 1.25 1.83 0.66 K 0.78 0.92 2.34 1.05 0.70 Precipitation 32 54 31 86 28 1999 HTK 1.41 0.68 0.62 1.65 0.69 K 0.63 0.75 0.49 0.89 0.62 Precipitation 30 93 54 1442 2002 HTK 0.66 1.85 0.67 0.22 1.34 K 0.57 0.86 0.84 0.50 0.63 Precipitation 77 78 45 140 47 2005 HTK 3.03 1.77 0.77 2.70 1.14 K 0.94 0.96 0.77 1.28 0.79 Precipitation 75 1871166 90 2006 HTK 2.17 0.37 0.80 3.00 2.05 K 0.81 0.56 1.09 1.24 0.90 Note: Different colors at the same time - shows discrepancy.

HTK K < 0.8 Dry < 0.7 Dry 0.8-1.0 Insuffi cient Droughty 0.7-1.0 Moderate Humid 1.0-1.5 Suffi cient Humid >1.0 Wet >1.5 Wet

The wet period of May in 1996, according to HTC, was determined by precipitation rate, and active air temperature had lower impact. For the same period, the evaluation according to K is more precise as the index of humidity is based on ratio between precipitation and evaportanspiration. The evaluation of August in 1999 as wet (HTC) is also doubtful because of low precipitation rate and high evapotranspiration during the period of June-July. As July was very dry, the amount of precipitation during the next month only supplemented exhausted soil moisture reserves. The same situation can be observed in the period of May-June in 2002. A controversial situation is observed later in 2002, or even more in 1997 (August) or 2005 (July), when after wet June (according to HTC), dry July follows. Such an inadequate evaluation is a result of the fact that HTC does not consider soil moisture content, and in the Lithuanian climatic conditions, it is not acceptable. It is obviously that in the Lithuanian climatic conditions, it is necessary to consider soil moisture content in order to avoid such inadequate evaluation of the humidity of vegetation periods.

69 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Some contradictory evaluations appear when, after moderate humid periods, the humidity of the period is evaluated as wet, according to one index, but according to another index, the situation seems to be dry (in 1996, the period of June-July). Similar situation can be also observed in 1997. The shorter period is analyzed, the greater are defl ections between HTC and K values. To sum up, it can be stated that such different evaluations are the result of simplifi ed methodology of the evaluation of the humidity of vegetation. The evaluation, according to HTC, does not consider soil moisture content; thus, K index is more precise for Lithuanian humid climate zone. Although the evaluation of soil moisture dynamic, according to simplifi ed water budget, is inaccurate, more precise evaluation of soil moisture during vegetation period is complicated. Nevertheless, it is necessary to revise the procedures for calculating the K index, relating it to the experimental investigation of soil moisture and paying particular attention to different soil textures.

Conclusions

The differences between the humidity in vegetation periods are great. The coeffi cients of the humidity of separate years differ to 3.7 times, and the coeffi cient of variation was 0.23. 45% of the total investigated period were moderate humid, 35% - wet and 20% - dry. It was noticed that despite the duration of the investigated period, the index of humidity is evaluated differently by HTC and K. The index of humidity was different in 36% of the all investigated cases in the period of May-September and in 43% of one-month period. According to HTC, 46% of the period of the most active vegetation were wet and 18% of the period were dry; whereas, according to K – 55% of the period were of medium wet and 18% were dry. The evaluation of the one-month period showed that according to HTC, 37% of months were wet and 28% of them were dry. According to K, there were 59% of medium wet and 15% of dry months. The dependants (HTC and K) of the humidity evaluation use different input data and this is the main reason for differences in the period characterization. The evaluation of the humidity applying HTC is more detailed, but it does not consider the soil moisture content. Therefore, the period of medium humidity is often evaluated as dry (if there was a wet period before it) or wet (if there was a dry period before it). The coeffi cient K lacks these disadvantages. However, the evaluation of soil moisture content is complicated, and its calculation using the simplifi ed water balance method is only approximate. Thus, it would be useful to apply K and HTC methodologies in order defi ne the humidity of vegetation period in three characteristic zones in Lithuania, and then, to compare the received results with actual soil moisture content. This would allow seeing better the advantages of each of the methods and to clarify the procedures of coeffi cient K calculation, relating them to a more accurate evaluation of soil moisture content, paying a special attention to different soil textures and to their productive moisture content.

References

Boken V.K., V.K, Cracknell, A.P. and R.L. Heathcote. Eds.2005. Monitoring and Predicting Agricultural Drought: A Global Study. Eds. Oxford University Press. New York, New York. Buitkuvienė M.S. 1998. Sausros Lietuvoje. P. 403-427. Dirsė A. 2001. The Humidity of vegetation Periods of Agricultural Crops. Agricultural Sciences. Nr.3. – P. 51-56. (In Lithuanian). Dunkel Z. Brief surveying and discussion of drought indices used in agricultural meteorology. Idojaras. Journal of the Hungarian Meteorological Service, Vol. 113. No. 1-2, P. 23-37. Farago T., E. Kozma, Cs. Nemes. Drought indices in meteorology. Idojaras. Journal of the Hungarian Meteorological Service, Vol. 93. No. 1, P. 45-60. Liverman, D.M. 1990. Drought impacts in Mexico: climate, agriculture, technology, and land tenure in Sonora, and Puebla. Ann. Am. Assoc. Geogr. 80:49-72. Radzevičius G. 2007. Pasėlių draudimo sistemos tobulinimo kryptys. Vadybos mokslas ir studijos – kaimo verslų ir jų infrastruktūros plėtrai. Mokslo darbai. Nr.10 (3) – P.87-93. Голцберг, 1966 Оценка влагообеспеченности сельскохозяйственных культур на земном шаре. Труды Главной геофизической обсерватории. 1966. Иып.192.

Laima TAPARAUSKIENĖ. Dr. assoc. prof., Department of Land Reclamation, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Research interest – crop water requirements, irrigation scheduling, soil moisture dynamic. Adress: Universiteto 10, LT- 53067 Kaunas-Akademija, Lithuania. Fax: +37037752392. Phone +37037752380. E-mail: [email protected]

70 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Dynamics of Nitrogen Compounds in the Soil

Josef Tybursky Warmia and Mazury University, Olsztyn, Poland Laima Česonienė, Midona Dapkienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The aim of the study was in Poland to check to what extend N leaching from the soil can be restrained by catch crop growing, whether N which has not been utilized by the fi rst cereal crop grown after red clover, can be carried-over to next cereal crop by growing a catch crop and In Lithuania the research of nitrogen migration in model systems of untouched soil after application of organic fertilizers. To estimate, that catch crop growing reduced N – N03 concentration in the upper soil layer (reduction by 20-21%) but not in a medium soil layer (increase by 12%). The most signifi cant reduction of N – N03 concentration was found in the third soil layer (by 63 – 68%). The changes of N – N03 concentration in a given soil layer were not depended on soil structure and humus content. Due to catch crop growing potential N – N03 losses were reduced on humus richer soil by 36 kg and on humus poorer soil by 30 kg. After application of organic fertilizers migration of nitrogen compounds in soil takes place slowly, at the speed of 0.2 cm per day. Correlation between concentrations of nitrogen compounds is strongest in the fi rst layer of soil. Contrary correlation between concentrations of ammonium ions and nitrites was found in the second and third layers.

Introduction

Degradation of ground and surface water intensifi es due to the effect of agriculture because: uncultivated lands are cultured for agricultural purposes; active agricultural activity causes erosion and demolition of ground structure; due to application of fertilizers and pesticides chemical pollution of ground is big; great pollution comes from cattle breeding complexes. One of the main reasons of water pollution with nitrates is surplus of nitrates when organic fertilizers are used without any respect to plants and soil’s needs (Muchovej, Rechcigl, 1995; Lord, Mitchell, 1998; Stone et al., 1998). Ground water moves in ground of moderate heaviness very slowly at about 1 cm per day (Datta et al., 1999). Even when intensive farming activity is ceased, improvement of ground water quality in such areas cannot be expected for many years (Wailand et al. 2002). L. Tripolskaja has found that applying manure alone or manure and mineral fertilizers systematically may alter soil acidity and quantity of nutrition materials not only in ploughed soil but in other ground horizons as well. When manure and mineral NKP fertilizers are applied to soil, intensity and character of phosphate migration in soil change as washout of phosphate combined with organic compounds becomes more intensive. In general nitrogen is a limiting factor in all systems of agricultural production. It is especially the case on stockless organic farms where nitrogen management is very diffi cult. It is worth noticing that from ca. 15 thousands organic farms in Poland almost 50% are stockless farms. Nitrogen available to crops in most cases determines yielding, but in the same time excess of nitrogen is dangerous for the environment. The point is how to supply enough nitrogen to organic fi elds and how to minimize its losses (Tyburski, 2003). The aim of the study was to check to what extend: 1. N leaching from the soil can be restrained by catch crop growing; 2. whether N which has not been utilized by the fi rst cereal crop grown after red clover ; 3. can be carried-over to next cereal crop by growing a catch crop; 4. Research of nitrogen migration in model systems of untouched soil after application of organic fertilizers.

Objects and research methods

The Polish experiment on catch crops effi ciency in decreasing N losses was established in north-eastern Poland (Masuria region), on organic farm in a village of Bartosze, 5 km west of Elk. The family farm has circa 40 ha of cropland and was converted to organic system in 1990. The farm is specializing in cereals and strawberry production. Last years in north-eastern Poland there was no snow cover in the winter time. The temperature was usually above Oo Celsius and quite often it rained. In this circumstances nitrogen leaching during autumn and winter time can be expected. The experiment was established on medium heavy soil. The following crop sequence was under investigation: 1/ red clover – winter spelt wheat – spring wheat (control object) 2/ red clover – winter spelt wheat – white mustard (as catch crop) - spring wheat Red clover was grown in 2007 on 12 ha of a fi eld. As this is stockless farm red clover was not harvested at all. The fi rst and second cuts were chopped by a crop chopper and left on the fi eld. In autumn 2007 winter spelt wheat was drilled on the whole fi eld. In summer 2008, after harvest of spelt wheat, white mustard was drilled. Catch crop (white mustard) was grown on the 10 ha and on remaining 2 ha bare soil was kept.

71 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

In 2008 the spelt was very successful – some 4.5 t per ha of husked grain was harvested. Because of the weather conditions harvesting was done late (21 August). After collection of straw the fi eld was ploughed in on ca. 18 cm depth and on 27 August white mustard was drilled on 10 ha. Development of catch crop was good, so one can assume that enough nitrogen was available for the crops. On remaining 2 ha there was bare soil left. On 24 November white mustard was ploughed in. Soil samples were collected from two different areas of the fi eld: fi rst located in lower part with bigger humus content (and better spelt development) and second on a higher fi eld part characterized by lower humus content and worse soil structure. In December 2008 soil samples were collected from the following layers: a/ 0 – 30 cm b/ 31 – 60 cm c/ 61 – 90 cm.

In the same places soil samples will be collected in the spring time 2009. In the samples N- NO3 and N – NH4 will be analyzed. Before spring wheat harvest in 2009 samples of crops will be collected to determine its yielding and quality. In Lithuania the research was carried out in untouched soils of 50 containers measuring 50 cm in height and 8 cm in diameter. Containers were fi lled with carbonate-rich glayic washed loamy moraine (Calcari- Epihypogleyic Luvisol). The bottom end of containers was heat sealed with a fi lm and the top end was remained unsealed. Containers were kept under the conditions of equal temperature and humidity. To determine migration of organic compounds, the soil in containers was poured with 100ml of organic fertilizers (slurry), other containers remained controls (no slurry was poured). Composition of the slury was as follows: pH- 7.6; total nitrogen (N) %- 0.26; total phosphorus (P) %- 0.078; nitrates (NO3) mg/l -1.68; nitrites (NO2) mg/l- 0.012; electric conductivity - μSm/cm- 13.2. The content of containers was divided into 5 layers and samples were analyzed at the Laboratory of Environmental Science of the Environmental Institute at the Lithuanian University of Agriculture according to approved methodologies. Concentrations of nitrates, nitrites and ammonium ions in different layers of soil were calculated. Concentrations of nutritional materials in different layers of model soil were determined after 30, 60, 100 and 150 days after application of organic fertilizers. To express substantiality of interdependence of different soil parameters coeffi cients r were calculated and statistical signifi cance of this relationship was assessed according to p coeffi cient (when p >0.05 correlation was regarded as statistically signifi cant) (programme STATISTICA).

Results of research

Dynamics of nitrogen compounds in the soil with and without catch crop

Autumn soil samples were collected on 10th December 2008 and were analyzed in a certifi ed laboratory (so- called Agro Chemical Station) in Olsztyn. In general nitrogen concentration as well as yield of precrop (spelt wheat) were bigger on lower part of a fi eld (characterized by better soil structure and higher humus content). Nevertheless the catch crop effect on nitrogen leaching was the same of both parts of the fi eld – its lower and higher parts. White mustard grown as a catch crop utilized some of nitrate, thus reducing its concentration in upper soil layer (0 – 30 cm) by 20 - 21% (table 1). In the second soil layer (31 – 60 cm) 12% bigger soil concentration was found on fi elds overgrown by catch crop. The third soil layer (61 – 90 cm) showed the highest difference between fi elds with and without catch crop. Nitrate concentration in that layer due to mustard growing was reduced by 63 – 68%.

Table 1. Mineral nitrogen content in autumn soil samples, mg per 1 kg of soil, Bartosze 2008 Lower fi eld Higher fi eld

Soil N – N03 N – NH4 N – N03 N – NH4 layer Soil without catch crop 0 – 30 cm 7.51 0.83 5.89 1.72 31 – 60 cm 5.68 0.76 3.69 1.84 61 – 90 cm 7.06 0.99 5.29 1.93 Soil with catch crop 0 – 30 cm 5.91 0.69 4.74 1.50 31 – 60 cm 6.39 0.59 4.12 2.02 61 – 90 cm 2.60 0.87 1.68 1.18

Taking into account the three soil layers, catch crop reduced N – N03 concentration on humus richer fi eld part, and thus potential losses due to leaching from 137 kg (value founded on fi eld without mustard) to 101 kg per ha. On humus poorer soil N – N03 concentration was reduced due to catch crop growing from 101 to 71 kg per ha. Probably earlier drilling of white mustard might further reduce potential N losses.

72 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

The research of organic fertilizers

Dynamics of nitrogen compounds in the soil with and without catch crop. Concentrations of nitrates in different layers of model ground in 30,60, 100 and 150 days after insertion of organic fertilizers are shown in Figure 1.

- -1 - -1 NO - -1 NO3 mgl NO3 mgl 3 mgl 0,00 1,00 2,00 3,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 20,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00

10 cm. 10 cm. 10 cm.

20 cm. 20 cm. 20 cm.

Slurry 30 cm. applied 30 cm. Slurry 30 cm. Control applied Slurry applied Control Control 40 cm. Poly. (Slurry 40 cm. Log. (Slurry 40 cm. applied) applied) Linear (Control) Poly . 50 cm. 50 cm. (Control) Log. (Slurry 50 cm. applied)

a b c

- -1 - -1 NO3 mgl NO3 mgl 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00

10 cm. 10 cm.

20 cm. 20 cm.

30 cm. Slurry 30 cm. Slurry applied applied Control 40 cm. Control 40 cm. Poly. Poly. (Slurry (Control) applied) Poly. (Slurry 50 cm. 50 cm. Poly. (Control) applied)

d e Figure 1. Concentrations of nitrates in different layers of model ground in 10 (a), 30(b), 60(c), 100 (d) and 150 (e) days after insertion of organic fertilizers

In 10 days after application of organic fertilizers, concentration of nitrates in the fi rst layer (10 cm) is superior to concentrations in remaining layers. After 60 days nitrate concentration greatly increased in all ground layers and it was the greatest in the fi rst layer, achieving 17 mg l-1. At the end of the experiment (in 150 days after application of organic fertilizers) concentration of nitrates was the greatest in the third ground layer (30 cm) achieving 12 mg l-1. This demonstrates that in carbonate-rich shallowly gleyic luvisol clay of moderate heaviness and morenic origin nitrate migration takes place slowly at about 0.2 cm per day. Migration of nitrites in soil is similar. In 10 days after application of organic fertilizers, nitrite concentration found was very small (0.06–0.4 mg l-1) in all layers of the model. In 60 days nitrite concentration increased in all layers and it was extremely great in the fi rst layer (2,52 mg l-1). In 150 days after application of organic fertilizers nitrite concentration in the fi rst layer decreased to 1.08 mg l-1, nevertheless it was found the greatest in the third layer achieving 1.1 mg l-1. This demonstrates that in carbonate-rich shallowly gleyic luvisol clay of moderate heaviness and morenic origin nitrite migration takes place slowly at about 0.2 cm per day. Concentrations of ammonium ions in different layers of model ground in 30,60, 100 and 150 days after insertion of organic fertilizers are shown in Figure 2. Concentration of ammonium ions in all layers of the model was found maximum in 10 days after application of organic fertilizers. Concentration was found extremely great in the fi rst layer (11.69 mg l-1). In 150 days after application of fertilizers concentrations of ammonium ions decrease and become similar to those in control models where fertilizers were not applied (differences were found insignifi cant p<0.05).

73 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

+ -1 + -1 + -1 NH4 mgl NH4 mgl NH4 mgl 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00

10 cm. 10 cm. 10 cm.

20 cm. 20 cm. 20 cm. Slurry Slurry applied 30 cm. Slurry applied 30 cm. applied 30 cm. Control Control Control Poly. 40 cm. Poly. (Slurry 40 cm. 40 cm. applied) Poly . (Slurry Poly. (Slurry applied) (Control) applied) Poly. 50 cm. 50 cm. Poly . 50 cm. (Control) (Control)

a b c

NH + mgl-1 NH + mgl-1 4 0,00 5,004 10,00 15,00 0,00 5,00 10,00 15,00

10 cm. 10 cm.

20 cm. 20 cm. Slurry applied Slurry applied

Control 30 cm. Control 30 cm. Poly. (Slurry Poly. (Slurry applied) 40 cm. applied) 40 cm. Poly. (Control) Poly. (Control)

50 cm. 50 cm.

d e

Figure 2. Concentrations of ammonium ions in different layers of model ground in 10 (a), 30(b), 60(c), 100 (d) and 150 (e) days after insertion of organic fertilizers

Conclusions

1. Catch crop growing reduced N – N03 concentration in the upper soil layer (reduction by 20-21%) but not in a medium soil layer (increase by 12%). The most signifi cant reduction of N – N03 concentration was found in the third soil layer (by 63 – 68%).

2. The changes of N – N03 concentration in a given soil layer were not depended on soil structure and humus content.

3. Due to catch crop growing potential N – N03 losses were reduced on humus richer soil by 36 kg and on humus poorer soil by 30 kg. 4. After application of organic fertilizers migration of nitrogen compounds in soil takes place slowly, at the speed of 0.2 cm per day. Correlation between concentrations of nitrogen compounds is strongest in the fi rst layer of soil. Contrary correlation between concentrations of ammonium ions and nitrites was found in the second and third layers.

References

Muchovej R.M.C., Rechcigl J.E. 1995. Nitrogen fertilizer. In: Rechcigl E. (Ed.), Soil amendments and environmental quality. CRC Press. Boca Ration. P. 1-48. Lord E.I. and Mitchell R.D.J. 1998. Effect of nitrogen inputs to cereal on nitrate leaching from sandy soils. Soil use management. 14. P. 78 – 83. Stone K.C., Hunt P.G., Johnson M.H., Mathrny T.A. 1998. Nitrate N distribution and trends in shallow groundwater in an eastern coastal plans watershed. Trans. ASAE 41. P. 59 –64

Datta P.S., Tyagi S.K., Mookerjee P., Bhattacharya S.K., Gupta N., Bhatnagar P.D. (1999). Groundwater NO3 and F contamination process in Pushkar Valley, Rajasthan as refl ected from 180 isotopic signatures and 3H recharge studies. Environmental monitoring and assessment, 56(2), 209 – 219.

74 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Wailand K.G., Hyndman D.W., Boutt D., Pijanowski B.C., Long D.T. 2002. Modelling the impact of historical land uses on surface-water quality using groundwater fl ow and solute-transport models. Lakes $ Reservoirs: research and management. 7 (3). P. 189 – 199. Tripolskaja L., Romanovskaja D., 2001. Trąšų poveikis cheminių elementų migracijai. Vandens ūkio inžinerija. Mokslo darbai. 17(39), 34 – 42. Tyburski J. Organic farming in Poland: past, present and future perspectives. Organic Agriculture. Sustainability , market and policies. P. 301-309.

Josef TYBURSKI. Dr. hab. prof. Warmia.Mazury University in Olsztyn Wydział Kształtowania Środowiska i Rolnictwa, Katedra Systemów Rolniczych, Poland. Address: ul. Oczapowskiego 2, 10-719 Olsztyn, Poland,. Tel. , +48 89 523-37-89, e-mail: jozef. [email protected] Laima ČESONIENĖ. Assoc. Prof at the Department of Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studenų g. 11, Akademija, Kaunas district.. LT – 53361Tel. (8 37) 75 22 02 E-mail: [email protected]. Midona DAPKIENĖ Assoc. prof. at the Department of Hydraulic Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto g. 10 Studentų 11, LT-53361 Kaunas-Akademija, Kaunas district. Tel. (+370 37) 75 23 93. E-mail: Midona.Dapkiene@ lzuu.lt

75 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Ecohydraulic Criteria for Small HPP Impact on Biotic Environment

S. Vaikasas, K. Palaima Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The impact of a hydropower plant (HPP) on the environment, fi rst at all in downstream reaches is analyzed in the paper. The impact on habitat quality changes can be estimated by the ecohydraulic parameters such as velocity, water depth, Froude Number (Fr), turbulence and vorticity regimes fl uctuation Analysis of literature and experiment results from Virvyte and Susve HPP turbines operation regimes suggest, that dams and reservoirs may impart change in the environment though facility operations over a sustained period. In pounded reaches nearby above HPP dams of Virvyte River low Fr number habitats (0.04>Fr> 0.0007) were created and negative dam impact was observed.A large disturbance experiment when a 3 3 positive wave front resulting from an increase of initial sanitary fl ow rate Qs =0.4m /s till total fl ow rate Qtot =10.4 m /s moving downstream after the switch on turbines was made The maximal water level increase speed ∆h /∆t= 0.18 m/min=10.8 m/h was fi xed on the second minute from the beginning .As a positive surge can travel over very long distance without losing much energy because it is self – perpetuating damaging of downstream biota, it is evident that in practice rapid operation of HPP turbines switch must be avoided.

Introduction

The entire diversity of hydraulic and hydrologic conditions affects living water organisms inevitably, in turn forming the diversity of species and their adaptation conditions, i.e. their resistance. It is obvious that naturally the river courses and their environment change very slowly; therefore, the resistance and adaptability of water organisms acquired in long time are suffi cient for them to reproduce and survive. It is quite different with planted (introduced) species and relatively sudden changes determined by the man’s activities (e.g. damming up a river or changing its hydrologic regime according to the HPP power demand schedule). Interaction of river and environment is crucial, and link between biologically and hydraulically defi ned habitat units is need for estimation. But the target “good ecological status of river reaches” cannot be measured on a common scale and must therefore be broken down to a number of hydraulic parameters that affect the ecological status of the water. In the case of HPP it means that the impact on habitat quality changes must be estimated by the ecohydraulic parameters such as velocity, water depth, turbulence and sediment regimes fl uctuation.

Conceptual framework for assessment hydraulic criteria of HPP impact on biotic environment

The study of different characteristics of the stream shows the importance of the set of conditions concerning fl ow velocity, turbulence intensity and pressure. Growing evidence suggests that fl ow complexity provides important habitat for aquatic organisms. Maddock (1999) observed that habitat metrics should not simply measure a physical attribute, but measure a physical attribute, which has biological signifi cance. The link between “functional habitats” (biologically defi ned habitat units) and fl ow “ biotopes” (hydraulically defi ned habitat units) was found. [Kemp J L et al., 2000] Using Froude Number Kemp test the hydraulic habitats of three species of macroinvertebrates by recording velocity, depth, Froude number and water surface slope and found that functional habitat occurrence is well described by Froude Number Fr = v2 /g h (Fig.1). Studies of functional habitat distribution have found that the different habitat have different optima in terms of depth h and velocity v It also suggests that water velocity affect river plants, with some species preferring slower and others faster conditions. The physiological mechanisms behind this response have also been studied, with current velocity shown to affect photosynthetic rate. [Madsen et al., 1993] Thus, it was found that Froude Number (the ratio of inertial to acceleration forces) is the most reliable complex hydraulic variable (complex hydraulic criteria) to describe river habitats in terms of hydraulics. It can better describe the preference of many species than fl ow velocity, depth or substrate type because complex criteria is combination of physical variables and is capable of explaining a greater proportion of the variation than a single variation alone. “Erosional” and “depositional” habitats were distinguished and Fr number was found to be the most infl uential environmental variable. The Froude number and the bed shear stress [Shamloo et al., 2001] were found to be the main infl uencing hydraulic factors. The approach used was to examine the relationship between functional habitat occurrence and Fr number, with the aim of developing habitat preference curves. Fifteen of the 16 functional habitats in 32 sites encompassing 4 UK river catchments were found to be distributed with Froude number in a non-random fashion. The results provide of the fi rst evidence that Froude number and therefore fl ow biotopes are ecologically meaningful. It means that river fl ow regulation impact on habitat conditions of the lotic reaches of HPP impounded river can be estimated by this criterion. Most of Lithuanian rivers are plane rivers, for with main canals mean width B and mean depth H ratio B/H>>1 is valid. It mean, that they can be described as 2D streams in coordinates x, y and z (z=0 is the bottom) corresponding the stream horizontal lateral and vertical directions. The time averaged components of velocity of these directions are u, v, w, and the fl uctuations of these components are u’ v” w”. According to Schlichting (1968), the depth averaged mean velocity u can be very well described by power l

76 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

u =(1 + n ) < u > z n (1)

where n – power exponent connected with the hydraulic resistance of the stream.

Figure 1. The association between functional habitat occurrence and Froude number (according Kemp J.I. et al., 2000)

Summarizing measurement results in different rivers Dolgopolova (2004) has found n changing in the range 0.1- 0.3. It is related to Darcy- Weisbach hydraulic resistance coeffi cient f as follows: f = m n (2) where κ -Karman’s constant, m –coeffi cient of cross-sectional shape. For a plane fl ow (R/H >> 1) m=2

Bed shear stress τ can be connecting with the mean velocity u:

τ = ρ κ 2 n2 < u >2 (3)

where ρ - fl uid density: Three recently developed spatial hydraulic metric – kinetic energy gradient, vorticity and circulation zones provide a means to quantify spatial fl ow complexity and can be used as additional assessment criteria of HPP impact on environment. (Crowder D.W. et al., 2004) That is important to estimate and simulate spatially varying fl ows (e.g. eddies, velocity gradients, and transverse zones) because fl ow complexity provides important habitat for aquatic organisms. For instance, the presence of exposed boulders or other obstructions create velocity shelters that may play a key role in determining macroinvertebrate diversity and abundance after a storm. [Biggs et al.1997, Rempel et al.1999]. The drag force imposed upon an aquatic organism within a stream is directly proportional to the fl ow’s Fr number and kinetic energy.[Munson et al. 2002]. Hence, a description of how a fl ow’s kinetic energy changes spatially describes how much more or less energy an aquatic organism will expend by moving from one point to another nearby point in the fl ow fi eld or fi sh – ladder. Crowder et al. (2004) proposed the following kinetic energy gradient metric: − V2 V1 2V ∆ AVE s : (4) 2 V1

where: V1 and V2 - velocity magnitudes measured in points 1 and 2 accordingly

VAVE – average velocity computed of the velocities found at points 1 and 2 ∆s - a distance between measuring points

Vorticity is zero in uniform fl ows, but non-zero in most spatially varying fl ows found in natural streams. Consequently, vorticity can be used to differentiate between locations having uniform and non-uniform fl ow. (Between

77 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges pond and not pond reaches of river in our case). Crowder and Diplas (2002) found that relatively high vorticity values (about the fl ow‘s z-axis) occurred within a transverse fl ow area, near stream banks and surrounding the locations of exposed boulders. Shields et al. (2003) observed that computing vorticity about fl ow’s x-axis could quantify secondary currents of potential biological importance (e. g. the secondary currents found in meander bends). Hanke et al. (2000) suggest that vorticity and vortex structures may play an important role in the ability of fi sh to detect prey. Mathematically vorticity is defi ned as rotation of fl uid element and can be written as follows:

 ∂w ∂v   ∂u ∂w   ∂v ∂u  =  − i +  −  j +  − k (5)  ∂y ∂z   ∂z ∂x   ∂x ∂y 

where: ξ - vorticity vector; u, v and w – x, y and z velocity components; i ,j, k – unit vectors in the x-, y-, and z-directions A metric closely related to vorticity is circulation. It is commonly employed in fl uid mechanics to quantify fl uid motion within vortex structures and can be expressed as follows:

Γ = ∫∫ dA (6) Ato t where: Γ - circulation of vorticity zones

Atot – surface area of vortex zone;

Crowder and Diplas (2002) proposed a variation of circulation that can be used to distinguish between areas having high fl ow complexity and uniform fl ow conditions. Within a 2-D horizontal fl ow fi eld it can be calculated as follows: ∫∫ dA = Ato t (7) AVE Atot

where: - absolute value (positive or negative) of vortex zone area AVE Therefore, Fr number together with velocity, vorticity, specifi c energy and circulation values distribution can be used to estimate HPP impact on river fl ow environment But the Froude Number Fr can be also important for the estimation of HPP produced hydraulic jump and it’s impact on the river fl ow energy alteration. [Zdankus N. et al., 2008]. In the downstream and upstream reaches of HPP water level fl uctuations and positive or negative surges (hydraulic jump) due the turbines operation can be produced. [Chanson H., 2001]. As small HPP usually works according to the available water, for some time it accumulate water in the pool, at the rest time it utilize potential water energy by turbines. Thus, each switching off and on of HPP turbines causes a sudden change of the fl ow discharge, depth and energy. A surge wave (mass transfer wave) results from the sudden change of fl ow and to evaluate it’s parameters important for estimation of harmful impact on river fl ora and fauna an unsteady non-uniform fl ow equations [Chugajev R.R., 1975] can be used:

∂Q ∂A + = 0 (8) ∂l ∂t ∂h v ∂v  Q  2 1 ∂v i − = +   + (9) ∂l g ∂l  K  g ∂t

here: Q – fl ow rate; l – distance moved by the fl ow; A – cross-section area; t – time I – river bottom slope; V – fl ow mean velocity;

78 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

K – river bed conveyance coeffi cient; g – gravity constant.

The continuity equation (8) provides an estimation of the velocity of the surge Vsrg : Q − Q V = 2 1 (10) srg ()− h2 h1 B

where : Q1 and Q2 – fl ow rates before and after switch of turbines;

h2 and h1 - fl ow depths before and after change of fl ow rates; B- open channel free surface width.

Considering critical conditions of wave front motion, the celerity C of small oscillatory waves can be estimated: C = g∆h (11)

where ∆h=h2 –h1 – free surface gravity wave height

If need, the Froude number Fr may be written in a form as a ratio of the fl ow velocity V divided by the celerity of a small waves C:

V Fr = (12) C Hydraulic waves (jumps) also are characterized by air entrainment. The rate of air entrainment into the water may be calculated [Chanson H., 2001] Q air ≈ 0.018(Fr −1) (13) Q 1

where Fr1 – upstream Froude number

Impact of HPP on fl ow environment in Virvyte river (case study)

Table 1 shows the overall impact on fl ow characteristics and Fr number of 10 places in natural, directly and indirectly impacted HPP cross-sections in Virvyte River (Table 1). To predict this infl uence Fr number criterion and number of hydrophytes was compared. The results of measurements and calculation the association between functional habitat occurrence and Froude number [Kemp J.I. et al., 2000] indicate that there were three distinct types of habitat response associated with HPP impact: negative, positive and non-signed or not impacted (see Fig.1). In pounded reaches nearby above HPP dam low Fr number habitats (0.04>Fr> 0.0007) were created and negative dam impact was observed. Only silt as bottom substrate and roots, marginal submerged plants and submerged, broad-leaved macrophytes was fi nd in this river reaches. Habitats that tended to be associated to higher Froude Number (0.26>Fr>0.10) were sand and gravel or cobles. Some of them was natural reaches far above the pond not impacted of HPP, and below not directly infl uenced others. However, positive impact on environment below the dams was lessened number of hydrophytes only, and a surge wave harmful impact when turbines are operated was evident.

A surge wave travel measurement in downstream reach of HPP of Angiriai (case study)

As was mentioned above, each switching off and on of HPP turbines causes a sudden change of the fl ow discharge, depth and energy. A surge wave (mass transfer wave) results from the intensity of sudden change on fl ow and produce sharp fl uctuation of the water level. There was an interest to determine this speed of water level fl uctuation as well as the positive surge velocity propagation and try to estimate the stress situation created by surge on river fl ora and fauna downstream small HPP of Angiriai. A large disturbance experiment when a positive wave front resulting from an 3 3 increase of initial sanitary fl ow rate Qs =0.4m /s till total fl ow rate Qtot =10.4 m /s moving downstream after the switch on and off turbines was made (Fig.2). Positive wave as a advancing wave front resulting from an increase of fl ow depth moving downstream Angiriai

HPP due the switch on of turbines is shown in Fig. 2.The initial depth of water h1 = 0.3m increase till h2 = 1.13m after 53 min from the start of turbines nearly below the outfl ow of turbines in. a stilling -pool of main canal. The maximal water

79 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges level increase speed ∆h /∆t= 0.18 m/min=10.8 m/h was fi xed on the second minute from the beginning. It can be a strong stressor factor for biological community of river. After 0.47 km distance downstream maximum of water level increment drop away only till 0.16m/ min and was fi xed after 15 minutes. But when after 55min the wave front reach the third cross- section of river (situated 2.70 km downstream), maximum of water level increment decrease till 0.03m/min = 1.80 m/h. In the last cross-section situated on the distance 7.95 km from the beginning water level maximal increment was fi xed after 2 hours and it was 0.016m/min or about 1m/h only. Thus, the water level fl uctuation decelerates here about 10 times and wave impact become less dangerous for biological community. However, the amplitude of water level fl uctuation depends from cross-section area of river canal and was 0.60-1.13m in our case. The surge velocity Vsrg fl uctuate from 0.52 to 1.09 m/s depending of fl ow conditions in cross-sections and confi rm averaged value calculated by (10) formula suitably. All these results confi rm stream energy conservation law. According to this law a positive surge can travel over very long distance without losing much energy because it is self – perpetuating [Chanson H. 2001] In natural and artifi cial channels wave front may travel over dozens of kilometres damaging of downstream biota. It is evident that in practice rapid operation of HPP turbines switch must be avoided.

Table 1. Impact of HPP on fl ow environment in Virvytė river Flow characteristics HPP impact onto habitat occurrence Averaged A number of With Depth Bottom V 2 Pond HPP impact velocity V, Fr = hygro-phyte Location B, m h, m substrates infl uence according Fr m/s gh species Above 13 1 1.5 Gravel 0.23 4 no not impacted Baltininkai Above Gravel, 15 1 1.1 0.12 8 no not impacted Biržuvėnai cobles Above Gravel, 20 1.5 0.4 0.04 8 no negative Sukončiai sand Pond of 300 1.5 0.1 Silt 0.0007 20 infl uenced positive Baltininkai Above 40 1.5 0.2 Silt 0.003 20 infl uenced negative Sukončiai Above 30 1.5 0.2 Silt 0.003 18 infl uenced negative Skleipiai Below Gravel, not directly 19 0.9 1.5 0.26 17 positive Baltininkai sand infl uenced not directly Below Juciai 9 1.2 1.1 Gravel 0.10 4 positive infl uenced Pond of 25 0.9 0.3 Silt 0.01 6 infl uenced non-signed Sukončiai Sand Below not directly 30 0.7 0.5 gravel, 0.04 3 negative Kairiškiai infl uenced cobbles not directly Below Gudai 30 1.2 0.4 Gravel 0.01 5 negative infl uenced

Figure 2. Positive wave propagation and water level fl uctuation after the switch on turbines in downstream seach of Angiriai HPP at 2009.08.13 (Q=10.5 m3/s; zero altitude 47.28 m)

80 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Conclusions

1. River fl ow in downstream reach of HPP remains in initial border and there will be no evident changes, but dams and reservoirs may impart change in the environment though facility operations over a sustained period. The impact on habitat quality changes must be estimated by the ecohydraulic parameters such as velocity, water depth, turbulence and vorticity regimes fl uctuation. 2. In pounded reaches nearby above HPP dams of Virvyte River low Fr number habitats (0.04>Fr> 0.0007) were created and negative dam impact was observed. A large disturbance experiment when a positive wave front resulting 3 3 from an increase of initial sanitary fl ow rate Qs =0.4m /s till total fl ow rate Qtot =10.4 m /s moving downstream after the switch on turbines was made The maximal water level increase speed ∆h /∆t= 0.18 m/min=10.8 m/h was fi xed on the second minute from the beginning. 3. A positive surge can travel over very long distance without losing much energy because it is self – perpetuating [Chanson H. 2001] In natural and artifi cial channels wave front may travel over dozens of kilometres damaging of downstream biota. It is evident that in practice rapid operation of HPP turbines switch must be avoided.

References

Biggs, J.F., Duncan , M.J., Francoeur , S.N.,Meyer, W.D.1997. Physical characteristics of microform bed cluster refugia in 12 headwater streams.// New Zealand Journal of Marine and Freshwater Resources 13: 413-422. Chanson H., 2001. The hydraulic of open channel fl ow. // ISBN 0 340 74067 1 London, England, 2001. Chugaev R. R.,1975. Hydraulics.//Leningrad, Energija, 1975, 600p.(in Russian) Crowder, D. W.&Diplas, P. 2002 Vorticity and circulation: spatial metrics for evaluating fl ow complexity in stream habitats.// Canadian Journal of Fisheries and Aquatic Sciences 59: 633-645. Crowder, D.W., Diplas, P.& Shen, Y. 2004. Hydraulic habitat metrics: quantifying spatially explicit fl ows // Fifth International Symposium on Ecohydraulics. Aquatic Habitats:Analysis &Restoration. September 12-17, 2004, Madrid, Spain, 782- 786 Hanke W.,Brucker, C., &Bleckman, H.2000 The ageing of the low-frequency water disturbances caused by swimming goldfi sh and its possible relevance to prey detection. // Journal of Experimental Methodology 203:1193-1200. Kemp J. L., Harper D.M, Crosa G.A.2000. The habitat-scale ecohydraulics of rivers// Ecological Engineering 16 (2000) 17-29 Maddock, I.1999 The importance of physical habitat assessment for evaluating river health.//Freshwater Biology 41:373-391. Madsen, T.V., Enevoldsen, H.O., Jorgensen, T.B., 1993. Effects of water velocity on photosynthesis and dark respiration in submerged stream macrophytes. //Plant Cell Environ. 16, 317-322. Munson, B.R., Young, D. F., & Okiishi, T. H.2002. Fundamentals of Fluid Mechanics,4th ed. John Wileyand Sons, Inc., New York, USA. Rempel, L.L., Richardson, J.S., Healey, M.C.1999. Flow refugia for bentic macroinvertebrates during fl ooding of large river.// Journal of the North American Benthological Society 18:34-48 Schlichting, H. 1968. Theory of the boundary layer. //Moscow:Science. Shamloo, H., Rajaratnam, N., Katopodis, C.,2001.Hydraulic of simple habitat structures. // J. Hydraul Res/J. Rech. Hydraul. 39 (4) , 351-366 Shields, F.D., Knight, s.s., Testa, S., & Cooper C.M.2003.Use of acoustic Doppler current profi lers to describe velocity distributions at the reach scale. // Journal of the American Water Resources Association 39(6):1397-1408. Zdankus N., Vaikasas S., Sabas G. 2008 Impact of a hydropower plant on the downstream reach of a river //.Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management 2008 16(3) , p.128-134

81 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Infl uence of Mathematical Net Step on Calculation of Grounwater Depth

Žydrūnas Vyčius*, Eimantas Dargenis*, Diana Young** * Lithuanian University of Agriculture ** Royal Holloway University of London, UK

Abstract

Geofi ltration is one of the most complex and important environment factors infl uencing the reliability and durability of operating constructions and equipment; thus, it is necessary to know its main parameters. They are determined by geofi ltration modeling. The mathematical net, in the knots of which the calculated data is imported, is formed in the modeling territory. If an incorrect mathematical net step is chosen, a model does not match the real situation and the piezometric and hydraulic pitches are distorted. In this way, the accuracy of calculation and modeling is worse. The aim of this work is to determine the infl uence of mathematical net to the calculations of ground water depth in modeling the trench. 30 estimated variants of the analyzed geofi ltration model, the characteristics of which are different, were modeled applying sparse and fi ne mathematical net. According to the results, it is noticed that the modeling error, which can reach even 100%, depends on the period of calculation and the total resultant coil conductivity. The diagram of the conncection between the error of resultant coil conductivity and ground water depth was formed. Having the results and knowing the period of calculation and the total resultant coil conductivity, it is possible to foreseen the infl uence of the mathematical net to modeling results before starting to model the already researched or similar cases. This research, carried out using the computer program of geofi ltration modeling PLAFI, can be applied to all the computer programs of geofi ltration modeling, choosing the mathematical net and its step in various areas of hydraulic network of the modeled territory.

Preface

One of the most important environmental factors that infl uence constructions, equipments durability, endurance and exploitation conditions is groundwater geofi ltration around, under or through the natural environment (Bathe, 1982). Geofi ltration is present everywhere all the time, therefore it is essential to identify the most important parameters of geofi ltration, which are - present and anticipated levels of groundwater, depth of groundwater, geofi ltration rates, velocity and fl ow directions (Heijde at all, 1985). This information can be obtained by using geofi ltration modeling computer programs. In this article was used geofi ltration modeling program PLAFI (Ramonas, 1999). Calculation results and their accuracy are dependant on the correctness of initial input data for the confi gured model compared to the modeled territory (Shestakov at all, 1988). Data is fi lled in the intersections of a rectangular mathematical net that covers the modeled territory. Some geofi ltration modeling programs use a triangular mathematical net, but the principles of calculations are the same. When the mathematical net is equal, then the steps (distances between intersections) are identical, likewise, when the mathematical net is not equal, then steps differ. The most effective is a not equal mathematical net which allows step consolidation in the sensitive zones of the hydrographic net; that is in places where groundwater level is currently unstable or an intensive change in groundwater level is anticipated in future (Shestakov at all, 1969). Such places can be trenches, wells, where obvious changes of geological layers etc. Using an inappropriate mathematical net step in such zones may distort the piezometric and hydraulic pitches of geofi ltration fl ow, therefore, calculation and modeling may also be inaccurate. The mathematical net step depends on the relief of the territory and locations of geological layers. Therefore, in order to be accurate it is essential to obtain suffi cient topographical, geological and hydrogeological measurements. The most accurate results are obtained when intersections of the mathematical net match the empirical measurement points, rather than using interpolation data (Shestakov at all, 1976). The consolidation of the mathematical net does not necessarily increase accuracy. In fact, it may not infl uence the results of geofi ltration calculations and their precision. The procedure can be a time-consuming process requiring a great deal of efforts to be thorough. Consequently, making the calculation model more complexity and increasing the possibility for errors. Therefore, the correct choice of mathematical net and corresponding step is crucial, as it determines the accuracy of modeling results, size and complexity of the model (Todd et all, 2005). The aim of this article is to describe the infl uence the mathematical net step to groundwater depth modeling results when modeling trenches’.

Methods

The infl uence of the mathematical net step to the results of the calculations of groundwater depth is analyzed in the modeling geofi ltration territory, in the middle of which there is a trench (Fig. 1). Such a model is chosen as one of the most frequently modeled tasks in Lithuanian conditions. The size of the modeling territory (1000x1000 m) is chosen considering that the infl uence of the trench, which is in the middle of the modeling territory, to the geofi ltration fl ow is little and less important moving away from the trench. There are 2 geological layers to the aquitard. The choice of layers depends on the fact that two is often enough

82 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges in Lithuanian conditions, and when where are more geological layers, they can be brought together calculating the total resultant conductivity. Three meters depth trenches are also almost the biggest in Lithuania. We choose the aquitard to be horizontal, no pressure water, no water entering the modeling territory from the outside, and the initial level of groundwater equal to the ground surface. Since the goal is to fi nd out the direct infl uence of mathematical net step on the calculation results of groundwater depth and on their precision, the model is analyzed and all the unnecessary factors (irregularities of relief and geological layers, infi ltration, exfi ltration, etc.) that can affect and distort the process of geofi ltration are eliminated from it. The process of geofi ltration in the present case depends on the thickness m of geological layers, on their K of geofi ltration and the coeffi cients μ of water fl uctuation. These factors affect the process of geofi ltration the most.

Figure 1. The scheme of the infl uence of mathematical net step on geofi ltration calculation

The analyzed variants of geological modeling territory are presented in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Thickness m of geological layers, m Variant 1 variant 2 variant 3 variant

Thickness m of the 1st geological layer, m 41016

Thickness m of the 2nd geological layer, m 16 10 4

Table 2. Selected geofi ltration coeffi cients K of geological layers, m2/d Variant abcdefghjk

Geofi ltration coeffi cient K1 of the 1st layer 0,001 0,015 0,025 0,05 0,75 0,1 0,125 0,001 0,01 5

Geofi ltration coeffi cient K2 of the 2nd layer 0,001 0,015 0,025 0,05 0,75 0,1 0,125 5 0,001 5

The coeffi cients of water fl uctuation are μ=0,1 in all cases.

83 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

After combining all geological variants of modeling territory, 30 different estimated variants of the analyzed geofi ltration model are found (Table 3).

Table 3. Geofi ltration model of trench estimated variants

Thickness m of the 1st Geofi ltration coeffi cient Thickness m of the 2st Geofi ltration coeffi cient Resultant soil Variant 2 geological layer, m K1 of the 1st layer geological layer, m K2 of the 2nd layer conductivity M, m /d

1a 4 0,001 16 0,001 0,02 2a 10 0,001 10 0,001 0,02 3a 16 0,001 4 0,001 0,02 1b 4 0,015 16 0,015 0,3 2b 10 0,015 10 0,015 0,3 3b 16 0,015 4 0,015 0,3 1c 4 0,025 16 0,025 0,5 2c 10 0,025 10 0,025 0,5 3c 16 0,025 4 0,025 0,5 1d 4 0,05 16 0,05 1,0 2d 10 0,05 10 0,05 1,0 3d 16 0,05 4 0,05 1,0 1e 4 0,075 16 0,075 1,5 2e 10 0,075 10 0,075 1,5 3e 16 0,075 4 0,075 1,5 1f 4 0,1 16 0,1 2,0 2f 10 0,1 10 0,1 2,0 3f 16 0,1 4 0,1 2,0 1g 4 0,125 16 0,125 2,5 2g 10 0,125 10 0,125 2,5 3g 16 0,125 4 0,125 2,5 1h 4 0,001 16 5 80,004 2h 10 0,001 10 5 50,01 3h 16 0,001 4 5 20,016 1j 4 0,01 16 0,001 0,056 2j 10 0,01 10 0,001 0,11 3j 16 0,01 4 0,001 0,164 1k 4 5 16 5 100 2k 10 5 10 5 100 3k 16 5 4 5 100

The generalized thickness m of geological layers of each estimated variant and their geofi ltration coeffi cients K are presented in the last column of Table 3 as the total resultant coil conductivity M, which is calculated by multiplying the thickness of separate geological coil layers and their geofi ltration coeffi cients and then by adding them together. All the 30 estimated geological variants (Table 3) were analyzed applying both sparse and fi ne rectangular mathematical nets. The step of fi ne mathematical net next to the trench is 5 meters and the step of sparse net – 50 meters. Thus, with the fi ne mathematical net, next to the trench, where the levels of water vary a lot, the layers of coil water and the debits are calculated every 5 meters, and with the sparse net the modeling parameters are calculated every 50 meters. The depths h of ground water of all sparse and fi ne mathematical net knots are calculated after 1, 5, 10, 30, 100, 200, 360, 1800 and 3600 days (of twenty-four hours). Such periods are chosen because it is aimed to receive an informative image of changes of modeling geofi ltration parameters in all estimated variants with different geological layers, their thickness and geological coeffi cients. As it was mentioned before, the aim of this work is to determine the infl uence of mathematical net step on the results of calculations of coil geofi ltration and their accuracy. In order to do that, the modeling results, which match in fi ne and sparse net knots, with the varying resultant coil conductivity, must be compared (Fig. 3).

84 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Results

The mathematical modeling of above mentioned variants was accomplished using computer program of geofi ltration modeling PLAFI. 30 different geological variants of geofi ltration modeling were analyzed applying fi ne and sparse mathematical nets, resulting in 60 different estimated models. The calculations of each model were made after 1, 5, 10, 30, 100, 200, 360, 1800 and 3600 days (of twenty-four hours). On whole, 540 variants were modeled. While modeling, the depths of ground water h were defi ned in all knots of mathematical net. In the article, the infl uence of fi ne and sparse mathematical nets on the changes of groundwater depths h was analyzed in only one chosen knot in the left part of the section, I-I 50 meters away from the trench (Fig. 1). This is the closest knot to the trench, where the fi ne and sparse mathematical nets coincide and it is possible to compare the modeling results. The summary of the results of the ground water depths modeling in a chosen knot with the changing resultant coil conductivity is presented in Figure 2. Because of compactness and the clearer arrangement of dots, resultant conductivity M is presented in Figure 2, in the scale of square root.

Figure 2. Changes in ground water depth enhanced by changes in resultant conductivity at the distance of 50 m from trench

The results of the modeling of ground water depths h, which are presented in Figure 2, it was noticed that the error of calculation Δ (the difference between the results of the calculations of fi ne and sparse mathematical nets) depends on estimated period T and on the total resultant coil conductivity M. The shorter is the period T, after which the depths of ground water h are calculated, and the smaller is the total resultant coil conductivity M, the bigger is the error. According to the results of modeling, presented in Figure 2, the percentage of the difference between the ground water depths h with sparse and fi ne net was calculated and a diagram of the connection between the coil conductivity and the error with the spare and fi ne net (Fig. 3). Resultant conductivity M is presented in the scale of square root, in the same way as in Figure 2.

Figure 3. Relationship between resultant conductivity and the error of ground water depth at the distance of 50 m from trench when sparse mathematical net is used

85 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Analyzing the diagram of the error Δ of the resultant coil conductivity M and the ground water depth h, it is obvious that when coils are non-conducting M<1 and the estimated period is T<100 days, applying the spare mathematical net, which distorts the gradients of geofi ltration fl ow, it results in big modeling errors Δ. When the nets are bigger M>1 and the estimated period is T>100 days, the error of calculation Δ between the calculation results of the depths of ground water of the spare and fi ne mathematical nets are descending and approaching to zero. Having the results, presented in Figure 3 and knowing the period T of calculation and the total resultant coil conductivity M, it is possible to foreseen the error Δ of the spare mathematical net before starting to calculate the levels of ground water and the necessity of fi ne net in already researched or similar cases. When the resultant coil conductivity M is the same, the differences of ground water depths h appear because of the gradients of geofi ltration fl ow that are distorted by spare mathematical net. In susceptible hydrographic zones, applying the fi ne mathematical net, a more accurate model is formed. Such a model matches better the gradients of natural environment; thus, the calculation results are more accurate too.

Conclusions

1. The mathematical net step infl uences the results of geofi ltration calculation. The mathematical net needs to be thickened in the susceptible hydrographic zone, where the levels of ground water vary a lot. Due to a wrong choice of mathematical net step in such zones, the piezometric and hydraulic pitches of geofi ltration fl ow might be distorted and, therefore, calculation and modeling might be inaccurate. 2. Mathematical net step infl uences the results of geofi ltration modeling when coils are little conductive M<1. In the cases, when mathematical net is sparse, the results of geofi ltration calculation are non-accurate and distorted. The more the coil, in which water levels are changing, is conductive, the fewer are the differences of geofi ltration calculations applying sparse and fi ne mathematical net. 3. The error of modeling results between sparse and fi ne mathematical net depends on the period of calculations. When the period of calculations is shorter than 100 days, big modeling errors appear. The longer is the calculation period, the smaller is the difference of the geofi ltration calculations between sparse and fi ne net. 4. Having the results and knowing the period of calculation and the total resultant coil conductivity it is possible to foreseen the error of the spare mathematical net before starting to calculate the levels of ground water and the necessity of fi ne net in already researched or similar cases. 5. The presented conclusions are based only on the researched and calculated model of the geofi ltration territory where the trench is. Similar researches should be made with other important geofi ltration parameters (debits, speeds and etc.) and other objects (bores, ravines, wells, etc.).

References

Bathe K. J. (1982). Finite elements procedures in engineering analysis, Prentice-Hall Inc., New Jersey, Heijde P., Bachmat Y., Bredehoeft J., Andrews B., Holtz D., Sebastian S. (1985). Groundwater management: the use of numerical models, 2rd ed., D.C. American Geophysical Union, Washington. Ramonas Č. (1999). Planinės nenusistovėjusios geofi ltracijos skaitinis modeliavimas kompiuterine programa PLAFI. Metodiniai patarimai, LŽŪU, Kaunas. Shestakov V. M., Bochever F. M., Garmonov I. V., Lebedev A. V. (1969). Osnovy gidrogeologicheskich raschiotov, Moskva. Shestakov V. M., Lomakin E. A., Mironenko V. A. (1988). Chislenoje modelirovanije geofi ltracii, Moskva. Shestakov V. M., Lukner L. (1976). Modelirovanije geogeofi ltracii, Nedra, Moskva. Todd D. K., Mays L. W. (2005). Groundwater Hydrology, 3rd ed., John Wiley & Sons, Inc., New Jersey.

Žydrūnas VYČIUS. Assistant of Building Constructions Department, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Research interests – development and optimization of the mathematical modeling process of geofi ltration. Address: Universiteto st. 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas district, Lithuania. Phone: +370 37 752322. E-mail: [email protected] Eimantas DARGENIS. Phd. student, Hydraulic Engineering Department, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Research interests – hydraulic and geofi ltration modeling. Address: Universiteto st. 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas district, Lithuania. Phone: +370 37 752393. E-mail: [email protected] Diana YOUNG. Dr., environmental advisor. Calgary, Canada. E-mail: [email protected]

86 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Copper and Zinc Removal from Sewage Sludge Using Different Organic Acids

Ernestas Zaleckas, Valdas Paulauskas, Nomeda Sabienė, Gedrimė Kušlienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Municipal sewage sludge often cannot be recycled as amendment material in agriculture, because concentrations of heavy metals exceed the limit values. Metal pollution of sewage sludge is widespread across the globe. The clean up of such sludges is a diffi cult task. Innovative treatment methods of sewage sludge remediation are urgently required. This study investigates the feasibility of using different low-molecular weight organic acids: monocarboxylic- acetic, dicarboxylic- oxalic and tricarboxylic- citric acids, to remove copper and zinc from sewage sludge. Several batch tests were conducted using an extracting solution at various concentrations (0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0 M) to enhance heavy metal removal effi ciency and to optimize the concentration of each extracting agent. All three organic acids were enough effective for the removal of zinc to meet the limit values. Organic acid ranking order of metal extraction effi ciency was the following: citric acid > oxalic acid > acetic acid. Metal extraction effi ciency was infl uenced not only by extractant origin and its concentration, but also by pH of the extracting solution. Specifi c variation of metal extraction effi ciency in the case of oxalic acid was infl uenced by its low pH at higher concentrations. Key words: sewage sludge, copper, zinc, extraction, organic acids

Introduction

Wastewater treatment plants usually generate million tons of sewage sludge (SS) worldwide every year. The basic sludge disposal methods are on-land application, landfi ling, incineration, ocean dumping and lagooning (Metcalf and Eddy, 2003). Compared to landfi ling and incineration, utilization of sludge for agricultural use is the best alternative for sludge disposal. Biosolids can be recycled as a source of nutrients (particularly N and P) for plant growth as well as soil conditioner to improve physical and microbiological properties of soil (Su and Wong, 2003; Veeken and Hamelers, 1999; Levlin, 2004; Pogrzeba et al., 2004). However, heavy metals (HM) amount in SS is often higher than maximum permissible concentration (LAND 20:2005). Heavy metals are the principal concern for biosolids use on land as in higher concentrations HM are toxic to humans, animals and plants (Sims and Kline, 1991; McBride, 1995). Metals in biosolid- treated soils can be transferred to living organisms in numerous ways (Chang et al., 1992). The potentially available and reactive phases of HM in biosolids, such as Pb, Cr, Ni and Cd, comprises minimal percentages of the total content while the percentages for Cu and Zn are expected to be higher (Flyhammar, 1997). The extraction of heavy metals from sludge before on-land application is a favorable step to achieve a more sustainable form of sewage sludge management. In recent years, effective methods for HM removal from sludge have been extensively studied. Various technologies used for the extraction of heavy metals in sludge have previously been used for the removal of metals from soils. The use of natural compounds such as low-molecular weight organic acids (LMWOA), which are easily biodegradable sounds better than synthetic chelate application to the public acceptance of phytoextraction technology. But many authors have found lower effectiveness of aliphatic LMWOA such as citric and oxalic acids in inducing metal accumulation in plants compared to synthetic chelants (Kos and Lestan, 2004; Lombi et al., 2001; Wu et al., 2004). This low effectiveness of assisted phytoextraction using aliphatic LMWOA has been attributed to their fast mineralization by soil microorganisms (Krishnamurti et al., 1997; Meers et al., 2004). Nevertheless this LMWOA property can be regarded as an advantage for short-duration extraction of HM from sludges. Moreover, natural low-molecular weight organic acids are of particular importance due to their complexing properties, which play a signifi cant role in heavy metal solubility (Mench and Martin, 1991; Krishnamurti et al., 1997; Nigam et al., 2000) and the mobilization of mineral nutrients (Zhang et al., 1989; Jones et al., 1996), even more important than the pH of the soil (Huang et al., 1998). Only two papers were found, where LMWOA have been used for the extraction of heavy metals from sewage sludge. Using both organic and inorganic acids, Veeken and Hamelers (1999) conducted an acid leaching study on the removal of HM from anaerobically digested SS. The metal extraction was performed at pH from 2 to 6 for 0.1 M oxalic, citric and nitric acid at room temperature. Two heavy metals (Cu and Zn) were measured during extraction. The results revealed that both citric and oxalic acid had increased heavy metal extraction (70% and 60%, for Cu, respectively;

90% and 70%, for Zn, respectively) at a mildly acidic pH of 3–4 as compared to HNO3 (38% and 65%, for Cu and Zn, respectively) at pH of 1.5–2. Marchioretto et al. (2002) assessed the chemical extraction effi ciency of both organic (oxalic and citric) and inorganic (nitric, hydrochloric) acids in the removal of HM from anaerobically digested sludge. The results indicated that oxalic acid did not show good results compared to the other acids. It is less soluble than citric acid at the same pH value. At higher pH values (3 and 4), citric acid achieved the highest extraction effi ciency of 85% for Cd, Cr and Zn, due to its chelating properties. It was also observed that at pH values lower than 3, the extraction effi ciency of HNO3 or hydrochloric acid (HCl) is improved, achieving high removal for Cd and Pb.

87 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

In the present study, we investigated the performance of LMWOA – oxalic, citric and acetic – during the extraction of copper and zinc from anaerobically digested sewage sludge under laboratory conditions. Also pH of LMWOA solutions before and after extraction was analysed.

Materials and methods

Sewage sludge. Sewage sludge used in this investigation was collected at Kaunas wastewater treatment plant, which processes the majority of the domestic and industrial wastewater for Kaunas city, Lithuania. The plant processes approximately 63 Ml of wastewater per day. Anaerobically digested sludge samples were collected after SS dewatering stage (centrifugation) and dried at 40°C in an oven until a constant weight. Further, grinding was carried out by using a ball- mill (EICH; Bonn). Sludge samples were thoroughly homogenised and stored in glass vessels at room temperature in a dry atmosphere.

Total amount of heavy metals. Total (pseudo total) amount of heavy metals was determined using conc. HNO3. 0.2000 g of air-dry solid was added accurately into a 50 ml polytetrafl uorethene (PTFE) crucible and digested with 5 ml conc. nitric acid in a closed PTFE vessel on a heat plate (block) at 170oC temperature. Heating stopped after 6 h, then crucible was kept overnight, allowing digest to cool slowly till constant (room) temperature. After that the residue was centrifuged and diluted to 50 ml. The solution was then analyzed using atomic absorption spectrometry (AAS) with spectrometer Perkin Elmer “Aanalyst 100”. The obtained data calculated in mg·kg-1 of dry matter. The investigated sewage sludge sample was highly contaminated with zinc (1503 mg/kg) and copper (201 mg/kg). Batch extraction. Three low-molecular weight organic acids (acetic, oxalic and citric) were investigated at fi ve concentrations of 0.01, 0.05, 0.1, 0.5 and 1.0M for Cu and Zn removal from sewage sludge. The batch extraction experiments were conducted at a sludge and washing solution ratio of 1:50 – 1g of sewage sludge was weighted and placed in a 100 mL polyethene tube, then, 50 mL of extracting solution was added, and tubes were sealed with a Tefl on screw-type top and shaken in a rotary shaker table at 150 rpm for 24 h. After shaking was completed, the sludge-solution mixture was centrifugated at 3000 rpm for 15 min. Then, the supernatant was fi ltered and the concentration of copper and zinc in the solution was determined by fl ame AAS (Perkin Elmer “Aanalyst 100”, USA). Batch extractions were performed in triplicate to ensure reproducibility of the results.

Results and discussion

The trend of Cu and Zn extraction effi ciency (EE) with low-molecular weight organic acids is illustrated in Fig. 1. The concentration of LMWOA aqueous solutions varied from 0.01 to 1.0 mol/L. Extraction was carried out over a 24-hour period without pH adjustment. The standard deviation calculated for three replicate tests was lower than 5%. No results were obtained with 1.0M oxalic acid, as supersaturated solution precipitated in this case.

a b

c Figure 1. Copper and zinc extraction effi ciency using LMWOA organic acids as a function of concentration: a - acetic acid, b - oxalic acid, c - citric acid

88 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges

Cu and Zn extraction effi ciencies were found to be strongly dependent on the quantity of organic acids added. Results show that at low acid/metal ratio small amount of Zn was extracted with all the studied organic acids. At lowest studied concentration (0.01 mol/L) extracted amount of Zn was only 0.5%, 0.9% and 1.4% from the total for acetic, oxalic and citric acids, respectively. Copper extraction effi ciency with 0.01M LMWOA solutions was higher than that of zinc for all the studied acids - the highest Cu removal effi ciency (10%) was achieved using citric acid. Solution pH is also an important factor infl uencing HM release from the solid phase. pH value of 0.01M LMWOA solutions before and after treatment were 1.9/7.4, 2.8/6.9 and 3.3/6.9 for oxalic, citric and acetic acids, respectively (Fig. 1 a, b, c). In all cases the fi nal pH of extracting solution was near to neutral, therefore all LMW organic acids at the lowest studied concentration were not able to extracte high amount of Cu or Zn from SS. Another reason for low removal effi ciency could be competition between metal ions. It is known that at low (0.02 mol/L) concentration citric acid speciated by more than 72% in Ca and Mg complexes (Polettini et al., 2007). Data presented in Fig. 1 and 2 also support assumption that pH variation of LMWOA solution will infl uence metal extraction effi ciency – when pH is increasing the extraction effi ciency of Cu and Zn is mainly decreasing.

a b

c Figure 2. pH dependency on the concentration of low-molecular organic acid: a – acetic acid; b – oxalic acid; c – citric acid

Already at higher concentration of LMWOA solution (0.05 mol/L) extraction of zinc was greatly enhanced by all the tested organic acids and was much higher than for copper, except using citric acid. On the basis of zinc EE using 0.05M solutions the investigated low molecular weight organic acids may be ranked accordingly: oxalic>>citric≈acetic acid, while LMWOA ranking order for copper is following: citric>oxalic>acetic. Difference between Zn extraction effi ciency with citric and acetic acids was not signifi cant. Notably less Zn was extracted at concentration 0.05 mol/L by citric and acetic acids compared with oxalic acid – Zn removal effi ciency with citric as well as acetic acids were about 12% of total amount of Zn, while oxalic acid extracted 51% of the total Zn presented in SS. Such high extraction capacity of oxalic acid could be related to low initial pH of the washing solution - 1.6, compared with pH of citric and acetic acid solutions (2.3 and 3.1, respectively) (Fig. 2 a,b,c). Polettini et al. (2007) found out that at very low pH the release of other metals (Fe, Ca, Mg, etc.) is also very high. The more metals are present in the solution, the higher competition between metals to combine with extracting agent in the washing solution. The fi nal pH of extracting solutions (oxalic acid - 4.7, citric acid - 3.8 and acetic acid - 7.1) shows, that pH of citric acid solution was lower than that of oxalic acid. Therefore, metal competition may be another reason why citric acid has extracted lower amount of Zn than oxalic acid. The highest pH values (before and after treatment) were determined in the case of acetic acid, therefore, the release of both metals (Zn and Cu) from the solids was the slowest. It is interesting to note, that at 0.1M concentration both citric and oxalic acid extracted almost similar amount of zinc and Zn EE was 74% and 72%, respectively. In the case of acetic acid zinc EE was more than 2 times lower – 29% (Fig. 1). In literature (Di Palma and Mecozzi, 2007) it was found, that citric acid (0.1mol/L, at a liquid/solid ratio - 12.5)

89 Rural Development 2009 Environmental Engineering: Modern Challenges was able to remove up to about 82% of the total Zn content from the sediments. 0.1M acetic acid extracted almost the same amount of copper as 0.05M solution, however, zinc removal effi ciency incereased by more than two times. Especially great increase of zinc removal effi ciency was observed in the case of citric acid from 12% up to 74%. Tricarboxylic acid was able to extract higher amount of copper than mono- or dicarboxylic acids. The pH values of 0.1M LMWOA washing solution were 3.0/4.6, 1.5/1.9 and 2.3/2.8 for acetic, oxalic and citric acids, respectively (Fig. 2 a, b, c). Different metal extraction effi ciency for the investigated acids may be determined not only by different pH of washing solutions. In this study used LMWOA are non-specifi c acids and therefore may react with other metal ions than copper or zinc. The competition between metal ions is dependent on the dissolved concentration of the specifi c metal ion, dissolved anions, pH and the stability constant between the specifi c metal cation and acid anion. The higher was oxalic acid concentration in the washing solution, the lower pH of solution was observed after extraction determining the higher disolution of other competitive cations such as Ca, Mg, Fe or other transition metals. However, pH values of acetic acid were higher than these of oxalic acid, but copper extraction effi ciency was lower. It means that metal removal effi ciency is also dependent on the stability of metal-organic acid complexes. All tested 0.5M LMWOA solutions on the basis of the percentage share of extracted Zn may be ranked accordingly:

citric acid (100%)> acetic acid (78%)> oxalic acid (71%).

While for copper the ranking order of the investigated 0.5M extractants is the following:

citric acid (59%)> oxalic acid (21%)> acetic acid (10%).

The obtained extraction effi ciency of Zn was higher with citric and acetic acids than with oxalic acid, according with the fact that strong acidic conditions were maintained during the tests (as reported in Fig. 2 a, b, c where the initial and fi nal pH values are given). In the literature it was found, that complete removal of zinc from soil was observed by using all the acids except oxalic acid, when concentration of washing solutions (citric, acetic and other four studied organic acids ) was 1.0 mol/L and a soil to extracting solution ratio was 1:5 (Khodadoust et al., 2005). On the basis of the data presented, one has to take into account the fact that metal removal effi ciency vary depending on the extraction conditions – it was demonstrated that copper and zinc extraction effi ciency for each investigated organic acid was different and that metal extraction was a function of concentration of the applied acids. However, if suffi ciently large amount of citric acid is applied, up to 100% of zinc and 60% of copper may be extracted, that in many cases means meeting the required limit values.

Conclusions

1. Zinc and copper extraction effi ciency depends not only on the nature and concentration of low-molecular weight carboxylic acid, but also on solution pH. In particular, the low pH of solution determines the extraction effi ciency of the specifi c behavior of oxalic acid. 2. The optimal zinc and copper extraction effi ciency was achieved with 0.5M citric and acetic acids, while in the case of oxalic acid optimal solution concentration is 0.1 mol/L. 3. On the basis of zinc extraction effi ciency low-molecular weight organic acids at 0.5M concentration may be ranked accordingly: citric acid>acetic acid> oxalic acid, while for copper the ranking order of the investigated 0.5M extractants is the following: citric acid > oxalic acid > acetic acid.

References

Chang, A.C., Granato, T.C., Page, A.L., (1992). A methodology for establishing phytotoxicity criteria for chromium, copper, nickel, and zinc in agricultural land application of municipal sewage sludges. J. Environ. Qual. 21, pp. 521–536. Di Palma L., Mecozzi R. (2007). Heavy metals mobilization from harbour sediments using EDTA and citric acid as chelating agents. Journal of Hazardous Materials. Volume 147, Issue 3, pp. 768-775. Flyhammar, P. (1997). Estimation of heavy metal transformations in municipal solid waste. Sci. Total Environ. 198, pp. 123–133. Huang, J.W., Blaylock, M.J., Kapulnik, Y., Ensley, B.D. (1998). Phytoremediation of uranium-contaminated soils: role or organic acids in triggering uranium hyperaccumulation in plants. Environ. Sci. Technol. 32, pp. 2004–2008. Jones, D.L., Darrah, P.R., Kochian, V.L. (1996). Critical evaluation of organic acid mediated iron dissolution in the rhizosphere and its potential role in root iron uptake. Plant Soil 180, pp. 57–66. Khodadoust A. P., Reddy K. R., Maturi K. (2005). Effect different extraction agents on metal and organic contaminant removal from a fi eld soil. Journal of Hazardous Materials, pp. 15-24. Kos, B., Lestan, D., 2004. Chelator induced phytoextraction and in situ soil washing of Cu. Environmental Pollution 132, 333-339. Krishnamurti, G.S.R., Cieslinski, G., Huang, P.M., Van Rees, K.C.J. (1997). Kinetics of Cd released from soils as in.uenced by organic acids implication in cadmium availability. J. Environ. Qual. 26, pp. 271–277.

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Levlin, E., 2004. Sustainable sludge handling – metal removal and phosphorus recovery. Available from: http://www.lwr.kth.se/forskningsprojekt/ Polishproject/JPS3s73.pdf, accessed March, 2004. Lombi, E., Zhao, F.J., Dunham, S.J., McGrath, S.P. (2001). Phytoremediation of heavy-metal contaminated soils: natural hyperaccumulation versus chemically enhanced phytoextraction. Journal of Environmental Quality 30, pp. 1919-1926. Marchioretto, M.M., Bruning, H., Loan, N.T.P., Rulkens, W.H. (2002). Heavy metals extraction from anaerobically digested sludge. Water Sci. Technol. 46 (10), pp. 1–8. McBride, M.B. (2003). Toxic metals in sewage sludge-amended soils: has promotion of bene.cial use discounted the risk? Adv. Environ. Res. 8, pp. 5–19. Meers, E., Hopgood, M., Lesage, E., Tack, F.M.G., Verloo, M.G. (2004). Enhanced phytoextraction: in search for EDTA alternatives. International Journal of Phytoremediation 6, pp. 95-109. Mench, M., Martin, E. (1991). Mobilization of cadmium and other heavy metals from 2 soils by root exudates of Zea-Mays L., Nicotiana-Tabacum-L. and Nicotiana-Rustica L. Plant Soil 132, pp. 187–196. Metcalf and Eddy. (2003). Wastewater Engineering: Treatment and Reuse, fourth ed. McGraw-Hill, Boston, USA. Nigam, R., Srivastava, S., Prakash, S., Srivastava, M.M. (2000). Cadmium mobilisation and plant availability—the impact of natural organic acids commonly exuded from roots. Plant Soil 230, pp. 107–113. Pogrzeba, M., Kucharski, R., Sas-Nowosielska, A., Malkowski, E., Krynski, K., Kuperberg, J.M. (2004). Heavy metal removal from municipal sewage sludges by phytoextraction. Available from: http//www.containment.fsu.edu/cd/content/pdf/475.pdf, accessed March, 2004. Polettini A, Pomi R., Rolle E. (2007). The effect of operating variables on chelat-assisted remediation of contaminated dredged sediment. Chemosphere, pp. 866-877. Sims, J.T., Kline, J.S. (1991). Chemical fractionation and plant uptake of heavy metals in soil amended with co-composted sewage sludge. J. Environ. Qual. 20, pp. 387–395. Su, D.C., Wong, J.W.C. (2003). Chemical speciation and phytoavailability of Zn, Cu, Ni and Cd in soil amended with fl y ash-stabilized sewage sludge. Environ. Int. 29, pp. 895–900. Veeken, A.H.M., Hamelers, H.V.M. (1999). Removal of heavy metals from sewage sludge by extraction with organic acids. Water Sci. Technol. 40 (1), pp. 129–136. Wu, L.H., Luo, Y.M., Xing, X.R., Christie, P. (2004). EDTA-enhanced phytoremediation of heavy metal contaminated soil with Indian mustard and associated potential leaching risk. Agriculture. Ecosystems and Environment 102, pp. 307-318. Zhang, F., Romheld, V., Marschner, H. (1989). Effect of zinc defi ciency in wheat on the release of zinc and iron mobilizing root exudates. Z. Pfl anzenernaehr. Bodenkd. 152, pp. 205–210.

Ernestas ZALECKAS. Junior Researcher of the Laboratory of Environmental Research, Institute of Environment, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 08. E-mail: ernestas.zaleckas@ gmail.com Valdas PAULAUSKAS. Head of the Department of Chemistry, Associate Professor at the Dept of Chemistry, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 22 15. E-mail: [email protected]. Nomeda SABIENĖ. Head of the Laboratory of Environmental Research, Institute of Environment, Associate Professor at the Dept of Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT-53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 08. E-mail: [email protected]. Gedrimė KUŠLIENĖ. PhD student, Junior Researcher of the Laboratory of Environmental Research, Institute of Environment, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Master of Environmental Engineering. Address: Studentu 11, Akademija, Kaunas district LT- 53361. Tel. (8-37) 75 22 15. E-mail: [email protected]

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VI

Rural Landscape Management Trends Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Analysis of Free State Land in Kaunas County

Edita Abalikštienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

With the possibilities to use land of agricultural effectively and develop competitive agribusiness, while establishing conditions to developing rationally managed land-owning, sales of free state land of agricultural purposes are very closely connected. Research purpose – to analyse free state land fund in Kaunas county. In this research 6 municipalities of Kaunas county were analyzed. Free state land, located in the cities, hasn’t been analyzed. Research found according to the dates, stated on the 1st of June 2009, in Kaunas county are 47375,19 ha of free state land all together. In analysing period (2007 – 2009 ) Jonava, Kaišiadoriai and Kėdainiai districts free state land plots were increased. Key words: free state land, land plot

Introduction

State land management, use and disposition and includes processes in which it is used, or certain needs, or disposed of gratuitously, sold, leased, given the right to use or controlled by the economic impact. One of the ways to purchase the property, the land reform, the state is land. County in 2008 6th January started to sell agricultural land, for sale of free state land was 343 thousand ha of land (2009-01-01data) in. This fi gure does not include the land area, which is required to satisfy all the conclusions on the transfer of ownership of land gratis, and free land in forests, water plots and protected areas. Availability of state agricultural land sale will help make effi cient use of agricultural land and the development of competitive agriculture, facilitating the formation of rational managed land tenure Kaunas county land reform carried out 98%. According to the requests of the citizens, still need to restore 1.98% ownership of land. Research purpose – to analyse free state land fund in Kaunas county. Research tasks: 1. Ascertain how much free state land areas are in Kaunas county 2. To analyze the change of free state land in Kaunas county 2007 - 2009 year. 3. Perform the linear regression model, statistical analysis using the Kaunas county free land plot, distance to the district center and the distance to the center of the county data. Research object – Kaunas county free state land fund.

Research methods

In this research 6 municipalities of Kaunas county were analyzed. Dates about Prienai and Bir tonas municipalities have been presented jointly. Free state land, located in the cities, hasn’t been analyzed. Dates about free state land existing in the national land fund were obtained after analyzing cumulative dates about free state land plots in the district areas. Collected material was studied using logical analysis, descriptive, statistical batching, information statistical research and comparison methods. Made linear regressive and done regressive analysis. Pieces of legislation and other standard documents, regulating land usage, were analyzed. Dates analysis was completed by using „Microsoft excel“, “Maple11”.

Research results

According to the Land Law all private, state and municipalities owned land in the Republic of Lithuania compose the land fund of the Republic of Lithuania. Land, which is not under the leasehold or given for someone else to use it, is called free state land. Free state land is recorded in the free state land fund. Free state land fund is managed by the county guvnor and the common council, or by the municipality executive institution, if the state land is trusted into municipality usage followed by the governmental acts. Free state land can be conceded into the someone ownership, or given for someone else to use it, or given for lease only after the necessary planning, land management works have been done, after land plot prime purposive usage, method and format of its usage have been identifi ed as well as special land usage conditions have been determined. Information about formed land plots must be entered in the Real Property Register data bank. Free state land under the buildings can be given only to the building owners. Land, forest or water plots, if they are located in the national parks or national reservations, are given unfed as an equivalent land, forest or water plots, which are irresolvable. This procedure is possible only if an applicant has lived in

95 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends these areas back to the 17th of August 2001 and owned a dwelling-house, or parts of them in the national parks or national reservations or in the villages or small towns nearby (Lietuvos..., 2008). Free state land analysis was accomplished using the cumulative dates about the free state land plots in Kaunas county areas (Table 1).

Table 1. Free state land fund of the Kaunas county divided by the district municipalities, stated on the 1st of June 2009 General size Free state land area landed property explication ha of the free District municipalities farming lands water land of the state land forests area ha total area arable land deposits other purposes Jonava 6715.37 2707.83 2132.70 3126.95 25.55 855.04 Kaišiadorys 8554.43 5340.31 2705.57 1820.70 108.90 1284.52 Kaunas 3107.73 1338.43 1175.44 1248.47 55.39 465.44 Kėdainiai 12338.43 5011.96 3690.17 4514.27 82.79 2179.35 Prienai, Birštonas 4615.83 2453.03 1860.81 1119.64 95.96 947.20 Raseiniai 12043.40 6448.92 4856.50 3054.38 41.70 2498.40

All together there are 47375.19 ha, or 5.8 % from the whole country area, of free state land in Kaunas county. The smallest amount of free state land was identifi ed in Kaunas district. Accordingly free state land is comprised of: 50 % of farming land, 32 % – of forests, 1 % - of water plots and 17 % of the land of the other purposes. Kaunas county made a free state land area variation analysis of the 2007 – 2009 period. Analysis for 2007 of 1st October data (Abalikštienė, 2008) and 2009 1st June data (Kaunas ..., 2009). Free state land analysis was accomplished using the cumulative dates about the free state land areas in Kaunas county districts ( Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Kaunas county districts free state land plots alteration in 2007 – 2009 years, ha

In analysing period three districts free state land areas were increased. In Jonava disctrict free state land plots analysig period increased 568.35 ha. According to the land property in Jonava discrtict free state land alteration: farming land property increased 529.97 ha, forests decreased 15.62 ha, water plots increased 9.4 ha other land purposes increased 44.60 ha. In Kai iadoriai district free land areas icreased 266.76 ha. In analysing period these lands property were increased: farming land property (238.72 ha), forests (92.78 ha), water plots (41.33 ha). 106.07 ha s decreased other land purposes. In Kaunas district free lands during the last of one and a half year decreased 416.53 ha. Farming land property areas were increased 254.06 ha. Almost alteration water plots (increased 0.43 ha). Free state forest areas in Kaunas district decreased 414.99 ha, 256.03 ha decreased other land purposes. In Kėdainiai district free state land areas increased 839.31 ha. Farming land increased and other land purposes decreased (576.27). Forest decreased 63.9 ha, water plots increased 4.66 ha. In Prienai districts and Bir tonas municipality free land areas decreasedt 249.34 ha. Farming land property (139.81 ha) and other land purposes decreased (126.27 ha). Forest and water plots changed little, it increased 5.54 ha and 11.2 ha. In Raseiniai district free state land areas decreased 1128.06 ha. In analysing period increased only forest plot 15.74 ha. Other land plots decreased: farming land area 586.2 ha, water plot 80.78 ha, other land purposes decreased 476.82 ha.

96 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Statistical analysis was performed in order to determine the impact of distances to the size of free state land areas (Rup ys, 2007). Regressive analysis was performed using the data regarding free state land areas and the distances to county and district centers. Free state land areas situated in 114 cadastral regions were determined. Whereas the size of cadastral regions varies, number of blocks in cadastral regions was considered. The areas of free state land in each cadastral block was determined. The selected research data was classifi ed into groups: free state land, distance to district center and distance to county center. Determination and evaluation of data correlation was performed during this work. The following linear equation is equated:

S = β1 + β2r + β3a (1)

Where: β1; β2; β3 are unknown parameters, r – distance to district center, a – distance to county center, S – free land area.

Using the program Maple 11, parameters β1; β2; β3 are calculated, equating the following linear equation:

Si = - 11,596 + 0,547ri + 0,648ai (2) Linear regressive equation enables approximate evaluation of free state land area, when distances to district and county centers are known. Statistical analysis is performed. The signifi cance of parameters is verifi ed. Statistical conclusions on the linear regressive model are entered to the check of hypothesis. The following p values are obtained: β1 – 0.037; β2 – 0.022; β3 – 2.3-10. P values are less than signifi cance level 0,05. When p is less than 0,05, parameters are signifi cant. The second verifi cation stage – distribution of standardized remainder – is performed. Regressive model is considered as appropriate, if the distribution of standardized remainders in a plane is occasional and limited with two lines parallel to the abscise. Distribution of remainders is shown in Figure 2. Using 114 pieces of data, occasionally distributed remainders parallel to the abscise are obtained. Normal distribution is designed in Figure 3.

Figure 2. Distribution of remainder of distances to districts centers Figure 3. Normal curve

The Shapiro – Wilk statistics is calculated: hypothesis = 0.0089. Statistical analysis of linear regressive model showed that parameters are signifi cant, and linear model should be appropriate with 0,009 % signifi cance. Using the correlation coeffi cient, correlation between the free land area and distance to district center (r = 0,229976989) is evaluated. Using the correlation coeffi cient, correlation between the free land area and distance to countyt center (r = 0,5380116166) is evaluated. Qualitative evaluation of correlation highlights: - Weak correlation between the free land area and distance to district center. - Average correlation between the free land area and distance to county center.

Conclusions

1. According to the dates, stated on the 1st of June 2009, in Kaunas county are 47375,19 ha of free state land all together, or 5.8 % from the whole county area. 2. Free state land in Kaunas county is comprised of: 50 % of farming land, 32 % – of forests, 1 % - of water plots and 17 % of the land of the other purposes 3. In analysing period (2007 – 2009 ) Jonava (568,35 ha), Kaišiadoriai (266.76 ha) and Kėdainiai (839.31 ha) districts free state land areas were increased.

97 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

4. Statistical analysis of linear regressive model showed that Kaunas county free state land, distance to district center and distance to county center parameters are signifi cant, and linear model should be appropriate with 0,009 % signifi cance. 5. Weak correlation between the free land area and distance to district center, average correlation between the free land area and distance to county center.

References

Abalikštienė E. (2008 ) Analysis of free state land plots in the Republic of Lithuania. Baltic Surveying’08 International Scientifi c – Methodical Conference, pp 67 –71. Latvia University of Agriculture. Kauno apskrities Laisva valstybinė žemė ir rengiami projektai (2009). Available at http://www.kaunas.aps.lt Konkurencingą žemės ūkį plėtoti padės valstybinės žemės pardavimas (2008). Mano ūkis. Available at: http://www.manoukis.lt/index.php ?m=2&s=5220&t=22 Lietuvos Respublikos žemės įstatymas. Nauja redakcija (2008 11 25 Nr. I-446). Iš: Valstybės žinios. 2008. Nr. 135 – 5233 . Rupšys P. (2007). Matematinis modeliavimas. Mokomoji knyga, Akademija, 152 p. Valstybinės žemės valdymo, naudojimo ir disponavimo ja vertinimas (2009) Lietuvos Respublikos Valstybės kontrolė. Available at : http://www. vkontrole.lt/auditas_ataskaita.php?3059

Edita ABALIKŠTIENĖ. Doctoral student, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Address: Universiteto 10, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania. Tel. +370 37 75 23 72; e-mail: [email protected]

98 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Possibilities for Rural Development Implementing Land Consolidation Projects in Lithuania

Audrius Aleknavičius Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Land consolidation is a complex territory rearrangement taking into account local peculiarities, rural community and land owners economical and environmental recommendations. In Lithuania the area for available land consolidation projects is more than 2500 thousands ha of private agricultural land, which includes more than 300 thousands owners. Four pilot land consolidation projects were accomplished during 2000 – 2003. These projects estimated situation in Lithuania, showed specifi c features of country and required legal base for land consolidation. The article analyses what means of rural development can be implemented during land consolidation projects and reveal main problems and benefi ts of accomplished land consolidation projects. Only 28% of land owners took participation in the pilot land consolidation projects. Means of rural development were implemented partly only in Pabaiskas and Puskelniai projects, although owners asked for these means in all projects. One of the main reasons for this is separate fi nancing for land consolidation projects and rural development measures. Recently accomplished 14 land consolidation projects differed by their size and results. Totally in all land consolidation projects the number of land plots reduced by 30% from 731 to 512. Accomplished multiple regression analysis showed that both area of project and number of land plots have a great impact on costs of land consolidation projects (correlation coeffi cient R = 0.86). The analysis showed that there is a great demand for other rural development means. However cost of project implementation can be twice higher by implementing these means. Key words: land consolidation, rural development, pilot projects

Introduction

According to Lithuanian legislation, rural development is a development of rural habitants’ life and working conditions, rural areas economical and social structure, strengthening of communities relationship in order to ensure economical and social linkage, stimulate alternative activities in rural areas, protect ethnical culture, landscape and environment (Lietuvos…, 2002). There are many different instruments and means which are used to implement these tasks. Land consolidation is one of important tools for rural development and farm competitiveness. Land consolidation is a complex rearrangement of the whole territory, taking into account peculiarities of location, interest of rural society, of land owners, environmental recommendations, etc. (Lietuvos…, 2005). Currently farms in Lithuania are not competitive and their productivity is not effi cient due to different reasons. Development of effi cient agriculture mainly depends on farm size, which today in Lithuania in average is about 12 ha. During land reform land was restituted to previous owners and now majority of farms have few land plots, scattered in different places or intervened by other owners plots (Lietuvos…, 2008). Usually owners wanted to get back land in the same place as it was in 1940, although its allocation at that time was not good. Planners had to obey and land plots were projected in the same place and of the same shape due to land owners wishes. Such projecting did not correspond to requirements of suitable land tenures formation. One of solutions in our days can be implementation of land consolidation projects. Changes of land parcels shape or location can give considerable benefi ts for participating farmers. There are about 3000 thous. ha of private agricultural land in Lithuania. Some percentage of this area may be used for small family farms or for building up, anyway, the possible territory for land consolidation projects in Lithuania covers more than 2500 thous. ha of private agricultural land owned by about 300 thous. land owners. Land consolidation is a new and costly process in Lithuania, therefore these projects fi rstly have to be implemented in locations with intense agricultural production, large farms and large amount of land plots scattered far from farm centers (Aleknavicius et al., 2004). Economical benefi ts from reallocation of plots and land consolidation are obvious, but it should be grounded by certain calculations. Such grounding is even more important choosing which land consolidation projects should be implemented and which should not be fi nanced. Firstly certain methodology was developed for calculation of land plots reallocation economical benefi t (Aleknavicius, 2001). Using these calculations elaborated methodology was developed taking into account more factors of value. The developed methodology allows calculation of land consolidation benefi ts for single land owner and for the whole project. The average benefi ts from land consolidation can reach about 40-50 Lt/ ha or 10-15% of cost reduction after enlargement of land plots, improvement of plots shape and reduced distance to farm center (Aleknavicius et al., 2007). First 4 pilot land consolidation projects were accomplished in Lithuania in 2000 – 2003. These projects allowed to estimate current situation in Lithuania, clarify peculiarities of legal and social environment and necessary improvements of legal acts (Daugaliene, 2009). 14 land consolidation projects were accomplished in Lithuania during 2007 – 2008. Their result showed, that only simple land reallocation is not suffi cient because participants expected from projects more rural development measures like reconstruction of roads, reclamation system, new power lines etc.

99 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

The main task of this article is analyze what means of rural development can be implemented during land consolidation projects and reveal main problems and benefi ts of accomplished land consolidation projects.

Methodology of research

Statistical analysis, comparative analysis and literature sources analysis methods were used in the article. The analysis of scientifi c articles about land consolidation projects preparation methodology and arising problems were accomplished in the article. Data of prepared land consolidation projects were analyzed using statistical and comparative analysis. The comparison of land consolidation process conditions in different countries was accomplished, taking into account complexity of projects, fi nancing and participation. The analysis of planned and implemented rural development measure in pilot land consolidation projects was made. Multiregressional analysis was accomplished analyzing costs of land consolidation projects implementation.

Results and discussions

A lot of means of rural development can be implemented during land consolidation projects. The most important and frequently used are the following: - The support building up of productive and competitive farms by enlarging the size of farm, amalgamating scattered plots, reallocating plots near to farm center and changing the shape of plots. These tasks can be considered as the main goal of simple land consolidation and brings the most visible economical value to farmer. It means that the economical situation of farmers and rural habitants will increase after implementation of land consolidation project; - Improvement of existing roads and construction of new roads in the project area for better access to the plots. Usually farmers have to go to the fi elds with different machinery many times per year. Better roads will result less costs for fuel, oil and less time costs, which will turn into economical benefi t for farmers; - Reconstruction of reclamation systems and constructions of new ones. Well working reclamation systems can increase land productivity and the volume of agriculture production. Again this leads to economical benefi ts for farmers; - Establishing new electric power lines. Usually more electric power consumption is necessary for farms expansion, bigger and more productive farms machinery and equipment; - Formation of plots for recreational use, establishing new water bodies or improving shores of existing ones. These plots can be used for development of alternative activities such as rural tourism. However, these plots can be state owned and left for common use for rural habitants. This means, that beside economical benefi t the social benefi ts can be achieved, improving rural habitants living conditions. - Afforestation of low agricultural value lands or for recreational activities. Land consolidation is a type of special plans, therefore having a solution of this plan the permit for afforestation can be obtained easily. This mean is related to environmental issues of rural areas; - Planning of environmentally important plots (green corridors for animals’ migration, protection of certain environmentally valuable areas, etc.). All these means can be implemented during land consolidation projects, but is there a need to implement all of them in one project? Every situation and area is different and unique, therefore every project has to be analyzed and all necessary means should be used. Another question – how much does it cost and who has to pay for it? Lithuania just fi nished 14 land consolidation projects, which revealed various problems and incompleteness of projects preparation methodology and other legal acts. These projects were simple land consolidation projects, where only the fi rst of mentioned above means were implemented. The methodology for land consolidation projects preparation was developed on the base of pilot land consolidation projects. It is very useful to analyze once again experience of foreign countries and compare it with Lithuanian results. The most important thing is to study implementation of rural development means during land consolidation. Land consolidation projects as a part of rural development are prepared in the whole Europe for many years. The motivation for land consolidation is similar in all countries – there is a need for more effi cient land use by rearranging land plots, improving accessibility with them, increasing land value after renovation or construction of land reclamation systems and similar means. Tasks and procedure of land consolidation has small differences in every country due to legal, cultural, social or other factors, although the main steps are the same (Aleknavicius et al., 2004). Land consolidation should not be considered as simple land plot rearrangement. Land consolidation projects can be used implementing agricultural and rural development policy, also taking into account environmental issues. Therefore land consolidation projects are integral part of sustainable rural development. FAO determined four different approaches or levels of land consolidation projects after accomplished study of pilot land consolidation projects in Central and Eastern Europe (The design…, 2003):

100 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

I. Comprehensive land consolidation. When preparing such projects beside simple rearrangement of land plots or changes of plot shape a broad range of other rural development measures are implemented as well (reconstruction and construction of roads, reclamation systems, improvement of rural villages’ infrastructure, implementation of environmental protection means, etc). II. Simplifi ed land consolidation. The main works for land tenure optimization in such projects are land plots rearrangement, improvement of shape, enlargement by buying land from the State or land owners who do not farm on their land. These works can be combined with some minor improvements of infrastructure and land reclamation. III. Voluntary group land consolidation. These projects are similar to simplifi ed land consolidation, but land owners participate in these projects only on the voluntary base. IV. Individual land consolidation. This is a sporadic and individual enlargement of land plots, initiated by private farmers. According to Lithuanian legal acts participation in land consolidation projects is voluntary, therefore only voluntary group land consolidation can be implemented in our country. When implementing such land consolidation projects every participant should agree with project proposals of land plot rearrangement or other planning solutions. Such legal issue can complicate implementation of the project, because land owners receive different benefi t and each of them will try to reach the solution where they benefi t most. Therefore for successful implementation of land consolidation project in Lithuania the area of project should not be too large. Too many land owners will always fi nd disagreements, so implementation of project can be diffi cult and long lasting. On the other hand voluntary participation is useful in countries, where land consolidation is a new process and benefi ts from such projects are not well known for society, land owners and land management specialists. However, certain level of compulsory participation is necessary preparing more comprehensive land consolidation project with other expensive rural development means (e.g. construction of roads or reclamation systems). In such case if few owners disagree, then majority of owners will loose the benefi t from road or reclamation, therefore certain rules for compulsory participation should be established. Land consolidation projects in European countries vary and can be of different complexity level. Anyway, demand for roads, reclamation system reconstruction, infrastructure is taken into account in almost all land consolidation projects and such solutions are implemented during the project term. First table shows main conditions of land consolidation projects implementation in different countries.

Table 1. Main conditions of land consolidation projects implementation Complexity and level of LC project Financing Country Compulsory participation Comprehensive Simplifi ed State, EU Owner France X X 100% Rare cases No, with exceptions Germany X X 80 – 70% 20 – 30% No No with exception (10% of owners must agree Denmark X X 100% Rare cases to the majority) Depends on project complexity (many owners Sweden X X 50% 50% and plots – compulsory participation) Depends on project complexity and majority Switzerland X X 75% 25% opinion Lithuania - X 100% - No

The table shows that land consolidation projects in analyzed countries are not only reallocation of land plots, but also a tool for rural development means planning and implementation. An important issue is that land owners also take part in fi nancing of land consolidation projects. This is natural, because farmers get the biggest economical benefi t from the project. This provision allows implementation of costly rural development measures. Only works related to reallocation of plots are fi nanced in Lithuania. Certain rural development measures can be planned in the decisions of project – reconstruction and construction of roads, reclamation systems, electric lines and other infrastructure. However other fi nancing sources must be found for implementation of planned decisions. Four pilot projects were prepared in Lithuania during 2000 – 2003 with the help of foreign experts. The tasks of these projects were estimation of current legal and social situation in Lithuania for further land consolidation projects. These projects gave a signifi cant experience for creation and improvement of land consolidation legal base (Land..., 2004): 1. Pilot land consolidation project in Kedainiai district, Dotnuva in 2000 – 2001; 2. Pilot land consolidation project in Kedainiai district, Akademija in 2002 – 2003; 3. Pilot land consolidation project in Ukmerge district, Pabaiskas in 2003; 4. Pilot land consolidation project in Marijampole district, Puskelniai in 2003.

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Different tasks and main results of these projects are presented in table below (table 2).

Table 2. The main tasks and results of pilot land consolidation projects in Lithuania Dotnuva Akademija Pabaiskas Puskelniai Total area ha 392 662 472 350 Number of private land owners 79 57 95 58 Average plot size ha 4,4 10,0 3,4 4,8 Free State land fund ha 46 92 76 5,0 Number of land owners participated in the project 19 21 32 10 Area of transferred/exchanged land ha 86 122 82 22 Planned rural development measures No Yes Yes Yes Implemented rural development measures No No Some No

The results of analysis show that only 28% of land owners took part in pilot land consolidation projects. The main reason for this is that land consolidation was a new process for farmers and the results of these projects were unknown, therefore pilot projects were distrusted by land owners. Almost all pilot projects planned rural development measures seeking to increase rural habitants’ life quality, soil fertility and competitiveness of farms. Enlargement of farms and amalgamation of scattered land plots were achieved in all projects. However other means were not implemented or implemented partly (table 3).

Table 3. Planned and implemented rural development means during pilot land consolidation projects

Akademija Pabaiskas Puskelniai Rural development means Planned Implemented Planned Implemented Planned Implemented

Reconstruction of roads Yes No Yes No Yes No Reconstruction of drainage system Yes No No No No No Afforestation of agricultural land plots Yes No Yes Yes Yes No Establishing areas for recreational purposes Yes Yes Yes Yes No No and rural tourism

The analysis shows, that rural development measures were planned, but most of them were not implemented. This situation occurred due to rules of land consolidation projects fi nancing. According to these rules, only works directly related to land plots formation, reallocation and survey can be funded. Other rural development means planned in land consolidation project should be fi nanced from other sources. The solution for better implementation of all project’s solutions can be tight co-ordination of planners and rural community, which should apply for fi nancing from other Lithuanian Rural Development Program measures (Nacionalinė...2009). 14 land consolidation projects were accomplished in 2008. The total area of all projects is 4800 ha of agricultural land and 380 land owners took part in these projects. There are many criteria which are important for land consolidation projects successful initiation, preparation and implementation, like public acknowledgement campaign, initiative of farmers, initiative of land surveyors, land plots fragmentation etc. Anyway one of the most important criteria are farm size and intensity of land cultivation. The fi rst projects were prepared and implemented in counties with higher than average farm size (fi g.1).

Figure 1. Average farm size in counties where land consolidation projects were implemented

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This analysis approved previous theoretical research that larger farms are more interested in more effi cient land cultivation and such farmers understand the benefi ts of land consolidation (Aleknavicius et al., 2004). More detailed analysis of farm size structure in districts where land consolidation projects were implemented is presented in table 4.

Table 4. Distribution of farms according to area in districts where land consolidation projects were implemented Distribution of farms according to area % from total number of farms District Up to 3 ha 3-10 ha 10-20 ha 20-50 ha 50 ha and more Marijampole 32,2 43,0 14,9 8,4 1,5 Pasvalys 33,9 37,2 16,6 10,2 2,0 Mazeikiai 29,5 37,9 20,8 10,5 1,3 Sakiai 30,6 41,4 15,2 10,3 2,5 Plunge 19,7 47,1 20,6 11,2 1,5 Taurage 19,5 45,2 23,0 11,3 1,0 Jurbarkas 18,2 43,5 25,1 11,5 1,6 Kupiskis 16,7 42,7 25,1 14,1 1,3 Vilkaviskis 23,9 45,1 17,9 10,3 2,8 Telsiai 17,9 38,3 25,9 14,6 3,1 Total in Lithuania 27,5 42,7 18,8 9,2 1,7

Analysis of farm size structure shows, that land consolidation projects were implemented in districts where number of 20 – 50 ha size farms is higher than average in Lithuania. These two farm size analysis show that both average farm size and certain farm distribution by size are important for land consolidation projects. The average sized farms (20 – 50 ha) have enough income and are probably more interested in expanding the area of farms and lowering production costs after preparation of land consolidation projects. First land consolidation projects differed by their size (from 133 ha to 670 ha) and results achieved (table 5).

Table 5. Main parameter of land consolidation projects implemented 2007–2008 Number of land plots Average project Area of the Number of participated District Cadastral district implementation costs project ha land owners Before project After ptoject per ha Telsiai Degaiciai 670 44 115 67 519 Telsiai Luoke 341 20 46 33 537 Mažeikiai Zidikai ir Ukrinai 638 55 111 81 503 Mažeikiai Uzezere ir Pliksiai 362 29 52 40 550 Plunge Sateikiai 136 11 23 17 608 Sakiai Griskabudis 482 74 101 82 573 Vilkaviskis Gizai ir Keturvalakiai 607 31 57 41 481 Vilkaviskis Gizai 199 9 8 8 501 Marijampole Patasine 192 28 40 24 669 Jurbarkas Jurbarkai 208 14 38 10 573 Taurage Žigaičiai 133 12 26 9 662 Kupiškis Judpėnai 397 22 57 41 445 Kupiškis Adomynė 270 18 26 17 500 Pasvalys Ustukiai 192 21 31 39 584

Analysis of results shows, that there are no changes of plot number in Gizai project, while in Jurbarkai and Zigaiciai projects the number of plots reduced by around 70%. Totally in all land consolidation projects the number of land plots reduced by 30% from 731 to 512. Land consolidation projects are funded by EU funds (75%) and Lithuanian government (25 %). The cost of current land consolidation projects vary from 450 LTL/ha to 670 LTL/ha (130 – 194 EUR/ha) depending on project area, number of owners and plots. There is a great dependency of project cost and area of the project (fi g. 2).

103 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Figure 2. Dependency of costs and area of the land consolidation project

It is clearly seen that cost for project implementation per ha reduces when the area of project increase (correlation coeffi cient R = 0.66). Anyway, the area of land consolidation project is not the only criteria which can infl uence implementation costs. Additional factor is a number of land plots. Accomplished multiple regression analysis with variables of projects’ area and number of land plots showed very high correlation with costs for projects’ implementation (correlation coeffi cient R = 0.86):

Y=1161.7 -161.6LnX1+82.8LnX2 (1) X1 – area of project; X2 – number of land plots participating in the project.

Increased number of land plots increases costs for cadastral survey and total costs of the project. This analysis gives an idea, that optimal choice of land consolidation project can be evaluated by at least by two criteria: - Small project area but also small amount of scattered land plots; - Large project area can include large amount of scattered land plots. All these costs are dedicated to works related to land rearrangement. However, farmers made their wish list for land consolidation projects decisions in which many rural development means were present – renovation of roads and reclamation systems, construction of new roads and infrastructural objects. These means were planned in land consolidation projects, but not implemented. Therefore other rural development means must be funded by other sources. Yet, farmers and rural communities activity concerning co-fi nancing rural development measures remain passive, until they realize the benefi ts of land consolidation Taking into account experience of other countries the cost of land consolidation project with other rural development means can be twice higher (Vitikainen, 2004).

Conclusions

1. Land consolidation in Western European countries is a part of sustainable rural development process. It means the complex reorganization of all territory taking into account local peculiarities, rural community and land owners economical and environmental recommendations. 2. Only voluntary group consolidation projects can be organized in Lithuania due to requirements of legal acts. Voluntary principle makes land consolidation more attractive to farmers. It can be a right solution for countries where land consolidation processes has just begun, therefore farmers do not realize all the benefi ts and do not participate in land consolidation projects actively. 3. Only 28% of land owners participated in the fi rst pilot projects, because land consolidation was a new process for them and the results of these projects were unknown. Rural development measures were planned in three pilot projects. Partly implementation of them was only in Pabaiskas and Puskelniai project. 4. The main reason of failed rural development means implementation is separate fi nancing for land consolidation. According to EU fi nancing provisions only works related to reallocation of land plots can be fi nanced from these funds. 5. The analysis shows that both average farm size and certain size farm distribution are important for land consolidation projects. Land consolidation projects were implemented in districts where number of 20 – 50 ha size farms is higher than average in Lithuania. 6. First land consolidation projects differed by their size (from 133 ha to 670 ha) and results achieved. There are no changes of plot number in Gizai project, while in Jurbarkai and Zigaiciai projects the number of plots reduced around 70%. Totally in all land consolidation projects the number of land plots reduced by 30% from 731 to 512.

104 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

7. Accomplished multiple regression analysis showed that both area of project and number of land plots have a great impact on costs of land consolidation projects (correlation coeffi cient R = 0.86). This analysis gives an idea, that optimal choice of land consolidation project can be evaluated at least by two criteria: small project area but also small amount of scattered land plots or large project area which can include large amount of scattered land plots. 8. Farmers made their wish list for land consolidation projects decisions in which many rural development means were present. Taking into account experience of other countries the cost of land consolidation project with other rural development means can be twice higher.

References Aleknavičius A, Aleknavičius P, Gurskienė V. (2007). Economic grounding of land consolidation projects. Transactions of the Estonian university of life sciences: baltic surveying’ 07, 224. p.p. 5-15. Aleknavičius A., Augutienė J. (2004). Land consolidation – a need for competitive farms formation. Agricultural sciences. Transactions, Vol. 4. p.p. 114-119. Aleknavičius A. (2005). Possibilities and need of land consolidation. Rural development 2005: Globalisation and integration challenges to the rural of East and Central Europe: the second international scientifi c conference: proceedings. Vol. 2, b. 2. p.p. 132-134. Aleknavičius A. (2001). Economical background of farms land tenures reorganization. Water management engineering. Transactions, T.15 (37), p.p. 3-7. Backman M. (2002). Rural development by Land consolidation in Sweden. Paper, FIG XXII International Congress, April 19 – 26. 12 p. Final report of pilot land consolidation Project in Dotnuva, Kedainiai district. (2009). Available at: http://www.nzt.lt//index.cfm?fuseaction=displayHTML&attributes.fi le=File_447.cfm&langparam=LT Daugalienė V. (2003). Dirbamos žemės tvarkymas Danijoje. Ūkininko patarėjas, Nr.127. Daugalienė V. (2009). Žemėtvarkininkai rengiasi žemės konsolidacijai. Available at: http://www.zum.lt/min/Informacija/dsp_news.cfm?NewsID=160 9&langparam=LT&Title=&From=&To=&Page=32&list=50 Derlich Fr. (2002). Land consolidation: A key for sustainable development. French experience. Paper, FIG XXII International Congress, April 19 – 26, 8p. Karl Aage Eskildsen. (2002). Danish land consolidation. Paper, FAO international symposium, Munich, February 25-28, 8 p. Land consolidation: a tool for sustainable rural development. Final report. (2004). 30 p. Available at: http://www.dffe.dk/Default. asp?ID=16857#182726; Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2005-06-27 nutarimas Nr. 690 „Dėl Žemės konsolidacijos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo taisyklių patvirtinimo“. Žin., 2005, Nr. 80-2901. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2008 m. sausio 23 d. nutarimas Nr. 81 „Dėl Nacionalinės žemės konsolidacijos strategijos patvirtinimo“. Žin., 2008, Nr. 18-635. Lietuvos Respublikos žemės įstatymas. Žin., 2004, Nr. 28-868. Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio, maisto ir kaimo plėtros įstatymas. Žin., 2002, Nr. 72-3009 Nacionalinė mokėjimo agentūra (2009). Lietuvos kaimo plėtros 2007 – 2013 metų programa. Available at http://www.nma.lt/index.php?-408374574. The design of land consolidation pilot projects in Central and Eastern Europe. (2003). FAO land tenure studies. Rome, 58 p. Vitikainen A. (2004). An overview of land consolidation in Europe. Nordic Journal of Surveying and Real Estate Research. Vol1, p.p. 25 – 44. Weiss E., Malienė V. (2004). Žemės sklypų pertvarkymas Vokietijos federacinėje respublikoje. Vilnius: 104 p.

Audrius ALEKNAVIČIUS, doctor of technology (technical) science, associated professor, Land Management department, Water and Land Management faculty, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto g. 10, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kauno raj. Tel. 8-37 75 23 72, e-mail: [email protected]. Fields of interest: land consolidation, formation of farms, land market, land valuation.

105 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Problems in Managing Agricultural Land in Lithuania

Pranas Aleknavičius, Marius Aleknavičius Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The article presents analysis of situation with agricultural land in Lithuania and need for its further arrangement after the main land privatization activities are completed. Based on land management projects of the land reform, over 3 mil. ha of agricultural land parcels were formed and legitimized as private ownership. Parcels of such land are actively transferred to new owners, get subdivided, partitioned or otherwise reshaped. Due to the land management activities that involve changing of prime land use, agriculture loses ~2 thous. ha of land used for farming each year. Article gives suggestions on how the legal acts must facilitate rational forming of land tenures for farms, straiten decomposition and diminishing of arable land plots, and protect productive agricultural areas from their self-afforestation or from turning them into residential areas. Land management issues also involve regulation of rational land use. In 2005, about 650 thous. ha of agricultural land in Lithuania was not used for agricultural production, and part of land for meadows, pastures and perennial grass was used extensively. Article presents proposals for applying such juridical, economical and organizational measures which would encourage landowners of not cultivated land to transfer this land or lease it to agricultural entities and to comply with the recommendations set it area planning documents. Key words: agricultural land, land management, rational land use

Introduction

Agricultural land is land actually used for agricultural production or suitable for such purposes, i.e. land utilized for agriculture (UAA), other land with buildings that are required for agricultural production, land users’ homesteads, roads and intervening areas of various other uses on it. Proper use of such land is only possible in presence of effectively working economic structures. During the land reform, the reorganization of large farms and their land tenures took place towards the system of farming based on private land ownership and market economy relationships. This required radical activities of land management, as well. The research performed allows to judge upon the condition of land use and to determine possibility of solving the occurring problems by means of land management. The aim of the research is to identify problems in agricultural land management and use after the restoration of property rights to land. Tasks of the research are as follows: 1) to analyze indicators that characterize agricultural entities (farming structures), land use intensity, reorganization of private land parcels and transfer of their ownership; 2) to prepare proposals of how to regulate the reorganization of land parcels; 3) to prepare proposals for improving the use of land utilized for agriculture (UAA). Object of the research was the use condition of all the land suitable for agriculture in the Lithuanian Republic with the exception of land used by gardener’s communities and scientifi c or educational institutions. The investigated problems are characteristic to other Baltic states as well. Scientists which analyse those problems suggest improving the system of territory planning activities (Parsova, Dambite..., 2007), preparing land consolidation projects (Jankava, 2003; Maasikamae, Mugu..., 2003), forming land policy by taking in consideration land market demand and legal, ecological and economic aspects of land management activities (Kaing, 2003).

Methods

Methods used for the research involve analysis of legal acts, methods of statistical analysis and synthesis. The main material analyzed comprises of legal acts, statistical data provided by the National Land Service at the Ministry of Agriculture, other statistical data and maps with allocation of land plots declared by agricultural entities as their land tenures and boundaries of private land parcels.

Results

Problems with land parcels reorganization

Starting with 1997, only the projecting of land parcels has left in land management projects of the land reform and not the projecting of land tenures of farms. Land tenures are forming and enlarge on own initiative of farming entities. After rejecting the possibility of regulating such matters by legal acts or territory planning documents, the outcome of the land reform was mainly small land users, non-compact land tenures of major farms and a signifi cant area of agricultural land left not used for agriculture (~20% of total agricultural area). In total, 53% of landowners owns up to 3 ha of land, 35% – 3–10 ha, and only 12% of owners (~69 thous.) – more than 10 ha. Area of land parcels formed and legitimized as private ownership (i.e. land with a restored private ownership, state-owned land transferred to private ownership as equivalent compensation of previously owned land in other place, land bought from state) makes up as much as 3.7 mil. ha already, agricultural land – 3.0 mil. ha of it. These parcels are being reorganized further on the initiative of landowners by adjusting plot boundaries, subdividing or changing the imposed prime target land use (Lietuvos..., 2004c). In mastering of property acquired in this way, land ownership rights pass to new owners quite intensively. Area of sold

106 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends and donated private agricultural land in Lithuania amounted to 169.3 thous. ha in 2005, 177.4 thous. ha in 2006, 188.5 thous. ha in 2007 and 148.6 thous. ha in 2008. The main reasoning of land transfers is: donation (gift); land purchase for development of farming units; land purchase with intention to change the prime use of land and use it for residential households or recreational, commercial, industrial or storage buildings construction. The consequences of such further land management performed by landowners themselves are favourable not only for the establishment of new farms and development of the existing ones, but for the urbanization of agricultural territories as well. Building the territories up is active mainly in suburban areas and on lakesides. Legal acts allow such a building up even without a presence of special plan for a larger territory that would have had accommodated allocation of buildings, roads, power lines, cultivated land plots and afforestation in complex. This leads to these major problems: 1) Arable land plots are subdivided and get smaller, therefore conditions for their cultivation worsens; 2) Decreases area of valuable and utilized farming lands, the damage is done to the drainage systems also. There are no obligatory provisions set in legal acts that would economically motivate the developers to look for the solutions that were acceptable for agriculture, such as, for example, planning the construction in areas with less valuable land or allocating plots of only a required minimal size if they were previously used for agriculture; 3) The network of access roads and infrastructure expands, therefore costs of their construction and maintenance increase. The largest changes in land use take place in municipalities nearby large cities. Land parcels transferred in these territories which cover 17.5% of total private agricultural land area make 29.3% of all land transfers in country, and land use changes that occurred there make as much as 86.3% of all land use changes in Lithuania (see table).

Table. Transfers of private agricultural land and changes in prime use of land in 2005–2008 Sold and donated Changing prime use of Private land per year in average parcels per year in average at 2009-04-01 (2005–2008) (2005–2007) Number of Average Average Average Municipalities Area, in Number Number of parcels, in parcel size, parcel size, parcel size, thous. ha of parcels parcels thous. ha ha ha Vilnius (city and district) 40.5 82.7 2.04 4258 1.26 588 0.29 Kaunas (city and district) 28.0 66.2 2.36 2747 1.54 1869 0.16 Klaipėda (city and district) 30.3 66.5 2.19 3055 1.81 1156 0.21 Panevėžys (city and district) 36.8 107.7 2.93 2101 3.40 384 0.41 Šiauliai (city and district) 27.5 83.1 3.02 1734 3.09 237 0.42 Alytus (city and district)) 29.3 79.6 2.72 1601 2.30 147 0.44 Trakai district 16.8 42.0 2.50 1451 1.94 120 0.56 Total amount/average: 209.2 527.8 2.52 16947 2.02 4501 0.25 In other municipalities 813.3 2493.5 3.07 40903 3.35 714 1.10 In total (Lithuania): 1022.5 3021.3 2.95 57850 2.96 5215 0.37 Data source: VĮ Registrų centras

Need of landowners to subdivide plots of cultivated land and sell them thereafter or use for building it up is usually determined by thus possible increase in value (market price) of parcel. If a really possible perspective use of land in a particular locality may be that of residential construction according to territory planning documents and legal acts, land price becomes higher and does not depend on land productivity and its income value which is based on income from agricultural production (Aleknavičius M., 2007). According to the land market researches, prices for land in places (districts) with soils of good economical value purchased for long-term farming in 2008 were 5000–7000 LTL/ha, in places with soils of average value – 3000–4000 LTL/ha, in places with soils less favourable for farming – 1500–2500 LTL/ ha. Meanwhile small agricultural land plots not exceeding 1 ha are mainly bought with intention to use it for residential households or construction of other buildings. Market price of such parcels depends on infl uence of cities and towns and overall level of economical development in a district (Aleknavičius P., Aleknavičius A., Gurklys V., 2003). It was found, that prices of these small parcels are nearly the same as for household land (i.e. land of other prime use) or smaller by only 10–20%. Near towns of average size prices of such parcels are 350–700 LTL/100 m2, near smaller towns – 300–400 LTL/100 m2, and in more remote places farther from cities and towns – 80–150 LTL/100 m2. In areas near larger towns and cities these prices are higher from 3–5 times (in Alytus, Kaišiadorys, Panevėžys, Šiauliai districts and Druskininkai, Elektrėnai, Marijampolė municipalities) to 10–20 times (in Vilnius, Kaunas, Klaipėda, Kretinga, Trakai districts). The noted difference in prices also refl ects a possible difference in income generated from land used for agriculture and land used for other uses. Either directly or not, but these tendencies were also encouraged by the present legislation

107 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends which was aimed at protection of landowners interests (Aleknavičius P., 2007). Conditions that provide for decreasing of farmland area utilized for agriculture could be described by pointing out the following aspects: 1. Detailed plans that provide changing of prime land use may be prepared without stipulating any restraints for developers. Developers are not obliged to compensate state or municipalities for commonly used communications or to scatter the removed fertile layer of soil over unused land or land with poor soils (Lietuvos..., 2004a). 2. Compensation to the state for changing of prime land use from agricultural to any other is not required (Lietuvos..., 2004b), thus landowners acquire right to dispose national natural resources, i.e. the fertile layer of soil, and possibility to lessen the amount of farmlands without undertaking any costs or fees. 3. Permission to build a farmstead without a detailed plan (this possibility is often exploited by fake farmers) amplifi es the spread of construction development in agricultural areas even more. 4. There are no normative provisions stated in rules of preparing territory-planning documents used to decide upon reallotment of plots (Aplinkos..., 2004c; Lietuvos..., 2005) which would serve as legal background to prohibit a subdivision of parcels to a certain size or decreasing area of productive arable land or drained land. 5. Property tax on land is calculated on nominal value of land and not on average market value of land. Part of the mentioned problems can be solved by complementing legal acts with the following provisions: 1) Developer must compensate the amount of money required to restore for agricultural needs the equivalent area of land, not utilized for agriculture at the present time, by which the utilized for agriculture area has decreased; 2) Areas of land for building it up must be primarily designated in special plans which would be able to ensure coordination of interests for all users of natural resources and developers. The main requirement and specifi cation for preparing of these plans is that urbanization of territory would not have negative affect on agricultural development, but would rather establish favourable conditions for intensifi cation of land use or establishment of specialized farms, ensure nature protection and did not reduce aesthetic characteristics of landscape. 3) While preparing land consolidation projects, state support must be provided for projects that would allow to enlarge land plots of farms specialized in commercial agricultural production and to reduce transportation costs; 4) Property tax on land must be calculated on average market value for all agricultural land, except for that which is used by those entities who actually practise farming; 5) Stronger restrictions are needed (based on provisions of Law on Land, articles 21 and 22) that areas of fertile arable land and drained land would not be transferred for afforestation.

Problems of rational land use

By rational use of agricultural land we understand such activities that would ensure persistent improving of land productive qualities. These activities involve keeping the drainage systems in proper condition, establishing conditions for soil structure improvement, increasing level of humus or soil enrichment by nutrients for growing plants. Agricultural plants must be grown in such a way that it comply the requirements of good farming practice. Judging on land use is possible, having provided data on delineated boundaries of utilized for various uses areas and data for separate plots (fi elds) and areas of various uses on natural and soil characteristics, condition of melioration, character of use, changes that occur over a certain period of time (Aleknavičius, 2008). Land use problems in areas utilized for agriculture show up as neglected areas and extensive use of land. Restructurization of farms which was not done properly had an impact on these issues, also (Vitunskienė, 2001). Having compared statistical data on total area of land utilized for agriculture and the amount of grown foddering and other production per area unit, the following was determined: 1) Area of neglected land in the country does not decrease. According to the state records of land, total area of land utilized for agriculture in Lithuania makes 3320 thous. ha, while agricultural entities declared only 2613 thous. ha in 2006, 2630 thous. ha in 2007 and 2616 thous. ha in 2008. According to the data of the Department of Statistics, in 2005 there was 650 thous. ha of land utilized for agriculture which was not actually used for agricultural production in Lithuania in total, and 142 thous. ha of it was in Utena county, 156 thous. ha – in Vilnius county; 2) During 18 years area designated for commercial crops in Lithuania have not increased although due to the decreased number of livestock it was possible to reduce area designated for growing fodder by 2 times. Area designated for grain, technical crops, potatoes and vegetables covered 1337 thous. ha in 1989 and 1304 thous. ha in 2007. These commercial agricultural production yielding crops in 2007 covered 23.9% of all area utilized for agriculture in Utena county, 43.4% in Vilnius county and 50,9% elsewhere; 3) Utilized for agriculture area designated for growing herbaceous forage is being used extensively, especially in the territories with soil conditions most suitable for milk-meat cattle specialization. In 1989 meadows, pastures and permanent grasslands in Lithuania amounted to 1.0 ha per one assumed cow, while in 2007 it amounted to 2.5 ha in Utena county, 2.0 ha in Vilnius county and 1.7 ha elsewhere. Taking into account a possibility to recultivate neglected agricultural land, it is possible either to increase number of grazing livestock in Lithuania by 2–3 times, or to reduce adequately areas declared as meadows and pastures in formerly arable land so that they can be used for annual crops.

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The most likely causes of extensive land use are that the system of new farming structures is not yet fi nally formed, whereas the economic capabilities of existing farms do not allow them to take advantage of using all the potentially available for cultivation land in a proper way (Poviliūnas, 2008). Out of 426.9 thous. ha of requested available state land, which was applied for purchasing from state (in instalments) by farmers and legal persons on the conditions stated by the Provisional Law on the Acquisition of Agricultural Land, only 54.5 thous. ha (12.8%) was actually sold by the 1 April, 2009. Most of these requested parcels are actually cultivated by those farming structures that have applied for purchasing it (state land without users or tenants amounted to only ~193 thous. ha at the beginning of 2009), however the priority in acquiring it is granted by laws to other people that may realize their restituted property rights for equivalent property in that place on their choice. For the solution of land use problems it might be helpful to apply measures that would stimulate farm development and increase of agricultural production. Those landowners who do not use land for its prime use must be motivated to transfer this land or lease it to agricultural entities (farming structures). Preparing amendments to legal acts, the following changes should be proposed: 1. Improving the organization of state control of land use. In order to determine the landowners who have neglected agricultural land in their land tenures, there must be prepared maps for all districts with designated land plots that were not declared, as well as parcel identifi cation numbers in real estate register of those plots. When control reveals occurrences of land neglect, the reasons for that must be also determined (for example, defects in drainage systems, bad access to land plot, etc.) before drawing act of administrative law violation for all such persons. Preparing of such cartographic data on land-use may be designated as inventorization of neglected land with provisions of land use improvement, afforestation or self-contained renaturalization. Analysis data should be also used for taxation of owners that do not use land for its intended use, for preparing land management projects of rural development, for planning of territory management activities funded by state or municipalities. 2. Impose higher property taxes for not cultivated agricultural land of up to 5-10% of land’s taxable value. Whereas those owners or tenants who start cultivating the neglected land for crops, on the contrary, should be exempted from property taxes on that land for 2–3 years. 3. Speed up a sale of state land for agricultural entities, and support more actively the purchasing of private land by farms where this allows to form larger and more compact land tenures for them. 4. Prepare land management schemes and rural development land management projects for submunicipal (neighbourhood) areas (Aplinkos..., 2004a; Aplinkos..., 2004b) by using the research data of land characteristics and investigations of land users needs. These land-use planning documents should be reckoned when providing measures of support or funding for such activities, as: - local roads’ construction and reconstruction; - reconstruction and repair of drainage systems; - armsteads and agricultural production buildings; - renewal of cultural meadows; - transfer of arable plots for afforestation; - preparing land consolidation projects where there is a need for reallotment of plots in land tenures stated in land-use patterns or land management projects of rural development; - farms agricultural production development that would best suit the specialization of farms recommended in those planning documents (which was determined after evaluating soil characteristics, economic conditions for farming and environmental protection requirements).

Conclusions

1. Reorganization of land plots which were restituted or otherwise acquired depends on the sole initiative of landowners themselves. Private agricultural land gets transferred to those agricultural entities that enlarge their land tenures. However, a signifi cant part of parcels get subdivided and reorganized so that they could be used for construction of not related to agriculture objects. These trends cause differences in prices of land purchased for long-term farming and land which potentially could be used for residential or other construction, especially in suburban or recreational areas. 2. Due to the farms formation peculiarities during the land reform, a signifi cant part of agricultural land, especially in regions with poor soils, is not used for agricultural production and gets neglected, while some other part is being used extensively. Area of neglected land in 2007 represented 19–20% of agricultural land utilized for agriculture in Lithuania in average, and 43% in Utena county, 40% in Vilnius county. Moreover, area of meadows, pastures and perennial grass in the mentioned counties exceeds the required normative area for the present amount of cattle in farms by 2 times and more. 3. In order to solve problems of rational use and management of agricultural territories by means of state regulatory measures, it is necessary to establish requirements in legal acts that would allow to economically motivate the property owners to perform construction in less suitable for agriculture land, and give priority to the projects which might increase land tenures’ compactness for agricultural farms with commercial production when performing reallotment in land consolidation projects.

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4. In order to intensify the use of arable land and meadows, the following measures are proposed: inventorization of neglected land, effective state control of land use, taxation system that would encourage starting using the neglected land, coordination of state support measures with land use planning documents of municipalities and sub-municipalities (neighbourhoods) which provide for rational land use.

References

Aleknavičius M. Analysis of agricultural land market in Lithuania. // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University of Life Sciences) No. 224. Baltic Surveying ’07, Tartu, 2007. ISSN:1406-4049, pp.44-52. Aleknavičius P., Aleknavičius A., Gurklys V. Assessment of consequences resulting from abolishing the obstacles on land in Lithuania. // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University) No. 216: Baltic Surveying ’03. Tartu, 2003. ISSN 1406-4049. pp. 12 – 22. Aleknavičius P. Kaimiškųjų teritorijų žemės naudojimo problemos. // Žemės ūkio mokslai. 2007. T. 14. Lietuvos mokslų akademija, 2007. ISSN 1392- 0200. P. 82 – 90. Aleknavičius P. Žemės santykių pertvarkymas Lietuvos kaime 1989–2008 metais: monografi ja. – Vilnius: Jandrija, 2008. 447 p.

Aplinkos ministro ir žemės ūkio ministro 2004 m. rugpjūčio 11 d. įsakymas Nr. 3D-476/D1-429 „Dėl Kaimo plėtros žemėtvarkos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo taisyklių patvirtinimo”. // Valstybės žinios, 2004a, Nr. 127 – 4581.

Aplinkos ministro ir žemės ūkio ministro 2004 m. rugsėjo 15 d. įsakymas Nr. 3D-518/D1-490 ,,Dėl Žemėtvarkos schemų rengimo taisyklių patvirtinimo”. // Valstybės žinios, 2004b, Nr. 140–5148.

Aplinkos ministro ir žemės ūkio ministro 2004 m. spalio 4 d. įsakymas Nr. 3D-42/D1-513 ,,Dėl Žemės sklypų formavimo ir pertvarkymo projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo taisyklių patvirtinimo“. // Valstybės žinios, 2004c, Nr. 149 – 5420.

Lietuvos Respublikos Teritorijų planavimo įstatymas – 2004 01 15, Nr. IX - 1962. // Valstybės žinios, 1995, Nr. 107 – 2391; 2004a, Nr. 21 - 617.

Lietuvos Respublikos Žemės įstatymas – 2004 01 27, Nr. IX - 1983. // Valstybės žinios, 1994, Nr. 34 – 620; 2004b, Nr. 28 – 868.

Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2004 m. spalio 13 d. nutarimu Nr.1278 patvirtintos „Pagrindinės tikslinės žemės naudojimo paskirties nustatymo ir prašymų leisti pakeisti pagrindinę tikslinę žemės naudojimo paskirtį padavimo, nagrinėjimo ir sprendimų priėmimo taisyklės“. // Valstybės žinios, 2004c, Nr. 152 – 5545.

Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2005 m. birželio 27 d. nutarimas Nr. 697 „Dėl Žemės konsolidacijos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo taisyklių patvirtinimo“. // Valstybės žinios, 2005, Nr. 80-2901. Poviliūnas A. Lietuvos žemės ūkio grįžimas į rinkos santykius ir ūkininkijos ekonominė raida: monografi ja. – Vilnius: Apostrofa: Lietuvos agrarinės ekonomikos institutas, 2008. – 448 p. Vitunskienė V. Lietuvos žemės ūkio restruktūrizacijos politikos įtaka žemės ūkio subjektų konkurencingumui. // LŽŪU Mokslo darbai. 2001. Nr.50 (3). Vagos. Socialiniai mokslai. ISSN 1648-116X. P. 75 – 84. Jankava A. Situation of land consolidation in Latvia. // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University) No. 216: Baltic Surveying ’03. Tartu, 2003. ISSN 1406-4049. pp. 48-55. Kaing. M. Land management effi ciency in market economy. // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University) No. 216: Baltic Surveying ’03. Tartu, 2003. ISSN 1406-4049. pp. 77-81. Maasikamae S., Mugu E. Is there a need for land consolidation in Estonia? // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University) No. 216: Baltic Surveying ’03. Tartu, 2003. ISSN 1406-4049.pp. 23-32. Parsova V., Dambite D. Importance of land management in solution of issues of physical planning in Latvia. // Epmu teadustoode kogumik (Transactions of the Estonian Agricultural University of Life Sciences ) No. 224. Baltic Surveying ’07 Tartu, 2007, ISSN:1406-4049, , pp.96-102.

Pranas ALEKNAVIČIUS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Water and Land Management faculty, Department of Land Management, doctor of social sciences, associated professor. Address: Universiteto g. 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel (+370 37) 75 23 72, e-mail: [email protected] Marius ALEKNAVICIUS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Water and Land Management faculty, Department of Land Management, doctor of social sciences, lector. Address: Universiteto g. 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel (+370) 685 47788, e-mail: [email protected]

110 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Establishment of the Natura 2000 Sites

Virginija Gurskienė, Giedrė Ivavičiūtė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The most important instrument for biodiversity protection predicted in EU legislation – the European ecological network Natura 2000. The number of different threats for biodiversity increases. Applying necessary protective measures, the negative impact can be avoided or at least reduced. The article presents an analysis of the establishment and current situation of Natura 2000 sites in Lithuania. The national network of protected areas in Lithuania covers 992359 ha and makes 15.2 % of the total area of the country. After the implementation of the EU Directives on Habitats and Birds in Lithuania the area of protected areas should cover about 1/5 of the total national territory. According to biogeographical zonning Lithuania is assigned to the Boreal region, therefore, the predicted basic management of protected areas established in the countries of the region should be similar. The article discussed the volume of the Natura 2000 sites in Lithuania and neighbouring countries, the status of sites in the EU countries. The paper analyses the support measures provided by the Natura 2000 areas of land users. Key words: Natura 2000 sites, Habitat and Birds Directives, biodiversity

Introduction

Intensifi cation of agriculture as well as infrastructural development, fragmentation of natural areas and pollution are among the most important and well-known threats to natural habitats throughout Europe, leading to a decrease in the local population sizes of many species. This process started more than 100 years ago and is still continuing. Among 10 000 plant species found within the territory of European Union (next – EU), 3 000 are endangered and 27 species are threatened with extinction. The main objective of the NATURA 2000 network is to ensure the survival of species that are threatened or rare throughout Europe (Natura 2000: A Network..., 2009). Two main EU directives related to nature protection – the so-called Habitats Directive and Birds Directive – form the legal basis for NATURA 2000. In May 1992 EU governments adopted legislation designed to protect the most seriously threatened habitats and species across Europe. This legislation is called the Habitats Directive and complements the Birds Directive adopted in 1979. These legal EU documents ensure the protection of certain natural habitats, fl ora and fauna, as well as the creation of the above-mentioned European network of protected areas. The goal of this work is to analyse the establishment and situation of Natura 2000 sites and biodiversity, the importance of conservation, the implementation of fi nancial help for management of these territories. The object of the research – Natura 2000 sites of the Republic of Lithuania.

Research methods

Analytical, statistical and logical analysis methods were used for the research. Legal acts, resolutions and other legal regulations of the EU and Lithuania were analysed in the course of the research as well as other normative documents, territorial management regulations, directives on environmental and protected areas development issues.

Research results

NATURA 2000 is a network of protected areas in the EU covering fragile and valuable natural habitats and species of particular importance for the conservation of biological diversity within the territory of EU. The creation of the NATURA 2000 network is a very important and diffi cult task. In order to carry out this work successfully, the EU Member States and the Candidate Countries have to pass the following three stages in dialogue with the European Commission: 1. Preparation of national lists of candidate Natura 2000 areas; 2. Identifi cation of Sites of Community Interest; 3. Nomination of Special Areas Of Conservation. When a territory has been designated an Sites of Community Interest, the Member State is obliged to designate it a Special Area of Conservation within the following six years. Once this designation has taken place, the Member State assumes full responsibility for active compliance with the obligation to maintain a favourable conservation status for the species and habitats for which the sites have been designated. Member States are thus allowed a maximum of six years for the establishment and adjustment of measures and administrative procedures necessary for the protection, monitoring and management of the NATURA 2000 sites (Natura 2000: A Network..., 2009).

Legal acts of the Republic of Lithuania and European Union directives implementation

The Law on Environment Protection is a legal act of programme type laying down the fundamentals of national environmental policy and environmental law, the state management system of environment protection.

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The conservation of protected areas and use of natural resources is regulated by the Law on Protected Areas of the Republic of Lithuania (Lietuvos Respublikos saugomų teritorijų..., 2001). The Law on Forest (Lietuvos Respublikos miškų..., 2001) also regulates the protection of nature in Lithuania as well as the Law on Protected Animals, Flora, Mushroom Species and Communities (Lietuvos Respublikos saugomų gyvūnų..., 2001), the Law on Wildlife (Lietuvos Respublikos laukinės..., 2005), the Law on Wild Flora (Lietuvos Respublikos laukinės augalijos..., 2004), and the rules on trading of wild fauna (1998), the Law on Territorial Planning (Lietuvos Respublikos teritorijų..., 2004) and other laws and legal acts. Requirements set by the directives on environmental impact assessment of certain state and private projects (85/337/EEC, 97/11/EC) are transposed to Lithuania and implemented in 2000 after the adoption of the Law Amending the Law on Environmental Impact Assessment of Proposed Economic Activity that regulates the assessment process of proposed economic activity that may have impact on environment and the relations of participants of this process. On 21 June 2005, the law was improved and harmonised with the Directive 2003/35/EC (Europos Parlamento..., 2003). This law regulates the process of environmental impact assessment. The assessment is carried out when the planned economic activity is included in the list of proposed economic activities subject to environmental assessment and when the screening thereof specifi es a compulsory environmental assessment or when the implementation of proposed economic activity may have an impact on the European ecological system Natura 2000 areas and the institution responsible for organisation of protection and management of protected areas is the State Service of Protected Areas under the Ministry of Environment establishes that this impact may be a signifi cant one (Ragulskytė-Markovienė, 2005). In addition to the strategic assessment of implications to the environment, the environmental assessment of proposed economic activity and territorial planning processes there is an impact assessment on habitats regulated by the directive 92/43/EEC. It states that any plan or project not directly connected with or necessary to the management of the site but likely to have a signifi cant effect thereon, either individually or in combination with other plans or projects, is subject to appropriate assessment of its implications for the site in view of the site’s conservation object. The provisions of the directive 92/43/EEC are transposed to the Lithuanian environmental law and included in the Law on Protected Areas and the Government Resolution No 276 of 15 March 2004 On the Approval of Regulations for General Habitats or Areas Important for Birds Protection (Bendrųjų buveinių…, 2004). Plans and projects must be assessed following the procedure laid down by the Law on Environment Impact Assessment, Law on Territorial Planning and the Government or its authorised institution. Main EU requirements in the sector of nature are documented in the directives on natural habitats and birds. The directive 92/43/EEC on habitats regulates the natural habitats of Community importance and protection of species of Community importance; it helps to ensure biodiversity in preserving the natural habitats and wild fl ora and fauna in the areas of the European Union member states (ES direktyva dėl gamtinių…, 1997). Wild birds directive 79/409/EEC regulates the protection of wild birds of all species that are naturally populated in the member states, the establishment of special protection areas for bird species so as to ensure suffi cient diversity and to preserve, maintain and restore habitats (ES direktyva dėl laukinių paukščių…, 2003; Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės…, 2006). Directive 79/409/EEC and directive 92/43/EEC are also designated for the protection of sites. They regulate the management of areas described as specially protected areas. One of the main goals of these directives is to create an integrated special ecological network of protected areas Natura 2000. Directive 79/409/EEC lists all special measures necessary for the habitats of birds living in all EU state areas, especially a good one – the establishment of protected areas. NATURA 2000 protection for the selected territory means that each Member State is obliged to ensure a favourable conservation status for relevant habitats and species listed in the annexes of the Habitats and Birds Directives. Therefore, the specifi c management requirements and necessary restrictions on activities carried out within and around sites will vary from site to site, since the peculiarities of habitats or species and their conservation status in each case will have to be taken into account. The Habitats and Birds Directives constitute the main contribution of the European Community to protect biological diversity according to the regulations of the Convention on Biodiversity (Rio de Janeiro 1992) and the Convention on the Conservation of European Wildlife and Natural Habitats (Bern Convention 1979) and other acts. The network of Natura 2000 sites is spread throughout Europe, from Finland in the north to the Canary Islands in the south. Today, sites, cover about 20 % of the European territory. Natura 2000 sites can be designated on both land and water (Natura 2000 Networking Programme..., 2009). According to biogeographical zonning Lithuania is assigned to the Boreal region, which occupies 1 / 5 of the EU territory. The Boreal region of the European Union includes most of Sweden and Finnland, all of Estonia, Latvia and Lithuania and much of the Baltic Sea. It has a relatively fl at topografy, mostly below 500 m. Forest dominante the ladscape and cover around 60 % of the region. The majority is used commercially and is, consequently, of reduced conservation value compared to the original natural old-growth forests, which now account less than 5-10 % of the resource. With its endless expanse of coniferous forests, mires and lakes, thre Boreal region forms part of a distinct band of vegetation which circles the entire northern hemisphere. Habitat types blend seamlessly into one another, creating a characteristic mosaic landscape of forests and wetlands.

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Where the soil is more fertile, valuable herb-rich spruce forests have evolved. Deciduous trees including birches (Betula spp.), aspen (Populus tremula), rowan (Sorbus aucuparia) and willows (Salix spp.) tend to occur instead as early colonisers of bare ground and along rivers and lakes. Overall, the Boreal region forests harbour a very rich array of well adapted plants, insects and other animals, rare bird species. Three quarters of Europe‘s 600,000 natural lakes and some of its largest bogs are found here. In parts of the far north, peatlands make up 50 % of the land surface. The Boreal region as a whole is a magnet for birds. Over half of all European bird species have part of their breeding range in this region (The Boreal ..., 2006, p.3-4). The data of all the EU’s Natura 2000 sites is collected and systematized in one database. The Natura Barometer (Natura 2000 barometer – June…, 2008) is managed by the European Topic Centre for Biodiversity and based on information offi cially transmitted by Member States. The Member States themselves suggest the data and adjust it according to the recommendations. Several Member States have proposed large areas including “buffer zones”, while others have proposed only the core areas. The 12 new Member States that acceded to the EU on 1 May 2004 and 1 January 2007, had a duty to classify Special protection areas (SPAs, under the Birds Directive) and propose Sites of community importance (SCIs, under the Habitats Directive) by the date off their accession. All countries have submitted their lists and evaluations are ongoing. The global assessment of national list may be revised upwards or downwards, following more complete scientifi c analysis of the data, particularly at the relevant biogeographical seminars. The existing barometer monitors progress in the implementation of both the Habitats and the Birds Directive in all 27 countries. The principal data of Lithuania and its neighbouring countries in the EU’s Natura 2000 sites (up to June 2008) (Table 1) are presented. The countries, where the network sites are most and least, are presented as well.

Table 1. Sites of community importance (SCIs, Habitat Directive) June 2008 (Natura 2000 barometer – June…, 2008) Number of Total area sites Marine area State of sites 2007- Member States Terrestrial area % sites km2 km2 2008 Germany (max number of sites) 4,617 53,294 9.9 18,086 Largely complete Estonia (9 place)* 498 11,429 16.8 3,854 Incomplete Latvia (14 place) 331 7,663 11 562 Incomplete Lithuania (17 place) 267 6,664 9.9 171 Incomplete Malta (min number of sites) 27 48 12.6 8 Incomplete Poland (13 place) 364 28,904 8.1 3,594 Incomplete EU (27 states) 21.612 655.968 13.3 87,505 * - the place, which occupy the country in the EU according to the set number of habitats

The maximum number of Habitat sites is established in Germany. They occupy considerable part of the land in this country (almost 10% of the terrestrial area) and marine area. Analysing the situation of Lithuania and the neighbouring countries, we see that the minimum number of Habitats sites (and among all EU countries, Lithuania is in the17th position) are established in our country. This is due to the smaller area of forests in Lithuania, as more than half of all sites are established specifi cally in forest areas. Having assessed the progress in making the works of habitats it was found that the network is largely complete in 5 countries (in the Belgium, Denmark, Germany, Italy and the Netherlands), incomplete – in 20 counties (from these – and in Lithuania) and notable insuffi cient – in 2 countries (in Bulgaria and Romania). The similar situation in the countries and within the EU established SPAs (Table 2).

Table 2. Special protection areas (SPAs, Birds Directive) June 2008 (Natura 2000 barometer – June…, 2008) Total area sites Marine area State of sites Member States Number of sites Terrestrial area % km2 km2 2007-2008 Cyprus (min number of sites) 7 788 13.4 21 Incomplete Italy (max number of sites) 594 43,827 13.6 2,719 Largely complete Estonia (19 place) 67 12,592 13.1 6,654 Largely complete Latvia (16 place) 98 6,766 9.7 520 Incomplete Lithuania (18 place) 77 5,435 8.1 171 Incomplete Poland (11 place) 124 50,407 14.1 6,463 Incomplete EU (27 states) 5,004 517,896 10.5 66,084

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According to the Special protection areas for birds the leader in the EU is Italy, but according to the surface of these areas, it is only in the fourth place (the largest area of these territories is in Spain (97,266 km2), Poland takes second place (50,407 km2), and the third – Germany (48,102 km2)). According to the number of these areas Lithuania goes ahead of Estonia, but when comparing all the neighbouring countries, these areas in Lithuania occupy a minimum area. The works of Special protection areas for birds found that the network is largely complete in 7 countries (in the Belgium, Denmark, Estonia, France, Italy, Luxemburg and the Netherlands), incomplete – in 20 countries (from these – and in Lithuania). With regard to evaluating the completeness of national SPA networks, there is no biogeographical screening process, but the Commission makes use of different scientifi c references, including national inventories, where they exist, and the Important Bird Areas (IBAs) publications of BirdLife International (Natura 2000 barometer – June…, 2008, pp. 8-9). While implementing the Natura 2000 areas network in Lithuania it is proposed to establish the following: - 300 sites of community importance under the EU Habitats Directive; - 90 sites that are Special protection areas under the EU Birds Directive. At present the area of Natura 2000 network covers about 790 000 ha (about 11.96 % of the territory of Lithuania). When implementing the Habitats Directive only the criteria for selection of sites meeting the criteria identifi ed for Sites of community importance is applied and for those areas that are included in the list approved by the Order No D1- 302 of the Minister of Environment 15 June 2005 for harmonisation with the European Commission. So, there are 267 sites in Lithuania at present that meet Sites of community importance criteria (Ivavičiūtė, 2007). While developing the SCIs network new protected areas were established: 3 restorative parcels, 7 state strict reserves, and 26 biosphere polygons. There are 77 areas established that are Special protection areas for birds with a total area of 543,500 ha (8.3 % of the national territory). The Government has submitted a draft resolution regarding the supplement of the SPAs list with 4 new areas. SCIs and SPAs in some areas merge and make 391623 ha, about 32 % of areas. If the areas do not merge they will make 1 17269 thousand ha what will make about 17.94 % of the Lithuanian territory.

Infl uence of the activities on the Natura 2000 sites

Sometimes certain activities have to be restricted or stopped where they are a signifi cant threat to the species or habitat types for which the site is being designated as a Natura 2000 site. These are always addressed on a case by case basis. Keeping species and habitats in good condition is not necessarily incompatible with human activities, in fact many areas are dependant upon certain human activities for their management and survival, such as agriculture. Large scale agriculture is generally concentrated in the south of the Boreal region, where it is becoming more intensive. The growing seasons here is 200 days compared to 100 days in the north. This is infl uenced not just by temperature and soil quality but also by the number of daylight hours and length of snow cover (The Boreal region..., 2006, pp.3-4). Therefore, the main types of conservation and site management measures are to be concentrated in the south. The extensive agriculture, forestry activities are required throughout the region. It is a necessary condition for the vast majority of species conservation. Commercial forestry, the dominant land use, is, on the other hand, widespread throughout the region. Economic activities must be restricted in forest areas, where rare, protected species are found. In order to preserve biodiversity the important link between businesses and the network of Natura 2000 sites is being increasingly recognized. The designated Natura 2000 sites number some 25,000. As micro, small and medium- sized enterprises constitute more than 99.8 % of the total number of businesses in Member States, it is inevitable that the activities of many businesses will be inside or close to Natura 2000 sites (Businesses opportunities…, 2008, pp. 6,8). The network provides a potentially very good opportunity, in particular for SMEs at the local level, and is also appropriate for site-based actions via partnerships between companies. Biodiversity protection is a priority issue in EU environmental policy. Protecting biodiversity not only makes sense at a macro-economic level, it also makes sense for individual companies. There are many business leaders who have recognized the strong business case for biodiversity protection and have had the courage and the foresight to provide leadership within their companies, their industries and on a wider global stage. IUNC – International Union for Conservation of Nature – has over many years provided inspiration and ground-breaking initiatives in working closely with companies to elaborate the business case for biodiversity protection. Several Member States, for example Germany, France, the Netherlands, Portugal and the UK, have also developed national programmes for promoting the links between business and biodiversity protection (Recognising…, 2008, p. 2). Biodiversity strategy states (Lietuvos Respublikos biologinės įvairovės..., 1997) that the farming following biodiversity principles must be promoted by economic measures. In certain areas, which are identifi ed as especially valuable from biodiversity point of view, any agricultural activity may be limited or prohibited. If such activity is restricted or prohibited, land users must get compensations. 40-60 % of protected areas in Lithuania belong to private parcels (Ivavičiūtė, 2007). The majority of land parcel owners do not have necessary knowledge in order to ensure proper preservation of countryside and biodiversity.

114 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

In order that biodiversity conservation should not become a burden on owners of land tenure, which was established for the holding of Natura 2000 or similar area, the EU and the Governments of countries support the management of these areas, provide support for the economic activity limitation. Currently, in Lithuania the land owners and users can obtain assistance under the Lithuanian rural development program for 2007-2013 (Lietuvos kaimo plėtros…, 2007). This program has already been started to implement in our country (Table 3). During the years after the start (2007) of the declared support of Natura 2000 sites (Informacija apie…, 2008; 2009), the areas for agricultural activities increased by 17%, and for forestry activities - more than twice.

Table 3. Support measures under the Lithuanian rural development program for 2007-2013 for the support of the management of ecologically sensitive areas In the Natura 2000 sites For the Landscape Index in agriculture in forestry Management Measures The support size of the EUR / ha 40 41-179 61-226 Declared areas ha: 2007 m. 5401,15 434,07 14687,40 2008 m. 6249,70 1018,89 52186,96 Compared 2008 with 2007 +848,55 +584,82 +37499,56

The future development of Natura 2000 sites in Lithuania as in many EU countries shall provide the following actions: - Completion of the lists; - Further development of the Natura 2000 network for the coastal marine environment; - The fi nancing system for interpretation; - Further development of the Member States for guidance and recommendations; - Communication and objective interpretation of improvement. Lithuania and other EU countries focus on the areas of network optimisation. At present, the Lithuanian authorities (the Ministries of the Environment and Finance, the Environment Agency for the management of projects, etc..) carry out the project (Saugomų teritorijų steigimo…, 2009). During the fi rst stage of the document preparation on the establishment and the planning of protected areas (2009-2011 years) preconditions to resolve the activities of protected areas are expected to be created, and it should be properly prepared for the creation of the Natura 2000 network. It is intended to prepare the documents (12 pcs.) for the establishment of new protected areas and to develop 40 nature management plans for the Natura 2000 network sites. Only the common state institutions, enterprises and the land users themselves can preserve biodiversity and the local landscape.

Conclusions

1. Having analysed the situation in Lithuania and the neighbouring countries, we see that in our country, the minimum number of Habitats sites (according to all EU countries, Lithuania is the 17th) have been established. This is due to the smaller area of forests in Lithuania, as more than half of all sites are established specifi cally to forest areas. 2. According to the number of Special protection areas for birds Lithuania goes ahead of Estonia, but when comparing all the neighbouring countries, our country occupies a minimum area. 3. During the years after the start (2007) of the declared support of Natura 2000 sites, the areas for agricultural activities increased by 17% and for forestry activities – more than twice.

References

Bendrųjų buveinių ar paukščių apsaugai svarbių teritorijų nuostatai (patvirtinti Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2004 m. nutarimu Nr. 276). Valstybės žinios, 2004, Nr. 41 – 1335. Businesses opportunities and Natura 2000 (2008). Natura 2000. European Commission. № 24, July 2008, p. 6-8. Europos Parlamento ir Tarybos direktyva 2003/35/EB 2003 m. gegužės 26 d. nustatanti visuomenės dalyvavimą rengiant tam tikrus su aplinka susijusius planus ir programas ir iš dalies keičianti Tarybos direktyvas 85/337/EEB ir 96/61/EB dėl visuomenės dalyvavimo ir teisės kreiptis į teismus, 2003. ES direktyva dėl gamtinių buveinių ir laukinės faunos ir fl oros apsaugos 92/43/EEB, OL L 206 1992 7 22, p.7, paskutiniai pakeitimai Direktyvoje 97/62/ EB, OL L 305, 1997 11 08, p. 42. ES direktyva dėl laukinių paukščių apsaugos 79/409/EB, OL L 103, 1979 4 25, paskutiniai pakeitimai Reglamente (EB) Nr. 807/2003, OL L 122, 2003 05 06, P.36 Estonia has a distinctive natural environment (2008). Available at: http://www.envir.ee/67247

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Europos Parlamento ir Tarybos direktyva 2003/35/EB 2003 m. gegužės 26 d. nustatanti visuomenės dalyvavimą rengiant tam tikrus su aplinka susijusius planus ir programas ir iš dalies keičianti Tarybos direktyvas 85/337/EEB ir 96/61/EB dėl visuomenės dalyvavimo ir teisės kreiptis į teismus, 2003. Informacija apie deklaruotus plotus 2007 metais (2008). Žiūrėta: http://www.nma.lt/index.php?-1627241946 Informacija apie deklaruotus plotus 2008 metais (2009). Žiūrėta: http://www.nma.lt/index.php?-1627241946 Ivavičiūtė G. (2007). Protected Areas and their Land Use in Lithuania. Transactions of the Estonian University of Life Sciences 224, „Baltic Surveying‘07“, pp. 80-95, Tartu. Lietuvos kaimo plėtros 2007–2013 metų programos priemonių „Išmokos ūkininkams vietovėse, kuriose yra kliūčių, išskyrus kalnuotas vietoves“, „Natura 2000 išmokos ir su direktyva 2000/60/EB susijusios išmokos“ ir „Natura 2000 išmokos“ įgyvendinimo taisyklės (patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministro 2007 m. balandžio 6 d. įsakymu Nr. 3D-151). Valstybės žinios, 2007-04-11, Nr. 41-1560. Lietuvos Respublikos biologinės įvairovės išsaugojimo strategija ir veiksmų planas (1997). Lietuvos Respublikos Aplinkos apsaugos ministerija, pp. 38 – 42. Lietuvos Respublikos laukinės augalijos įstatymas (1999, Nr.VIII-1226; aktuali redakcija – 2004, Nr. IX- 2028). Valstybės žinios. 2004, Nr. 32 – 1012. Lietuvos Respublikos laukinės gyvūnijos įstatymas (1997, Nr. VIII-498; nauja redakcija – 2001, Nr. IX-638; paskutiniai pakeitimai: 2005 m. Nr.X-159). Valstybės žinios, 2005, Nr. 57 - 1940. Lietuvos Respublikos miškų įstatymas (1994 11 22, Nr.I-671; pakeitimai – 2001, Nr.IX- 240). Valstybės žinios, 2001, Nr. 35-1161. Lietuvos Respublikos saugomų gyvūnų, augalų, grybų rūšių ir bendrijų įstatymas (1997, Nr. VIII-499, nauja redakcija – 2001, Nr. IX-637). Valstybės žinios, 2001, Nr. 110 – 3987. Lietuvos Respublikos saugomų teritorijų įstatymo pakeitimo įstatymas (2001 12 04, Nr. IX -628). Valstybės žinios, 2001, Nr. 108 – 3902. Lietuvos Respublikos teritorijų planavimo įstatymas (1995, I-1120; nauja redakcija – 2004, IX – 1962; pakeitimai: 2004, IX- 2465; IX – 2466). Valstybės žinios, 2004, Nr. 152 – 5532. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės nutarimas “Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos saugomų teritorijų arba jų dalių, kuriose yra paukščių apsaugai svarbių teritorijų sąrašo patvirtinimo ir paukščių apsaugai svarbių teritorijų ribų nustatymo pakeitimo įstatymo” (2006, Nr. 819). Valstybės žinios, 2006, Nr. 92-3635. Natura 2000 barometer – June 2008 (2008). Natura 2000. European Commission. № 25, pp. 8-9. Natura 2000: A Network of Biological Diversity in the European Union (2009). Available at: http://www.am.lt/natura2000/en/apie.php Natura 2000 Networking Programme (2009). Available at http://www.natura.org/about.html Ragulskytė - Markovienė, R. Aplinkos teisė: Lietuvos teisės derinimas su Europos Sąjungos reikalavimais. Vilnius: Eugrimas, 2005. p. 68. Recognising the strong business case for biodiversity protection (2008). Natura 2000. European Commission. № 24, July 2008, pp. 2. Saugomų teritorijų steigimo ir planavimo dokumentų rengimas (I etapas) (2009). Žiūrėta: http://www.vstt.lt/VI/index.php#a/622

The Boreal region – land of tree and water (2006). Natura 2000 in the Boreal region/ K. Sundseth, Ecosystems LTD. Luxemburg. pp.3-4.

Virginija GURSKIENĖ. Dr., assoc. prof. at the Land Management Department of Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto 10, LT-53367 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. +37061417853, e-mail: [email protected] Giedrė IVAVIČIŪTĖ. Lecturer at the Land Management department of Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto 10, LT-53367 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. +370 37 752372, e-mail: [email protected]

116 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

The Role of Rural Landscape in Tourism Development

Agnieszka Aleksandra Jaszczak, Iwona Połucha University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Poland

Abstract

Considering special natural conditioning of rural areas in many regions, including the region of Warmia and Mazury (Poland), the agricultural function shoud be preserved but its also very important to develop other functions. Its because in many European countries, agriculture has lost its leading role as a branch of economy ensuring the economical development of the countryside and providing for its inhabitants. Rural tourism, including agritourism, fulfi ls an important role in the activation of rural areas, especially regions of high unemployment and particular natural and cultural qualities. The main role in the creation of tourism facilities have different elements of rural landscape.

Introduction

Rural tourism develops among types of actions important for the economic growth of rural areas of Europe and contributes to the protection and improvement of environmental values. It is based on the attractiveness of the environment and landscape. It can develop and protect the agricultural, cultural and natural heredity of rural areas (Połucha et al. 2003). In many European countries, agriculture has lost its leading role as a branch of economy ensuring the economical development of the countryside and providing for its inhabitants. In all these places, public authorities on the local, regional and central level have taken actions to search, with various results, for alternative or additional ways of making use of the potential of agricultural farms and activating local rural communities in order to bring the decrease of the living standard of villagers to a stop (Strzębicki 1995). Rural tourism makes it possible to use the village space, agricultural environment and infrastructure in a rational way. However, preserving cultural identity does not mean isolating the rural community from civilisation. On the contrary, there is a tendency to develop new attitudes, to act according to social norms and notice new values introduced e.g. by tourists. The recognition of one’s small and large fatherland should be a priority for every human being, but building identity can also bring other profi ts, especially if we can create a touristy product based on it, which will be recognized all over the country as well as abroad. The purpose of the investigation is to make diagnosis and analysis of rural landscape and its infl uence on tourism development in selected region of Poland – Warmia and Mazury. The last phase is evaluation of landscape values as well as evaluation of directions in landscapes transformations with respect to tourism development.

The methods of investigations

This work analyses the status quo of the rural landscape of Region of Warmia and Mazury as the heritage and points at the necessity of including landscape - environmental, cultural and visual values into tourism development. There were used monographic and cartography studies as a basic research method as well as evaluation of rural landscape in work. The evaluations with cognitive character have the signifi cant role in all research of the environment (rural landscape) because they are the sources of fact interpretations and cognitive deduction. The evaluation and the estimation of cultural landscapes is a refl ection process of the feature/features of object on characteristic position in receiving values system

Results of research

The terrain relief of Warmia and Mazury is geologically very young. It has been substantially infl uenced by glaciation, especially the recent Baltic one and by currently occurring denudation processes. This is visible in the fast process of the disappearing of lakes. From the geomorphological point of view, this area can be generally divided into four parts, spreading in bands with an east-west orientation. The region is characterised by large local differences in climate, its severity, quite cold, long and snowy winters, ground-frost quite late in spring, greater air humidity in the lake areas, annual rainfall between 600-700 mm. Noticeable difference from other regions of Poland is a result of geographical location, large area of waters, terrain relief and a large acreage of forest areas (Hutorowicz et al. 1996). The agricultural landscape of north-eastern Poland, especially of the historical Warmia and Mazury, substantially differs from other regions of the country. Its distinctness is mostly a result of terrain relief, habitat and climate determinants, elements of animate and inanimate nature. Historical events have also been of great importance, as well as land management, the spacing of rural settlements, forms of development and its regional character, public and sacral buildings, forms of greenery. Considering the unique character of particular elements of the agricultural landscape, special

117 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends attention is paid to their protection and conservation. Typically agricultural character of the region has for centuries infl uenced the development of villages and towns. Warmia and Mazury are characterised by the presence of protected areas, including those of international, national and local importance. These areas often border with agricultural lands, forming a unity. Therefore, it is particularly important to protect not only environmentally valuable areas, but also other elements of the agricultural landscape with their mutual connections and dependencies (Jaszczak 2006). Comparatively low degree of pollution, resulting from the lack of large factories, the presence of lakes and substantial forest areas, numerous protected species, biodiversity, as well as cultural and visual properties give the basis for the development of, among others, the touristic function, especially rural tourism.

Development of rural tourism in Warmia and Mazury

The region of Warmia and Mazury is particularly predisposed for developing rural tourism. Its objects are located in all areas of unquestionable touristic and cultural value. It is estimated that there are about 4,000 agritouristic farms in the voivodship. Strong motivation of people looking for new ideas for additional sources of income, closeness of nature attractions, possibility of linking them with other branches of tourism - these are the main qualities of rural tourism in the Warmińsko-Mazurskie voivodship (Tab.1).

Table 1. Characteristic of agritourism farms in Warmia and Mazury Region (prepared by A. Jaszczak) Farm production Husbandry on a farm is advisable, and tourist services are an additional source of income It is possible to develop agritouristic facilities in new buildings, but monumental objects Old building use are of additional cultural value Greenery areas and rural It is possible to design a typical rural gardens with recreational zones for tourist gardens The income from tourism is additional for the family running the farm, but it is often Income from tourism higher than the income from husbandry Taxes from tourism Accommodation facilites - up to 5 rooms in the structure without taxes services Catering facilities - the income gained from catering services provided for tourists living Catering in the fi ve rented rooms is free from tax; it is not applicable to the income from the restaurant for guests not using accommodation Products used in preparing meals for tourists can come from various sources, but it it Food production advisable to use ones produced by the farm Animal production There is no requirement of animal husbandry in providing catering services People from beyond the family employed on the farm do not have to come from the Additional employment countryside A voluntary system of farm evaluation, so-called categorisation, made on demand of the Evaluation of structure accommodation provider

Rural accommodation facilities can be also used in active, business and transit tourism. The offered products of rural tourism (guest rooms, group rooms, separate housing units, small guesthouses, souvenirs) are an important element of touristic management in the voivodship. Rural tourism is spread quite evenly on the map of Warmia and Mazury. Advice and directions for the region included in the Tourism Development Strategy in Warmińsko-Mazurskie (2004) are: - to build objects of therapeutic tourism - rural sanatoriums, objects taking advantage of the climate and offering possibilities of long rehabilitation in peace and quiet, - to create weekend packages as an offer for city dwellers from neighbouring voivodships, - to use closed village schools for creating “nature schools” (boarding schools in the country used for school trips) for city children, - to promote regional cooking in agritouristic farms, - to create an effi cient system of informing about the offers of rural tourism, connected with the regional system of tourist information, - to continue the categorisation of rural accommodation facilities, - to place water parks in strategic sites, - to care about preserving indigenous local tradition as well as cultural identity of immigrant people while creating a touristic product in rural areas (Jaszczak 2008).

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Elements of rural landscape and its importance to regional tourism development

Warmia and Mazury are seperated geographical and historical regions. Its history is visible in its natural and cultural landscape. There was specifi c harmony in the landscape of old-time Warmia, not destroyed by changes of architectural styles taking place through centuries. Church buildings, both rural and urban, merged into the landscape without disturbing it. The medieval spatial arrangement has lasted throughout subsequent historical epochs. It is unique and of special value, contributing to the character of the region (Achremczyk 2004). The most important role in tourism development plays regional, national and international programmes. One of them is programme “Warmian House”. The aim of the project is to start the process of preserving and continuing the architectural and landscape heredity and the regional spatial and architectural order - in consequence, to increase the quality of living and the touristic attractiveness. The aim of the project is also to create and publish a collection of architectural and landscape documents describing historically shaped standards of rural construction and land management as architectural and spatial templates. The collection is a compendium of guidelines which will be helpful for the local authorities in developing local plans of space management and for the investors and architects. Rural inventories of villiages in Warmia and Mazury regions were base of indentifi cation historical elements in landscape which could be important to tourism development. Among them were: - Characteristic forms and system of land parcel; - Systems of farmsteads; - Systems and types of buildings (living, farming, service, public using); - Utilize areas including building sites, swamplands, arable lands, forests, meadows, grazing lands, waters, fallow lands; - Sacral objects in the village landscape, such as churches, chapels, cemeteries, shrines and wayside crosses, very common in these areas, are a characteristic feature of Warmia villages; - Road systems; - Large number of objects of public use, such as schools, shops, inns, mills, forges etc.; - Visual elements including dominants, subdominants, perspectives, compositional axises, landscape spaces, view points, accents; - Systems of greenery areas, including trees aleeys, parcs, squers, lawns, greenery near sacrum objects, greenery of farmsteads. These elements could create tourism product in different scale and on different levels from small villages and settlements to regional ones. Some of them are part of tourism facilities, structures and infrastructure, another one are the base of tourism trails and routes. However the most important stage in product description is identifi cation and inventory of nature and culture values in region.

Conclusion

Rural tourism, including agritourism, fulfi ls an important role in the activation of rural areas, especially regions of high unemployment and particular natural and cultural qualities. Proper development of such areas should be multidirectional. Apart from the economical aspect, also the social and ecological aspect is of great importance. The increasing interest in the countryside and in relaxing far from great urban complexes creates a possibility of improving the living conditions in the country - not only for individuals concerned with organising and selling tourist services, but for the whole community of villages, or even the region. As a result of the analysis, several conclusions have been made. 1. It is necessery to revival of the identity of the land of Warmia and Mazury, connected with the spatial quality, the preservation of traditional rural landscape forms and their continuation in the modern development (tourism development); 2. It is important to creating a brand touristic product known in Poland, in Europe and perhaps in the whole world; 3. Rural tourism should use the village space, agricultural environment and infrastructure only in a rational way; 4. Transformations of rural landscape are also connected with adaptation, rebuilding and preserving of old dwelling structures, of architecture of the region, therefore also with preserving regional qualities, customs and folklore;

References

Achremczyk S. 2004. Krajobraz historyczny Warmii i Mazur. Mat. Konf., Ed by University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Olsztyn. Hutorowicz H., Grabowska K., Nowicka A. 1996. Charakterystyka warunków klimatycznych Pojezierza Mazurskiego. Zesz. Probl. Post. Nauk Roln., P. 431: 25.

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Jaszczak A. 2006. Znaczenie i ochrona zabytkowego krajobrazu kulturowego w zrównoważonym rozwoju gmin. Przyroda i Miasto t. VIII .Ed. by SGGW, Warszawa, P. 224-231. Jaszczak A. 2008. The Role of Rural Tourism in the Activation of Rural Areas of Umbria (Italy) and Warmia and Mazury (Poland). VISNYK LVIV UNIV. Ser. Mizhnarodni Vidnosyny. Lviv, P. 386-397 Połucha I., Młynarczyk K., Marks E., Marks M., Jaszczak A., 2003. Rural tourism in sustainable development of areas with unique environmental values. Proceedings of International Scientifi c Conference “Rural Development 2003”, Kaunas, P. 146-148 Strzembicki L. 1995. Problemy rozwoju agroturystyki w Polsce. Agroturystyka - pierwsze doświadczenia i perspektywy. II Ogólnopolskie Sympozjum Agroturystyczne. Ed. by Centrum Doradztwa i Edukacji w Rolnictwie, Kraków.

Tourism Development Strategy in Warmińsko-Mazurskie. 2004. Ed. Marshal Offi ce of Warmia and Mazury Region, Olsztyn

Agnieszka JASZCZAK. Doctor of agricultural sciences (specifi city: management of green areas). University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Environmental Management and Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture and Agritourism. Address: Prawochenskiego 17, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland. Tel/fax, e-mail: tel. 0048895234182, fax. 0048895234549 [email protected] Iwona POLUCHA. Doctor of agricultural sciences (specifi city: environmental management). University of Warmia and Mazury in Olsztyn, Faculty of Environmental Management and Agriculture, Department of Landscape Architecture and Agritourism. Address: Prawochenskiego 17, 10-727 Olsztyn, Poland. Tel/fax tel. 0048895234182, fax. 0048895234549, e-mail: [email protected]

120 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Progress of Land Reform in Estonian Rural Municipalities – Results of Preliminary Study

Evelin Jürgenson, Siim Maasikamäe Estonian University of Life Sciences

Abstract

The land reform has been an important activity for the post-communist countries. This is the case for Estonia, too. However, the process and the results of the land reform in Estonia are not thoroughly studied yet. The completion of the land reform is facing certain problems and the remaining part of the land reform seems to be complicated. The solution for the remaining land reform problems depends, among other factors, on the understanding of the processes in the past. This is the reason to pay more attention to the studies of land reform issues. The study is based on statistical data about the land reform results in Estonia. The study deals with the general process and regional differences of the land reform results in Estonia. The regional differences are handled on county and municipality levels. The outcomes of the study show that the results of the land reform in various counties are similar on average, but there are big differences if to compare the success of the land reform in municipalities. Our study disclosed that the progression and processes of the land reform need more attention and, thus, should be investigated further Key words: land reform, results of land reform, the speed of land reform

Introduction

Land reform is an important activity for society development, in general, and for rural development, in particular. The aims, main features and the course of land reforms may differ depending on the period, and its content may vary from state to state. The essence of land reform has changed also: if the 20th century land reform was mostly redistributive, then today, it means land settlement or resettlement programmes on a publicly owned land, land registration, consolidation of fragmented holdings, tenancy improvement, and land taxation in addition to redistribution. (El-Ghonemy, 2003, Sikor et al. 2009) However, land reform in post-communist countries has its specifi c features. Firstly, the land reform relates to all national land funds and all types of land uses, including all rural and urban areas. Secondly, the private ownership over land is re-established. It means fundamental changes of legislation and social attitude. The land reform in Estonia started in 1991 after Estonian parliament had passed some important legal acts. One of the main acts – Principles of Ownership Reform Act of the Republic of Estonia was passed on 13 June 1991 and the second one, Land Reform Act, was passed on 17 October 1991. The content of land reform was stated in The Land Reform Act’s subdivision 3 of section 1 which reads as follows: In land reform, unlawfully expropriated land is returned to its former owners or their legal successors or they are compensated, therefore, land is transferred for or without charge into the ownership of persons in private law, legal persons in public law or local governments, and the land to be retained in state ownership is determined. The realisation of the land reform is a complicated activity. The parliament has changed the land reform related to legislation many times during the 18 years of reform. The rapid completion of the land reform has been a topical issue for many Estonian politicians at the end of the nineties and at the beginning of the current decade. The ministers responsible for the land reform repeatedly promised to conclude the land reform fairly quickly. However, the land reform in Estonia is not yet fi nished and there are no clear visions about any further steps. The completion of the land reform has been more actively discussed recently. It is desirable to shortly complete the process but necessary methods for that are ambiguous. Many problems have emerged in the course of the land reform and, thus, disturbed its rapid completion. Daugaliene (2007) has referred to the same characteristics for the Lithuanian land reform. The outcomes of the land reform are not well investigated in Estonia at present. It is primarily valid if speaking about the property formation throughout the land reform and property rights. Various landscape related issues have been researched in Estonia, for example, the connection between landscape and soil (Uuemaa et al., 2008), landscape changes and monitoring (Roose et al., 2007, Sepp et al., 1999), landscape protection (Palang 2007, Palang et al., 2005, Mander et al., 1999) and rural area changes (Unwin, 1997). There are some surveys on land type structure and average area used by agricultural enterprises (Maasikamäe et al., 2005, Sippo, 2005), and problems of land consolidation and fragmentation are handled as well (Maasikamäe, 2005, Maasikamäe et al., 2003). There are only statistical overviews of the process of land reform in Estonia while surveys and analysis concerning the results of the land reform are missing. Static offi cial statistics alone cannot give a broader view of the land reform. Thus, the actually existing conditions must be investigated (Borras, 2006). The progress of land reform and its outcomes can be evaluated in different ways. One must distinguish the progress and results of the land reform from a quantitative and qualitative point of view. This is important because high quantity does not necessarily correspond to good quality. Furthermore, high quantity can result in low quality. However, the fi rst step to understand the land reform results is to analyse land reform statistics. It will lay the ground for further studies including the investigation of qualitative aspects of the land reform. It is necessary to notice that one must not confuse the quantitative and the qualitative aspects of the land reform and the quantitative and the qualitative methods of research. The quantitative and the qualitative methods of research can be used for investigation of the quality of the land reform, for example.

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The aim of our study is to focus on the general course and the results of the land reform in Estonia, and particularly, we focus on the rural municipalities. We only deal with quantitative aspects of the results of the land reform. The paper was called “preliminary” because of the results of the study, indicating the need for more solid investigations in this fi eld.

Materials and methods

Statistical data of the Estonian Land Board and Estonian Statistical Board about the land reform results were used to analyse the general progress and the results of the land reform. The area and the ratio (percentage) of land that is registered in cadastre and the average size of parcels (cadastral units) are the main indicators that characterise processes of the land reform. For this purpose, the following was done: - The general process and trends of the land reform and the changes of the average size of parcels since 1993 to 2008 for whole Estonia are presented; - The general results of the land reform (dated by December 31st 1998 and December 31st 2008) on the county level are compared. Then, the results of the course of the land reform in four counties have been presented as different examples of the process; - The results of the land reform (dated by December 31st 2008) in rural municipalities are compared on the county level and certain extreme cases of the land reform results are compared on the municipality level; - Finally, land reform results in 10 most and least successful rural municipalities have been compared. All 227 municipalities (including towns and rural towns are included for the general description of the land reform for the whole Estonia. Land reform results on the county level also included data about towns. However, examples of extreme land reform results refer solely to rural municipalities. It is necessary to mention that land reform results in some towns are worse than in rural municipalities presented in our study. We exclude from our study some semi-urban municipalities where the share of urban areas is fairly large. Such municipalities evolve as a result of an urban type settlement and the surrounding rural municipality integration. Finally, in our municipality level survey, we used data of 188 rural municipalities. However, it has to be considered that these 188 municipalities may still comprise towns and rural towns.

Results

The land reform started in 1991 in Estonia after the necessary legislation was adopted by the parliament, but the fi rst parcels were registered in land cadastre only in 1993. Therefore, the presented in fi gure 1 progression of the land reform starts from the year 1993. This fi gure shows the changes of two indicators describing the land reform progression. It is the land area registered in cadastre and the number of parcels per year for the whole Estonia.

Figure 1. The intensity of land reform since 1993 to 2008

In the beginning, the speed of the land reform was relatively slow and the results were modest, but after 1996, the land area registered in cadastre and the number of parcels increased considerably. The peak of the land reform was in 1998 when over 600 000 hectares of land and more than 75 000 parcels were registered in land cadastre. The speed of land reform started to decrease after this year and this process has continued. Only 38 000 hectares of land were reformed in 2008, which is 15 times less than in 1998, not mentioning the starting years of the land reform. The dynamics of the registered in cadastre land area and the number of parcels is generally similar. However, one can distinguish three different periods in fi gure 1. The fi rst period lasted from the beginning of the land reform in 1991 to its peak in 1998. The remarkable increase of the land reform speed is characteristic of this period. The second period was from 1999 to 2004 when the both indicators of intensity of the land reform decreased. A considerable decrease of registered in cadastre land area was from 1999 to 2000. The third period of the land reform started in 2005 and has lasted

122 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends so far. Low speed and meagre average size of the parcels are among major characteristic features of this period. Slightly more than 18 000 parcels were registered in 2008 what is 4 times less than in 1998. The registered in cadastre reformed land area in 2008 was 15 times less than in 1998. The fi gure 2 shows the changes of the average size of the parcels that were formed in the course of the land reform and were registered in cadastre from 1993 to 2008. The general trend is a decrease in average sizes of the new formed parcels. Data in the fi gures 1 and 2 correspond to each other. However, unlike fi gure 1, the three periods of the land reform cannot be differentiated here.

Figure 2. The dynamics of average size of formed in course land reform parcel

The decrease of the average size of the parcels formed in the course of the land reform is considerable. For example, in 1996 and 1997 the average size of parcel was more than 11 hectares, but in 2008 it was only 2 hectares. Therefore, the results of the land reform in recent years are not so impressive because they fail to correspond with the effort made for the land reforming (a lot of small parcels but low results, according to the area). The presented numbers about the size of parcels are generalized and there is a need for a deeper investigation of the reasons that caused such circumstances. The progression of the land reform varies not only by years but by the regions, also. Table 1 presents the ratio of the land area registered in cadastre in the end of 1998 and 2008 by counties. We choose two years for the comparison of the results of the land reform. The year 1998 was selected as a pick of the land reform and for 2008 we have the newest data.

Table 1. The percentage of registered in cadastre land area in 1998 and 2008 and the average size of cadastral units (all municipalities of Estonia) Percentage of registered in cadastre land area (%) Average size of cadastral units (ha)

County Difference between Difference between 31.12.1998 31.12.2008 31.12.1998 32.12.2008 1998 and 2008 1998 and 2008 Harjumaa 20.9 80.4 59.6 2.7 2.7 0.0 Hiiumaa 43.9 88.6 44.8 12.6 6.6 -6.0 Ida-Virumaa 47.0 82.5 35.5 20.9 6.8 -14.1 Jõgevamaa 47.4 90.6 43.2 13.7 8.9 -4.8 Järvamaa 34.0 84.2 50.2 11.3 9.4 -1.9 Läänemaa 37.0 82.0 45.0 9.8 7.7 -2.1 Lääne-Virumaa 47.3 94.1 46.8 13.3 8.6 -4.8 Põlvamaa 64.0 92.2 28.2 11.4 7.9 -3.5 Pärnumaa 60.3 89.8 29.5 16.4 9.1 -7.3 Raplamaa 19.8 85.5 65.7 5.4 8.4 3.0 Saaremaa 20.9 82.0 61.1 7.0 5.4 -1.6 Tartumaa 36.3 87.5 51.2 5.5 5.0 -0.5 Valgamaa 50.1 92.5 42.4 12.8 9.5 -3.2 Viljandimaa 50.3 92.6 42.3 13.5 10.2 -3.3 Võrumaa 47.5 90.7 43.2 11.6 8.1 -3.5 Average for Estonia 41.4 87.4 46.0 9.8 6.7 -3.2 Data source: Estonian Statistical Board and Land Board

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The data of Table 1 provides a more profound understanding of the land reform progression. For example, in 1998 the percentage of registered in cadastre land area varied by counties to a greater extent than in 2008. The lowest percentage of reformed land (19,8 percent) was in Raplamaa county and the highest percentage (64 percent) –in Põlvamaa county. The difference between those two numbers is 44.2. In 2008, the lowest percentage of reformed land (80,4 percent) was in Harjumaa county and the highest percentage (94,1 percent) – in Lääne-Virumaa county. The difference between percentages for the above mentioned two counties is 13.7. In 2008, the differences between counties are no longer as big as in 1998. One can see also that the counties have reformed land at a different speed. Põlvamaa county was the most successful in 1998 and the increase of the reformed land was only 28.2 percent from this time to 2008. Raplamaa county, on the contrast, only had 19.8 percent of the reformed land in 1998. The increase of the reformed land since that time to the 2008 was 65.7 percent. Table 1 also contains the average size of cadastral unit in 1998 and 2008 by counties. The smallest average size of a parcel (2.7 hectares) was in 1998 in Harjumaa county. The biggest average size of a parcel (20.9 hectares) was in Ida- Virumaa county. The difference between average sizes of parcels in the mentioned counties is 18.2 hectares and this is a remarkable fi gure. In 2008, the differences were not that remarkable. The smallest average size of a parcel (2.7 hectares) was continuingly in Harjumaa county and the biggest (10.2 hectares) — Viljandimaa county. This is also a sign that the land reform has stabilized. The differences of the land reform progression on the county level are presented in fi gure 3, too. Four counties (Harjumaa, Lääne-Virumaa, Põlvamaa and Raplamaa) with a different type of the land reform development were selected. The shapes of the lines that describe the course of the land reform, vary from one county to another. It means that they differ in land reform progression.

Figure 3. Trend lines of land reform in counties of Harjumaa, Lääne-Virumaa, Põlvamaa and Raplamaa from 1993 until 2008

Nevertheless, there are some similarities, too. The speed of the land reform reaches its peak in 1997 for Lääne- Virumaa and Põlvamaa counties. For Raplamaa county, the peak was in 1999. All the three counties have clear peaks in the course of the land reform process. In Harjumaa county, there is no clear peak in the development of the land reform process. The most successful was the year 2002, while 2000 and 2004 were quite similar. The land reform success on municipality level varies more than the one on county level. The data of table 2 and table 3 prove that. The land reform results in most and least successful rural municipalities are compared with the average level of the land reform results of counties in table 2. The average percentage of the reformed land for the counties in table 1 and table 2 is slightly different. The reason for that is the fact that the average number for table 1 includes data about all (227) municipalities but the data in table 2 provide an overview of the situation in rural (188) municipalities only. The average percentage of registered in cadastre land in the rural municipalities on the county level varies from the 81 percent to 93 percent which is not a large number. The data in table 1 are similar. At the same time, the difference among municipalities is much bigger. The biggest share of registered in cadastre land is 99 percent in municipality of Surju in Pärnu county and the lowest fi gure is only 47 percent in Piirissaare municipality of Tartu county, respectively. The difference between minimum and maximum percentage of registered in cadastre land is considerable. This difference is remarkably big even if Piirissare municipality is excluded from the comparison due to its untypicality and data of Peipsiääre municipality in Tartu county used instead.

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Table 2. The percentage of registered in cadastre land by counties of Estonia (dated 31.12.2008). The name of corresponding municipality is in the brackets after the ratio Percentage of registered in cadastre land (%) Average County Extreme results of municipalities percentage of counties Minimum Maximum Difference (max-min) Harjumaa 82 72 (Keila) 90 (Kernu) 18 Hiiumaa 88 80 (Pühalepa) 93 (Kõrgessaare) 13 Ida-Virumaa 85 70 (Aseri) 93 Tudulinna 23 Järvamaa 90 82 (Kareda) 95 (Türi) 13 Jõgevamaa 91 85 (Torma) 98 (Pala) 13 Läänemaa 81 71 (Kullamaa) 91 (Lihula) 20 Lääne-Virumaa 90 84 (Rakke) 96 (Laekvere) 12 Pärnumaa 90 63 (Lavassaare) 99 (Surju) 36 Põlvamaa 92 70 (Mikitamäe) 97 (Ahja) 27 Raplamaa 86 79 (Kohila) 92 (Käru) 13 Saaremaa 82 70 (Kärla) 93 (Ruhnu) 23 Tartumaa 89 47* (Piirisaare); 62 (Peipsiääre) 98 (Võnnu) 51* or 36 Valgamaa 93 90 (Tõlliste) 97 (Palupera) 7 Viljandimaa 93 87 (Halliste) 98 (Kõpu) 11 Võrumaa 91 87 (Lasva) 94 (Rõuge) 7 Total in Estonia 88 47* (Piirissaare); 62 (Peipsiääre) 99 (Surju) 52 or 37 * Data for Piirissaare municipality. It is a fairly small and untypical Estonian municipality characterised by certain specifi c features and situated on an island in Lake Peipsi.

Table 3, as well, reveals signifi cant differences in land reform results among municipalities. Rural municipalities were arranged by the percentage of the reformed land in a decreasing order: 10 most and least successful municipalities were included into table 3. The density of population has been added to table 3 to illustrate general conditions of the land reform in municipalities.

Table 3. The municipalities with the highest and lowest percentage of land registered in cadastre (dated 31.12.2008) Share of land Number of Average size Population density, NR of Area registered Municipality County registered in the parcels registered of parcels inhabitants per square order in cadastre (ha) cadastre, % in cadastre (ha) kilometre 1 Surju Pärnu 98.9 1 347 35 426 26.3 2.8 2 Kõpu Viljandi 98.4 908 25 453 28.0 3.1 3 Pala Jõgeva 98.2 1 766 15 373 8.7 8.3 4 Võnnu Tartu 97.9 1 319 22 770 17.3 5.1 5 Ahja Põlva 97.3 1 050 7 009 6.7 15.5 6 Palupera Valga 96.9 1 330 11 993 9.0 9.2 Vastse- 7 Põlva 96.9 1 255 11 942 9.5 10.2 Kuuste 8 Veriora Põlva 96.8 1 597 19 393 12.1 7.6 9 Õru Valga 96.7 650 10 112 15.6 5.2 10 Karksi Viljandi 96.5 2 747 31 100 11.3 12.6

179 Keila Harju 71.9 6 003 12 948 2.2 21.2 180 Tahkuranna Pärnumaa 71.6 2 532 7 381 2.9 19.3 181 Puhja Tartumaa 71.5 1 499 12 016 8.0 13.6 182 Nissi Harju 71.2 1 907 19 304 10.1 12.2 183 Kullamaa Läänemaa 71.0 1 343 15 990 11.9 6.0 184 Aseri Ida-Viru 70.5 1 035 4 733 4.6 31.9 185 Mikitamäe Põlva 69.6 1 574 7 323 4.7 9.6 186 Kärla Saaremaa 69.2 2 480 15 139 6.1 7.4 187 Peipsiääre Tartu 64.2 1 061 1 990 1.9 27.3 188 Piirissaare Tartu 54.0 155 416 2.7 9.9

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The percentage of registered in cadastre land is between 96.5 and 98.9 percent for the group of most successful rural municipalities and the average for this group of municipalities is approximately 97.4 percent. The average size of a parcel is 13.6 hectare and the population density is 7.1 inhabitants per square kilometre. The results in the group of backward municipalities differ considerably. The percentage of the reformed land is between 54.0 and 71.9 percent and the average size of a parcel is only 5.0 hectare. The average sizes of parcels differ more than 2.5 times in compared groups. The situation concerning the average density of population is similar to the one mentioned above. The density of population in the group of backward municipalities is about 13.4 inhabitants per square kilometre. It is almost twice as high as in the group of successful municipalities.

Discussion

Almost 90 percent of land was registered in land cadastre at the end of 2008 but the completion of the land reform is not easy despite the fact that the remaining part of the not reformed land is not very large. The speed of the land reform in Estonia has varied with its decreases and increases but its fi nalising seems to be problematic. The speed of the land reform has differed according to regions of the country, too. Some regions have been successful and the reform there is almost complete. The slowdown of the land reform speed can be explained by the fact that the area of the reformed parcels is decreasing. More efforts are needed for the formation of new parcels in the course of the land reform. The decrease of the average size of registered in cadastre parcels is the evidence of that. Another reason for the slowdown of the land reform speed is that certain complicated cases have not been solved yet. The Ministry of Finance of the Republic of Estonia conducted a survey in 2008 to understand the state of the land reform and the main problems that prevent it from being fi nalised. According to that report (Overview of …, 2008), the main reasons why restitution or privatization has not been fi nished, are related to court cases, inheritance or land surveying issues. The completion of the land reform will take numerous years if its speed remains the same as throughout the previous years. This is actually an unacceptable situation. Different Estonian authorities have recently indicated the necessity to fi nish the land reform in the near future. For example, National Audit Offi ce of Estonia has revealed some reasons for the importance of fi nishing the land reform: land without a fi xed ownership is out of use and, thus, its economic potential is unused and also, every year, the state spends millions of Estonian crowns on land reform activities (State regulatory authority report 2008). In our study, we mainly used two indicators to describe and analyse the results of the land reform: the percentage of registered in cadastre land and the average size of parcels. However, this simple study provided us with a new understanding of the land reform processes and results, and the new information has been added to the existing knowledge. The information about the land reform results must be handled in the context of the general view of land administration process. It is worth remembering that “Until information on land use is improved, development planning will remain without an adequate basis on many major issues.” (Young, 1998:48). The investigation of the progression of the land reform processes is important for its successful completion. More investigations on this fi eld are, obviously, needed.

Conclusions

The preliminary study indicated the existence of the land reform problems in Estonia to be investigated more carefully. However, the following conclusions were drawn from our research: 1. There are no big differences in the general results of the land reform if to compare counties, the results are similar. The ratio of the registered in cadastre land varies from 80.4 to 94.1 percent. However, the land reform speed has decreased and the date of its completion is so far unclear. 2. The land reform results vary to a greater extent in different Estonian municipalities and this is a problematic issue. The differences between successful and backward municipalities are remarkable in respect of the land reform. 3. The deep study of both quantitative and qualitative aspects of the land reform results is necessary for a better understanding of land related processes and better reasoning of further decisions. There are too many unclear land related issues today.

References

Borras JR., S., M. (2006). The Philippine Land Reform in Comparative Perspective: Some Conceptual and Methodological Implications. Journal of Agrarian Change 1, pp. 69-101. Daugaliene, V. (2007). Legal framework of land management in Lithuania after 1990. UNECE WPLA Workshop Munich, Germany, May 24th – 25th 2007. El-Ghonemy, M. R. (2003). Land reform development challenges of 1963-2003 continue into the twenty-fi rst century. Land Reform 2, pp. 33-42. Land Reform Act. Available at: www.riigiteataja.ee (Last access 25 June 2009). Maasikamäe, S. (2005). Assesment of Land Fragmentation. In: “Vagos”, Proceedings of the Lithuanian University of Agriculture, nr 67 (20), pp. 75-82, Akademija. Kauno.

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Maasikamäe, S., Mugu, E. (2003). Is there a Need for Land Consolidation in Estonia? In: Transaction of the Estonian Agricultural University 216, Baltic Surveying ’03. Tartu, pp. 23 – 32. Maasikamäe, S., Sippo, I. (2005). Study of land type structure of non-contiguous parcels of agricultural properties. In: Balticsurveying’05, Proceedings. The International Scientifi c-Methodical Conference of Agricultural Universities in the Baltic States and other countries, the 12th and 13th May, 2005. Jelgava, pp. 35-42. Mander, Ü; Mikk, M; Külvik, M. (1999). Ecological and low intensity agriculture as contributors to landscape and biological diversity. Landscape and Urban Planning 46, pp. 169-177. Palang, H. (2007). Landscape and rural heritage. SIXTH MEETING OF THE COUNCIL OF EUROPE OF THE WORKSHOPS FOR THE IMPLEMENTATION OF THE EUROPEAN LANDSCAPE CONVENTION, Sibiu, Romania, 20-21 September 2007. Available at: http://www.coe. int/t/dg4/cultureheritage/Source/Conventions/Landscape/Sibiu_Provisional_proceedings_actes_provisoires_24oct07.pdf (Last access 25 June 2009). Palang, H., Helmfrid, S., Antrop, M., Alumae, H. (2005). Rural Landscapes: past processes and future strategies. Landscape and Urban Planning 1-2, pp. 3-8. Riigikontrolli aruanne Riigikogule: riigi tegevus reformimata maaga (2008). Riigikontroll. Available at: www.riigikontroll.ee/upload/failid/ka_40050_ maareform_12.06.2008_lopp.pdf (Last access 25 June 2009). Roose, A., Sepp, K., Saluveer, E., Kaasik, A., Oja, T. (2007). Neighbourhood-defi ned approaches for integrating and designing landscape monitoring in Estonia. Landscape and Urban Planning 79, pp. 177–189. Sepp, K., Palang, H., Mander, Ü., Kaasik, A. (1999). Prospects for nature and landscape protection in Estonia. Landscape and Urban Planning 46, pp. 161-167. Sikor, T., Müller, D., 2009. The Limits of State-Led Land Reform: An Introduction. World Development, doi: 10.1026/j.worlddev.2008.08.010 Sippo, I., 2005. The analysis of agricultural properties fragmentation. Master thesis of Estonian University of Life Sciences, 105 p. (in Estonian). Unwin, T., 1997. Agricultural Restructuring and Integrated Rural Development in Estonia. Journal of Rural Studies, 1, 93-112. Uuemaa, E., Roosaare, J., Kanal, A., Mander, Ü., 2008. Spatial correlograms of soil cover as an indicator of landscape heterogeneity. Ecological indicators, 8, 783-794. Ülevaade omandireformist. (2008). Eesti Vabariigi Rahandusministeerium. (manuscript) Young, A., 1998. Land resources. Now and for the future. United Kingdom: Cambridge University Press.

Evelin JÜRGENSON. MSc, lecturer of land administration, Institute of Forestry and Rural Engineering, Estonian University of Life Sciences; acting advisor, Estonian Land Board. Address: Kreutzwaldi street 5 Tartu 51014 Estonia. Phon. +372 7 313 123. E-mail [email protected] Research interests: land administration, land reform and land acquisition for the public needs. Siim MAASIKAMÄE. PhD, head of the Department of Geomatics, Estonian University of Life Sciences. Address: Kreutzwaldi street 5 Tartu 51014 Estonia. Phon. + 372 7 313 120. E-mail [email protected] Research interests: land management (land fragmentation and land consolida tion particularly) and the land use planning.

127 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Formation of Public Recreational Spaces in National and Regional Parks of Lithuania while Developing Cognitive Tourism

Jūratė Kamičaitytė-Virbašienė, Jurga Vitkuvienė Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania

Abstract

The methodical basis of public recreational spaces formation in national and regional parks while organising cognitive tourism and applying of the following methodical aspects in practise is discussed in this paper. The landscape of protected territories has to be shaped very sensitively in order not to change the spatial structure and type of the landscape and to preserve or even increase the recreational potential of it. Therefore, we need to organize cognitive tourism by creating spatial models of the landscape as the object of tourist interest and recreational environment, establishing the character and intensity of recreational activity and foreseeing the means for landscape protection, arrangement and rehabilitation regarding to the criterions of ecology, diversity, functionality, visual harmony, meaningfulness, balance and dynamics. Key words: recreation, public spaces, national parks, regional parks, tourism

Introduction

The organization of the cognitive tourism is one of the main objectives establishing the state parks. Today national and regional parks make 60% of the system of protected territories in Lithuania and occupy around 9% of the whole territory of the country. These territories have the biggest recreational potential, aesthetic and ecological value. The recreational landscapes of the seaside, river valleys, forests and lakes are protected and managed there. The landscape of such types is an object of tourist interest and at the same time is the environment physically and psychologically suitable for recreation. Therefore, it is very important to protect and enhance the recreational potential of it using the means of territory planning. The public recreational demands constantly increase in the state parks, although according the National Programme of Tourism Development (2007), the preference is still given to the protection and controlled visiting rather than to the methodical recreational use of valuable and fragile environmental recreational resources. These reasons stimulate the expansion of the public recreational spaces, as poorly organized recreational activity causes a great danger to the protected natural and cultural environment; moreover, it increases the anthropogenic load to the sensitive and unequipped natural territories (National Strategy of Sustainable…, 2003). The public recreational spaces (PRS) is the complex of recreational resources of the landscape and recreational infrastructure, which ensures the use of the landscape for public recreational needs without decreasing its recreational potential, ecological stability and aesthetic attraction. They integrate both the regulation of recreational streams, creation of the recreational infrastructure and arrangement of the environment, formation of the landscape. This determines the optimization of the recreational use of the natural, cultural and visual heritage of the parks and popularization of it in the society. A lot of scientists and planners worked and still work in the fi eld of the planning of recreational activity. Several methodologies for the assessment of the recreational potential of territories are created, questions of the evaluation of recreational reliability and capacity of territories are analysed and common principles of the formation of recreational territorial systems are framed. The problems of the planning of recreational territories were analysed broadly in the second half of the XX century (Stauskas, 1966, 1977; Kavaliauskas et all, 1979; Kavaliauskas et all, 1981; Kavaliauskas, 1980, 1992; Riep as, 1981, 1997; Riep as et all, 1985; ilagalis et all, 1986; Daniulaitis, 1997), however, currently theoretical questions of organization of recreational activity attain less attention. The major part of the researches that were performed and methodical guidelines and standards that were prepared 20 – 30 years ago do not meet the needs of today. Various methodologies to analyse and regulate recreational activity are created, although there are no unanimous guidelines and regulation for the arrangement of contemporary recreational environment. Furthermore, the lack of proper methodologies and the unclear juridical base of the organization of the recreational activity lead to the absence of systematic approach when developing territorial recreational systems in the state parks. Therefore, the object of the analysis is the development and arrangement of public recreational spaces in national and regional parks. The objective of the paper is to review the problems of the formation of public recreational spaces for the purposes of the cognitive tourism in the state parks and to propose possible solutions to them. In order to achieve this objective, the juridical problems of the development of public recreational spaces in the state parks of Lithuania are discussed, the methodical principles of the public recreational spaces arrangement used in practice are presented and their application while organising cognitive tourism in Pagramantis Regional Park is revealed in this paper.

Political and juridical base of public recreational spaces development in national and regional parks

The unclear juridical regulation of the tourism business and of the use of landscape recreational resources can cause a too intensive anthropogenic load and degradation of valuable territories. Moreover, if the use of recreational resources is not regulated appropriately, there is a danger of reasonless prohibitions and limitations that could prevent the development of recreation (National Strategy of Sustainable…, 2003).

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The main political documents which regulate the development of tourism and recreational activity in Lithuania are: National Strategy of Sustainable Development, Strategy of Tourism Development till 2015 and National Programme of Tourism Development 2007 – 2013. In all these documents the state parks are defi ned as the territories which are the most attractive to tourism and recreation but at the same time being the most sensitive to uncontrolled recreational load. A cognitive tourism is defi ned as one of the underlying types of recreation in the National Strategy of Sustainable Development (2003) and Strategy of Tourism Development till 2015 (2002). The documents enforce the rational use of natural and cultural recreational resources ensuring protection of peculiarity of Lithuanian regions; the development of the infrastructure of tourism and the improvement of juridical acts ensuring suitable environment for the development of the tourism business considering recreational capacity of territories. One of the strategic objectives of the Strategy of Tourism Development till 2015 (2002) is the rational use of objects of cultural and natural heritage in order to create new values that would strengthen the identity of Lithuania as of a distinctive region and would harmonize the aims of the economic benefi t and environmental protection. One of the means of the implementation of the abovementioned objective is the planning of the tourism development in the state parks of Lithuania (Strategy of Tourism Development…, 2002), that is the regulation of recreational public spaces development by the means of territory planning and design. The National Programme of Tourism Development 2007 – 2013 (2007) indicates that, the possibilities of the tourism development in protected territories are better regulated and purposefully oriented to the cognitive and active tourism compared to the period of 2003 – 2006 but it is necessary to develop the public tourism infrastructure more intensively. This allows to state, that organizing cognitive tourism by the means of territory planning in the state parks, it is essential to develop the main parts of PRS as a recreational territorial system: to develop recreational infrastructure and arrange peculiar landscape spaces as the objects of the tourist interest and the environment suitable for recreation, that would allow to retain and increase their recreational potential. The Laws of Protected Territories, Immovable Cultural Heritage, Territory Planning and Tourism are the main laws which regulate the planning of the tourism development and the formation of recreational landscape in the state parks. The Regulations of Use, Planning and Protection of Recreational Territories, Rules of Preparing of Tourism and Recreation Schemes and Plans, Standard Regulations of Protected Territories Preservation, Specifi cations of Land and Forest Use are the main sub-acts regulating the mentioned activity. However, the unprepared Law of Recreational Territories, the contrariety of the abovementioned juridical documents, unclear concepts of the parts of territorial recreational system, legally undetermined situation of the projects of the tourism infrastructure, the lack of proper methodologies (such as methodical guidelines of tourist routes planning and design, etc.) does not allow the clear principles of the planning of the cognitive recreational activity development and the formation of recreational landscape in the state parks to be established, which are essential in achieving the goals settled in the strategies and programmes.

Methodical principles of public recreational spaces arrangement

The recreational activity should be analysed as territorial recreational system (TRS) while organizing the cognitive tourism in the state parks (Kavaliauskas, 1980, 1992). It consists of the territorially determined complex of tourists, recreational infrastructure and recreational resources which has a common function of the recreational stream. The main parts of the TRS, which or their use have to be planned and designed as the components of PRS are: - Recreational resources: forests, water, objects of cultural heritage ant etc. Places of individual landscape (river valleys, lakesides and etc.), where people experience recreation. - Recreational infrastructure: the facility of leisure and entertainment places and of tourists movement places (objects of small architecture, elements of the system of visual information and etc.). - Roads (of motor-transport and water), paths (of pedestrian, bicycles or other motor-less transport) which connect living places of recreants with places of recreation, and places of recreation and service infrastructure between themselves. All the newly created and rearranged components of the system can change the spatial structure and the recreational potential of the landscape; therefore, they are regulated by the means of planning and design. Every national and regional park has a unique and distinctive landscape which can be used for the purposes of cognitive recreation only retaining the physical spatial structure and preserving or even enriching its aesthetic and semantic potential. Thus the harmony between the cultural landscape of the parks and the cognitive tourism should be reached considering the following criterions: ecology (the protection of cultural and natural heritage and animate nature), diversity (the place conditions the forms and infrastructure of the tourism), functionality (the ergonomics of the infrastructure, the protection and improvement of the recreational characteristics of the landscape), visual harmony (the coherence between the infrastructure and the environment), meaningfulness (the retention of the place spirit and presentation of it to the visitors), balance (the rehabilitation of the damaged landscape) and dynamics (the formation of recreational landscape considering not only the contemporary needs but also the future interests; a constant monitoring and management of the process) (Stauskas, 2000; Turner, 2003; Kamičaitytė- Virbašienė, 2003; Kavaliauskas et all, 2004; Pridotkienė et all, 2006; Grecevicius et all, 2006; Riepšas, 2007; Bell, 2008). The main stages of the landscape planning for recreational purposes are (Daniulaitis, 1997; Daniulaitis et all, 2006): the measurement of landscape changes degree, establishment of character and intensity of recreational use, selection of the means for landscape protection, arrangement and rehabilitation.

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While designing recreational infrastructure and improving landscape recreational characteristics in the state parks, the level of changes of the characteristic landscape should be very low and should not change the existing character of the landscape. Changes are possible seeking to increase the recreational potential (the cuttings for the formation of the landscape, consolidation of waterfronts, demolition of unused and of no value buildings and etc.). Thus the target spatial model of landscape is prepared: its structure, indicators of components and elements are established. After the landscape model is defi ned, the character and intensity of the recreational use can be determined. The character of the recreational use is the type of movement (by car, bicycle or on foot) of recreational streams and character of recreational activity (active or passive recreation). The intensity of the recreational use can not exceed the indicators of the recreational capacity of the territory neither from the bio-ecological (the resistance of a bio-community to the recreation) or technological (the level of the technological impact on the landscape of various kinds of recreational activity), neither from the psychological (the requirements of a psychological comfort for various kinds of recreational activity) perspective (Kavaliauskas, 1980, 1992). In accordance to the target spatial model of the landscape and to the character and intensity of the recreational use, the means of protection, arrangement and rehabilitation of the landscape are established ( ilagalis et all, 1986; Daniulaitis, 1997; Daniulaitis et all, 2006; Kavaliauskas et all, 2004): - routes of roads and paths (circular, linear, composite) which connect the objects of the cognitive tourism and recreation are designated; - elements of the system of visual information, spots of viewing, places of recreation (campsites, resting- places, places of short-time relaxation) are located considering the cognitive and recreational potential of the landscape and the arrangement of the recreation and viewing places and their near environment is designed; - objects of the small architecture, elements of the system of visual information and other recreational facility are designed; - the arrangement of greenery is planned: protected, thinned, cut and planted trees and shrubs are designated; - the engineering measures are planned: consolidation of waterfronts, improvement of roads, paths, recreation and viewing places facings and etc.

Implementation of principles of public recreational spaces arrangement in Pagramantis Regional Park

Pagramantis Regional Park was founded in 1992 seeking to preserve the valuable landscape of the forests and valleys of Akmena and Jūra rivers confl uence, to maintain its natural ecosystem and objects of cultural heritage and to create conditions for tourism and recreation. The area of the park is 13644 ha. The territory of the park occupies the confl uence of Akmena and Jūra rivers with adjacent territories (the length of Akmena River is 29 km and the length of Jūra River is 38 km in the park territory). The purpose of the park is to preserve natural values: the landscape of Jūra mid-river and Akmena lower reaches, bio-community of Plynoji marsh and the valuable objects of cultural heritage: artifi cial mounds of Matiškiai, Kreiviai, Indija, Pilalė, Švedkulnis, Kuturiai, Pagramantis, old burial-grounds of Balskai and Lylavėnai, the stone of Tamošaičiai, old settlements, places of manors, graveyards and the urban complex of Pagramantis settlement. The conception of recreational use of the park gives the priority to the formation of the system from four kinds of cognitive tourism: auto-tourism, water tourism, tourism of bicycles and pedestrian (Purvinas et all, 1997; Regulation of Pagramantis…, 1999; Standard Regulation of Pagramantis…, 2002). The natural characteristics of the territory of Pagramantis Regional Park are suitable to organize the cognitive tourism and to create the recreational infrastructure. The expressive relief of the valleys of Akmena and Jūra rivers (there are 12 exposures of 15 – 30 m height and 200 thousand years old) and good viewing possibilities of the territory (picturesque views of the surroundings can be overlooked from the top of the valleys) increase the visual quality and recreational attraction of the vicinity. The forests (pinewoods, fi r- woods, and soft leafy forests from birch trees, asps and etc.) form favourable microclimate, phytoncides, purity of weather and also create a visual attraction. The water, as the most important recreational component of the landscape, particularly increases the recreational and aesthetic potential of the territory: the rivers Jūra and Akmena fl ow through the arranged territory. All the objects of natural and cultural heritage (exposures, banks and scarps of the rivers, artifi cial mounds, old burial-grounds, stones and etc.) and visual environment creates a unique aura of the territory that attracts visitors. Taking into consideration that public interest in the mentioned objects of cultural and natural heritage and the intensity of their recreational use increases, the existing recreational infrastructure is insuffi cient. There is a lack of the equipped places for recreation, elements of the system of visual information, outdoor furniture, etc. There is not enough information about the objects of interest; it is diffi cult to fi nd them without the help of the employees of the park. The cuttings for the formation of the landscape have to be performed in majority of the areas. This shows the necessity of the arrangement of the recreational environment, supplement and renovation of the recreational infrastructure (Naureckaitė et all, 2006). Referring to the stated methodical principles of PRS arrangement, the tourist bicycles route and its recreational infrastructure has been designed and the arrangement of landscape spaces has been planned in order to resolve the abovementioned problems. The route is circular (35 km length) and begins in Pagramantis settlement. The recreational infrastructure has been planned near the objects and places of interest, where picturesque views can be seen. In this way the tourists can become familiar with the most valuable objects of the natural and cultural heritage of the park and its

130 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends distinctive landscape. At the same time the proposed organization of the streams of tourists and the adjusted for visiting valuable objects of the park help to protect them from the negative impact of recreational activity. Travelling by this route tourists become familiar with the urban structure and objects of cultural heritage of the central part of Pagramantis village, they have the possibility to know the unique formation of the valleys of Akmena and Jūra rivers: exposures, banks and scarps, artifi cial mounds of Pagramantis, Kreiviai, Indija, pristine view of Lylava stream, the stone of Tamošaičiai, oaks of Geniai, Gudlaukis, etc. The projected intensity of the recreational use of the route is 100 – 300 people per day; this would not exceed indicators of the recreational capacity of the territory. It is planned to set up fi ve resting-places, nine places of short-time relaxation and one campsite in the park. The outdoor furniture, shelters, fi replaces, playground, sanitarian, informational facility is being designed for them; trifl ing and introduced greenery is being removed and facings of the recreation and viewing places are being improved (facings of gravel and wood are designed). The resting-places are planned near the valley of Lak tingalos, Kreiviai and Indija artifi cial mounds, the bank of the river Akmena and the stream of Lylava. The places of short-time relaxation are planned near Pagramantis, between villages of Andriejaičiai and Pūtvė, in Burkėnai, near Alijošiškės, the stone of Tamošaičiai, exposure of Geniai, oaks of Geniai and Gudlaukis and the confl uence of Akmena and Jūra rivers. The recreational infrastructure of the existing campsite near the dam of Balskai is reconstructed without changing the placing of the elements. The system of visual information consists of informational stands, informational and directive arrows. Nineteen informational stands are designed in the route. The information about the valuable objects of the park natural and cultural heritage (about the rivers of Akmena and Jūra, artifi cial mounds of Pagramantis, Kreiviai, Indija, village of Pagramantis, the stone of Tamošaičiai and etc.) and the place of stop in the scheme of route is presented in them. The stands are erected in the resting-places and places of short-time relaxation, near the natural and cultural objects of interest. The directive arrows are located near the path and the informational arrows (which inform about the place of interest or recreation and distance to it) are located near the crossroads, not far from the resting-places and objects of interest. The role of the outdoor furniture, playground, informational and other facility as of the objects of the small architecture is very important in the places of recreation. They help to meet utilitarian and aesthetic needs of the visitors and to preserve and suitably use recreational resources of the place as well as relieve maintenance of it. The objects of the small architecture are designed considering such principles: stylistic unity, regard of regional architectural forms, proportions, materials, colours and textures (wood is used, the elements are impregnated with dark solution, the metal parts are left of natural colour), optimal nomenclature and possibility to use the set for the future tourist paths of the park, seeking to accentuate stylistic integrity and peculiarity. The recreational infrastructure of the route is designed near the existing roads and paths and the route itself is led through the existing roads, therefore there is no need to equip extra paths. The physical and visual impact of the infrastructure on the landscape will be local and there will not be changes of the landscape type, mosaic character and aesthetic potential, land use, natural framework, biotopes and functional zoning of the park. The cuttings for the formation of the landscape are planned near the bank of the river Akmena (1 ha), near the exposure of Geniai (1 ha) and near the confl uence of Akmena and Jūra rivers (1 ha) in order to open picturesque views of the landscape and to increase recreational potential of the tourist route environment.

Conclusions

1. The development of the cognitive tourism in national and regional parks stimulates to take the appropriate measures to adjust the parks landscape as the recreational environment and the object of tourist interest to intensifying recreational use and at the same time to preserve and if it is possible to improve its qualitative characteristics. 2. This problem has to be solved both in juridical and theoretical levels establishing methodical principles of the development and arrangement of landscape public recreational spaces as the territorial recreational system and elaborating these principles in the methodical guidelines of cognitive tourism routes planning and design. 3. The main provisions of public recreational spaces formation while developing cognitive tourism in the state parks are the creation of the target spatial model of recreational landscape protecting and increasing its recreational potential, establishment of character and intensity of cognitive recreational use and selection of the means for landscape protection, arrangement and rehabilitation. That is the designation of the routes of cognitive tourism, layout of the elements of the system of visual information and of the equipped recreation places, designing of the objects of the small architecture, elements of the system of visual information and other recreational facility, planning of the greenery arrangement and setting of the engineering measures for territory arrangement considering the criterions of ecology, diversity, functionality, visual harmony, meaningfulness, balance and dynamics. 4. In the project of the tourist bicycles route and its infrastructure in Pagramantis Regional Park the target spatial model of the landscape is related with the improvement of the landscape recreational characteristics without changing the landscape spatial structure and visual type, the intensity of the recreational use which does not exceed the indicators of the recreational capacity of the territory is planned and the means for preservation and arrangement of the landscape and for the increase of cognitive and recreational potential of it are selected.

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References

Bell S. (2008). Design for outdoor recreation, 2nd ed., Taylor & Francis, London. Daniulaitis G. J. (1997). Development of Recreation in National Parks of Lithuania. Proceedings of the Republican Scientifi c Conference “Recreational and Protective Forests and Their Use“, pp. 15–25, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Daniulaitis G. J., Kamičaitytė-Virbašienė J. (2006). Landscape Planning for the Recreational Needs. Material of landscape architecture lectures, Faculty of Construction and Architecture, Kaunas University of Technology. Government of the Republic of Lithuania (1999). Regulation of Pagramantis Regional Park. Available at http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=79229&p_query=&p_tr2= Government of the Republic of Lithuania (2002). Standard Regulation of Pagramantis Regional Park Preservation. Available at http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=181453&p_query=&p_tr2= Government of the Republic of Lithuania (2003). National Strategy of Sustainable Development. Available at http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=217644&p_query=&p_tr2= Government of the Republic of Lithuania (2007). National Programme of Tourism Development 2007 – 2013. Available at http://www3.lrs.lt/pls/inter3/dokpaieska.showdoc_l?p_id=341724&p_query=&p_tr2= Grecevičius P., Marčius R. (2006). The Strategical Aspects of the Formation of Recreational Landscape Spatial Structure Strenghtening Lithuanian Cultural Identity in the Context of the Baltic Countries. Town Planning and Architecture XXX(2), pp.87–97. Institute of Regional Researches of Lithuania (2002). Strategy of Tourism Development till 2015. Available at http://www.tourism.lt/nsv/index_veikla.html Kamičaitytė-Virbašienė J. (2003). Landscape Visual Quality Regulation in Environmental Design (Sample of Lithuania). Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Construction and Architecture, Kaunas Univeristy of Technology. Kavaliauskas P., Šilagalis R. (1979). Rural Landscape and Cognitive Recreation. Geography Annual 17, pp. 29–36. Kavaliauskas P. (1980). Organization of Recreation and Tourism and Recreational Geography. Set of Scientifi c Papers “Protection of Nature in Lithuania SSR”, pp.165–178, Institute of Botany of Lithuanian Academy of Sciences Kavaliauskas P., ilagalis R. (1981). Lets Design Cognitive Routes. Construction and Architecture 4, pp. 12–13. Kavaliauskas P. (1992). Methodological Fundamental of Land Management, Vilnius. Kavaliauskas P., Skorupskas R., Volungevičius J. (2004). Problem of Planning of the Geomorphologic Educational Paths. Geography Annual 37(1-2), pp. 184–199. Naureckaitė V., Kamičaitytė-Virbašienė J., Vitkuvienė J. (2006). System of Information and Recreational Infrastructure for Bicyclists in Pagramantis Regional Park. Technical project, Forest Inventory and Management Institute, Kaunas. Pridotkienė L., Grecevičius P. (2006). Recreational Environment, Klaipėda. Purvinas M., Zauka V., Daniulaitis G., Naureckaitė V., Kvietkus A., Duobienė G. (1997). Planning Scheme of Pagramantis Regional Park. Special plan, Institute of Construction and Architecture, Kaunas. Riepšas E. (1981). Forest and Recreation, Mokslas, Vilnius. Riepšas E., Pališkis E. (1985). Paths in Nature, LGAD, Vilnius. Riep as E. (1997). Some Aspects of the Optimization of Recreational Forest Use. Proceedings of the Republican Scientifi c Conference “Recreational and Protective Forests and Their Use“, pp. 36–39, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Riep as E. (2007). Recreational Forestry: Educational Book, Akademija, Kaunas. Stauskas V. (1966). Methodology of Landscape Assessment while Planning Recreational Regions. Questions of Architecture of Lithuania SSR 3(5), pp. 184 – 206. Stauskas V. (1977). Planning of Recreational Regions and Centres, Leningrad. Stauskas V. (2000). Cultural Landscape and Tourism: Problems and Ways of Mutual Harmonization. Proceedings of the Republican Scientifi c Conference “Value and Peculiarity of Lithuanian Landscape”, pp. 39–43, Kaunas University of Technology. ilagalis R., Krupickas R. (1986). How to Equip Tourist Routes: Methodical Guidelines, Council of the Tourism and Excursions of the Republic of Lithuania, Vilnius. Turner T. (2003). Landscape Planning and Environmental Impact Design, 2nd ed., Routledge, London.

Jūratė KAMIČAITYTĖ-VIRBAŠIENĖ. Doctor, associated professor. Research interests: landscape visual quality analysis, evaluation and regulation by means of environmental design, methods of planned activity or object visual impact assessment, analysis of social preferences evaluating landscape visual quality and use of the analysis results in territory planning. Kaunas University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Land Management, Studentu g. 48, Kaunas 51367, Lithuania; e-mail: jurate.kamicaityte@ ktu.lt; tel.: +370 37 451546, mob. tel.: +370 614 77082 Jurga VITKUVIENĖ. Assistant. Research interests: recreational land management, principles and methods of spatial arrangement of recreational landscape, preservation of cultural heritage in urban and rural environment. Kaunas University of Technology, Department of Architecture and Land Management, Studentu g. 48, Kaunas 51367, Lithuania; e-mail: [email protected]; tel.: +370 37 451546

132 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

The Analysis of Cadastral Measurements in Kaunas, Klaipėda and Vilnius Districts during 2003-2008

Darius Pupka Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

When restoring ownership rights to the extant immovable property tentative measurements (the particular error is allowable while defi ning the actual plot area) are carried out. If one needs accuracy, after the receipt of the documents on ownership rights it is possible to order geodetic measurements using own fi nance. The tendencies of geodetic measurements carried out in agricultural purpose land plots as well as registered in the Immovable property registry of three largest districts of Lithuanian towns (Kaunas, Klaipėda and Vilnius) during 2003-2008 are analysed in the article. Having analysed the whole agricultural purpose land, which is registered in the Immovable property registry, we came to the conclusion that there are 19% of the geodetically measured agricultural purpose land situated in Klaipėda district, in Kaunas district – 23%, in Vilnius district – 20%, respectively. Having compared these geodetic measurements carried out in three districts during 2003-2008 one can see that the number of these measurements increased every year especially with the improvement of our country’s economical situation during 2003-2007; however, already in 2008 the increase was changed by the decrease tendency. Key words: cadastral measurements, land reform, agricultural land

Introduction

1.4 million inhabitants live in three largest Lithuanian towns and their surroundings (Fig. 1). It makes up approx. 40% of all Lithuanian inhabitants. 60% of Lithuanian gross domestic product (GDP) is produced namely in these counties (Department of statistics, 2009). The agricultural purpose land situated around these towns meets the part of food industry (which is concentrated in these towns and their regions) demands. It conditions the intensity of agricultural production in agricultural purpose lands situated around these towns. Therefore, this land becomes expensive and valuable. Since during the land reform the owners of the agricultural purpose lands had received their lands by preliminary measures, the demand for accurate measurements (especially in high value lands) of agricultural purpose lands occurred. The aim of investigations – to analyse fl uctuations of cadastral measurements going on in agricultural purpose lands in the districts of three largest Lithuanian towns during the period of 2003-2008. Tasks to be sold – to analyse the tendencies of geodetic measurements carried out in agricultural purpose lands according to the number of plots, the size of the area and the average plot as well as to compare the differences of the analysed districts. The object of investigation – the agricultural purpose land area registered in the Immovable property registry situated in Kaunas, Klaipėda and Vilnius districts.

Methods

The data received from the state enterprise “The Centre of Registers” were used as well as laws and laws accompanying acts connected with cadastral measurements were analysed (NŽT information, 2009). Internet websites and periodic publications were used for the investigation. The accumulated data were analysed and classifi ed according to the separate tasks of the investigation. Statistical methods and systematic analysis were used for the investigation as well as the statistical data connected with the cadastral measurements of land plots situated in Kaunas, Vilnius and Klaipėda districts.

Results

The cadastral measurements of agricultural purpose land plots of the districts located around three largest Lithuanian towns (Kaunas, Klaipėda and Vilnius) are carried out very intensively Figure 1. Three largest Lithuanian towns

133 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends as compared to other Lithuanian territories (Fig. 1). Approximate tentative measurements are changed into cadastral measurements. Such changes are not fulfi lled very quickly, because cadastral measurements are technically more complex, they are more expensive and are not essential for the disposal, management and use of agricultural purpose land plots.

Requirements for land cadastral measurements

The time for the fulfi lment of cadastral measurements is regulated by the law № VIII-1764 on the immovable property cadastre passed on June 27, 2000. Cadastral measurements of land plots, while defi ning the coordinates of epochs and landmarks of land plots on the state geodetic coordinate system, are carried out while: 1) dividing immovable item (registered in the Immovable property registry) into separate immovable items; 2) dividing parts of immovable item (managed on general ownership rights and registered in the Immovable property registry) and forming them as separate immovable items; 3) consolidating several immovable items (registered in the Immovable property registry) into one immovable item; 4) carrying out amalgamation of immovable items. Carrying out cadastral measurements of land plots: 1) land plot boundaries are defi ned and marked by landmarks (if it was not carried out before) or when damaged and earlier marked landmarks of land plot boundaries are renovated. Institution accredited by the Government defi nes standards and marking regulations of landmarks. After the marking of land plot boundaries, the marking-showing act on land plot boundaries is made, which is an inseparable part of the fi le of the cadastral data about immovable item; 2) the coordinates of epochs and landmarks of land plots boundaries as well as the coordinates of the contours of constructions are defi ned by cadastral measurements on the state plane coordinate system; 3) factual farming lands are cartographed; 4) total land plot area as well as farming land areas are calculated; 5) land plot plan is prepared; 6) land plot value is calculated according to the order set by the Government; 7) the form for the land plot cadastral data is fi lled; Persons, who carry out cadastral measurements, must use the following cartographic material: 1) the copies of land management projects and other special plans, in which land plots are formed; 2) the copies of land plot plans (when these plots were measured earlier); 3) orthographic and topographic maps prepared on the basis of orthographic ones. The area of land plot calculated after the fulfi lment of cadastral measurements can differ from that registered in the Immovable property registry or (not registered land plots) from the one formed in the land management project or other territory planning document at not more than maximum permissible (limitary) error of the area. When the error of the land plot area exceeds the maximum permissible one, work superintendent informs client and the head of the land management department in writing. In such case measurement works can be continued only after when territory planning documents as well as land plot boundaries formed in them will be specifi ed according to the order set by legal acts. When measuring earlier marked land plots, temporary landmarks of land plots are changed by permanent ones and land plot boundaries are marked in the cartographical material. Ruined landmarks are rebuilt according to land management projects or the plans of neighbouring geodetically measured land plots. Land plot boundaries (going by land) are marked by landmarks. Good visibility should be between neighbouring landmarks. When land plot boundaries synchronize with natural or artifi cial objects (building’s wall, row of trees, etc.) landmarks are not used. For the marking of land plots landmarks are used. They are small columns not shorter than 1 meter and produced from reinforced concrete or plastic and having mark on the upper part of the column for the precise coordination of the landmark. Landmarks are dug into the depth of 60-70 cm, while bulking (near foundation) 30 cm high and 1.5 m in diameter hill of soil. Small ditch is dug near the hill. Subject to the situation (when boundary goes on asphalt or concrete coverings), other marks of the marking of epochs and landmarks of land plots boundaries, such as metal sticks, pipes, etc., can be used. The client and work superintendent agree upon the way of the marking of epochs and landmarks of land plot boundaries. After the marking of the land plot boundaries in the locality the act on the marking of the land plot boundaries is made. The act is signed by witness persons, client himself (or his attorney) and work superintendent. The act on the land plot marking is coordinated by the head of land management department noting that land plot boundaries are marked according to the requirements of legal acts (Valstybės žinios Nr. 18-790, 2003).

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The course of the of agricultural purpose land cadastral measurements

Table 1. The data on the cadastral and tentative measurements of the agricultural purpose land (VĮ “Registrų centras”, 2009) Number of plots Area (in ha) Average land plot size (in ha)

Vilnius Kaunas Klaipėda Vilnius Kaunas Klaipėda Vilnius Kaunas Klaipėda district district district district district district district district district

2003 590 358 176 915 690 598 1,55 1,93 3,4

2004 958 528 552 1627 725 1222 1,7 1,37 2,21

2005 1252 621 689 2080 722 1305 1,66 1,16 1,89

2006 2157 847 1558 2587 1334 2522 1,2 1,57 1,62

2007 1802 1420 2062 2596 1904 3022 1,44 1,34 1,46

2008 856 720 1713 1325 1245 2852 1,55 1,73 1,66

Total number during 7615 4494 6750 11130 6620 11521 1,46 1,47 1,71 2003-2008

Total number of 8896 7021 6997 14248 14939 12468 1,6 2,12 1,78 cadastral measurements

Total number of registered agricultural 52736 43438 47193 72300 63906 66021 1,37 1,47 1,4 purpose land plots

Cadastral measurements are a guarantee of ownership and justice. The trust for approximate (tentative) measurements can result in the loss of the part of property or long litigation (P.Aleknavičius, 2007). Consequently, the registered part of the agricultural purpose land (with carried out cadastral measurements) of three districts, is shown in Table 1. Comparing three districts according to the number of plots, the above mentioned part in Vilnius district will make up 17%, in Kaunas district – 16%, in Klaipėda district – 15% of the total number of the registered agricultural purpose land. According to this index, expression (in per cent) of the measured plots is similar. Comparing the plots, result will be the following: in Vilnius district cadastral measurements were carried out in 20% of the total registered area of agricultural purpose land, in Kaunas district – in 23% and in Klaipėda district – in 19%. According to the areas Kaunas ditrict tops the list and in the nearest future cadastral measurements will be carried out to the quarter of the total area of the agricultural purpose land.

Figure 2. Fluctuation of the carried out cadastral measurements of the agricultural purpose land plots according to the number of plots during 2003-2008

135 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Figure 3. Fluctuation of the carried out cadastral measurements of the agricultural purpose land plots according to the area of plots during 2003-2008

Figure 4. Fluctuation of the average land plot of the carried out cadastral measurements of the agricultural purpose land plots during 2003-2008

After the fulfi llment of the analysis of cadastral measurements in Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda districts one can see that the largest number of land plots (during the analyzed period) was registered in 2007, i.e. 5284 plots (Fig. 2). The exception was Vilnius district where the decrease was noticed as compared to 2006. Starting with 2003, the constant increase of geodetically measured land plots was noticed. In 2003, 1124 plots were registered, in 2004 – 2038, in 2005 – 2562, in 2006 – was especially big jump (1.8 times), i.e. – 4562 plots. Since 2007, less and less cadastral measurements have been carried out. During one year they decreased by 1995 plots, i.e. by 60% less comparing with 2007. Comparing every district separately, (in 2003-2005) the increasing tendency in every one of them was constant and rather equal. It can be visibly seen in Fig. 1. However, since 2005-2006 the number of cadastral measurements and at the same time the registration of geodetically measured land plots increased signifi cantly in Klaipėda and Vilnius districts. In 2007, the increase was noticed in Kaunas (70%) and Klaipėda (30%) districts. In 2008, the changes were only in the direction of decrease. In Vilnius and Kaunas districts the number of geodetically measured plots were registered less than 2 times. Only in Klaipėda district the decrease was not so sudden, i.e. 20%. Comparing the fl uctuation of the analysis of the carried out plots, it is similar to the tendencies of the plot number analysis. Therefore, since 2003, the geodetically measured agricultural purpose land plot areas increased up to the year 2007 (Fig. 3). However, already in 2007-2008, the tendency of the decrease of geodetically measured agricultural purpose land plot areas occurred. In 2003, cadastral measurements were carried out in the area of 2203 ha of all three districts, in 2004 – 3574 ha, in 2005 – 4107 ha, in 2006 – 6443 ha, in 2007 – 7522 ha, and in 2008 – 5422 ha. Consequently, the areas, where geodetic measurements had been carried out, increased by 3.5 times during the four years (2003-2007). During the fi ve analyzed years, accurate measurements were carried out in the area of 29271 ha and it makes up approx. 15% of the

136 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends agricultural purpose land area of these districts. Having in mind that before the year 2003 cadastral measurements had been carried out as well, and they had been carried out in the area of 12384 ha, it would make up 41655 ha or 21% of the total registered agricultural purpose land in Vilnius, Kaunas and Klaipėda districts. First land plots were started to be registered in 1992 and only 12384 ha of the agricultural purpose land plots were geodetically measured till 2003, i.e. in 11 years less than in fi ve years after the year 2003. This process was so slow due to the fact that Lithuanian inhabitants very often were fi nancially bankrupt to pay for geodetic measurements, therefore, they chose tentative ones instead, though these measurements did not guarantee and does not guarantee the real land ownership protection (Maksvytis, 2002). After 2003, with the economical rise of Lithuania and with the increased incomes of inhabitants land plot owners started to carry out cadastral measurements of land plots. It was infl uenced not only by the wish to change tentative measurements into accurate ones, but by the building boom connected with it as well. Analyzing the change of the areas in every district, the tendency (till 2007) was in the direction of increase (Fig. 3). Especially distinguishes Klaipėda district for the rapid increase (since 2005) of the area of geodetically measured land plots. During 2005-2006 the area increased twice as much in Klaipėda district, and during 2006-2007 much higher increase was also noticed as compared to Kaunas and Vilnius districts. Comparing with two other districts according to the total area of the registered agricultural purpose land Klaipėda district tops the list when carrying out cadastral measurements after the year 2005. This tendency remains and in 2008, though the tendency of decrease is noticed, however, comparing to Vilnius and Kaunas districts it is not big decrease. Namely in Klaipėda district 170 ha decreased in 2007-2008, in Vilnius district – 1271 ha, in Kaunas district – 659 ha. The lowest number of the carried out cadastral measurements during 2003-2008 was in Kaunas district, i.e. 6620 ha. In Vilnius and Klaipėda districts situation is similar – In Klaipėda district – 11521 ha, in Vilnius district – 11130 ha. However, according to the registered area of the agricultural purpose land Klaipėda district remains the leader in this fi eld. Comparing the average size of the measured agricultural purpose land plots in Kaunas, Vilnius and Klaipėda districts during 2003-2008, plot decreasing tendency prevails (Fig. 4). Exception was the year 2008, when the larger average plot size was being noticed. In 2003 the largest average plot size was – 2.29 ha. In 2004, the sudden decrease up to 1.76 ha occurred, in 2005 – 1.57 ha, in 2006 – 1.46 ha, in 2007 – 1.41 ha, in 2008 – 1.64 ha. The data of the years 2003- 2005 were determined by the statistics of Klaipėda district, because here was the largest average plot size in 2003 – 3.4 ha, whereas in Kaunas district it was 1.93 ha and in Vilnius district – 1.55 ha (Fig. 4). After the year 2003, it was noticed the big decrease of the average land plot in Klaipėda district. Since 2006, the average difference of the geodetically measured agricultural purpose land plot area becomes low in all three districts. In 2007, this difference almost equals and this tendency remains till 2008.

Conclusions

1. The economical upturn going on in our country had impact upon the increase of the geodetic measurements of the agricultural purpose land plots. 2. Since 2003 and 2007, the number and areas of agricultural purpose land plots (to which cadastral measurements had been carried out) increased in all three districts. 3. Klaipėda district was distinguished for the especially high number of cadastral measurements. 4. In 2008, the tendency of decrease was fi xed in all three districts and it was returned to the level of the years 2005-2006. 5. The average geodetically measured agricultural purpose land area decreased till 2007 and only in 2008 it fractionally increased in all three districts.

References

Aleknavičius P. (2007), Žemės teisė, Kaunas- Akademija. Statistikos departamentas (2009). Bendrasis vidaus produktas. Available at http://www.stat.gov.lt/lt/pages/view/?id=2414 Maksvytis k., (2002). Žemės reformos darbų eiga Lietuvoje. Matininkų naujienos 2,4. Lietuvos Respublikos seimas 2000. Nekilnojamojo turto kadastro įstatymas – 2000 06 27 Nr. VIII-1764. Valstybės žinios 2001, Nr. 16-497; 2003, Nr. 57-2530; 2007, Nr. 4-159; 2008, Nr. 4-120. Lietuvos respublikos žemės ūkio ministro 2002m. gruodžio 30 d. įsakymas Nr.522 „Dėl nekilnojamojo turto objektų kadastrinių matavimų ir kadastro duomenų surinkimo bei tikslinimo taisyklių patvirtinimo“, Valstybės žinios, 2003, Nr. 18-790 Nacionalinė žemės tarnyba prie žemės ūkio ministerijos 2009. Lietuvos Respublikos žemės fondas 2009 sausio 1 d., Vilnius. VĮ „Registrų centras“, (2009). Kauno, Vilniaus, Klaipėdos rajonų kadastrinių matavimų duomenys.

Darius PUPKA. Doctoral student. Cadastre. GIS, land management, IT. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Address: Universiteto 10, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania. Tel. +370 37 75 23 72; email. darius. [email protected]

137 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

The Selling of the State Agricultural Purpose Land in Lithuania

Vilma Sudonienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

According to the Law on the land reform, counties governors make solutions on the to selling of the state agricultural purpose land and the territorial land management departments of their administrations prepare documents concerning the selling of land. The state agricultural purpose land plots situated in rural vicinities are sold, when they are formed in land ownership projects (pans) or other territory planning documents and registered in the Real estate Registered according to the order set by laws. At present, the number of persons wishing to purchase not only private but also the state agricultural purpose land increases, therefore, the chosen aim of this article was to analyze the selling of the state agricultural purpose land plots in Lithuania as well as to investigate land management perspectives of the agricultural purpose land. The object of investigation – the agricultural purpose land situated in the territory of the Republic of Lithuania as well as persons purchasing the state agricultural purpose land. During the investigation the methods of literature analysis, statistical analysis as well as comparative analysis methods were used. Legal acts, scientifi c as well as other articles connected with the analysed theme were used during the investigation. Statistical data were used as well. During the investigation it was determined that according to the data of January 1, 2009 received from the counties governors’ administrations the largest number of persons wishing to purchase state agricultural purpose land was in Šiauliai county – 3578, in Panevėžys county – 3157 and in Telšiai county- 3009. 23372 physical persons rendered applications to 368 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. One physical person wished to purchase on the average 15.8 ha. Juridical persons rendered 459 applications to 46 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. One juridical person wished to purchase on the average 100.2 ha. he largest number of buy-sell agreements on the state agricultural purpose land area was made in Tel iai county – 1419, whereas in Vilnius county – only 10. In our country, 3720 persons made buy-sell agreements for the area of 47 thousand ha. On the average, one physical person purchased 9.8 ha and one juridical person – 97.4 ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. 204 persons, who bought state agricultural purpose land, had not to pay over two million Lt due to interest delay and price lowering coeffi cients, therefore, it is possible to confess that such kind of support is very important for farmers. Key words: agricultural land, selling state land, competitive farm

Introduction

During the restoration of citizens’ ownership rights to land, forests and water bodies the main attention was paid to the restoration of ownership rights to land. At present, more often one landowner or land user cultivates land in several small, irregularly-shaped and drifted apart land plots. Such cultivation of lands is inconvenient and uneconomical. It impedes the work of farming persons and does not allow the establishment of competitive farms. Many individual farmers are forced to go into agricultural production in order to meet only their individual requirements. Lately, the number of persons, wishing to purchase not only private land but the state agricultural purpose one as well, increases. The aim of the article was to investigate the selling of the state land plots used for agricultural purposes in Lithuania as well as to analyse perspectives of the management of agricultural purpose land. Tasks to be solved: to discuss and to determine the number of persons having priority rights to buy the state agricultural purpose land without auction; to carry out the analysis of the selling of the state agricultural purpose land in Lithuania; to discuss support given to the persons purchasing the state agricultural purpose land; to determine the fl uctuation of the farmers’ land-tenures recorded in the Farm register during the years 2004-2009; to evaluate factors infl uencing the selling processes of the state agricultural purpose land. The object of investigation – the agricultural purpose land situated in the Republic of Lithuania as well as persons purchasing the state agricultural purpose land. During the investigation the methods of literature analysis, statistical analysis as well as comparative analysis ones were used. Legal acts, scientifi c as well as other articles connected with the analysed theme were used during the investigation. Statistical data were used as well. Important factors conditioning the rational management of the agricultural purpose land is a possibility for persons, who wish and are capable to progressively farm, to purchase land for private ownership. The properly planned use of the land should guarantee the necessary level of agricultural production, soil protection, ecological stability of territories and improvement of agricultural farming lands’ quality.

Results

The vacant state agricultural purpose land situated in rural localities is sold when it is formed in plots in land-tenures projects (plans) or in other territory planning documents, after the determination of the main purposive destination of land plots, the way and character of its usage, special and use conditions and after the registration in the Real estate register according to the order set by Civil code, Land law, Land reform law and other legal acts. According to the territory planning documents agricultural purpose land encompasses land areas suitable for the production of agricultural products. Physical and juridical persons of the Republic of Lithuania as well as foreigners, who had been living in Lithuania not less than 3 years and were engaged in agricultural activity as well as foreign juridical persons and other foreign

138 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends organizations having their own embassy or subsidiary companies in Lithuania, are able to buy the state agricultural purpose land plots. At present, the purchase of the agricultural purpose land is regulated by the following main legal acts: 1) Land law. The fi fth part of the10th chapter of this law regulates the purchase of the state agricultural land plots without auction (land plots built up with buildings and facilities belonging to persons on ownership rights; land plots given to gardeners’ communities, etc.) (Žemės, 1994). 2) Land reform law. The order of priority was determined by the 10th chapter of this law, according to which (with the fulfi lment of land reform) land plots should be formed in the rural areas in the land reform land management projects or other territory planning documents (Žemės, 1991). The to-be-sold without auction agricultural purpose land plots are formed in 11-16 rows, i.e. after the process, when land plots are formed in 1-10 rows, to which ownership rights are restored for the inhabitants. 3) The temporary law „On the purchase of agricultural purpose land“. The selling of the agricultural purpose land on easy terms (price lowering coeffi cients are applied to the land plot price, to the buying of land by instalments, to the suspension of payments by instalments for the agricultural purpose land, to the buying of land in order of priority without auction, to the compensation of the part of interest), consolidated in the temporary law on the purchase of the agricultural purpose land, is state’s contribution which is coordinated with the European Commission (Žemės, 2003). The European Commission agreed (concerning state’s contribution) that Lithuania would apply state support when purchasing agricultural purpose land. 4) The decision No889 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania „On the state support when purchasing agricultural purpose land“ (July 8, 2003) (Lietuvos, 2003) as well as the decision No205 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania “On the order of land evaluation” (February 24, 1999) (Lietuvos, 2002) were accepted while implementing provisions of the temporary law „On the purchase of agricultural purpose land“. 5) The decision of the Republic of Lithuania No236 „On the selling and leasing of the land plots of the state agricultural purpose land“, which determines the detailed procedure of the selling of the state agricultural purpose land plots. After the long discussions and analysis over the selling and leasing of the state agricultural purpose land plots, on December 19, 2007, the Government of the Republic of Lithuania accepted the adjustment of the above-mentioned decision. Only after the acceptance of the above-mentioned decision the already started procedures of the purchase of the state agricultural purpose lands could be resumed (Lietuvos, 2002). In order to ensure the publicity and transparency of the land reform land management works, the information on the territory chosen for the preparation of the land reform land management project, on the areas of the vacant state land, on the areas of the state redeemable or non-privatised lands, on the areas of forests and water reservoirs, on the beginning and terms of the preparation of land management projects, etc. is published in local press, on the internet website of the County Governor’s Administration as well as on the notice-board of the subdistrict, in which the land management project is being prepared. The subject of the state support when purchasing agricultural purpose land is considered physical person with professional skills and competence. It is physical person, who has declared agricultural farming land or crop not earlier than the year going before placing an order and the one administering book-keeping accounts, who has practical farming experience and has registered farmer’s farm in set order or has practical farming experience or agricultural education diploma or document confi rming his professional preparation for farming. Also, the subject of the state support when purchasing agricultural purpose land is considered such physical person, who is a producer of agricultural production, who’s yearly income for the realized marketable agricultural production makes up more than 50 per cent of all incomes received and who’s economical vitality could be confi rmed after the evaluation of this person’s perspectives according to the order set by the Ministry of Agriculture. Agricultural activity is an activity encompassing the production and processing of agricultural products, the production and processing of the products (processed by farmers themselves) the realization of these products as well as the rendering of agricultural services. The production of foodstuff from the products not produced and processed by farmers themselves is considered as non-agricultural activity. Such activity, when agricultural products are received from nature, is called the production of agricultural products and the procession of agricultural products is called the preparation of agricultural products not changing its primary physical and chemical composition. To buy the state agricultural purpose land in order of priority without auction have persons, who have been using their agricultural purpose land plots for not less than 1 year, who have land plots on ownership rights, which neighbour upon the sold agricultural purpose land plot, young farmers under 40 years old, those who have registered farmer’s farm according to the order set by the Farmer’s farm law and who have been using land plots for agricultural activity not less than for 1 year. These conditions exactly help ensure the right for the persons cultivating land to have priority to purchase this same land from the state. The market price for the persons, who have priority rights to purchase state agricultural purpose land plots without auction, is calculated according to the Law on the bases of property and business evaluation (Turto, 1999).

139 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Therefore, before the making of the buy-sell agreements on the state agricultural purpose land plots, the market value of the to-be-sold and registered in the Real estate register land plots is being determined. Estimators (according to the order set by the Counties Governors’ Administrations according to the order on Public procurement) made agreements of property (land plot) evaluation services. Cadastral measurements of land plots are carried out when determining the epochs and landmarks of land plot boundaries on the state plane coordinate system, therefore, the to-be-sold land plots projected in land management projects are marked using geodetic instruments. All above-mentioned selling procedures of the state agricultural purpose land as well as the preparation of documents take much time; therefore, not much buy-sell agreements of the state land are made during one year. While purchasing agricultural purpose land, support receivers can buy the state agricultural purpose land by instalment, but not longer than for the period of 15 years, starting to pay during the second year and paying at once 10 per cent of the land price. Part of interest can be compensated to him for the purchase of the private agricultural purpose land if the land-ownership will be expanded after the purchase or the compact agricultural domain will be formed. Coeffi cients lowering land plot prices can be applied to the young farmers (up to 40 years): 0.6 coeffi cient, if the young farmer (up to 40 years) pays the entire land plot price at once and 0.75 coeffi cient, if the young farmer (up to 40 years) buys land by instalments. Attention should be paid to the fact that the right to buy the state agricultural purpose land without auction is considered as state support (Žemės, 2003). According to the data provided by the Counties Governors’ Administrations, 204 persons used the state support when purchasing agricultural purpose land from the state, i.e. these persons having right to by agricultural purpose land by instalments, started to pay interest during the second artifi cial year after the making of the buy-sell agreement paying at once 5 or 10 per cent of the land price (www.nzt.lt). They bought state agricultural purpose land plots while applying 0.6 and 0.75 coeffi cients. Consequently, these 204 persons had not to pay over 2 million Lt due to interest delay as well as due to price lowering coeffi cients. Therefore, it is possible to confess that such kind of support to farmers is an important one. Persons, who had purchased the state agricultural purpose land in order of priority, can change land’s destination only after the 5 years from the land procurement day. The condition, noting that the state agricultural purpose land is used not according to its destination and it can be repurchased for the same price by the state, is written into the buy- sell agreement. The above-mentioned law notes as well that those who had purchased the land with the price lowering coeffi cient, acquire the right to transfer the land to other physical or juridical persons not earlier than after the 5 years from the day of the purchase of the land. These conditions are very important in order to preclude the possibility to gamble on the land purchased from the state on easy terms. In the territories of state parks and state reserves only land plots of premises, individual farms gardeners’ communities as well as land plots, which are not larger than 5 ha and are suitable for agricultural activity and which are intervened between private land plots, can be transferred for private ownership. These land plots can be sold to the owners of neighbouring land plots without the keeping to the order set in this article. Consequently, following this condition territorial complexes and objects (valuables) of the natural and cultural heritage as well as the biological variety of the landscape should be preserved. Landscape’s ecological balance as well as the balanced use and recreation of natural resources should be ensured. It is noted that the decision of the Constitutional Court accepted on March 30, 2006 (Lietuvos, 2006) has stated that the determination (by law) of the maximal sizes of the land plots of agricultural purpose land does not mean by itself that personal ownership rights, freedom of farming activity, other constitutional rights and freedoms are constitutionally ungrounded. The Constitutional Court has stated as well that the determination of such maximal sizes can be one of the measures creating preconditions for the rational management of agricultural purpose lands as well as for the proper development of agricultural business and stimulation of honest competition in agriculture. At present, persons can purchase land in so far as the total area of agricultural purpose land (purchased from the state) should not exceed 300 ha and the total area of the land of agricultural purpose (belonging to one person and purchased from the state or other persons) should not exceed 500 ha. Till the effect of this law, physical persons could purchase up to 300 ha and juridical persons – up to 2000 ha of the land (Žemės, 2003). Solutions to sell state agricultural purpose land usually take counties’ governors. Territorial land management departments prepare documents concerning the selling of this land and check in the central data bank of the Real estate register if the maximal area of the purchased land does not exceed the determined maximum allowable one. The analysis of the results of the farms’ agricultural activity (carried out by the Agrarian Institute of Economics according to the general methodology of the EU with reference to the data of agricultural respondent enterprises of 2004) shows that the profi tability of the farms larger than 500 ha is by 6 per cent points lower than that of 300-500 ha farms. Constant expenses for one ha of agricultural farming lands increase in the farms larger than 500 ha. It shows that with the expansion of the farm comparatively larger investments for agricultural machinery are needed (http://www.laei.lt). According to the data of the counties governors’ administrations received till January 1st, 2009, 23.8 thousand applications for 414 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area have been presented (Fig. 1).

140 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Figure 1. Number of applications to the state agricultural purpose land

In the presented fi gure we can see that the largest number of persons wishing to purchase state agricultural purpose land is in Šiauliai county, i.e. 3578, in Panevėžys county – 3157 and in Telšiai county – 3009 (www.nzt.lt). The state agricultural purpose land can be sold only according to the order set by legal acts and after the rendering of all documents necessary. According to the data (made by counties governors’ administrations) of January 1, 2009, 23372 applications for the areas of 368 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land were presented by physical persons. Juridical persons have presented 459 applications for the purchase of 46 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. The types of agricultural purpose land areas that physical and juridical persons had wished to purchase or had already purchased are presented in fi gures 2 and 3.

Figure 2. The area of the state agricultural purpose land area wished to be purchased and purchased by physical person in 2004-2009 years

Figure 3. The area of the state agricultural purpose land area wished to be purchased and purchased by juridical person in 2004-2009 years

141 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

In the presented fi gures one can see that one physical person on the average wished to purchase 12.5 ha of agricultural purpose land area, whereas he purchased on the average 8.6 ha. One juridical person on the average wished to purchase 106 ha of agricultural purpose land area and purchased only 62 ha. Consequently, the area of the wished to purchase agricultural purpose land was much more bigger than the purchased one. The state agricultural purpose land plots situated in rural vicinities are sold when they are formed in land- ownership projects (plans) or other territory planning documents and are registered in the Real estate register according to the order set by laws. According to the data (made by counties governors’ administrations) of January 1, 2009, land plots were formed to 7525 persons in the confi rmed land reform land management projects in the area of 120 thousand ha. The largest number of buy-sell agreements on the state agricultural purpose land was made in Tel iai county – 1419, whereas in Vilnius county – only 10 (Fig. 4).

Figure 4. Number of made buy-sell agreements on the state agricultural purpose land

According to the data (made by counties governors’ administrations) of January 1, 2009, 3720 persons made buy-sell agreements for 47 thousand ha of land area. On the average, one physical person purchased 9.8 ha, whereas one juridical person purchased 97.4 ha of the state agricultural purpose land area (www.nzt.lt). It is predicted that after the fi nish of the works on the restoration of ownership rights, 0.5 million ha of the vacant state fund land will be left in our country. The further land management policy should be connected with the improvement of farming structures, environment protection as well as with the development of rural infrastructure. We hope that such land management principles will create favourable conditions for the development of agricultural purpose land market as well as for the creation of competitive farms. In order to avoid dangers for the creation of competitive agricultural production as well as to properly prepare for the further stage of land management works it is necessary to create land resource information system, to ensure the suitable functioning of the real estate administration system and conditions for the development of real estate market. The further management of the land is connected with the reformation of land plots, when boundaries and place of land plots are changed at landowners’ request in order to expand land plots, to form rational land tenures of farms, to improve their structure, to create necessary infrastructure, to implement other aims and tasks concerning agriculture, rural development and environmental policy. The distribution of farmers’ land tenures registered in the Farmers’ Farm Register according to the fl uctuation of grouped used (declared) agricultural farming land areas in 2004-2009 is presented in Fig. 5 (http://www.nzt.lt).

Figure 5 Distribution of farmers’ land tenures registered in the Farmers’ Farm Register according to the fl uctuation of grouped (declared) agricultural farming land areas in 2004-2009, in per cent

142 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

In the presented fi gure we can see that the area of the land used for agricultural activity (of farmers’ land tenures registered in the Farmers’ Farm Register in 2004-2009) fl uctuates from 3 up to 10 ha (36.7%) and from 10 up to 20 ha (19.5%) (www.nzt.lt). Small land ownership areas are not rational for cultivation purposes. Such farms are not competitive, therefore the expansion and consolidation of agricultural purpose land plots is obligatory. State support policy has the largest signifi cance upon the expansion of agricultural purpose land plots. The tendency that only large farms and large agricultural companies are able to purchase land was noticed. The number of farmers (registered in the Farmers’ Farm Register) having land tenures up to 1 ha has been increasing in latter years. It was infl uenced by the change of the Law on Farmer’s farm (passed on January 17, 2008), which allowed farmers to built one homestead in the agricultural purpose land without the preparation of detailed plans. Farmer’s homestead or subsidiary buildings are built in the agricultural purpose land plot (not smaller than 0.5 ha) belonging to the farmer on ownership rights (Ūkininko, 1999). Farmers, agricultural companies or other persons usually buy the land, which is cultivated by themselves and which neighbours upon their own land. During last seven years, such processes were stimulated by legal acts favourable for both rural inhabitants and land cultivating farmers. So, fi rstly, citizens’ applications to the restoration of ownership rights, and only then – persons’ applications to buy state land are being satisfi ed. The state agricultural purpose land could be sold in such places where land restoration is over and there is some vacant land left. This process should stimulate expansion of land ownerships, creation of competitive farms and less and less vacant unused land will be left. Only after the purchase of agricultural purpose land to ownership, farmers and other subjects of agricultural activity will be guaranteed that they will be able to use fi nancial support from the European Union structural funds and will be able to bravely invest into agricultural domains while accelerating their shake-up, modernization, while increasing competitive ability of production and while improving conditions of work and production.

Conclusions

1. According to the data of January 1, 2009, the largest number of persons wishing to purchase the state agricultural purpose land was in Šiauliai county – 3578, in Panevėžys county – 3157, in Telšiai county – 3009. 23372 physical persons rendered applications to 368 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. Juridical persons rendered 459 applications to 46 thousand ha of the state agricultural purpose land area. 2. In 2004-2009, one physical person wished to purchase on the average 15.8 ha, whereas one juridical person wished to purchase on the average 100.2 ha. On the average one physical person purchased 9.8 ha and one juridical person – 97.4 ha. 3. According to the data of January 1, 2009, the largest number of buy-sell agreements on the state agricultural purpose land area was made in Tel iai county – 1419, whereas in Vilnius county – only 10. In our country, 3720 persons made buy-sell agreements for the area of 47 thousand ha. 4. 204 persons who bought state agricultural purpose land had not to pay over two million Lt due to interest delay and price lowering coeffi cients, therefore it is possible to confess that such kind of support is very important for farmers. 5. The prevailing area of the land tenures (used for agricultural activity) registered in the Farmers farms register fl uctuates from 3 up to 10 ha (36.7%) and from 10 up to 20 ha (19.5%). Small land ownership areas are not rational for the usage. Such farms are not competitive, therefore the expansion and consolidation of land agricultural land areas is compulsory. 6. The purchase of the state agricultural purpose land stimulates expansion of land ownerships, creation of competitive farms and less vacant land is left. 7. Persons occupied with agricultural activity, who have purchased agricultural purpose land, will be secured that they will be able to use fi nancial support from the EU structural funds and will be able to bravely invest into agricultural domains accelerating their shake-up, modernization and increasing competitive ability as well as while improving conditions for work and production.

References

Aleknavičius A. Žemės ūkio paskirties žemės naudojimo ypatumai Vidurio Lietuvoje//Vandens ūkio inžinerija. Mokslo darbai - 2003, Nr. 22 (44). 53-57 p. Aleknevičienė V. Investicijų rizikos valdymas žemės ūkio produktus gaminančiose ir perdirbančiose įmonėse//Socialiniai mokslai: mokslo darbai / KTU. – ISSN 1392-0758. – Kaunas: Technologija, 1998. – Nr. 3 (16). – P. 7-15. Aleknevičienė V. Ilgalaikių investicijų fi nansavimo šaltiniai ir jų kainos nustatymo metodiniai aspektai//Inžinerinė ekonomika: mokslo darbai / KTU. – ISSN 1392-2785. – Kaunas: Technologija, 2000. – Nr. 5 (20). – P. 9-16. Aleknevičienė V., Jatkūnaitė D., Žaltauskienė N. The Research of Dividend Signal Effect in Lithuanian Share Market//Organizacijų vadyba: sisteminiai tyrimai: mokslo darbai / VDU. – ISSN 1648-3234. – Kaunas: VDU leidykla, 2003. – Nr. 28. – P. 7-19. Aleknevičienė V., Žaltauskienė N. Investicijų rizika ir ją sąlygojantys veiksniai//Vagos: mokslo darbai / LŽŪU. – ISSN 1648-116X . – Akademija: LŽŪU leidybos centras, 2003. – Nr. 57 (10). – P. 104-110.

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Civilinio kodeksas// Valstybės žinios, 2000, Nr. 74-2262. Čaplikas J., Ramanauskas J. Kooperacijos raida ir perspektyvos Lietuvos žemės ūkyje // Vagos. LŽŪU Mokslo darbai. 2001. Nr. 49(2). http://www.laei.lt http://www.nzt.lt KUNCAITĖ, G. Žemės naudojimas Europos sąjungoje ir Lietuvoje. Iš: Vandens ūkio inžinerija: mokslo darbai. LŽŪU, 2003, Nr.22 (44). Lietuvos Respublikos Konstitucinis Teismas 2006 m. kovo 30 d. nutarime// Valstybės žinios, 2006, Nr. 37-1319. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1999 m. vasario 24 d. nutarimas Nr. 205 ,,Dėl žemės įvertinimo tvarkos“//Valstybės žinios, 1999, Nr. 21-597; 2002, Nr. 102-4574. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2003 m. vasario 18 d. nutarimu Nr. 236 ,,Dėl valstybinės žemės ūkio paskirties žemės sklypų pardavimo ir nuomos“//Valstybės žinios, 2003, Nr. 18 – 780; 2004, Nr. 175-6483. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2003 m. liepos 8 d. nutarimas Nr. 889 „Dėl valstybės paramos įsigyjant žemės ūkio paskirties žemę“// Valstybės žinios, 2003, Nr. 69-3130; 2006, Nr. 140-5347. Turto ir verslo vertinimo pagrindų įstatymas//Valstybės žinios, 1999, Nr. 52-1672. Ūkininko ūkio įstatymas// Valstybės žinios, 1999, Nr. 43-1358; 2002, Nr. 123-5537. Žemės įstatymas// Valstybės žinios, 1994, Nr. 34-620; 2004, Nr. 28-868. Žemės ūkio paskirties žemės įsigijimo laikinasis įstatymas // Valstybės žinios, 2003, Nr. 15-600; 2004, Nr. 124-4490; 2006, Nr. 82-3259. Žemės reformos įstatymas // Valstybės žinios, 1991, Nr. 24-635; 1997, Nr.69-1735.

Vilma SUDONIENĖ. Assoc. prof., dr. Territory planning, land plot formation and reformation, land law. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Kaunas-Akademija. Tel. +370 37 752372. e-mail: [email protected]

144 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

The Topicalities of the Preparation of the Territory Planning Documents for the Deposits of Mineral Resources

Vilma Sudonienė, Virginija Atkocevičienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Territory planning is one of the fi rst works preserving and using the underground resources. Possibilities to properly use underground resources depend upon the quality of the fulfi lment of these works. Mineral resources occupy signifi cant part in the national property of the state and should be properly recorded, protected, rationally used, their territories should be properly planned and society should be acquainted with the problems of the use of mineral resources. Only with reliable information on the underground resources, their use, processes and problems occurring in them it is possible to properly improve their territory planning. The Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment manages the Registry of the underground resources, disposes of the entire information on the mineral resources and renders it to all wishing physical and juridical persons according to the order set by laws. Besides, this geological survey summarizes the data on mineral resources, compiles state maps of mineral resources at scales M 1:200 000 and M 1:50 000, carries out the analysis of the use of mineral resources. As it is declared in the Law on the restoration of citizens’ ownership rights to the extant realty, the land in the territory of the unexploited deposits of located mineral resources is returned to citizens for the limited purposive use. The territories of exploited deposits of mineral resources are attributed to the state redeemable land. Following the Law on the land reform it was determined that land cannot be non-privatised, if there are mineral resources in the territory of exploited deposits. These territories are marked in the plans of the state redeemable and non-privatised land. The land, situated in the territories of the located mineral resources of unexploited deposits (except when land is returned in kind as well as land plots given to the privatised premises and individual farms), is privatised according to the separate decisions of the Government. The solutions over the return of the land, over the giving unrequitedly to property in equivalent, over the rendering of land plot unrequitedly to property are taken and the buy-sell agreements of the state land are made, if a person agree to special usage conditions (for lands, forests and water reservoirs), land servitudes and farming activity restrictions set in the land reform land management projects of the bought land plot or in other territory planning documents. The owners, who do not meet the special usage conditions for the land, forests and water reservoirs, should carry responsibility set by laws. The aim of the article was to analyse the territory planning of the deposits of mineral resources as well as problems that persons, wishing to use mineral resources, deal with. The object of the investigation was the territory of the Republic of Lithuania and mineral resources. Tasks to be sold were as follows: to analyse restoration of ownership rights in the territories of mineral resources, the territory planning of the deposits of mineral resources as well as problems connected with it, legal acts regulating these processes; to discuss permissions for the location and extraction of mineral resources; to discuss the Registry of underground resources; to discuss the fertile soil layer preservation and the recultivation of quarries. Key words: mineral resources, the Registry of the underground resources, quarries, recultivation, prognosis resources, preparatory located resources

Introduction

Territory planning is one of primary works in preserving and using the underground resources. Possibilities to properly use underground resources depend upon the quality of the fulfi lment of these works. The main territory planning aims are as follows: to preserve, rationally use and recreate natural resources, nature and cultural heritage valuables, among them – and recreational resources, to coordinate interests between physical and juridical persons and their groups, society, municipalities and the state over the conditions of the land plot use and activity development in this territory. When defi ning particular territory planning aims it is necessary to take into account society demands, peculiarities of the landscape of the planned territory, geographical conditions, urban, architecture, technical, environmental, heritage protection, agricultural purpose land use and management requirements, land and other immovable property users’ and third persons’ rights, state security and defence demands. Unlimited extraction of limited resources can cause serious problems of environmental protection. Mineral resources occupy signifi cant part in the the national property of the state and should be properly recorded, protected, rationally used, their territories should be properly planned and society should be acquainted with the problems of the use of mineral resources. Only with the reliable information on the underground resources, on their use as well as on the processes and problems occurring in them it is possible to properly improve their territory planning. Mineral resources are considered natural mineral materials occurring in the underground. In Lithuania, mineral resources are constantly used in various fi elds of economical activity. In Lithuania, 17 types of mineral resources, among which 9 (limestone, dolomite, sand, gravel, clay, chalk marl, peat sapropel and oil) are exploited, are investigated at various levels at present. Solely the conventional value of the particularly located mineral resources makes 56 billion Lt according to the condition of 2006. These mineral resources are used for the building materials industry and road building purposes. These mineral resources are the most important worldwide according to consumption amount (22 billion tones) and economical value (yields only to oil, gas and coal) (Lietuvos, 2007). Particularly located resources are considered deposits of mineral resources, the particularity of the investigation of quality, quantity, technological conditions, hydrogeological, mining and other occurrence conditions of which is suffi cient for the preparation of the usage project. Preparatory located resources are considered deposits of mineral resources the investigation of the conditions of quality, quantity, technological conditions, hydrogeological, mining and other occurrence conditions of which is suffi cient

145 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends for the fulfi lment of the primary evaluation of the environmental impact and the determination of the economical value of the resources. Prognosis resources are considered presumable mineral resources of perspective territories and areas. They are divided into tracked and supposed ones. According to the Law on the underground, only particularly located recourses, which are approved according to the order set by the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment, can be used (exploited). Preparatory located resources and prognosis resources should be located particularly before the usage. Land areas affected by mining works should be recultivated after the ending of exploitation of the entire or part of the deposit of mineral resources, i.e. according to the ways and terms predicted in the usage project. The Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment manages the Registry of the underground resources, disposes of the entire information on the mineral resources and renders it to all wishing physical and juridical persons according to the order set by laws. Besides, this geological survey summarizes data on mineral resources, compiles state maps of mineral resources at scales M 1:200 000 and M 1:50 000, carries out the analysis of the use of mineral resources. The aim of the article was to analyse the territory planning of the deposits of mineral resources as well as problems that persons, wishing to use mineral resources, deal with. The object of the investigation was the territory of the Republic of Lithuania, mineral resources. Tasks to be solved were as follows: to analyse restoration of ownership rights in the territories of mineral resources, the territory planning of the deposits of mineral resources as well as problems connected with it, legal acts regulating these processes; to discuss licences for the location and extraction of mineral resources; to discuss the Registry of the underground resources; to discuss fertile soil layer preservation and recultivation of quarries.

Results

In the Law on the underground resources the use of the underground resources is defi ned as activity during which the data on the underground resources are received. The types of the use of the underground resources are as follows: exploration of the underground resources; the use of the underground resources; the use of the cavities of the underground resources. Consequently, the exploration of the underground resources is one of the types of the use of the underground resources. The licence for the exploration of the cavities (location, search) enables the possessor of this licence to ask for the repeated licence to use the located resources (using one’s own means), therefore, the majority of enterprises ask for licences and in such way they want to ensure the bigger amount of the mineral resources’ territories for exploitation purposes. Resources are called active ones and the deposit is considered as usable, if juridical and physical persons acquire usage rights to it according to the valid order. Resources are called passive ones and the deposit is considered as unusable, if usage rights are not given to any user or the earlier used deposit is abandoned. Juridical persons and enterprises, having no rights of juridical persons, but having licences, can use the cavities and resources of the underground (except drinking fresh water, industrial groundwater and thermal energy). Following the instructions (approved by the Government of the Republic of Lithuania (resolution №198, passed on February 11, 2002)) on the giving of the Licences to use mineral resources (except carbohydrates), industrial groundwater and mineral water resources and the cavities of the underground, the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment gives licences and makes agreements with juridical persons or the groups of these persons (acting according to the joint activity agreements). The information over the giving of licences, the suspension of validity, the elimination of validity suspension and the elimination of validity is published (by the Lithuanian Geological Survey) in the appendix “Informaciniai pranešimai” of the newspaper “Valstybės žinios”. Therefore, all wishing persons are able to get to know with the publicly declared information (Lietuvos, 2002). According to the data received from the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment, at the end of 2002, 108 enterprises and 1 physical person had licences to explore the underground. In 2008, 75 licences (27 new and 48 repeated) were given for the usage purposes of the cavities and resources of the underground. 230 agreements on the usage of resources were made. The validity for 50 licences, of these 44 – for repeated ones, was eliminated (http:// www.lgt.lt). The number of enterprises, which had licences to use solid mineral resources during 1999-2008, is presented in Fig. 1. As one can see from the fi gure, the number of enterprises having licences to use solid mineral resources, increased. In 2008, 234 enterprises had the licences for the engagement in the extraction of solid mineral resources, whereas in 1999, only 169 enterprises had such licences. It can be related with the increasing amounts of the building works of dwelling houses and roads during the latter years. The majority of them are gravel and sand mining enterprises. The second (according numerosity) go enterprises engaged in peat extraction. These enterprises are small according to the number of working people in them, i.e. less than 50 people and most often only10-20 people work in them. According to the data of 2006, the areas given to the enterprises of the mining of mineral resources make up 22.2 thousand ha (of these – 14,4 thousand ha to peat mining) or 0.34% of the Lithuanian territory (Lietuvos, 2007).

146 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Figure 1. The number of enterprises having licences to use solid mineral resources

Juridical person or group of such persons (wishing to get licences) acting according to the joint activity agreement present to the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment the land plot usage plan or map with desirable objects, the copy of the conclusion of selection over the compulsory evaluation of the environmental impact or the copy of the solution over the impact of the planned farming activity, the project of the usage of mineral resources or the cavities of the underground (if it was already prepared), the copy of the certifi cate over the land plot recorded in the Register of Immovable property as well as the rights to it (if juridical person or group of these persons, acting according to the joint activity agreement, have it). If the land plot is private, application is being fi lled (to the Lithuanian geological survey) or plan should be coordinated with the landowner or land user. If the land plot is state-owned, everything should be coordinated with the governor of the county. In both cases, everything should be coordinated with the environmental protection department of a particular district as well as with the territorial subdivision of the Cultural heritage department under the Ministry of Culture. At present, the licences for the extraction (location) of mineral resources are given without contest (except oil), i.e. they are given to those, who were among the fi rst to fi ll applications. In such case, not only principles of competition are violated, but the state does not receive all possible benefi t from its property as well. Therefore, it is supposed that the licences for the extraction of mineral resources should be given only according to the set order. Following the subsection 1 of the 24th article of the Land law, regulating the order of the determination and the change of the purpose, way and character of the main objective land use, it was defi ned that the main objective land use purpose (according to the order set by the Government) is being determined when forming new land plots. The main objective land use purpose, set for these land plots, was changed at the request of land owners, state-owned land attorneys or other subjects according to the detailed or special territory planning documents. With the subsection 2 of this article it was determined that land owners can use their land for some other purposes only after the county’s governor had taken the decision over the change of the main objective land use purpose. The Government of the Republic of Lithuania sets the order over the presentation, analysis and decision–taking of the applications over the change of the main objective land use purpose (Lietuva, 2004). Consequently, though mineral resources have been located and the licence for the use of the cavities of the underground is received from the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment, it is not enough, because the territory planning document (at present and detailed plan) should be prepared and the main objective land use purpose should be changed following the county governor’s decision. Following legal acts valid at present the main objective land use purpose from agricultural or forestry purposes into other purpose (into the territories of mineral resources) can be changed only when preparing the detailed plan, preparation of which lasts 1.5 year. If the replacement of the Law on territory panning (saying that purpose should be changed when preparing plot formation and reconstruction projects) would be passed, this procedure would be easier to fulfi l and would last not so long. Fig. 2 presents the located deposit of mineral resources Anykščiai I as well as the mining plot marked on the orthographic map and designed for users. As it is declared in the 7th part (Article 4) of the Law on the restoration of citizens’ ownership rights to the extant realty, the land in the territory of the unexploited deposits of located mineral resources is returned to citizens for the limited purposive use. Following the 1st item of the 1st part of article 12 of the above-mentioned law, the territories of exploited deposits of mineral resources are attributed to the state redeemable land (Lietuvos, 1997). Following the 1st item of the 1st part of article 13 of the Law on the land reform it was determined that land is non-privatised, if there are mineral resources in the territory of exploited deposits. These territories are marked in the plans of the state redeemable and non-privatised land. The land, situated in the territories of located mineral resources of unexploited deposits (except when land is returned in kind as well as land plots given to the privatised premises and individual farms), is privatised according to the separate decisions of the Government (Lietuvos, 1997). It is noted that the solutions over the return of the land, the giving unrequitedly to property in equivalent, the rendering of land plot

147 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends unrequitedly to property are taken and the buy-sell agreements of the state land are made, if a person agree to special usage conditions (for lands, forests and water reservoirs), land servitudes and farming activity restrictions set in the land reform land management projects of the bought land plot or in other territory planning documents. The owners, who do not meet the special usage conditions for the land, forests and water reservoirs, should carry responsibility set by laws.

Figure 2. The located deposit of mineral resources Anykščiai I.

It is noted that following the order schedule approved by the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on April 1, 1998 by the decision № 385 (item 16.6) over the preparation and management of the land reform land management projects, it was defi ned that the prepared land reform land management projects should be coordinated with the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment, if there are the located unexploited deposits of mineral resources in the designed territory (Lietuvos, 1998). In 2008, the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment coordinated 23 land reform land management plans of cadastral localities and explored 127 projects. After that they presented conclusions to the departments of environmental protection of the regions concerning the admissibility and restrictions of the planned farming activity. The area of the particularly located deposits of non-metal mineral resources makes up approx. 75 630 ha (of these – 56 930 ha of peat) or 1.2 per cent of whole Lithuanian territory. The area of preliminary located resources makes up approx. 116 840 ha (of these – 100 370 ha of peat) or 2 per cent of the whole Lithuanian territory. Carrying out the restoration of the Citizens’ ownership rights to the extant realty, 5917 ha of the total area of used deposits were attributed to the state redeemable land. The remaining land of located deposits was returned to former landowners according to the coordinated and confi rmed land management projects, when determining usage restrictions predicted by the Special use conditions of land and forest, approved by the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on May 12, 1992. Such deposit areas make up approx. 20 thousand ha (Lietuvos, 2007). Special use conditions of land and forest for a particular land (forest) plot are defi ned when making decisions over the restoration of ownership rights to land and forests, over the giving of the land unrequitedly to property as well as when making buy-sell, lease agreements of the state land and contracts of gratuitous using. Special use conditions of land and forest defi ned for land plots are recorded in the Immovable property cadastre database according to the order set by Resolution № 534 of April 15, 2002 „On the approval of the regulations of the immovable property cadastre of the Republic of Lithuania “ approved by the Government of the Republic of Lithuania. Special land use conditions should be met when preparing territory planning documents, structural projects, etc. In the located deposits of mineral resources land owners are restricted to do the following: to built dwelling houses, industrial buildings, facilities; to mine mineral resources, except for personal purposes. At present, the number of confl icts between landowners and mining enterprises of the located deposit territories wishing to exploit mineral resources has increased. Most often these confl icts occur, when landowners are not direct inheritors of the ownership, but persons, who had purposively bought lands in the places of the deposits of mineral resources and who had artifi cially raised prices for the land. One of the main questions of the nowadays is to take land for public purposes. The taking of land for public purposes from private landowners can be done only exclusively following the county governor’s solution according to the application of state institutions or municipality council. One of the defi ned cases is necessary for the exploitation of the located mineral resources. The projects on the taking of land for public purposes are prepared by the state or municipality institutions or enterprises, which are interested in the taking of land for public purposes. Public purpose is an exceptional case defi ned in the law, when private ownership can be constrainedly taken from the owner. Besides, according to the regulations of Article 23 of the Constitution, ownership is untouchable and can be taken only for public purposes according to the order set by the law, when compensating properly. It should be noted

148 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends that when the land plot is necessary for public purposes only for a time, landowners or other users should be properly compensated for the market value of their land plot or immovable property as well as for the losses made to them. When the land plot is taken for public purposes, this property is moved to the ownership of the state and this right is recorded in the Immovable property registry. Lithuanian scientists, who analysed the problem of the defi nition of the concept of public interest, state that they cannot claim that science has defi ned the clear defi nition of the public interest (Gumbis, 2006). Conditions and criteria must be defi ned and detailed when the extraction of natural resources should be considered as the one corresponding with the public interests, because not defi ning them the risk occurs that commercial (business) subjects and not society will have the biggest benefi t. The total area of the particularly, preparatory and prognosis resources of the mineral resources of different kind covers 283.1 thousand ha or 4.3 per cent of the country’s territory and realistically the area covers 230-240 thousand ha (http://www.lgt.lt). Forests cover approx. 2.1 million ha or 32.2 per cent of the Lithuanian territory, i.e. approx. 9 times more in respect of the area (comparing with the area covered by mineral resources). The area of the protected territories covers 1.0 million ha or 15.3 per cent of the Lithuanian territory, therefore, the part of mineral resources stratifi es in the forests and protected territories including and the territories necessary for habitat conservation Natura 2000. Therefore, some deposits of mineral resources are not exploited. According to legal acts valid at present the land situated in the territories of the unexploited deposits of the located mineral resources is returned to the citizens for the limited objective use. In Fig. 3 are presented territories of the deposits of mineral resources according to the land use.

Figure 3. The territories of the exploited deposits of mineral resources from the standpoint of land use (in per cent)

Having evaluated the information presented by the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment as well as the data gathered from the land management departments of the counties governors’ administrations, the National Land Service under the Ministry of Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania had defi ned that 55 per cent of the deposits of mineral resources (according to the list prepared by the Lithuanian Geological Survey) are attributed to the state redeemable land; restored ownership rights – 20 per cent; projected land (forest) plots for privatisation in the land reform land management projects, marked in the locality and documents are prepared for privatisation – 6 per cent; projected land (forest) plots for privatisation in the land reform land management projects, but the project is not confi rmed – 2 per cent, the free state land fund – 17 per cent (Fig. 3). At present, the land situated in the territories of the unexploited deposits of located mineral resources, is returned to the citizens for the purposes of limited objective use. This land (except the one returned in kind as well as privatised land plots given to premises and individual farms) can be privatised according to separate decisions of the Government. The land of the exploited deposits of the mineral resources is attributed to the state redeemable one and is non-privatised. Considering that it is thought that the change of the regulations of legal acts would complicate the very complex process of the restoration of the ownership rights to land, would slow down its course and would put a strain between the work superintendents of the land reform and the citizens wishing to recover their land. The data on the deposits of underground resources, the cavities of the underground resources, mining holes, and underground explorations are accumulated in the Register of underground resources. The register of underground resources is a constituent of the state geological information system. The aim of the register – to record deposits of underground resources, the cavities of the underground resources, mining holes and underground explorations, to gather, accumulate, systematize, preserve, process, use and present the data and documents of the register to physical and juridical persons and their groups acting according to the joint activity agreements.

149 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

With the wider use of the possibilities of modern technologies when preparing territory planning documents of mineral resources and discussing with public over them, coordinating between institutions as well as when publicizing the already prepared projects, errors would be avoided and the time of procedures would be shortened. In 2008, the data on 17 new deposits of mineral resources were recorded in the Register of underground resources, the data on the 15 earlier recorded deposits were supplemented, the data on three deposits of mineral resources were deleted from the register, the data on 133 groundwater reservoirs and watering-places were inscribed. Till December 31, 2008, 2148 deposits of mineral resources or their plots as well as groundwater reservoirs and watering-places were recorded in the Register of underground resources. Sanitary protection zones of 14 watering-places were (prepared by municipalities of the districts) coordinated and confi rmed (http://www.lgt.lt). Soil resources can be used only in the land plot (formed according to the order set by the Territory planning law and Land law) used for other objective purpose on ownership or other legal basis. Soil resources can be used only according to the approved usage project. The questions on the removing and preservation of vegetation layer should be presented and analysed in the chapter of the mining part of the explanatory text of the usage project. It should be noted that landowners and other users must follow the requirements set by legal acts (when exploiting mineral resources) in order to preserve fertile soil layer and recultivate the damaged land. Landowners and other users must implement measures defi ned by legal acts over the protection of forests, lands and water reservoirs from pollution, over the soil protection from erosion and impoverishment. The area of the damaged land during mining works covers 13.6 thousand ha. Damaged peat bogs cover 78 per cent of this area. Damaged lands (during mining works) are recultivated after the ending of the exploitation of mineral resources. According to Resolution № 343 (chapter LII, item 208) of May 12, 1992 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania on „Special use conditions of land and forest“, approved by the regulation of soil protection, it is important to preserve fertile soil layer when carrying out mining works (Lietuvos, 1992). According to Resolution № X-1186 of June 14, 2007, the Seimas of the Republic of Lithuania approved the program on „Natural resources preservation and protection“. The above-mentioned program also notes that the lands damaged during mining works are recultivated after the ending of the exploitation of mineral resources (Lietuvos. 2007). Following Order № 166 of November 15, 1996 on „Methodology of the recultivation of the damaged lands after the extraction of mineral resources“, approved by the Ministry of Environmental Protection of the Republic of Lithuania, it was defi ned that the recultivation of the quarries of mineral resources and peat bogs is carried out according to the usage-recultivation projects. In this project the following items are predicted: direction of recultivation, work fulfi lment order, the place of fertile soil layer as well as partial recultivation and measures for the protection of the mineral resource revenues when exploitation of deposits is temporary or entirely stopped. The state control over the land use is organized and carried out by county governors, who appoint employees from county governors’ administrations for the fulfi lment of the state control over the land use. Following the Land use state control regulations approved by Resolution № 1303 of October 20, 2004 of the Government of the Republic of Lithuania, persons carrying out the state control over the land use inspect if landowners or other land users keep to the requirements set by legal acts (when exploiting mineral resources) in order to preserve the fertile soil layer and the damaged land (Lietuvos, 2004). Following Order № D1-444 (Item 3) of October 3, 2006 of the schedule on „Order of the control of the use of the mineral resources exploited by open workings“, approved by the minister of the environment of the Republic of Lithuania, departments of the regions of the Ministry of Environment and the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment ensure the rational use of the mineral resources exploited by open workings controlling the use, protection and record of these resources according to competence, the impact of the extraction of mineral resources upon the environment, conservation of the fertile soil layer, recultivation of damaged lands as well as the conditions set in the project of the use of resources (approved by the Lithuanian Geological Survey) and in the agreement on the use of resources made between the user of the deposit and the Lithuanian Geological Survey. Consequently, the above- mentioned acts defi ne not only the order for the use of mineral resources, but the preservation of the fertile soil layer, recultivation of quarries as well. According to the opinion of the Lithuanian Quarry Association, the problem concerning the recultivation of damaged lands could be partially solved when making delays in payments for account of profi t in proportion to the exhausted area of the deposit. Such delays should be accumulated in a special account of the enterprise, where means should not be taxed by profi t tax and cumulative means could not be used for other purposes, except for recultivation. In such case means would not disappear even in the case of bankruptcy. The landowner (in the land belonging to him by the right of ownership) or the land user (in the land given to him by the right of trust unrequitedly) has right to use mineral resources (except amber, oil, gas, silica sand) existing in that land plot for personal farm needs. Persons can mine mineral resources for personal needs only according to the order of the use, arrangement and recultivation of small quarries of mineral resources approved by the order № 393/285 of August 1, 2002 of the ministers of the Environment and Agriculture of the Republic of Lithuania. The right to use state property (mineral resources) for personal farm needs does not enable to dispose of it. It is forbidden to sell, to use as tenders, to

150 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends rent or to change the legal condition of the extracted mineral resources. Landowners or land users have right to arrange by one small quarry of mineral resources of different kind in district’s (or municipality’s) territory, when the total area of their land plots in district’s (or municipality’s) territory does not exceed 1000 ha. The area of small quarry can make up to 1 per cent of the land area possessed by the landowner or land user in district’s (or municipality’s) territory, but not more than 0.5 ha, the depth should reach not more than 2 m and slope escarpment should be not more than 40°. For the arrangement and use of small quarries land owners or land users should have the small quarry certifi cate. It was defi ned that the average number of recorded small quarries in Lithuania is approx. 260. The user of soil resources can be called to account for the violation of the requirements predicted in the legal acts on the use of soil resources. In Article 52 of the Code on „Violation of administrative laws“ the responsibility for the preservation of the fertile soil layer is predicted. As it is declared in the Constitution of the Republic of Lithuania (Article 47) the underground belongs by the right of exclusive ownership to the Republic of Lithuania. The restored State of Lithuania is obligated to take care of the protection of the natural environment and to supervise sustainable use of natural resources, their preservation and control.

Conclusions

1. The change of the regulations of legal acts determining that all territories of mineral resources should be attributed to the state redeemable land, would complicate even more the complex process of the restoration of ownership rights to land, would slow the course of this process and would put even more strain between land reform prosecutors and citizens wishing to return their own land. 2. The licence for the exploration of cavities enables the possessor of this licence to ask for the repeated licence to use resources located when using his own means, therefore, many enterprises ask for licences to locate deposits and thus want to ensure the bigger amount of the territories for the exploitation of mineral resources. 3. According to the legal acts valid at present the exploration of the underground is one of the types of the use of the underground and the exploited deposits of mineral resources are attributed to the state redeemable land. So, when the Lithuanian Geological Survey under the Ministry of Environment gives licence to locate land, this land is attributed to the state redeemable one, due to which the problems occur when restoring ownership rights during the preparation of the land reform land management projects. 4. Conditions and criteria must be defi ned and detailed when the extraction of natural resources should be considered as the one corresponding with the public interests, because not defi ning them the risk occurs that commercial (business) subjects (not society) will have the biggest benefi t. 5. According to the legal acts valid at present the main objective land use purpose of the land plot can be changed only when preparing detailed plan, preparation of which lasts about 1.5 year. If the change of the Law on territory planning would be approved defi ning that the purpose could be changed when preparing plot formation and reconstruction project, this procedure would be lightened and would last shorter. 6. Landowners and land users exploiting mineral resources must keep to the requirements set by legal acts in order to preserve the fertile soil layer. 7. With the wider use of the possibilities of modern technologies when preparing territory planning documents of mineral resources and discussing with public over them, coordinating between institutions as well as when publicizing the already prepared projects, errors would be avoided and the time of procedures would be shortened.

References

Administracinių teisės pažeidimų kodeksas (Žin., 1985, Nr. 1-1). Atvirais kasiniais eksploatuojamų naudingųjų iškasenų išteklių naudojimo kontrolės tvarkos aprašas, patvirtinto Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministro 2006 m. spalio 3 d. įsakymu Nr. D1-444 (Žin., 2006, Nr. 108-4120). Enciklopedinis hidrogeologijos terminų žodynas: lietuvių-anglų-vokiečių-rusų kalbų Glossary of Hydrogeology/ rengė: V. Juodkazis, V. Kemėšis, G. Žalūdienė; ats. red. V. Juodkazis; Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. – Vilnius: LGT, 2003. – 279 p. – Bibliogr.: p. 278. Gamtos išteklių tausojimo ir apsaugos programa, patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos Seimo 2007 m. birželio 14 d. nutarimu Nr. X-1186 (Žin., 2007, Nr. 69-2728). Geological Mapping in Baltic States, 1997: Newsletter of Geological Surveys of Lithuania, Estonia, Latvia/ Eds.: J. Satkūnas, A. Bitinas, K. Suuroja, R. Raudsep, M. Seglinš, V. Juškevičs. – Vilnius: Geological Survey of Lithuania, 1998. – 24 p. Grunto geologinio tyrimo ir grunto išteklių naudojimo tvarkos aprašas, patvirtintas Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministro 2006 m. spalio 10 d. įsakymu Nr. D1-451 (Žin., 2006, Nr. 110-4185). Gumbis J. ,,Viešasis interesas: sampratos apibrėžtumo problema“, Socialiniai mokslai Nr. 1 (51). 2006. http://www.geografi ja.lt/index.asp?TopicID=60&DL=L&ArticleID=63&SearchTXT= http://www.lgt.lt/uploads/1242201912_LGT-2008-metine-ataskaita.pdf http://www.lgt.lt/uploads/1240901775_zalieji.seminarasLGTpuslapiui2009-2.pdf

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Lietuvos geologinių žemėlapių katalogas: bibliografi nė rodyklė / Catalogue of Geological Maps of Lithuania: Bibliographical Index/red.: A. Grigelis, J. Satkūnas, V. Juodkazis; Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. – Vilnius, 1994. – 99 p. Leidimų naudoti naudingųjų iškasenų (išskyrus angliavandenilius), požeminio pramoninio bei mineralinio vandens išteklius ir žemės gelmių ertmes išdavimo taisyklės, patvirtintos Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2002 m. vasario 11 d. nutarimu Nr. 198 (Žin., 2002, 16-607; 2005, Nr. 72-2607). Lietuvos Respublikos kietųjų naudingųjų iškasenų išteklių klasifi kacija, patvirtinta Lietuvos geologijos tarnybos prie Aplinkos ministerijos direktoriaus 1999 m. rugsėjo 17 d. įsakymu Nr. 39 (Žin., 1999, Nr. 81-2407). Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1992 m. gegužės 12 d. nutarimas Nr. 343 ,,Dėl specialiųjų žemės ir miško naudojimo sąlygų patvirtinimo“ (Žin., 1992, Nr.22-652). Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2002 m. balandžio 15 d. nutarimas Nr. 534 „Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos nekilnojamojo turto kadastro nuostatų patvirtinimo“ (Žin., 2002, Nr. 41-1539; 2005, Nr. 80-2899) Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2005 m. vasario 7 d. nutarimas Nr. 127 ,,Dėl nuolatinės komisijos žemės įsigijimo, teritorijų planavimo ir žemės paėmimo visuomenės poreikiams klausimams spręsti sudarymo“ (Žin., 2005, Nr. 19-605). Lietuvos kietosios naudingosios iškasenos/Lithuanian Solid Mineral Resources/V. E. Gasiūnienė; Lietuvos geologijos tarnyba. – Vilnius, 1998. – 51 p. Naudingųjų iškasenų mažųjų karjerų, esančių žemės savininkų, valdytojų ir naudotojų sklypuose, įrengimo, naudojimo ir rekultivavimo tvarka, patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministro ir Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministro 2002 m. rugpjūčio 1 d. įsakymu Nr. 393/285 (Žin., 2002, nr. 80-3473). Pažeistų žemių, iškasus naudingąsias iškasenas, rekultivavimo metodika, patvirtinta Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos apsaugos ministerijos 1996 m. lapkričio 15 d. įsakymu Nr. 166 (Žin., 1996, Nr. 115-2680), Piliečių nuosavybės teisių į išlikusį nekilnojamąjį turtą atkūrimo įstatymas (Žin., 1997, Nr. 65-1558). Teritorijų planavimo įstatymas (Žin., 1995, Nr. 107-2391; 2004, Nr. 21-617). Žemės gelmių įstatymas (Žin., 1995, Nr. 63-1582; 2001, Nr. 35-1164). Žemės gelmių registro nuostatai (Valstybės žinios. 2002, Nr. 44-1676; 2006, Nr. 54-1961). Žemės gelmių registro tvarkymo taisyklės (Valstybės žinios. 2004, Nr. 90-3342; 2006, Nr. 86-3386), Žemės įstatymas (Žin., 1994, Nr. 34-620; 2004, Nr. 28-868). Žemės naudojimo valstybinės kontrolės nuostatai, patvirtinti Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2004 m. spalio 20 d. nutarimu Nr. 1303 (Žin., 1994, Nr. 97- 1919; 2004, Nr. 155-5642). Žemės reformos įstatymas (Žin., 1991, Nr. 24-635; 1997, Nr.69-1735). Žemės reformos žemėtvarkos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo tvarkos aprašas, patvirtintas Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1998 m. balandžio 1 d. nutarimu Nr. 385 (Žin., 1998, Nr. 33-882; 2005, Nr. 66-2359).

Vilma SUDONIENĖ. Assoc. prof., dr. Territory planning, land plot formation and reformation, land law. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Kaunas-Akademija. Tel. 8 37 752372. e-mail: [email protected] Virginija ATKOCEVIČIENĖ. Lector. Land cadastre and register, land information system, land management of rural development. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Kaunas-Akademija. Tel. 8 37 752372. e-mail: [email protected]

152 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Land Use Planning in Lithuania and in the United States

Vilma Sudonienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture Daiva Matonienė Pat.T. Seccafi co Land Surveyor Co., New York, USA

Abstract

In setting out the aims for the planning of specifi c territories, it is necessary to take account of the needs of the public, the peculiarities of landscape, geographical situation, geological conditions. In this article the main goal was to analyzed land planning system in Lithuania and in the United States. During the investigation the methods of literature analysis, statistical analysis as well as comparative analysis ones were used. Because in the United States land use is considered a local concern, we were analyzing Town of Southampton, NY, land use code. In Lithuania and the United States are very important in setting out the aims for the planning of specifi c territories it is necessary to take account of the needs of the public, the peculiarities of landscape, geographical situation, geological conditions, the requirements urban development, architecture, technical, environmental, heritage conservation issues, the requirement for the use and management of agricultural land, the rights of land and other real estate owners and third persons, the needs of State security and defence. In the United States, the power to regulate land use is granted to local governments through state – level enabling legislation. Land use regulations are a subset of police power for protecting the public health, safety, morals and welfare. Local governments control land use and infl uence the pace, location and character of new development in several ways. In conjuction with comprehensive land use planning, zoning codes control development, patterns within the community. Zoning is a common form of land use control at the local level. A zoning map may have hundreds of districts in which certain uses are permitted and other uses are prohibited. Local land use controls also include subdivision ordinances, stormwater management ordinances and landscaping ordinances. Local zoning codes allow variances from the code requirements under certain conditions. Land planning in the United States are regulated through zoning and in Lithuania through general, special and detailed territorial planning. The United States has never developed a national land use plan, because land use is considered a local concern. Land use regulation is necessary to protect open space and scenic vistas and planning is necessary to ensure the effi cient and rational use of land. Key words: Land use, land zoning, land planning, town code

Introduction

The objectives of territorial planning in Lithuania and in the United States are to maintain the balance of the social, economic and ecological development of the State territory. Also, to develop a healthy and harmonious environment for living, work and recreation seeking to develop proper living conditions; to shape the politics of developing the habitats and infrastructure as well as other fi elds of activity; to protect and restore natural resources, natural and cultural values, including the recreation resources; to form a natural framework, create preconditions for maintaining or restoring ecological balance of the landscape; to form land parcels, reserve the territories for the development of infrastructure of a habitat and other fi elds of activity, for the development of different types of farmland; to agree the interests of natural or legal persons or their groups, also the interests of the public, municipalities and the State regarding the conditions for the use of the territory and land parcels and with regard to the type of activity in the territory; to promote investment in social and economic development. The aim of this article was to investigate the land planning in Lithuania and the United States. During the investigation the methods of literature analysis, statistical analysis as well as comparative analysis ones were used. Because in the United States land use is considered a local concern, we were analyzing Town of Southampton, NY, land use.

Results

Land planning in Lithuania

The types of territorial planning in Lithuania are: general territorial planning; special and detailed territorial planning. The levels of territorial planning according to the institution approving the territorial planning are: the State (the documents are approved by the Seimas); the Government (the documents are approved by the Government); the institution authorised by the Government (the documents are approved by institution authorised by the Government); the county (the documents are approved by the county governor); the municipality (the documents are approved by the municipal council or the director of the municipality administration authorised by him). According to the size of the planned territory and the level of specifi cation of the solutions the levels of territorial planning are: national – the entire territory of the State (the general and special territorial planning documents are prepared); regional – parts of State territory which differ by administrative (counties), principled functional commonality (documents of general and special territorial planning are prepared); district – parts of State territory which differ by administrative (counties), specifi c functional commonality (documents of the general and special territorial planning are prepared); area – land parcels or their groups (documents of detailed and special territorial planning are prepared) (Teritorijų, 1995). The tasks of the general territorial planning are: forming the concept of territorial management, use and protection; optimising the town-planning structure and the system of infrastructure of the territory; providing for the

153 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends measures and restrictions to ensure rational use of natural resources, ecological balance of the landscape, formation of the natural framework, preservation of the natural and cultural heritage values; providing for measures to improve the urban spatial composition of built-up areas, the quality of life and the environment, for forming the system of municipal parks of general use; setting the parameters of height and intensity of the development of the planned territory; providing for the main provisions for the formation and implementation of regional policy; reserving the territories in which the objects required for meeting the needs of communication corridors, engineering and communications infrastructure and other needs of the public; setting functional zones of the territories specifying the integrity of the territories and/or its specifi cs (Teritorijų, 1995). Other tasks of general territorial planning may also be established having regard to the object of the general territorial planning and specifi c needs of the public, social, economic and ecological specifi cs of the planned territory. The organisers of the general territorial planning are: the Ministry of the Environment; the County Governor; the director of the municipality administration. During preparatory stage the objectives and tasks of territorial planning establishment, the programme of planning are prepared and approved, as necessary, the investigations are carried out, an adopted decision concerning the beginning of preparation of territorial planning documents and planning objectives are publicly announced. The preparatory stage of territorial planning document consist of: the stage of analyzing the current state, the stage of preparing the concept, the stage of specifi cation of the solutions. The solutions of the general (master) plan of the State territory are coordinated with the ministries, County Governors and other institutions which have submitted the planning conditions. The general plans of the municipality territory and its parts must be compatible with the solutions of the county level general and special planning documents as well as the provisions of legal acts regulating territorial planning. The objects of the special territorial planning are: agricultural, forestry, conservationist and other purpose land; land for aquaculture purposes; engineering, communications, recreational, tourism, social, cultural, as well as other infrastructure as well as town building systems or their parts; the system of protected areas and its parts; the system of recreational areas and its parts; communication corridors (Teritorijų, 1995). Tasks of special territorial planning are: to secure the rational use of land, forests and water resources; to develop the system of traffi c routes, engineering and utility network, energy systems and other infrastructure and reserve the territories for their development; to set the territorial use, management and protection regime, landscape formation directives and territory management measures; to develop tourism services and recreational facilities, to rationally use natural and cultural resources. The organisers of special territorial planning are: State institutions; County Governors; the directors of the municipality administrations; legal persons as well as natural persons in the cases prescribed by other laws. The process of special territorial planning comprise the preparatory stage, the stage of preparation of the territorial planning document, the stage of assessing the effects of the solutions, the fi nal stage. The organiser of planning acting according to the rules of preparing special plans and in view of the objectives and tasks of planning may provide in the programme of planning works to join the stages of territorial planning document. The approved special plans valid indefi nitely. The objects of the detailed territorial planning are: parts of territories of towns, cities; territories of villages; land parcel and groups of parcels. The objects of the detailed territorial planning are: detailing the territorial management and use regulations established in the general and special planning documents; forming land parcels for the construction of structures, creating conditions for investment and for development of economic activities; establishing or amending territorial management or use regime for the preparation of construction projects and for using the land parcel; forming land bands for setting up communication corridors and traffi c routes, for the development of engineering and town infrastructure. The organisers of the detailed territorial planning are: the director of the municipality administration; managers of State land. When preparing detailed plans the mandatory territorial management and use regime are established: the manner and/or character of the application of the territory/land parcel; the permitted height of buildings; the permitted compactness of the development of the land parcel; the permitted intensity of land parcel development; structures construction zone, construction boundary or line; the manner of supply of communal or local engineering networks, the manner of engineering supply of the territory (land parcel) and communication corridors; organisation of communications system; servitudes (Teritorijų, 1995). In cases when the planned territory is of relevance from the point of view of landscape protection, town-building, architecture or cultural heritage, the mandatory territorial management and use regime shall be supplemented with the following requirements: urban and architectural; natural and cultural heritage protection; a forestation of the territory (land parcel) (in percentage) (Steponavičienė, 2000). The solutions of detailed plans valid indefi nitely if the specifi c time period was not set when approving the detailed plan. Before submitting for approval the solutions of the general, special and detailed territorial planning documents must be: considered according to the established procedure; coordinated with the effective territorial planning documents of the appropriate level registered in the register of territorial planning documents and receive, within the terms set by this Law, the reasoned conclusions of the institutions which issued the planning conditions on the coordination of solutions of the prepared territorial planning documents; inspect the institution performing the supervision of State territorial planning (Teritorijų, 1995). The procedures ensuring publicity of territorial planning (publication of the decision on the beginning of the preparation of planning documents and planning targets, consulting, public hearing, provision of information, etc.) shall be carried out by the organiser of planning. The disputes which arose between institutions issuing the conditions

154 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends of planning and/or the organiser of planning, as well as the disputes which arose during the coordination and refl ection procedure shall be heard and decisions shall be taken by the institutions which perform State supervision of territorial planning. Documents of territorial planning shall be registered in the Register of Territorial Planning Documents. All natural and legal persons shall have the right to be granted access to the data of the territorial planning register documents in the institution responsible for the appropriate register and to receive their copies for the set payment. The general, special and detailed planning are public. The procedures ensuring publicity of territorial planning (publication of the decision on the beginning of the preparation of planning documents and planning targets, consulting, public hearing, provision of information, etc.) are carried out by the organiser of planning.

Land planning in the United States

Government regulations infl uence land development directly and indirectly. Although land use control is often considered a local government issue, cumulative land use changes often have regional and even national implications. Cosequently, federal and states laws and policies have been enacted to protect environmental quality and preserve historic and other cultural resourses. For example, the National Environmental Policy Act (1969) was the fi rst in a lengthy list of major federal legislation with broad infl uences on land use in the United States. Federal regulations typically establish standards that are implemented at the state and local levels (Gillfi llan, 2008). The National Coastal Zone Management Program is a voluntary partnership between the federal government and the United States costal states and territories The major instrument for current land use planning is the establishment of zones that divide an area into districts which are subject to specifi ed regulations. Although land use planning is sometimes done by private property owners, the term usually refers to permitting by government agencies. Land use planning is conducted at a variety of scales, from plans by local city governments to regulations by federal agencies. The United States has never developed a national land use plan because land use is considered a local concern. A major part of local planning is zoning, the division of areas into districts. Zones cover most potential uses, such as residential, commercial, light industry, heavy industry, open space, or transportation infrastructure (such as rail lines or highways). Detailed regulations guide how each zone can be used. As a result of pressures from rapid growth, some cities have begun to write growth management plans that limit the pace of growth. Comprehensive city plans aimed to limit the pace of growth have been accepted by the courts. Each state plan differs by the needs and philosophy of the state. The state plans represent a balance of regional structures that address widespread growth with local powers that keep specifi c decision making at the local level. Land use regulation is not restricted to controlling existing buildings and uses. In large part, it is designed to guide future development. Municipalities commonly follow a planning process that ultimately results in a comprehensive or master plan and in some states the creation of an offi cial map for municipality. The master plan is then put into effect by ordinances controlling zoning, regulation of subdivision developments, street plans, plans for public facilities and building regulations. Future developers must plan their subdivisions in accordance with the offi cial map or plan. Zoning ordinances must be reasonable based on all factors involved, such as the need of the municipality, the purpose of the restriction, the location, size and physical characteristics of the land, the character of the neighborhood and its effect on the value of property involved. Environmental regulations are among the few national level policies that have direct implications for land use planning. Four of the major types of environmental laws that impact land use planning are wetland laws, clean-air laws, clean-water laws, and laws for the protection of endangered species. Land use planning, in large part, has focused on urban planning. Increasingly, land use planning is done at larger scales and involves multiple issues. Awareness of environmental concerns, coupled with the wide availability of technical tools that include digital maps at all scales, has led to new approaches to land use planning. These approaches often use ideas from landscape ecology, such as the concepts of patches; edges, boundaries, and fragmentation; buffer zones; and corridors and connectivity. Zoning categories and symbols vary among communities. A C-1 zone in one city is not necessarily the same as C-1 in another. Typically, jurisdictions use letters of the alphabet as code abbreviations to identify the use allowed in a physical geographic area – such as R for residential, C for commercial and I for industrial. These symbols are usually paired with some number. The number can specify the level of use, or it may indicate a certain amount of acreage or square footage for that particular property (Gillfi llan, 2008). Residencial zoning can include single family residences (SFR), suburban homestead (SH), or any number of other designation which cover homes, apartments, duplexes, trailer parks, co-ops and condominiums. Zoning laws on home-based businesses can depend on the nature of the business, whether there are employees or business invitees, the hours of operation, signage, parking and delivery concerns and noise issues. Some zoning ordinances prohibit all in-home businesses in residential areas. Others restrict the type of business and business hours, and may require separate parking and entrance facilities. Rules regarding home-based businesses for condominiums are typically even more restrictive than private residences. Commercial zoning usually has several categories and is dependant upon the business use of the property, and often the number of business patrons. Offi ce buildings, shopping centers, hotels, certain warehouses, some apartment

155 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends complexes – as well as vacant land that has the potential for development into these types of buildings – can all be zoned as commercial. Almost any kind of real estate (other than single family home and single family lots) can be considered commercial real estate. The availability of parking may affect the type of commercial zoning that is permitted. Additionally, there can be rules regarding the proximity of certain types of businesses to others. Like commercial zoning, industrial zoning can be specifi c to the type of business. Environmental factors including noise concerns usually are issues in determining into which industrial level a business falls. Manufacturing plants and many storage facilities have industrial zoning. Industrial zoning is often dependent upon the amount of lot coverage (which is the land area covered by all buildings on a lot) and building height. Additionally, set-back requirements are higher for industrial zoned properties. Agricultural zoning is generally used by communities that are concerned about maintaining the economic viability of their agricultural industry. Agricultural zoning typically limits the density of development and restricts non- farm uses of the land. In many agricultural zoning ordinances, the density is controlled by setting a large minimum lot size for a residential structure. Density may vary depending upon the type of agricultural operation. Agricultural zoning can protect farming communities from becoming fragmented by residential development. In many states, agricultural zoning is necessary for federal voluntary incentive programs, subsidy programs and programs that provide for additional tax abatements. The rural zoning designation is often used for farms or ranches. In certain parts of the country, this designation will include residences zoned to allow horses or cattle. Any number of zoning designations can be combined to form some sort of combination zone, many of which are unique to the community adopting the particular designation. Homes and buildings over fi fty years old are often included in historic zones. These zones have regulations which prevent the alteration of the structures from the original conditions, although there are allowances for repair and restoration in keeping with historic plan. Frequently, buildings in these areas can qualify for governmental tax incentives. The National Register of historic places is the offi cial list cultural resources deemed worthy of preservation. Authorized under the National Historic Preservation Act of 1966, the National Register is part of national program to coordinate and support public and private efforts to identify, evaluate and protect historic and archeological resources. Properties listed in the Register include districts, sites, buildings, structures, and objects that are signifi cant in the United States history, architecture, archeology, engineering and culture. Increasingly popular in upscale communities, esthetic zoning covers color schemes, landscaping, mailboxes, fences, solar panels, decks, satellite dishes and types of materials. Esthetic zoning ordinances may require that building plans be submitted and approved by an architectural review committee. Wireless communication receiving devices can often be impacted by these types of zoning rules. In 1970 the Town Board of the Town of Southampton adopted a Master plan, which states long-term planning objectives, establishes a general plan to guide both public and private development, addresses critical community planning issues, including protection of natural resources, provision of affordable housing, forecasting the need for improved or additional municipal facilities, sustaining the local economy and improving transportation management. The 1999 Comprehensive Plan update builds upon the 1970 Master Plan, both of which identify a number of signifi cant land use, transportation, zoning and capital improvement strategies focused on hamlet business centers. The 1999 Comprehensive Plan specifi cally states that the western portion of the Southampton Town has the greatest need for resort-related development since it generally exhibits the highest tax rates and a greater trend toward conversion of second homes to year-round residences. The Town of Southampton has enacted certain provisions in its Zoning Code to provide for increased housing opportunities and lifestyle options, consistent with the recommendations of the Town of Southampton Master Plan of 1970 and the 1999 Comprehensive Plan update (Code, 2002). Community planning objectives encourage that the Town anable a wide variety of housing types and more particularly, to help make possible housing opportunities with purchase and rental costs in keeping with the fi nancial means of the Town‘s residents who have low or lower-middle incomes. Given that there are many economic factors impacting young adults, families and senior citizens, including but not limited to limited or fi xed incomes, physical restrictions and the rapidly accelerating costs of purchasing and maintaining a single- family residence, the Town Board has enacted legislation to provide for such multifamily housing, congregate senior housing and retirement communities within the Town on a fl oating zone basis. The 1999 Comprehensive Plan update was adopted by the Town Board of the Town of Southampton has determined that environmentally sensitive lands. Scenic resources and agricultural land resources are critical to the Town of Southampton. The scenic, historic, cultural and economic identities of the Town are embodied in its farmland as well as the natural environment. Indirectly, the Town‘s second home and tourism industries are anchored by the scenic beauty and history provided by the Town‘s farmland and natural resources. For example, the continued loss of farmland is at this time critical to the future of farming for, with continued losses, the critical mass necessary for farming economy will disappear. The 1999 Comprehensive Plan update recommends that transfer development rights be used as one of the tools to reduce density of farmland parcels, environmentally sensitive lands, and scenic vistas. Current transfer development rights programs within the Town consist of the following: Old Filed Maps, Special Old Filed Maps, transfer of permitted residential development rights and the Pine Barrens Credit Program. Further, the Town of Southampton has adopted a

156 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Community Preservation Project Plan that allows the funds generated from a two-percent real estate transfer tax to fund the establishment of transfer of development rights program pursuant of the Town Law in order to preserve lands such as agricultural lands identifi ed by the Town as necessary to protect community character. The establishment of clearinghouse will allow the Town to utilize community preservation funds to facilitate the purchase of development rights by private landowners. The agricultural land base of the Town has been under considerable pressure for conversion over time to nonagricultural uses. The Town of Southampton and County of Suffolk have managed to preserve 18 % of the existing agricultural land base through purchase of development rights and another 12 % with private subdivision reserves and private land trust easements. The Town‘s agricultural reserve program has preserved 900 acres. However, due to existing ownership and development patter, these parcels are becoming isolated from one another, are relatively small in size and are in close proximity to residential development. The 1999 Comprehensive Plan update recommends a number of strategies in order to preserve a maximum amount of the remaining agricultural land base in such a way as to maximize potential for agricultural use, including the goal of protecting a minimum of 80 % of the farmland parcel and reducing the overall development density by 50 %. The Comprehensive Plan suggests an incentive-based conservation subdivision process focusing on a series of incentives and disincentives to encourage the owners to preserve the largest number of acres, while protecting equity value in the land. As part of an overall program to increase efforts to preserve greater percentages of farmland through a combination of planned residential development, transfer of development rights, Agricultural Planned Development Districts and private conservation donations, it is intended that there be a goal of preserving a minimum of 80% of farmland parcels and approximately 50 % reduction in the permitted on-site development density of all remaining farmland tracts exceeding 10 acres in size within the Agricultural Overlay District. The encouragement of the preservation of more land and the reduction of density within the Agricultural Overlay District will allow economic and aesthetically compatible development with an overall reduction in traffi c impacts, reduction of impacts on groundwater resources, reduction of impacts from stormwater runoff, and reduction in on-site and off-site infrastructure and development costs (Code, 2002).

Conclusions

1. Land planning in the United States are regulated through zoning and in Lithuania through general, special and detailed territorial planning. In Lithuania according to the size of the planned territory and the level of specifi cation of the solutions the levels of territorial planning are: national, regional, district and area. 2. The United States has never developed a national land use plan, because land use is considered a local concern. 3. In Lithuania and the United States land planning are the balance of the social, economic and ecological development. 4. Land use regulation is necessary to protect open space and scenic vistas and planning is necessary to ensure the effi cient and rational use of land.

References

Aleknavičius P., Aleknavičius A. Valstybinės žemėtvarkos darbai planuojant agrarinių teritorijų naudojimą. Tiltai, 2002,1 (18). Burinskienė M. Subalansuota miestų plėtra: monografi ja.Vilnius: Technika, 2003. 251 p. Code of the Town of Southampton, Volume II/Land use legislation (2002, serial No. 266). Gillfi llan, Abigail, 2008. Using geographic information systems to develop and analyze land use policies. Texas state university. Grecevičius, Kraštovaizdžio planavimo strategija Lietuvos kaimo ūkinės veiklos tarptautinės integracijos procese. Tiltai, 2002,1 (18). http://www.ocrm.nos.noaa.gov/czm/national.html Kaimo plėtros žemėtvarkos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo taisyklės, patvirtintos Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministro ir Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministro 2004 m. rugpjūčio 11 d. įsakymu Nr. 3D-476/D1-429//Valstybės žinos 2004, Nr. 127-4581; 2004, Nr. 127-4581. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1992 m. gegužės 12 d. nutarimas Nr. 343 ,,Dėl specialiųjų žemės ir miško naudojimo sąlygų patvirtinimo“//Valstybės žinos 1992, Nr.22-652. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1997 m. spalio 23 d. nutarimas Nr. 1154 ,,Dėl valstybinės reikšmės miškų plotų patvirtinimo“//Valstybės žinos 1997, Nr. 97-2451; 2002, Nr. 54-2121. Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2002 m. balandžio 15 d. nutarimas Nr. 534 „Dėl Lietuvos Respublikos nekilnojamojo turto kadastro nuostatų patvirtinimo“//Valstybės žinos 2002, Nr. 41-1539; 2005, Nr. 80-2899. Miško įveisimo ne miško žemėje taisyklės, patvirtintos Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministro ir Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministro 2004 m. kovo 29 d. įsakymu Nr. 3D-130/D1-144//Valstybės žinos 2004, Nr. 55-1918; Nr. 142-5215. Pagrindinės tikslinės žemės naudojimo paskirties nustatymo ir prašymų leisti pakeisti pagrindinę tikslinę žemės naudojimo paskirtį padavimo, nagrinėjimo ir sprendimų priėmimo taisyklės, patvirtintos Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2004 m. spalio 13 d. nutarimu Nr. 1278// Valstybės žinos 2004, Nr. 152-5545).

157 Rural Development 2009 Rural Landscape Management Trends

Piliečių nuosavybės teisių į išlikusį nekilnojamąjį turtą atkūrimo įstatymas//Valstybės žinos 1997, Nr. 65-1558). Planuojamos ūkinės veiklos poveikio aplinkai įstatymas//Valstybės žinios 1996, Nr. 82-1965; 2005, Nr. 84-3105. Steponavičienė, G.; Juškevičius, P. 2000. Subalansuotos miestu plėtros prielaidos, Urbanistika ir architektūra 24(4): 137–140. Teritorijų planavimo įstatymas//Valstybės žinos 1995, Nr. 107-2391; 2004, Nr. 21-617). Thurdin, G. 1992. Ways and Means. Vision and Strategies Around The Baltic 2010. A Starting Point, Istersjöinstitutet. Karlskrona. Vanagas, J. 1995. Vilniaus miesto urbanistinė plėtra: krašto ir regiono kontekste, Urbanistika ir architektūra 1–2: 19–20. Žemės įstatymas//Valstybės žinos 1994, Nr. 34-620; 2004, Nr. 28-868. Žemės naudojimo valstybinės kontrolės nuostatai, patvirtinti Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 2004 m. spalio 20 d. nutarimu Nr. 1303//Valstybės žinos 1994, Nr. 97-1919; 2004, Nr. 155-5642. Žemės reformos įstatymas//Valstybės žinos 1991, Nr. 24-635; 1997, Nr.69-1735. Žemės reformos žemėtvarkos projektų rengimo ir įgyvendinimo tvarkos aprašas, patvirtintas Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės 1998 m. balandžio 1 d. nutarimu Nr. 385//Valstybės žinos 1998, Nr. 33-882; 2005, Nr. 66-2359.

Vilma SUDONIENĖ. Assoc. prof., dr. Territory planning, land plot formation and reformation, land law. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Department of Land Management. Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Kaunas-Akademija. Tel. + 370 37 752372. e-mail: [email protected] Daiva MATONIENĖ. Dr. Land Surveyor, Pat.T. Seccafi co Land Surveyor Co., Long Island, NY, USA. E-mail: daivamatoniene@ yahoo.com

158 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

VII

Sustainable Development of Forestry Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Germination Responses on Phenols Content of Pine Forest Clear Cuttings Dominants

Ligita Baležentienė, Vaida Šėžienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The object of this study was to evaluate allelopathic impact of dominant species (Calamagrostis epigeios, Rubus idaeus and Chamaerion angustifolium) of clear-cuttings of pine forests (Vaccinio – myrtillo Pinetum) on germination. Aqueous extracts of roots and shoots were produced and assayed at different growth stages. Additionally total concentration of phenols was evaluated photo spectrometrically. Shoot extracts stronger inhibited germination than those of roots of all tested plant species. The strongest suppressive effect on germination and the highest phenols content was estimated at species fl owering stage as compared with growth stages in spring and autumn. In accordance with mean germination data the strongest phytoactivity exhibited R. idaeus than C. epigeios and Ch. angustifolium. Nonetheless this study implied in species allelopathic activity as a potential suppressive factor which could infl uence germination and forest regeneration, however studies in situ are necessary. Key words: allelopathy, phytotoxicity, germination, dominant, growth stage.

Introduction

Allelopathy is related to the solution of practical problems of chemical interference between seedlings and weeds, toxicity of trees and weeds residues, and/or exudates etc. Nowadays, great attention is paid to the identifi cation of plant bioactive compounds, their production and application as components for bio–preparations: phytoherbicides, phytopesticides etc. (Macias et all, 2007). Therefore allelopathy must be considered as a part of the biotic resources management strategies in modern forest ecosystems, where natural and mixed communities are replaced by a single species (Djurdjević et all, 2005; Inderjit, Nilsen, 2003; Kairiūkštis, Juodvalkis, 2005). In forest ecology the inability to germinate and establish seedlings is considered to be a result of competition and aggressiveness of the established plants, but the mechanisms of aggressiveness have not been well defi ned yet (Wu et all, 1998). Many thousands of secondary compounds have the potential to act allelopathically and inhibit both seed germination and seedling growth. They have stronger impact on the vicinity of neighbouring species in the invaded range or are negatively affecting the growth of native fl ora and other organisms (Broekaert et all, 1997; Inderjit, 1996; Louis et all, 2007; Ragan, 2002). Allelopatic research could be widened due to identifi cation, isolation, both characterization of allelopathic compounds and their role in interference between abiotic and biotic stress factors (Grodzinsky, 1990; Inderjit, 2006; Weidenhamer, 1996). These studies emphasized the signifi cance of understanding of multifunctional aspects of allelopathy in structuring trophical levels, affecting predators and pests, forming symbiotic relations, mediating competitive circumstances, which are also highly important for reforestation. Plant allelochemicals have different impact on neighbour species due to contributed inhibitors (e.g. phenols), promoters (e.g. nitrates) and neutral substances (e.g. glucose) (Inderjit, 1996; Inderjit, Malick, 1997; Vance et all, 1986). Inhibitory substances are often argued to explain growth pattern, while other substances remained neglected. The overwhelming evidences suggested that plant phenols accumulated up to 1–3% concentration in fresh mass and have the potential to infl uence germination and growth pattern (Balezentiene, Sampietro, 2009; Foy, 2000; Grodzinsky, 1990; Inderjit et all, 1997; Kryzeviciene, Paplauskiene, 2002). The objectives of this research were to evaluate and to compare the total concentration of phenolic compounds and allelopathic activity of the aqueous extracts produced from both ground parts and roots of some dominants of clear-cuttings of pine forests (Vaccinio – myrtillo Pinetum): wood small-reed, raspberry and rosebay willow herb at different growth stages. Multifunctional laboratory experiment was designed in order to understand the implication and interaction between allelopathic and plant development parameters (growth stages) on germination, the processes of early recruitment. There are no references about phytotoxicity and allelopathic activity on germination of these plants, therefore new information will be helpful for understanding the common allelochemical potential of these dominant species, and also their impact on reforestation and on management of forest ecosystems.

Method and materials

Biochemical activity and impact on germination of typical dominant species in clear-cuttings of pine forests (Vaccinio–myrtillo Pinetum): small–reed (Calamagrostis epigeios L. Roth), red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) and rosebay willow herb (Chamaerion angustifolium L. Scop) laboratory trials were carried out at Environment laboratory of Lithuanian University of Agriculture during 2007. Plants and their different parts (roots and shoots) were collected at different growth stages in clear–cuttings of pine forest in Kačerginė (Kaunas district, Lithuania) for producing and bioassay of aqueous extracts (Table 1). The plant samplings were taken at the periods when 50% of plants in stand had reached the same developmental stage. Commonly used BBCH scale develped at German Federal Biological Research

161 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Centre for Agriculture and Forestry (BBCH) was chosen for determining unifi ed plant growth stages (Meier, 2001). Plant parts (shoots and roots) were separately chopped into 0.5 cm long pieces and 50 g biomass of each plant part was immersed in 250 ml distilled water for 12 h and kept at 5 °C in Incubator. Then, aqueous extracts were fi ltered through Whatman No 1 fi lter paper. These aqueous extracts were diluted to concentrations of 0.02, 0.05, 0.1 and 0.2 % (w/v) and used for germination assays. The total concentration (ppm) of phenols as the essential allelopathic characteristic for plant cells was estimated according to the modifi ed Jermakov et al. (Jermakov et all, 1976) and K. Slinkard and V.L. Singleton (Slinkard, Singleton,

1977) spectrophotometric method using Folin–Ciocalteu reagent, 0.02 % chlorogenic acid (C16H18O9) as a standard phenolic compound and 20% Na2CO3 as pH stabilizer. This phenolic acid was selected because it provides reliable results in colorimetric reaction with Folin–Ciocalteu reagent. Extracts light absorbance was measured at 760 nm. Phenol content was estimated from a standard curve of chlorogenic acid.

Table 1. Descriptions of growth stages Description Species Growth stages BBCH-scales code

Stem elongation or rosette growth / shoot development (main shoot 3/33 proceeded 30 % of full length) Red raspberry (Rubus idaeus L.) Flowering (main shoot) 6/69

Senescence, beginning of dormancy 9/93

Formation of side shoots / tillering 2/26 Wood small-reed (Calamagrostis epigeios (L.) Flowering (main shoot) 6/67 Roth) Senescence, beginning of dormancy / stem fully developed, yet green 9/91

Stem elongation or rosette growth / shoot development (main shoot 3/32 Rosebay willow herb proceeded 20 % of full length) (Chamerion angustifolium (L.) Scop.) Full fl owering (burst 50 % blossoms) 6/65 Senescence, beginning of dormancy / beginning of leaf fall 9/93

Biochemical activity of species was estimated on the basis of seed germination bio-screening accordingly to Grodzinsky’s method (Grodzinsky, 1990). Quick germinated rape (Brassica napus L.) cv. Valesca was chosen as the receptor plant. One hundred seeds of rape were placed on fi lter paper in each 6-cm diameter Petri dish. Five ml aqueous plant extract (0; 0.2; 0.1; 0.05 and 0.02% concentration) was added per Petri dish as per treatment. Treatments were replicated four times. Petri dishes were kept at 20°C for 16 h. Seeds sown in distilled water served as control. In accordance to original Grodzinsky’s method, germination was recorded when germinated 50% seed in Control. Germination rate in Control (C) is considered as 100%. The equation to calculate germination (%) of treatments (x) is: x = (nT x 100) / C; nT – germination rate of treatment. This performance allowed evaluating not only suppressive impact, but stimulatory one also. Seed germination was used to calculate the allelopathic potential of aqueous extracts in conventional coumarine units (CCU) as per Grodzinsky’s method by nomograph which composed according to coumarine activity and germination (Grodzinsky, Grodzinsky, 1973). The confi dence limits of the data were based on Wilkin’s-λ test and Student’s theoretical criterion. Standard errors (SE) were calculated at the level of statistical signifi cance p<0.05. The results of allelopathic effects were statistically evaluated by using the statistical package STATISTICA of Stat Soft for Windows standards. Results of germination, phenols concentration and CCU are presented as a mean ± SE of 4 independent analyses at the 0.05 probability level.

Results and discussion

During experiment impact of phytotoxicity of produced aqueos extracts was evaluated in dependence on plant species, plant part, growth stage, extract and phenols concentration (Table 2). Germination rate (11-109 %) and CCU content (71-800) varied accordingly to concentration gradient of all extracts. The majority of aqueous extracts (0.2–0.05 % concentration) indicated the suppressive impact on germination, with exception of 0.02 % extracts, produced from ground part of C. epigeios and from both ground part and roots of Ch. angustifolium at stem elongation / rosette growth, which impact slightly stimulated germination (104 and 109% respectively).

162 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Table 2. Germination and CCU content in extracts of different plants and plant parts (mean±SD, p<0.05) Extracts of shoots Concentration, % 0.2 0.1 0.05 0.02 Species Germination, CCU, Germination, CCU, Germination, CCU, Germination, CCU, % un. % un. % un. % un. Stem elongation or rosette growth / shoot development stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 70±2.83 159 85±1.41 115 89±6.36 105 91±3.53 100 Ch.angustifolium 81±12.02 125 96±4.94 92 98±6.36 105 104±0 77 C. epigeios 89±13.43 105 89±9.19 105 98±10.60 88 104±2.82 77 Flowering stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 19±2.82 540 25±4.24 425 27±2.82 400 44±1.41 275 Ch.angustifolium 15±6.36 650 23±1.41 460 27±1.41 400 40±7.77 303 C. epigeios 11±4.94 800 15±0 650 36±1.41 332 46±4.24 263 Senescence, beginning of dormancy / beginning of leaf fall stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 29±1.41 380 37±2.82 332 38±4.24 315 54±2.82 229 Ch.angustifolium 25±2.12 425 39±2.82 315 47±9.19 263 53±7.07 229 C. epigeios 24±3.53 460 38±14.84 315 48±10.60 252 56±9.19 218 Extracts of roots Stem elongation or rosette growth / shoot development stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 72±12.02 151 79±0 131 91±3.53 100 100±4.24 84 Ch.angustifolium 83±0 120 96±4.94 92 102±4.24 77 109±2.12 71 C. epigeios 62±13.43 192 75±6.36 145 81±19.79 125 85±4.24 115 Flowering stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 12±6.36 720 19±5.65 540 23±4.24 460 38±6.36 315 Ch.angustifolium 13±0 720 30±4.24 380 40±12.02 303 53±2.82 229 C. epigeios 23±4.24 460 25±7.07 425 36±6.36 332 40±2.82 303 Senescence, beginning of dormancy / beginning of leaf fall stage

Control (distil H2O) 100 0 100 0 100 0 100 0 R. idaeus 26±3.53 425 31±7.07 362 35±13.43 332 46±7.77 263 Ch.angustifolium 28±9.19 400 44±10.60 275 52±5.65 241 62±0 192 C. epigeios 46±1.41 263 60±0 200 56±2.82 218 57±2.82 208

Among treated species roots and ground part 0.2 % extracts of R. idaeus indicated signifi cantly the strongest phyto-inhibitory effect on germination due to the highest phenols concentrations (0.59 and 0.3770 ppm) at fl owering stage. Strong negative correlation (0.5–0.6) was observed between germination and phenols concentration and confi rm signifi cant negative role of phenols on receptor germination. Ground part of C. epigeios and roots Ch. angustifolium showed the weakest suppressive effect on germination (mean value 54 and 59 % respectively). Stronger phyto-toxicity effect was documented of ground part extracts (mean germination 52 %) than those of roots (mean germination 53 %). This phenomenon of different bioactivity of plant ground part and roots has been already observed in several references (Bong-Seop, 1992; Broekaert et all, 1997; Fernandez et all, 2008). Obtained data suggest that R. idaeus has the strongest potential to impact initial stages of forest ecosystems regeneration, nevertheless further research is needed in this regard in situ. CCU content, as a universal index of extracts bioactivity, depended on plant species and growth stage, extracts and phenols concentration. The biggest amount of CCU (800 and 720 CCU) was determined in 0.2% extracts at fl owering stage of C. epigeios ground part, also of R. idaeus, and Ch. angustifolium roots. 0.02 % extracts of ground part of Ch. angustifolium (3/32 BBCH) and C. epigeios (2/26 BBCH) with the stimulating effect had the least content of CCU content (77 and 71 respectively). Strong negative correlation (0.8–0.9) was determined between germination and CCU.

163 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Conclusions

1. Different allelopathic effect of aqueous extracts produced from ground parts (shoots) and roots of dominants of pine forest clear-cuttings was documented. The character of allelopathic activity (inhibitory, neutral or stimulatory) on germination depended on extracts concentration, plant part, species and growth stage. 2. Germination was suppressed in extracts of the highest concentration (0.2-0.05%) at all growth stages, while it was stimulated in Ch. angustifolium and C. epigeios extracts of the least concentration (0.02 %) at initial growth stages. 3. Ground part (shoots) extracts of all species exerted stronger suppressive effect on rape germination than those of root due to the higher phenols content. 4. All tested extracts at fl owering stage had the strongest inhibitory effect on germination and content of CCU compared with those prepared in spring and autumn due to decreased concentration of total phenols. 5. Fluctuation of total phenols content in the extracts was similar to that of CCU in individual species, plant part and growth stage. 6. Allelochemical activity and phytotoxic impact of dominant species are based on phenolics content and may be substantial in solving practical problems of chemical interference (allelopathy) between seedlings and reforestation by regulating inter– and intra–specifi c interactions. Nonetheless more detailed investigation of germination in situ and of identifi cation of phenols composition is required for evaluation of these factors’ impact on natural forest regeneration or reforestation.

References

Balezentiene L., Sampietro D.A. (2009). Allelopathic potential of fodder galega at different growth stages, Allelop. J., 23 (1), pp. 229–236. Bong-Seop K. (1992). Effect of pine allelochemicals on selected species in Korea, in: S.J.H. Rizvi, V. Rizvi, Eds., Allelopathy: Basic and Applied Aspects, Chapman & Hall, London, pp. 204–241. Broekaert W.F., Cammue B.P.A., Debolle M.F.C., Thevissen K., Desamblanx G.W., Osborn, R.W. (1997). Antimicrobial Peptides from Plants, Critical Rev. of Plant Sc., 16, pp. 297–323. Chung I.M., Miller D.A. (1995). Differences in autotoxicity among 7 alfalfa cultivars, Agron. J., 87, pp. 596–600. Djurdjević L., Mitrović M., Dinić A., Pavlović P., Bojović S., Gajić G., Kostić O. (2005). Allelopathic investigations of Quercus conferta and Quercus cerris domination in oak forest at Avala Mt. (Serbia). Proc. of the 4th World Congress on Allelopathy, pp. 28-31. Fernandez C., Voiriot S., Mévy J.-Ph., Vila B., Ormeño E., Dupouyet S., Bousquet-Mélo A. (2008). Regeneration failure of Pinus halepensis Mill.: The role of autotoxicity and some abiotic environmental parameters, Forest Ecol. and Manag., 255, pp. 2928-2936. Foy Ch.L. (2000). How to Make Bioassays for Allelopathy More Relevant to Field Conditions with Particular Reference to Cropland Weeds, Principles and Practices, in: Inderjit, K.M.M. Dakshini, Ch. L. Foy (Eds.). Plant Ecology: allelochemical interactions, CRC Press, Boca Raton, Fla, pp. 25–34. Grodzinsky A. , Grodzinsky D. (1973). Manual of Plant Physiology. Naukova Dumka, Kiev, Ukraine, pp. 590. [in Russian]. Grodzinsky A. M. (1990). Allelopathy and Productivity of Plants. Naukova Dumka: Kijev, pp. 148. [in Russian]. Inderjit, Malick A.U. (1997). Effect of Phenolic Compounds on Selected Soil Properties, Forest Ecol. Manag., 92, pp. 11–21. Inderjit, Muramatsu H., Nishimura H. (1997). On the Allelopathic Potencial of Certain Terpenoids, Phenolics and Their Mixtures and Their Recovery from Soil. Canad. J. of Bot., 75, pp. 888–891. Inderjit. (1996). Plant Phenolics in Allelopathy. Bot. Rev., 62, pp. 186–202. Inderjit. (2006). Experimental Complexities in Evaluating the Allelopathic Activities in Laboratory Bioassays: A Case Study. Soil Biol. and Bioch., 38, pp. 256–262. Jermakov A.I., Bogotova M.T., Samorodova G.B. (1976). Methods of Determining Chemical Composition of Forage Plants, Nauka: Leningrad, pp. 276 [in Russian]. Kairiūkštis L., Juodvalkis A. (2005). The Theoretical Fundamentals of Forming of the Most Productive Stands, Balt. Forest., 11(2), pp. 38-50. Kryzeviciene A., Paplauskiene V. (2002). Allelopathic Activity of Perennial Grasses at Different Development Stages, Agricult. , 4, pp. 179–192. Louis S., Delobel B., Gressent F., Duport G., Diol O., Rahioui I., Charles H., Rahbe Y. (2007). Broad Screening of the Legume Family for Variability in Seed Insecticidal Activities and for the Occurrence of the A1b–like Knottin Peptide Entomotoxins, Phytochem., 68, pp. 521–35. Macias F.A., Galindo J.L. G., Galindo J.C.G. (2007). Evolution and current status of ecological phytochemistry. Phytochem., 68, pp. 2917-2936. Meier U. (2001). Growth stages of mono- and dicotiledonous plants: BBCH Monograph. Federal Biological Research Center of Agriculture and Forestry. Blackwell, Wissenschaftsverlag: Berlin and Wien. Ragan M. (2002). The Detection of Neighbors by Plants, Trends Ecol. and Evol., 17, pp. 104–105. Slinkard K., Singleton V.L. (1977). Total phenol analyses: automation and comparison with manual methods, Am. J. Enol. Viticult., 28, pp. 49–55. Vance, G.F., Mokma, D.L. Boyd S.A. (1986). Phenolic Compounds in Soil of Hydrosequences and Developmental Dequences of Podzols, Soil Sc. Soc. Am. J., 50, pp. 992–1003. Weidenhamer J.D. (1996). Distinguishing Resource Competition and Chemical Interference, Agron. J., 88, pp. 866–871. Wu L., Guo X., Harivandi M.A. (1998). Allelopathic effects of phenolic acids detected in buffalograss (Buchloe dactyloides) clippings on growth of annual bluegrass (Poa annua) and buffalograss seedlings, Environ. Exper. Bot., 39, pp. 159–167.

Ligita BALEŽENTIENĖ. Doctor of (biomedical) sciences, assoc. prof. at Agroecolgy Centre, Environment Institute, Lithuanian University of Agriculture; ecology, biodiversity. Address: Studentų 11, LT– 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. tel.: +370-37-752202; fax: +370-37-752202. E-mail: [email protected]. Vaida ŠĖŽIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Forest and Ekologis faculty, PhD student. Tel. 8-610 242 04, e–mail: vaida. [email protected].

164 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Broad-leaved Forest Vegetation Seasonal Dynamics of Different Years

Vitas Marozas, Jolita Abraitienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The aim of this work was to determine seasonal dynamics of the herbaceous vegetation in the deciduous forests and their relations with climatic factors. The object of the work was Kamsha zoological-botanical reserve situated near Kaunas. Investigations were done during vegetation periods in 1991, 2000, 2006 and 2006. The dates of phenological appearance and projection cover were recorded. The spectra of vegetation and fl owering were made. The data on temperature and precipitation was analysed with the purpose to determinate the infl uence of climatic conditions on the growth and development of plants. It was determined, that vegetation of herbs started at the beginning of April (12th-13th week). Intensive vegetative development started at the 14th week in 1991 and 2007, and at 16th week in 2000 and 2006. In 2006 projection cover of herbs showed two picks – one in spring time and other in August. Projection cover in 2000 decreased during dry period in September. In the coldest spring (2006) fl owering of herbs started two weeks later than in years of 1991 and 2000. In the warmest year (2007) fl owering of herbs started two weeks earlier than in years of 1991 and 2000. In the warmest year (2007) foliation of trees started and completed 2 weeks earlier than in 2000 and 2006. In 1991 foliation of trees started 2 weeks later, but completed about at the same time like in 2000 and 2006. The majority of plants fl owered in spring when trees were without leaves and light conditions were good. Key words: deciduous forest, efemeroids, phenology

Introduction

Recent climate change has been found to affect species’ phenology in global and local scale (Parmesan &Yohe, 2003; Root et al., 2003, Walther, 2004). The use of phenological data as indicator for climate variations is based on the relationship between climate parameters and phenological phases. The date of phenological events such as fl owering could be explained by differences in temperatures from an arbitrary date to the date of the phenological event considered. However, phenophases are integrating climatological indices (Menzel, 2002) responding to many meteorological and environmental factors (light, photoperiod, temperature, precipitation, humidity, wind and others). Nowadays it is widely accepted that the global and regional climate is changing, partly in response to human activities. The Third Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) provided an overview of the changes that have occurred (IPCC 2007). It was stated that since 1906 to 2006 temperature increased by 0.74 oC. Biological systems quickly respond in the timing of phenological stages to changes in the climate (Myneni et al. 1997; Ahas 1999; Chmielewski and Roetzer, 2001; Green et al. 2001; Penuelas and Filella, 2001; Walther, 2004). Changes in the timing of phenological events are relevant for many natural processes thereby infl uencing biodiversity. As natural systems respond quickly to changes in climate, it is becoming more important to assess phenology in different ecosystems. Plants adapt to live in certain environmental conditions. Plants are dependent on seasonal environmental conditions: temperature, moisture and the length of the day variation. Variation of climatic conditions (light, temperature, moisture) through the year infl uence the growth of plants and the periodicity of development. All plant species individually adapt to periodical variation of climate and develop in their own optimal time of a year. Seasonal variety of vegetation is one of the most important ecological adaptations, which is common in the middle latitude vegetation. This phenomenon is particularly clear in board-leaved forests. Spring efemeroids (short time vegetation plants) fl ower in the period starting from snow melting till leaves on trees foliate, when a lot of light reach the ground. During summer time efemeroids are replaced by species, which like warm conditions, are heliophobic and have long vegetation. During majority of vegetation season such plants dominate in forest herbaceous cover. Phenology of broad-leaved forest has been studied in Russia, Poland, Germany and USA (Gorishina, 1969; Falinska, 1986; Ellenberg, 1979; Fred&Taylor, 1974). There is still a lack of data on seasonal dynamics of broad-leaved forest vegetation under different climate regimes. The objective of this study was to estimate seasonal dynamics of herbaceous vegetation of the broad-leaved forest ecosystem and evaluate its changes comparing the years of different climatic regimes.

Material and methods

The study area is located in the middle of Lithuania in Kamsha botanical reserve (54o 53.898’ N, 23o 50.091’E). The study area falls in the transitional deciduous coniferous mixed forest zone of Europe (Ahti et al. 1968). Climate conditions are suboceanic. It is common mild winters and chilly summers, variable weather, long year seasons alternation periods. Annual mean temperature is 6.2 °C. The annual mean precipitation is 612 mm. Period with snow continues from 75 to 90 days. The majority of precipitation is during warm year period (Bukantis 1994). The investigations were performed in the 140-year-old forest, which is typical for Kamsha reserve. The trees of Tilia cordata Mill., Acer platanoides L., Fraxinus excelsior L., Ulmus glabra Huds., Quercus robur L. and shrubs of Lonicera xylosteum L., Padus avium Mill., Euonymus verrucosus Scop., Corylus avellana L. dominated in the site.

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We recorded the dates of phenological appearance (foliation stages of trees and shrubs, fl owering of herbaceous plants) and projection cover of herbaceous vegetation during vegetation periods in the years of 1991, 2000, 2006 and 2007. In 20 plots of 1x1 m size we registered phenological appearance and projection cover in percent of each species two times per week in spring time and one time per week in summer time. The spectra of vegetation and fl owering were made (Fred, Taylor, 1974). With the purpose to compare the changes of phenology under different climate conditions we used data on temperature and precipitation from Kaunas meteorological station, which is situated near the study location (about 2 km apart). We counted sums of active temperatures (>5ºC) for each year and compared with the dates of phenological appearance.

Results

The changes of projection cover of herbaceous vegetation during vegetation period are shown in the fi gure 1. Vegetation of herbs started at the beginning of April (12th-13th week). Intensive vegetative development started at the 14th week in 1991 and 2007, and at the 16th week in 2000 and 2006. Projection cover of efemeroids such as Anemone nemorosa L., Anemone ranunculoides L., Corydalis solida (L.) Clairv. and Ficaria verna Huds was the highest at the end of April and May and decreased intensively at the beginning of July. Projection cover of herbs started decreasing at the beginning of August (30th week) (2000 and 2007 year). In 2006 projection cover of herbs showed two picks – one in spring time and other in August. In 1991 projection cover of herbs stayed stabile until October.

a) b)

c) d) Figure 1. Projection cover during vegetation period in a) 1991, b) 2000, c) 2006, d) 2007

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The fl owering of herbaceous vegetation in broad-leaved forest is shown in the fi gure 2. Most herbs fl owered from the beginning of April to the beginning of June. Asarum europaeum L., Hepatica nobilis Mill., Pulmonaria obscura Dumort., Mercurialis perennis L., Anemone nemorosa L., Anemone ranunculoides, Corydalis solida (L.) Clairv, Ficaria verna Huds. started fl owering fi rst. Asperula odorata L., Stellaria holostea L., Polygonatum multifl orum (L.) All., Ranunculus cassubicus L., Lamiastrum galeobdolon (L.) started fl owering later. Stachys sylvatica L., Aegopodium podagraria L. Campanula trachelium L. fl owered in the fi rst part of July. In spring of 2006 fl owering herbs started to fl ower 2 weeks later than in other years.

a) b)

d) c)

Figure 2. Phenological spectrum of herbs in a) 1991, b) 2000, c) 2006, d) 2007

Foliation of main tree species in the stand is shown in the fi gure 3. Padus avium Mill., Ulmus glabra Huds., Corylus avellana L., started foliating fi rst; a little later - Acer platanoides L. and Tilia cordata Mill. Quercus robur L., Fraxinus excelsior L. started foliating the latest. In 2007 foliation of trees started and completed 2 weeks earlier than in 2000 and 2006. In 1991 foliation of trees started 2 week later, but completed about at the same time like in 2000 and 2006.

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a) b)

c) d) Figure 3. Foliation of trees and shrubs in a) 1991, b) 2000, c) 2006, d) 2007

Discussion

Phenology of plants depends on the temperature and precipitation of the year. The temperature has an infl uence to anatomical, morphological, physiological processes of plants also to growth and development of plants. The infl uence of temperature is many-sided and connected not only with certain temperature but also with its variation during the year or the day (Fitter& Fitter, 2002, Menzel, 2002, Chuine et al., 2003). Flowering of herbaceous vegetation in broad leaved forests depends on the foliation of trees in the stand. The majority of plants fl owered in spring when trees were without leaves and light conditions were good. Mean temperatures per week are shown in the fi gure 4 and sums of active temperatures are shown in the fi gure 5. In the temperate zone the temperature is a limiting factor in spring time when vegetation and fl owering of plants starts. The coldest spring (from four years when investigation was performed) was in 2006. In this year vegetation and fl owering of herbs started later than in other years. The warmest year (from four years when investigation was performed) was in 2007. In this year vegetation and fl owering of herbs started earlier than in other years. Equal precipitation distribution during the vegetation period is important for the development of plants. In 2006 dry period was from the beginning of June till the beginning of August (fi g. 6). During dry period in July the projection cover of herbs decreased (especially of Aegopodium podagraria L.). Later during the August projection cover increased again. So this year we observe two picks of the projection cover of herbs. In 2000 dry period started in September, so projection cover of herbs decreased in early autumn.

Figure 4. Mean temperatures of week in a) 1991, b) 2000, c) 2006, d) 2007

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Figure 5. Sum of temperatures > 5oC

Figure 6. Week precipitation in a) 1991, b) 2000, c) 2006, d) 2007

Conclusions

Vegetation of herbs started at the beginning of April (12th-13th week). Intensive vegetative development started at the 14th week in 1991 and 2007, and at the 16th week in 2000 and 2006. In 2006 projection cover of herbs showed two picks – one in spring time and other in August. Projection cover in 2000 decreased during dry period in September. In the coldest spring (2006) fl owering of herbs started two weeks later than in 1991 and 2000. In the warmest year (2007) fl owering of herbs started two weeks earlier than in 1991 and 2000. In the warmest year (2007) foliation of trees started and completed 2 weeks earlier than in 2000 and 2006. In 1991 foliation of trees started 2 weeks later, but completed about at the same time like in 2000 and 2006. The majority of plants fl owered in spring when trees were without leaves and light conditions were good.

References

Ahas R. (1999). Long-term phyto-, ornitho- and ichthyophenological time-series analyses in Estonia. Int J Biometeorol 42: 119–123. Ahti T., Hämet-Ahti L. & Jalas J. (1968). Vegetation zones and their sections in northwesten Europe. Ann. Bot. Fenn. 5: 169-211. Bukantis A. (1994). Lietuvos klimatas [Climate of Lithuania]. Vilnius Univ. Pres., Vilnius, pp.188. Chmielewski FM., Rötzer T. (2001). Response of tree phenology to climate change across Europe. Agric For Meteorol 108: 101–112. Chuine I., Kramer K., Haanninen H. (2003). Plant development models. In: Phenology: An Integrative Environmental Science (ed. Schwartz MD), pp. 217–235. Kluwer Academic Publishers, Dordrecht. Ellenberg, H. (1979). Zeigerwerte der Gefasspfl anzen Mitteleuropas. 2. Aufl .- Gottingen, p.122. Falinska K. (1986). Seasonal dynamics of forest communities. Vegetation Dynamics in Temperate Lowland Primeval Forest. Ecological Studies in Bialowieza Forest (red. Falinski J., B). In: Geobotany 8, DR W. Junk Publishers, pp.165-305. Fitter A.H. & Fitter R.S.R. (2002). Rapid changes in fl owering time in British plants. Science, 296: 1689–1691. Fred G., Taylor J. (1974). Phenodynamics of Production in a Mesic Desiduous Forest. In: Phenology and Seasonality Modeling (ed. Lieth H.). New York, pp. 237-254. Gorishina T.K. (1969). Sping efemeroids in oak steppe forests. Leningrad, p. 231. Green RE., Harley M., Spalding M., Zockler C. (2001). Impacts of climate change on wildlife. RSPB, Cambridge, p.71. IPCC. (2007). Summary for Policymakers. In: Climate Change 2007: The Physical Science Basis. Contribution of Working Group I to the Fourth

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Assessment Report of the Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (Solomon, S., D. Qin, M. Manning, Z. Chen, M. Marquis, K.B. Averyt, M.Tignor and H.L. Miller (eds.)). Cambridge University Press, Cambridge, United Kingdom, p.18. Menzel A. (2002). Phenology, its importance to the Global Change Community. Climatic Change 54: 379–385. Myneni RB., Keeling CD., Tucker CJ., Asrar G., Nemani RR. (1997). Increased plant growth in the northern high latitudes from 1981 to 1991. Nature 386: 698–702. Parmesan C., Yohe G. (2003). A globally coherent fi ngerprint of climate change impacts across natural systems. Nature, 421: 37–42. Penuelas J. & Filella I. (2001). Phenology - responses to a warming world. Science 294: 793-795. Root TL., Price JT., Hall KR. et al. (2003). Fingerprints of global warming on wild animals and plants. Nature, 421: 57–60. Walther G.R. (2004). Plants in a warmer world. Perspectives in Plant Ecology Evolution and Systematics 6: 169-185.

Vitas MAROZAS. Department of Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, Lt-4324 Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania; Fax +370 37 752224; E-mail: [email protected] Jolita ABRAITIENĖ. Department of Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, Lt-4324 Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania; Fax +370 37 752224; E-mail: [email protected]

170 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Vegetation Development in Different Landscape Element of the Lithuanian Mainland Seacoast

Algimantas M. Olšauskas, Ramunė Urbonienė Klaipėda University, Lithuania

Abstract

The aims of the research have been analysed the development vegetation in different elements of the seacoast landscape look for a relations between grassy and woody plan species, to foresee the tendencies of further landscape development. For the reason of deteriorating ecological conditions on the Lithuanian seacoast: i.e. climate change, rise of sea water level, frequent storms and even hurricanes, human economic activity, the fl ora of grassy and woody plants is getting scarcer, vegetation projections cover is decreasing, risk of wind erosion and seas abrasion is enhancing consequently the man made sand dunes are dwindling at a great rate. It has been established that in locations with intensive fl ow of holidaymakers a net of trodden paths is formed where the vegetation is disappearing very fast as there are suitable conditions for the springtime and autumn winds to erode the protective dune of the seaside. The trodden paths in a couple of years turn into 2 - 2,5 m wide sand drifting corridors, but the lies of the people become there 3 - 4 m wide pits and hollows. After these formations have interconnected they shape defl ations of different size. The drifting sand carried by the prevailing winds swamp the beyond dune plain and the outskirts of the forests. The statistical analysis of projections cover of vegetation shows that during the last 27 years (from 1982) the conditions for fl ora survival on the mainland seacoast sand dunes are gradually deteriorating. Key words: mainland seacoast, change of landscape, grassy and woody plants, state of dunes

Introduction

Seacoast landscapes in European countries are valued and cherished very much. The landscape value is determined by the structure of the seacoasts: rocky, moraine, fl atland moist, sandy with dunes or without. Whatever structure they might have their value and stability is signifi cantly increased by the presence of grassy and woody vegetation as it weakens the rate of wind erosion and seacoast abrasion, heightens aesthetical worth of the surroundings, meliorates microclimate etc. On the shores of the Baltic and North seas grow the same species of plants (Davidson et al, 1991 Lundberg, 1987; Ericson et al, 1979; Heikkinen et al, 1987; Piotrawska, 1988). The seacoast of the Atlantic Ocean is characteristic of other plant species (Houston, 1983;Dijkema et al, 1983; Doing, 1989; Bassett et al, 1985). On the seashore of the Black and Mediterranean seas the fl ora more southerly latitudes vegetates (Rivas-Martinez et al, 1990; Escarra E.A., 1984; Palladino, 1990; Georgiadis et al, 1990; Mishew et al, 1997). The landscape of European seacoast is very enjoyable by visitors. (Ratan et al, 1997; Rove 2006; Ulsts, 1998; Piotrowska, 1995). In the 17th century the Lithuanian mainland seaside was overgrown with forests therefore the sand drift processes there had not clearly manifested. In the period of the Thirty Years war (1618-1648) and the Seven Years war (1756-1763) the forests of the mainland seaside were intensively hewn and that was the main reason why the prevailing winds could evoke sand erosion. (Gudelis, 1998). At the change of the 18th and 19th centuries because of windborne sands the Curonian waterway channel sand bars causing closure of Klaipeda port (Daujotas, 1958). Sand drifts especially conspicuously manifested themselves in 1790 – 1810 years when in Klaipeda – Sventoji seaside stretch vast open-sand areas formed. The sand at the time borne by westerly winds used to reach and thickly cover the adjacent tilled soil 7 – 9 km away from the sea. In 1839 the work of forming and planting of the protective dune was commenced at a section of the mainland seaside to curb sand drifts and seas reaching the plains beyond the dunes (Bezzenberg, 1889). The forestation of drifting sand of Palanga and its approaches were renewed in 1923 under the initiative of M. Daujotas. The maritime willow (Salix daphoides Vill) was planted on the dunes and suchlike work went on until 2004. Later this work was unfortunately passed over to occasional inexperienced organizations. For that reason the grassy and woody plants began to dwindle (Olsauskas et al, 2004). The hurricane ‘Anatoly’ in December 1999 totally annihilated the vegetation on the western slope of the dune and thinned them heavily on its top (Urboniene et al, 2005). Later on it was not undertaken promptly enough to promote vegetation by sowing or planting and bare sand areas were not covered with branches (Olsauskas et al, 2007). Arm of study is to determine an optimum of protection cover of the plants, composition of grassy and woody plant species.

Characteristic of analysis object

The Lithuanian mainland seaside verges on the south- eastern Baltic. The length of the seaside is about 40 km long and the surface of the seashore tilts up eastwards at 1-2 degrees (Gudelis, 1998). The Lithuanian seaside is made up of two parts: northern - mainland and southern – Figure 1. Lithuanian peninsula or Curonian spit. The mainland part stars at the Lithuanian - Latvian border and mainland seashore – study goes southward to the canal connecting the Curonian lagoon with the Baltic Sea. (See fi g. 1). area

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The mainland part belongs as to geographical marine division to south-eastern sector of mid-Baltic. On the protective dune of the mainland seaside several fl oral zones shaped: those of foredune, western slope, top, and eastern slope (See fi g. 2).

Figure 2. Ideal transverse profi le of foredune and protective dune on the mainland seashore (Dubra, Grecevičius 2006)

In these zones only vegetation characteristic of mainland seaside has been formed. On the foredune grow in small groups Cakile baltica Jord. Ex Pobed, Honckenya peploydes (L.) Ehrh. On the western slope there is a thin growth of Leymus arenarius (L.) Hochst and Ammophila arenaria L. as well as Salix daphnoides Vill., Rosa rugosa Thunb., Pinus mugo Turra, Juniperus communis L., Lathyrus maritimus (L.) Bigelow., Gysophila paniculata L. etc. On the eastern slope one can meet Frangula alnus Mill., Hippophae rhamnoides L., Pinus sylvestris L, Salix repens ssp. Arenaria (L.) Hittonen, Padus avium Mill., Jasione Montana L., Artemisia campestris L., Carex arenaria L. et cetera.

Research methods

The structure and projections cover of the mainland seacoast protective dune by grassy and woody plants has been evaluated by means of 53 cross profi les in all elements of the relief: western slope, top, eastern slope. The stocktaking proceeded from west to east. The fi rst study was carried out on the western slope and the last on the eastern slope. The vegetation density of woody and grassy growth was measured according to the projections cover. The research was begun at the beginning of summer 1982 and completed at the end of spring 2009. During this period the vegetation was checked 14 times. All check-ups were done in the same places on routes linked to orienting points of the location. The projections cover of grassy and woody vegetation was measured by gradation (0, 10,20 …100% of the studied area). Following vegetation parameters of the protective dune were taken into account: 1. Projections cover of vegetation 2. Projections cover of woody plants 3. Projections cover of grassy plants 4. Species composition of grassy plants 5. Species composition of woody plants.

Research results and analysis

The protective dune of the mainland seaside is obviously dwindling due to natural elements and the human activity - mainly economical and recreational. Because of action of seas the western slope of the protective dune has come to a dangerous point of disappearance. The vegetation growth of the western slope of protective dune consisting of grassy species has become noticeably scarcer but it has reached a critical point on the top. Prevailing westerly winds constantly blow out across the dune channels of different size and form through which sand is carried. By way of these channels the sand is freely borne onto the meadows of the beyond dune plain and the outskirts of woods. The walkers’ incessant tread in summer makes good conditions for seas and autumn and spring winds to intensively destroy the protective dune. The trampled and lodged places turn in a few years into hollows and pits of various sizes. The recreational activity of people clearly inhibits a natural cycle of grassy and woody vegetation. At the beginning of June 1982 when the long-term studies of the woody and grassy vegetation had begun, its projections cover was almost 60%. Two thirds of them were made by grassy plants and one third by woody. In 27 years the projections vegetation cover decreased by 36% but at the beginning of 2009 the fi gure was 34%. The grassy cover decreased during the period by 45% but the woody projections cover diminished only by 5%. Nowadays the Lithuanian seaside suffered from four strong storms and one hurricane. During their boisterous work the water on the eastern sea part rose signifi cantly and the seas reached and pounded the western (windward) slope of the protective dune. The hurricane ‘Anatoly’ should be noted particularly. It took place at the beginning of December

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1999. Then the winds carried away from the protective dune a thick layer of sand into the sea together with the growing woody and grassy vegetation. As a result the projections cover reduced from 49% to 40%. (See fi g. 3).

Figure 3. Projections cover of plants on the eastern slope of protective dune on the mainland seacoast

The eastern slope of the dune is not impacted by seas and only slightly by westerly winds and averagely by the walkers. In 27 years the projection vegetation cover reduced by 12%. The dominating woody plants growing on the eastern slope of the dune are the Pinus sylvestris L. as well as Pinus mugo Turra, Salix repens ssp. Arenaria (L.) Hittonen, Padus avium Mill., Salix daphnoides Vill., Betula pendula Roth., Frangula alnus Mill. etc. It is worth mentioning that in the limits of the village Būtinge not so rare is Syringa vulgaris L., but in the precincts of Melnrage I on the same eastern slope grows and proliferates by itself the Hippophae rhamnoides L. (See fi g. 4)

Figure 4. Projections cover of plants on the top of protective dune on the mainland seacoast

On the top of the mainland seaside protective dune the projections vegetation cover at the beginning of the study period made about 60%. The grassy plants covered about 37% of the surface but the woody plants 22%. In 27 years the grassy cover reduced tree times but the woody plants decreased only by 10%. The vegetation growth noticeably diminished on the top of the dune after the hurricane ‘Anatoly’. General projections cover reduced by third but grassy vegetation by 45%. Woody plants suffered less and their cover lessened only by 20%. During the hurricane the vegetation rootage together with the sand were carried by the waves of the sea. Apart from the Gypsophila poniaculata L., Lathyrus maritimus (L.) Bigelow, and other grassy plants especially heavily suffered the vegetation of Salix daphnoides Vill., Rosa rugosa Thunb. While the grassy growth is diminishing it has been noticed that the reproduction of the Salix daphnoides Vill. an increasing. Presently together with the aforesaid species on the top of the dune one can fi nd solitary Pinus syvestris L., Pinus mugo Turra, Frangula alnus Mill., Padus avium Mill., but in Melnrage II there are of few saplings of the Aesculus hippocastanum L. (See fi g. 5)

Figure 5. Projections cover of plants on the western slope of protective dune on the mainland seacoast

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The western (windward) slope of the protective dune of the mainland seaside is suffering from storms and hurricanes the greatest losses. At the beginning of the accounting period the western slope was overgrown by grassy and woody vegetation whose projection cover reached 33%. The area covered by grassy outstrips the woody vegetation cover several times. The grassy plants of the western slope have in the study period become much scarcer and its cover has reduced fourfold – from 28% to 7%. The cover by woody plants did not change and remained at 5%. The projections cover of vegetation especially grassy suffered a great deal from the hurricane ‘Anatoly’. Before the event the projections cover of the western slope made 15% but during the storm the grassy vegetation was destroyed signifi cantly. The growth of the woody plants, in the fi rst row that a Salix daphnoides Vill. partly revived from live roots when in spring 2000 gave forth fi rst shoots that comprised a cover of 2%. The grassy growth of the western slope is dominated by rootstock specifi c grassy like the Leymus arenarius L., Ammophila arenaria (L.) Link that have an opportunity to overwhelm the area because of their specifi c features. A representative of the woody species – Salix daphnoides Vill. is very vital and adapted to extremely hard conditions what is the western slope of the protective dune. Invasive woody like the Hippophae rhamnoides L., Syringa vulgaris L., Aesculus hippocastanum L., fi xed in the soil and grow poorly therefore there is no danger that they might oust the best dune protector – Salix daphnoides Vill. The other woody species met on the eastern slope and the top of the protective dune are not aggressive towards the Salix daphnoides Vill., though they are inclined to move slowly over to the western slope. The grassy species found on the mentioned dune relief elements are becoming from year to year scarcer or dwindle for the reason of intensifying recreational activity and the onslaught of the woody plants. The grassy species are suitable for curbing sand erosion despite the fact that they make a species of competition to the shoots of woody plants. The natural self-forestation of the relief elements of the protective dune should not be impeded. On the contrary in certain places it should be promoted for its better projections cover.

Conclusions

1. The ratio of woody and grassy species on the eastern slope of the protective dune is optimal. It is necessary to optimise the ratio to 1:1 and to respectively bring the vegetation cover to 50% or more. The grass vegetation must make two thirds of the cover on the western slope but the woody species should make one third of it. Its projections vegetation cover should be enlarged till 30 – 50 percent. 2. The woody species variegate the seaside landscape, their deep roots strengthen the dune sand thus impeding the erosion raised by winds and water, improves the microclimate for the holidaymakers and make better conditions for nesting of birds. 3. The vegetation cover of woody and grassy communities of the protective dune is gradually decreasing for three negative factors: the impact of seas, westerly winds and human activity. 4. Open sand on the top of the protective dune must not exceed 20% of the area, but on the eastern slope 10%. The protective dune must be optimally planted so that the windborne sand does not drift onto the beyond dune plain covering the meadows and the outskirts of recreational forests.

References

Bassett J.A.,Curtis T.G.F.1985. The nature and occurrence of sand dune machair in Ireland. Proced. Roy. Irich Academy.85,No.1.p.p.1-20 Bezzenber A. 1889. Die Kurisch Nehrung und ihre Bowohner. Stuttgard. 178p. Daujotas. 1958. Lietuvos pajūrio smėlynų apželdinimas Vilnius 178p. Dijkema K.S., Wolff V.J. 1983. Flora and vegetation of the Wadden sea islands and coastal areas. Report 9 of the Wadden sea working group. The Netherlands. 142p. Doing H. 1989. Landscape ecology of the Dutch coast Stichting duinbehoud. Leiden. The Netherland. 210p. Ericson L., Wallentinus H.G. 1979. Seashore vegetation a round the Gulf of Bothnia. For guide the International society for Vegetation science. Wahlenbergia. Vol.5. 142 p Escarra Esteve A. 1984. El medio y 1a biocensis de Losarendes costeros de la piovincia de Alicante. Madrid, Spain. 175p. Georgiadis Th. Economidou E. 1990. Flora and vegetation of the Strofi lia coastal area (Greece) Phyton 286p. Gudelis. 1998. Lietuvos Įjūris ir pajūris. Vilnius, 444 p. Heikkinen O., Tikkanen M. 1987. The Kalajoki dune fi eld n the west coast of Finland. Fennia. 165, p.p. 241-267. Houston J. 1983. The conservation and management of sand dune coarts in Holland and Denmark, pt.2. Denmark. 72 p. Leten M., Van Nieuwehuyse H. Herrier J.L.2005. Invasive scrub and trees in the coastal dunes of Flanders (Belgium): an overview of management goals, actions and results. In dunes and estuaries 2005. Leiden. The Netherlands. p.p. 111-127. Lundberg A. 1987. Sand dune vegetation on Karmoy. S.W.Norway. Nord.J.Bot.7.p.p.453-477. Miskev k., Popov P. 1979. the Bolgarion Blook sea coast. 178 p

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Nature conservation and estuaries in Great Britain. 1991. Editor in chiff Davidson N.C et al. Peterborough U.K (422 p.) Ol auskas Algimantas M. 2004 Infl uence of plant covers on strengtning of costal dunes. In. Environmental protection technologies for costal areas areas. Varna Bulgaria. p.p 547-555. Olšauskas Algimantas M., Urbonienė Ramunė.2007 Peculiarities of vegetation scatter on protective dune of Lithuanian continental seaside. Environmental Research, Engineering and Management, No 4(42) p. 25-30. Palladion S. 1990.Lista dele areo naturali protette in Italia. Roma. 126p. Piotrowska H. 1988. The dynamic of the dune vegetation on the Polish Baltic coast. Vegetation 77p.p. 169-175. Piotrowska H., Gos K. 1995. Coastal dune vegetation in Poland diversity and development In.: management and preservation of coastal habitats. Leiden. The Netherlands.p.p.71-82. Ratas U. Nilson E. 1997. Small islands of Estonia. Tallinn. 231p. Rivas-Martinez S. , Lousa M., Diaz T.E. Fernandez-Gonzalez F., Costa J.C. 1990. La vegetation del sur de Portugal. Itinera Geobotanica, Vol.3.p.p 5-127. Rove I.2006.Plant communities of the grey dunes along the gult of Riga. In. Living marine resources and coastal the habitats. Gdansk. Poland.p.p.136-141. Ulsts V. 1998. Baltijos jūros ranta zona. Riga Valsts geologijas dienests. 96p. Urbonienė Olšauskaitė Ramunė, Olšauskas Algimantas M., Grecevičius Petras 2005. Lithuanian mainland seashore: before and after hurricane “Anatoly”: Journal – sea and environmental. No2 (13) Klaipeda University Lithuania. p.p 42-49. Žaromskis. 1982. Uraganinių audrų poveikis Lietuvos pajūriui “Geografi jos metraštis” Nr.20.p.p 89-97.

Algimantas M. OLŠAUSKAS. Professor, Klaipeda university Department of Recreational and Landscape Architecture. Research interest: anthropogenic infl uence of the vegetation in Lithuanian seaside (protective dune, fore dune). Address: H. Manto 84, Klaipeda, 92294Lithuania. Phone and fax number +370 46 398835. Ramunė URBONIENĖ (Olšauskaitė). Master’s degree, Klaipeda university Department of Recreational and Landscape Architecture. Research interest: dynamics of the vegetation scatter of the protective dune, dynamics of seaside, recreational infl uence of the protective dune. Address: H. Manto 84, Klaipeda, 92294 Lithuania. Phone and fax number + 370 46 398835. E-mail: [email protected]

175 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Changes in Vegetation Due to Age and Density of the Beech Stands in Ukraine (Lviv Region)

Nataliya Pavlyuk National Forestry University of Ukraine

Abstract

Biology and ecology of vegetation in the forests is very various and formed in the process of the protracted evolution. Important factors of the development of forest vegetation are arboreal and shrub layers, also their genetic features are very important, which were determined by ecological terms in the past. One of the important components in the forest phytocenosis is the vascular plant vegetation. The important factor of development of forest grassy plants, is arboreal and shrub layers, their inherited features which were determined, in the same queue, by ecological terms in the past. The life terms of the forest vegetation, in the very large measure, depend on an arboreal tier. Infl uence of trees canopy on a grass layer changes during the period of vegetation In basic, typical forest vegetation belongs to shade hardy plants. Most specialized from it, able to grow at very low light intensity, which is 5—10% from luminosity of the open-space. Successful grow in the shade of the forest plants is related to the presence in it of the wide leaf, which stimulates normal photosynthesis. Forest plants evaporate water and outlay carbohydrates less, than meadow or other species.

Introduction

Most of the forest plants, as well as forest trees and shrubs, are mycotrophic organisms. There is mycorhiza on their roots (it’s a cohabitation of mushroom and roots of higher plants). It is formed of hyphs of mushrooms and helps to get a water and some nutritious from the soil. The most important, that mycorhiza plays a big role in the phosphoric exchange at the forest. In basic, typical forest vegetation belongs to shade hardy plants. Most specialized from them, able to grow at very low light intensity, which is 5—10% from luminosity of open-space. Successful grow in the shade of the forest plants is related to the presence in it of the wide leaf, which stimulates normal photosynthesis. Forest plants evaporate water and outlay carbohydrates less, than meadow or other species. A big infl uence on composition of grassy plants and their growth in the forests gives the so-called root competition between the types of different layers. This circumstance in a different measures infl uences not only on the places of growing of plants, but also on speed of their development, growth, possibility or impossibility of fl owering or fruiting in different micro conditions (under the crown of tree, near a bushes or in a blank, formed by wind-fallen trees). Especially important is a competition of grassy plants in the time of transition to the reproductive period. Ability to form the young generation of the forest is one of the major and most diffi cult functions of the stand. For formation of viable regeneration, must be taken into account a whole complex of factors among which is a grass cover (Hermy, M., Honnay, O., Firbank, L., Bokdam-Grashof, C. & Lawesson, J.E. 1999). Vegetation plays multifunctional role on the processes of forest regeneration. It can bother the process of germination of the seeds, dry out and impoverish the soil (for example, after the strong overgrowing of clear cuts). In other cases it infl uence on the growth of stair, guarding it from frosts, overheat, enriching soil by nutritive (at presence in composition the cover of plants from Bob family). Mostly it depends of forests, which are located at the border of distribution of natural habitat, and its regeneration depends on the complex of abiotic and biotic factors, including a soil- cover plants (Kucherjavyj V.). Aim of research: 1. To compare the changes in vegetation due to age and density of Beech forest in different site conditions. 2. To investigate the specifi c structure of the forest vegetation and its distribution in the suburban Beech forests. 3. To expose forming processes of the forest vegetation and natural regeneration of Beech. Answers to the following questions can be found in these studies: - What kind of structure in vegetation and regeneration of Beech forests in Northern border of areal? - How age and density of the stand infl uence on the distribution of the vegetation and growth of trees in Beech forests? - How changes the distribution of soil-cover plants in the different trial areas (the percentage of each species)? Object of our researches is a Beech forest, which is growing on the east border of its natural habitat in the conditions of Lviv region (western Ukraine). In the forest cover of this territory a beech forest is a dominant species. Methods and procedure what where used for concrete research. At fi rst, the goal was to pawn 6 trial areas in

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Beech stands and to see the changes in distribution of forest vegetation at the different site conditions (absolute height, soil and light intensity, steepness of slope). Than - to defi ne basic taxation indexes in Beech stands. In every trial area on 30 registration plots (size of each 2х2 m) to count and to estimate the conditions of forest vegetation. Also to analyze factors which determine forming and co-infl uence of forest vegetation and regeneration of Beech. For the analysis of the infl uence of arboreal cover on distribution of soil-cover plants we made six experimental plots. Results of the conducted silviculture researches are presented in the table 1 (Berezywskyy L., Lakyda P., (et. al.)).

Table 1. Taxonomic indexes of Beech stands in trial areas Fixing price indexes

Stocked

m volume, cm

№ trial area 3 Species m /ha Age, years Composition Class of bonitet Density of stand Average-altitude, Average diameter, Average Fg 43,0 36,0 1 10Fg sl+Q rb Ca bet Q rb 108 48,2 33,7 0,80 Ib 603 Ca 24,3 23,6

Fg 43,2 36,4 2 10Fg sl+Q rb 103 0,78 Ib 607 Q rb 45,6 36,6

Fg 45,2 39,6 3 10 Fg sl +Ac pl 113 0,83 Ic 704 Ac pl 28,0 34,3

Fg 43,4 39,4 4 10Fg sl+ Ac pl 113 0,86 Ic 730 Ac pl 41,3 36,4

48,6 40,6 Fg 42,1 33,3 5 9Fg sl 1 Ac ps Ac pl Ca bet Ac ps 113 0,64 Ib 557 54,9 36,3 Ac pl Ca 28,0 24,4 6 10Fg Fg 113 47,5 39,7 0,86 Ic 738

Trial areas 1 and 2 were made on the almost fl at territory (absolute height 380 m, a side is south-west, steepness of slope - 1o). Second trial – on the small distance from the fi rst on the slope of the same hump (absolute height 370-375 m, a side is south-west, steepness of slope - 5-6о). These trial areas present the most widespread mature beech stands in composition, productivity and natural regeneration. Origin of Beech on trial areas 1 and 2 is natural, and for Oak is artifi cial – in plots, where trial areas are made, there is an ordinary location of Oak trees. How we can see from table 1 stands at the both trial areas characterized by high productivity: bonitet Іb (quality of stand). Growing stock is more than 600 m3/ha. Trial areas 3-5 occupy the slopes of different sides of the same hump, covered by homogeneous Beech forest. Plot 3 located in overhead part of the even slope, absolute height of this area 350-360 m. The trial area 4 located in overhead part of north site of the slope, steepness of slope - 5-9о, absolute height of area 360-365 m. And the trial area 5 located on the same slope, like plot 4, but below, steepness of slope - 10о, absolute height of the area is 345-355m. Trial area 6 is situated on the overhead part of the South side of the slope, steepness of slope - 6-15о, absolute height of area - 360-355м. The type of forest in trial areas belongs to moist hornbeam Beech forest. Soil on it is typical for this district – light-chestnut, gley soil. On all of the noted above trial areas, stands have identical age and dominant species is Fagus sylvatica. Thus, on a trial area 6 admixture of concomitant species is absents; on a trial area 3 - there is a small admixture of Acer platanoides; on a trial area 4 – there is also admixture of Acer platanoides; but three times greater than on previous plot; on a trial area 5 there is a considerable admixture of concomitant species, like: sycamore, maple and hornbeam. Density of stands on all trial areas, except for 5th is high. A beech gives here a high productivity: bonitet of it equal to Іс, and standing stock of timber exceeds 700 m3/ha.

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Table 2. Distribution of soil-cover plants in the trial areas, %

Trial areas Types of plants 12345 6

Rubus hirtus of Waldst. et Kit. 212 1 3 7

Dryopteris fi lix-mas (L.) Schott 34131

Galium odoratum (L.) Scop. 222+2 3

Galeobdolon luteum Huds. 31125 +

Carex pilosa Scop. 3 6 16 1 19

Oxalis acetosella L. +1+ + +

Stellaria holostea L. +1++2

Urtica dioica L. +

Geranium robertianum L. ++++ 1 +

Circaea lutetiana L. +++++

Asarum europaeum L. 1++

Pulmonaria obscura Dumort. +++ + +

Euphorbia cuparissias L. ++

Carex brizoides L. ++

Carex sylvatica Huds. ++

Aegopodium podagraria L. ++ +

Moehringia trinervia (L.) Clairv. +

Veronica chamaedrys L. +++

Ajuga reptans L. ++

Glechoma hederacea L. +

Athyrium fi lix-femina Roth +21++ +

Hedera helix L. +1 +

Dryopteris carthusiana (Vill.) H.P. Fuchs ++

Viola sp. +++

Mercurialis perennis L. +

Gymnocarpium robertianum (Hoff.) Newm. +

Stachys sylvatica L. +

Impatiens noli tangere L. +++

Majanthemum bifolium (L.) F.W.Schmidt +

Nadgruntoviy cover on the whole 133021 9 1630 Note. The sign of «+» means that the distribution of species of soil-cover plants on the trial area is <0,5%.

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Results

Without regard in homogeneous forest conditions and dominating in composition of Beech species, the terms of forming of soil-covering plants have certain differences on trial areas in density of canopy. In species composition vascular plants of the Beech forests are presented by 29 taxons which belong to 21 families (Whigham, D.F. 2004.). How we can see, from the table 2 on a trial area 1 with a density of canopy 0,8, the projecting soil-cover of plants is small. Its density in average is equal to 0,13. Co-dominants in this area are such species as: Dryopteris fi lix-mas, Galeobdolon luteum and Carex pilosa. On a trial area 2 with density of canopy 0,8 the projecting soil-coverage of plants is higher, than in previous - in average is 0,30 and dominant species here is Rubus hirtus. Due to the south-west display of area here is presented Carex pilosa. The last kind also comes like co-dominant on 3d and 6th trial areas, which have a similar display – South, and the canopy of stand is more closed. Rubus hirtus on the 3d trial area is absent. On the 4th trial area with a north display and high density of plants, there are co-dominant such species as: Dryopteris fi lix-mas and Galeobdolon luteum, partly Rubus hirtus. On a trial area 5 with the same display, but with less density – the dominant species are Galeobdolon luteum with co-dominant - Rubus hirtus. Other species of herbs on trial areas 1-6 presented poorly, projecting soil- coverage of plants mainly makes it less than 0,5 %. Only on separate trial areas Athyrium fi lix-femina is widespread in a greater degree, Oxalis acetosella and Stellaria holostea, Geranium robertianum, Asarum europaeum, Hedera helix. In whole, development of soil-cover plants under the canopy of Beech stands in Lviv region is insignifi cant, its density, as a rule, does not exceed 0,3.

Conclusions

Thus, deeply analysing specifi c composition of the soil-cover plants, its distribution, quantitative and high-quality state, it is possible to make a conclusion, that in a high density stands of the Beech forests on the east border of its natural habitat is forming a wide spectrum of sward plants, which substantially enriches the diversity of these phytocenosis and carries out considerable co-infl uence on it. The dispersal of different species is very much infl uenced by the local disturbances, special characteristics of the border between older forest and recent plantations, and light conditions depending on the tree species planted. The most successful species were wind dispersed, covering most of the recent stands. The present study area gives an excellent opportunity for further research on restoration of broadleaved forest. The scale and age of the plantations enables permanent and consistent studies about forest herb layer, silviculture, edge effects and species migration and the recreational impact on the area in the long run. For beech stands one might consider a more sparse initial density for better light conditions for forest herb layer species as long as the timber quality does not suffer as a result.

References

Berezywskyy L., Lakyda P., (et. al.).Yield tables of Carpathian Mountains. Reference materials for forest valuation in Ukraine and Moldova, 1987. Hermy, M., Honnay, O., Firbank, L., Bokdam-Grashof, C. & Lawesson, J.E. 1999. An ecological comparison between ancient and other forest plant species of Europe, and the implications for forest conservation. Biological Conservation 91. Kucherjavyj V. Urboecology. Scientifi c literature, Ukraine. – Lviv, Svit, 2000. Myklush S. Yield tables of fl at part of Ukraine. Author’s PhD abstract, Saint Petersburg, 1986.

Whigham, D.F. 2004. Ecology of woodland herbs in temperate deciduous forests. Annual Review of Ecology, Evolution and Systematics 35.

Nataliya PAVLYUK. National forestry university of Ukraine. Address: str. Generala Chuprynky 134, 16; tel. +3 8 097 79 31895; e-mail: [email protected]

179 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Some Aspects of Evaluation the Infl uence of Region and Forest Level Landscape Structure on the Moose (Alces alces L.) and Red Deer (Cervus elaphus L.) Distribution

Kęstutis Pėtelis, Gediminas Brazaitis, Remigijus Žalkauskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The main task of this paper was to explore some aspects for landscape structure evaluation in order to determine various indicators of landscape structure what might infl uence the Moose and Red Deer distribution. GIS technologies, Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis were used to derive landscape structure indicators in cervine animals districts. Partial Redundancy analysis, tree model analysis were used to verify the relation of region and forest level landscape structure indicators with the Moose and Red Dear density in cervine animals districts. Results showed what the Red Dear is sensitive to forest edges, ecological loops and bridges. The Moose prefer connected large forest complexes with core area. The Moose is more sensitive to forest level landscape structure: share of deciduous forests, open areas inside forest, upland bogs. For Red Dear is a more important transition zone of forest – fi eld ecosystems. Application of different data analysis methods (redundancy analysis with covariables; tree model) enabled to emphasis results what could not be seen just from one analysis method. Combination of ArcGIS and Guidos software should be applied in landscape monitoring, landscape planning, evaluation of possible impact of planning solutions to landscape recourses, formation of Nature framework. Indicators derived by Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) implemented in GUIDOS quite good refl ect preferences of the Moose and Red Deer on landscape structure. Key words: Moose, Red Deer, landscape structure, MSPA, partial RDA, Tree model

Introduction

Landscape exhibit structure, function and change, all key elements in the rapidly developing science of landscape ecology (Forman, Godron, 1986). Structure refers to the spatial relationships between distinctive ecosystems (i.e. the distribution of energy, materials and species in relation to the sizes, shapes, numbers, types and confi gurations of components). Function refers to the interactions between spatial elements (i.e. the fl ow of energy, materials and organisms among the component ecosystems). Changes of landscape structure (ecosystems mosaic) cause changes in landscape function (Forman, 1996). Landscape ecology gained bioecological direction with relation to aero photos, satellite methods, Geographical Information Systems (GIS) development, growing consideration for biodiversity (Jankauskaitė, 2004). The retrieval of proper landscape structure indicators in landscape survey is important at least for few reasons: - It is foreseen the formation of landscape territorial units according to purposeful landscape structure standards in new (in Lithuania case) landscape management plans. - The purpose of landscape monitoring is to obtain data about tendencies of landscape structure, functioning changes, prognoses the problematic areas, suggest effective means for land cover, landscape mosaic optimization according to functional priority of that area development. Since 1994, the European Environment Agency is integrated CORINE (Coordination of information on the environment) in its work programme and is responsible for providing objective, timely and targeted information on Europe’s environment. CORINE is aimed at gathering information relating to the environment on certain priority topics for the European Union (air, water, soil, land cover, coastal erosion, biotopes, etc.) (. In the fi nal report of „Lithuanian CORINE Land Cover-2000“ carried by Vilnius University Ecology Institute land cover changes are monitored/presented in state and administrative districts levels (Vilnius University …, 2004). From the landscape ecology point of view, it is very important to estimate together with land cover areas (geomasses) changes also changes of landscape spatial structure in natural landscape territorial complexes, what may infl uence landscape functionality, stability, suitability for biodiversity. Depending on the species the biota is sensitive for various parameters of the landscape structure and the standard land cover classifi cation might not suit for particular species distribution monitoring. Geographical Information Systems (GIS) and Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) implemented in GUIDOS (Graphical User Interface for the Description of image Objects and their Shapes) software anable researches to seek various criteria defi ning quality of environment. For example, MSPA anable to defi ne binary landscape mosaic image classes - Core, Islet, Perforation, Edge, Loop, Bridge, and Branch (European Commission ..., 2009). At the larger scale study big mammals demonstrably react to landscape spatial structure (Zalkauskas et al, 2008). Including new adjacent environmental quality criteria in landscape monitoring may improve landscape management. The main task of this paper was to explore some aspects for landscape structure evaluation in order to determine various indicators of landscape structure whose might infl uence the Moose and Red Deer distribution.

Methods

From the statistical point of view, the “response” variables in landscape ecology are the abundance/distribution/ process variables, and the “predictors” are variables that describe landscape structure (Wiens, Moss, 2005). Infl uence of landscape structure on the Moose and Red Deer distribution defi ned by methodological scheme (Fig. 1).

180 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Figure 1. Methodological scheme of this research

The external data for research were obtained from the game management projects for game management units made by Lithuanian University of Agriculture, supported by Ministry of Environment, during 2006-2009 (leader of working group – ass. prof. K. Pėtelis). The infl uence of landscape structure on the Moose and Red Deer distribution were evaluated by cervine animals districts data in part of central, southwest units of Lithuania (Fig. 2).

Figure 2. Research object – landscape structure of cervine animal districts, the Moose and Red Deer density in part of central, southwest units of Lithuanian territory. The Natural Framework showed in scheme - areas, where landscape formation is oriented to restoration of natural landscape structure according to Lithuanian general plan (admitted in 2002)

By using Lithuanian forest state cadastre data (Lietuvos Respublikos …, 2003-2008) and ArcGIS software for analysis region landscape level and forest landscape level landscape structure indicators were evaluated (Table 1.). The Nature framework was included in this analysis to establish connectivity of natural habitats.

181 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Table 1. Landscape structure indicators for analysis Forest landscape level landscape structure Region landscape level landscape structure indicators* indicators** Peculiarities for Indicator Peculiarities for evaluation Indicator evaluation Natural framework area, % Deciduous forests, mixed Data according to Lithuanian deciduous-coniferous Natural framework formation direc tion – general plan (2002). ArcGIS forests (deciduous share restoration of natural structure of landscape software were applied more or equal 50% of stand (NF interest – renaturalization), % tree species composition), % Forest coverage, % Area of roads with cover, % Data were calculated from Mixed coniferous Forest complexes large than 300 ha area, % State forest cadastre data. – deciduous forests Forest patches up to 300 ha area, located at ArcGIS software were (deciduous share 30- 0.1-2 km distance from forest complexes applied (intersect, select Data calculated 50% of stand tree species (small forests), % functions and other) by using State composition), % Forest patches up to 300 ha area, located forest cadastre at 2.1 and more km distance apart forest data and ArcGIS complexes (small isolated forests), % software Forest core (200 m from forest boundary) Morphological Spatial Mixed coniferous forests, (intersect, select areas, % Pattern Analysis (MSPA) spruce forests (deciduous functions and other) Forest edges (200 m from forest boundary), implemented in GUIDOS share 10-20% of tree stand % was used (Vogt, 2008). composition), % Raster image of forests area Forest perforated areas (forest inner Pine forests (pine share 90- in corvine animals district edges), % 100 % of stand tree species (raster pixel resolution – Ecological bridges, % composition), % 20 m) was used. MSPA- Ecological loops, % Parameters: Forest are connectivity – 8 pixels, Edge Upland bogs, % Ecological branches, % wide - 5 pixels, Tramsition Islets areas (smaller isolated forest areas), were set on, Perforation of Young stands (up to 20 years % forest area was enabled. old) of oak, ash, aspen, % *- percentage was calculated for whole landscape territorial unit- cervine animals ditrit; **- percentage was calculated for forest area

Partial RDA analysis (Ter Braak, milauer, 2002) were applied to emphasis region landscape level or forest landscape level structure impact to the Moose and Red Deer distribution in cervine animals districts what could not be explained by another group of landscape structure indicators. Tree model statistic (S-Plus …, 1999) was applied to defi ne more or less optimal parameters of landscape structure to the Moose and Red Deer preferences. The statistical analysis was done to emphasis the landscape structure indicators for territorial planning while setting landscape structure standard, controlling landscape changes in landscape monitoring.

Results

Region landscape level analysis shows that both, the Moose and Red Deer, are sensitive to similar features of region landscape. Larger forest complexes had positive impact on the density of cervine species. The forest structural elements such as Branches, Loops, Core area, Edges on the region landscape level had impact on the distribution of the Moose and Red Deer as well. Landscape mosaic with isolated forest patches are not suitable for mentioned cervine animals (Fig. 3). Forest landscape level analysis shows that the Red Deer and the Moose abundance are dependent on different analyzed factors. The Moose is positively sensitive to deciduous forests, mixed deciduous-coniferous forests, openings (cuttings, young plantations, small squares et. ct.) in forest landscape as well as negatively with Spruce, Pine and mixed coniferous-deciduous forests (Fig. 4). The Red Deer distribution is less dependable on forest mosaic at all. Tree Model analysis enabled to derive the Moose and Red Deer preferences to landscape structure in particular combination of landscape structure – sometimes the lack of one landscape parameter might be compensated by another in particular situation. The landscape mosaic with higher proportion of the core area and the forest ecological bridges is mostly preferred by the Moose (Fig. 5, (A)). The Red Deer is especially sensitive for forest edges density what is created in landscape mosaic by forest edges itself, ecological loops, ecological forest bridges. Highest density of the Red Deer is observed in the areas with comparatively high amount of forest edges as well as high amount of Ecological loops and Ecological bridges in the landscape.

182 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Figure 3. Relation of region landscape level landscape structure and the Moose and Red Deer distribution. Partial RDA. The fi rst canonical axis is horizontal one and explains the most data variation. Correlations are interpreted by biplot rules (Ter Braak, milauer, 2002). Projection of variable arrow on axis shows the correlation with particular hypothetical factor (axis). After fi tting covariables the sum of all canonical eigenvalues is 0.39.

Figure 4. Relation of forest landscape level landscape structure and the Moose and Red Deer distribution. Partial RDA. The fi rst canonical axis is horizontal one. The fi rst canonical axis is horizontal one and explains the most data variation. Correlations are interpreted by biplot rules (Ter Braak, milauer, 2002). Projection of variable arrow on axis shows the correlation with particular hypothetical factor (axis). Two axes explain 72.6 % species data variation (percentage is taken with respect to variances after fi tting covariables). After fi tting covariables the sum of all canonical eigenvalues is 0.178. Signifi cance of the fi rst canonical axis under Mote Carlo 1000 permutation test: eigenvalue = 0.146, F-ratio= 4.425, P-value=0.438

a) b)

Figure 5. The Moose (A) and Red Deer (B) preferences (showed by density, units per 1000 ha of forest areas) to landscape mosaic in particular combination of landscape structure. Tree model analysis (S-Plus…, 1999); n – amount of corvine animals districts in separated group of landscape structure

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Discussion

Lithuanian landscape is characterized by various size isolated forest areas surrounded by agriculture and other human utilized areas. Different regions have different dominant tree species composition (Lithuanian statistical…, 2008). Such different conditions create various habitats as well as landscape structure combinations in administrative and natural regions. The Red Deer is much fl exible on forest habitats than Moose. Tree species composition and openings inside forest are much important for Moose than Red Deer. According to Baskin L., Danell K. (2003), the Moose is mainly forest ecosystem inhabitant; diet specialized on woody species and herbs. As the Moose feeds mainly on forest vegetation species, forest edges and surrounding landscape for Moose is not so important as for Red Deer. Comparing fi rst preference (Fig. 5) for both species are important opposite habitat element: forest edges for the Red Deer and interior (core area) for the Moose. Forest edges are habitats with higher availability of food as well as enable easy access for surroundings. The Red Deer distribution mainly depends on landscape structure. The Moose primary populations survived in the large forest-swamp - upland bogs complexes, what is clearly seen in our results. According to Balei is (1990), during autumn and spring the animal migrates on broad front at least 20-30 km. Forest connectivity elements such as ecological bridges, loops, branches et al. are necessary for the landscape as movement corridors. As were proved in our study, connectivity elements in the landscape are essential for both of the species. Our Suduva region case study carried out under the basis of forest complexes also showed negative impact of distance of forests to larger forest complexes (Žalkauskas et al, 2008). While eliminating the infl uence of forest landscape level landscape structure indicators it could be considered, the Moose, Red Deer are sensitive to larger forest complexes, their confi guration, possibilities for movement (Fig. 3). In the landscape monitoring those indicators should be used to control landscape mosaic changes. Landscape mosaic with isolated forest patches are not suitable for mentioned cervine animals. This landscape mosaic is related to the rural landscape areas “destroyed” during Soviet time, where it is necessary to re-naturalize landscape mosaic, establish migrations corridors in order to get benefi t from the Nature Framework idea. There is bigger density in areas where integral Nature Framework already exists because of undestroyed landscape structure (Fig. 3). It is essential to improve landscape structure quality in the areas of the Nature Framework, established just “in planes”, where landscape formation direction is set for landscape restoration to ensure more integrated Nature Framework. While eliminating the infl uence of region landscape level landscape structure indicators it could be considered that the Moose is sensitive to deciduous stands composition in forests area and open spaces of forests land (cuttings, young plantations, small squares et. ct.) (Fig. 4). It is also preferable having in forests young stands of oak, ash, aspen and uplands as well. The Red Deer distribution is less dependable on forest mosaic itself. In large scale some impact of environmental factors could not be mentioned by traditional or other statistical methods: in particular situation defi cit of one environmental factor might be compensated by another one. For example, in landscape mosaic with forest core areas larger than 6,2%, the part of forest ecological bridges in landscape is important, that increase the Moose density in forests (Fig. 5). The results obtained above confi rm the optimal shape natural path in landscape mosaic is amoeba form (Forman, 1996). This form could be suggested for landscape planners while implementing Lithuanian forest cover enlargement program and arranging new forest areas (Fig. 6).

Figure 6. The optimal form of forest areas in landscape structure. Different grey tones means what forest patches might differ by inner composition, but are more or less similar in vertical composition

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Conclusions

1. While planning and formation region level landscape structure it is important to consider forest edges, ecological loops and bridges especially for the Red Dear. The Moose prefer connected large forest complexes with core area. 2. The Moose is more sensitive to forest level landscape structure: share of deciduous forests, open areas inside forest, upland bogs. For Red Dear is more important transition zones of forest – fi eld ecosystems. 3. Application of different data analysis methods (redundancy analysis with covariables; tree model) enable to emphasis results what could not be seen just from one analysis method. 4. Combination of ArcGIS and GUIDOS software should be applied in landscape monitoring, landscape planning, evaluation of possible impact of planning solutions to landscape recourses, formation of Nature framework. Indicators derived by Morphological Spatial Pattern Analysis (MSPA) implemented in GUIDOS quite good refl ect preferences of the Moose and Red Deer on landscape structure.

References

Balei is R. (1990). Spatial migrations of Moose. In.: Bluzma, p. (ed.) Mammals in the cultural landscape of Lithuania. Mokslas, Vilnius, pp. 146-150 (in Russian). Baskin L., Danell K.(2003). Ecology of Ungulates: a Handbook of Species in Eastern Europe and Northern and Central Asia. Springer, Berlin. European Commission. Joint Research Centre. Istitute for Environment and Sustainability (2009). Forest Data and Information Systems. GUIDOS. Available at http://forest.jrc.ec.europa.eu/download/software/guidos/. Forman R. T. T. (1996). Landscape Ecology Principles in Landscape Architecture and Land Use Planning. Cambridge, Mass: Harvard University. Forman R.T.T., Godron M. (1986). Landscape ecology. John Wiley & Sons, New York. Jankauskaitė M. (2004). Kraštovaizdžio ekologinių (geoekologinių) tyrimų metodologiniai pagrindai. Mokomoji knyga. Vilnius. Lietuvos Respublikos miškų valstybės kadastro duomenys©Lietuvos Respublikos aplinkos ministerija. Valstybinė miškotvarkos tarnyba, 2003-2008. Lithuanian statistical yearbook of forestry 2008. (2009). Ministry of Environment, Kaunas. S-Plus 2000 User’s Guide. (1999). Data Analysis Products Division, MathSoft, Seatle, Washinton. Ter Braak C. J. F., milauer P. (2002). CANOCO Reference Manual and CanoDraw for Windowa Users‘s Guide. Software for Canonical Community Ordination (version 4.5). Biometris, Wageningen and Česke Budejovice. Vilnius University Ecology institute (2004). Lithuanian CORINE Land Cover - 2000. Project I&CLC2000-LT. Annex to Final Report (managed by dr. Gediminas Vaitkus). Available at http://aaa.am.lt/naudinga/CORINE/CLC2000_LT_ATASKAITA_SAVIVA.PDF (in Lithuanian). Vogt P. (2008). MSPA GUIDE. Institute for Environment and Sustainability (IES) European Commission, Joint Research Centre (JRC), TP 261 I-21027 Ispra (VA), Italy. Part of the GUIDOS software package. Release: Version 1.2. Wiens J.A., Moss M.R. (2005). Issues and Perspectives in Landscape Ecology. Cambridge University Press. Zalkauskas R., Petelis K., Brazaitis G. Infl uence of Landscape Structure on Cervine Animals Density (Suduva Case Study). Proceedings of the International Scientifi c Conference “Human and Nature Safety 2008“. Part 2, pp. 158-161, Akademija (Kaunas distr.) (in Lithuanian).

Kęstutis PĖTELIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Silviculture, Head of Game management laboratory, Doctor of Biomedicine Sciences, Associated Professor. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 687 57657, e-mail: [email protected] Gediminas BRAZAITIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Head of Department of Silviculture, Doctor of Biomedicine Sciences, Associated Professor. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 612 20544, e-mail: [email protected] Remigijus ŽALKAUSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Silviculture, Doctor of Biomedicine Sciences, Lector. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 614 81017, e-mail: [email protected]

185 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Keeping Wild Animals in Captivity in Lithuania: Business or Pleasure?

Kęstutis Pėtelis, Jolanta Stankevičiūtė, Gintarė Narauskaitė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

This research is based on the scientifi c data, gathered from different wild animals enclosures, allocated in eight Lithuanian regional environmental protection departments. The aim of keeping wild beasts is determined according to the actual game use. In fact, there are 169 private owners, who have 262 permissions to keep wild animals. Most of them live in iauliai – 43, and least in Vilnius – 10. The biggest share of permissions was issued in Marijampolė region - 75. In fact, there are 121 different species of wild animals that are kept in different paddocks. A large wild animal and bird diversity in mentioned places can play an important role in public environmental education and has all perspectives. It has been, that, wild animals are mainly hold for business purposes. Key words: Keeping wild animals in Lithuania, enclosure, purposes

Introduction

Scientists claim that the main reason for keeping wild animals in captivity that lately resulted in their domestication was food needs. Domestication processes started 9000 years before our era. First, mouffl on (Ovis ammon ssp.musimon) was domesticated, then it continued with sheep ancestor, further with goat (Capra aegagrus) and wild pig (Sus scrofa) (Rohr, 1961/62). According to anthropologists, since early farming era human beings tried to use wildlife for the food, work and security purposes, but because of increased human sedentary life, these needs and activities lost their importance (Schubert, 2006). It is found that Romans brought fallow deers from China to Europe around 150 - 450 years in our era (Taylor, Page, 1962). At that time the animals were kept only in paddocks. In 1083, there were 31 enclosures, called “parcus bestium silvaticarum”. During the Middle Ages and later, having game storage enclosures and hunting activities was an exceptionally entertainment of monarchs and nobles. Fencing sizes reached 8 thousand hectares (Schubert, 2006). It is known, that in Lithuania the wild animals have been kept in paddocks from the old times. It is argued that already in the fourteenth century Lithuanian nobility estates were populated by European bison, red deer, wild horse, and other wild beasts (Baltrūnaitė, 1999). In the end of the XIX century, classical estate parks disappeared because of new societal order coming into effect. After that, wild animal keeping in the paddocks in Western Europe gained a wide scale only in the seventh decade of the last century. It happened because of mad cow scandal. It increased the demand for wild animals’ meat and made this sector attractive for business (Schubert, 2006). In Germany, in 2000, there were 5670 paddocks, with 104250 wild animals being kept there (BMVEL Tierschutzbericht 2001). It shows that breeding wild animals in captivity is very important activity for humans and is widely practiced. During the period of 1969 – 1998 in Lithuania, fi ve types of cloven hoof beasts were bread: Bovid (Bovidae) family representatives - European bison (Bison bonasus L.) and mouffl on (Ovis ammon ssp.musimon), and deer (Cervidae) family - red deer (Cervus elaphus L.), sika deer (Cervus Nippon Temminck) and fallow-deer (Cervus Dama L.) (Baltrūnaitė, 1999). For example, in 1998, 9 enclosures totally with 11 bisons, 120 mouffl ons, 13 read deers, 750 spotted deers and 81 fallow deers functioned in the country (Pėtelis et al., 2005). In Lithuania, wild animals, which live in paddocks, are the property of private owners. These animals are objects of limited civilian circulation, which usage is defi ned by National Law on Hunting and Following Acts: Wild Life Law, Regulations for Keeping Wild Animals in Captivity, Wild Animal Keeping in Zoos Standardization Program. Breeding wild animals in the paddocks can have various goals, some of them are of great importance, for example conservation of animals’ gene fund, research, public environmental education, protection of injured and sick animals and their introduction back to nature habitats, and hunting for meat, fur, trophies. The Aim of the work is to analyse the goals of keeping wild animals in enclosures in Lithuania and future development opportunities and perspectives of this sector.

Methods

The study was based on the data, taken from the Ministry of Environment (www.am.lt). The analysis was focused on 8 enclosures, allocated in the different Lithuanian regional environmental protection departments. The wild animal and bird breeding goals were determined following the actual use data.

Results

In Lithuania, wild animal enclosures are allocated in 8 Lithuanian regional environmental protection departments (Table 1). In fact, there are 169 private owners, who have 262 permissions to store wild animals. Most of them live in iauliai – 43. The biggest share was issued in Marijampolė region - 75. It shows that in Marijampolė region is highest wild

186 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry beast enclosures’ concentration. Further, the least amount was issued in Vilnius -10. In this region, the number of issued permissions is equal to the number of private enclosures’ holders.

Table 1. Allocation of wild animal enclosures according to the regions The number of permissions, issued for the No. Region title The number of enclosure’ holders wild animal breeding 1. Alytus 20 36 2. Kaunas 13 26 3. Klaipėda 11 12 4. Marijampolė 25 75 5. Panevėžys 25 27 6. Šiauliai 41 51 7. Utena 24 25 8. Vilnius 10 10 Total: 169 262

Most of paddocks’ owners are private individuals. From 169 permission holders, only 16 are state entities, mostly – forest enterprises. Comparing present situation with year 2005, amount of state forest enterprises that have wild animal paddocks increased from 5 to 7 (Pėtelis, Brazaitis, 2005). Wild animal enclosures were created in Alytus, Raseiniai, Marijampolė, Panevėžys, Telšiai, Anykščiai and Ukmergė state forest enterprises. Further, some enclosures were established by nature study and environmental education centres, nature schools. Finally 4 private and 2 agricultural companies were involved in this process too. Next, in enclosures are kept both domestic and imported wild animals. Available data shows that there are 121 different species breaded there. It is decorative, exotic, game animals and birds. Mainly are kept wild beasts representing 48 percent from all kind of animals, then goes decorative birds with 44.6 percent. Further, hunting species compose 6.6 percent and bird species for hunting only 0.8 percent. Thus, it can be argued that there is a large decorative wild animals and birds diversity kept in enclosures that can perform important role in public environmental education and has all necessary prospects. Then, it is important to mention separate group of owners who grow Burgundy snails, medical leeches, mice and rats for business purposes. Most of them are Burgundy snail growers for food, for them were issued 15 permits (all in Panevėžys region). One owner (Klaipėda region) grows mice and rats needed for scientifi c research and animal feed. Finally, one owner in Marijampolė region is specifi ed for growing medical leeches. Totally, 7 thousand wild animals are kept in captivity in Lithuania, more than half of them - game mammals (Table 2). The most important game species are fallow deers, sika deers, roe deers, mouffl ons, wild boars and red deers.

Table 2. Amount of wild animals, kept in enclosures in Lithuania No. Wild animals‘ group Amount of animals * Amount of animals from all kept animals in percent* 1. Decorative, exotic birds 920 13,3 2. Decorative, exotic mammals 356 5,2 3. Game birds 1979 28,6 4. Game mammals 3653 52,9 Total: 6908 100 *Burgundy snails, mice, rats, medical leeches are not included

It should be noted that 7 wild animal species belong to the Lithuanian Red book data (Table 3).

Table 3. The list of wild animals that belongs to the Lithuanian Red book data No. Species Number of animals 1. Bison (Bison bonasus L.) 21 2. Brown bear (Ursus arctos L.) 2 3. Lynx (Felis lynx L.) 9 4. Eagle Owl (Bubo bubo) 8 5. Common Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) 1 6. Northern Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) 5 7. Medical leech (Hirundo medicinalis) 27000

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Mainly, in Lithuania could be found small size enclosures (Table 4). Dominates paddocks with low amount of animals being grown there, usually from 6 to 10 individuals (16.4%). Even more there are paddocks (15.1 %) with lower amounts, only 2 to 5 individuals. Huge paddocks with 100 and more animals compose 7.9 % from all enclosures.

Table 4. The size of enclosures in Lithuania according to the number of animals kept there 51- Number of animals kept in enclosures 0* 1 2-5 6-10 11-15 16-20 21-30 31-50 >101 100 Number of private owners 26 9 23 25 13 11 8 16 9 12 Percent from all enclosures 17,1 5,9 15,1 16,4 8,6 7,2 5,3 10,6 5,9 7,9 Total: 152** - No reports – 17; - Enclosure is not fi nished – 8; - Cancelled permissions – 1; ** - Burgundy snails, mice, rats, medical leeches are not included

The objectives of keeping wild animals in paddocks were assed and classifi ed according to owners’ opinion on the factual animal usage (Table 5). It was found that the paddocks were established for several functions. Totally, were defi ned 16 wild animal keeping goals, 10 of them (1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6, 9, 10, 11, 14) are related with business and generates incomes for private owners (Table 4). The most important goals were, fi rstly, animal breeding for meet, forage production and medical purposes (75 owners), then, animal breeding for recreational farms, zoological collections and other breeding grounds (72 owners), and, fi nally, for the attraction of visitors to the rural tourism areas (15 owners).

Table 5. The objectives of keeping wild animals in paddocks No. The objectives Number of owners 1. Pedigree animal breeding for recreational farms, zoological collections and other breeding grounds 72 2. Animal breeding for meet, forage production and medical purposes 75 3. Game (meat, skin, trophies) 8 4. Education of hunting dogs 15 5. Rural tourism 15 6. Recreational purposes (watching, photographing, movie making) 80 7. Hobby 53 8. Education of society 20 9. Protection of gene fund 9 10. Creation of new populations in the freedom 4 11. Renewal of wild populations 3 12. Scientifi c investigations, for the development of technologies in animal breeding in captivity 12 13. Education of students, hunting specialists and hunters for better qualifi cation 10 14. Rehabilitation of wild injured animals 12 For protection of wild animals that were illegally grown by humans and because of sinatropization 15. 12 processes cannot be let to freedom and taking care for injured animals. 16. Hunting (for hunting purposes) 2

Six goals (7, 8, 12, 13, 15, 16), could be assigned to hobby category. 53 owners hold the wild animals because of hobby, other 20 owners because of public environmental education and another 12 owners take care for injured or grew in captivity wild animals. It was found that the major share of owners hold wild animals because of demonstration and recreational purposes. In fact, it is a business, some owners get incomes from this activity, nether the less it is also a hobby. Especially it could be said about the mini-zoo holders.

Conclusions

1. In Lithuania there are 182 enclosure owners, who have 262 permissions to keep wild animals. Most of these owners are private individuals. 2. Small enclosures dominates in Lithuania. 3. It has been, that most owners keep wild animals in enclosures for business purposes. 4. A rich diversity of wild animal and bird species, kept in enclosures, can play an important role in public environmental education and has all the necessary prospects.

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References

Baltrūnaitė L. (1999).State and prospects of ungulate animals breeding in enclosures in Lithuiania. Acta Zoologica Lituanica. ISSN 1392-1657. Vol. 9. Nr.1. P. 55-60. BMVEL. Tierschutzbericht der Bundesregierung 2001. Bogner H. (1990).Gehegehaltung von Damwild aus Sicht der Ethologie und des Tierschutzes. Dtsch. Tierärztl. Wschr. 97 (4). P.167-168. Lutz W. (1998). Der Einfl uß von Streß auf die Gesundheit des Wildes – am Beispiel des Rehwildes. LÖBF-Mitteilungen. Vol. 4. P. 38-41. Pėtelis K., Brazaitis G. (2005). Aptvaruose laikomos laukinės gyvūnijos naudojimas visuomenės ekologiniam švietimui ir rekreacijai. Žmogaus ir gamtos sauga. Respublikinės mokslinės konferencijos medžiaga. P. 98-100. Rašomavičius V. (2007). Lietuvos Raudonoji knyga. ISBN: 979-9955-692-71-3. Lututė. P. 800. Recken. J. (1985). Wildtiere in Gehegen. D.G.A.R., Bonn, Agrarrecht. Vol.15 (6). P.157-164. Reinken G. (1987).Damtierhaltung. Eugen Ulmer Verlag, Stuttgart. P.316. Röhrs M. (1961/62). Biologische Anschauungen über Begriff und Wesen der Domestikation. Z. Tier und Züchtungsbiologie, Vol. 76. P. 1-23. www.am.lt. Schubert B. (2006).Überblick über die Wildgehegehaltung in Deutschland unter tierärztlichen Gesichtspunkten. Dissertation, Ludwig-Maximilians- Universität München. Taylor Page F. (1962) .Fallow deer. Animal of Britain. No. 11 Sunday Times Publications. London.

Kęstutis PĖTELIS. Doctor of Biomedicine Sciences, Associated Professor, Head of Game Management Laboratory, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Silviculture, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania. Phone +370 687 57657, e-mail: [email protected] Jolanta STANKEVICIŪTĖ. Doctor of Biomedicine Sciences, Researcher of Game Management Laboratory, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Silviculture, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania. Phone +370 687 57657, e-mail: [email protected] Gintarė NARAUSKAITĖ. Master student, Department of Silviculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361, Akademija, Kaunas distr., Lithuania. Phone +370 687 57657, e-mail: gintare. [email protected]

189 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Production Potential of Poplar in Short Rotation Plantations in Saxony

Heinz Röhle, Wael Ali Technische Universität Dresden, Germany

Abstract

Data from Saxon trail areas were used in order to study the main factors that affect growth and yield of poplar plantations like Available Water Storage Capacity of soil (AWSC), Soil Quality Index (SQI), Precipitation (P), Temperature (T) and stocking density (N/ha) at different stand ages. Based on these results the potential of biomass production (site productivity) of different poplar clones was modelled by means of linear and nonlinear regressions: In the fi rst step the dominant height of stand (hdom) was estimated by age, climatic and soil conditions and in the second step the stand biomass (t/ha) was estimated by dominant height and stocking density.

Background of the Study

With the ratifi cation of Kyoto protocol in 1997, most participating countries have declared the commitment to reduce their CO2 emissions. Consequently, the industrial countries have the obligation to reduce the consumption of fossil fuels and to increase the proportion of renewable energy from wind power, solar radiation, bio oil, and also from wood through the cultivation of fast growing tree species. The intensive cultivation of fast growing tree species in short rotation periods is called short rotation forestry. The most commonly used fast growing tree species in central and northern Europe are poplar (Populus) and willow (Salix). In both traditional forestry and short rotation forestry high increment rates can be achieved if trees are grown in favourable site conditions and for an optimum rotation length. Therefore, the overall aim of this study was (1) to investigate the infl uence of site factors like Available Water Storage Capacity of soil (AWSC), Soil Quality Index (SQI), Precipitation (P), Temperature (T) and stocking density (N/ha) at different stand ages on growth and yield of poplar stands and (2) to model the potential of biomass production (site productivity) of different poplar clones depending on site factors and age (ALI 2009). The approach for modelling of biomass production potential consists of 2 steps:

- Step 1: Modelling of stand dominant height (hdom, m) based on age, climatic and soil conditions.

Step (1) hdom = f (Age, Soil variables, Climate variables) (1) - Step 2: Estimation of stand biomass (BM, t/ha) by stand dominant height and stocking density (stand biomass is the sum of total aboveground oven dry biomass of all individuals in a stand).

Step (2) BM = f (Stocking density, hdom) (2) Material and Methods

Growth data used for step 1 were collected from Saxon trail areas, climatic and soil data were provided by the Saxon Forest Research Station (2003) and the Saxon State Ministry of the Environment and Agriculture (2005). Data needed for step 2 were obtained of German-wide trail areas, they include information from Saxon experimental sites as well as data from trial areas in Mecklenburg-Western Pomeranian and Bavaria (Tab. 1).

Table 1. General information on study areas Study Area Age (Shoot/ Stem Number Altitude Mean Annual Mean Annual Type of Use Poplar Clones (Federal State) Stump) (N/ha) (m) Temp. (°C) Rainfall (mm) in Study Arnsfeld (Saxony) 4/4 - 7/7 1434 - 1556 600 - 650 < 7,0 > 850 Step 1, 2 Androscoggin, Methau II (Saxony) 4/4 - 7/7 865 - 3246 180 - 220 8,1 690 Step 1, 2 Max1, Max2, Max3, Max4, Nochten (Saxony) 4/4 2141 - 2971 140 8,5 620 - 660 Step 1, 2 Max5, Matrix, Skäßchen (Saxony) 4/4 - 7/7 810 - 2944 120 8,5 550 - 600 Step 1, 2 Münden, Thammenhain (Saxony) 4/4 - 7/7 500 - 3075 130 8,5 550 - 600 Step 1, 2 Hybrid275 Hybrid 275, Methau I (Saxony) 3/3 - 10/10 1242 - 3793 180 - 220 8,1 690 Step 1, 2 Matrix, Max3, Max4 Kuhstorf (Mecklenburg- 14000 - 1/1 - 4/4 22 8,2 616 Step 2 Japan 105 Western Pomeranian) 25000 Beaupre, Max1, Max3, Laage (Mecklenburg 4/4 - 9/10 7000 - 22000 30 8,0 600 - 660 Step 2 Max4, Muhle- Western-Pomeranian) Larsen, Raspalje

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The two-step model was constructed for different poplar clones. Due to lack of data needed to develop a specifi c model for each single clone, clones were combined in 4 groups according to their growth behaviour and their genetic parentages. The data from each clone group were used to construct a specifi c model. Androscoggin as well as Münden group contains only one clone; whereas Max group comprises 5 clones (Max 1, Max 2, Max 3, Max 4, Max 5) and Matrix group 2 clones (Matrix, Hybrid 275). Only one hdom-function (step 1) was developed for each clone group since dominant height of stand is affected only by genetic endowment, soil and climate characteristics and not by stem number per hectare. Stand biomass function (step 2) was constructed for only one stocking density (1 550 trees per hectare) for clone groups Androscoggin, Matrix and Münden; while 6 functions for densities ranging from 1 150 to 13 000 trees per hectare were derived for Max group (Max clones). Field measurements were carried out for stand ages from 1 to 9 years. Field measurements included diameter at breast height of all trees in a plot, 25 heights covering all diameter classes were also measured for construction of height curves, for biomass assessment 10 trees/shoots per plot covering all diameter classes were cut, weighed, dried in an oven and weighed again. Stand biomass was estimated using the allometric relationship between tree dry weight and diameter at breast height (RÖHLE et al. 2006, VERWIJST & TELENIUS 1999). Linear and nonlinear regression procedures (SPSS programme, version 12) were used for model construction. Variable and model selection was conducted according to the following criteria: - Signifi cance: the regression model had to be signifi cant at P-value ≤ 0.05. - All predictor variables included in the regression model should also be signifi cant at P-value ≤ 0.05. - Coeffi cient of determination: the regression model with the highest adjusted coeffi cient of determination (adj. R²) has been selected.

Results

Modelling of stand dominant height

Stand age (Age), AWSC, SQI, mean temperature between April and July (T4-7) and sum of precipitation between ÖHLE May and June (P5-6) are the most signifi cant factors that affect dominant height growth of poplar clones in Saxony (R et al. 2008). Modelling stand dominant height based on stand age, AWSC, SQI, T4-7 and P5-6 was done using multiple linear regression according to formula 3 (the coeffi cient of determination reaches very high values, the adj. R² ranges from 0.975 to 0.989, cf. Tab. 2):

hdom = a1*Age + a2*P5-6*SQI + a3* T4-7/AWSC (a1, a2 and a3 are coeffi cients of the equation) (3) Stand dominant height was modelled for tree ages from 2 to 9 years for both Max and Matrix group and for tree ages from 2 to 7 years for both Androscoggin and Münden group.

Table 2. Statistical characteristics of the modelled stand dominant height functions for the 4 clone groups

Clone Group Stand Age (yrs) adj. R² Coeffi cient a1 Coeffi cient a2 Coeffi cient a3 Max 2 to 9 0.986 1.569 0.0004 -23.198 Androscoggin 2 to 7 0.984 1.402 0.0005 -27.022 Matrix 2 to 9 0.989 1.629 0.0005 -36.409 Münden 2 to 7 0.975 1.374 0.0006 -29.399

Figure 1 underlines the precision of the model by comparison of observations against predictions for clone group Androscoggin. The coeffi cient of determination for the linear relationship between observations and predictions amounts to 0.932 (and lies for the other 3 clone groups between 0.909 and 0.966).

Modelling of stand biomass functions

Depending on stand dominant height as a single predictor variable, an allometric function was the best of all suitable equations for modelling stand biomass production (BM) at a given stocking density (cf. formula 4). a BM = a * h 5 (a and a are coeffi cients (4) 4 dom 4 5 Figure 1. Linear relationship between observations of the equation) and predictions of hdom for clone group Androscoggin

191 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Due to data availability stand biomass was predictable for a range from 1 150 N/ha to 13 000 N/ha in Max group, but only for 1 550 N/ha in the remaining 3 clone groups. Table 3 illustrates the statistical characteristics of the modelled stand biomass functions for the 4 clone groups. In Figure 2a the functions of 3 different stocking densities 1 150 N/ha, 1 550 N/ha and 2 850 N/ha are shown for clone group Max: It is apparent that a specifi c N/ha the production of oven dried biomass rises in a power form with increasing dominant height of a stand. For a given hdom the biomass production increases as the stem number per hectare increases; suppose hdom is equal to 10 m the corresponding biomass production will be 18.66 t/ha, 23.02 t/ha and 28.16 t/ha for 1 150 N/ha, 1 550 N/ha and 2 850 N/ha respectively (Figure 2b illustrates the corresponding functions for stocking densities of 3 250 N/ha, 7 400 N/ha and 13 000 N/ha).

Table 3. Statistical characteristics of the modelled stand biomass functions for the 4 clone groups Stand Density Clone group adj. R² Coeffi cient a Coeffi cient a N/ha (range) 4 5 1150 0.954 0.052 2.552 (850 - 1350) 1550 0.966 0.064 2.559 (1351 - 2000) 2850 0.952 0.091 2.489 (2001 - 3000) Max 3250 0.966 0.107 2.491 (3001 - 4000) 7400 0.933 0.149 2.428 (5100 - 9500) 13000 0.990 0.168 2.536 (10500 - 15000) 1550 Androscoggin 0.986 0.018 3.028 (1361 - 1681) 1550 Matrix 0.990 0.026 2.809 (1333 - 1667) 1550 Münden 0.983 0.003 3.665 (1389 - 1639)

a) b) Figure 2. a) Stand biomass functions for 1150 N/ha, 1550 N/ha and 2850 N/ha, b) Stand biomass functions for 3250 N/ha, 7400 N/ha and 13000 N/ha. Flexibility of the model

For demonstrating the fl exibility of the model, one of the 4 variables (SQI, AWSC, P5-6, and T4-7) was varied within the model scope (though sometimes the model range was slightly exceeded) and the remaining variables were held constant: Suppose that N/ha = 1 550, P5-6 = 145 mm, T4-7 = 12.5 °C, AWSC = 160 mm and SQI varies from 29 to 79. Under this assumption clone groups show non-equalized responses to SQI changes. Having a poplar stand with a SQI of 29, the

192 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry expected dominant heights at age 7 are: 10.79 m, 10.68 m, 9.91 m and 9.77 m in Matrix, Max, Münden and Androscoggin group, respectively. With SQI of 79 the dominant heights at age 7 are 14.63 m, 13.28 m, 14.37 m and 13.34 m in Matrix, Max, Münden and Androscoggin group, respectively. Also the mean annual increments of biomass (MAI) are non-equalized among the groups as the SQI is altered (Fig. 3). The sensitivity of Münden group is very high at all stand ages, for instance, the predicted MAI at age 2 is 0.10 t/ ha/a and 2.65 t/ha/a for SQI of 29 t/ha/a and 79 t/ha/a, respectively. In contrast, Max group is less sensitive than Münden group with MAI of 0.46 t/ha/a and 2.42 t/ha/a for the same SQIs and at the same age (see Fig. 3b and d). By increasing age at a specifi c SQI, the estimated MAI also increases in a non-equalized way among the groups; e.g. for SQI = 79 the expected MAI at ages 2 and 7 are: 2.65 t/ha/a and 8.21 t/ha/a in Münden group and 2.42 t/ha/a and 6.80 t/ha/a in Max group. Groups Androscoggin and Matrix have relatively high sensitivity to SQI changes; e.g. having a poplar stand at age 2 and SQI = 29 and 79, the corresponding MAI of biomass are: 0.20 t/ha/a and 2.61 t/ha/a in Androscoggin group and 0.20 t/ha/a and 2.92 t/ha/a in Matrix group, respectively (Fig. 3a and c). Generally, in terms of biomass production clone groups can be ranked according to their sensitivity to SQI changes in a descending order as follows: Münden, Androscoggin, Matrix, Max.

3a) Androscoggin Clone Group 3b) Münden Clone Group

3c) Matrix Clone Group 3d) Max Clone Group Figure 3. Predicted MAI of biomass (t/ha/a) for 3a: Androscoggin, 3b: Münden, 3c: Matrix, 3d: Max clone group Assumption: N/ha = 1550, P5-6 = 145 mm, T4-7 = 12.5 °C, AWSC = 160 mm, SQI varies from 29 to 79

Application of the model to Saxony

The model was applied to Saxony in order to estimate the production potential of poplar in short rotation plantations. The scenario implied that the entire arable land in Saxony will be planted with poplar trees, and the biomass that can be produced per unit area (calculated on commune level) at the end of 5-, 6-, 7-, 8- and 9-year rotation cycle

193 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry was modelled. Examples for low, moderate and relatively high stem numbers per hectare were chosen in order to check the potential of producible biomass for different stocking densities. Figure 4 for example illustrates the potential MAI of biomass predicted for Max group at densities of 4 000 N/ha and 8 333 N/ha with different rotation lengths (from an economic point of view the MAI should exceed the limit of 8 t/ha/a).

4a) Age 6, N/ha = 4000, MAI < 8 t/ha/a 4b) Age 6, N/ha = 8333, MAI > 8 t/ha/a on 20 % of total arable land

4c) Age 9, N/ha = 4000, MAI > 8 t/ha/a on 64 % of total arable land 4d) Age 9, N/ha = 8333, MAI > 8 t/ha/a on 95 % of total arable land

Figure 4. Predicted MAI of biomass (t/ha/a) for Max clone group with 4a: 4000 N/ha at age 6, 4b: 8333 N/ha at age 6, 4c: 4000 N/ha at age 9, 4d: 8333 N/ha at age 9

With a rotation length of 6 years and a stocking density of 4 000 N/ha the MAI is expected to be less than 8 to 10 t/ha/a (Fig. 4a), and only 20 % of the total arable land can reach this limit if the stocking density increases to 8 333 N/ha (Fig. 4b). If the plantations will be grown up to the age of 9 years, 64 % of arable land will produce 8 to 10 t/ ha/a with a stocking density of 4 000 N/ha (Fig. 4c); and 95 % of the arable land will exceed 8 to 10 t/ha/a with a stocking density of 8 333 N/ha (Fig. 4d).

Conclusions

Plantations with fast growing tree species have been established in a lot of countries in order to meet the increased demand for wood. However, there is still a considerable lack of applicable models to reliably estimate biomass production in short rotation stands. The study on production potential of poplar in short rotation plantations in Saxony demonstrates the possibility of modelling the growth performance of poplar based on site factors. For future research, it is recommended

194 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry to extend the model to further stocking densities, stand ages, rotations and to include other tree species like willow and black locust as well in order to widen our insight into the prospects of short rotation forestry in Europe.

References

ALI W. (2009): Modelling of Biomass Production Potential of Poplar in Short Rotation Plantations on Agricultural Land of Saxony, Germany. Doctoral dissertation, Faculty of Forest, Geo and Hydro Sciences, Technische Universität Dresden.

RÖHLE H., HARTMANN K.-U., GEROLD D., STEINKE C., SCHRÖDER J. (2006): Überlegungen zur Aufstellung von Biomassefunktionen für Kurzum- triebsbestände. Allgemeine Forst- und Jagdzeitung 177, pp. 178-187.

RÖHLE H., BÖCKER L., FEGER K.-H., PETZOLD R., WOLF H., ALI W. (2008): Anlage und Ertragsaussichten von Kurzumtriebsplantagen in Ostdeutschland. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 159, pp. 133-139.

SAXON FOREST RESEARCH STATION (2003): Modellvorhaben StoraEnso / Verbundvorhaben Pappelanbau für die Papierherstellung. Research report, Graupa.

SAXON STATE MINISTRY OF THE ENVIRONMENT AND AGRICULTURE (2005): Agrardaten Land- und Ernährungswirtschaft. Available at: http://www.smul.sachsen.de/de/wu/1229.htm#article1231

VERWIJST T., TELENIUS B. (1999): Biomass estimation procedures in short rotation forestry. Forest Ecology and Management 121, pp. 137-146.

Heinz RÖHLE. Prof. Dr., Institute of Forest Growth and Forest Computer Sciences, Faculty of Forest, Geo and Hydro Sciences, Technische Universität Dresden. Pienner Str. 8, D-01737 Tharandt. Phone: ++49-35203-3831615, Fax: ++49-35203-3831628, Email: [email protected] Wael ALI. Dr. Institute of Forest Growth and Forest Computer Sciences, Faculty of Forest, Geo and Hydro Sciences, Technische Universität Dresden. Pienner Str. 8, D-01737 Tharandt.

195 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Decomposition of Oak and Maple Leaf Litters: Comparative Study of Native and Alien Species

Lina Straigytė Lithuanian University of Agriculture Girmantė Jurkšienė Lithuanian Energy Institute Kęstutis Armolaitis Lithuanian Forest Research Institute

Abstract

Decomposition intensity of leaf litters of native tree species, England oak (Quercus robur L.) and Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.), and invasive tree species, northern red oak (Q. rubra L.), sycamore maple (A. pseudoplatanus L.) and box elder (A. negundo L.), were studied in fi eld conditions on the surface of mineral topsoil of Luvisol. It was determined that the decomposability leaf litter of native tree species was faster than alien ones. Among all studied tree species the decrease of total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) and, consequently, the decrease in C:N ratio through the time were the highest in leaf litter of A. negundo. It shows, that leaf litter fall of this alien maple could creates more benefi cial nutrient and illumination conditions for soil ground vegetation to compare with native maple A. platanoides. Meanwhile the difference in such effects among leaf litters of Q. robur and Q. rubra was eliminated by the diversities in the mass, the decomposability and the contents of C and N. Key words: leaf litter, Quercus robur, Q. rubra, Acer platanoides, A. pseudoplatanus, A. negundo, decomposition, C and N contents, C:N ratio

Introduction

Introduction of alien tree species is one of the largest contemporary threats for biodiversity in forests. In Lithuania the introduction of alien trees become more active in twentieth century, notably after World War II. Planting of such trees started not only for beauty in parks, but also in nutrient-poor soils for preventative functions, as well as in forests for economic benefi t. However, already after 50 years it was observed that not all alien tree species bring benefi t, but opposite, some of them become aggressive and gradually they become invasive replacing some sensitive native species (Riepšas and Straigytė, 2008). Invasive tree species frequently increase the biomass and net of primary production, increase nitrogen (N) availability, alter N fi xation rates, and produce leaf litters with higher decomposition rates than co-occurring natives (Thorpe and Callaway, 2006). Therefore the impacts of alien tree invasions on soil nutrient cycling is an important research priority, given that changes in nutrient dynamics after such invasions are widespread (Ehrenfeld, 2003). The objective of the current study was to show the peculiarities of leaf litter decomposition for different native and alien species of oak and maple: (1) the mass and decomposition intensity of the leaf litters; and (2) the changes in the accumulation of total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) as well as C:N ratio changes in leaf litters of different rates of the decomposition. Object of the work was leaf litter of native (England oak (Quercus robur L.) and Norway maple (Acer platanoides L.)) and alien invasive species (northern red oak (Quercus rubra L.), sycamore maple (Acer pseudoplatanus L.) and box elder (Acer negundo L.)).

Material and methods

Forest plantations of similar about 50-year-old age were selected for the study of leaf litter decomposition. The leaf litters were collected at the beginning of November of 2007. The leaf litter or foliage litter fall of Q. rubra, Q. robur and A. pseudoplatanus were collected in south-western Lithuania (54050’ N, 23090’-24010’ E) in Girionys Park near the city of Kaunas and leaf litter of A. platanoides and A. negundo were collected in park of Santaka in centre of Kaunas. All leaves were collected from ground quadrates of 1 m2 area (n=3 for each tree species) randomly marked 2 meters from the trunks of the trees. Leaf litter were air dried and weighed. Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman (2005) methodology was applied for experimental investigation of leaf litter decomposition intensity for native and alien oak and maple in fi eld conditions. Litter bags (1.4 mm plastic mesh, n=15 for each species, a total 75 of litterbags) were fi lled with 5.0 g of air dried leaves from Q.robur, Q.rubra, A.platanoides, A.pseudoplatanus, A.negundo. All litterbags were placed on the surface of mineral topsoil (texture – medium loam) of Luvisol in December of 2007. Three litterbags with the leaf litter of each tree species were collected every three months during one year. The litter from the litterbags was air dried and weighed to determine mass loss through time. The relative intensity of leaf litter decomposition (S) was estimated as ratio between every measured weights and the initial weights of leaf litters. Exponential model was used for theoretical description of leaf litter decomposition intensity dynamics: S (t) = exp (-k · t), (1)

where: t is time (years) and k is the decay constant (year-1). This model was fi t to data from litterbags fi lled with different species leaves, generating models of leaf litter decomposition.

196 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Total C and total N concentrations in leaf litters were determined three times: fi rst time after leaves fall in November 2007, second time – in March 2008 and third time – in September 2008. C and N concentrations were determined using the ECS 4010 (dry burning) analyzer at Lithuanian Forest Research Institute. Dispersive analysis was applied to measure the following independent variables: leaf litter decomposition intensity (S), nitrogen and carbon concentrations and carbon and nitrogen ratio (C:N) in leaf litter. The dependence of above independent variables vs. time and tree species was analyzed using statistical software Statistics 7.0 and ANOVA. Multi-factorial analysis was used, when α = 0.05.

Results and discussion

Mass of leaf litter

The highest leaf litter mass was found for Q. rubra (386 ± 69 g m-2) and A. platanoides (378 ± 23 g m-2), lower one was for Q. robur (318 ± 57 g m-2), A. pseudoplatanus (291 ± 37 g m-2), and the lowest, - for A. negundo (260 ± 33 g m-2) (Fig.1). It shows that among of all analyzed species the highest mass of leaf litter was concentrated by alien oak species Q. rubra and native maple species A. platanoides. However, the mass of leaf litter in Q. rubra and in Q. robur plantations did not differed essentially (p>0.05) due to the large SD. While our results are similar to that of Q. robur leaf litter, which was determined by the researchers of Lithuanian Forest Research Institute (Varnagirytė et al., 2005).

Figure 1. The mass of the leaf litter in the studied plantations of different oak and maple species. Mean values and SD are shown for each plantation

If to compare with the highest mass of leaf litter in the plantations of Q. rubra and A. platanoides, the mass of leaf litter of A. pseudoplatanus and A. negundo were considerably (p<0.05) lower by about 30%.

Comparison of leaf litter decomposition intensity for native and alien species of oak and maple

The intensity of leaf litter decomposition depends on physical and chemical characteristics of the soil, micro- organism abundance and leaf litter quality (Swift, 1979). Physical and chemical characteristics of soil were the same in our study, thus the experiment with the leaves of all tree species were performed in the same conditions. The decay rate or decomposition intensity constant (index k value per year) was calculated applying exponential model (1). Graphic view of regression analysis is presented in Figure 2. It shows, that leaf litter decomposition intensity for Q. robur was signifi cantly higher than for Q. rubra (k = -0.396 compare with k = -0.270), and this difference was statistically considerable (F1.20=10.46, p<0.05). The leaf litter decomposition intensity of maple species was evidently faster, than that of oak species leaf litters. The difference of leaf litter decomposition intensity between Q. robur and A. platanoides, as representatives of native tree species, was signifi cant as well (k = -0.270 for oak and k = -0.533 for maple). Meanwhile the leaf litter decomposition intensity of alien maple species was even higher (k = -0.642 for A. pseudoplatanus and k = -1.207 for A. negundo). Among maple species statistically considerable difference was only for

A. negundo decomposition intensity comparing to other two species (F2.30=58.39, p<0.001). The decomposition intensity constant for Q. rubra (k=-0.396) that was determined in our study is almost the same as Q. prinus decomposition intensity constant in rural areas (k = -0.420) (Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman, 2005). While comparing separate species, the decomposition intensity constant of Q. robur was lower than that seen in the results of aforesaid authors, and the constants of all species of maple were higher. Similar results of litter decomposition intensity for two species of the oak in laboratory conditions were achieved by Straigytė (2006), which shows faster leaf litter decomposition rate for alien Q. rubra rather than native Q. robur. The faster litter decomposition for Q. rubra could make benefi cial illumination conditions for ground vegetation. However, that is not the case since Q. rubra accumulates more mass of leaf litter than Q. robur.

197 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Figure 2. Decomposition intensity of oak and maple leaf litters during one year (p<0.001)

Total nitrogen concentrations in leaf litter

The highest concentration of total nitrogen (N) for all studied tree species was in leaf litter of A. negundo and the lowest was in leaf litter of Q. rubra (Table 1). Total N concentration in leaf litter of native oak Q. robur was higher than that of alien oak Q. rubra and this difference is statistically signifi cant (F1.12=109.3, p<0.05). Comparison of leaf litter for maple species showed, that statistically signifi cant (F2.18 = 49.2, p<0.05) the highest concentration of total N was in leaf litter of A. negundo, lower one was for A. pseudoplatanus, and the lowest was in leaf litter of A. negundo. However, total N concentrations in leaf litter of A. pseudoplatanus and A.platanoides differed not statistically signifi cant. In opposite, the concentrations of total N were considerably (p<0.05) lower in leaf litter of native maple than in leaf litters of alien maple species. In many cases signifi cant raise in total N concentrations was notifi ed through the time. The changes in total N concentrations vs. time were signifi cant to all species, except A. negundo. The data obtained by other authors show the increase of total N concentration vs. time as well (Berger et al., 2002; Garcia-Pausas, 2004; Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman, 2005; Xu, 2006).

Table 1. Total N concentration (g kg-1) in leaf litter. Mean values and SD are shown for each species Exposition time (days) Species 092275 Quercus robur 13.4±0.5* 12.0±0.3* 16.3±1.2* Quercus rubra 6.3±0.5* 7.6±0.2* 11.8±2.2* Acer platanoides 10.3±0.1* 12.5±1.1* 15.7±0.2* Acer pseudoplatanus 12.4±0.9* 14.5±1.1* 16.7±2.5* Acer negundo 17.5±0.3 19.5±1.0 19.0±2.0 *Asterisks denote signifi cant differences at p<0.05

Figure 3. Changes in total nitrogen pools (gN m-2) in oak and maple leaf litters

198 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

After recalculation of N concentrations per leaf litter mass in 1 m2, the trends of total N pools have stayed the same vs. time for oak species (Figure 3). In the case of maple species total N pools in leaf litter have decreased through the time. Especially considerable decrease of total N pools was observed in leaf litter of A. negundo. In general could be stated that the accumulation of total N was higher in the leaf litters of native species of trees (Figure 1). Strong and even very strong correlation between total N pools, leaf litter mass and decomposition intensity was detected for alien tree species of the oak and maple, while this dependence was very weak for native species.

Total carbon concentrations in leaf litter

Carbon, as well as nitrogen, is important chemical element, the concentration of which defi nes the quality of leaf litter.

Table 2. Total C concentration (g kg-1) in leaf litter. Mean values and SD are shown for each species Exposition time (days) Species 0 92 275 Quercus robur 464.7±11.8 495.0±11.7 413.4±38.2 Quersus rubra 444.0±5.8* 469.6±27.0* 360.0±38.4* Acer platanoides 465.0±3.8* 431.6±17.3* 338.1±39.2* Acer pseudoplatanus 447.1±3.3* 429.3±19.7* 353.4±32.1* Acer negundo 417.0±8.8* 402.6±31.2* 316.7±22.4* * Asterisks denote signifi cant differences at p<0.05*

C concentrations were higher in leaf litter of native tree species comparing to leaf litter of alien oak and maple species (Table 2). However, the differences were statistically signifi cant and C concentrations were considerable lowest in leaf litter of A.negundo. The decrease in C concentrations was notifi ed vs. time for all studied tree species, and this decrease in leaf litter was signifi cant (F = 9.5, p<0.05). Such decrease of C concentrations through time was determined by the others investigations as well (Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman, 2005).

Figure 4. Changes in total carbon pools (gC m-2) in oak and maple leaf litters

Recalculations of total C concentrations per leaf litter mass in 1 m2 have showed the same decrease trend of C concentrations and C pools through time in leaf litter of all studied species of oak and maple (Figure 4). Extremely high decrease of total C pools was found notifi ed in leaf litter of A. negundo, and such decrease could be explained by high decomposability of leaves of this maple. It is impossible to distinguish strictly alien and native species in the decrease of total C pools in leaf litter vs. time. Leaf litter of alien oak species Q. rubra concentrated more C than native species Q. robur through exposition period of 275 days. In opposite native A. platanoides concentrated higher total C pools than maples of alien species.

Carbon and nitrogen ratio in leaf litter

The C:N ratio in plant material in general ranges from 20 to 30 and shows: (1) the degree at which higher plants use the nitrogen for the nutrition; and (2) microbial decomposition of leaf litter while C:N ratio is gradually lowered (Brady and Weil, 1996). When C:N ratio is between 15:1 and 30:1, leaf litter decay by the microorganisms is the highest.

199 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Table 3. C:N ratio in leaf litters of different species of oak and maple. Mean values and SD are shown for each species Exposition time (days) Species 0 92 275 Quercus robur 37.1±0.6 38.7±0.5 25.3±0.5 Quercus rubra 75.2±3.5* 58.3±1.0* 30.9±2.6* Acer platanoides 45.0±0.6* 34.7±2.4* 21.5±2.3* Acer pseudoplatanus 36.3±2.4* 29.7±0.9* 21.3±1.6* Acer negundo 23.9±0.2* 20.6±0.5* 16.7±0.6* *Asterisks denote signifi cant differences at p<0.05

The ratio C:N was the highest in the leaf litter of Q. rubra, comparing with the other tree species (Table 3). The lowest C:N ratio was in leaf litter of A. negundo. There was very strong correlation (R = 0.8 for Q. robur and R = 0.9 for other trees species) between C:N ratio and decomposition intensity in leaf litters. It confi rms Pavao-Zuckerman and Coleman (2005) determianation that C:N ratio is correlated with decomposition intensity of leaf litter of Q. prinus.

Conclusions

1. Leaf litter of native trees species, Quercus robur and Acer platanoides, were decomposed slower than leaf litter of invasive tree species Q. rubra, A. pseudoplatanus and A. negundo. 2. Among studied tree species the decrease of total carbon (C) and total nitrogen (N) and, consequently, the decrease in C:N ratio through the time were the highest in leaf litter of A. negundo. It shows, that leaf litter fall of this alien maple could creates more benefi cial nutrient and illumination conditions for soil ground vegetation to compare with native maple A. platanoides. 3. In our study the difference in nutrient and lighting effects among leaf litters of Q. robur and Q. rubra was eliminated by the diversities in the mass, the decomposability and the contents of C and N.

References

Brady N.C. and Weil R.R. (1996). The Nature of Properties of Soil. Prentice Hall, New Jersey. 11th edition. – 740 p. Berger T.W., Neubauer Ch., Glatzel G. (2002). Factors controlling soil carbon and nitrogen stores in pure stands of Norway spruce (Picea abies) and mixed species stands in Austria. Forest Ecology and Management, Elsevier Science B.V., 159, pp. 3-14. Ehrenfeld J.G. (2003). Effects of exotic plant invasion on soil nutrient cycling processes. Ecosystems, Volume 6, pp. 503-523. Garcia-Pausas J. (2004). Litter decomposition and faunal activity in Mediterranean forest soils: effects of N content and the moss layer. Soil Biology & Biochemistry,Elsevier Ltd., 36, pp. 989-997. Pavao-Zuckerman M.A., Coleman D.C. (2005). Decomposition of chestnut oak (Quercus prinus) leaves and nitrogen mineralization in an urban environment: Biology anf Fertility of Soils 41, pp. 343-349. Riepšas E. and Straigytė L. (2008). Invasiveness and ecological effects of red oak (Quercus rubra L.) in Lithuanian forests. Baltic Forestry, 14 (2), pp. 122-130. Straigytė L. (2006). Ąžuolų lapų irimo intensyvumas ir įtaka dirvožemiui. Vagos 73 (26), pp. 13-18. Swift M.J, Heal O.W, Anderson JM. (1979). Decomposition in Terrestrial Ecosystems. Blackwell, Oxford. Thorpe A.S., Callaway R.M. (2006). Interactions between invasive plants and soil ecosystems: positive feedbacks and their potential to persist. Conceptual Ecology and Invasion Biology. Printed in the Netherlands, pp. 323-341. Varnagirytė I., Hagen-Thorn A., Armolaitis K. (2005). Comparative study of litter fall in different deciduous species plantations. Miškininkystė 1 (57), pp. 31-35. Xu X. (2006). Nutrient dynamics in decomposing needles of Pinus luchuensis after typhoon disturbance in a subtropical environment. Annual Forest Science, INRA, EDP Sciences, 63, pp. 707-713.

Lina STRAIGYTĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Forestry, doctor of biomedical sciences, lector. Address: Studentu. 11 LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Phone: +370 37 752281, e-mail: lina.straigyte@ lzuu.lt. Main fi elds of research: dendrology; invasive tree species. Girmantė JURKŠIENĖ. Lithuanian Energy Institute, Laboratory of Regional Energy Development, engineer. Address: Breslaujos str. 3 LT – 44403, Kaunas. Phone: +370 37 401936, e-mail: [email protected]. Field of research: leaf litter decomposition. Kęstutis ARMOLAITIS. Lithuanian Forest Research Institute, Department of Ecology, doctor of biomedical sciences, senior scientifi c offi cer. Address: Liepų 1, Girionys, LT-53101, Kaunas distr., Lithuania. Phone: +370 682 13364, e-mail: [email protected]. Main fi elds of research: forest soil condition; carbon and nitrogen turnover in forests; afforestation of arable land.

200 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Diversity and Condition of Woody Plants in Raseiniai Green Areas

Lina Straigytė, Remigijus Žalkauskas, Mantas Pilkauskas, Jurgita Sasnauskienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abtract

This paper presents a diversity and health condition of woody plants in urban green areas and streets of Raseiniai. Urban green areas are not only ornament city life, but they create ecological balance, reduces stress of citizens. Urban green areas need protection and maintenance. In 2008 years to come in to force low about urban forests, woody plants management. This act guarantees protection of urban green areas, stability of natural and cultural landscape, citizens right to the living condition quality. This law obliged urban municipalities to do green areas inventory. After the inventory of trees and bushes, we found that there are 178 taxa (129 taxa of deciduous and 49 taxa of coniferous) in Raseiniai. In the the streets grow 55 taxa of woody plants. Distribution of the city woody plants by condition is as follows: deadwood - 1%, bad and extremely bad condition - 3%, mean condition – 9%, good and very good condition - 87%. Raseiniai have 6 parks which cover an area of 12.7 ha. There are only 10 m2/person of green area in Raseiniai. Key words: Raseiniai, parks, road trees, green areas

Introduction

Urban green areas are important in cities due to the opportunities they provide people to come in contact with nature and with each other. Contact with nature has psychological benefi ts by reducing stress (Ulrich et al., 1991), restoring attention (Kaplan and Kaplan, 1989), reducing criminal and anti-social behavior (Kuo and Sullivan, 2001) and by positively affecting self-regulation and restorative experiences (Korpela and Ylén, 2007). Complex planning of city parks and gardens system, which joins into integral system suburban forests and protective plants, create favorable conditions for living, working and resting (Jakovlevas-Mateckis, 2003). In the General Plan of Lithuania Territory (VŽ, Nr. IX-11542002) it is foreseen, that in year 2020 70-75 % of the dwellers of Lithuania will live in urban framework development zone. Raseiniai with its surrounding is asigned to the perspective area of urban framework centres concentration. That’s why the resuts of inventory of parks and gardens, and their plants are important to justify the development decisions of parks and gardens in the suburb and countryside teritories. Due to set norms (VŽ, Nr. D1-694, 2007) of parks and gardens, as there is a shotage of area in the city centre, planners must foresee the development of parks and gardens in the suburbs. The aim of the work was to evaluate the congruence of area of Raseiniai parks and gardens to the accredited norms of Lithuania, to evaluate the diversity and conditions of woody plants in different types of parks and gardens. The resuts of the work must be useful to maintain the present condition of plants in Raseiniai parks and gardens, and also for predictable development of parklands system in suburb and countryside teritories in the perspective of comeing urbanization.

Methodological aspects

The inventory was made in the territory of 848 ha in Raseiniai (with the population of 12 300 people). Raseiniai is the town situated in the center of Lithuania. This region is suitable for many natural and exotic plants so there can grow some rare trees and shrubs. Inventory covered all recreational parks and gardens. The areas of the parks and gardens were calculated using aero photos and ArcGIS9 program. The existing areas of parks and gardens were compared with norms (VŽ, Nr. D1-694, 2007). Inventorization of woody plants (except private areas) was made in the summer of 2008. For every plant, there were identifi ed species, measured height, diameter (at breast height) and condition. Health condition of plants was rated by such scale: 1 – very good condition; 2 – good; 3 – right enough; 4 – bad; 5 – extremely bad; 6 – deadwood.

Results and discussions

Comparing areas: existing situation and norms

Functions of parks and gardens in the city are different. In Lithuania were many discussions about green land areas classifi cation (Pilkauskas, 2000; Dringelis, 2005). Contemporary decree (VŽ, Nr. 80-3215, 2008) of green area separate parks and gardens in to two groups: independent and dependent green area land. For the public city life very important part have independent green area lands (parks, squares) (Pilkauskas, 2005). For the purpose to create more comfortable living and working condition, to keep a sustainable ecological stability of territory, the minimal public green area for each city resident should be more than 20 m2. After inventory we found, that there are 6 recreation parks and squares in Raseiniai, total area of parkland is 12.7 ha (10.3 m2 per capita) (Table 1). This area is fall short of accepted norms. By the standards area of parkland in Raseiniai must be more than 24.6 ha. Contemporary territory is twice smaller, than allowable minimum.

201 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Distribution of green land areas must be in the whole city, not only in the center or in periphery. Central parks must be in the snuggery, open areas, which every citizen can easily reach. Distance from the sleeping area to the central park can not be more than 3 km. Range of parks placing in sleeping territory must be in distance less that 300 m. During the analysis we found that central parks are dispersed proportionally, situated in walkable distance. But not enough parks are in sleeping territories (Fig.1).

Table 1. Area of independent parklands No Name of parkland Parkland area, ha Woody plants cover % of park surface 1 Nepriklausomybės gynėjų square 0,6 32% 2 Žemaitis square 0,6 33% 3 Raseiniai city park 4,6 34% 5 Raseika park 5,6 17% 5 Square in Klevų street 0,3 26% 6 Square in Grybo street 0,9 13%

Figure 1. Distribution of independent parklands in Raseiniai

Cemeteries in Raseiniai cover 8.8 ha. This territory is large enough, if calculated according the norms, for the population of 12.3 thousand inhabitants, the area must exceed 6.15 ha, so it is now.

The plant assortment of parks and gardens

After plants inventory were found that 178 taxa of woody plant (144 species and 34 cultivars) grow in Raseiniai. Broadleaves compose 129 taxa (112 species, 17 cultivars), conifers - 49 taxa (32 species and 17 cultivars). Wooded plant canopy in Raseiniai cover 3% of the city territory. Classifying according types – single trees cover the largest area, a little less is covered by the groups of trees and forest stands. The amount of Picea abies (L.) H.Karst., Pinus sylvestris L., Thuja occidentalis L., Picea pungens Engelm. and Juniperus sabina L. at the conifers division are dominating. A big number of taxa are in the genus of Thuja (9 taxa), Picea (8 taxa), Pinus (7 taxa) and Juniperus (7 taxa). The distribution of conifers according the genus is shown in Table 2. The biggest diversity of Thuja and Juniperus taxa comprise of amount of cultivars, meanwhile spruce (Picea) and pine (Pinus) diversity is created by the number of different species (not cultivars). The most common species of deciduous are: Tilia cordata Mill, Acer platanoides L., Betupa pendula Roth, Syringa vulgaris L., Tilia platyphyllos Scop., Quercus robur L., Acer negundo L., Fraxinus excelsior L. We would like to mention some rear specimens in the cities as: Quercus macranthera Fisch. et C.A.Mey., Cercidiphyllum japonicum Siebold et Zucc., Phellodendron amurense Rupr., Salix daphnoides Vill. and with a scenic stem Padus maackii (Rupr.) Kom.

202 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Table 2. Systematic distribution of Pinophyta Genus taxa Taxus L. 2 Picea A.Dietr. 8 Abies Mill. 5 Larix Mill. 4 Pseudotsuga Carr. 3 Pinus L. 7 Juniperus L. 7 Chamaecyparis Spach 4 Thuja L. 9 Total in 9 genus: 49

The highest in town are Populus x canadensis Moench, reaching 31 m height and Larix decidua (27 m). The highest between indigenous trees are Acer platanoides (27 m), Populus tremula L. (26 m) and Fraxinus excelsior (26 m). The thickest trees with the diameter over 100 cm at breast height are Populus x berolinensis (K.Koch) Dipp. (116 cm), Populus x canescens (Aiton) Sm. (110 cm) and P.balsamifera L. (110 cm). A little thinner are Quercus robur (106 cm), P.x canadensis (108 cm), Tilia cordata (108 cm).

Road trees

Road trees clear air from pollution, make shade to people and cars in summer days, protect from overheat. Trees look more esthetical and practical, if they are plant in alley. Alley must be made from the same tree species in the same interval between each tree (Navasaitis, 2008). Close to the road unadvisable to plant trees of small duration life, with wide canopy, trees, which produce many root shoots. These trees need more care, but if care is low, trees can spread widely and range of vision to drivers can decline. In the area near the roads grow 55 taxa of woody plants. There are 36 species of trees and 19 sp. of shrubs. Most of them are broadleaves (91%) and only 9% are conifers (Fig.1). So big broadleaves odds is because conifers are less resistant to city air pollution and soil in Raseiniai is preferable to broadleaves trees. The most abundant street tree species are Aesculus hippocastanus, Tilia cordata, Betula pendula and Acer platanoides. These species in all cities of Lithuania are most popular. Most popular conifers are native trees Picea abies (60 trees) and Pinus sylvestris (40 trees). Lines near the roads should be planted from one species (cultivar) trees, keeping even distances, in order to keep even rhythm.

Health condition of plants

General impression about urban trees health condition is good. Trees of good and very good condition are 87 %, bad and extremely bad condition – only 3%, deadwood – just 1% (Fig.2).

Figure 2. Tree distribution by health condition

There are no left standing dead trees in town, hedgerows are pruned and dead branches are pruned away. As in Ariogala (Straigytė, 2009) the same in Raseiniai bad health condition of many poplars, American and green ashes,

203 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry horse chestnuts were noticed, because of ento and fi to pest disturbance. That’s why we did not recommend planting these species of trees, because in our condition they lose scenic view and healthy state. Many wounds were found on the stems of Tilia cordata, but these are usually wound caused by human activity, which might be avoided.

Conclusions

1. Total area of parkland in Raseiniai is 12.7 ha. By the standards area of parkland in Raseiniai must be more than 24.6 ha. Contemporary territory is twice smaller, than allowable minimum. Cemeteries territory is large enough. 2. According to the set norms, due to the lack of parks in Raseiniai town centre, spatial planners must foresee the areas for park and garden development in suburb and countryside teritories, joining new parks into one integral system. 3. The wooded plant assortment of the Central Lithuania town parks and gardens is rich (178 taxa: 129 deciduous and 49 coniferous). Aesculus hippocastanum and Fraxinus pennsylvanica are suffering from pests and diseases, and lost its scenic view. In the future, due to the mentioned disturbances, we do not recommend to plan them in the town parks. 4. Tree lines near the roads should be planted from one species (cultivar) trees, keeping even distances, in order to keep even rhythm.

References

Dringelis L. (2005). Miesto želdynų teritorijų klasifi kavimas – teisinis pagrindas miesto želdynų sistemai planuoti. Urbanistika ir architektūra, XXIX tomas, Nr. 4, pp.182–190. Jakovlevas-Mateckis, K. (2003). Miestų želdynų sistemos formavimas. Miestotvarka, Vilnius, pp. 112–167. Kaplan R. and S. Kaplan, (1989). The Experience of Nature: A Psychological Perspective, Cambridge University Press, Cambridge. Korpela K. and Ylén M. (2007). Perceived health is associated with visiting natural favorite places in the vicinity, Health & Place 13, pp. 138–151. Kuo F.E. and Sullivan W.C. (2001). Environment and Crime in the inner city: does vegetation reduce crime? Environment and Behaviour 33 (3), pp. 343–367. Navasaitis M. (2008). Medžiai ir krūmai parkams bei sodyboms, Lututė, Kaunas. Pilkauskas R. (2000). Želdynų suskirstymas miesto planavime. Lietuvos kraštovaizdžio vertė ir savastis: KTU konferencijos pranešimų medžiaga. Kaunas, pp. 64–68. Pilkauskas R. (2005). Miestų želdynų formavimo strategija 2005: parkų ir skverų problemos ir perspektyvos, Proceedings of the International scientifi c- practice conference, pp. 95-99, Klaipėda. Straigytė L. (2009). Diversity and condition of woody plants in Ariogala town. Proceedings of the 15 International scientifi c-practice conference „Human and nature safety 2009“, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Ulrich R.S., Simons R.F., Losito B.D., Fiorito E., Miles M.A. and Zelson M., (1991). Stress recovery during exposure to natural and urban environments, Journal of Environmental Psychology 11, pp. 201–230. Valstybės Žinios (2002). Lietuvos Respublikos teritorijos bendrasis planas. Nr. IX-1154. Valstybės Žinios (2007). Lietuvos Respublikos želdynų įstatymas. Nr. 80-3215. Valstybės Žinios (2007). Atskirųjų rekreacinės paskirties želdynų plotų normos. Nr. D1-694.

Lina STRAIGYTĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of forestry, doctor of biomedical sciences, lector. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone (+370 37) 752281, e-mail: [email protected] Remigijus ŽALKAUSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of forestry, doctor of biomedical sciences, lector. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 614 81017, e-mail: [email protected] Mantas PILKAUSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Silviculture, PhD student. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 37 742 069, e-mail: m.pilkauskas@gmail. com Jurgita SASNAUSKIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Department of Ecology, PhD student. Address: Studentu 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Phone +370 37 752 224, e-mail: jurgita.sasnauskienė@ lzuu.lt

204 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Conception of Management of Private Forests in Poland

Emilia Wysocka-Fijorek Warsaw University of Life Sciences, Poland

Abstract

Basing on the literature concerning legal basis, history of forest owners unions and organizing of joint management of forests, the specifi c model of forest partnership was elaborated. The partnership has a form of private or state-private premises encompassing forests area on the lands of particular village, community or group of villages or communities (depending on the forests area). In case of state forest’s share the premises is a separated part of the forest district. The aim of partnership is to conduct sustainable forest management. The members of the union are forest owners and owners of the land designed to aforestation. The partnership’s membership is voluntary. The membership in the forest partnership delivers steady income to the forest owners. In my concept of partnership between private forest owners members in partnership is voluntary. The aim of partnership is to conduct sustainable forest management on the involved lands. Owing to the membership, the forest owners will obtain regular income from the forest. Furthermore, the partnership will be aiming for increasing ecological awareness and lobbing in favour of private forest owners. The partnership will operate on the perimeter of several areas of a number of villages.

Introduction

Small private forest means different things in different countries. In USA like small-scale forest they understand forest smaller than 1000 ha. In Europe that kind of forest are often name family forest and they are between 1 and 200 ha [Harrison 2002]. In Poland private forests take share of 17% of total forests area (1623 thousands ha of private forests out of 9255 thousands ha of forests area) [GUS 2008]. Comparing to the average in Europe, this proportion is relatively small. Although signifi cant number of forest owners (approximately 1 million) and hence substantial disintegration of forest ownership (1,34 ha on average) is an exceptional situation, not taking into account some countries of former Yugoslavia where average size is 0,76 ha. Average size of private forest holding in Lithuania it is near 4,6 ha [Gaižutis 2005], in Lotvia it is 7,2ha [Vilkriste 2005, 2006], Germany 7,7 ha [Reoring 2006]. Simultaneously majority of private forests in Poland is regarded as neglected, badly tended, utilized mainly according to current needs of forest owner. Establishment of partnerships joining the forest owners proceeds very slowly. The reasons have social character (e.g. bad experience gained in former political system). Polish Forestry Act is regarded as preferring state forest, what means that private forests are treated as lower category condemned to worse management and lesser role in the environment. Simultaneously in some regions of country the share of these forest exceeds 50%, thus they have substantial importance in the region. Diffi culties in management of private forests result from the fact that the average forest owner is an elderly person with low level of education, in majority- without forestry background, without an access to the basic forestry equipment [Gołos 2006]. The second problem it with is more important in Croatia, Hungary, Finland it is that private owners live in town and don’t have time to look after their forest. In Poland it isn’t big problem, but we start observe it. Because of inherited divisions of lands conducted in the past or acquisition of forest plots in exchange of pensions, very often the mosaic of private and state ownership exists. It is important to improve the effectiveness of management in private forests [Zając 2004]. In order to achieve that the forest owners should be organized aiming for easier access of legal aid, reduction of costs of business activity and also to increase the income from joint sale of timber [Zając 2004, Adamczyk 2005, Król 2000, Paprocki 1935, Geszprych, Lotz 2006]. Private forest owners organization try to be make in a lot of country. They were organizing in country with have political changes in the nineties of XX century. In the last years in Switzerland e.g. in the canton the Lucerne is also trying to organize itself of owners of private forests. In the Lucerne the structure of the property of forests is similar to of the one in Poland [Röösli-Brun 2007, Schidhauser 2008]. The condition of private forests and intension to increase their economic and environmental importance were the main cause of developing the conception of establishment of organization, which joins private forests owners. The objective of the study is to propose a model of forest partnership. The partnership should have universal capacity, which enables their functioning in both situations: private ownership only or co-existing share of private and state ownership.

Legal background of the matter

Law of Partnerships Act laid down on 7th of April1989 (Dz. U.2001.79.855) is one of the law regulations, basing on which the forest owners can unite in groups. The associations are the rank-and-fi le initiatives and their contribution to society is based on real engagement of the participants and members. Therefore the associations are increasing their power in society, which agglomerates the most active citizens in local communities. The actions initiated by associations are often characterized by spontaneity and promptness of reacting for owners needs e.g. the owners of the lands aforestated within Zelichowski’s program and granted aids from European Union (Seaside Association of Private Forests Owners). The actions initiated in this area are convergent with management

205 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry trends occurring in local governments. 10 associations of private forest owners are currently registered in Poland. They operate on area of more than 1,4 thousands of hectares being in the ownership of more than 350 people. Another regulation is Act laid down on 29th of June 1963 about management of land communities (Dz. U. 1963.28.169). The partnership is created with the object of community management. The members of the partnership are persons entitled to share in the land community. The owners of adjacent lands can also become members of partnerships on conditions provided in the charter. If the community contained also forests, forested lands or wastelands designated for aforestation the separate partnership could be established to manage these lands. The possibility (not obligation) existed for community members to establish another separate partnership for forest areas included in this land community (it applied to communities, in which part of the lands are agricultural grounds while the remaining part is forestry land). The members entitled to a share in land community comprised in whole of forests, forested lands or wastelands designated for aforestation can resign their rights to the share in community with the extent inclusive these forests, forested lands or wastelands designated for aforestation for the benefi t of State. It concerns only forestry assets, whereas it doesn’t concern other properties. The resignation of shares ensues in form of certifi cate drawn up in written and approved by relevant village- mayor. As long as the partnership exists none of it’s members can claim the division of property. The member of partnership can not dispose of the partnership’s property as a whole, neither particular components of the property. Only the statutory organs of partnership are authorized to disposal of property, namely general assembly and board within their competences. The partnership is accountable for it’s liabilities with all it’s property, thus all of property’s components. The debtors committed to pay partnership’s liabilities are both the partnership as a legal entity and particular partnership’s members, who are accountable for partnership’s debts up to sum determined in the Act. In Poland land communities occupy approximately 67 thousands of ha [GUS 2008], which amount to not much above 4% of private forests in Poland. Part of forest communities, like in the mountain areas of Southern part of Poland, conducts the high quality forest management, because there is a long- term tradition of common management. The example can be seen in “Eight Villages Community” in Witow. However there is substantial part of communities forests, where no forest management is carried out or it is limited only to utilization of currently needed timber. Forestry associations and partnerships established to manage land communities have common objective, because both of them are created for conduction of sustainable forest management on the defi ned area. Both forms of forest owners organizations have legal status and perform on the basis of charter approved by village-mayor. The main difference between association and partnership for management land communities is that membership in forestry association doesn’t deprive the forest owner of individual levy of benefi ts. The association wasn’t aimed for common forest utilization. The aim of the partnership for management of land community is collective management of common lands. Furthermore, the association could be created by voluntary agreement of parties, while the partnership could be established on the basis of regulations of Act about management of land communities. Other ways of organizing of forest owners have minor importance (e.g. agricultural chambers, cooperative societies).

The concept of partnership

The membership in forest partnership, alike in association is voluntary. The membership is available for forest owner, tenant by the permission of owner and owner of the plot designated for aforestation in the local plan. The partnership operates basing on the resolution and charter, which is registered in the commune’s offi ce. After registration and resolution of charter the partnership gains legal status. The members of the partnership retain their ownership rights for property. The partnership is accountable for it’s liabilities with all it’s property. The establishment of ownership can occur following the proposal of interested owners, commune or district authorities or forest district. The board of partnership with approval of general assembly can sign a contract with forest district for conducting of a whole or part of partnership’s operations. The contract between the partnership and forest district should include detailed description of rights and obligations of both parties. The forest district can partially (all sub-district or particular forest plots) or as a whole become the partnership’s member. The aim of partnership is to conduct sustainable forest management on the involved lands. Owing to the membership, the forest owners will obtain regular income from the forest. Furthermore, the partnership will be aiming for increasing ecological awareness and lobbing in favour of private forest owners. The partnership will operate on the perimeter of several areas of a number of villages. In respect of administration and organization reasons, the perimeter of partnership shouldn’t exceed the commune area (the charter and partnership’s operation reports are submitted to the commune offi ce) and in particular not bigger than district area (in Poland according to the Act the supervision of private forests lies in competencies of prefect of the district). Furthermore, the perimeter of partnership should be located within the area of only one forestry district. However, partnerships can join in associations irrespectively of administrative and forestry divisions. Different options of management of administration and forestry are considered for the partnership. First option assumes that both administration and forestry management in private forests is conducted by the partnership. This situation is currently present in forest partnerships for management of land communities. Nevertheless, this type of

206 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry management is suitable for big, cohesive forest blocks, if the partnership employs professional foresters. The situation where the partnership keeps the administration and forest management is conducted by forest district is practically not possible in polish system of organization of forest operations (forestry contractors are the external companies appointed by the tender). In next option the administration of the partnership is maintained by the forest district, while the forest operations are contracted by tenders, thus in reality, by the forest owners. This situation takes place at present, if the county commissions forestry district to carry out the supervision of private forests. In the last analyzed option the forestry district assumes the control of both administration and forestry management. This situation is the most advantageous, because the district has qualifi ed workers and market for forestry products. During the elaboration of the concept of forest partnership the calculation of value of plots belonging to particular owners appeared to be an important problem. The market of forest properties practically doesn’t exist in Poland. Furthermore, currently effective standards of forest properties evaluation are often criticized for being complicated and incorrect from substantial point of view. The indexes used in the study (and in following model of partnership functioning) for calculation of evaluation of forest take into account the species, yield class, also potential volume factor in subcompartment. The indexes were elaborated in Forestry Research Institute at the Forestry Economics Department by a team under the guidance of professor Stanislaw Ząjac. The original formula based on the indexes was modifi ed by the author and presents as follows (Formula1):

Vi= Ici (Isi) * Pv * A* W * Si (own elaboration) (1) where:

Vi - value of the trees of the i species in zloty

Ici - index of costs spent for establishment and tending of 1ha of plantation of species i

Isi - index of value of 1ha of standing stand of species i Pv - potential volume index A - area of forest plot in ha W - weighted average of timber sale price for previous year in forest district

Si- share of the species i in species composition

After calculation of value of every tree species in the stand (value of other layers was not taken into account) they were summarized, what equals to total value of the stand. The calculation of stand value is undertaken at the moment of joining the partnership and at the withdrawal. The next important task is to determine the way of calculating the share of each owner. In order to standardize and to introduce comparability of different stands of varied species composition and quality the discriminatory indexes were introduced. The value of the share is calculated as follows (Formula 2):

Svi= Dvi* A* Pv (own elaboration) (2) where:

Svi - share value of the species i Dvi - discriminatory index of the species i A - area of forest plot in ha Pv - potential volume index.

The discriminatory index [Table1] results from value of the stand of species i and yield class at the moment of establishment of plantation, at the age of 50 and at the rotation age of the stand.

Table 1. Discriminatory indexes of species species/yield class Ia I II III IV V Pine 1,5 1,3 1,0 0,6 0,5 0,4 Fir 2,7 1,9 1,4 1,1 0,9 Spruce 2,4 1,8 1,3 0,9 0,6 Beech 1,4 1,0 0,8 0,6 0,5 Oak 1,8 1,5 1,1 0,9 Alder 1,1 0,8 0,5 Aspen 1,1 1,0 0,6 0,4 Birch 0,7 0,6 0,4 0,3 Hornbeam 1,0 0,9 0,8 0,6 0,3 Source: own elaboration

207 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Basing on the number of shares the number of votes has to be allocated among forest owners. The proportion of the votes is determined that each share- holder has minimum one vote, but maximum number of votes granted to one owner can not exceed 2/5 of total number of votes. The divisor of votes is determined by the smallest share. During the votes calculation the fractions are not taken into account and the fi gures are mathematically rounded. If number of votes in hand of one owner exceeds 2/5 of total votes number, then the number of votes is reduced to 2/5 of total votes number (example of votes division in table 2) without changing the share value linked with dividend.

Table 2. Calculation of number of shares and votes basing on the share value

Owner Share Value Divisor Share Index Number of Shares Number of Votes

A 1,4 1,4 1,00 0,75 1 1

B 2,0 1,4 1,43 1,07 1 1

C 3,8 1,4 2,71 2,04 3 3

D 5,2 1,4 3,71 2,79 4 4

E 5,7 1,4 4,07 3,06 4 4

F 6,9 1,4 4,93 3,70 5 5

G 8,6 1,4 6,14 4,62 6 6

H 8,8 1,4 6,29 4,72 6 6

I 10,0 1,4 7,14 5,37 7 7

J 17,4 1,4 12,43 9,34 12 12

K 27,7 1,4 19,79 14,87 20 20

M 88,8 1,4 63,43 47,67 63 46*

sum 186,3 133,07 100 132 115

Source: Own elaboration

The number of votes vested for private forest owner is important during the decision making process in partnership. The reduction of maximum number of votes to 2/5 of total results from intention of protection of the smaller owners rights against the biggest owner. The membership in forest partnership is voluntary. It was necessary to establish not only the rules of joining the partnership, but also the rules of leaving. If the forest owner intends to withdraw the membership he should submit a notice of such intention at least 12 months in advance. During the process of evaluation of property at the moment of withdrawal, the initial state is assumed by the state of the property at the moment of joining the partnership and at the moment of withdrawal. In case of forest property being returned, the following options are available (own elaboration based on Podgorski 2001): 1) The land contributed to partnership was devoid of trees or land was designated to aforestation and at the moment of withdrawal one of the following features occurs on the land: a) Forest plantation or stand, for which the value of utility materials doesn’t exceed costs spent for establishment and tending of plantation. b) Stand including utility materials (timber) of value exceeding costs spent for establishment and tending of plantation. c) Land void of trees, e.g. unsuccessful plantation, clearfell, poorly stocked. 2) The land contributed to partnership was an existing plantation or stand, in which the value of utility material was not suffi cient to balance costs spent for establishment and tending of plantation and at the moment of property return there are variants of actual conditions (a), b) or c)) described above. 3) The land contributed to partnership was a stand with value of utility materials exceeding costs spent for establishment and tending of plantation and at the moment of property return there is one of actual conditions a), b) or c) described above.

208 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Changes of variants and their infl uence on value of the property are described in the table 3.

Table 3. Changes of value of forest properties Mark of Infl uence of change of situation Element determining the change of property value property state on property and its variant value 1a Costs spent for establishment and tending of plantation increase 1b Value of utility materials (timber) from the stand increase 1c Not occurring no change Costs spend for tending of the stand in the period between joining the 2a increase partnership and withdrawal 2b As above increase Costs spend for establishment and tending of plantation from the moment of 2c decrease joining the partnership Difference between the value of utility materials at the moment of joining 3a the partnership and costs spent for establishment and tending of withdrawn decrease plantation Difference between the value of utility materials in the stand at the moment of a) no change joining the partnership and at the moment of withdrawal: 3b b) accordingly: increase or a) with changes of potential value index not exceeding 0.2 decrease b) in other cases 3c The value of utility materials in the stand at the moment of expropriation decrease Source: Own elaboration based on Podgorski M., Beker C., Biczkowski Z., Najgrakowski T., Turski M. 2001. Podstawy i metody wartościowej wyceny lasu i jego składników (red. Podgorski M.) Wyd. Zachodnie Centrum Organizacji, Zielona Góra s:25-26.

Summary

In Poland Private forests take conspicuous area (1,6 million ha). Their disintegration and signifi cant number of forest owners (approximately 840 thousands) often results in neglected management. Suggesting of the new answer being aimed at organising itself owners of private forests is needed. The solution suggested by me is combining advantages of land communities and associations. Most important from them it: leading the shared forest management without the need to make works in forest owners, regular income from the forest, possibility of entering into partnership and possible disconnecting oneself from it. The suggested way of organising private forest owners will provide to them with the possibility of the infl uence on had forest. It results from the possibility of the practising participation in meetings of members of the company and choice of appropriate authorities.

References

Adamczyk W. 2005. Stowarzyszenia właścicieli lasów prywatnych – ich znaczenie i rola dla gospodarki leśnej. Biblioteczka leśniczego, Wyd. Świat, notebook 215. Gaižutis A. 2005. Gaining a Position for Small-scale Private Forestry trough Creation of Marketing System for Wood Trade: Case of Lithuania. In: Small-scale forestry in a Changing Environment, pp:130-136, Kaunas. Geszprych M., Lotz D. 2006. Podstawy prawne i ekonomiczno-fi nansowe funkcjonowania stowarzyszeń prywatnych właścicieli lasów Polsce i wybranych krajach europejskich – analiza porównawcza. Work Forest Research Institute. Gołos P. 2006. Analiza prywatnych gospodarstw rolno-leśnych w Polsce – projekt sieci gospodarstw testowych. Forest Research Institute scientifi c documentation. GUS Leśnictwo 2008. Harrison S. 2002. Non-industrial, Smallholder, Small-scale and Family Forestry: What’s in a Name?. Small-scale Forest Economies, Management and Policy 1(1):1-11. Król A. 2000. Nadzór nad gospodarką leśna w lasach prywatnych w aspekcie ich racjonalnego zagospodarowania i użytkowania. Biblioteczka leśniczego, Wyd. Świat, notebook 126. Paprocki J. 1935. Organizacje leśne i ich znaczenie dla leśnictwa prywatnego. Typescript of a Master’s dissertation Workshop of WULS. Podgórski M., Beker C., Biczkowski Z., Najgrakowski t., Turski M. 2001. Podstawy i metody wartościowej wyceny lasu i jego składników (ed. Podgórski M.) Wyd. Zachodnie Centrum Organizacji, Zielona Góra pp:25-26. Reoring H.W. 2006. Germany. Forests and Forestry in European Union Countries. Wyd. CILP, pp:114-131; http://www.lp.gov.pl/media/biblioteka/ in_english/forests_and_forestry/view

209 Rural Development 2009 Sustainable Development of Forestry

Röösli-Brun B. 2007. Kooperation im Luzerner Privatwald (Essay). Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 9:270-274. Schmidhauser A. Kollektiv handeln im klein parzellierten Luzerner Wald: ein Erfahrungsbericht. Schweizerische Zeitschrift für Forstwesen 12:441-447. Vilkriste L. 2005. Latvia’s Private Forest Owners: a Case Study: In: Small-scale forestry in a Changing Environment, pp:166-174, Kaunas. Vilkriste L. 2006. Role of private forest owners In Latvia – suport or hindrance to development: In: Small-scale forestry and rural development, pp: 526-537.

Zając S., Gołos P, Geszprych M. 2004. Prawne formy zrzeszeń prywatnych właścicieli lasów. Sylwan (4): 40-52.

Emilia WYSOCKA-FIJOREK. Mgr inż., Szkoła Główna Gospodarstwa Wiejskiego w Warszawie, Wydział Leśny, Katedra Urządzania Lasu, Geomatyki i Ekonomiki Leśnictwa. Ul. Nowoursynowska 159/34, 02-776 Warszawa. Tel. (+48) 225938202, fax. (+48) 225938199. e-mail: [email protected]

210 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

VIII

Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Color Infrared Aerial Images to Evaluate Tree Crown Defoliation

Algirdas Augustaitis, Gintautas Mozgeris, Marijus Eigirdas, Mantas Sajonas Lithuanian university of agriculture

Abstract

The relationship between the radiometric and textural characteristics of color infrared aerial images and the tree crown defoliation at a single tree level is studied on a test area in Aukstaitija integrated monitoring station. The spatial resolution of images was 15 cm; around 2500 trees were measured in the fi eld, geo-referenced and detected on the images. Relatively strongest correlation between tree crown defoliation and mean pixel values of color-infrared images was observed just for near infrared image band (correlation coeffi cient -0,47 for pine trees, which prevailed in the study area). Green and red image bands resulted in low and statistically insignifi cant correlations. Correlation coeffi cient increased if just dominating pine trees were taken into account. Coeffi cient of correlation between mean pixel values of near infrared band and the defoliation of dominating pine trees was -0.63. Standard deviation of pixel values correlated with the defoliation of sheltered trees best no matter the image band (correlation coeffi cients fl uctuated around -0.45). Key words: crown defoliation, color infrared aerial images, correlation

Introduction

Lithuania has a relatively long history in using airborne remote sensing for forest inventories (Brukas et al., 2000a). Since 1950 the inventory has been based on a combination of interpretation of aerial photos and conventional fi eldwork. In eighties and nineties the colour infrared aerial photographs have been available on 85% of inventoried area (Brukas et al., 2000b). Starting from 1996 panchromatic orthophotographic maps replaced the aerial photos (Galaune and Mozgeris, 1998). And, fi nally, orthophotos adopted to meet forest inventory aims, are produced every year for approximately 15% of the country’s area since 2001 (Mozgeris and Dumbrauskas, 2003; Mozgeris, 2003). There are many studies investigating the usability of all these material for interpretation of forest characteristics used for conventional stand-wise inventories – tree species, basal areas, heights, soil conditions, etc. Most of them focus on the investigation of interpretational capabilities of aerial images and use of visual analytical interpretation method (Mozgeris and Daniulis, 1997; Daniulis and Deltuvas, 1998; Daniulis and Deltuvas, 2000; Mozgeris, 2004). The evaluation of forest health conditions was left practically behind the scope of research interests during the last decade. The possibilities to detect crown defoliation classes corresponding to the ones used in the ICP Forest monitoring programme (UN-ECE, 1994) for pine and spruce stands using the same methodological approaches of analytical interpretation as for stand—wise forest inventories were reported by Daniulis and Mozgeris, (1993). They used nowadays outdated material – contact prints of aerial negatives, done on SN-6M aerial fi lm. However, there are many successful examples on the use of airborne remote sensing for evaluation of forest or tree health conditions (Hildebrandt, 1993; Zawila-Niedzwiecki, 1996; Daniulis, 1998). Some our previous research identifi ed the importance of airborne and satellite remotely sensed images in cartographic modelling of tree crown defoliation (Augustaitis and Mozgeris, 2003). The aim of this paper is to introduce results of a study on the potential of colour infrared aerial images for tree crown defoliation assessment. Research is carried out on a specially established study area with very detailed ground and remotely sensed information available.

Material and methods

Forests of the Aukstaitijos integrated monitoring station (IMS) were chosen as the study object. Glacioaquatic accumulation forms with sand, gravel and stones are typical of Aukstaitija IMS (LT-01) catchment which with the decrease of altitude transfers into fl iuvioglacial terrace delta plain with fi ne sand, and at the source- into marsh accumulation forms with organic sediments. Multi-aged and multi-layered mature and over mature pine and spruce stands on haplic arenosol, transfering at lower places into albic and gleyic arenosol and into histosol (eutrophic deep peat soil) prevail in LT-01 catchment. Climate in Aukstaitija IMS is characterised as average cold with high humidity and abundant precipitation. Annual mean air temperature is 5.8ºC, mean annual precipitation amount - 682 mm. Length of vegetation period - 189 days. The study was based on data of more than 2500 pine trees from 13 permanent observation stands (POS) in Aukstaitija national park (ANP) and 50 permanent observation plots in Aukstaitija IMS catchment area. Crown condition was assessed according to the methodology of ICP Forest monitoring programme (UN-ECE 1994). Test aerial photography of the Aukstaitijos IMS was carried out in summer season of 2003 at a nominal scale of 1:10000 using fi lm camera Leica RC30 equipped with the fi lters attenuating near infrared radiation. Kodak Aerochrome III Infrared 1443 aerial fi lm was developed into negatives using process Kodak AN5. Developed fi lms were scanned using photogrammetric scanner and resolution of 14 microns. Suffi cient amount of ground control points was pre-marked and measured in the fi eld before the aerial photography. Aerial images were run through the process of aerial triangulation using PCI OthoEngine software. Digital elevation model developed within the frames of other research (Mozgeris and

213 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Augustaitis, 1999) was used to orthorectify all aerial images. The fi nal resolution of orthorectifi ed images was 15 cm. No radiometric correction was applied for the images.

Figure 1. Location of Integrated Monitoring Station (▲), its basin and permanent observation pine stands (•)

Trees measured in the fi led on the sample plots were identifi ed on the aerial images. Crown projections of each identifi ed tree were manually digitized on the orthorectifi ed aerial images and stored in a GIS database – Fig.2. Only central parts of image were used for tree identifi cation and digitalization. Each such tree was supplied with corresponding ground measured attributes.

Figure 2. Tree crown projections identifi ed on a sample plot (image is presented here black&white intentionally)

To study the relationships between radiometric characteristics of tree crown projections and tree health condition indices, image pixel values for all three bands of color infrared images (corresponding to the green, red and near infrared radiation) were extracted within the boundaries of each tree crown polygon using zonal functions of GIS analysis. Means and standard deviations of pixel values per each image band were calculated. Conventional Pearson’s correlation coeffi cient was used to check the relationships between the tree crown defoliation and characteristics of images.

Results and discussion

The relatively strongest correlation between the mean pixel value and tree crown defoliation was observed for the near infrared image band (Fig. 3). It was statistically signifi cant for pine and deciduous trees, which prevailed in the test area. Negative value of the correlation coeffi cient let us assume decreasing refl ection intensity for the band with increased defoliation of the crown. Bands corresponding to visible spectrum (green and red) did not result in more stable nor statistically signifi cant results. Majority of the trees on the study area were pine trees. Correlation coeffi cients for just pine trees increased dividing the tree trees by their status into three categories: superior, dominating and sheltered trees. Most of the trees are usually assigned to the category of dominating trees – they are of major interest for remote sensing studies, too. Taking into consideration just dominating pine trees, we found the correlation between mean pixel values of near infrared band to reach 0.63 (Fig. 4). The lowest correlation (considering just near infrared band) was observed for sheltered trees, which are practically out of any use in remote sensing context. One of textural features – standard deviation of pixel values – was found to correlate with the defoliation of sheltered trees best – Fig. 5. The image band had practically no infl uence here.

214 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Figure 3. Coeffi cients of correlation between mean pixel values and the defoliation of different tree species by image bands

Figure 4. Coeffi cients of correlation between mean pixel values and the defoliation pine trees of three tree status classes by image bands

Figure 5. Coeffi cients of correlation between standard deviations of pixel values and the defoliation of pine trees belonging to three tree status classes, by image bands

The use of colour infrared aerial images for the assessment of tree health condition or even the tree crown defoliation is not new as such. However, most of the research or operational application is based on the human or visual interpretation. Automated assessment of individual tree crown characteristics appeared on the research agenda only with the introduction of very high resolution airborne or satellite images. Even the principles of manual interpretation of aerial images a very closely interrelated with the ones of automated interpretation, there is some specifi cs in both approaches. Numerous objectively measured criteria may be easily applied while processing in computer environments. The pixel values on any remotely sensed image are a function of refl ectance properties of the natural objects being studied. Near infrared radiation is less refl ected by coniferous trees with the increase of tree crown defoliation (Daniulis, 1998; Сухих, 2005). This is because of structural changes in the needles and relatively decreased amount of foliage, therefore resulting in larger visibility of bare branches with lower refl ectance capacities. There are practically no differences in the refl ectance properties between defoliated and healthy trees in the visible zone of electromagnetic radiation (for sure, if the defoliation is not too heavy). So, the correlations detected between mean pixel values and the defoliation of different tree species by image bands are easy to explain – the pixel values are decreasing with the increase of defoliation. The role of textural parameters as compared with the radiometric ones is usually less on colour infrared images

215 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

(Mozgeris, 2003). Even the correlation between standard deviations of pixel values and the defoliation of pine trees seems to be signifi cant if just sheltered trees are taken into the account, this has little practical value, as the sheltered trees may hardly to be used as the sample trees for health assessment. Differentiating trees by their development status classes infl uences notably the correlation between the defoliation and near infrared mean pixel values, most likely because the negative infl uence sheltered trees is minimized.

Conclusions

1. Relatively strongest correlation between tree crown defoliation and mean pixel values of color-infrared images was observed just for near infrared image band. Green and red image bands resulted in low and statistically insignifi cant correlations. 2. Correlation coeffi cient increased if just dominating pine trees were taken into account. Coeffi cient of correlation between mean pixel values of near infrared band and the defoliation of dominating pine trees was -0.63. 3. Standard deviation of pixel values correlated with the defoliation of sheltered trees best no matter the image band.

References

Augustaitis A., Mozgeris G. (2003). Cartographical modeling of tree crown defoliation. Silviculture. Transactions of Lithuanian Forest Institute and Lithuanian University of Agriculture 1(53), pp. 75-87 (in Lithuanian). Brukas A., Galaune A., Rutkaukas A., Mozgeris G. (2000). GIS and remote sensing in Lithuanian forest inventory system. Proceeding of III International Symposium “Application of Remote Sensing in Forestry”, pp. 35-40, Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen. Brukas A., Galaune A., Rutkaukas A., Daniulis J., Mozgeris G. (2000). Remote Sensing and GIS in Lithuanian forestry. IUFRO Conference proceedings “Remote sensing and Forest Monitoring”, pp. 124-132, Rogow, Poland. Daniulis J., Mozgeris G. (1993). Investigations of interpretation criteria of defoliated pine stands. Silviculture 42, pp. 21-23 (in Lithuanian). Daniulis J. (1998). Aerial photography – Vilnius, Enciklopedija, 248 p. (in Lithuanian). Daniulis J., Deltuvas A. (1998). The usage of digital images for forest inventory. Silviculture 2(42) pp. 5-11 (in Lithuanian). Daniulis J., Deltuvas A. (2000). Research of the informativenes of the digital images. Agricultural sciences 3 pp. 95-102 (in Lithuanian). Galaune A., Mozgeris G. (1998). Geographic Information Systems in Lithuanian Forestry: an ARC/INFO and ArcView based solution. Proceedings of 13th ESRI European User Conference, Firence, Italy, 7-9 October. Hildebrandt G. (1993). Central European contribution to remote sensing and photogammetry in forestry. Proceedings of the IUFRO centennial meeting in Berlin, August 31 – September 4, 1992, Japan Society for Forest Planning Press, Faculty of Agriculture “Forest resource inventory and monitoring and remote sensing technology” p. 196-212, Tokyo University of Agriculture and Technology 3-5-8 Saiwaicho, Fucku, Tokyo. Mozgeris G., Daniulis J. (1997). Interpretation criteria of tree species on black-white middle scale (1:10000-1:20000) aerial photographs. Silviculture, Transactions of Lithuanian Forest Institute and Lithuanian University of Agriculture 2(40), pp. 40-48 (in Lithuanian). Mozgeris G., Augustaitis A. (1999). Using GIS techniques to obtain a continuous surface of tree crown defoliation. Baltic Forestry 1, pp. 69-74. Mozgeris G. (2003). The use of radiometric and textural parameters of digital aerial images for estimation of forest characteristics on the level of sample plot. Vagos, Transactions of Lithuanian University of Agriculture 59(12), pp. 69-80 (in Lithuanian). Mozgeris G., Dumbrauskas A. (2003). Investigation of geometrical accuracy of ortho photos, produced for forest inventory aims. The Geographical Yearbook XXXVI(1), pp. 237-249 (in Lithuanian). Mozgeris G., (2004). Interpretation criteria of orthophotos, used in forest inventory. Silviculture. Transactions of Lithuanian Forest Institute and Lithuanian University of Agriculture, 1(55), pp. 49-59 (in Lithuanian). Punys, J., Mozgeris, G., Augustaitis, A. (2006). The state and trends of remote sensing in the Lithuanian forest management. Climate Change - Forest Ecosystems & Landscape: proceedings from international scientifi c conference and JRC workshop “Forest Monitoring from Remote Sensing at Scales from global to Local”, pp. 100-104, Zvolen-Sielnica, 19-22 October 2005. Zvolen: National Forest Centre. UN-ECE 1994. Manual on methods and Criteria for Harmonised Sampling, Assessment, Monitoring and Analysis of the Effects of Air Pollution on Forests. ICP. 178 p. Zawila-Niedzwiecki T. (1996). The Use of GIS and Remote Sensing for Forest Monitoring in Poland. In: “Remote Sensing and Computer Technology for Natural Resource Assessment”, Proceedings of the Subject Group S4.02-00 “Forest Resource Inventory and Monitoring” and Subject Group S4.12- 00 “Remote Sensing Technology”, Volume II, pp.29-42. IUFRO XX World Congress, 6-12 August 1995, Tampere, Finland. Edited by Saramaki J., Kochc B. and Lund G., The University of Joensuu, Faculty of Forestry. Сухих В.И. (2005). Аэрокосмические методы в лесном хозяйстве и ландшафтном строительстве, Йошкар-Ола, МарГТУ, 392 с.

Algirdas AUGUSTAITIS. prof. dr., Forest monitoring laboratory, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas MOZGERIS. Researcher, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Marijus EIGIRDAS. Phd student, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania Mantas SAJONAS. Master degree student, Faculty of forestry and ecology, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 11, LT- 53361, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania

216 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

The Infl uence of Forest Cover Characteristics on the Accuracy of LiDAR Based Digital Terrain Model

Ina Bikuvienė, Gintautas Mozgeris, Remigijus Žalkauskas Lithuanian university of agriculture

Abstract

The infl uence of forest cover characteristics on the accuracy of LiDAR based altitude of digital terrain model is analyzed on a test area in central part of Lithuania. Two variants of LiDAR point clouds, based on 1 and 6 points/m2 scanning densities were used to extract the digital terrain model. Circular sample plots were located and measured in the forest using conventional geodetic survey and dendrometric methods. Higher laser scanning point density was found to result in signifi cantly lower bias of altitude of digital terrain model than the lower laser scanning point density. The bias of the altitude of digital terrain model was less on the sample plots located in coniferous forest than in mixed or deciduous forests. Presence of the 2nd storey and undergrowth was not found to have signifi cant infl uence on the bias of altitude of digital terrain model, no matter the laser scanning characteristics. A constrained linear ordination method (redundancy analysis) indicated that the biases of altitude of digital terrain model were negatively related with the magnitude of major volumetric characteristics of the 1st storey of the stand and share of coniferous trees but positively with the one of the 2nd storey. Key words: forest inventory, laser scanning, digital terrain model

Introduction

Not long ago, the topographic measurement of the land surface has been a standard task of photogrammetry. Nowadays, LiDAR technology becomes a widely used technique for generating high-resolution topographic data sets, with vertical accuracies of 15 to 100 centimeters (Hyyppä et al., 2002). Airborne laser mapping is a remote sensing technology that utilizes a laser light detection and ranging (LiDAR) system and an airborne navigation system that accurately tracks platform location and attitude to produce a dense array of geographic coordinates from points where laser pulses are refl ected off a surface (Baltsavias, 1999). Thus, elevations of forest canopies, buildings, or other structures, together with ground information, are already available in raw LiDAR data. The quality of digital terrain models (DTM) derived from laser scanning is infl uenced by a large number of factors. The most relevant ones are the season of the year, point density, fl ight altitude and scan angle (Yu et al., 2005). The scan angle and fl ight altitude affect the point density (Ahokas et al., 2005). Over open areas with fl at hard surfaces, LiDAR systems often achieve coordinate accuracies of 15 cm (Pereira and Janssen, 1999). However, over rough surfaces obscured by dense canopy and the understory of forest, the accuracy is compromised by uncertainty about the refl ection point (i.e., whether it is from vegetation or from the ground surface). In such situations, accuracy of the LiDAR ground surface is infl uenced strongly by the ability to fi lter and sort the coordinate data into ground and off-ground classes so that the surface can be described by ground refl ections only (Haugerud and Harding, 2001). In such areas, removing above-ground vegetation is especially useful because leaves, branches, and trunks cause the laser energy to be absorbed or scattered so that fewer returns come directly from the ground (Clark et al., 2004). Therefore, the research and development focus regarding the use of LiDAR data in forest inventories has been basically on terrain mapping and estimating stand or tree height (Leckie et al., 2003). Nevertheless, results achieved in forestry oriented research are important for other fi elds of geomatics. An increase in foliage density would potentially result in the LiDAR pulse having a lower ability to penetrate the overstorey canopy, which would potentially decrease the accuracies of topographic measurements. In the boreal forest zone and in many forest areas, there exist many gaps between the forest crowns and more than 30 % of the fi rst pulse data refl ects directly from the ground without any interaction with the canopy (Hyyppä et al., 2002). However, Lithuanian forest conditions are much more diffi cult. A deciduous forest, with its more developed leaves, produces more scattering and absorption than a coniferous forest. The experiments in central Europe have shown that the penetration rates to the ground ranged between 24 and 29% for coniferous and 22 and 25 % for deciduous trees during summer time (Hyyppä et al., 2002). Density of forest stands has some infl uence on the accuracies of generated digital terrain models, e.g. the errors of DTM were found to increase approximately twice on clear cuts and stands with different thinning intensities up to uncut stands (Reutebuch et al., 2003). The effect of forest cover is higher when moving closer the trunk. Random error increases then by 2-5 cm. (Hyyppä et al., 2005). As a stand ages and grows, the vertical distribution of canopy components changes relative to younger stands (Dubayah et al. 1997, Lefsky et al. 1999). There have been several studies, investigating the infl uence of different vegetation types on the quality of the LiDAR based DTM. Elberink and Crombaghs (2004) found a systematic upwards shift of up to 15cm for low vegetated areas. Ahokas et al. (2003) evaluated the LiDAR accuracy for asphalt (standard deviation 10 cm), gravel (4cm), grass (11cm) and forest ground (17cm). Pfeifer et al. (2004) investigated the infl uence of long dense grass (+ 7.3cm), young forest (+ 9.4cm) and old willow forest (+ 11.6cm) on the accuracy of LiDAR data. Hodgson and Bresnahan (2004) found a standard deviation of 17cm for evergreen and 26cm for deciduous forest, however in contrast to other studies only low shifts ( 4,6 cm for evergreen, + 1,0cm for deciduous) occurred. There are practically no studies on the use of LiDAR for forest inventories in Lithuania. However, there are several projects just completed or going on in the country, the main output of which is supposed to be digital land surface

217 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications models, representing the ground elevations. Whole area of the country is planned to be scanned with a 0.5 pulses per m2 during 2009-2010. The project is coordinated by the National land service under Ministry of agriculture. There are no strict requirements for fl ight season, thus one may expect, that the digital elevation data, which will be developed and later used as the main geo-reference data set for numerous photogrammetric and spatial modeling applications, may be of different quality in the forested areas. Forest inventory related LiDAR applications usually include laser scanning simultaneously with the measurements on the ground, therefore the effects of inaccuracies in the external digital elevation data are minimal. However, the accuracy of ground determination is anyway extremely important for the overall accuracy of subsequent estimates of forestry variables. The aim of this paper is to introduce the fi rst results of a study, which was started in 2008 to develop operational methods for LiDAR application under Lithuanian forest inventory conditions. The infl uence of forest canopy characteristics on the accuracy of ground altitude estimates is discussed without searching for solutions to improve it. Two variants of laser pulse densities are compared in that context, too.

Material and methods

The test area (Dubrava forest) is located in central part of Lithuania (24°4’E and 54°50’N) and practically all forest conditions are present here. Two types of laser scanning fl ights were performed in summer 2008 using ALTM3100 equipment: shooting density 1 point per m2 (hereinafter referred as “High altitude scanning”) and several strips of 6 points per m2 (hereinafter referred as “Low altitude scanning”) – Fig. 1. Standard basic processing techniques were applied to get LiDAR point clouds and point classifi cation into ground and other points.

Figure 1. Digital terrain models and location of fi eld sample plots on: a) “high altitude scanning” area, b) “low altitude scanning” area

272 and 168 circular fi eld plots (area 500 m2) were established and measured in autumn-winter season of 2008- 2009. Standard dendrometric characteristics were measured for trees on the plot: polar coordinates of each tree, tree species, diameter, crown type, transparence and shape, height for sample trees (not less than 1-3 sample trees for each forest element). Height was later modeled for every tree of the sample plot using models developed on the base of measurements inside each plot. Undergrowth conditions were estimated for the plot area, too, including the average height and coverage percentage of undergrowth vegetation. The following stand and undergrowth characteristics were calculated for each sample plot (abbreviations of the characteristics are used later in this paper to indicate the variables): POM_PAD – relative area of the plot covered by undergrowth vegetation, %; POM_H – average height of undergrowth vegetation, m; Cnt_BNR – number of trees in the sample plot; H1_mean – mean height of the 1st storey, m; D1_mean – mean diameter of the 1st storey, mm; M1_total – total volume of the 1st storey, m3/ha; B1_total – total volume of branches of the trees in the 1st storey, m3/ha; H2_mean - mean height of the 2nd storey, m; D2_mean – mean diameter of the 2nd storey, mm; M2_total – total volume of the 1st storey, m3/ha; B2_total – total volume of branches of the trees in the 1st storey, m3/ha; H_con1_m – mean height of coniferous trees of the 1st storey, m; D_con1_m – mean diameter of coniferous trees of the 1st storey, mm; M_con1_t – volume of coniferous trees of the 1st storey, m3/ha; B_con1_t – volume of branches of coniferous trees in the 1st storey, m3/ha; H_con2_m – mean height of coniferous trees of the 2nd storey, m; D_con2_m – mean diameter of coniferous trees of the 2nd storey, mm; M_con2_t – volume of coniferous trees of the 2nd storey, m3/ha; B_con2_t – volume of branches of coniferous trees in the 2nd storey, m3/ha; H_dec1_m – mean height of deciduous trees of the 1st storey, m; D_dec1_m – mean diameter of deciduous trees of the 1st storey, mm; M_dec1_t – volume of deciduous trees of the 1st storey, m3/ha; B_dec1_t – volume of branches of deciduous trees in the 1st storey, m3/ha; H_dec2_m – mean height of deciduous trees of the 2nd storey, m; D_dec2_m – mean diameter of deciduous trees of the 2nd storey, mm; M_ dec2_t – volume of deciduous trees of the 2nd storey, m3/ha; B_dec2_t – volume of branches of deciduous trees in the 2nd storey, m3/ha; M_con_t – total volume of coniferous trees, m3/ha; B_con_t – total volume of branches of coniferous trees,

218 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications m3/ha; M_dec_t – total volume of deciduous trees, m3/ha; B_dec_t – total volume of branches of deciduous trees, m3/ha; Volume – total volume of all trees, m3/ha; Branches - – total volume of branches of all trees, m3/ha; Shar_co1 – share of coniferous trees in the 1st storey, %; Shar_con – share of coniferous trees in the stand, %. Coordinates (X, Y and Z) of the center of each sample plot were measured using electronic tacheometer (Leica Smart Station GPS 1200 Series) with accuracy not worse than 0.1 m. The estimates of LiDAR measured altitude were calculated using all ground points of the cloud within radius of 12.62 m from the plot centre: Mean_g – mean LiDAR derived altitude above see level; STD – standard deviation of the altitudes of LiDAR points inside the sample plot. The difference between LiDAR-based altitude (Mean_g) and the one available from geodetic measurements is noted as D_ALT. Demo version of TerraScan software was used to work with LiDAR data, ArcGIS – for processing and analyzing the sample plot geographic data, MS Excel and Canoco 4.5 for statistical processing. A constrained linear ordination method (redundancy analysis, RDA) was used in Canoco 4.5 to detect main factors infl uencing the accuracy of some LiDAR estimates. Accuracy indicators data were centered and standardized in RDA.

Results and discussion

Scanning with relatively higher point density per area unit resulted in signifi cantly lower biases in altitude of digital terrain model (Table 1). Most of individual deviations at the sample plot centers have positive values, indicating possible overestimation of the altitude. Just around 5% of the altitudes were underestimated on high altitude fl ights and 9.5% on the low altitude fl ights. The root mean square errors were respectively 0,559 m and 0,460 m. Biases in altitude estimation were less in coniferous forest (coniferous trees making 70% and more of stand volume) by 25-40% than in the deciduous dominated (deciduous trees making 70% and more of stand volume) and mixed forests. However, this difference was statistically signifi cant for high altitude scanning case only. There was practically no difference in the accuracy of altitude estimation between mixed and deciduous forests. Presence or absence of the second storey and abundance of the undergrowth did not affect the accuracy of digital terrain model developed from LiDAR point cloud.

Table 1. Biases in digital terrain model altitude estimation using different laser scanning densities and under different forest characteristic Bias, m Characteristic Standard t value p value Mean deviation Laser pulse density 1 point per m2 0,458 0,320 4,307 0,0002 6 points per m2 0,321 0,330 Tree species, high altitude scanning Mixed Deciduous Mixed Deciduous Coniferous 0,414 0,324 -2,573 -2,383 0,011 0,018 Mixed 0,514 0,308 -0,224 0,823 Deciduous 0,524 0,324 Tree species, low altitude scanning Mixed Deciduous Mixed Deciduous Coniferous 0,285 0,355 -1,753 -1,449 0,082 0,150 Mixed 0,402 0,239 0,093 -0,926 Deciduous 0,409 0,268 Presence of the 2nd storey (volume of the 2nd storey is more than 30m3/ha), high altitude scanning The 2nd storey is present 0,469 0,310 0,280 0,780 The 2nd storey not present 0,456 0,324 Presence of the 2nd storey (volume of the 2nd storey is more than 30m3/ha), low altitude scanning The 2nd storey is present 0,297 0,346 -0,528 0,598 The 2nd storey not present 0,329 0,326 Coverage of the undergrowth, high altitude scanning More than 50% of the sample plot area 0,472 0,231 0,204 0,839 Less than 50% of the sample plot area 0,457 0,327 Coverage of the undergrowth, low altitude scanning More than 50% of the sample plot area 0,314 0,313 -0,087 0,931 Less than 50% of the sample plot area 0,322 0,333

219 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Large number of factors, potentially infl uencing on the accuracies of LiDAR based estimates of digital terrain model altitude, was accounted for on the sample plots. Some of the factors may be correlating between each other. Ordination diagrams (Fig. 2) were used to identify a set of factors explaining the magnitude of altitude estimation bias. Only factors related with the forest characteristics and having more signifi cant correlations with the selected altitude estimation parameters are left on the diagrams. Larger volumes of the 1st storey, taller underbrush, total volumes of branches and branches of coniferous trees and relatively larger share of coniferous trees in the stand seems to have infl uence on smaller errors of the altitude estimation on the high altitude scanning area. Increasing characteristics of the 2nd storey – volume (here the volume of coniferous trees, but there are practically only coniferous trees present in the 2nd storey on stands of the study area), volume of branches, and height and diameter of trees are positively correlated with the magnitude of altitude’s bias. We explain this with improved overall laser pulse transferability conditions with the growing of forest (getting it more mature, increasing overall volumes, decreasing the total number of smaller trees, etc.) and negative infl uence of the 2nd storey. Findings for the high altitude scanning area were estimated as statistically signifi cant. Findings for the low altitude scanning area may be considered just as general tendencies because they were not enough signifi cant. We may see similar positive infl uences of increasing characteristics of the 2nd storey on the magnitude of altitude estimation bias. As one possible negative factor on the accuracies of LiDAR based digital terrain models we may assume the coverage of underbrush (not the height). Total volumes of branches of coniferous trees as well as larger average height of coniferous trees of the 1st storey seem to be negatively related with the magnitude of altitude error.

Figure 2. Constrained linear ordination (RDA), showing relations of some LiDAR based estimates (STD, MEAN_G, D_ALT) under the context of various factors. 1st axis (principal component) is horizontal one and explains the most of data variation. Axes are scaled by correlation coeffi cient. Correlations are interpreted by biplot rules (Ter Braak, Smilauer, 2002): a) high altitude scanning area (signifi cance of fi rst canonical axis under Monte Carlo 1000 permutations test: eigenvalue = 0.135, F-ratio = 38.479, p-value = 0.0010); b) low altitude scanning area (signifi cance of fi rst canonical axis under Monte Carlo 1000 permutations test: eigenvalue = 0.043, F-ratio= 6.338, P-value = 0.4196)

Our fi ndings are generally in line with the ones of other researchers – the more complex forest conditions, the more diffi cult laser pulse penetration ability, therefore the lower accuracies of digital terrain models generated on the base of LiDAR scanning data. Absolute accuracies of the altitude are not discussed in this paper – potentially, they may be improved using more sophisticated methods of LiDAR data processing. Here the focus has been on the characteristics of Lithuanian forests. The most important issue of Lithuanian forest inventory nowadays is the reliable estimation of volumes for mature forests using different measuring techniques. Improving accuracies of ground surface estimation with the increasing “size” of forest enable one to expect better volume estimations for mature forests than general average fi gures reported for forest in general.

Conclusions

1. Higher laser scanning point density (6 points/m2) resulted in signifi cantly lower bias of altitude of digital terrain model than the lower laser scanning point density (1 point/m2) under the conditions of standard Lithuanian forest. 2. The bias of the altitude of digital terrain model was less on the sample plots located in coniferous forest than in mixed or deciduous forests. This difference was statistically signifi cant for lower laser scanning point density (1 point/ m2) data (p was 0.01-0.02), but less signifi cant on the higher laser scanning point density (6 points/m2) areas (p ranges 0.08-0.15). 3. Presence of the 2nd storey and undergrowth was not found to have signifi cant infl uence on the bias of altitude of digital terrain model no matter the laser scanning characteristics (p ranged 0.60-0.93).

220 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

4. Redundancy analysis using a constrained linear ordination method indicated that the biases of altitude of digital terrain model were negatively related with the magnitude of major volumetric characteristics of the 1st storey of the stand and share of coniferous trees but positively with the one of the 2nd storey.

Acknowledgments This research is carried out within the frames of project by Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning institute “Evaluation of opportunities to use remote sensing in forest inventory and monitoring and preparation of recommendations for operational use of these methods”. Laser scanning was carried-out by Blom-Kartta Oy, Finland.

References

Ahokas, E., Kaartinen, H., Hyyppä, J.(2003): A quality assessment of airborne laser scanner data. The International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Vol. XXXIV, 3/W13, Dresden, Germany. Ahokas, E., Hyyppa, J., Yu, X., Oksanen, J., Kaartinen, H., and Hyyppa, H. (2005). Optimization of the scanning angle for countrywide laser scanning. ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005. Baltsavias, E.P. (1999). Airborne laser scanning: existing systems and fi rms and other resourses. ISPRS Journal of Photogrammetry and remote sensing, Vol. 54, pp. 164-198 Ter Braak C. J. F., Šmilauer P. (2002). CANOCO Reference Manual and CanoDraw for Windowa Users‘s Guide. Software for Canonical Community Ordination (version 4.5). Biometris, Wageningen and Česke Budejovice. Matthew L. Clark, David B. Clark, Dar A. Roberts, (2004). Small-footprint lidar estimation of sub-canopy elevation and tree heigh in a tropical rain forest landscape. Remote Sensing of Environment. Volume 91, Issue 1, pp. 68-89 Dubayah, R., J. B. Blair, J. L. Bufton, D. B. Clark, J. JaJa, R. G. Knox, S. B. Luthcke, S. Prince, and J. F. Weishampel. (1997). The Vegetation Canopy Lidar mission.. Land Satellite Information in the Next Decade II: Sources and Applications. American Society for Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, Bethesda, MD, pp. 100-112 Hodgson, M. and P. Bresnahan (2004). Accuracy of Airborne Lidar-Derived Elevation: Empirical Assessment and Error Budget. Photogrammetric Engineering & Remote Sensing, Vol. 70, No. 3, March 2004, pp. 331-339. J. Hyyppä, U. Pyysalo, H.Hyyppä A. Samberg, (2002), Elevation Accuracy of Laser Scanning-Derived Digital Terrain and Target Models in Forest Environment, p.9 (Manuscript) Yu, X., Hyyppa, H., Kaartinen, H., Hyyppa, J., Ahokas, E., and Kaasalainen, S. (2005). Applicability of fi rst pulse derived digital terrain models for boreal forest studies. ISPRS Workshop on Laser Scanning 2005. Leckie, D., Gougeon, F., Hill, D., Quinn, R., Armstrong, L., Shreenan, R. (2003). Combined high-density LiDAR and multispectral imagery for individual tree crown analysis, Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, Vol. 29, No. 5, pp. 633–649 Lefsky M.A., Cohen B. W., Parker G.G, Harding D.J. (2002). Lidar remote system for ecosystem studies. BioScience 52 No. 1 . pp.19-30 Maclean GA, Krabill WB. (1986). Gross-merchantable timber volume estimation using an airborne LIDAR system. Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing 12: pp. 7–18. Nelson RF, Krabill WB, Tonelli J. (1988). Estimating forest biomass and volume using airborne laser data. Remote Sensing of Environment 24: pp. 247–267. Naesset E. (1997) b. Estimating timber volume of forest stands using airborne laser scanner data. Remote Sensing of Environment 61: pp. 246–253. Oude Elberink, S. and M. Crombaghs (2004). Laseraltimetrie voor de hoogtemetingen van de kwelders Waddenzee.Technical Report AGI-GAP-2003- 50 (in Dutch), AGI, RWS,The Netherlands. Pfeifer N., Gorte, B., Oude Elberink, S. (2004): Infl uences of Vegetation on Laser Altimetry – Analysis and Correction Approaches. The International archives of Photogrammetry, Remote Sensing and Spatial Information Sciences, Vol. XXXVII, Part 8/W2, pp. 283-287. Reutebuch, S.E., Robert J. McGaughey, R.J., Andersen, H.E., Carson, W.W.,( 2003). Accuracy of a high-resolution lidar terrain model under a conifer forest canopy, Canadian Journal of Remote Sensing, Volume 29, Number 5, October 2003, pp. 527-535

Ina BIKUVIENĖ. Phd student, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas MOZGERIS. Researcher, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Remigijus ŽALKAUSKAS. Lecturer, Faculty of Forestry and Ecology, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 11, LT-53361, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected]

221 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Remote Sensing Monitoring of Rural Urbanisation in Jaipur Region

Sébastien Gadal Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ), France

Abstract

The important urban growth of Jaipur has an important impact on the rural territories located around the town. To evaluate the geographical situation and the consequences of urbanisation in rural space, the urban sprawl of Jaipur is monitored by remote sensing from 1990’s until 2008. The urban pressure on the rural territories is characterised by different types of land cover changes and transformations of land use: urban dispersion, suburbanisation, industrial change of agricultural use, land use confl icts, etc. The geographic and the spatial analysis, as the evolution of rural territories, are done using Landsat 5, Landsat 7, Spot 3, and Kompsat-2 satellite images. The land use and land cover change analysis permits to identify the territorial transformation of rural space; and it is evolution towards a part of the metropolised area of Jaipur region. The rural areas located around Jaipur are in the process of turning into geographical areas of urban agriculture. Key words: rural urbanisation, remote sensing, monitoring, Jaipur, India

Introduction

Since the beginning of the 1990’s the State of Rajasthan as all India are characterised by an increase of the urban population. Cities as Jaipur, the State capital, are growing fastly. The population of Jaipur increased from half of million people to more than 2 million (Bala, 2007). This demographic increase result an important urban sprawl around the city of Jaipur along the roads, in the villages and cause an emerging process of rural industrialisation. The urban growth of Jaipur is characterised by a change of rural land cover some years before. The development of rural urbanisation distant of some kilometres to 30 kilometres is becoming the future suburban extensions of Jaipur. The urban expansion is preceded by a double transformation of the agricultural land use: a transformation of the nature of the ground with the emergence of brown fi eld’s, and new types of crops. Vegetable crops are the best indicators of agricultural land transformation in urban agriculture. The change of rural space to an urban rural area is characterised here by confl icts between land uses and expansion of the urban zones. The latter is accompanied by an industrialisation of rural territories. The temporal rural urbanisation analysis of agricultural land is made from Landsat 5 / 7, Spot-3, and Kompsat-2space remote sensing images. The main object is to follow the evolution of rural urbanisation and spatial structures by the extraction of urban objects and construction of an urban land cover change model between 1989 and 2008.

Remote sensing approach of rural urbanisation

The analysis of the urbanisation process through the concept of rural urbanisation is relatively new (Agrawal, 2009) (Thomsin, 2005). The majority of authors studying urban growth and their effects on rural areas through the concept of urban fringe (Bansal, 2007) (Kumar, 1998) (Ramesh, Krishnan, 1991) or through the question of land planning and development (Joshi, Suthar, 2002) (Rahman, 2007) (Singh, 1987). The monitoring of rural area changes of Jaipur region is done by satellite remote sensing multispectral images: Landsat 5 Thematic mappers (TM) data for 1989, Landsat 7 ETM+ for 2001, Kompsat-2 high spatial resolution image for 2007 (Carton, Gadal, 2007) and Spot 3 XS for 2008. Satellite images are giving a systematic view of spatial and territorial transformations and localisation of possible areas of land use confl icts; predict the future urban extension of Jaipur. The automatic recognition, and next, the image extraction of settlements can be separated in fourth phases of calculus. First - the increase of the radiometric differentiation between urban objects and the geographic environment by local statistic fi lters; second - the fusion of the different fi ltered spectral bands or the automatic classifi cation for settlement recognition; third - the urban object extractions by structural segmentation; and fourth - the result assessments on the Jaipur region. The second part of the image analysis and processing consist of modelling the urban growth of Jaipur and its direct consequences in rural area around the city. The map settlements made at different dates - 1989, 2001, 2007 and 2008 are combined by arithmetic calculus. It results a map of urban land cover changes, showing the dynamic of urban sprawling and dispersion of Jaipur into rural spaces. The spectral image analyses of land cover maps in 1989 and 2001 permit to identify the future urban extensions. It constitutes a geographical indicator for simulate future urban growth areas of Jaipur region. Second image analysis, done on 2007’s Kompsat-2 and 2008’s Spot 3 XS high and medium spatial resolutions allowed the identifi cation of possible zones of land use confl icts between agricultural parcels and urbanisation. The use of high resolution multispectral satellite images as Kompsat-2 (16 m²) and multispectral medium spatial resolution Spot-3 (400 m²) make possible the identifi cation of settlements’ types by combining differently fi ltered images, processed with convolution calculus. Many buildings dedicated for the economical activities as manufactures, warehouses, commercial centres and transportation infrastructures, as Jaipur airport, could be automatically recognised on both satellites data. The spectral sensibilities of Spot XS and Kompsat-2 and spatial resolution of Kompsat-2 allow the discrimination of roof material, used for manufactures, warehouses; materials different from living houses roofs.

222 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Urban growth and rural urbanisation

Urban growth and spraw dynamics. Since the end of the 1980’s, the population of Jaipur has been multiplied by six: 500000 to 3 millions of inhabitants. Consecutively to the increase of population, the town of Jaipur is characterised by an important spatial growth with the building of new districts to the South and the West, and along the roads. Since the beginning of the 2000’s, in addition of this spatial dynamics under process, the urbanisation “jumped” the mountain barrier, located at the North and East of Jaipur by the pass, from the village of Amber and along the roads.

Urban area of Jaipur (Landsat 5 TM) -1989 Urban area of Jaipur (Spot 3 XS) – 2008

Figure 1. Jaipur urban sprawl in rural areas (1989 and 2008)

This urban sprawl affects directly the rural spaces. The urbanisation in the following stage is developing the roads, which are the only one infrastructure of available transportation. The road transportation network constitutes the key geographic object spatially structuring the urban growth of Jaipur in rural territories, near or far away the city. This suburban and rural urbanisation of roads generates linear urban spatial forms. The entrances of the passes are making the link between Jaipur city and rural territories situated to the East. They are also the interface locus of diffusion of urbanisation in rural area.

Figure 2. Road urbanisation in rural territory in 2006 and 2008 (East of Jaipur)

The urban growth of Jaipur, although it tends to integrate the rural and agricultural territories within a radius of 60 km, is made along the roads. This is the only available transport infrastructure with the airport. The urban rural villages, located more than 60-70 km, are not still affected by the process of territorial integration, even if the mobility is growing. Characteristics of rural urbanisation. The rural urbanisation of the East part of Jaipur is characterised by a process of suburbanisation along the roads; suburbanisation composed of houses, townships and numerous localisations of manufactures, hangars and warehouses. They are identifi ed by specifi c colours of their roof materials. Yellow built elements represents the industrial buildings, blue - urban objects, the settlements as houses and townships. The dynamic s of industrialisation of rural areas is related to the master plan laws of Jaipur. The industries are tending to be localised

223 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications in rural areas near the city. They are taking two majors different forms: localisation between new settlement areas or in specifi c industrial zones.

Manufacture buildings in yellow, houses in blue colour Manufactures and warehouses in yellow colour, houses and township (aggregated) in blue

Figure 3. Identifi cation of manufactures, warehouses and hangars

The suburbanisation in rural territory has a direct impact on the land use and landscape transformations. In addition of the rural and industrial urbanisations processes, the suburban dynamics generate a direct impact on agricultural areas. The process of land use and land cover transitions before urbanisation begins to disappear during the 2000’s decade for a direct impact on land agricultures. It could create land use confl ict between agricultural and urban territories.

Towards a land use confl ict? The change of agriculture land use in urban land cover zones is done by the elimination of agricultural parcels due to urban sprawl. The urban pressure on agricultural territories generates front of urbanisation, which is the interface of confl ict border zones.

Figure 4. Geo-visualisation 2/3D of border line confl ict zone between urban area and agricultural lands (from Kompsat-2 M color composition fi ltered for 2/3D geo-visualisation)

The process of urbanisation in the rural territory changes the type and the form of development. The structure of the geographical space turns from agricultural and rural to urban near the urban fringes. The question of sustainability can be taken in to different point of views: (1) First, the impact of urban fronts and the destruction of agriculture by the urbanisation. The question is: How to limit the urbanisation impacts and planning it. This question is a source of tensions for farmers. (2) Second, the urban growth in rural territories. Urbanisation poses two problems: a consequence of population growth and rising living standards with the emergence of a middle class of 350 million people across India, it is forward the lack of transportation infrastructure and associated services. The result is a dynamic of urbanisation along the few lines of communications, namely roads. The rules of urban planning and development of the city of Jaipur also has a direct impact on the process of industrialisation of rural areas. It is not possible to establish factories and enterprises in the city of Jaipur, rejecting beyond administrative boundaries of the installation of a number of businesses and industries, themselves dependent on the roads. It is diffi cult under the pressure on land to speak of sustainable development of rural areas.

224 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Conclusion

The population increase in Jaipur city has a direct consequence on the urban sprawl. It is characterised by continuous semi-circular urban growth to the West, the North West and the South. The mountain, located to the East, blocked until the 2000’s the urban dispersion of Jaipur in this direction. Until 2000’s the urbanisation sprawl has been preceded by lying fallow land cover. Since, the 2000’s, the strong development of Jaipur is making a direct pressure on agricultural land without any transitional period. It results the emergence of front of urbanisation, mostly linear, following the roads in rural areas. This urbanisation in rural zones is characterised by individual settlements and industrial built elements. The question of the rural urbanisation transforms directly the geographic phenomena perception and the dichotomy between urban and rural areas. The reality of the geographic and territorial transformations under process is the rural urbanisation and industrialisation, the future emerge of metropolised territory. These forms of geographic and territorial organisation are defi ned by the absence of urban / rural differentiation; but also by the imbrications of both and the emergence of rural-urbanised territories. This geographic dynamics concerns actually a circular region of 60 km from Jaipur. Diachronic approaches, made with medium resolution satellite images, taken at different decades as Landsat and Spot series, allow the monitoring and the updating of urban dynamics, territorial and land covers changes in rural areas. The processing methods combine statistical transformation with Principal component analysis to have a better spectral richness for discriminating urban objects, high fi lters for increasing urban / none urban, fusion, segmentation or classifi cation for extracting urban objects and urban areas. It is possible, using data fusion of processed images with Spot data, to discriminate the different types of built elements and by this way evaluate the level of the industrial urbanisation in rural zones. The use of multispectral high resolution images simplifi es the chain of processing by the non employ of high fi lters. It permits the individual recognition of built elements and the identifi cation of the economic and social functions. The 2/3D geo-visualisation, based on shadow effect, gives a better view of the dynamics and the possible impacts on agricultural parcels and land use. We have to observe the fast process and consequences of geographical, environmental and territorial by remote sensing, modelling it. The issue of sustainable development is primarily one of human development and health and its consequences and interactions with the land, the geographic space and the environment.

References

Agrawal B. (2009). Urbanisation of rural areas, ABD Publications, New Delhi, 456 pages. Bala R. (2007) . Urbanization in Rajasthan at the dawn of the 21st century, In City, society, and planning city, Dutt A. K., Thakur B. (Eds.), Association of American geographers, pp.213-223. Bansal S.C. (2007). Growth of urban fringes of urban centres in upper Ganga-Yamuna Doab, In City, society, and planning city, Dutt A. K., Thakur B. (Eds.), Association of American geographers, pp. 200-212. Carton R., Gadal S. (2007). Analyse diachronique de la croissance urbaine de Jaipur : 1988-2006.Research report, Kompsat-2 data beta user’s qualifi cation. Joshi K. N., Suthar C. R. (2002). Changing urban land use and its impact on the environment (A case study of Jaipur city), ACRS 2002 proceedings. Available at http://www.GISdevelopment.net Kumar B. (1998). Urbanization and land use confl ict at urban fringes, ABD Publications, New Delhi. Pant S. K., Pandey J. (2004). Social development in rural India, Rawal Publications, Jaipur. Rahman A. (2007). Application of remote sensing and GIS technique for urban environmental management and sustainable development of Delhi, India”, In Applied remote sensing for urban, planning, governance and sustainability, Netzband M., Stefanov W. L., Redman C. (Eds.), Springer, Berlin. Ramesh B., Krishnan N. (1991). Application of remote sensing for analysis of urban fringe dynamics – case study of Jaipur, India, ACRS 1991 proceedings. Available at http://www.GISdevelopment.net Singh L. R. (Ed.) (1987). Regional planning and rural development, Thinker’s Library, Allahabad. Thomsin L., (2005). Un concept pour le décrire l’espace rural rurbanisé, Ruralia 2001-09. Available at http://ruralia.revues.org/document250.html

Sébastien GADAL. Dr. Associate Professor at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ), France, Scientifi c Advisor of one of the spin-off unit of NASA in hyperspectral imagery, and currently the co-Head of the department of geography. Specialist of remote sensing, GIS and simulation, of urban geography and land planning, he has in charge several research programs in geographic information sciences and in urban geography. He is working actually in the framework of EU FP7 TechnoLife program, on the questions of urbanisation and spatial modelling in Baltic countries, India, West Africa and South America.

225 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Some Methodological Aspects of Cost-Benefi t Analysis of the GIS Application in Lithuanian Forest Inventory

Alfredas Galaunė State company Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning institute Gintautas Činga, Gintautas Mozgeris Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

This paper quantifi es the costs of GIS introduction into the system of Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning and discusses the potential benefi ts. Two fi nancial tools were used to quantify the minimum benefi ts of GIS introduction required for positive result of the investment: net present value and internal rate of return, assuming different rates, required for public investment. It was stated, that tangible and intangible benefi ts from GIS implementation should exceed costs by 20 – 25 % after the initial GIS implementation phase to get positive fi nancial results during 11 years time span.

Introduction

Geographic information systems (GIS) became an operational tool of Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning in 1995 with the introduction of fi rst working places at the state company Lithuanian forest inventory and management institute (LFIMPI) (Mozgeris et al., 2008). Since that time, all components of the GIS experienced essential changes, resulting in development of poly-functional enterprise-wise information system, incorporating diverse aspects of both spatial and non-spatial information on forest resources, their management, forest legislation, etc. issues. Originally aimed to facilitate forest mapping, the GIS is used nowadays practically for any forest inventory and management planning task (Galaune, 1996; Galaune et al., 1998; Brukas et al., 2000a,b; Mozgeris et al., 2008). Nevertheless, the corner stone of GIS forestry application remains to be the development and management of forest-compartment level spatial databases with their use in planning forestry activities and forest mapping. Technical aspects of GIS development within Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning are quite well documented in numerous papers (Galaune et al., 1998; Brukas et al., 2000a,b; Mozgeris et al., 2008; Galaunė et al., 2008). Generally, there were 5 broad technological solutions developed and operationally used during more than one decade: (1) boundaries of forest compartments were delineated on aerial photographs, drawn on paper topographic maps, which were later digitized using manual digitizers (years 1995, 1997, 1999); (2) boundaries of forest compartments were delineated on panchromatic ortophotographic maps that were printed on photo paper, drawn on transparent copies of orthophotographic maps, and later digitized using manual digitizers (1996–1999); (3) boundaries of forest compartments were delineated using on-screen vectorization of panchromatic ortophotographic maps, printed-out and adjusted during fi eld visits. The initial version of forest compartments geographic database was corrected after the fi eld visits (2000–2001); (4) boundaries of forest compartments were delineated using on- screen vectorization of ortophotographic maps, developed using the material of forest inventory oriented color-infrared aerial photography, printed-out and adjusted during fi eld visits. The initial version of forest compartments geographic database was corrected after the fi eld visits (2002–2005); and (5) boundaries of forest compartments were delineated using on-screen vectorization of ortophotographic maps, developed using the material of forest inventory oriented color- infrared aerial photography and geo-reference GIS database GDB10LT, printed-out and adjusted during fi eld visits. The initial version of forest compartments geographic database was corrected after the fi eld visits (since 2006). Introduction of new technological solutions has always resulted in signifi cant improvement of geometrical accuracy of the databases (Galaunė et al., 2008) to reach fi nally legally required values. However, the costs for that have never been taken into the consideration, neither the benefi ts were. The needs to measure the economic feasibility of GIS implementations is recognized and quite well documented in the literature (Aronoff, 1989; Halsing et al., 2004). Traditionally, the cost-benefi t analysis is considered as an economic exercise of identifying the costs associated with implementing a GIS and expected or achieved benefi ts of using the technology (Obermeyer, 1999). Next, economic values in terms of price are assigned to the listed costs and benefi ts. Two types of costs should be considered: tangible and intangible (Longley et al., 2005). Quantifying the tangible costs is comparatively the easiest task of the analysis – they include data capture, hardware, software, and other supplies, training, operating costs, systems development, and system maintenance. Intangible costs, such as reduce of working places, shrinking of functions, services and projects that are not related to GIS are more diffi cult to quantify. Quantifying the benefi ts of GIS is a much more diffi cult task. There are several types of benefi ts discussed in the literature. Halsing et al. (2004) divide benefi ts as falling into two broad categories – effi ciency and effectiveness benefi ts. Effi ciency benefi ts are those that reduce the costs of performing some existing tasks in an organization, e.g. less personnel, material, etc. is needed to produce required forest maps. Effectiveness benefi ts refer to some value-added benefi ts, which arise from improvements to existing tasks or adding new ones that could not be performed previously – e.g. having forest compartment spatial data in a digital format subsequent forest inventories may be easier to carry out. Huxhold (1991) uses three major categories of the benefi ts – cost reduction, cost avoidance and increased revenues. Aronoff (1989) identify

226 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

fi ve categories in his textbook – increased effi ciency, non-marketable services, new marketable services, better decisions and intangible benefi ts. One may fi nd very detailed list of benefi ts, broadly divided into two categories, in the text by Longley et al. (2005) – tangible or economic benefi ts (reduce of personnel costs, increase or turnover and profi tability, new market opportunities) and intangible or institutional benefi ts (better customer service, improved decision making, better quality of information fl ows). Estimating the benefi ts and especially the intangible ones is extremely diffi cult task. Maybe for that reason the cost-benefi t analyses were said as knowing the price of everything and the value of nothing (Zerbe et al., 1994). A GIS is a complicated investment and even the tangible benefi ts can take years to materialize (Fais et al., 1997). Many of these benefi ts are abstract in nature, e.g. better decisions, enhanced qualifi cation in other fi elds, etc. Sometimes the effi ciency benefi ts alone are accepted as suffi cient to give a positive net benefi t and justify investments in the GIS (Halsing et al., 2004), assuming that the benefi ts outweighs the costs anyway. The aim of this paper is fi rst of all to quantify the costs of GIS introduction into the system of Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning and discuss the potential benefi ts, especially focusing on technological developments, which took place during the last decade. In doing this, we test several methodological approaches of cost-benefi t analysis of GIS installations.

Materials and methods

Costs of GIS implementation at Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning institute for 11 years period (1998 – 2008) were used to evaluate present value of the investment. A cash fl ow was estimated as a sum of long- term investment to GIS related hardware, software and other equipment as well as salaries of personnel related to GIS development, implementation and use (Figure 1).

Figure 1. Investments in GIS development at LFIMPI

Taking into account effects of time and infl ation, the cash fl ow was adjusted to the offi cial price index. Consequently, for calculation of present value, a real discount rate of 3 % was used. Two fi nancial tools were used to quantify the minimum benefi ts of GIS introduction required for positive result of the investment: 1. Positive net present value (NPV), assuming real discount rate (3%). 2. Internal rate of return (IRR), assuming different rates, required for public investment. Results Benefi ts required to get a positive NPV during 11 years of investment period were calculated assuming that both tangible and intangible benefi ts from GIS will be received starting from the end of the second year of the investment. To cover initial investment and personnel costs over 11 years period, GIS benefi ts should exceed costs of development by 19.5 % starting form the third year of development (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Benefi ts of GIS introduction required to get a positive NPV at 3 % discount rate

227 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

In a case when certain IRR is being determined for the investment, required benefi ts depend on IRR selection (Table 1). in the study, IRR of 5 % and 7 %, common for valuation of public investments, were used.

Table 1. Costs and benefi ts of GIS introduction (thousand LTL) required to achieve certain IRR Year 1 234567891011 (Initial investment) Costs 408 451 413 432 461 524 446 573 525 733 1167 Predicted benefi ts for 5% IRR 0 0 504 527 562 639 543 699 639 893 1423 Predicted benefi ts for 7% IRR 0 0 515 538 574 653 555 714 653 912 1454

Conclusions

To get a positive NPV during 11 years time span of GIS introduction, benefi ts from GIS in 3-11th year of the investment should exceed current costs for GIS development by 19.5 %. To achieve required IRR (5 % and 7 % in this study), the benefi ts should exceed costs by 21.9 % and 24.5 % respectively. The study shows that investment to GIS can be justifi ed by benefi ts only if they are considerably higher than the costs of GIS development. The valuation of GIS effectiveness and effi ciency should not be limited by measuring of tangible benefi ts. A number of intangible benefi ts such as improve of quality, effi ciency and service should be included. Consequently, modern and detailed methods should be developed in the future for estimation of GIS marketable and non- marketable benefi ts.

References

MOZGERIS, G., GALAUNE, A., PALICINAS, M. Systemy informacji geografi cznej w urządzaniu lasu na Litwie – dekada praktycznego stosowania. Sylwan, 2008, 1, p. 58−63. BRUKAS, A., GALAUNE, A., RUTKAUKAS, A., DANIULIS, J., MOZGERIS, G. Remote Sensing and GIS in Lithuanian forestry. In: Remote sensing and Forest Monitoring, June 1-3, 1999, Rogow, Poland, IUFRO Conference proceedings, EUR19530. 2000a, p. 124-132. BRUKAS, A., GALAUNE, A., RUTKAUKAS, A., MOZGERIS, G. GIS and Remote Sensing in Lithuanian Forest Inventory System. In: Application of Remote Sensing in Forestry. Proc. of III International Symposium. Faculty of Forestry, Technical University in Zvolen, Zvolen, September 12-14. 2000b, p. 35-40. GALAUNĖ, A., Poly-Functional Forest Management Planning in Lithuania: a Case Study. In: Integrating environmental values into forest planning – Baltic and Nordic perspectives. EFI Proceedings. 1996, No. 13, p. 167-172. GALAUNE, A., MOZGERIS, G. Geographic Information Systems in Lithuanian Forestry: an ARC/INFO and ArcView Based Solution. In: Proceedings of 13th ESRI European User Conference. Firence, Italy, 7-9 October, 1998. Galaunė A., Bikuvienė I., Mozgeris G. 2008. Research on Geometrical Accuracy of Forest Compartments Geographic Database. Vagos. Nr. 81(34). 13-17. (In Lithuanian) LONGLEY, P.A., GOODCHILD, M.F., MAGUIRE, D.J., RHIND, D.W. Geographic Information Systems and Science. 2nd Editon, Wiley, 2005. 517p. Halsing D., Theissen K., Bernknopf R., 2004, A Cost-Benefi t Analysis of the National Map, Circular 1271, U.S. Department of the Interior, U.S. Geological Survey, Web source: http://pubs.usgs.gov/circular/c1271/, viewed 1.11.2008 Aronoff S., 1989, Geographic Information Systems: a Management Perspective. Ottawa, WDL Publications: 260–1 Obermeyer NJ., 1999, Measuring the benefi ts and costs of GIS, In: Longley P.A., Goodchild M.F., Maguire D.J., and Rhind D.W. (eds.), Geographical Information Systems: Principles, Techniques, Management and Applications, 2nd edition, Volume 2, p. 601-610. Huxhold W.E., 1991, An introduction to urban geographic information systems. New York, Oxford University Press Zerbe R.O., Dively D.D., 1994, Benefi t–cost analysis in theory and practice. New York, HarperCollin Fais A., Bonati G., 1997, Cost-Benefi t Analysis on GIS Applications for Agricultural Local Extension Services, First European Conference for Information Technology in Agriculture, Copenhagen, 15–18 June, 1997, Web source: http://www.inea.it/cartografi a/page.html, viewed 1.11.2008

Alfredas GALAUNĖ. State company Lithuanian forest inventory and management planning institute, Pramonės pr. 11a, LT-51327, Kaunas, Lithuania, phone: +370 37 490222, fax: +370 37 490233, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas ČINGA. Lithuanian university of agriculture, Department of Forest Management, Studentu 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kauno raj. Lithuania, phone: +370 752 269, fax: +370 752 379, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas MOZGERIS. Lithuanian university of agriculture, Institute of environment, Laboratory of geographic information systems, Studentu 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kauno raj. Lithuania, phone: +370 37 752 291, fax: +370 752 379, e-mail: [email protected]

228 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Traffi c-related Nitrogen Dioxide Exposure Modelling in Kaunas Cohort Study

Regina Gražulevičienė, Audrius Dėdelė Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

Abstract

Evidence suggests that air pollution exposure adversely affects pregnancy outcomes. Few studies have examined individual-level intra urban exposure contrasts effects on birth outcomes. We evaluated the impacts of NO2 exposure on low birth weight risk in Kaunas cohort study using modelled air quality data and logistic regression. The relationship between LBW and modelled ambient levels of NO2, using Airviro, a dispersion model developed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, was evaluated in Kaunas city. We used the ambient air monitoring data from the Kaunas Air Pollution monitoring stations for the Gaussian model validation. The Cohort Database consisted of live singleton births. Maternal exposures to NO2 pollution were assigned to women living in Kaunas city at the time of birth using geographic information systems (GIS). NO2 exposure effect was evaluated as a categorical variable and relative risks were estimated from logistic regression, adjusted for confounding variables. The model predicted NO2 concentrations were by 4.15-3.12% higher than those monitored. After adjustment for gestation age, smoking, family status, education and body mass index, moderate NO2 exposure was associated with a 1.6 times increase in LBW risk (95% confi dence interval (CI), 0.79-3.18) and odds ratios (OR) were nearly twice as high in the highest exposure stratum (OR 2.35; 95% CI 0.96–5.75) as the lowest exposure stratum. Findings from our study suggest a general association between NO2 concentrations predicted from Airviro model and those monitored by stationary stations.

Little association between modelled traffi c-related NO2 pollution and LBW was observed in a population-based cohort with relatively low ambient air pollution exposure. Key words: Nitrogen dioxide, modelling, low birth weight, risk, geographic information systems

Introduction

A growing number of epidemiological studies conducted worldwide suggest an increase in the occurrence of adverse health effects in populations living, working, or going to school near major roadways. The study of birth outcomes is an important emerging fi eld of environmental epidemiology, since birth outcomes are indicators of the health of the newborns infl uencing the subsequent health status (Osman and Baker, 2000) Therefore the health impact of exposures to ambient levels of air pollution on susceptible population subgroups such as pregnant women and their infants has become an important issue for public health regulators. Several negative reproductive health outcomes have been found to be signifi cantly associated with exposures to air pollutants during pregnancy, including effects on growth, development and duration of pregnancy (Dugandzic et al., 2006; Maisonet et al., 2001; Maroziene and Grazuleviciene, 2002). However, there were acknowledged diffi culties in epidemiological studies to accurately assign exposure to air pollutions of a large cohort studies. When the effects of intra-urban differences in exposure are being studied, the use of the measurements of central site is inadequate for representing of spatial variability that exists with an urban area. For detail city population exposure characterisations are used Land–Use Regression (LUR) models (Beckowicz et al., 2006; Brauer et al., 2008). These LUR models included as predictor variables a measure of traffi c and a measure of housing or population density. This approach also has been applied to NO2, as an assumed traffi c exposure marker. However, such an approach requires estimation of pollution levels at a large number of street locations. To collect such data using measurements is practically impossible and use of traffi c pollution models might be a feasible alternative. Ambient pollutants dispersion modelling is recently used in environmental epidemiology. One of the most popular and validated parametric models is the Operational Street Pollution Model (OSPM) (Berkowicz, 2000). A successful application of a dispersion modelling requires such input data as traffi c fl ow in the street, street geometry, meteorological data and background contribution (Berkowicz et al., 2006). The pollution levels in the street are calculated using traffi c emissions in this particular street only, while contributions from the surrounding streets and the sources are treated as background pollution. Such urban background model in its structure similar to other simple dispersion models applied at the degree of urbanisation (number of addresses per unit area) (Briggs et al., 2000; Brauer et al., 2008; Ryan and LeMasters, 2007). Nyberg et al., (2000) created retrospective emission databases for NOx/NO2 as indicators of air pollution from road traffi c in Stockholm. The authors estimated local annual source-specifi c air pollution levels using validated dispersion models and linked these levels to residential addresses using GIS techniques.

Several studies have indicated that NO2 concentrations exhibit substantial spatial variability within urban areas, with higher concentrations found in high traffi c districts (Baldauf et al., 2008; Wilhelm and Ritz, 2003). Geographic- modelling approach using Airviro make feasible to estimate NO2 exposures for individual subjects residing in differently polluted areas (Mukherjee et al., 2000). The Airviro dispersion models use meteorological data and emission distributions as input to the simulations. Ambient air monitoring data can be used for comparison and validation purposes. The modelling of pollutant dispersion in Airviro is performed via Gaussian model. The limitations of the Gauss model are that it performs simulations on scales larger than 20 km; a low wind speed may infl uence the dispersion; the dispersion model simulates steady states of pollution concentrations and so on. Among the advantages of the model are the following points: it produces results that

229 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications agree with experimental data just as well as any other model; it is fairly easy to perform mathematical operations on this equation; it is appealing conceptually; it is consistent with the random nature of turbulence.

Here we describe the application of GIS methodology to assess exposure to NO2 originating from traffi c. The methodology for exposure assessment is applied to large pregnant women cohort. In this study we seek to estimate association between NO2 exposure and low birth weight risk.

Methods

Cohort. The study was conducted in Kaunas, the second largest city in Lithuania, which covers approximately 157.2 km2. The city, with about 350,000 inhabitants and 4,000 births per year, is situated in a valleys and a neighbouring hill. We conducted a population-based study within the municipality of Kaunas city. The research protocol was approved by the Lithuanian Bioethics Committee and informed consent was obtained from all subjects. Data on pregnancy outcomes were obtained from the Kaunas HiWATE cohort database. The subject’s registration records include information obtained through maternal interviews during the fi rst prenatal visit and at delivery using standardized data collection forms. The following information was available: Residential history and home address at delivery, date of birth, gender, birth weight, and gestational age estimated by the last menstrual period, parity, maternal age, education, marital status, and employment status, past medical history including previous pregnancies, maternal and paternal smoking status and other variables. Subject mobility was low, only 13.4% of the women moved during pregnancy. The study included all singleton births in the City of Kaunas of 2008-2009. The outcomes of interest were Low Birth Weight (LBW), defi ned as birth weight of <2500 g, and normal birth weight newborns >2500 g.

NO2 exposure. Exposure to ambient NO2 pollution for each cohort number was assigned by Airviro model. Airviro, a dispersion model developed by the Swedish Meteorological and Hydrological Institute, provides pollution concentrations representative for the urban background level (Airviro Users…, 1997). The model makes use of griddled NOx emission data with spatial resolution of the order of 25 x 25 m2. Concentrations at a given calculation point are assigned by numerical integration of contribution from each of the individual area sources along a path determined by the actual wind direction. Individual models are available within the Airviro system for the automatic collection of meteorology and pollutant concentrations (level and accuracies of stations of measure), the creation of a dynamic emission database of grid, point, area and line (road) sources, and the modelling of pollutant dispersion via Gaussian Plume and Street Canyon models. For the study area Kaunas streets NOx emission data were used to create emission database within Airviro Air Quality Management System. Gaussian plume dispersion simulations were run for a model domain encompassing the entire city area on a course grid resolution. Geographic data for the Kaunas city streets, its type were measured by combination GIS and manual measurements. Total traffi c counts and its composition (calculated as cars/day time’s km street length) were measured based on the 2007 Municipal traffi c-count data for Kaunas. If no counts were available for specifi c street, the numbers were estimated by a person with local information about the traffi c conditions based on comparison with roads on which data were available. Traffi c count data were available for 80% of the streets nearest to cohort addresses. The traffi c in Kaunas municipal monitoring stations streets is 21.000 veh/day on working days. The heavy-duty traffi c constitutes about 7%.

In order to validate the Gaussian model within Airviro, annual averaged ambient NO2 concentrations predicted by this model, we compared to annual-averaged ambient NO2 concentrations arising from traffi c emissions and from monitored by two Kaunas municipal monitoring sites (Silainiai and Dainava) during 2008. NO2 concentrations for cohort subjects’ exposure characterisation were derived from predicted NO2 concentrations. The concentrations were prescribed of the electoral district area residents using GIS.

Basing on cumulative traffi c density modelling results, six NO2 exposure levels were estimated. For dose-response evaluation we grouped the pollutant concentrations into three categories and applied the exposure variable as categorical parameter. Maternal exposure profi le for NO2 were developed using the resident address reported by the mother at the time of delivery and appropriate electoral district.

A logistic regression was conducted using SPSS to assess the relationship between NO2 exposures and LBW st incidence. We used NO2 exposure levels in the 1 category as the reference category (low exposure). We calculated crude 3 odds ratios (OR) and their 95% confi dence intervals (CIs) of LBW across three exposure categories: low (NO2 <10 μg/m ), 3 3 moderate (NO2 10-20 μg/m ) and high (NO2 >20 μg/m ). We adjusted crude effects of air pollution for potential confounding factors (in categories described above): gestational age, marital status, education, smoking and body mass index.

Results

Out of 3,137 births registered in Kaunas in 2008-2009, we excluded 72 (2.3%) twins. Additionally, we excluded those whose birth registration records contained no valid information on gestational age, maternal education and marital status (N = 9). These exclusions left 3,056 eligible subjects for study, and among them were 148 (4.8%) LBW newborns.

230 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Comparison of ambient NO2 concentrations predicted by Airviro Gaussian model and those monitored by the stations are presented in Table 1.

Table 1. Comparison of measured and modelled NO2 concentrations Pollution Point Mean of measurements μg/m3 Mean of model estimates μg/m3 Silainiai 18.93 ± 0.993 19.75 NO , μg/m3 2 Dainava 24.56 ± 1.196 25.35

3 3 The measured yearly mean of NO2 concentration in 2008 was 18.93 μg/m in Silainiai, 24.56 μg/m in Dainava 3 3 and the modelled yearly mean of NO2 concentration was 19.75 μg/m in Silainiai, 25.35 μg/m in Dainava. The comparison of modelled and measured concentrations NO2 in Kaunas municipal monitoring sites Silainiai and Dainava showed, that difference between the measures compose 4.15 and 3.12%, respectively.

Figure 1 shows the NO2 modelling results by Airviro for Kaunas city area. NO2 concentrations ranged between 5 and 25 μg/m3.

3 Figure 1. Modelled 2008 annual mean NO2 concentrations (μg/m ) in Kaunas city exposure zones

Spatial NO2 variation in 2008 is presented in Figure 2. The modelled NO2 concentrations of three exposure levels 3 3 3 in Kaunas were as follow: low ─ NO2 <10 μg/m ; moderate ─ NO2 10-20 μg/m ; and high ─ NO2 >20 μg/m . The highest ambient pollution was found in the city centre. Estimated three NO2 exposure levels, distribution of LBW cases and control subjects, and odds ratios associated with the exposure are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Prevalence of low birth weight cases and controls of three NO2 exposure strata, crude and adjusted odds ratios (OR) and its 95% confi dence intervals (CI) LBW cases Controls Crude Adjusted OR* (≤ 2500 g) (> 2500 g) Odds ratios NO2 exposure strata N % N % OR 95% CI AOR 95% CI 1. Low (≤10 μg/m3 ) 9 2.8 308 97.2 1 1 2. Moderate (10 – 20 μg/m3) 80 4.4 1731 95.6 1.58 0.79-3.14 1.60 0.66-3.85 3. High (>20 μg/m3) 59 6.4 869 93.6 2.32 1.14-4.74 2.35 0.96-5.75 *Adjusted for gestation age, smoking, family status, education and body mass index.

231 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Majority of mothers included in the study resided in a moderate NO2 pollution zone. During the period of interest in this analysis, the rates of LBW in Kaunas ranged from 2.8% to 6.4% with an increasing trend by increasing of exposure (p < 0.01). The prevalence of LBW also was higher in mothers who smoked during pregnancy, were less educated and single. These variables we included in multivariable logistic regression model.

The crude odds ratios for LBW increased with NO2 exposure. Mothers residing in the high NO2 pollution zone (>20 μg/m3) were found to be at statistically signifi cant increased risk of delivering a LBW infant in comparison to those exposed to levels ≤10 μg/m3 (crude OR 2.32; 95% CI 1.14-4.74), before adjustment for confounding variables. Inclusion of the confounding variables in the model had little effect on the magnitude and statistical signifi cance of the

= 0.96-5.75). There was a suggested dose-response effect with increasing levels of NO2 .

3 Figure 2. Modelled 2008 annual mean NO2 concentrations (μg/m ) in Kaunas city

Discussion

Our results suggest a general association between NO2 concentrations predicted from Airviro model and those monitored by stationary stations. Although estimates based on Airviro model did have somewhat higher concentrations than those monitored. In our analysis of singleton Kaunas infants, increased risks of LBW were observed for exposure estimates based 3 on NO2 concentrations in the highest exposure (NO2 >20 μg/m ) strata. There was a more than two times increase in risk of

LBW associated with maternal high NO2 exposures during the pregnancy. Though adjustment for gestation age, smoking, family status, education and body mass index did attenuate the associations, however, a dose-response relationship was still evident with NO2. The lack of statistical signifi cance may be a result of low number of LBW cases of the reference- low (≤10 μg/m3) exposure strata. Our study has several strengths. The study population was homogeneous with respect to ethnic culture, unifi ed prenatal care, and health care system. Strength of this study was the availability of individual-level information and possibility to adjust a number of potential confounding factors for LBW including gestation age, smoking, family status, education and body mass index.

Several limitations of this study are possible. There was some concern that classifying NO2 exposure based on modelled NOx emissions could have resulted in exposure misclassifi cation. Because exposures were estimated only for home addresses, it is also possible that subject mobility was related to varying degrees of exposure misclassifi cation. True personal exposure depends upon a number of exposure pathways; for example, time spent at specifi c locations such

232 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications as at work or home, and migration into or out of a study area. Nevertheless, factors expected to contribute to differences between area-wide and individual exposures were most likely independent of exposure assessment, with a resulting underestimation of the effects of air pollution. Evidence has been provided that when area-wide measures of exposure to air pollution were used as proxies for personal exposures, then estimates of pollutant effects were generally smaller than those based on exposure levels determined by personal sampling (Rijinders et al., 2001). Personal and outdoor NO2 concentrations are infl uenced signifi cantly by the degree of urbanisation of the city district and by the traffi c density of and distance to a nearby highway. Because air pollution constitutes a complex exposure, the possibility exists that the NO2 measure may not only represent the toxic NOx entity as such, but also several pollutants produced by the same sources. In this study, it was assumed that maternal residence at the time of delivery was the same residence throughout the pregnancy; however, 13.4% of women change residence within the Kaunas City during pregnancy. A recent study that evaluated change in residence among pregnant women in Nova Scotia and Eastern Ontario, Canada also found that 12% of the women moved during pregnancy and among the women who had changed residence, most moved within the same municipality (Fell et al., 2004). Given the small percentage of pregnant women who have moved during pregnancy minimises the likelihood of exposure misclassifi cation due to mobility. The risk factors for which we had no information were likely to vary independently of the average ambient pollutant levels and so should not confound the relationships we observed.

Our results on increased risk for LBW in relation to increasing levels of NO2 during pregnancy are consistent with the fi ndings of a Seoul (Ha et al., 2001) and Munich (Slama et al., 2007) studies whose found an association between NO2 exposure and LBW risk. These associations remain evident when controlling for other potential risk factors including gestational age, smoking and others. Associations between traffi c-related air pollution and birth outcomes were also observed in a population-based cohort with relatively low ambient air pollution exposure, estimated by land use regression (LUR) models and proximity to major roads (Brauer M. et al., 2008). The authors found increased risks of LBW only for those subjects closed to roads of highest traffi c intensity. Ha et al. (2001) examined full-term births from

1996 through 1997 in Seoul, South Korea, to determine the association between LBW and exposure to CO, SO2, NO2,

TSP, and O3 in the fi rst and third trimesters. They found that ambient CO, SO2, NO2, and TSP concentrations during the fi rst trimester of pregnancy were associated with LBW; the RRs were 1.08 (95% CI, 1.04–1.12) for CO, 1.06 (95% CI,

1.02–1.10) for SO2, 1.07 (95% CI, 1.03–1.11) for NO2, and 1.04 (95% CI, 1.00–1.08) for TSP. In the Vancouver study, using the time-series approach, SO2, NO2, and CO in the fi rst month of pregnancy were associated with growth restriction; the ORs were 1.07 (95% CI, 1.01–1.13) per 5-ppb increase, 1.05 (95% CI, 1.01–1.10) per 10-ppb increase, and 1.06 (95% CI, 1.01–1.10) per 1-ppm increase, respectively (Liu et al. 2003). If a causal relationship between air pollutants and birth outcomes is confi rmed, a research priority will be to identify the critical time points during pregnancy when exposure to air pollutants might be most harmful ( rám et al., 2005; Gouveia et al., 2004). The biological mechanisms by which air pollutants may interfere with the processes of prenatal development are still not clear. Several potential mechanisms have been hypothesised, including haematological effects of air pollution from an initial infl ammatory response resulting in increased blood coagulation, and subsequent decreased oxygen supply to the placenta (Ha et al., 2001; Maisonet et al., 2004). Although likely exists a multifactor mechanism for foetus growth restriction and abnormal placental development in early pregnancy (Chaddha et al., 2004). NO2 is capable of oxidising tissue components (e.g., proteins, lipids) and of suppressing the antioxidant protective systems of organism

(Moison et al., 1993). In experimental studies it was found that exposure to NO2 during gestation induced increased lipid peroxidation in the placenta, and disturbances of postnatal development (WHO, 2000). It was suggested that maternal exposure to NO2 can increase the risk of pregnancy complications through stimulation of the formation of cell-damaging lipid peroxides and from decrease in maternal antioxidant reserves (Peters et al., 1997). More work is required to fully elucidate the physiologic mechanisms by which air pollution may affect foetal growth and development and to determine if the mechanisms are pollutant specifi c. Exposure modelling provides valuable data to improve the assessment of dose- response relationship.

Conclusions

Findings from our study suggest a general association between NO2 concentrations predicted from Airviro model and those monitored by stationary stations. Consistent with previous observations, this study of exposures to ambient air pollution in Kaunas does suggest an association between the highest exposure of NO2 during the pregnancy and LBW among singleton infants. The ability to adjust for important covariates such as maternal smoking, gestation age, family status, education and body mass index adds strength to the validity of the fi ndings. It is especially pertinent that an association is suggested at relatively low levels of maternal exposure assessed by modelling. As there is grooving evidence that maternal exposures to air pollution can play an important role in adverse reproductive outcomes, there will be implications for regulators to develop more effective risk management strategies to protect the health of vulnerable populations. Although the effects of unmeasured risk factors could not be excluded with certainty, our fi ndings suggest that there may be a relationship between maternal exposure to ambient NO2 exposure and the risk of LBW.

233 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

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Briggs D.I., de Hough C., Gulliver J., Wills J., Elliot P., Kingham S., Smallbone K. (2000). A Regression-based Method for Mapping Traffi c-related Air Pollution: Application and Testing in Four Contrasting Urban Environments. Science of the Total Environment 253, pp. 151-167. Chaddha V., Viero S., Huppertz B., Kingdom J. (2004). Developmental biology of the placenta and the origins of placental insuffi ciency. Seminars in fetal & neonatal medicine 9, pp.357–369. Fell D.B., Dodds L., King W.D. (2004). Residential mobility during pregnancy. Paediatric and Perinatal Epidemiology 18, pp.408–414. Gouveia N., Bremner S.A., Novaes H.M.D. (2004). Association between ambient air pollution and birth weight in Sao Paulo, Brazil. Journal of Epidemiology and Community Health 58, pp.11–17. Ha E.H., Hong Y.C., Lee B.E., Woo B.H., Schwartz J., Christiani D.C. (2001). Is air pollution a risk factor for low birth weight in Seoul? Epidemiology. 12, pp.643–648. 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Dugandzic R., Dodds L., Stieb D., Smith-Doiron M. (2006). The association between low level exposures to ambient air pollution and term low birth weight: a retrospective cohort study. Environmental Health: A Global Access Science Source 5:3. Published online 2006 February 17. doi: 10.1186/1476- 069X-5-3. Ryan P.H., LeMasters GK. (20070. A Review of Land-use Regression Models for Characterizing Intraurban Air Pollution Exposure. Inhalation toxicology 19(Supl 1), pp. 127-133. Slama R., Morgenstern V., Cyrys J., Zutavern A., Herbarth O., Wichmann H.E., Heinrich J. and the LISA Study Group (2007). Traffi c-related atmospheric pollutants levels during pregnancy and offspring’s term birth weight: a study relying on a land-use regression exposure model. Environmental Health Perspectives 115, pp.1283–1292. rám R.J., Binková B., Dejmek J., Bobak M. (2005). Ambient air pollution and pregnancy outcomes: A review of the literature. Environmental Health Perspectives 113, pp.375–382. Wilhelm M., Ritz B. 2003. Residential proximity to traffi c and adverse birth outcomes in Los Angeles County, California, 1994–1996. Environmental Health Perspectives 111, pp.207–216. World Health Organisation: Air Quality Guidelines for Europe. (2000). Second edition. WHO Regional Publications, European Series 91, pp.87-91.

Audrius DĖDELĖ. Vytautas Magnus University Natural Sciences Faculty Environmental Studies Department Ms, PhD student. Address: Vileikos g. 8, LT-44404, Kaunas. Tel. (8-37) 32 79 04, E-mail: [email protected]. Interest of fi elds: Exposure assessment, GIS. Regina GRAŽULEVIČIENĖ. Vytautas Magnus University Natural Sciences Faculty Environmental Studies Department, Professor, Doctor Habil. Address: Vileikos g. 8, LT-44404, Kaunas. Tel. (8-37) 32 79 04, E-mail: [email protected]. Principal Investigator of EC FP6 HiWATE, FP7 ESCAPE, FP7 ENRIECO projects. Interest of fi elds: Environmental epidemiology, environment and health, risk assessment.

234 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Estimation of Volumes for Mature Forests Using the K-nearest Neighbor Technique and Satellite Image

Donatas Jonikavičius, Gintautas Mozgeris Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Sampling based inventories of mature forest stands were started in 2008 in several forest enterprises of Lithuania. This paper discusses the usability of several methodological approaches for estimating volume per 1 ha within the frames of such inventories. Estimation accuracies achieved using just fi eld measured sample plots and the methods supported by the use of Landsat TM satellite images and non-parametric k-nearest neighbor estimation were compared, keeping the same fi eld measured sample as a reference. Estimations were provided for different area units – all mature forests of Kupi kis forest enterprise and units by forest districts, prevailing tree species and working areas of stand-wise forest inventory engineers. Sampling based inventories of mature forests resulted in 10% larger values of volume per 1 ha if compared with the estimates achieved by conventional stand- wise forest inventories. The utilization of Landsat TM image as the source of auxiliary information and k-nearest neighbor estimator resulted in stable and relatively low (around 2%) standard estimation errors of volume per 1 ha of mature stands for different area units. These errors were of similar magnitude as the one for all mature forests of forest enterprise. Key words: forest inventory, mature stands, satellite images, k-nearest neighbor

Introduction

Lithuania has a long tradition in forest inventories. Current forest inventory practice can be divided into three broad approaches – stand-wise inventory, National forest inventory (NFI) by sampling methods and pre-harvesting inventory of forest compartment (Kulie is, 2008). Even the NFI plays important role in providing forest statistics for various objectives, the main source of forest related information in the country that is used for forestry operations remains the stand-wise inventory. The largest problem of stand-wide forest inventory usually is the lack of methods for error assessment of the large areas estimates and possible bias of visual estimates (Tomppo, 2005), even they may be supported by some measurements, e.g. on mature stands. Forest management planning, especially when it regards the amounts of forest to be harvested during the main felling, requires reliable information on the resources. To meet these challenges sampling based inventories were started on mature stands of several forest enterprises in Lithuania in 2008-2009 (Kasperavičius, 2009). Statistically sound amount of circular sample plots is located and measured in mature forests of selected forest enterprise. Summary estimates are provided along with the accuracy assessment for whole study object – forest enterprise. Mean volume per 1 ha is estimated with the accuracies around 2 %. However, the use of this estimate and obtaining same or similar accuracy estimates for smaller area units, such as forest districts or even forest compartments, has not been tested well enough so far. The conventional NFI-based approach would require many times greater sampling density and thus very much higher measurement costs to meet the above goals. Nevertheless, the spatial variation in forests is often such that fi eld measurements in a certain area can also be used in neighbouring areas by employing a relevant extrapolation, or so called ‘information borrowing’ technique (Tomppo, 2005). There are numerous solutions to spread-out information, collected on a limited sample for all other locations, or to make any other location in the forest a type of “sample unit”, to be used for statistical estimations: (i) to measure them in the fi eld (Gunnarsson et al., 1999), but this leads to the costs issues mentioned above, (ii) to measure at some subset in the fi eld and spread-out for other locations using geostatistical methods, e.g. kriging interpolation (Gunnarsson et al., 1999), but some spatial autocorrelation should be present in the phenomenon under investigation, (iii) to measure e.g. on aerial images using stereo photogrammetric equipment or obtain the estimates on laser scanned data, (iv) to use any auxiliary information that correlates with forest characteristics – satellite and aerial images, historical forest inventory information, GIS databases. This study focuses on the last approach. Numerous parametric and nonparametric estimations, GIS analysis are used to relate the auxiliary information, available for every location with the actual forest characteristics, measured just for some fi eld samples: regression (e.g. Hagner 1990; Nilsson 1997; Mozgeris and Augustaitis 1999), static and dynamic stratifi cation (e.g. Poso et al., 1987; Mozgeris, 1996), k-nearest neighbor estimation (e.g. Tomppo 1993, 2005; Gjersten et al., 2000; Tokola et al. 1996), GIS-driven pseudo-raster transformations (Kurlavicius et al. 2004). One of the simplest and most popular solutions here seems to the nonparametric k - nearest neighbor (kNN) estimation method. The point of this method is to generate large number of fi rst phase sampling units (plots, points) for the area being inventoried. All these units are supplied with some set of values of auxiliary information (the 1st phase). Needed forest characteristics are fi eld measured for the second phase units. The number of second phase units is usually small and it depends on resources for fi eld survey. The parameters, which are measured in the forest, are later supplied to the fi rst phase units using different techniques (Mozgeris, 2000). kNN method is popular and widely used all over the world (McRoberts et al., 2007), e.g. in Finish forest inventory (Halme and Tomppo, 2001; Katila and Tomppo, 2001, 2002; Tomppo, 1991; Tomppo et al., 1999), USA (McRoberts et al., 2007) and other countries, including for delivery statistics for relatively small inventory units (Tomppo, 2005). This method is studied well enough in Lithuania, too, with the focus on point-wise estimation accuracies using deferent tactics and sources of auxiliary information (Mozgeris, 2000; Mozgeris and Jonikavičius, 2007, Mozgeris, 2008).

235 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

The description of k-nearest neighbor method or multi-dimensional version of inverse distance weighted technique familiar to the majority of GIS users may easily be found in several texts, e.g. Tomppo, 2005. The aim of this paper is to test the usability of the kNN method for estimating volume per 1 ha within the frames of inventory of mature stands. We compared the estimation accuracies achieved using conventional estimation method (Kulie is et al., 2003) and the methods supported by the use of Landsat TM satellite images and kNN, with the same fi eld measured sample. Estimations were provided for different area units – all mature forests of a forest enterprise and units by forest districts, prevailing tree species and forest inventory engineer, who did the stand-wise inventory fi eld work.

Material and methods

Mature forests of Kupi kio forest enterprise were chosen as the study object. Forests of this enterprise were inventoried using conventional stand-wise inventory in 2003 by state company Lithuanian forest inventory and management institute (LFIMI). This information was updated using growth models and data from forest enterprise to the state of 01.01.2009. Kupi kio forest enterprise is situated in North-Eastern part of Lithuania (Fig. 1) with spruce and deciduous forests dominating. There are fi ve forest districts in the enterprise; forests of the enterprise were inventoried in 2003 by fi ve engineers of the LFIMI (hereinafter referred as A, B, C, D and E). Summary characteristics of mature forests in Kupi kio forest enterprise are presented in Table 1.

Figure 1. Location of the study object: a) borders Kupiškio state forest enterprise and area, covered by Landsat TM scene; b) districts of Kupiškio state forest enterprise

Table 1. Characteristics of mature forest stands in Kupiškio forest enterprise, based on updated data from conventional stand- wise inventory and the amount of fi eld sample plots measured Volume, m3/ha The amount of plots Object Area, ha All stands 1st storey 2nd storey 1st phase 2nd phase Total: 3137.2 269.9 252.5 17.4 51367 579 Forest districts Alizavos 394 234.8 228.2 6.6 6420 85 Skapiskio 1013.5 273.2 255 18.2 16581 193 Subaciaus 441.9 280.9 251.7 29.2 7254 85 Kupiskio 550.1 268.2 255.3 12.9 9057 89 Simoniu 733.4 278.8 260.7 18.1 11971 126 Engineers of the LFIMI A 493.9 272.5 245 27.5 8112 96 B 889.4 280.7 259.9 20.8 14528 156 C 502.4 275.1 262 13.1 8283 79 D 545.5 240.6 234.2 6.4 8915 121 E 706 273.3 255.8 17.5 11529 127 Prevailing tree species Pine 281.1 289.9 276.9 13 4611 24 Spruce 684.7 314.2 310.3 3.9 11184 35 Birch 1341.7 237.7 211.9 25.8 21882 52

236 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

579 circular fi eld sample plots were established and measured in the mature forests of Kupi kio forest enterprise by LFIMI in 2008. Sample plots were distributed following the age and prevailing tree species of mature forests. Locations of sample plots were randomly generated using ArcGIS software, avoiding the location of a sample plot to cross the border of forest compartment. Centers of fi eld plots were located in the forest using GPS Trimble Pathfi nder ProXR, with expected location root mean square error 2 m. The size of each sample was 500 m2; all trees were measured inside the plot. Tree volumes were computed using standard algorithms of NFI. As the auxiliary data source we acquired Landsat LT scene from 2007 05 28, scene ID 187/021. Satellite image was processed to the geocoded products using ground control points measured on topographic maps and in the fi eld, stored in Lithuanian coordinate system LKS94. Mean volumes per 1 ha and the relative standard errors of the mean were calculated following the formulas available in Kulie is et al., 2003:

∑ci,u M i,t _ ∈ M = i I S , (1) ∑ci,u ∈ i I S

Here: Mi,t – volume per 1 ha of assortment t in a plot i,

IS - all plots belonging to stratum S, u – area unit under focus,

ci,u – weight of a plot.

The variance in total: _ − 2 ⋅ ∑(M i,t M t ) ci,u ∈ 2 i I S ∧ = (2) M ∑ci,u ∈ i I S Variance of stand parameter mean per 1 ha: 2 ∧ 2 = M (3) _ M n Here: n – number of sample plots.

Standard error of the mean parameter in absolute values:

2 − = − (4) M M Relative standard error of the mean parameter in percents:

_ M − = ⋅ (5) P _ 100 M M Two different approaches were used to calculate the weights of sample plot: (i) weight was based on the number of sample plots, located in the area being analyzed (e.g. forest districts, group of forest compartments with the same prevailing tree species, etc.) and (ii) weights were determined using the kNN method and Landsat TM image as an auxiliary data source, following Tomppo, 2005. Here we used the formula for weight estimation: = ci,u ∑wi, p . (6) p∈u st To get wi,p, 51367 virtual 1 phase units were generated, following 25x25m grid for all mature forests of Kupi kis forest enterprise, which were supplied with the digital numbers of satellite image. As the 2nd phase units we used all 579 fi eld measured sample plots, for which both satellite image values and fi eld measured volumes are available. st Euclidean distance d(i),p was calculated between each 1 phase sampling unit p in n dimensional feature space of auxiliary information and 2nd phase unit i with fi eld measured forest characteristics. n here refers to the total number of layers of auxiliary information data (TM channels 1, 2, 3, 4, 5 and 7 were used). k (value of 10 used here) distances were found and the weight was calculated:

k = 1 1 ∈ = w(i),p t / ∑ t if and only if i {i1 ( p),...,ik ( p)}, otherwise w(i), p 0 (7) d (i),p i=1 d (i),p

Results and discussion

Rather similar volumes per ha (308.9 and 297.7 m3) and estimation errors (1.9 and 2.0 %) were achieved using both methods to determine sample plot weights for all mature forests of the forest enterprise. Decreasing the number of

237 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

fi eld samples due to narrowing the area unit under focus, resulted in increased relative standard estimation errors (up to 3.2-6.4 % for forest district, 4.0-4.6 % for the stands inventoried by different forest engineers and more than 7 % for main prevailing tree species groups – Fig.2. However, the increase of relative standard estimation error is minimal if none if kNN method and satellite images are used to calculate the weights of fi eld sample plots, assumingly because of much larger amount of fi eld samples participating in the calculation of weights. The value of relative standard error fl uctuates around 2 %, with practically no difference the area unit. Sampling based methods resulted in larger volumes per ha than achieved using conventional stand-wise forest inventory and growth models. The difference is 10.3% (27.8 m3/ha) if kNN and satellite images are used in the inventory of mature forests. The difference gets larger for the 1st storey (11.5 % and 28.9 m3/ha) as the volume of 2nd storey seems to be detected lower than during the stand-wise inventory (by 6.7% or 1.2 m3/ha). The differences by forest districts range 5.5-15.8 %. This fi gure increases with the increase of mean volume, detected during the sampling based inventory (if the trees from the 1st storey are taken into the account). Practically the same tendencies are seen regarding the results by different forest inventory engineers.

Figure 2. Volumes per 1 ha and relative standard accuracies achieved for different area units using different approaches of sampling based inventories of mature forests: a) volume per ha estimated by forest districts b) relative standard error estimated by forest districts c) volume per ha by forest inventory engineers of the LFIMI d) relative standard error by forest inventory engineers of the LFIMI e) volume per ha by prevailing tree species f) relative standard error by prevailing tree species

Assuming that the number of fi eld measured sample units remains the same, general conclusion of this research is that the use of Landsat TM image as the source of auxiliary information and non-parametric kNN method outputs stable and relatively low standard estimation errors of volume per 1 ha within the frames of sampling based inventory of mature

238 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications stands for area units smaller than the whole forest enterprise. Conventional statistical techniques result in larger standard estimation errors as a subsequence of decreased number of sample units, used for calculations. Our approach may be infl uenced by the elimination of zones near the compartment border when locating fi eld samples, too. There are facts available, that the core area of the compartment may differ from the border zone (Kulie is A.A. and Kulie is A., 2006). Eliminating border zones in locating the 2nd phase samples was used here to eliminate the possible problems of geo- referencing satellite images, borders of forest compartments and, fi nally, bearing in mind the fact that a Landsat TM pixel is larger than an area of a sample plot (Tomppo, 2005). This may result in signifi cant sampling issue if applied within the frames of conventional approaches; however it is eliminated using the two-phase sampling and remotely sensed data as the auxiliary information. Large number of 1st phase plots, which are located systematically and not following any borders of compartments, cancel the possible infl uence of un-sampled border zones, as the border zone 1st phase plots are supplied with fi eld estimates of nearest (feature space) 2nd phase plots measured in core areas of compartments. Another advantage of our approach is the fact that it does not increase signifi cantly the costs of sampling based inventories of mature forests. The only increase in price (if none) is practically related to the obtaining and processing of satellite images.

Conclusions

1. Sampling based inventories of mature forests resulted in larger values of volume per 1 ha if compared with the updated estimates by conventional stand-wise forest inventories. The difference was around 10% for all forests of Kupi kis forest enterprise and fl uctuated in the interval 5-15% for the forests of forest districts. 2. The utilization of Landsat TM image as the source of auxiliary information and non-parametric k-nearest neighbor estimator resulted in stable and relatively low (around 2%) standard estimation errors of volume per 1 ha of mature stands for forest districts, prevailing species groups and working areas of forest inventory engineers. These errors were of similar magnitude as the one for all mature forests of Kupi kis forest enterprise.

Acknowledgement This study was fi nanced by state company Lithuanian forest inventory and management institute. Data of fi eld measurements as the Landsat TM image were provided by the institute, too.

References

Gjertsen A. K., Tomter S., Tomppo E. (2000). Combined use of NFI sample plots and Landsat TM data to provide forest information on municipality level. In: T. Zawila-Niedzwinski, & M. Brach (Eds.). Remote sensing and forest monitoring: Proceedings of IUFRO conference, 1 – 3 Jun. 1999, Rogow, Poland. Luxembourg: Offi ce for Offi cial Publications of the European Communities, p.167– 174. Gunnarsson F., Holm S., Holmgren P., Thuresson T. (1999). On the potential of kriging for forest management planning. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, Vol. 13, p.237 – 245. Hagner O. (1990). Computer aided forest stand delineation and inventory based on satellite remote sensing. In: The usability of remote sensing for forest inventory and planning: proc. from SNS/IUFRO workshop, Umeå, 26-28 February. Umeå, p.94-105. Halme M., Tomppo E. (2001). Improving the accuracy of multisource forest inventory estimates by reducing plot location error — a multicriteria approach. Remote Sensing of Environment, 78, 321−327. Kasperavičius A. (2009). Reliable inventory of mature stands – an object for discussions among foresters. Mūsų girios 4, pp. 20-22. (in Lithuanian) Katila M., Tomppo E. (2001). Selecting estimation parameters for the Finnish multisource National Forest Inventory. Remote Sensing of Environment, 76, 16−32. Kuliešis A. (2008). Forest inventory. In: Mažeika J.A. (Ed.). Forest use and logistic: textbook. Lithuanian university of agriculture, Akademija, Kaunas r., p. 227-287 (in Lithuanian). Kuliešis A.A., Kuliešis, A. (2006). Edge Effect on Forest Stand Growth and Development. Baltic Forestry, 12 (2): 158-169 Kuliešis A., Kasperavičius A., Kulbokas G., Kvalkauskienė M. ( 2003). Lithuanian National Forest Inventory 1998-2002. Sampling Design, Methods, Results, - Kaunas: Naujasis lankas, 256 p Kurlavičius P., Kuuba R., Lukins M., Mozgeris G., Tolvanen P., Karjalainen H., Angelstam P. and Walsh M. (2004). Identifying high conservation value forests in the Baltic States from forest databases. Ecological Bulletins 51, p.351-366. McRoberts R. E., Tomppo E., Finley A., Heikkinen J. 2007. Estimating areal means and variances of forest attributes using the k-Nearest Neighbors technique and satellite imagery. Remote Sensing of Environment, 111, 466–480 Mozgeris G. (2008). Estimation and Use of Continuous Surfaces of Forest Parameters: Options for Lithuanian Forest Inventory. Baltic Forestry. 14(2):176-184. Mozgeris G., Jonikavičius D. (2007). The use of k-NN method for estimating forest characteristics – the role of integrated information available from spatial images and conventional stand-wise forest inventory, Vagos, Vol. 77 (30), p. 34-44, (in Lithuanian with English abstract). Mozgeris G. (2000). Lokalių miško charakteristikų vertinimas dviejų fazių atrankos metodu (Two-phase sampling for estimating local forest characteristics). Vagos: LŽŪU Mokslo darbai, Nr. 48(1), pp. 28-38. (In Lithuanian) Mozgeris G., Augustaitis A. (1999). Using GIS techniques to obtain a continuous surface of tree crown defoliation. Baltic forestry, Vol. 5, No.1, p.69-74.

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Mozgeris G. (1996). Dynamic stratifi cation for estimating point-wise forest characteristics. Silva Fennica, 30(1), p. 61-72. Nilsson M. (1997). Estimation of forest variables using satellite image data and airborne LiDAR. PhD thesis, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, The Department of Forest Resource Management and Geomatics. Acta Universitatis Agriculturae Sueciae. Silvestrias, 17. Poso S., Paananen R., Simila M. (1987). Forest inventory by compartments using satellite imagery. Silva Fennica, Vol. 21 (1), p.69-94. Tokola T., Pitkanen J., Partinen S., Muinonen E. (1996). Point accuracy of a non-parametric method in estimation of forest characteristics with different satellite materials. International journal of remote sensing. 17, pp. 2333-2351 Tomppo E. (2005). The Finnish Multisource National Forest Inventory – Small Area Estimation and Map Production. Chapter 12. In: A.Kangas and M.Maltamo (eds.), Forest Inventory: Methodology and Applications, Springer, p. 191-220. Tomppo E., Goulding, C., Katila, M. (1999). Adapting Finnish multisource inventory techniques to the New Zealand pre-inventory harvest. Scandinavian Journal of Forest Research, 14, 182−192. Tomppo E. (1993). Multi-source national forest inventory of Finland. In: Proc. Of Ilvessalo symposium on national forest inventories. IUFRO S4.02, Finnish forest research institute, University of Helsinki. Helsinki, p.52-60. Tomppo E. (1991). Satellite image-based national forest inventory of Finland. International Archives of Photogrammetry and Remote Sensing, 28, 419−424.

Donatas JONIKAVIČIUS. Phd student, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas MOZGERIS. Researcher, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected]

240 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Forest Cover Changes during 1974–2005 in the Lithuanian Coastal Region

Jurgita Lekavičiūtė Lithuanian University of Agriculture Sébastien Gadal Université de Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ), France

Abstract

The aim of the present paper is to identify and analyse forest cover changes from 1974 to 2005 in Klaipeda district in the Lithuanian coastal region. Measurements and spatial analysis - modelling of forest land cover changes have been made by the use of different spatial data: Landsat satellites images (for 1974, 1986, and 2001) and airborne colour photography (for 2005). All forest parcels, identifi ed on remote sensing processing images, are digitised in vector fi les at different dates: in 1974, 1986, 2001 and 2005. Standard geo-processing techniques are used for spatial forest cover analysis and modelling of forest parcels growth and transformation during the period 1974 - 2005. According to our results, forest area in Klaipeda district has increased from 20.8 % in 1974 to 23.9 % in 2005. In Klaipeda city the forest area increased to 2 % during period 1986-2005: from 18.4 % in 1986 to 20.4 % in 2005. The results correspond with the offi cial statistics about forest area growth in all Lithuania and in Klaipeda region. The main identifi ed factors of forest cover changes are political, economical, and social. Forest recovering programs and decrease of agricultural activities in the past decade have a very important role on increase of forested areas. Key words: Geographical information systems, forest cover changes, remote sensing, spatial analysis, Klaipeda district

Introduction

The political and economical events in the second half of the 20th century had big infl uence on landscape transformations in Lithuania. These transformations were more frequent, more quantitatively and qualitatively intensive than in the past because of the numerous political, economical and land use changes. In 1950’s with the process of land nationalisation and collectivisation, a new stage of the farm land management started, more mechanisms were used in farming; what should have contributed to land farm expansion. According to Ribokas and Milius, (2007), the policy of agricultural land use was the result of reduced farm lands area. During the same time, the forest areas increased (Table 1).

Table 1. Changes of proportions of farm lands and forests in Lithuania in the 18th-20th centuries (Matulionis, 1930; Milius, 1988; Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministerija, 1991; Nacionalinė žemės tarnyba, 2006)

Proportion from whole territory (%) Years Farm lands Forests 1750 42 44 1900 66 24 1940 68 19 1950 66 21 1970 55 28 1990 54 30 2006 53 32

At the beginning of the 1970’s, the development process of farm lands stabilised (Table 1), as the growth of forest zones. Until 1990, according to the data on the area, farm lands and forests had changed little (Milius, 1988). After 1990, with restoration of independence and the consecutive political, societal and economical changes, the situation moved again. According to data from the one of latest forest assessment (by the 1st January 2008), based on the forest inventory the total forest land area was 2,142,900 ha, and covering 32.8% of the country’s territory. Meanwhile in Klaipeda County forests covered 26.5% territory, that is one of the smallest rate in Lithuania in regard to the Lithuanian statistical yearbook of forestry of 2008. Despite that, forested territories have increased in Klaipeda County as well (Lithuanian statistical yearbook of forestry, 2008). During last 15 years forests area was increasing and because of natural processes. The forest land increased mainly at the expense of swamps and abandoned agricultural land. Every year 4000-5000 hectares of land not used for agriculture is abandoned and forests start here growing. However, this type of afforestation gives the forest stands that have less value than afforestation in artifi cial way. Statistical data does not represent spatial land use changes and landscape transformations. Forest is a dynamic component of the landscape because of human activities. Infl uence of timber cutting can bring to the degradation of the

241 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications forest land. In addition, the restoration of the forest leads to the forest land growth. Because of dynamic spatial changes it is important to cartography the modifi cations in the forest lands. At the European level mostly used and known is CORINE land cover database (Büttner et al., 2004; Vaitkus, 2004) and researches are often using this database for analyzing land cover changes (Feranec et al., 2009; Vatseva, Stoimenov, 2006; Vatseva et al., 2006) The researches, concerning land cover changes in Lithuania, using remote sensing methods and Geographic Information System (GIS) are few. The mostly corresponding published studies are concerning the analysis of land cover, land use by categories: residential areas, forests, agricultural areas etc. (Bauža, 2007; Bauža, Baužienė, 2008; Ribokas, Milius, 2007; Vaitkus, Vaitkuvienė, 2005). Our study focuses on forest cover changes. Therefore, the main objective of the current study is to identify forest cover changes in Klaipeda District and Klaipeda city during period from 1974 to 2005; with 3 goals: (1) modelling, mapping and recognising geographically the land forest changes. (2) Developing methodologies for automatic recognition of forest areas by remote sensing and forest change modelling by geo-processing in GIS. (3) Spatially characterising the nature and form of the forest changes during the last 31 years.

Methodology

Different geographical and spatial data were used to make the analysis and evaluation of forest cover changes in Klaipeda district on a period of 31 years. For this research we used Multispectral Landsat 1 MSS satellite images from 1974, Multispectral Landsat 5 TM satellite images from 1986, multispectral Landsat 7 ETM+ images from 2001 and airborne colour photography from 2005. The fi rst part of analysis consisted from forests parcels’ recognission and automatical extraction by classifi cation. The heterogeneity of remote sensing data, used between 1974 and 2005, is linked with the evolution of sensor technology and employed spatial or airborne platform. The difference of sensor characteristics, spectral sensibility and spatial resolution levels between four sensors systems MSS (Landsat 1), TM (Landsat 5), ETM+ (Landsat 7) and airborne scanned emulsion photographies need the development of different processing chains and methods for recognition, extraction and identifi cation of forest areas. The image processing recognition of forests by the MSS Landsat 1 is based on the combination of high pass, fi ltered of the spectral band 6 (0.7- 0.8 µm) (6478 m²) with the initial spectral band. The classifi cation result is interactively reclassifi ed for extracting forest zones only (Figure 1). The better spectral and spatial resolutions (900 m²) of TM/ETM+ Landsat 5/7 images have given a more accurate recognition of forest areas and a better identifi cation of different species and tree ages. The methodology, used for these last two sensors, is the same as Landsat 1 MSS. The recognition and extraction of forest parcels from high spatial resolution (50x50 cm) airborne photos, taken in the VIS spectrum is more complicated: the spectral quality of airborne scanned photos is irregular, non homogeneous. The created methodology combines high pass fi lters before the image classifi cation by K-mean calculus method for extracting forest parcels. Then, extracted forest areas are digitalised interactively in vector fi les. The overlay maps and comparison of different forest repartition between 1974, 1986, 2001 and 2005 by GIS gives the feature, the evolution and the extent of forests in Lithuanian coastal region, in Klaipeda district. The forest maps made by remote sensing image processing are compared with geographic information datasets like Land Cover 2000, Coastal CORINE Land Cover 1975, also with statistical data from Lithuanian Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2002, 2006 and data from Forest Inventory and Management Institute on forest inventory in 1970’s and 1980’s. The differences, detected among the databases and the forest mapping results, obtained from remote sensing images, are not so important.

Figure 1. Left: Recognition of forest area in 1974 from Landsat 1 MSS, overlaid with the administrative limits of Klaipeda district and Klaipeda city. Right: Thumbnail recognition of forest parcels, species and ages in 2005 from ortho-photography

242 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Comparative geospatial and cartographic results are made by the land cover change models in GIS. All data and results are implemented, structured and normalised in GIS. Modelling, analysis and spatial statistics are also made using GIS. The areas of digitalised forest parcels and percentages were calculated and analysed during all years. For a better accuracy, the digitalisation was performed with the support of Coastal CORINE Land Cover database (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Coastal CORINE LC 1975 linked with 1974’s forest cover, made with Landsat 1 MSS. Limits in orange represent CORINE LC data for forests; in violet - data on scrub and/or herbaceous vegetation associations

We performed spatial analysis, applying standard geo-processing techniques, for getting forest area changes during all the studied period. The result is a cartography of extend forest parcels at each date, a spatial modelling of growth and transformation between 1974, 1986, 2001 and 2005. Forest extensions are extracted by Venn diagram spatial operators. Forest surface statistics is calculus by geospatial operators for each forest parcel and it is compared with offi cial statistics and CORINE Land Cover database (1990, 2000). The data quality assessment of maps and spatial forest growth modelling was performed, using comparison with the CORINE Land Cover database of 1990 and 2000 (Figure 3). CORINE Land Cover forest map layers were linked with got forest cover results, using Boolean spatial analysis operators.

Figure 3. Overlay of 1986’s forest cover data with CLC 1990 and 2001’s forest cover data results with CLC 2000

Temporal cartography of forest growth and geo-statistical analysis

The territory of the forested land in Klaipeda County is increasing and forests were expanding during the period between 1974–2005. This forest growth is associated with important political and societal changes, with the decrease of farms and the suburbanisation dynamics in the 1990’s and 2000’s. Spatially and cartographically modelled forest area changes in the periods between 1974-1986 and 1974-2005 are shown in fi gure 4.

243 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Figure 4. Forest area changes from 1974 to 1986 (left), from 1974 to 2005 (right)

We evaluated spatial forest cover evolution and calculated forest cover areas in Klaipeda district and Klaipeda city, using spatial geo-processing techniques (Table 2):

Table 2. Calculated forest area in 1974, 1986, 2001 and 2005 in Klaipeda district and Klaipeda city (area in hectares and in percents) 1974 1986 2001 2005 Research area Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Area (ha) Area (%) Klaipeda district 27 909 20.8 27 478 20.5 30 247 22.6 32 000 23.9 Klaipeda city 1866 19 1810 18.4 1799 18.3 20.4

The remote sensing and GIS analysis results show a slight decrease of forests area in Klaipeda district from 20.8% in 1974 to 20.5% in 1986, and from1986 to 2005 forest area was increasing each year: from 20.5% in 1986, to 22.6% in 2001 and to 23.9% in 2005. In Klaipeda city, as in Klaipeda district, we got slight decrease of area covered by forest from 19% in 1974 to 18.4% in 1986, and from 1986 to 2005 it increased to 2%: 18.4% and 20.4%, accordingly. It correspond with offi cial forestry statistics, which indicates that forest area in the entire Klaipeda County increased: from 24,1% in 2000, 26,0% in 2001 to 26,3% in 2005 (Lithuanian Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2002, 2006). However, it is very diffi cult to compare our results of 1974 and 1986 with forest management projects of Kretinga forest state enterprise for periods from 1970 (Lietuvos “Mi ko projektas“, 1970-1971), 1983-1992 (Lietuvos miškotvarkos įmonė “Miško projektas“, 1981-1982), and for period between 1992-2001 (Lietuvos valstybinis miškotvarkos institutas, 1991- 1992), prepared by Forest Inventory and Management Institute. There were lots of changes from 1970’s in territory administration (district of Klaipeda was smaller), forestry data management tools (fi rst forest maps made by hand, later development of GIS, continuing development of GIS techniques for spatial analysis etc.). In 1970’s, Klaipeda district was covered with forests to 20% of (district area was 62700 ha.), in 1980’s - 19,6% (Klaipeda district area – 73800 ha), in 1990’s - 17.7% (Klaipeda district area: 73800 ha). 15% of Klaipeda city was covered by forests in 1970’s, (Klaipeda city area: 6200 ha), 14,9% in 1980’s (Klaipeda city area: 6300 ha), and 12,7% in 1990’s (Klaipeda city area: 7100 ha). As the comparison of older data is very diffi cult, and almost impossible, we tried to do the comparison, visualising our results and older maps (Figure 5).

Figure 5. Overlay and geo-referencing of forestry maps in 1970’s (left) and 1980’s (centre and right) with forest cover maps made from remote sensing and GIS (dark green colour). Source: Forest Inventory and Management Institute

244 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

The main reasons of the forest growth could be associated with the wetlands forestation and decreasing number of agricultural land use. Not used agricultural lands year after year become covered with forests. Naturalization processes are refl ected by forest, forest swamps and swamp land cover type dynamics. Each year, in the framework of the forest recovering program forest enterprises are replanting the lost forest lands as the new ones. There were two turning points in the structure of farm lands: the fi rst: the loss of self-dependence in 1940 and the subsequent transformation of the political–economic system (collectivization of 1949–1951); the second: restoration of self-dependence in 1990 and restitution of land property (Ribokas and Milius, 2007). In Lithuania the number of people working in the agricultural sector is constantly decreasing. Numbers of agricultural land decreased 13 % during the period of 1997- 2005 year. Human activities, abiotic processes and natural reasons can do the negative effects to the forests. Forest cutting and acid rain falls are leading to the biggest losses of the forest. One of the factors, which determinates the forest cutting period is restoration of the ownership rights to the private persons. According to Vaitkus and Vaitkuvienė (2005), a proportion of forests in the Lithuanian coastal zone increased by 4.6% over the study period of 25 years, as forest management in Lithuania has been rather intensive and sustainable during the last decades. However, the growth of forest plantations in the former areas of forest clear cuts actually takes a long time before the forest reaches maturity and gains its full value in sustaining natural ecosystems (Vaitkus, Vaitkuvienė, 2005). According to Bauža and Baužienė (2008), the slight increase of the forest area is also related with the wear of drainage systems and overgrowing of buffer zones by low-quality stands. Therefore, the number of small tracts of forests increased. In summing up the results, the conclusion can be drawn that during the past decade positive changes in forest resources took place. Recently the area of clear-cutted territories that are artifi cially planted has somewhat decreased because a large part of clear-cutted areas (about 30%) is left for natural regeneration. That increases the species diversity of the forests being regenerated. It is forecasted that about 30-40% of the clearcut areas will be left for natural regeneration in the future (Juknys et al., 2002).

Conclusions

The main factors, which infl uenced forest cover changes, were political, economical, social and natural. According to the results, received using GIS spatial analysis techniques, forest area in Klaipeda district increased from 20.8 % in 1974 to 23.9% in 2005. In Klaipeda city forest area increased to 2% during period between 1986-2005: from 18.4% in 1986 to 20.4% in 2005. Our results show forest area’s growth in all Klaipeda region, that correspond with data of offi cial statistics. In 2005, is found quite strong reforestation, comparing with previous years, which can be linked with European support for forest recovering programs - utilisation and reforestation of private forests. Forest recovering programs and decrease of agricultural activities in the past decade played very important role on increase of forested areas. The building of spatial land forest transformation since 1974 can be divided up in these phases of calculus and processing: remote sensing data acquisition, image processing for recognition and extraction of forest parcels, implementation in GIS and data normalisation, digital cartography, diachronic modelling and land forest cover changes, geospatial analysis, and data quality result assessment with other geographical databases. The building this type spatio-temporal database could be used for a calculus of carbon accumulation in the forests. In addition, it could be useful to link it with the agricultural changes and the process of urbanisation.

References

Bauža D. (2007). Estimation and trends of landscape transformation in the second half of the 20th century. Journal of Environmental Engineering and landscape management. 15(2), pp. 119b–124b. Bauža D., Baužienė I. (2008). Evaluation of landscape changes in Lithuania in the second half of the 20th century. Geografi ja. 44(2), pp. 28-35. Büttner G., Feranec J, Jaffrain G., Mari L., Maucha G., Soukup T. (2004). The CORINE land cover 2000 Project. EARSeL eProceedings 3, pp. 331- 346. Feranec J., Kopecka M., Vatseva R., Stoimenov A., Otahel J., Betak J., Husar K. (2009). Landscape change analysis and assessment (case studies in Slovakia and Bulgaria). 1(1), pp.106-119. Juknys et al. (2002). National report on Sustainable development. From Rio to Johannesburg. From transition to sustainable development.147 p. Lietuvos Miško projektas. (1970-1971). Kretingos miško pramonės ūkio organizacijos ir išvystymo projektas. I tomas. Aiškinamasis raštas. Lietuvos miškotvarkos įmonė Miško projektas. (1981-1982). Kretingos pagrindinės miško įmonės miško ūkio organizavimo ir išvytymo projektas 1983-1992. Lietuvos valstybinis miškotvarkos institutas. (1991-1992). Kretingos miškų urėdijos miškotvarkos projektas 1992-2001 Lithuanian Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2002. (2002). Miškų ekonomikos centras.112 p. Lithuanian Statistical Yearbook of Forestry 2005, (2006). Lithuanian statistical yearbook of forestry 2008. (2008). 151 p.

245 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Lietuvos Respublikos žemės ūkio ministerija, Žemės tvarkymo departamentas, Valstybinis agroskaičiavimo centras. (1991). Lietuvos Respublikos žemės fondo suskirstymas kategorijomis, naudotojais ir naudmenomis. 1990 lapkričio1 d. Vilnius. Matulionis P. (1930). Lietuvos žemė ir jos gyventų gausumas istorijos būvyje. Kultūra. 5. pp.241–245. Milius J. (1988). Zakonomernosti dinamiki zemelnych ugodij Litovskoj SSR. Dr. disertacija. Vilnius: Botanikos institutas. 257 p. Nacionalinė žemės tarnyba, Registrų centras. (2006). Lietuvos Respublikos žemės fondas. 2006 sausio 1 d. Vilnius. Ribokas G., Milius J. (2007). Turning points in the development of farm lands (a case of Lithuanian agro territories). Geografi ja. 43(1), pp. 8-11. Vaitkus G. (2004). Lietuvos CORINE žemės danga-2000 projektas I&CLC2000-LT. Baigiamoji ataskaita. Vilniaus universiteto Ekologijos institutas. 50 p. Vaitkus G., Vaitkuvienė D. (2005). “Land cover changes in the Lithuanian coastal zone during 1975-2000”. Acta Zoologica Lituanica, 15(2), pp. 183-187. Vatseva R., Stoimenov A. (2006). Spatial analysis of land cover and land use changes in Bulgaria for the period 1990-2000 based on image and CORINE land cover data. Proceedings of the 2nd Workshop of the EARSeL SIG on Land Use and Land Cover. Center for Remote Sensing of Land Surfaces, Bonn, 28-30 September 2006. pp. 356-363. Vatseva R., Stoimenov A., Borisova N. (2006). Assessment of the land cover changes in the Plovdiv region for the period 1990 – 2000 based on CORINE land cover data. SENS’2006 Second Scientifi c Conference with International Participation. Space, Ecology, Nanotechnology, Safety. 14 – 16 June 2006, Varna, Bulgaria.

Jurgita LEKAVIČIŪTĖ. Dr., Research fellow in Lithuanian University of Agriculture (LZUU), GIS Education and Research Center. She was working in Lithuanian Forest Inventory and Management institute for several years. Now she is working on environmental health, exposure assessment, GIS, spatial analysis and environmental modelling. She is participating at different research programs in Europe as EU FP7 TechnoLife. E-mail: [email protected] Address: Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas district. Sébastien GADAL. Dr., Associate Professor at the University of Versailles Saint-Quentin-en-Yvelines (UVSQ), France, Scientifi c Advisor of one of the spin-off unit of NASA in hyperspectral imagery, and currently the co-Head of the department of geography. Specialist of remote sensing, GIS and simulation, of urban geography and land planning, he has in charge several research programs in geographic information sciences and in urban geography. He is working actually in the framework of EU FP7 TechnoLife program, on the questions of urbanisation and spatial modelling in Baltic countries, India, West Africa and South America.E-mail: sebastien.gadal@ uvsq.fr, Skype: dr.sebastien_gadal, Address: 47 Bd. Vauban, bâtiment Vauban, F-78047 Guyancourt cedex, France.

246 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Geostatistical Study of Soil pH Using Different Sampling Approaches

Donatas Šumskis, Gediminas Staugaitis, Jonas Mažvila Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture Gintautas Mozgeris Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Detailed studies of soil agrochemical properties is an important task to highlight the diversity of the area. Our study object is located in a weakly rolling relief area. Three different cartographic methods to determine soil pH were studied: 1) combined soil samples were taken following prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous research material; 2) combined soil samples were taken accounting for the prevailing boundary of soil variety; 3) combined soil samples were taken following the regular grid. In order to clarify the optimal size of the plot single combined soil sample was taken from 2, 4 and 8 ha plots. Similar values of soil pH were achieved in a weakly rolling relief in context of distribution of soil acidity classes using different methods of soil sampling, except taking the samples for 2 ha plots on a regular grid, which outputs the shares of medium acid soils (pH 4.6-5.0) twice less than the other two methods. If 4 ha plots were used, the regular grid sampling resulted in a three times less share of relatively acid soils (pH≤5.5) than mapped using other two methods. Characteristics of experimental variograms and Moran’s I statistic were used to test the spatial continuity of soil pH. The main fi ndings was that weak or moderate spatial dependence between the pH values was observed only for sampling schemes based on 2 ha plot size. Key words: agrochemical properties, soil pH, soil variety, experimental variograms, spatial dependence

Intoduction

Some European countries, lacking a detailed soil map, use grid based sampling approaches to determine soil properties (M. Voltz, P. Lagacherie et al, 1997). In Lithuania, all agrochemical research is usually conducted using the Lithuanian soil maps at a scale of 1:10 000 (Mikajelian L., Feizienė D., et al., 2003). Currently, digital soil maps at a scale of 1:10 000 are in the process of modifi cation, which includes the transformation of all genetic soil titles and soil texture characteristics into the units according to the FAO classifi cation (Soil Classifi cation of Lithuanian LTDK-99). Soil agrochemical study is mandatory to prepare the recommendations for fertilization of agricultural plants, liming projects and scoring the land productivity (performed using digital methods). Proper investigation of soil agrochemical properties primarily depends on the soil sampling approaches. Soil is a heterogeneous phenomenon, with both surface and profi le features being rather different. Improper soil samples taken following incorrect sampling schemes may fail to fully characterize the area of interest, and all labor consuming efforts may be useless. So, just taking the soil sample is not too easy task, especially in a hilly relief. There are general rules, regulating the cases where the samples may not be taken: like the proximity to lime, manure, mud, sludge and other aggregations, near animal excrement, close to the road and fences and others not representatives places (Peters J. B., Laboski C. A. M., et al., 2007). Thus, in order to get a good bulk soil sample is not as an easy task as it may appear; one should know the soil, understand soil varieties and their boundaries and follow the above-mentioned general rules (Aichberger K., Back J., 2001). Soil properties are usually considered as a textbook example of spatially continuous variable (Longley et al., 2005), meaning that samples collected nearby are more similar than the more remote ones. Being aware about spatial behaviour of some phenomenon under interest one may signifi cantly reduce the amount of labor consuming fi eld investigations, replacing them by statistically end economicaly sound samples and use of geostatistics to fi ll gaps between the samples, such as interpolation. Under interpolation we assume obtaining estimates over an entire surface for a given variable, which has only been sampled at isolated points. There are two assumptions to be satisfi ed in order to make the resulting interpolation of the phenomenon of interest valid (Lowell, 1996): (1) the phenomenon being studied must behave in an interpolable fashion, i.e. must be truly continuous. If the soil parameters have a spatially random occurrence or are effected by some other factors (agricultural activities, fertilizing, etc), then interpolating surface between points will not yield useful results. (2) The point samples must be spaced closely enough to describe the phenomenon being studied. So, one of the objectives of current study is to test whether the sampling approaches, used in Lithuanian soil survey, are suitable to describe spatial continuity of soil properties, namely pH. Research object and methods. Our study is carried out on a special Elmininkų research polygon, located in Anykščiai Figure 1. Location of the Elmininkai research area

247 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications district (Fig.1). Its area is about 154 ha. Soils are rather mixed here, with the prevailing moraine genesis sandy loam rock and small insertions of the glacial lacustrine silty loam rocks. A weakly rolling relief dominates in this research object, diversifi ed with a slight climb; lower areas are inscribed by valleys. Sandy sometimes silty, light with medium loam soil, Bathihypogleyi Calcaric Luvisols and Endocalcaric Gleysols prevail in the area. The southern side of test area is more rolling, with the hills poorly riped up. Clay loam or clay soils occur in the north-western part of the test area, while the north-eastern part is characterized by sand covered light loam soils. The subsoils in the north western part of the area are mostly clay loam or clay soils, while light loam soils cover by the sand layer prevail in the north-eastern part. However, the largest share of subsoil consists of medium, sometimes light loam soils. Three different sampling methods to determine the soil pH were chosen in this study: 1) combined soil samples were taken in pursuance of prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous research material (prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous research material); 2) combined soil samples were taken accounting for the prevailing boundary of soil variety (prevailing boundary of soil variety); 3) combined soil samples were taken following the regular grid (regular grid) - Fig 2.

Figure 2. Sampling schemes: a) prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous research material; b) prevailing boundary of soil variety; c) regular grid

In order to detect the optimal size of the plot to be taken as a single combined soil sample, the mapping also has been done in 2, 4 and 8 ha. The samples were taken using the drilling-probe auger from humic 0-20 cm, and in the meadows and pastures - 0-10 cm layer on 15-20 spots, crossing diagonally the elementary mapping plot in a 80-100 m section. Soil samples were dried for pH determination to air-dried, grinded and analyzed in a KCl extract using a potentiometrical method. Soil was exposed to 1 molar potassium chloride (KCl), concentration of the solution 1:2.5. The investigation of spatial continuity of pH defi ned using different sampling approaches was carried out using GS+ software (Robertson, 2008). The input data sources were prepared for geostatistical analysis using standard tools available in a standard GIS package ArcGIS. Moran’s I correlograms as well as some characteristics, computed using standard variograms (nugget, Co, sill Co+C, nugget and sill ratio Co/(Co+C), and range (A) were used to study the spatial continuity of focused variable.

248 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Results

The 1st and 2nd sampling methods and 2 ha sampling intensity resulted in relatively larger share (7.96 and 9.53%, respectively) of acid soils (pH 4.6-5.0) in the test area, while the 3rd sampling method (based on regular grid) – just 3.88%. Areas of other soil acidity groups seem to be independent from soil sampling methods (Table 1).

Table 1. Area distribution of soil pH groups, in %, using different sampling approaches; Elmininkų research polygon, Anykščiai district (154.58 ha), 2004 year

Soil reaction (pHKCl) Conditionally acidic Soil sampling approaches ≤5.5 ≤4.5 4.6-5.0 5.1-5.5 5.6-6.0 6.1-6.5 ≥6.6 ha % Average from 2 ha 1. Prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous 0.42 9.53 17.70 39.06 28.49 4.80 42.74 27.65 research material 2. Prevailing boundary of soil variety 0.42 7.96 13.98 24.42 44.36 8.86 34.56 22.36 3. Regular grid 1.29 3.88 19.98 32.50 38.72 3.63 38.88 25.15 Average from 4 ha 1. Prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous 1.24 – 27.53 24.21 47.02 – 44.49 28.77 research material 2. Prevailing boundary of soil variety – 5.80 30.51 22.76 27.27 13.66 56.14 36.31 3. Regular grid – 1.76 8.45 26.67 54.46 8.66 15.78 10.21 Average from 8 ha 1. Prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous – 9.54 18.06 45.07 27.33 – 42.65 27.60 research material 2. Prevailing boundary of soil variety – 1.57 20.34 62.75 15.34 – 33.86 21.91 3. Regular grid – – 35.82 25.66 32.12 6.40 55.37 35.82

The most differing results were achieved if taking the samples for 4 and 8 ha size plots. The area share of relatively acid soils (pH≤5.5) becomes much larger (28.77 and 36.31%) than achieved using regular grid samples (just 10.21%). For the 2 ha case, which we assume as the best representing the amounts of relatively acid soils, we get quite similar areas - 22.36-27.65%. Both Moran’s I correlograms and variograms were computed for all sampling methods used. However, to avoid extensive use of space, just the correlograms (Fig 3, 4, 5) and parameters of modeled variograms are presented in this paper (Table 2).

Table 2. Parameters of variogram model Sampling intensity (hectares) and approaches Characteristic 2ha 4ha 8ha Prevailing soil variety boundaries, consulting the available previous research material Nugget, Co 0.120 0.0359 0.0023 Sill Co+C 0.564 0.2758 0.2396 Co/(Co+C) 0.213 0.130 0.0096 Range (A) 2220 360 311 Prevailing boundary of soil variety Nugget, Co 0.157 0.001 0.0048 Sill Co+C 0.590 1.149 0.1516 Co/(Co+C) 0.266 0.00087 0.0317 Range (A) 2301 417 294 Regular grid Nugget, Co 0.0708 0.016 0.0811 Sill Co+C 0.2896 0.1562 0.2402 Co/(Co+C) 0.2445 0.102 0.3376 Range (A) 1013 132 172

249 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Figure 3. Moran’s I correlograms of pH values, 1st sampling method

Figure 4 Moran’s I correlograms of pH values, 2nd sampling method

Figure 5. Moran’s I correlograms of pH values, 3rd sampling method

One may easily to observe, that correlograms only for a point per 2 ha samples indicate spatially continuous behavior of soil pH, no matter the procedures of taking the samples. Moran’s I’s larger than 0.3 are observed for lag distances, which are under approximately 300 m. All other sampling intensities fail to describe spatial continuity of pH, if correlogrm is taken into consideration. Experimental variograms were calculated from all available data from the examined fi eld and fi tted using spherical mathematical model. The parameters of modeled variograms are presented in Table 2 below. The ratio of nugget and sill (Co/Co+C) is used to compare spatial dependence of pH, determined using different sampling approaches. Spatial dependences may be categorized as weak or moderate only for 2 ha sampling densities (except 8 ha and using regular sampling grid case, which could be explained by some random factors). Moderate spatial dependence if observed when samples are taken following prevailing varieties of soil types. The sill is relatively largest here as well, leading to the assumption that the values of pH would differ most at the separation distances larger than the range. The long-range structure (1-2 km) is an indication of a trend in the data. As the more sparse samplings result in considerably shorter ranges, even shorter than the average distances between points, this leads to another assumption that the sampling schemes, referring to the point per 4 and 8 ha sampling intensities, fail to detect spatial anisotropy of the phenomenon under investigation.

250 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Conclusions

1. Similar values of soil pH are achieved in a weakly rolling relief in context of distribution of soil acidity classes using different methods of soil sampling, except taking the samples for 2 ha plots on a regular grid, which outputs the shares of moderate acid soils (pH 4.6-5.0) twice less than the other two methods. If 4 ha plots are used, the regular grid sampling results in a three times less share of relatively acid soils (pH≤5.5) than mapped using other two methods. 2. The most accurate soil pH groups on the study area are determined collecting combined soil samples for 2 ha plots, taking into account the boundaries of the soil variety, consulting the available previous research data and just prevailing boundaries of soil variety. 3. Collecting soil samples for 4 and 8 ha plots leads to weaker identifi cation of soil acidity groups. 4. Weak or moderate spatial dependence between the pH values is observed only for sampling schemes based on 2 ha plot size.

References

Aichberger K., Back J. (2001). The Austrian soil sampling procedure tested in a fi eld study_CEEM-project. The Science of the Total Environment 264, pp 175-180. Longley P.A. et al. (2005). Geographic Information Systems and Science, 2nd Edition, John Wiley & Sons, Inc., 517 p. Lowell K. 1996. Discrete Polygons or a Continuous Surface: Which is the Appropriate Way to Model Forests Cartographically. Spatial Accuracy Assessment in Natural Resources and Environmental Sciences: Second International Symposium. General Technical Report RM-GTR-277. 1996 pp. 235-242. Mikajelian L., Feizienė D., et al. (2003). Facilities for Digital cartographying of the agrochemical soil database by using GIS. Agriculture. Research Works 83, pp. 126-143. Peters J. B., Laboski C. A. M., et al. (2007). Sampling Soils for Testing. Acts of Congress, University of Wisconsin-Extension. Robertson, G.P. 2008. GS+: Geostatistics for the Environmental Sciences. Gamma Design Software, Plainwell, Michigan USA. Voltz M., Lagacherie P., et al. (1997). Predicting soil properties over a region using sample information from a mapped reference area. European Journal of Soil Science 48, pp. 19-30.

Donatas ŠUMSKIS. Junior Research Worker, Agrochemical Research, Agrochemical Research Center of Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Savanorių pr., 287, LT-50127, Kaunas, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Gediminas STAUGAITIS. Senior Research Worker, Agrochemical Research, Agrochemical Research Center of Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Savanorių pr., 287, LT-50127, Kaunas, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Jonas MAŽVILA. Senior Research Worker, Agrochemical Research, Agrochemical Research Center of Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture, Savanorių pr., 287, LT-50127, Kaunas, Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected] Gintautas MOZGERIS. Researcher, GIS education and research centre, Institute of environment, Lithuanian university of agriculture, Studentų 13, LT-53362, Akademija, Kaunas r. Lithuania, e-mail: [email protected]

251 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

Generating Continuous Surfaces of Runoff Depth Applying Different Interpolation Methods

Gitana Vyčienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Modern technologies enable us to use spatial interpolation to analyze the spatial distribution of hydrological characteristics. This study focus on evaluating the suitability of deterministic and statistical methods of interpolation in terms of their accuracy for runoff average depth. The data (runoff average depth) from 76 water gauging stations, is the object of this study. The interpolation methods were applied using Geostatistical Analyst in ArcGIS. Modeling the hydrological characteristic by spline, invert distance weight, polynomial methods and kriging methods is based on the statistical analysis. Compare deterministic methods Invert distance weight method was the most accurate of all four analyzed deterministic interpolation methods in predicting the values of runoff average depth. The root mean square error for the method was calculated 11,20 mm or 13 % of the obsorved runoff average depth mean. The best results of the spatial distribution of runoff average depth were received applying the ordinary Kriging method when the exponential variogram is used, 10 contiguous points and the orbicular scheme divided into sectors in 45° angle are taken. Applying the Ordinary Kriging method, the missing values of observed characteristic can be predicted with the error of 2.46%. Key words: GIS, Geostatistical modeling,, runoff average depth

Introduction

The development of geographical information systems (GIS) enables to connect the hydrologic data with the other types of spatial information, i.e. with the topographic background, the base of hydrographic network, and the models of digital surface data. These technologies enable to use spatial modeling to analyze and model hydrologic characteristics, made spatial distribution maps or izoline maps. In Lithuania, the spatial modeling most often was applied to modeled relief (Kumetienė A., Zakarevičius Z. 2006a, Kumetienė A. 2006b, Kumetienė A. 2006c), soil pollution data (Marcinkonis S., Karmaza B. 2007) in some cases, that is being modeled the tendencies of noise spread, and some wider applications in the sphere of forest science and other. However, spatial modeling in hydrology is still a new sphere in Lithuania. With the changing economic situation, natural researches are becoming more and more expensive. In addition, it is impossible to select enough data to make accurate hydrologic calculations because of the decreasing network of water gauging stations. Most often the measuring is made according certain schemes that are spread in points. It can be the net of either hydrologic or meteorological stations. Spatial interpolation might be used in order to evaluate the values between measuring points without measuring them (Burrough, McDonnell, 1998). Interpolation is applied to fi nd horizontal position and when it is necessary to calculate the values of a chosen point in which there was never performed any gauging . There are many interpolation methods that can be used, each of which varies in their degree of complexity and predictive accuracy. We will make short introductions about deterministic and stochastic method applied in the research. Deterministic algorithms try to apply to the points with x, y and z coordinates a certain surface type. If it is known or predicted that the values of data points are evaluated with a certain errors, the interpolated surface might be artifi cially smoothed to a particular level in this way decreasing the accidental errors (Jones, 1997). Mathematical functions of various type and diffi culty are used to generate surfaces. To deterministic methods belongs: Spline, Inverted Distance Weight (IDW), Global and Local Polynomial method. Spline method is a deterministic interpolation method when the surface that is interpolated is drawn closer to the values of the point of primary data (Franke, 1982; Wahba, 1990). Spline function is imitating a rubber sheet which comes through very close to points. It is not suitable when a phenomenon is jumping and changing in small distances and/or when we are not sure about the quality of primary data. IDW method is an interpolation method when weights, inversely proportional to the distance to the investigated point, are ascribed to the values of primary points (Cressie N, 2004). The logic of this method is that in interpolation, the data points that are nearer to the evaluated point are more important. Thus, the value of calculated point in interpolation has to decrease when the distance from it is increasing. When the distance is increasing, the weight is decreasing because of the infl uence of degree parameter (p). When the sum of weights of points used for calculations is equal to 1, this means that there is an ordinary linear interpolation between points (Bacchi et all. 1995; Arnaud et all 2002; Tomczak, 1998). Polynomial method uses the model of regression which consists of all the researched data. The modeled values are determined using related values from strictly defi ned territory. In statistical methods, the question is raised, whether the set of spatial data (a certain abstraction of researched phenomenon) has an random variation of values (Kumar, 2006; Jordan, 2003). Kriginig is an interpolation method that can be applied to estimate concentration values at points where no sampling a taken place. The values produced are a weighed linear combination of the available sample points. Kriging

252 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications algorithms use various mathematical functions for the spatial modeling of the variability of z values between known points (Johnston et all, 2001; Dumbrauskas et all, 2006): Z(s) = + (s) , (1) Here, Z (s ) – denotes the tth realization at location s, - the unknown mean value, - is a white noise process composed of measurement errors. The variability is denoted by indicators of semivariation. For this, so-called semivariograms are created, i.e. a diagram that indicates the changes of semivariation when the distance between the points with known values is increasing. The aim of this study is to evaluate spatial distribution of runoff average depth, applying different methods of geostatistic interpolation.

Research object

The priority in choosing the objects (rivers) of the research was given to smaller rivers. However, a problem that occurs while choosing rivers is that small rivers have a sparse network of water gauging stations, and the operating duration of networks that are available are often a shorter than 10 years. In order to analyze the spatial spread of hydrologic characteristics, it is necessary to have as bigger number of research points as possible. Therefore, bigger rivers that have a wider network of water gauging stations were also included into the research. The data from 76 water gauging stations (WGS), runoff average depth, were used in this work. The selected 76 WGS cover almost all territory of Lithuania, and the average distance between chosen points (WGS) is 29.4 km (Fig. 1). The data used in the analysis was taken from the book “Lietuvos upės. Hidrografi ja ir nuotėkis” (Gailiušis et all, 2001). Before starting interpolation process we must estimate centroids of rivers basins. The centroid of a polygon is generally defi ned as the center of mass of that polygon, such that if some fl at substance of uniform thickness and density were cut into the shape of that polygon, then that object would balance at the centroid. The ESRI centroid does not always fi t this defi nition. An important difference between the ESRI centroid and the true centroid is that the ESRI centroid will always be contained within the polygon boundary, while the true center of mass may be outside the boundary. In this work centroids were calculated applying the ESRI centroid methodic (Environmental..., 1992). Then the runoff average depth data were moved to centroids place.

Figure 1. Estimated centroids of Lithuania rivers basins

Research methodology

When carrying out the research were used the ArcGIS package of programs with Spatial Analyst and Geostatistical Analyst supplements. Cross validation is a technique used in all interpolation methods. The technique is used for checking the accuracy of the model produced in all situations. The basic principle of the technique involves removing points one at a time and checking the estimate given at the point that is removed with the actual value. The greater number of points involved in a prediction the more accurate a prediction will be.

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The cross validation produces parameters that are useful in assessing the error involved in the prediction. These parameters consist of the mean error, root mean squared prediction error, average standard error, mean standardized error and root mean squared standardized error. Ideally, the mean should be close to zero, which would indicate an unbiased prediction. The mean is therefore, the mean error associated with the interpolation surface created. The standardized prediction errors are given by dividing the errors given with the individual prediction by a standardized prediction error. To properly assess the variability in a Kriging model it is important that the average standard errors are close to the root mean squared prediction errors. If the average standard errors are greater than the root mean squared prediction error there is an overestimating of the variability of the prediction. If the average standard errors are less than the root mean squared prediction errors then there is an underestimation of the variability in the predictions given by the models. If the root mean squared standardized, value is less than one the model overestimates while a value greater than one indicates an underestimation (Cressie N, 2004, Knight et all 2005). Six’s stati stics are used to characterize the performance of interpolation methods in this study. They are: ME, RMSE, ASE, MSE, RMSSE, SD. These statistics are described in equations (2-6): Mean error (ME): n ( * ()− ()) Σ z xi z xi ME = i=1 , (2) N Root mean squared error (RMSE): n ( * ()− ())2 ∑ z xi z xi RMSE = i=1 , (3) N Average standard error (ASE): n * () ∑ xi ASE = i=1 , (4) N Mean standardized error (MSE): n ( * ()− ())* () ∑ z xi z xi / xi MSE = i=1 , (5) N Root mean square standardized errors (RMSSE):

n []( *()− ())()* 2 ∑ z xi z xi / xi RMSSE = i=1 , (6) N Standard deviation (SD): ∑()z(x ) − x 2 SD = i , (7) N * Here, z (xi)- predicted value; z(xi)- obsorved value; σ – standard devivation; N – investigated points number; x - value mean. Two characteristics were chosen as the main criteria for the evaluation of the suitability of the methods for the interpolation of runoff average depth: root mean square error and the mean of errors because all interpolation methods, both deterministic and statistical, provide these statistical parameters. Moreover, the perceived graphic view, i.e. the interpolated surface map of the analyzed characteristics (Fig. 2, Fig. 4), enabling a researcher not to perceive the results of statistical parameters blindly, is highly important for the selection of the best interpolation method. Due to the limited space in the article, all the received spatial distribution maps of the observed characteristic are not included in this paper.

Research results and their discussion

In order to fi nd out which method of all the researched ones provides minimum errors and is the most accurate in modeling the observed values of average runoff depth, all the chosen statistical and deterministic methods were tested (Table 1). The observed values of runoff depth were fi rstly tested applying the Global Polynomial method. From the map (Fig. 2) we can see that the analyzing characteristic has linear (fi rst order) trend in north-west direction. After the comparison of the observed values with the modeled the root mean square error and mean error are 14,36 mm and 0,032 mm. Mean of modeled values 78,63 mm and it is only 0,04 mm different from the mean of measured values. After interpolation in 39 points observed values were bigger than modeled and most errors are between 0,8 mm and 34 mm.

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Table 1. Accuracy comparison of runoff average depth by different geostatistical methods Root mean Average Mean Root mean square Standard Mean error, Name of method square error, standard error standardized error standardized errors deviation, mm mm mm mm mm mm Global Polynomial 0,032 14,36 - - - 10,64 Local Polynomial -0,9026 11,39 - - - 14,36 Invert distance weight 0,8103 11,20 - - - 13,17 Spline -1,70 15,00 - - - 27,22 Ordinary Kriging 0,2016 10,49 13,07 0,002173 0,9449 13,04 Simple Kriging 0,4689 10,93 12,92 0,04685 0,8595 13,64 Universal Kriging 0,2078 10,81 13,20 0,005629 0,8211 13,74

Figure 2. Spatial distribution map of runoff average depth interpolating with the Global Polynomial method

The second tested method was the Local Polynomial. In the experiment was using a weight 31933,689 and power of 1. It also takes the neighborhood method, including 15 neighbors. In the interpolation with this method, the errors with the minus were noticed in 42 points, i.e. more than a half of modeled values (56%) were lower than the observed ones. This method reduces the modeled values too much. This is obvious from the mean error (-0,9026 mm) and from the mean of modeled values (77.68 mm). The highest values of runoff depth were noticed on the Žemaičių hill, and the lowest – in the southwestern part of Lithuania. The next tested method was the inverted distance weight method. The best results have been using power of 2 and the neighborhood method. There are 10 include neighbors and using the elliptical search window. After the comparison of the observed values with the modeled ones, a high value of mean error was noticed 0,8103 mm, which means that the modeled values are distant from the observed ones. Applying the IDW method, 32 point value was lower than the measured ones; the rest 43 values were supposed to be higher than the observed ones. The errors between the observed and modeled values were close to zero, i.e. 0.045 mm (Upita-Eidukiai) and 0.059 mm (Veiviržas-Mikužiai), only in two points. After the comparison of the average of observed values with the modeled (79,45 mm), they were 0,855 mm higher than the researched ones. In interpolation of values with Spline method, the countable weight point λ=0,1 was used. The higher is the degree value, the less broken view of the spatial distribution of the observed characteristic is received. In interpolation with this method, the mean error was the highest -1.70 mm the same we can say and about the root mean square error 15 mm. Interpolating with this method is received the highest standard deviation value – 27,22 mm it means that modeled values are far-fl ung from the average of interpolated characteristic. This means that this method decreases the supposed values even more than the local polynomial method. Because of such high values of mean error, these deterministic methods can be rejected as totally inappropriate for the analysis of spatial distribution of hydrologic characteristics.

255 Rural Development 2009 Advanced Geomatics Solutions for Rural Applications

The spatial distribution of runoff depth was analyzed applying the Kriging methods. First was tested ordinary Kriging. The main difference of this method is that the determination of the importance of points is based on autocorrelation and modeled variograms. First was tested all variograms models and the best result was get using exponential model. So exponential variogram was chosen for the formation of the map of the spatial distribution of runoff depth. To fi nd the predicted value, the orbicular search scheme was chosen divided into sectors in 45° angle and 10 neighbors. The most important geostatistical indicator, which shows the suitability of the method for interpolation of the chosen hydrologic characteristic, is the standard root mean square error. The closer it is to 1, the better is the chose. In the interpolation with the Ordinary Kriging method, this value is highest and equal 0,9449 mm. In addition, the lowest mean error was noticed (0.2016 mm), if compared all Kriging methods. Compare the average standard errors with the root mean squared prediction error, we can say that all Kriging methods are an overestimating of the variability of the prediction. Applying the ordinary Krigig method most errors are between 39-(-26)mm and the highest errors 39 mm was in Bernatoniu centroid (WGS). In the analysis of the scatter plot of measured and predicted values, 62% of modeled values were close to the observed ones (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. The scatter plot of modeled and observed values in interpolation with ordinary Kriging method

As it is shown in Table 1, it is best to use the ordinary Kringing method for the analysis of the spatial distribution of runoff depth because RMSE is the lowest (10,53 mm) with it. The survey of the values of standard deviation (13,04 mm), it can be noticed that the modeled values are less distant from the average while applying the ordinary Kriging method too. Compare deterministic and statistic methods the lowest mean error was applying the Global Polynomial method (0,032 mm), the highest (0,8103 mm) interpolating with Invert distance weight method and the highest negative (-1,70 mm) with Spline. Looking at these result the acurate method is Global Polynomial, but in our work this method was used only for visual inspection of trend in data. So Invert distance weight method was the most accurate of all four analyzed deterministic interpolation methods in predicting the values of runoff average depth. The root mean square error for the method was calculated 11,20 mm or 13 % of the obsorved runoff average depth mean. After the comparison of all deterministic methods with the Kriging methods, the results indicate that the ordinary Kriging method is the best to predict the spatial distribution of runoff average depth because the modeled values are the closest to the observed ones and Kriging is a multiple step process. While Kriging has a tendency to smooth distributions, these simulations maintain closer resemblance to the true shape of data. On the other hand the other deterministic methods are not derived methods, for example, Invert distance weight method only considers the distance but not the direction. So applying the Ordinary Kriging method, the values of runoff average depth in rivers, where no researches were done, can be predicted with the Figure 4. Spatial distribution map of runoff average depth h mm error of 2.46 % (Fig. 3).

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Conclusions

1. The analysis presented in the article provides just a general understanding of the geostatistical interpolation. It is important to choose an appropriate interpolation method and parameters for each method (neighbouring points; weight point; power and other) for the creation of the spatial distribution maps for different hydrologic characteristics. 2. Invert distance weight method was the most accurate of all four analyzed deterministic interpolation methods in predicting the values of runoff average depth. The root mean square error for the method was calculated to be 11,20 mm or 13 % of the obsorved runoff average depth mean. 3. The best results of the spatial distribution of runoff average depth were received applying the ordinary Kriging method when the exponential variogram is used, 10 contiguous points and the orbicular scheme divided into sectors in 45° angle are taken. Applying the Ordinary Kriging method, the missing values of observed characteristic can be predicted with the error of 2.46%.

References

Arnaud P., Bouvier C., Cisneros L. and Dominguez R. (2002). Infl uence of rainall spatial variability on fl ood prediction. Journal of Hydrology, No. 260(1-4), pp. 216-230. Bacchi B., Kattogoda N. T.(1995). Indentifi cation and calibration of spatial correlation patterns of rainfall. Journal of Hydrology, No. 165(1-4), pp. 311-348. Burrough P.A., Mcdonnell R.A. (1998). Principles of Geographical Information Systems. Oxford University Press, New York. Cressie N. (2004). Statistics for Spatial Data. JohnWiley & Sons, New York. Dumbrauskas A., Mozgeris G., Šikšnys A. (2006). Nemuno vagos dugno skaitmeninio paviršiaus modelio sudarymo ypatumai. Proceedings of Scientifi c Conference „Vandens inžinerija:šiuolaikiniai tyrimo metodai ir technologijos“, pp. 17-19. Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Environmental Systems Research Institute (ESRI) (1992). Surface Modelling with TIN. User‘s Guide.Redlands,CA:ESRI Franke R. (1982). Smooth interpolation of scattered data by local thin plate splains. Comp. &Maths. With Apls., 8(4), pp. 237-281. Gailiušis B., Jablonskis J., Kovalionkovienė M. (2001). Lietuvos upės hidrografi ja ir nuotėkis. Kaunas, Lietuvos energetikos institutas, p p. 794. Johnston K., Ver Hoef J.M., Krivoruchko K., Lucas N. (2001). Using ArcGIS Geostatistical Analyst. Redlands CA, ESRI Press, pp.300. Jordan J.D., Mellese A.M. (2003). Spatially distributed watershed mapping and modeling. Journal of Spatial Hydrology, No. 2, pp. 2-29 Jones C. B. (1997). Surface modeling, spatial interpolation. Geographical Information Systems, Computer Cartography. Chapter 12. pp. 197-213. Kumetienė A., Zakarevičius A. (2006a). Skaitmeninių reljefo modelių tikslumo sąsajų su modeliavimo parametrais ir reljefo morfometrinėmis savybėmis regresinė analizė. Geodezija ir kartografi ja, XXXIIt., Nr.3, p. 71 Kumetienė A. (2006b). Skaitmeninio reljefo modelio sudarymas skirtingais geostatistiniais reljefo modeliavimo metodais.Geografi ja, t. 42 Nr.1, pp.28-32. Kumetienė A., Sužiedelytė-Visockienė J. (2006c). Skaimeninio reljefo modelio patikslinimas mozaikos funkcija. Geografi ja, t. 42 Nr.2, pp. 35-40. Kumar V. (2006). Kriging of groundwater levels – a case study. Journal of Spatial Hydrology, No. 1, p p. 81-94. Knight Y., Jenkins G., Morris K. (2005). Comparing rainfall interpolation techniques for small subtropical urban catchments. Proceedings of Scientifi c Conference „Mdelling and Simulation“,pp. 1674-1680.Australia Marcinkonis S., Karmaza B. (2007). Fosforo akumulcijos duomenų vizualizcija potencialios taršos židiniuose. Žemdirbystė Nr. 1, pp. 64-73. Tomczak M. (1998). Spatial interpolation and its uncertainty using automated anisotropic inverts distance weighting (IDW)-Cross-validation. Journal of Geographic Information and Decision Analysis, No 2(2), pp. 18-30. Wahba G. (1990) Spline models for observational data. CBMS-NSF Regional Conference Series in Applied Mathematics 59, SIAM. Pp. 1122-1143.

Gitana VYČIENĖ. Assistant at the Department of Water Management, Water and Land Management Faculty, Lithuanian University of Agriculture.Research interests – Hydrology and GIS modeling. Address: Universiteto 10, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. +370 37 75 22 86, E-mail: [email protected]

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Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

The Dependence of Properties of the Samples Made of Unburnt Clay with Sapropel Additives on the Amount of Sapropel

Uldis Iljins Latvian University of Agriculture Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Feliksas Mikuckis, Juozas Navickas, Marius Zeilia Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The dependencies of thermo physical and absorption properties of samples made of sapropel and clay on the amount of sapropel and absolute humidity have been investigated. Sapropel in unburnt clay samples from 1% to 2% of dry mass reduces heat conductivity of samples from 18% to 30% subject to absolute humidity. Heat conductivity of dried unburnt clay samples with 2% to 4% sapropel additives does not change. When absolute humidity of samples increases during the measurements of heat conductivity, it becomes obviously dependable on the amount of sapropel. The amount of sapropel is more signifi cant to heat conductivity (Beta = -0,723) than absolute humidity (Beta = 0,672). Sapropel enhances absorption properties of samples.

Introduction

Globally getting up the costs of energy, transport and building materials people are in search of alternatives. Local cheap materials can often be used. One of them is clay. This material is ecological, clean, non-toxic and friendly to human’s health. Buildings made of clay have satisfactory microclimate. Clay can be used in manufacturing of bricks and small blocks; it suits to bearing and wall constructions in various buildings. However, not everybody can make up his mind to build houses using clay as building material. In Lithuania there are not many clay buildings of new construction. The reason why it is so can be lack of knowledge, shortage of specialists and negative attitude of people. Living in a house built using clay is considered to be a symbol of opulence. The entire blocks of living houses built of clay can be seen in France and Germany. In these states the industry of building articles made of clay has been developed well, because they invest in new technologies, create favourable conditions to prepare specialists and enshrine the nation’s traditions. If experience of foreign countries is invoked, Lithuania will also be a suitable country to build houses of clay. Such houses would be suitable for the countryside, blocks of living houses and country tourism homesteads. The building of such houses in the countryside would solve the problem of high prices, because it is rather expensive to build a house of burnt bricks. Nowadays various magazines that present general rules of building such houses are being issued. It is true to say that a good few homesteads of country tourism have been built their houses of clay. Such buildings provide homestead with authenticity and cosiness. They could be a model example for those who take a skeptical view of the construction of such houses. In constructing houses of clay we can use various nemaline substances, organic and mineral additives. Sapropel is one of organic additives that could be widely used in future (Gurskis et al., 1996; Iljins et al, 2005; Navickas et al., 2005). Not a few investigations on mixtures of clay and sapropel have already been carried out. It is noticed that sapropel can be used as heat isolating material. Samples made by mixing sapropel and clay of various concentrations have been investigated and lots of valuable information has been cumulated. Unfortunately, there are not enough data on water extraction from sapropel and prices of such technological process. The purpose of the work is to establish the dependences of sapropel and clay on thermo physical and absorption properties. The problems of the work: 1. To establish heat conductivity of samples on different amount of sapropel; 2. To establish the infl uence of sapropel amount and absolute humidity in samples on heat conductivity.

Methods of investigation and experimental results

The work deals with the investigation of samples made of sapropel and clay. Samples with 1%, 2% and 4% of sapropel have been used in various variations of investigation. The samples were formed using 21 MPa pressure; humidity of forming mass is equal to 7%. Formed samples were dried at a room temperature till constant mass. Then they were kept in a thermostat at a temperature of 1050C till their mass did not change. The components of forming mass, formed and dried samples were weighed with 0,01 gr precision digital balance EK – 610i. Polished samples were being put over water in a thermostat at a temperature of 320C (Navickas et al., 2005) and kept for 216 hours. After that the heat conductivity was measured at different absolute humidity. The samples were weighed before and after each measurement. Heat conductivity was measured using heat conductivity gauge FOX 200 created by LaserComp Company (Navickas, 2008; FOX 200, 1999–2005; Kasperiūnaitė et al, 2009). The received dependencies of heat conductivity and

261 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area density on absolute humidity and the amount of sapropel are presented in Fig.1 and Fig.2. Calculated trend linear equations and their coeffi cients R2 (0,9991–0,993) show that experimental results are reliable. The graphs of the dependence of heat conductivity on the amount of sapropel in a sample when absolute humidity of different samples is different calculated according to a trend linear equation are diagrammed in Fig.3. The dependence of absolute humidity of samples on the amount of sapropel having different duration of keeping samples over water is presented in Fig.4.

Analysis of experimental results

Experimental results presented in Fig.1 show that heat conductivity of samples is being reduced by the amount of sapropel. Heat conductivity in the samples made of pure clay and in similar conditions changes from 0,6 to 0,75 W/ (mK), when absolute humidity in samples increases from 0 to 5% (Kasperiūnaitė, 2009). It can be seen in Fig.1 that when the additives of sapropel are equal to 1%, heat conductivity in a dry sample is 0,32 W/(mK). When absolute humidity of a sample is equal to 5%, heat conductivity is about 0,47 W/ (mK), id est grows 47% in respect of a dry sample. When absolute humidity of a sample is 8%, heat conductivity reaches about 0,52 W/mK.

Figure 1. Dependencies of heat conductivity λ of samples with different amount of sapropel on absolute humidity W

Figure 2. Dependencies of density of samples with different amount of sapropel on absolute humidity

When the amount of sapropel is increased, heat conductivity in samples reduces, though, when it is within 2 and 4%, heat conductivity of dry samples hardly depends on the concentration of sapropel (Fig.1 and Fig.3). When absolute humidity of samples is higher during measurements, heat conductivity increases signifi cantly.

262 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

It can be explained by the fact that when the amount of sapropel is enhanced, small particles of sapropel obstruct capillaries and in such case the diffusion of air and vapour lessens. The graph (Fig.1) shows that comparing samples with 2% and 4% of sapropel we can notice that absolute humidity of samples is 5%, heat conductivity differs 0,06 W/mK, and the difference of heat conductivity of samples having 1% and 4% of sapropel respectively is 0,15 W/mK, when absolute humidity is 5%. The growth of density (Fig. 2), when the amount of sapropel is above 2%, can be explained by enhanced pull among the particles of sapropel, id est reduction of the volume of a sample.

Figure 3. Dependence of heat conductivity λ on the amount of sapropel at different absolute humidity. Numbers at symbols mean absolute humidity W during the course of measurements

When absolute humidity of samples increases, heat conductivity of sapropel particles increases too. Heat contact among clay particles becomes better and heat transfer grows more intensively, because air in capillaries has more water vapour. However, when the amount of sapropel in samples increases, the particles of sapropel obstructs capillaries; consequently, the dependence of heat conductivity on the humidity of a sample becomes more pronounced. The received results of heat conductivity were processed using SPSS – 15 programme applying linear regression (Table 1).

Table 1. The results of statistic analysis of the dependences of heat conductivity Size Non-standardized coeffi cient B Standardized coeffi cient Beta p Constant 0,384 - 0,000 Amount of sapropel -0,041 -0,726 0,000 Humidity of a sample 0,018 0,672 0,000

From the results given in Table 1 it can be seen that they are not statistically reliable (p < 0,001), though it is enough to p to be less than 0,05 (Čekanavičius, 2000). According to non-standardized coeffi cient B heat conductivity λ is expressed by the equation of linear regression:

= − + 0,384 0,041x 0,018W Here: λ – heat conductivity W K-1m-1; x – the amount of sapropel in dry mass in %; W – absolute humidity of a sample %.

According to standardized coeffi cient Beta the conclusion that the amount of sapropel is statistically more signifi cant (Beta = -0,723) than the humidity of a sample can be drawn. The coeffi cient of determination of a received model R2 = 0,880. It proves that 88% of heat conductivity λ dispersion can be explained according to a model of linear regression. Absorption properties have been investigated in the work too. The dependence of absolute humidity of samples on the amount of sapropel having different duration of keeping samples over water is presented in Fig.4.

263 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Figure 4. The dependence of absolute humidity of samples on the amount of sapropel when the duration of samples being over water is different. Numbers at symbols mean duration of samples being over water in hours

We can see that inserting 1% of sapropel the absorption capability of samples increases, further, enhancing the amount of sapropel to 2% the absorption capability reduces and then, enhancing the amount of sapropel to 4%, the absorption capability increases. Analogous dependence is observed in samples formed using 16 ÷ 26 MPa pressure. The maximum of absorption capability in samples formed using 30 ÷ 40 MPa pressure is observed at 2% of the amount of sapropel. In our opinion, such variation of absorption capability can be explained as follows: fi rstly, increasing the amount of sapropel, the diameter of capillaries lessens, and additional pressure in capillary tubes is enhanced. The phenomena increase water penetration into deeper layers of a sample. However, increasing the concentration of sapropel summary diameter also increases, the larger amount of capillaries is shielded and absorption capability lessens. When the amount of sapropel is over 2%, the properties to absorp humidity appear in sapropel. The results of absorptional capability investigation have been processed using program SPSS15. The results of analysis show that the duration of being over water is statistically more important to absorptional capability than the amount of sapropel. When forming pressure enhances from 16 MPa to 40 MPa, the standardized coeffi cient Beta, which describes the importance of the duration being over water, changes respectively from 0,81 to 0,69. Analogically, standardized coeffi cient Beta, which describes the importance of the amount of sapropel, changes from 0,08 to 0,28. We can see that the importance of the amount of sapropel enhances when forming pressure increases, and the importance of duration being over water – lessens.

Findings

1. Sapropel in unburnt clay samples from 1% to 2% of dry mass reduces heat conductivity of samples from 18% to 30% subject to absolute humidity. 2. Heat conductivity of dried unburnt clay samples with 2% to 4% sapropel additives does not change. 3. When absolute humidity of samples increases during the measurements of heat conductivity, it becomes obviously dependable on the amount of sapropel. 4. The amount of sapropel is more signifi cant to heat conductivity (Beta = -0,723) than absolute humidity (Beta = 0,672). 5. When forming pressure of samples increases from 16 MPa to 40 MPa the importance of the amount of sapropel on absorptional capability also increases; the importance of duration of keeping samples over water – lessens.

References

Vydas Čekanavičius, Gediminas Murauskas (2000). Statistika ir jos taikymai, Vilnius. Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Feliksas Mikuckis, Juozas Navickas. (2009). Nedegto molio bandinių termofi zikinės savybės. ISSN 1648-116X LŽŪU MOKSLO DARBAI. Nr. 82 (35), TECHNOLOGIJOS MOKSLAI. Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Juozas Navickas, Imants Ziemelis.( 2009). Thermal and absorption properties of unburnt clay samples/Proceedings of 8 th international scientifi c conference: Engineering for rural development. Jelgava. FOX200 and FOX300 Series Instruments Manual (1999 – 2005). LaserComp Inc. Vincas Gurskis, Juozas Navickas, Aleksandras Vai vila. (1996). The infl uence of aditional elements on the building materials characteristics of unburned clay // Proceedings of international scientifi c conference hydraulic engineering and land management, Kaunas, p. 58–59. Uldis Iljins, Juozas Navickas, Imants Ziemelis. (2005). Application of linear regression while investigating the infl uence of lime and organic sapropel on the properties of unburnt clay samples. – Proceedings of International Scientifi c Conference “Agricultural Engineering Problems”. – Jelgava.

264 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Juozas Navickas, Vincas Gurskis (2005). Kalkinio ir organinio sapropelio įtaka nedegto molio bandinių savybėms // Vagos. ISSN 1648-116X. Nr. 67(20), p. 95–100. (CAB Abstracts). Juozas Navickas (2008). Agrofi zika ir agrometeorologija: mokomoji knyga, Akademija, Lietuvos žemės ūkio universitetas.

Uldis ILJINS. Prof., dr.habil.of technical science, Latvia University of Agriculture, department of physics. 2 Liela St., Jelgava, LV- 3001, Latvia, e-mail: [email protected], Tel.: 271 3005675 Dalia KASPERIŪNAITĖ. PhD student at the department of Physics , Institute of Fundamental Sciences studies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r. Tel.(8-37) 752363, e-mail: [email protected] Feliksas MIKUCKIS. Doctor of Technologies (Technical) science, assoc. prof., head of the Department of Building Constructions, Faculty of Water and Land Management, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: 10, Universiteto St, Akademija, LT – 53361, Kaunas District. Telephone: (8-37) 752322, e-mail: [email protected] Juozas NAVICKAS. Assoc.prof., doctor of natural science at the department of Physics , Institute of Fundamental Sciences studies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r. Tel.(8-37) 752363, e-mail: Juozas. [email protected] Marius ZEILIA. Student at the Faculty of Water and Land Management, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r.

265 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Investigation of Thermophysical Properties of Unburnt Clay Samples with Sapropel Additives

Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Juozas Navickas, Julius Vilkas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The article deals with the dependence of heat conductivity, density and bending strength in unburnt clay samples made of forming mass with 7% humidity and having 2% of sapropel additives on formation pressure of the samples; and the dependence of heat conductivity of samples on their humidity and formation pressure during the period of investigation. It is established that the samples, which are made of forming mass with 7% absolute humidity, are being formed at 16 MPa and higher formation pressure. Heat conductivity and bending strength of the samples formed at 16 ÷ 35 MPa pressure increases enhancing formation pressure. Heat conductivity and bending strength of the samples formed at pressure over 35 MPa reduces enhancing formation pressure. When absolute humidity of a sample increases, heat conductivity also increases and increases the most to the samples formed at 35 MPa pressure. Absolute humidity of samples (Beta = 0.766) is more signifi cant for the prognosis of heat conductivity than formation pressure (Beta = 0.326) of samples.

Introduction

Unburnt clay can be used as building material. In pre-war Lithuania clay was mostly used in construction of household buildings, nevertheless, dwelling-houses were being built too. Construction using unburnt clay is considerably cheaper than using bricks of burnt clay. Earthenware houses have favourable air humidity and friendly microclimate. Suitably chosen mixture of clay and organic additives as well as the thickness of walls make clay houses fairly warm. Clay is ecologically clean, does not cause health problems, therefore it is suitable for the construction of dwelling- houses. Clay was used and is still used not only in Lithuania but in other countries (ancient Mesopotamia, Afghanistan, Egypt, France, and Germany) too. However, unburnt clay has rather large density and heat conductivity. In order to lessen it various additives are used and one of the most popular is sapropel. Sapropel is silt from fresh water and swamps. It has lots of useful organic materials that are composed from remains of plankton and bentosi organisms and silt (sand, clay, lime). It has up to 30% of ash, nitrogen, phosphorus, potassium compounds, microelements and some vitamins (Ciūnys et al., 1994). Sapropel is extracted during the works of lake cleaning (Katkevičius et al., 1998). The main problem of manufacturing is drainage and desiccation. Generally sapropel is dehumidifi ed naturally in glass bowl sites using various technical means. Naturally lake sapropel is particularly wet (85 – 97%). Investigations on sapropel usage in construction were started to fulfi l in former Soviet Union in the 1950s. Scientists from Latvia (Braks, 1971), Belarus (Lopotko et al., 1985) and Russia (Viriasov et al., 1997) dissertated the subject. Organic sapropel as a binder was used in the production of panels made of pressed wood sawdust and shavings and heat isolating materials. The other trend of investigation involved the usage of sapropel as burning additive in ceramics industry. It was established that sapropel enhances the porosity of ceramic fragments and improves its agglomeration. In Lithuania the investigations of sapropel usage in the manufacturing of building materials started only in 1992. The suitability of sapropel in making heat isolating materials and ceramic articles was investigated then. As far back as 1950s in Latvia, Belarus and Germany investigations were carried out on purpose to use sapropel in the industry of building articles. There were interests in sticking properties of sapropel (Kurzo, 2005). Organic sapropel with the amount of nitrogen 5 – 7% has enough sticking properties. Nitrogen and free amino acids have the largest contribution to such properties. Heat insulation panels from sapropel, boon, mineral cotton and sawdust were produced in Belarus. In Lithuania in 1992 the investigation of heat insulation panels made of waste and organic sapropel was introduced in Heat Insulation Institute (Žvironaitė, 1997). Grinded boon and sawdust were used as aggregate. The scientists from Kaunas Technological University tried to use limy and organic sapropel for manufacturing of ceramic articles (Mandeikytė, 1997). Dried and grinded sapropel was mixed into clay. It was established that when sapropel amounts up to 7 – 10% the articles are torrefi ed quicker, they do not deform in the process of burning and their strength and water permeability are almost unchanged. Organic sapropel is applied to manufacture ceramics of porous structure, which fi ts all the requirements of heat isolating articles. It was established that sapropel provides unburnt clay samples with more positive properties than other additives. The infl uence of limy and organic sapropel as an additive on the density, linear shrinkage, bending and compressing strength and heat conductivity was investigated (Gurskis et al., 1996). It was established that organic sapropel and limy one as an additive function irregularly. The density of unburnt clay samples while drying depends on the sort and amount of inserted sapropel. Limy sapropel reduces the density of air dried samples and organic sapropel enhances it. The dependence of heat conductivity of unburnt clay samples on the amount of organic sapropel at different humidity of samples was investigated (Navickas et al., 2005).

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After inserting 20% of organic sapropel, the heat conductivity of unburnt clay samples reduces 40%. Such infl uence of organic sapropel on clay is positive in producing material for building walls. When humidity of unburnt clay samples increases, heat conductivity increases too. When humidity of samples is maximal, heat conductivity is almost signifi cantly less than in analogous samples of pure clay, though maximal humidity of pure clay is almost twice less than in unburnt clay samples with 20% of organic sapropel as an additive. The purpose of the work is to investigate the dependence of heat conductivity, density and bending strength in unburnt clay samples having 2% of sapropel additives on formation pressure of the samples; and the dependence of heat conductivity of samples on their absolute humidity during the period of investigation.

Methods of investigation

Samples made of sapropel and clay mixture were investigated in the work. The amount of sapropel was equal to 2%. Clay for samples was taken from atijai clay quarry in Kaunas District and organic sapropel from Lake Dobilija. Samples were formed using different pressing pressure and 7% absolute humidity of forming mass. Formed samples were dried in a room temperature till constant mass. After that they were kept in a thermostat at a temperature of 105ºC till their mass remained unchanged. The components of forming mass, formed and dried samples were being weighed by 0,01 g accuracy digital analytical balance EK – 610i. Samples were weighed in air and water to establish their density. Archimedes‘s principle was applied to calculate the density of samples according to the formula: m = o t + , (1) − o mo mv

here mo – mass of a sample in air; mv – mass of a sample in water; t – density of water in set temperature;

o – density of air. Heat conductivity was measured using the gauge of heat conductivity FOX 200 created by LaserComp Company (Kasperiūnaitė et al., 2009).

Experimental results

Samples made of unburnt clay with 2% additive of sapropel have been investigated in the work. Humidity of samples forming mass was 7%. The dependence λ of the heat conductivity of samples on absolute humidity in different formation pressure is presented in Fig.1. According to the results, it can be seen that the heat conductivity of samples, formed using 16 MPa forming pressure, is the least, and, formed using 35 MPa forming pressure, is the highest. Calculated trend lines show large reliability of experimental results (coeffi cient R2 changes within 0,9844 and 0,9994). According to the equations that describe received experimental points, the λ dependence on formation pressure pf, when absolute humidity of samples is different, is presented in Fig.2. According to the results shown in Fig. 1 and 2, we can see that when formation pressure pf increases, heat conductivity also increases, and at 35 MPa, when humidity reaches maximal value and is further enhanced to 40 MPa, lessens. The peak speed of growth is observed at 16 – 21 and 31 – 35 MPa. When the humidity of samples increases during measuring, the dependence of heat conductivity on formation pressure pf also increases. The dependence of the density of dry samples with 2% additive of sapropel on formation pressure is presented in Fig.3. We can see that the presence of sapropel lessens density of samples. If the density of samples made of pure clay (Kasperiūnaitė et al., 2009; Kasperiūnaitė et al., 2006) in the interval of formation pressure from 15 MPa to 40 MPa depends on pressure almost linearly, samples having 2% additives of sapropel have dependence. Originally, increasing formation pressure, the dependence of density on pressure is almost linear. However, when formation pressure is 30 MPa and more, the density of samples are constant. The strength while bending has been investigated in samples too. According to the results (Fig.4) we can see that when formatting pressure of samples increases, the strength while bending also increases, and at 35 MPa reaches maximal value (fm=1,4 MPa), and increasing formatting pressure further till 40 MPa, the strength while bending lessens. The largest strength while bending is observed in the range of 21 – 26 MPa. The least strength while bending (fm=0,2MPa) is reached at the least formatting pressure 16 MPa.

Analysis of experimental results

Heat conductivity in materials is proportional to density. However, radiation, diffusion and condensation process with steam-heat (secret steaming) together with conduction mechanism are observed in heterogeneous materials. Air and water steam get warm over the lower plate, which temperature is 35 ºC, and gain height owing to diffusion and convection. The upper plate has temperature of 30 ºC. Here a part of water steam (the part which exceeds

267 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area partial pressure of saturated water steam) condenses and steam-heat (secret steaming) exudes. It can be proved by the increase of heat conductivity, when absolute humidity of a sample is 0 – 2% (Fig.2). In further enhance of humidity the increase of heat conductivity lessens. It proves that when formation pressure increases, the particles of a sample get closer, the volume of pores lessens and, in turn, heat transfer in capillaries of a sample also lessens owing to diffusion and transfer of secret steam-heat. However, at the same time heat transfer from particle to particle increases too, because reduced volume of pores enhances contact surface of touching particles. The fact that at pressure of 35 MPa the maximal of heat conductivity is observed (Fig.2) does not contradict the dependence of density on formation pressure. Particles of a sample are the closest at such pressure. When such pressure is exceeded water with small particles is being withdrawn increasingly. Therefore, porosity of a sample enhances, thus reducing the strength while bending (Fig.4) and at the same time heat conductivity (Fig.1).

Figure 1. The dependence of heat conductivity of samples with 2% additives of sapropel on absolute humidity at different formation pressure. Numbers at symbols mean formatting pressure pf

Figure 2. The dependence of heat conductivity on formation pressure at different absolute humidity of samples. Numbers at symbols mean absolute humidity Wb during the course of measurements

The received results have been processed applying programme SPSS – 15. Linear regression has been used for the analysis. The coeffi cient of determination of a model has been equal to 0,76, and it shows that according to a model of linear regression 76% of heat conductivity λ dispersion is explained. Formation pressure pf and absolute humidity of a sample Wb during measuring are statistically signifi cant (p < 0,001) (Čekanavičius, 2000) for the prognosis of heat conductivity. The results of model analysis are presented in Table 1.

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Table 1. The dependence of heat conductivity of a model on formation pressure pf and humidity Wb. The results of analysis Non-standardized coeffi cient Standardized coeffi cient Size p B beta Constant 0,218 - 0,000

Formation pressure of samples pf 0,002 0,326 0,000

Absolute humidity of samples Wb 0,017 0,766 0,000

Figure 3. The dependence of density of samples made of pure clay (0%) and with 2% additives of sapropel on formation pressure pf

Figure 4. The dependence of average values of strength of the samples with 2% additives of sapropel on formation pressure pf

According to non-standardized coeffi cients presented in table 1 we can write a linear regression equation, which describes experimental results: = + + 0,218 0,002p f 0,017Wb . (2)

Here pf – formation pressure of samples, MPa; Wb – absolute humidity of samples, %.

It can be seen from the values of non-standardized coeffi cient B, that when formation pressure increases 1 MPa, heat conductivity increases 0,002 W/(Km), and when absolute humidity increases 1%, heat conductivity increases 0,017 W/(Km). According to standardized coeffi cients we can draw the conclusion that in samples absolute humidity is more important during measurements than formation pressure pf. After processing statistically the data on the strength bending the following results have been received. The coeffi cient of model’s determination R2 is equal to 0,752, that is 75,2% of bending strength dispersion can be explained according to the model of linear regression. Formation pressure pf is statistically signifi cant (p < 0,001) to bending strength. Data explaining a model are presented in Table 2.

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Table 2. The results of analysis of the dependence of model’s bending strength on formation pressure of samples Non-standardized coeffi cient Standardized coeffi cient Size p B beta Constant -0,638 - 0,002 Formation pressure of samples 0,055 0,867 0,000

According to the data presented in Table 2 we can write a linear regression equation, which describes bending strength: = − fm 0,055p f 0,638 (3) From this equation we can see that after the enhancement of formation pressure of samples 1 MPa bending strength increases 0,055 MPa. According to standardized coeffi cient Beta the conclusion that pressure pf is important to the strength of a sample can be drawn.

Conclusions

1. Samples that are formed from 7% absolute humidity forming mass are set at 16 MPa and higher formation pressure. 2. The strength while bending of the samples that are set at 16 ÷ 35 MPa pressure increases enhancing formation pressure. 3. The strength while bending of the samples that are set at 35 MPa pressure reduces enhancing formation pressure. 4. When absolute humidity of a sample increases during measurement, its heat conductivity also increases and becomes booming for samples formed at 35 MPa pressure. 5. Absolute humidity of samples (beta = 0,766) is more important than formation pressure of samples (beta = 0,326) for the prognosis of heat conductivity

References

Ciūnys Antanas, Lazauskienė Laima-Lilija, Katkevičius Leonas.( 1994). Sapropelis – mūsų lobis. Vilnius, 30 p. Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Feliksas Mikuckis, Juozas Navickas. (2009). Nedegto molio bandinių termofi zikinės savybės. ISSN 1648-116X LŽŪU MOKSLO DARBAI. Nr. 82 (35), TECHNOLOGIJOS MOKSLAI. Dalia Kasperiūnaitė, Juozas Navickas, Imants Ziemelis.(2009). Thermal and absorption properties of unburnt clay samples/Proceedings of 8 th international scientifi c conference: Engineering for rural development. Jelgava. Gurskis V., Navickas J., Vai vila K.A. (1996). The infl uence of aditional elements on the building materials characteristics of unburned clay// Proceedings of international scientifi c conference hydraulic engineering and land management, Kaunas, p. 58–59. Iljins U., Navickas J., Ziemelis I. (2005). Application of linear regression while investigating the infl uence of lime and organic sapropel on the properties of unburnt clay samples. – Proceedings of International Scientifi c Conference “Agricultural Engineering Problems”. – Jelgava. Katkevičius Leonas, Ciūnys Antanas, Eugenija Bakšienė. (1998). Ežerų sapropelis žemės ūkiui. Vilnius, 92 p. Mandeikytė N. (1997). Keramika su sapropelio priedais//Tarptautinė konferencija. Vandens telkinių būklė ir gerinimo metodai. LŽŪU, p. 114-117. Navickas, Juozas; Gurskis, Vincas. (2005). Kalkinio ir organinio sapropelio įtaka nedegto molio bandinių savybėms//Vagos. ISSN 1648-116X. Nr. 67(20) , p. 95–100. (CAB Abstracts). Žvironaitė J. (1997). Sapropelio panaudojimo statybinių medžiagų pramonėje galimybės//Tarptautinė konferencija. Vandens telkinių būklė ir gerinimo metodai. LŽŪU, p. 112-113. Бракш Н.А. (1971). Сапропелевые отложения и пути их исползования // Рига – Зинатне. с. 248-258. Вирясов Г.П., Иванова Л.А., Федотов А.И. Основные направления использования сапропелей//International scientifi c conference “Improvement of natural lakes and artifi cial water reservoirs. Kaunas, 1997, p. 63-65. Курзо Б.В. (2005). Закономерности формирования и проблемы использования сапропеля. Минск, 224 с. Лопотко М.З., Пеком Л.П. и др. (1985). Применение сапропелей в производстве строительных материалов//Торфяная промышленность. Т. 12, с. 24-25.

Dalia KASPERIŪNAITĖ. PhD student at the department of Physics , Institute of Fundamental Sciences studies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r. Tel.(8-37) 752363, e-mail: [email protected] Juozas NAVICKAS. Assoc.Prof., doctor of natural science at the department of Physics , Institute of Fundamental Sciences studies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r. Tel.(8-37) 752363, e-mail: Juozas. [email protected] Julius VILKAS. Student at the Faculty of Water and Land Management, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Universiteto str. 10, Akademija Lt-53361 Kauno r.

270 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Development of Information Infrastructure Using Optical Fibre Network Created by RAIN Project

Rimantas Kavaliūnas*, Ona Martišienė**, Stasys Martišius* * Kaunas University of Technology, Lithuania ** Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

According to the Resolution of Government of the Republic of Lithuania “On approval of Lithuanian broadband infrastructure development strategy for 2005-2010 year. 16 November 2005 Nr. 1231 has been prepared broadband network project RAIN for rural areas and during its implementation optical fi ber cables infrastructure has been created. This infrastructure reaches all municipalities and rural elderships and about 350 schools. Projects that use this infrastructure: - Academic and Research Network in Lithuania (LITNET) Internet service provided for rural schools; - Services of Secure State Data Communication Network (SSDCN) secure Internet service provided for municipalities and rural elderships; - Internet service provided for rural libraries “Libraries for Innovation”; - The project “Development of Rural Internet Access Points network”; - Enable the commercial Internet service providers to provide Internet services to residents and businesses. - The infrastructure used by 330 rural schools, 564 working places in elderships and municipalities, created 845 public Internet access points. During 2009, Internet service will be provided to the 302 libraries.

Introduction

European Union countries are constantly looking for new strategies to increase their IT abilities. Global trends and challenges forces to look for new “formula of success” and growth factors. There is continual movement to digital broadband channels and broadband Internet. Despite the overall growth of broadband Internet, in remote and rural regions is limited because of high costs raised due to low population density and remoteness. Therefore, the commercial incentives to invest in broadband Internet in these areas is not enough. People in rural areas often do not have a computer or can’t pay for the Internet, so often a school or library is the only place where people have access to the Internet. The article describes the usage, work process and the expected development plans of optical fi ber cables infrastructure created in accordance with the RAIN (Rural Area Information technology broadband Network) project. This infrastructure is managed by Government owned company “Placiajuostis internetas” - non profi t organization which objective is to develop broadband access for rural administrative institutions and prepare background for broadband services for members of rural communities. This is a Internet service provided for rural schools by Academic and Research Network in Lithuania (LITNET), secure Internet service provided for municipalities and rural elderships managed by State Enterprise „Infostruktura”, computerization of the rural libraries according the project “Libraries for progress” and a public Internet access points network development, carried out by the Association VIPT [11]. Purpose of investigation - to present and aware the information infrastructure development in rural areas. Tasks - to review the use of optical fi ber cable network and show how using the efforts of staff of different departments and various funding sources may be created access to high-level information services for rural customers. Commercial service providers offer such quality Internet service for the much higher price, or does not offer utterly. Object - usage of the optical fi ber cables network created by RAIN project. Research methods - in this article, the basic methodology is the review and analysis of Internet service for rural schools, elderships, libraries, public Internet access points on the basis of the of data from different projects.

The results of the study

Broadband Internet before RAIN project

Lithuania broadband infrastructure has been suffi ciently well developed only for business sites. According data from RRT (Communications Regulatory Authority), at the end of 2007 there was 507.6 thousand. broadband Internet users in Lithuania. 45.6% of them connected to the internet using ADSL (Asymmetric Digital Subscriber Line) technology, 18.7% via optical communication lines, 12.8% via cable TV networks, the 12.4 used local (LAN) networks, 10.1% used wireless connections, and 0.3% used a dedicated telephone line [3]. In RRT report a 128 kbps bandwidth and faster Internet access was considered as broadband. Most of the consumers used the TEO LT AB DSL access, which speed is from 128 kbps to 8 Mbps, (20 Mbps, available only from 2008, and is very limited). This technology is available not only in cities but in rural areas. However, the coverage in the cities was 99% but in the villages - 67.5%, and penetration, respectively 9.2% and 3.0% [13].

271 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

According data from Department of Statistics for 2007 only 51.4% of general education schools, and 53.1% of vocational schools were connected to broadband Internet. Only 52.7% of libraries had a computerized working places for consumers and there were 475 public Internet access points [13]. In rural areas these fi gures were signifi cantly lower [12]. The four largest Internet service providers – TEO LT AB , Private Company “Bite GSM” and Private Company “Omnitel”, Stock Company “Lithuanian radio and television center” extended network infrastructure to the whole territory of Lithuania, while smaller services providers focus on the 5 most attractive for business major Lithuanian cities. As for the distant rural areas, and areas where live less than 1000 residents is not appropriate to speak about competitive environment, as only 4% of these areas had access to broadband services offered by TEO LT AB. Fixed and wireless operators now provide access to enough high-speed Internet at home to 2.5 million. Lithuanian population (In 2006 Lithuania was 3.384 million. population). According to the Statistical Department at the Government in 2006 Internet access had only 35% of users. In the cities Internet used 40.2% of households and in the villages - only 16.4% [4]. Lithuanian rural areas live about 1.1 million people, has more than 11 000 organizations, including the 1600 training institutions, 1400 medical institutions, more than 1000 libraries, 1200 of local action groups. Uneven development of infrastructure and social factors led to the digital divide between urban and rural populations and between the public sector institutions: schools, libraries, elderships. In order to standardize data transmission capabilities, Lithuania made a number of specifi c projects. Since 1991, the LITNET program whose main purpose - to coordinate development and to provide the computer network and new information technology services to universities and training institutions. Since 2001, the program included educational institutions. Since 1995, the State computer network (hereinafter - VIKT) provides Internet and data services to public authorities and institutions. From 2004 VIKT is transformed into a secure national data transmission network (SSDCN). SE “Infostruktūra” administered SSDCN and this provides a separate from the Internet network and secure communications services to public authorities, and also provides links with the EU administration during TESTA (Trans Europien Services for Telematics between administrations) network. Before the RAIN project, this network used ADSL technology, and radio lines.

RAIN project

According to the Resolution of Government of the Republic of Lithuania “On Lithuanian broadband infrastructure development strategy for 2005-2010 year of approval.” 2005, 16 November Nr. 1231 has been set up Rural Area Information technology broadband Network (RAIN) project [1]. RAIN - rural broadband network in information technology. According to the RAIN project the broadband network infrastructure in areas, where the infrastructure does not exist, has been developed. This project seek to eliminate the digital divide between urban and rural. Its basis is the optical channels in rural areas for the whole of the local administration and other users (approximately 3300 km). RAIN uses the latest technology - the optical infrastructure. Guaranteed technological neutrality and open access to this infrastructure to all existing and new operators. Infrastructure managed by a non-profi t public bodies, which leases it to all operators. The controller does not have the right to supply services to end users as the service provider to ensure competition in all areas. Since 2005 September, with the support of the European Regional Development Fund, are invested 21.5 million euros. It is also expected that RAIN will encourage existing and new commercial operators to provide broadband Internet services to rural populations, NGO-s, public institutions and enterprises. RAIN will create favorable conditions for economic and cultural activities. Waiting for the RAIN will improve access to rural residents to use ICT for training, creativity, and innovation. It is assumed that RAIN can become a model for the central and eastern European countries. The RAIN project is included in the 2005 World Summit on the Information Society (World Summit on the Information Society) Golden Book. Fiber-optic infrastructure Built over 3,300 km of optical fi ber cables. Equipped with 509 RAIN network nodes, which connected the 467 elderships with centers in 51 municipalities. The optical network connected to the 330 rural schools. During the construction phase different municipalities are not connected with each other. Where you can lease optic fi bers from other infrastructure owners, RAIN fi ber optic cable lines are not installed [2]. Infrastructure completed in the autumn of 2007. Since 2008, this infrastructure is put into service by inviting all existing and new operators to complete the last mile and deliver services to end users. Created infrastructure is used by several projects and commercial internet providers (fi gure 1).

272 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Figure 1. RAIN infrastructure based projects

Internet service provided for rural schools using a network of optical fi ber cables, created according the RAIN project

At the end of 2006 LITNET provided Internet services for over 860 educational and training institutions, including 693 general education schools. Rural Schools were connected to Internet using radio communication lines, which were slow and unreliable. At the end of the 2007 RAIN network cables have reached over 350 rural schools. Use of RAIN infrastructure allowed to reach higher speed and signifi cantly increase network reliability. Expanding the network of schools were equipped 9 new LITNET network nodes in the district centers. Installation of new network nodes allowed to optimize the overall optical and radio acting network. Many interregional radio links and radio links from the center to the intermediate points in the schools, which were connected through the optical lines have been cancelled [4]. The plan foresees to connect 79 schools in 2007, but due to the delays in the installation of the optical infrastructure in 2007 have been connected only 6 schools in Silute district. During the year 2008 has been connected 198 schools in Thirty districts. In 2009 connected 45 schools in fi ve districts. Total of 249 schools in 36 districts [6]. However, in 2009 stopped funding and further development stopped. Searching for the technological possibilities to keep network operation and proceed connection of new schools. Often the school and the eldership is close to one another or even in the same building. Schools are connected to the LITNET network, and the elderships connected to the SSDCN network using different fi bers of the same optic cable and paying for the both fi bers. Data transfer speed through optical fi ber can be large, so there is no need to use the few parallel fi bers. It was decided to connect schools and elderships using the same fi ber, which is connected to elderships, and share the tax between the eldership and the school. However, a problem rose how transmitting data through the same fi ber to separate the public information for schools from the secure information in SSDCN network. The solution was found and Simnas school and eldership in Alytus district have been connected using a single fi ber.

Secure State Data Communication Network (SSDCN)

SE Infostruktūra administered SSDCN and this provides a separate from the Internet secure network communications services to public authorities, and also provides a link with the EU during the administrations of TESTA (Trans Europien Services for Telematics between administrations) network. SSDCN aim is to develop a safe state and municipal network to link all the records and public information systems, to ensure the safe and effi cient delivery of data to the authorities of the Republic of Lithuania, access to the EU and Member State administrations, exchange of data between administrations according the program (IDA), telecommunications networks, the integration of county administrations, municipalities and elderships to secure information systems, public data transmission network, to ensure the personal data security. In 2008 February 13, the network connected 550 elderships and 14 working places in the municipalities - a total of 564 working places [5]. SSDCN is used to: - Declaration of residence place; - Simplifi ed administration of direct payments; - The boundary maps data transmission. There are a whole Lithuania covering SSDCN-RAIN infrastructure (to the elderships), in which may be provided the following services: 1. Development of new e-government services in regions - A2A (administration-administration), as well as some of the A2B (administration-to-business) and A2C services (administration-citizens). 2. The infrastructure in line with EU requirements for network security - if necessary, with minor improvements, it can transmit information to the security classifi cation.

273 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

3. To ensure connection resistance and resilience (by analogy to the EU TESTA network) is a technical possibility to have a basic (eg, optic fi ber RAIN) and backup (eg, wireless) line. 4. The opportunity to quickly integrate into the European Union e-government systems. 5. All the network of public authorities, users can chat with each other free of charge by phone (VoIP). In autumn 2007 there were 20,000 potential users in public institutions, 2200 of which in elderships. Unfortunately, only half of them still really enjoyed this opportunity [8]. The new phase of structural funds for 2007-2013 foresees the main SSDCN development directions will be regions [10].

Library Information Supply (Libraries for Innovation)

The project in 2008-2011 is carried out by Lithuanian National Martynas Mažvydas Library, together with the Lithuanian Ministry of Culture. The problem: - Equipping all the perspective and yet non-computerized public libraries with public Internet access, and expanding and modernizing public Internet access in the libraries already having it; - Strengthening, in essence, information competence of public libraries’ staff and helping them to become active promoters and helpers of the local community in mastering the capacities of information technologies. The estimated project impact on the libraries and the communities: - 859 libraries will be provided with approximately 4,000 computers; - 861 libraries will be equipped with broadband Internet connectivity; - 11 training centers with the capacity of 220 training places will be set up; - Approximately 2,000 librarians will receive training; - Approximately 50,000 of the Lithuanian adults will undergo the training in computer literacy; - The public access Internet facilities will reach the adults and seniors, as well as the disabled and other socially disadvantaged groups; - General public will involve more actively in the use of the public access Internet facilities for job hunting, learning, e-services, communication and other activities. The importance of the project In Lithuania is still too many people and groups who are unable to use information technology opportunities. The project will help many people who still did not have the conditions, the uptake of information technology opportunities for the receipt of the information provision and communication, and use it in its activities and daily life. Phases of the project The project is divided into two phases. During the fi rst stage (2008) only 193 city libraries participated. In the, the second phase (2009-2010 years) will participate the 654 rural libraries. This division into phases and participation of the city libraries in the fi rst stage is based on the fact that the city libraries, and their subsidiaries and divisions are better prepared for participation in the project. They have a larger premises, the majority connected to the Internet. Meanwhile, the computer equipment is a serious lack of them, but a large part of the computer equipment - more than 4-5 years old. Rural Libraries in preparation for additional time is needed, so they are included in the second, 2009-2010 phase. The main focus on municipalities so far has been focused in rural libraries, which participated in the 2003-2005 Alliance “Window to the Future” and the Ministry of the Interior, the public access to the web projects (PHARE VIPT project, 280 sites), as well as the Ministry of the Interior, the public Internet access points to the development of the project (VIPT2 project, 2006-2008) and was equipped with computers and Internet access in February 2008 (384 objects). 2009-2010 period will be more favorable for rural libraries to connect to the Internet, as they have already developed and put into service in rural areas, broadband internet infrastructure (RAIN project, as well as possible RAIN2 project) [9]. In 2009 was purchased in the Internet connection services to public libraries and their structural units across the territory of the Lithuania. Indicative number - 302 libraries and their structural units throughout the territory of the Lithuania (mainly in rural areas).

Public internet access points (VIPT)

Public internet access points are the public working places equipped with furniture, computer equipment and free Internet access. They are installed according various programs of Government of the Republic of Lithuania and the European Union. These working places are set up in most visited places of small towns and villages: libraries, schools, cultural houses, elderships, community centers.

274 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

VIPT established in Lithuania in areas where until now due to the lack of commercial initiatives, or technical feasibility public internet access is unavailable, but the local community or local institutions can ensure existence of established VIPT at least 3 years after the end of the project. Places for new VIPT are selected so that any spot in Lithuania can reach at least one public Internet access point in 8 km distance, thereby ensuring a smooth territorial distribution of VIPT in the country. Establishing VIPT one of the most important things was the Internet speed. It appears, however, that the situation is very different in individual VIPT. Internet speeds ranging from 150 kbps to 860 kbps. The use of optical infrastructure RAIN theoretically enables to achieve up to 100 Mb/s speed. In practice to transfer any information is suffi cient to use 10 Mb/s speed. At public Internet access points You can: read the e-documents of various institutions, connect to e-banking systems, insurance portals, e-newspapers, seek employment, use the Internet in accordance with the tastes , order products from e-shops, use the distance learning tools, manage agricultural documents. Currently, Lithuania has 845 public Internet access network in rural areas [11].

Lookout

Even after the implementation of the fi rst phase of RAIN project 700 000 rural population still remains in a digital divide. They can not reach the broadband network infrastructure. The main factor, deterring network operators to provide high quality broadband services to all rural residents and the organizations is the missing part of the network infrastructure, which should connect the segments of the infrastructure with suffi cient bandwidth. This limits the broadband service delivery. To resolve this problem started a new project: “Rural area information technology broadband network development” (RAIN-2), whose strategic objective is to resolve the digital divide between urban and rural areas essentially and to accelerate the knowledge and information society development in Lithuania. During the second phase of the project will be developed infrastructure, enabling existing and new communications operators to provide broadband services to consumers in at least 98 percent the national territory. It is planned to build over 4,500 kilometers of optical cable lines, to create a data transmission network. The planned project implementation period - 36 months [14].

Conclusions

1. RAIN project and the basis of the infrastructure is an excellent example of how the joint efforts of employees of different agencies with different funding sources can create access to high-level information services for a rural customers. Commercial service providers offer similar services for much higher price, or does not offer utterly. 2. From the beginning of the RAIN network operating (2007, October), thousands of users in rural areas in Lithuania can already use modern broadband communication services. This excellent result is achieved by an electronic communications service providers, municipalities, elderships, schools, libraries and other institutions interested in co- operation, regardless of departmental origin. As provided in the concept of RAIN network use, the all existing or future retail broadband providers on equal terms can use the RAIN network. By 2008, October 1, PC “Placiajuostis internetas” has a signatory to agreements with 15 Internet service providers of communications services through a network of RAIN. Internet providers use optic fi ber lines in total length of 9311 km. 3. The public Internet access points (VIPT) network in Lithuania has become one of the highest density in the European Union. Currently, Lithuania has 845 public Internet access points network in rural areas. 4. The creation of a modern technology infrastructure in rural areas, enables the implementation of various projects, to provide e-services for the rural population, equal to the quality of services provided in the cities.

References

Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės nutarimas „Dėl Lietuvos plačiajuosčio ryšio infrastruktūros 2005–2010 metų plėtros strategijos patvirtinimo“. 2005 m. lapkričio 16 d. Nr. 1231.

Matematikos ir informatikos institutas. (2007) Kaimiškųjų vietovių informacinių technologijų plačiajuostis tinklas RAIN. Available at http://www.rain.lt/ Lietuvos Respublikos Ryšių reguliavimo tarnyba. (2008). Ataskaita apie elektroninių ryšių sektorių pagal elektroninių ryšių operatorių ir paslaugų teikėjų pateiktą informaciją apie vykdytą elektroninių ryšių veiklą (2007 m. IV ketvirtis). Rimantas Kavaliūnas. (2007). Lietuvos bendrojo lavinimo mokyklų prijungimas prie plačiajuosčio interneto. Galimybių tyrimas. 2008 m. vasario 13,14, 15 d. Pasvalys, Utena, Telšiai,Tauragė, Klaipėda. Seminarų apskričių ir savivaldybių administracijų atstovams medžiaga. 2008 m. rugpjūčio 25-27 d. LITNET konferencijos medžiaga. Viešoji įstaiga “Plačiajuostis internetas”. (2008)- RAIN tinklo panaudojimo apimtys auga. Available at: http://www.placiajuostis.lt/index. php?option=com_content&task=view&id=67&Itemid=6&lang=lt

275 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

2009 m. vasario 5-6 dienomis Kaune, Lietuvos žemės ūkio universitete Žemės ūkio ministerijos organizuoto informacinio seminaro savivaldybių atstovams medžiaga. Projekto „Bibliotekos pažangai“ kompiuterinės technikos ir interneto ryšio diegimo techninės priežiūros kaimiškosioms vietovėms pirkimas. Supaprastinto atviro pirkimo dokumentai paslaugoms pirkti. - Vilnius, 2009 m. VĮ „Infostruktūra“. Available at http://www.infostruktura.lt/ Asociacija VIPT. (2009). Available at http://www.vipt.lt/ LR statistikos departamentas (2008) Informacinės ir žinių visuomenės plėtros STATISTINIAI RODIKLIAI. Available at http://www.stat.gov.lt/uploads/ docs/2008_234_rodikliu_sarasas_p.xls Broadband Coverage in Europe Final Report. 2008 Survey. Available at: http://ec.europa.eu/information_society/eeurope/i2010/docs/benchmarking/ broadband_coverage_2008.pdf (December 2008)

Patvirtinta RAIN-2 galimybių studija. Available at: http://www.placiajuostis.lt/index.php?option=com_content&task=view&id=45&Itemid=6&lang=lt

Rimantas KAVALIŪNAS. Technological doctor. Research Interests - Computer networks. Kaunas University of Technology, Information Technology Development Institute. Address: Studentu 48a, Kaunas, LT-51367. E-mail: [email protected] Tel. (8-37) 300 641, fax. (8-37) 300643. Ona MARTIŠIENĖ. Lithuanian Agricultural University as assistant chair. Address: University of St Akademija, LT-4324 Kaunas reg., E-mail: [email protected] Tel. (8 27) 397494 Stasys MARTIŠIUS. Senior Engineer. Interests - Computer networks. Kaunas university of technology, Information Technology Development Institute. Address: Studentu 48a, Kaunas, LT-51367. E-mail: [email protected] Tel. (8-37) 300 647, fax. (8-37) 300643.

276 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Development of the Information Society and Rendering the Public Electronic Services for People and Business

Gražina Masionytė, Stasė Motuzienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The amount of computers and the Internet usage have rapidly increased in the last years. The question of rural residents’ involvement into the information society remains relevant. Rural areas are less provisioned with personal computers, and telecommunication facilities are not enough developed. So, the questions of the Internet usage and development of public electronic services are being solved slowly. It decreases people’s motivation for usage of the information technologies. If the provision for personal computers depends on families’ incomes, the Internet usage depends on the people’s age. The amount of Lithuanian people, who are using information technologies, is increasing; decrease of its digital disjuncture directly depends on the improvement of electronic facilities and on development of the information content and public electronic services for business. The widest usage is in the public electronic services of the fi rst level, and only half of the users are interested in the second level of the public electronic services.

Introduction

Information society is not created by law affi rmations and by separate actions, but is understood as certain stage of society development. The members of information society must have possibilities and abilities to use information and relation technologies. In other case new form of imparity - digital disjuncture – originates. It is understood as the difference in social position between individuals, households and business enterprises, which use information technologies and which do not use the information technologies. The digital disjuncture is widely known problem of all over the world, so it is clear, why the most attention and resources are assigned for its decreasing in Lithuania. It is not only a social imparity – people, who do not use computer and Internet, loose the possibility for education, fi nding a good job and to participate actively in a society life. It has to be acknowledged, that not all society’s social groups are equally susceptive for information technologies. Creating of information society is closely related with development of information technologies. Today differences between city and rural areas are marked according to the indexes of information society development as computers’ and the Internet usage. The integration of residents in rural areas into the information society is related with rapidly developing information facilities and expansion of public electronic services. Apparent differences are in usage of information technologies according to age groups, level of education, incomes etc. The EU directive projects that till the year 2010 all member states must provide their residents with 20 public electronic services; where 12 of them are set for the individuals and 8 of them are for the business. The electronic public services for the residents are as following: incomes declaration, search for employment opportunities, social benefi ts, personal documents, vehicle registration, applications for constructional permissions, declarations for police, search at the public libraries, applications for certifi cates and certifi cate issue, registration at the high schools, declaration of the place of residence, health care services; for business it for include social contributions, declaration of the corporation tax, VAT declaration, registration of a new enterprise, presentation of the statistics, customs declarations, permissions to do with the environment protection and public purchases. The government of the Republic of Lithuania has pointed in the plans of June, 2006 that the transfer of the public services offered by the national institutions into the electronic space will safe a lot of time and fi nance. However, the peoples and business’s need for usage of the information technologies is not growing suffi ciently. Level of the transferring the public services into the electronic space was only 63,1 percent in the beginning of the 2008 in Lithuania (the EU average is 75 percent), though there were 69 percent in the 2006, and 64 percent in 2005. Public electronic services for business are transferred better than for residents: level of transferring services for business into the electronic space reached 75 percent in the beginning of 2008 (60 percent – in 2004), and for the residents respectively 51,2 percent (44 percent – in 2004). According to the data of the global electronic government research published by United Nations (UN) in 2008, Lithuania is in the 28th position (182 states took place altogether) according to quantity and quality of the electronic services offered by the national institutions. Comparing to the year 2005, the country went up by 12 positions. Lithuanian people and business enterprises not enough communicate with public administrative institutions. People most widely use information public services, so the questions of quality of electronic information content and the development of electronic information services for people are important. Public services of the second and third levels are popular. They are related with employment, incomes declaration, entering the high schools, the Internet libraries, social care and dispensation of requests services. The article describes supplying people with computers and the possibilities of Internet usage; transferring of the main public services to the electronic space and questions of its accessibility for the users. Object of the research – supplying people with computer hardware, usage of information technologies and providing public electronic service for people and business. Aim of the research – according to the data of people supplied with computers and the Internet usage, to analyze level of transferring the main public services to the electronic space and its accessibility for the users.

277 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Research methods – monographic method, method of logic analysis of the scientifi c conferences material and method of synthesis were used. In the article, offi cial statistical information, data from the Internet, methods of statistical data analysis such as comparing and modelling were used.

Results

Recently the supplying with personal computers and the Internet usage have increased remarkably in Lithuania. If year only one of twenty households had personal computer at home in 2000 and every third household - in 2005, so in 2008 48 percent of households had personal computers at home: in urban and in rural areas this fi gure made up, respectively, 54 and 34 percent. Especially, number of households increased not only with the personal computers but obtaining access to the Internet as well. In 2000, there only 2,3 percent of such households, in 2005 – it reached 14,4 percent, and 47 percent – in 2008. In urban areas, 53 percent of households, in the rural ones – each third household (33 percent) had Internet access at home in 2008. Most Internet users (76 percent) used desktop computers, almost each second household (44 percent) – mobile phones, 27 percent – portable computers at home. Purchasing of the personal computers and its amount increasing in households has accelerated usage of information technologies in the households. Greatly quicker increasing rates of the households with the Internet access (annually average is 6,96 percent), in comparison with the households having personal computers only (annually average is 4,63 percent), have been certifi ed by graphic fact data presentation with aligned data by using line equation (Figure 1). As it is shown in this fi gure, the year 2008 can be considered as turning-point, and from the 2009 year Internet usage should be increasing quickly and should become a part of people’s public life.

Figure 1. Dynamics of households with computers and the Internet access points at home in 2003 – 2011

Despite the common upturn of the situation, differences remains in purchasing of personal computers, usage of information technologies and Internet between urban and rural households. Though residents of urban and rural areas were in the same start positions and their households had respectively 1,2 and 0,2 percent in 2000, but more than every second urban household had a personal computer, and in rural areas – more than every third in 2008. More than half of all urban households with personal computers had Internet access points, and in rural areas – only every third household. It can be observed in the last years that the main place of the Internet usage became home, especially in cities. However, about two thirds of rural residents with no Internet access points maintain that they do not need the Internet at home, and about a third part of the people not having computers and Internet access points in urban and rural areas think that equipment is too costly, high service rate, they do not have enough knowledge or they have got possibility to use Internet at other places, etc. In rural areas the Internet is mostly used at schools, public places of Internet usage such as Internet cafes, libraries or public Internet access points (PIAP). With the purpose to decrease the differences in a usage of Internet and information technologies between urban and rural people, private business initiative “Window to the Future” is making public Internet access points since 2002. Later the Home Offi ce of Lithuania joined this organization. In 2007, after 400 of PIAP were opened, the total number of the public Internet access points reached 875 in Lithuania. About fi ve computerized work places were established in every public Internet access point, where rural people can use Internet for free. Besides, while implementing this project, the resources of the EU programme “Phare” were used for hardware, furniture purchasing, establishing the Internet connection and services (paper for printers, toners, and payments for utility service), and payments for the Internet connection. On the second stage of this “Phare” programme called as a project of one thousand Internet access points, other 400 public Internet access points were established. 1000 Internet centres have been established in rural areas: that means that every rural resident can fi nd the Internet access point in distance of 8 km. At present time Institute of Mathematics and Informatics implements project fi nanced by the EU structural fund “Wide-band network RAIN of information technologies in the rural areas”. It intends to create the Internet access knots in

278 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area rural regional centres, from where high-speed Internet should be translated for people and for various institutions. A project supervision committee and public organization “The Wide-band Internet” have been established for the implementation of the project. Facility of the wide-band connection is a main tool for transferring public services for agriculture into the electronic space. The network RAIN is giving actual opportunity to obtain electronic services in rural areas. The fi rst stage of the RAIN project ended in December of 2008, and the established network connected all 467 rural regional centres with 51 municipalities. 330 schools have been connected as well. Declaring of the agricultural landed property and crop and applications for the allowances that were made in April – June of 2008 showed that agricultural specialists used new technologies successfully in the municipalities and regional centres, where the wide-band Internet was provided. According to the data of the Centre of Agricultural Information and Rural Business, 338 regional centres participated in the electronic declaring of crop in 2008, i.e. 61,9 percent of all regional centres of the country. In 2007, only 25 regional centres took part in the project (4,3 percent of all), and in 2006 – 15 regional centres (2,7 percent). Payment privileges for purchasing computers, Internet and other products for usage of new connection and information services had infl uence on the development of information technologies in EU countries. According to their experience, on a way of expanding usage of information technologies, payment privileges took and important role for people, that allowed people to return a part of expenses for one computer hardware unit with software and (or) Internet access through a year. In 2005, about 40 thousand requests were made to use the payment privileges. The Committee of the Information Society Development has prolonged usage of payment privileges for the years 2007 and 2008 because of benefi ts of the payment privileges for the information technology development. Research results confi rmed that the present usage of computers, mobile phones and Internet depended directly on household incomes. 94 percent of households owned personal computer and 91 percent had Internet access, when their incomes were more than 3000 litas. If supplying with personal computers mostly depends on incomes of households, the Internet usage and its extent depends on residents’ age. According to the research data, 55,7 percent of all people aged 16 - 74 used computers in 2008 (51,8 percent - in 2007) and 53,1 percent used Internet (48,8 percent – in 2007). Because the Internet usage was prevalent most widely between young people, 88,9 percent of all Internet users were young people aged 16 - 24, 59,5 percent – people aged 35 - 44, and 6,6 percent of elder people aged 65 - 74. Still, only 5,6 percent of the questioned people used Internet. As we can notice, information and usage of information technologies can become a disjuncture factor not only between urban and rural residents, but also between young and old people in the information society. Besides, poor usage of information technologies decreases possibilities for older people to keep positions in work market or to fi nd other job or activity after loosing previous position. The increasing number of people using information technologies, their digital disjuncture decreasing directly depends on the attention for improving electronic infrastructure and development of the electronic information content and electronic public services for people and for business. Electronic public service (public service) is understood as rendering and receiving information and documents through the Internet or (and) by other electronic means that is based on the law certifi cates. It includes all communication between the person and public service provider in distance. There are 5 maturity levels of public services transferring to the Internet: - 0 – absence level. Service provider or responsible administrative layer has not got public Internet page or the public Internet page has no match to the criteria 1 - 4 of public service maturity levels; - 1 – Information level. Service provider presents the information service on the public Internet page, however without identifi cation, so the users have not limitations to familiarize with information system data; - 2 – Simplex interaction level. Public Internet page administrated by service provider or responsible administrative layer presents possibility for the user to receive the request in paper form, i.e. to download through the Internet. User without identifi cation can fi ll out the form, to print it and to use for its purpose. This level gives possibility for the user to present his/her identifi cation by electronic communication technologies, i.e. to present his/her personal data for receiving public services or for information about the service proceedings; - 3 – Duplex interaction level. Public Internet page administered by service provider or responsible administrative layer makes possibility for the user with identifi cation in information system to fi ll a request form on the Internet. Public service is provided in not electronic form in this case. It is relevant, when the Internet presents electronic forms, so user can fi ll out them and receive an analogue of written document with signature; - 4 – Collaboration level. Electronic system of the Internet service that is active 24 hours a day, has public Internet page, is administered by the service provider or by responsible administrative layer, and makes it possible for the user to participate fully in the processes through the Internet. User makes request through the Internet and receives electronic public service. User certifi es its identity in the information system by using secure electronic signature or by certifi ed qualifi ed certifi cate, and after he/she can receive public service. Parliament of Lithuanian Republic enacted law of the Lithuanian Republic information society service on 25 May, 2006 that came into force since the 1 July, 2006. The main aim of this law was to describe and to fi x the law regulation basics of society rapports, related with information society services. The enacted law made favourable conditions for developing services and electronic business based on modern technologies. The information society services include various economical activities, which are performed in connection with electronic communication network, especially product

279 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area selling through the Internet. This category comprises also free services, for example, information presentation through the Internet, means for the information search, and service, which includes information translation by communication network, allotment of access to the communication or the publishing of service receiver’s information on the Internet. Hereby, the aim of the plan of electronic government concept realization means – to transfer gradually to electronic space important services for people and business subjects: public purchasing, dispensation of certifi cates of birth, dearth, marriage and divorce, and other certifi cate and licences, declaration of living place, organizing the competitions for the state jobs, also various public services related with education, health care and others. State institutions, municipalities and state enterprises can be noted for their high rates of computers and Internet usage. According to the data in 2008, the Presidential Administration of the Republic of Lithuania, Parliament of the Republic of Lithuania, Government of the Republic of Lithuania, ministries, county administrations, city/ town and district municipalities and customs institutions have got Internet pages and provide public electronic services. The low enforcement authorities and law and order authorities are the least ready in rendering public electronic services, i.e. only 22,2 and 50,7 percent of the institutions mentioned accordingly. Table 1 shows readiness to provide public electronic services of other national institutions and municipalities.

Table 1. Websites and rendering public electronic services by public administration institutions in percent Share of institutions Institutions with websites providing services via internet 2005 2006 2008 2005 2006 2008 Total 59,3 56,2 69,6 43,5 39,4 61,0 The Government of the Republic of Lithuania 100 100 100 100 100 100 Institutions under the Government of the Republic of Lithuania 95,2 95,0 100 71,4 75,0 95,0 Ministries 100 100 100 76,9 76,9 100 Institutions under the ministries 73,9 82,7 86,7 61,4 56,1 78,6 County administrations 100 100 100 80,0 100 100 City/town and district municipalities 100 100 100 75,0 81,8 100

Business can use such public electronic services as making tax declarations, refund and inclusion of tolls, receiving statistical electronic publications, making assurers’ declarations for the board of the National Social Fund, making customs declarations and reports concerning information collected about Lithuanian market with the European Union member states, in maximum level. Inquiry of the public administration subjects, which are administrating public electronic services, has shown that greater attention must be paid in the future for the development of content of the public electronic services because usage is growing, not only the transferring to the electronic space. Business enterprises use Internet for different purposes, i.e. 9 out of 10 companies (89,8 percent) used Internet banking and other fi nancial services of other institutions, more than half of enterprises – for employees’ education and training (53,3 percent), in the beginning of 2008. Almost all manufacturers and service producers (85,0 percent) use Internet for communication with the state institutions. 81,5 percent of enterprises were looking for information at the websites of the state institutions, 83,9 percent – were downloading different forms, 55,6 percent – returned the fi lled forms, besides 20,0 percent of the enterprises expressed suggestions in the electronic requisition system (in the information system of the public purchasing monitoring). Residents can use such public electronic services as declaring and consulting incomes and possessions, searching for vacancies, receiving permits to reside in Lithuania for foreigners, receiving consultations concerning education possibilities already now in the maximum level. According to the research results, Lithuanian residents consider the best such public electronic services as declaring tax and possessions on the website of the National Tax Inspection http:// deklaravimas.vmi.lt/, searching for vacancies and ordering job offers on the website of the Jobcentre of Lithuania http:// www.ldb.lt/, search for editions and publications at the public libraries on http://www.libis.lt/. Lithuanian users aged 16-74 are most widely using the fi rst level public services of the informational type. The most popular activity via the Internet in 2008 was playing games, downloading games or music records (55,0 percent of users), electronic network usage (45,7 percent), reading newspapers and magazines online or downloading them (43,4 percent), information search in info-pages and databases about goods and services (36,0 percent), etc. Assortment of Internet services between young people groups is slowly expanding – new services appears such as participating in video conferences, searching for information about accommodation and travelling, downloading computer software, making calls via Internet (digital view calls including), etc. These services were used by 46 users in the beginning of 2008 (39 percent – in 2007). In 2008, residents quite widely used information and services offered on the websites of the national institutions. The most popular public electronic services still are of making declarations of income and tax and the job searching. Respectively, 49 and 29 percent of people used them, who visited public websites in the fi rst half of the year. These services are considered as the most relevant (46 and 24 percent). Residents also consider relevant healthcare electronic services (24 percent), although only 11 percent used the services from the total number of the public website users in the

280 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

fi rst half of the year. The users of the public sector Internet websites (28 percent) have pointed that the making declarations of incomes and tax is the most complicated and least handy to use, though it is the most used service. At present time the most popular are public services of the second and third levels among the public institutions’ websites users (one third of the visits) – fi lling forms electronically and receiving other information needed for the electronic services, downloading the forms for receiving the services, etc. The Internet users can hardly use the national public services of the fourth level, because only a little part of such services has been transferred to the Internet. Diffi culties of transferring the public services especially to the higher maturity level and poor users’ interest depends on a lack of information and advertisement about the public electronic services, shortage of public services compatibility between separate institutions of public sectors, lack of the common plan for creating public services and possibility to use qualifi ed electronic signature, and the questions of legal basis for the transferring services to the electronic space, etc. In the last fi ve years, usage of the Internet banking services rapidly increased among people aged 16 – 74 (4 times), also usage of information related with health care (increased 4 times), and usage of information from web-pages of state institutions (increased 2 times) (Figure 2).

Figure 2. Rendering of the electronic public services via the Internet

Information technologies are related with development of electronic commercial activities, i.e. online shops and product purchasing via the Internet. However, users have not enough information about the online shops in Lithuania, though more and more often information about products purchased in the traditional shops is searched online. In 2008, 5,9 percent of the total number of people aged 16 - 74 purchased or ordered goods and services online for personal reasons; among them, more than 10 percent of people were aged 16 - 34. The electronic purchasing was mostly used for getting tickets to cultural events, tickets for travelling and booking accommodation. Today, the most important information society development projects that are fi nanced by the EU structural funds are pointed at the antecedence “Information Society for All”. One of the biggest electronic service projects that is being started to implement on the basis of EU structural funding 2007-2013 is “Electronic Arrangement and Transmission of the Statistic Business Data”. Every year, the Department of Statistics receives more than a half million statistic reports, which have been fi lled by approximately 50 000 enterprises and organizations. Besides, the data must be rendered to several institutions in different forms and on different periods. Implementation of the project will assure the principle of “one window” – the same information will not have to be rendered to different institutions. Another important project fi nanced by the EU funds – “Electronic Service for Registration Legal Entities”. The main aim of the project is to give and opportunity to prepare and render documents needed for registration of legal entities with electronic means. It will save time, give a chance to receive quality services for urban and rural residents, assure more convenient communication between clients, Centre of Registry, Ministry of Justice and notary remotely. Because of the principle of “one window”, all services will be more clear, operative and effective. The second tendency of the antecedence “Information Society for All” will aim to create smooth and safe infrastructure of the electronic networks. After the remedy “Networks of the Wide-band Electronic Connections” is accomplished, the wide-band Internet connection will be available almost in the whole territory of Lithuania (98 percent). The electronic declaring of the agricultural landed property and crop designed for farmers is on ongoing development. In order to avoid technical problems that have to do with transferring the electronic data and graphical information, the municipalities received additional funding. The funding has purpose to unite all rural administrative centres to the already created RAIN infrastructure of the wide-band connection. In the administrative centres, intensive training is being arranged for agricultural and planning specialists in order to prepare them to work with the online utilitarian programme for making electronic declarations of the agricultural landed property and crop. The development of telecommunication infrastructure and public services, without stimulating people’s needs to use it, cannot give requested results. So, the company “I have Begun” has been started at the LR Government committee for the information society development. It stimulates people, who are not using information technologies, to use computers and the Internet, and those people, who are using the information technologies – to inform about the possibilities of

281 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area information society. Almost two thirds of Lithuanian people are not enough informed about the benefi ts of information technologies, so they are confi dent that they do not need it. The knowledge of rural residents is very poor about the Internet usage for making various payments, declarations of living place or purchasing goods. The Internet is not used to access public administrative institutions even by people with high knowledge. The main criteria for making investments for computerizing of the households with lower incomes should be the benefi ts of computers and the Internet. Many things will be determined by rural families’ consciousness, i.e. intention to connect to the information society. The amount of rural communities with possibilities to use computers is quickly increasing, so the possibilities for decreasing the digital disjuncture in rural areas by using local initiatives and the resources of the European Union are increasing.

Conclusions

1. It is observable quick increase of households with the Internet access points at home. However, marked differences remains in information technologies usage between urban and rural households and differences according to the age groups. The difference between computer costs and people’s incomes, the level of telecommunication infrastructure, inadequate motivation for information technologies usage necessities and understanding of rendering benefi t have infl uenced people’s decisions. 2. In rural areas, the Internet access point is established at every fourth household, so the Internet most often is used at schools, libraries or at the public Internet access points. Rural residents’ involvement into the information society should be improved this year. 1000 Internet centres should be established in all Lithuania, and every rural resident should fi nd the Internet access point in a distance of 8 km. Besides, the Internet points should be established in rural regional centres. From those points, high-speed Internet should be rendered for people and various institutions. Further processing of the company “I have Begun” should be continued, as it would stimulate computers and Internet usage. 3. People most widely are using the public services of informative character. The most popular activity via the Internet remains information searching in info-pages and databases, usage of electronic communication, reading of the newspapers and magazines online and downloading them, playing games, downloading the games or music records. 4. Request of people and business to use information technologies is closely related with the level of transferring the public services to the electronic space. At present, the public services of the second and third levels are the most popular between visitors of public websites of different institutions (rendering forms with electronic fi lling, etc). The best developed electronic public services are related with making people and legal persons’ payment declarations, social insurance payments, customs declarations and statistical data presenting, employment services, public libraries services, etc. 5. The main criteria for investments for household computerizing in urban and rural areas for people with low incomes should be the rendered benefi t of computer and Internet usage. Payment privileges for hardware purchasing should make their decision easier. Many factors are determined by the rural families’ consciousness, i.e. intention to become a full member of the information society.

References

Collin S. M. H. (1997) Dictionary of Information Technology. – 2nd ed. – Colli Publishing, 383 p. Management information system/Terry Lucey. (1998) – 8th ed.-London:Letts Educational, 282 p. Lietuvos statistikos metraštis 2008. (2008). Vilnius, Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės, 745 p. Masionytė G., Žaltauskienė N. (2006). Informacinės visuomenės plėtra ir elektroninės viešosios paslaugos. Tarptautinės antrosios mokslinės konferencijos „Biometrija ir informacinės technologijos žemės ūkyje: tyrimai ir plėtra“ medžiaga, pp. 56 – 59, Lietuvos žemės ūkio universitetas. Sendrevičiūtė D., Sūdžius V. (2007). Internetinių paslaugų plėtra Lietuvoje. 1 – osios Lietuvos jaunųjų mokslininkų konferencijos „Mokslas – Lietuvos ateitis“ straipsnių rinkinys, pp. 85 – 92, Vilniaus Gedimino technikos universitetas. Thomas Dean. (2004). Talking with Computers. Explorations in the science and Technology of computing, Cambridge, University Pres, 300 p. Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės (2008). Informacinės ir žinių visuomenės plėtros statistiniai rodikliai. Available at: http://www.stat.gov.lt/uploads/docs/2008_234_rodikliu_sarasas_p.xls Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės (2009). Namų ūkių apsirūpinimas asmeniniais kompiuteriais ir naudojimasis internetu. Available at: http://www.stat.gov.lt/uploads/docs/IT_namu_ukiuose.doc Informacinės visuomenės plėtros komitetas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės (2007). Savivaldybių institucijų teikiamų viešųjų elektroninių paslaugų tyrimas: svarbiausios išvados. Available at: http://www.ivpk.lt/main-stat.php?cat=62&n=86

Gražina MASIONYTĖ. Lecturer at the Department of Informatics, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Directions of research interests: usage of information technology, supply of business information. Address: Universiteto g. 10, LT - 53555 Akademija, Kauno r. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 94, e-mail: [email protected] Stasė MOTUZIENĖ. Doctor of social sciences, assoc. professor at the Department of Informatics, Institute of Fundamental Sciences, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Directions of research interests: mathematical modelling. Address: Universiteto g. 10, LT - 53555 Akademija, Kauno r. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 94, e-mail: [email protected]

282 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Investigation in-situ Natural Ecosystems Using Physical Measuring Methods

Arnoldas Užupis, Kęstutis Nemčiauskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

In order to understanding a fl uctuation of the physical processes, in nature (forests, grasslands, fi elds) ecosystem, is necessary to analyze a lot of physical parameters: temperature of atmosphere and soil, gas concentration, soil solidity, dependency of the wind velocity on the height and density of plants, humidity of the soil, plant albedo variation dependency on the surface topography, vegetation period and other factors. Our experiments have been done using data collection according to the national USDA‘s Forest Health Monitoring Program. A forest (soft and dry environment) as the target of the investigation has been taken. The data have been collected in a real time using digital sensors of the humidity, pressure, solar intensity, wind speed and temperature. The all dependency of the various physical data was valuated according on the plant growth vegetation. All picked data shall be used analyzing ecological factors driving the fl uctuation of the climate. Key words: plants, ecosystem, measuring methods

Introduction

There are a lot of factors infl uence Earth’s weather - the extent of snow and ice cover; the surface temperature of the oceans and the velocity of their major currents; the type of ground cover and the soil moisture content; the amount and type of cloud cover as it affects the refl ection and absorption of the incoming solar radiation and the absorption of the outgoing infrared radiation from the Earth; the effect of major fi res or the ejecta from major volcanic eruptions; and the dynamic state of the atmosphere and its composition - including infrared absorbing molecules such as water vapor, carbon dioxide, methane, and oxides of nitrogen. That’s just naming a few of the things that we take into account. We don’t profess to understand or always incorporate all of these and other factors into our Almanac forecasts. However, we are continually striving to improve our methods.The interaction of plants within their physical surroundings is one of the most important concepts within Environmental Science.

Figure 1. Soil Density Measurements

During the changes of the ecosystem, concerning of the household practice, the rise has born to fi nd others new methods to investigate the growth of the plants. These investigations would optimally let us to evaluate the environment of plants – soil, its humidity during the rainfall stock is changed, temperature, lightness, atmospheric pressure and others factors. The data, collected in the paper, are accomplished in natural environment (grassland). The experiments were collected several times, evaluating changing of the humidity in the time of dry period. The 8 experimental places have been choose (according to [1]), which were in many different places of the relief in the grassland, handing different humidity and density of the soil. The results shall be shown below.

Results of research

The results, collected in-situ is shown in this paper. Time of investigations was completed during active vegetation period - June. The plants height is 15 ~ 20 cm. The Campbell and Pasco measuring units were used. Results were processed with Excel and “Data Studio”. The inter-dependency and correlation of albed, solar intensity, temperature of environment, pressure, and wind speed, SOIL density were investigated. The investigations of the soil density have shown that the structure of the measured soil is very different depending on the relief.

283 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Figure 2. Soil Humidity

The can see the tantamount increase of the soil density according to the depth. That is logical. Measurements of soil humidity in the same 8 different places verifi ed non homogeneous increasing of density at the same time, and then the dept of the measuring is increasing too. The highest moisture alteration was observed in places 1, 3 and 8 (~12%) (Fig. 2) these measurements are directly correlating to investigations of the soil density, shown in Pic. 1. In the last (others) measuring places moisture variation was about 5%.

Figure 3. Soil humidity measurements according to: a) the fi rst day; b) the second day

Analyzing the environment of the plants, infl uencing the changing of the moisture, the solar intensity, environment temperature, moisture, wind speed and apsolute preasure investigations were arranged also.

Figure 4. Solar intensity. The results are accordint to „fi rst“ and „second“ days measurements

The data of these measurements are shown in 1-7 Figures. As we see, the abient temperatute directly dipends on the weather temperature and solar intensity. The experimental measurement have been arrangen during dry period of the day. The medium ambient temperatue was 23-27 Cº - fi rst day and 28-233 Cº - second day (Pic. 4, 5). The average soil temperature was 17,5 Cº, during the experiments. The wind speed aproximately was changing for 0,1-0,3 m/s. We estimated, when no rainfall is, the weather humidity is changing depending on the relief and density of the soil. This effect is very important for the growth of plants and the height. In the 1st, 3rd and 8th fi elds, where density of the soil is highest, the height of plants was for 5 – 7 cm. less. This shows the humidity of plants directly depending or the density of the soil.

284 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area

Figure 5. Weather temperature. The results are accordint to „fi rst“ and „second“ days measurements

Figure 6. Weather humidity. The results are accordint to „fi rst“ and „second“ days measurements

Figure 7. Wind Speedy. The results are accordint to „fi rst“ and „second“ days measurements

Conclusions

We have to notice that data of the environment of plants were collected putting in one place all equipment under the cover. It have been noticed that even more humidity in the soil and air, even better vegetation condition for plants.

References

Th.J. Stohlgren. Measuring Plant Diversity. Oxford. 2007. P. 390 Harpal S. Mavi, Graeme J. Tupper (2004). Agro meteorology: Principles and Applications of Climate Studies in Agriculture. Food Products Press. (HKK). Oliver John E., Hidore John J. (2001). Climatology: An Atmospheric Science (2nd Edition). Publisher: Prentice Hall. (HKK)

Russel D. Thompson and Allen Perry (1997). Aplied Climatology. London and New York. (GMF)

Arnoldas UŽUPIS. Department of Physics, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Universiteto 10, Akademija, LT-4324 Kaunas, Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected] Kęstutis NEMČIAUSKAS. Department of Physics, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Universiteto 10, Akademija, LT-4324 Kaunas, Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected]

285 Rural Development 2009 Biometrics and Development of Electronic Media in Rural Area Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

X

Biosystem Engineering and Environment Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Research of Manure Gas Emission

Rolandas Bleizgys, Indrė Prakupimaitė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Carbon dioxide and ammonia emission from manure of different animals was determined, after the experimental research on laboratory test bench. The lowest rate of ammonia emission was recorded from manure with lesser proportion of free urine. The highest amount of ammonia emits from liquid manure - 198,4 ± 5,8 mg/(m2 h); emission from semi-liquid manure is equal to 125,1 ± 3,5 mg/(m2 h) and from thick manure - 92,0 ± 2,9 mg/(m2 h). Linear dependence of gas emission on temperature conditions was determined. Temperature increment of 1 oC causes increase of carbon dioxide emission by 17,6 mg/(m2 h) on average, whilst for ammonia from liquid manure - by 4,5 mg/(m2 h), at temperature range from 14,5 to 48,5 ºC. The regression equation was proposed for predicting correlation of ammonia and carbon dioxide gaseous emissions from different cattle manure.

Ammonia emission is more intensive at a higher rate of CO2 emission and correlation of these factors is linear. When carbon dioxide emission increases by 12,2 times, ammonia emission from liquid manure increases by multiplication factor 6,4 and from thick manure - by 4,6. We proposed the following measures for reduction of atmosphere pollution with ammonia: lower temperature in a barn, moving out cattle manure and especially urine from a barn as soon as possible and intensive littering. However, mixing manure with litter is not advisable. The most important thing in manure handling is aiming for reduction of fresh manure contacts with air and unbreaked crust on a surface. It was determined that calculation of air circulation on terms of water vapour content was suffi cient for designing of cattle-housing ventilation systems. If low level of air humidity in a barn will be ensured, low concentrations of carbon dioxide and ammonia will be guaranteed as well.

Introduction

Environment in animal-housing is polluted with odours, greenhouse gases (carbon dioxide (CO2), methane

(CH4), nitrogen suboxide (N2O)) and ammonia (NH3) gases, harmful to the ecosystem. Ammonia amounts to 40% of total nitrogen (N) compounds polluting the atmosphere. Emission in animal husbandry amounts to 90 % for NH3 and 39 % for CH4 of total gaseous emission respectively (Brose, 2000). The highest ammonia emission’s rate is estimated in cattle husbandry (approximately 50 %), in piggery – 22 %, in a fowl-run – 7 %, at using mineral fertilisers – 18 %, whilst at keeping horses, sheep and other animals - 3 % (Menden, 1993; Dedl, 2007). Thus, animal husbandry produces around a half of total environmental emission of ammonia in agriculture. We must implement the nature-friendly technologies in animal housing fi rst of all, pursuing reduction of the gaseous emission, whereas ammonia emission constitutes actually - 35 to 40 % of total emission from cow-houses (Caenegem, 2000; Hartung et al., 1997). Agriculture produces more than 90 % of total ammonia emission in Switzerland. Animal husbandry emits actually 74 % of total ammonia into environment. Ammonia emission in animal husbandry is distributed as follows: manure spreading on a fi eld - 58 %, in a barn - 28 %, in manure storage – 12 % and in pastures – 2 % (Zähner, 2005). Ammonia emission from animal housing is infl uenced mostly by slurry content, by surface area contaminated with manure and the level of contamination, by ambient temperature and air velocity. Many research works on NH3 emission intensity and its leakage to environment have been carried out. Admissible NH3 concentrations at a source of contamination and at various distances from it are established. Dependence of ammonia emission intensity and its concentration in barns air on methods of livestock housing, technical and technological factors are under investigation.

NH3 emission from manure storage, composted organic residues and from manure, transported to a fi eld and spread, have been determined (Mannebeck, 1998; Hartung, 2001; Hartung, 2005; Schulz, 2000). New methods of odour and ammonia emission’s reduction are studied. Biological fi lters for cleaning air from animal housing facilities were developed (Jungbluth et al., 1997; Martinec et al., 1999; Hartung, 2003). Effect of various chemical reagents, added to manure both at barn and at manure storage, is investigated (Nimmermark, 2004). Scientists have proposed different ways of ammonia emission’s reduction from the barns (Zähner, 2005): water washing slurry on contaminated cow tracks; suppressing degradation of urine compounds on tracks, using inhibitors; slurry pH reduction, using acids; reduction of ammonia emission, by keeping livestock in pastures for a longer period and urine removal from tracks just after contamination, using automated systems. The environmental impact of animal husbandry will increase. It is predicted that meat industry will double its production within 50 years. Milk production will increase from 580 to 1043 millions t. One of the measures of air pollution reduction - keeping more productive animal breeds (Kampschulte, 2007). Cows housing systems have changed signifi cantly over the last 15 years; loose housings for livestock are mostly constructed now. The reasons for it are better working conditions, better conditions for animals created, cheaper and readily built housing constructions. Increasing quantity of livestock in farms, the economic and ergonomic advantages will further promote construction of loose housing barns. However, loose housing systems enlarge areas, contaminated with manure several times more, as compared with tied housing. This is an important source of increasing emission of ammonia. Ammonia emission in barns with tied housing varies from 4 to 21 g from an animal per day. Whereas at loose housing (without motion sites), it varies from 5 to 86 g from an animal per day. Average ammonia emission from loose housing barns is nearly 3 times higher than from tied housing. Yet area requirement is about two times higher in more popular loose housing than in tied housing barns. Manure-contaminated area amounts to 6,6 m2 (Zähner, 2005). Therefore, in order to reduce impact of animal husbandry on air pollution, it is very important to choose the environmentally-friendly

289 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment technologies. One of the most actual issues, arising in the modernization of the cow-houses, is application of bedding or beddingless animal housing technologies. It was determined (Amon et al., 1999) that ammonia emission from thick manure is higher than from liquid manure. It is equal to 58,3 g for a cow per day from liquid manure and – 86,5 g from thick manure respectively. This can be explained by higher activity of emission from manure surface. As it was published in other research studies ( Svensson 1994), manure in litter emits 3 times more ammonia than stored manure. Other scientists (Ribikauskas, 2001) had found out that intensity of ammoniacal nitrogen emissions are not the same in different zones of a barn. The highest intensity of ammoniacal nitrogen emission is determined from manure transporter and from a cow track close to it in cow-houses, while in the other barns - from animal box areas. After comparative analysis of different cattle barns, the highest level of nitrogen losses was determined in tied housing barns and the lowest level - in loose housing barns. The higher ammonia emission in a cow-house with tied cows could be due to higher concentration of cattle on the farm and due to relatively smaller amount of litter, used in this housing technology (2,0–3,0 kg of unchopped straw for an animal per day on average). It was stated in other publications (Vaičionis, 2003) that ammonia loss in warm, moderately littered and tied cattle barns was lower, as compared with the open, deep bedding or the box-type barn. Thus, there is no unanimous opinion in the scientifi c sphere on emission of ammonia and other gasses from different barns. Researchers have developed some models for simulation of ammonia emission, depending on temperature, pH and on other factors. These models suit well to closed, tied housing or box-type barns with the forced ventilation system. However, application of the models is impossible in modern (cold and open) cow-houses, because area polluted with manure is much larger here, and both temperature and air velocity alteration rates are much higher. With the background of today’s knowledge level, it is still diffi cult to provide precise data on ammonia and other gases emission from one animal-site per year; there is no reliable and accurate equipment for gas concentration measurements and accurate methods of gas diffusion measurements are not introduced yet. The objective of study – to determine regularities of gas emission’s intensity from manure of various kinds and to justify measures for reduction of harmful gases emissions.

Objects and Methods

Fresh cattle manure, taken during indoors period from a cow-house with semi-deep bedding and with 140 cows, was used in the research work. 5 straw bales, each weighing 400 kg, were used for bedding per day; the cows were fed maize silage, haylage and hay. Each cow received 350 g of concentrated feed per 1 litre of produced milk. Manure was removed once per month with mobile machinery. The slot-type ventilation system was installed in the barn. We used a test-stand for determination of harmful gas emissions intensity from manure, presented in the scheme (Fig. 1). Sealed plastic chamber (0,265x0,160x0,145 m) was placed in the climatic chamber (1). The plastic chamber was loaded with different kind of manure from the barn (3). The chamber was fi tted with two tubes on the top of it, through which air circulation took place (its value was constant during the test – 1,0 l/min): one tube was for fresh ambient air inlet into the chamber and gas analyser MGA 3000 (5) was supplied with contaminated air through the second tube. The analyzer was equipped with electrochemical and laser sensors. Concentration of two types of gases was determined with the electrochemical sensors: NH3 (range of measurements - 0 to 100 ppm) and

H2S (0-50 ppm). Concentration of three types of gases was measured with the laser sensors: CO2 (0-3000 ppm),

CH4 (0-10 %), N2O (0-100 ppm). Accuracy of the instrument was ±2 %. The gas analyzer was set on recording data within 1-5 min interval; the data was then saved and processed with a computer (6), using ADC software package.

Figure 1. Draft scheme of experimental stand for research of gaseous emission from manure: 1–climatic chamber; 2–hermetically sealed plastic chamber; 3–manure; 4–covering; 5–gas analyzer MGA 3000; 6–computer (software package ADC)

290 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

When ventilation intensity of the chamber G and gas concentration of inlet Cl and outlet air Ck of the chamber were estimated, intensity of gaseous emission was calculated with formula:

E= (Cl – Ck ) G . (1)

Analysis of manure from different places of a barn (liquid, semi-liquid and thick) and slurry was carried out on the test stand. Height of a manure layer in the chamber was 4 to 5 cm and the tests were repeated 5-8 times. Temperature in a climatic chamber ranged from 14,5°C up to 48°C.

Results of the Research

We have determined actual values of gas emission from fresh cattle manure, i.e. liquid, semi-liquid and thick.

Concentration values of N2O, H2S and CH4 gases in the chamber were usually close to 0. Emissions of NH3 and CO2 gases from manure were the most intensive, therefore detailed analysis of these gases was carried further. Processes of gas emission stabilize within 20-25 min (Fig. 2.), gas concentration is fi xed then and the emission values are calculated according to it. The most intensive ammonia emission was determined from fresh manure. Ammonia concentration increased to 93,2 ± 2,6 ppm (p≤ 0,05) in a chamber, fi lled with semi-liquid manure. After covering manure surface with 0,50 cm layer of saw dust, ammonia emission was more than 5 times lower: the concentration was less or equal to 16,8±1,2 ppm. However, after manure mixing up it increased to 61,5±1,4 ppm again. Average ambient air temperature was 17,4±1,8 °C during the test. Ammonia emission can be reduced with abundant littering. However, mixing manure with litter in order to reduce ammonia emission is not advisable. The most important thing in manure handling is reduction of fresh manure contacts with air and unbreaked crust on a surface. If a natural crust is not formed, coverings for retention of gas emission, i.e. chopped straw or sawdust, should be used.

Figure 2. Variation of ammonia concentration in a chamber, fi lled with semi-liquid cattle manure

Summarising the data (Fig. 3.) we can conclude that the highest rate of ammonia emission is from liquid cattle manure (p≤ 0,05): 198,4 ± 5,8 mg/(m2 h). Emission is equal to 125,1 ± 3,5 mg/(m2 h) from semi-liquid manure and 92,0 ± 2,9 mg/(m2 h) from thick manure respectively. Ammonia emission from manure covered with urine is much more intensive than from manure without it, as ammonia intensively evaporates from urine during degradation of urea in it. The bulky layer of litter absorbs moisture; therefore the evaporation rate is lower at low moister content. Therefore, method of livestock housing on deep litter of appropriate height can help in reduction of ammonia emissions from a barn, manure storage and outdoors.

Figure 3. Average ammonia emissions from various kinds of manure

291 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

One of the most important microclimatic factors, affecting gaseous emissions in a barn, is air temperature. Dependence of carbon dioxide and ammonia emission from manure on varying temperature was determined (Fig. 4). There is linear dependence of gas emission upon temperature conditions. At temperature range from 14,5 º C to 39,1 ºC, the ammonia emission from liquid manure increased from 182 mg/(m2 h) to 295 mg/(m2 h), and carbon dioxide emission increased as well: at temperature range from 14,8 to 48,5 ºC, CO2 emission from semi-liquid manure increased from 1849 mg/(m2 h) up to 2448 mg/(m2 h). Carbon dioxide emission increases on average by 17,6 mg/(m2h) and ammonia emission increases by 4,5 mg/(m2 h) at temperature increment of 1oC.

a) b) Figure 4. Intensity of carbon dioxide emission from semi-liquid manure (a) and ammonia emission intensity from liquid manure (b), depending on temperature

Summarizing results of the research, dependence of ammonia emission from manure on carbon dioxide emission is presented in Fig. 5. Referring to data of carbon dioxide emission, ammonia emission can be predicted according to the regression equations. At higher rates of CO2 emission, ammonia emission is more intensive and correlation of these factors is linear. This correlation is stronger using liquid manure, although signifi cant differences were not observed in tests with different kinds of manure. When carbon dioxide emission increases by 12,2 times, ammonia emission from liquid manure increases by 6,4 times and from thick manure - by 4,6 times.

Figure 5. Dependence of ammonia emission from cattle manure on carbon dioxide emission

The assessment of emissions from different manure and manure contaminated areas in a barn was a base for o calculation of gas emissions in various barns at air temperature range from 14 to 16 C. The highest rate of CO2 emission was in a semi-deep barn (13,6 g/(GV h)), and the lowest - in a box-type cow-house with manure chamfers covered with grating (5,4 g/(GV h)). Total amount of emanated carbon dioxide from manure comprises only from 1,7 % to 4,1% of carbon dioxide produced by a cow, therefore carbon dioxide emission from manure can not be estimated in calculations of barn’s ventilation system. Main sources of air pollution with carbon dioxide in premises are the animals. However, ammonia is the most severe air pollutant at a barn. The highest emission of ammonia will be in a box-type cow-house with manure chamfers covered with grating (852 mg/(GV h)), the lowest - in a semi-deep cow-house, i.e. - (443 mg/(GV h)). Summarizing calculation results, it can be concluded that the highest volume of ventilated air in a barn is needed for excess water vapour removal - 158,8 m3/(h GV). Ventilation intensity in a barn for excess carbon dioxide removal should be 71,8 m3/(h GV) and for excess ammonia – from 9,9 to 482,3 m3/(h GV), depending on cow housing technologies. Therefore, it is suffi cient to calculate air circulation in terms of water vapour content for designing of the cattle-housing ventilation systems. If a moderate level of air humidity in a barn will be ensured, low concentrations of carbon dioxide and ammonia will be guaranteed as well.

292 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Conclusions

1. The most intensive ammonia emission is determined from manure with higher proportion of free urine: from liquid manure - 198,4 ± 5,8 mg/(m2 h), from semi-liquid manure is equal to 125,1 ± 3,5 mg/(m2 h) and from thick manure - 92,0 ± 2,9 mg/(m2 h) respectively. 2. There are linear dependences of gas emissions upon ambient temperature. At temperature rise from 14,5 ºC to 39,1 ºC, ammonia emission from liquid manure increased from 182 mg/(m2 h) to 295 mg/(m2 h). 3. The proposed regression equation can be used for predicting interrelation of ammonia and carbon dioxide emissions from various cattle manure. At higher rate of CO2 emission, ammonia emission is more intensive and correlation of these factors is linear. When carbon dioxide emission increases by 12,2 times, ammonia emission from liquid manure increases by 6,4 times and from thick manure - by 4,6 times. 4. The maximal intensity of ventilation in barns is required for excess water vapour removal. It is suffi cient to calculate air circulation on a base of water vapour content, for draft calculations of ventilation systems for cattle housing. If moderate air humidity level will be ensured in a barn, low concentrations of carbon dioxide and ammonia will be guaranteed as well. 5. In order to suppress atmosphere pollution with ammonia from barns, it is advisable to use more intensive ventilation in barns for temperature reduction; to remove urine from facilities as soon as possible; to narrow cow track area and to use manure mixing as rarely as possible.

References

Amon, B., Boxberger, J., Amon, Th., Zaussinger, A., Pollinger, A. (1999). Einsatz eines mobilen Emissionsmessraumes zur Emissionsratenbestimmung umwelt- und klimarelevanter Gase aus der Rinderhaltung (Stall, Festmistlagerung und –kompostierung). Bau, Technik und Umwelt in der Landwirtschaftlichen Nutztierhaltung, Beiträge zur 3.Internationalen Tagung. Christian-Albrechts-Universität zu Kiel. Kiel, S.344-351. Brose, G. (2000). Emission von klimarelevanten Gasen, Ammoniak und Geruch aus einem Milchviehstall mit Schwerkraftlüftung. Dissertation. Universität Hohenheim. Stuttgart, S.136. Caenegem, L., Wechsler, B. (2000). Stallklimawerte und ihre Berechnung. Tanikon TH, S. 89. Carlson, G., Svensson, L. (1994). Ammonia and dust emissions from animal housing and ammonia emissions from manure stores and land application. Animal waste management. ESCORENA, p. 289-300. Dedl, H. (2007). Das Ammoniak-Delemma. DELACON Dossier, Nr. 01, S. 10. Hartung, E. (1995). Entwicklung einer Meßmethode und Grundlagenuntersuchung zur Ammoniakfreisetzung aus Flüssigmist. Dissertation. Universität Hohenheim. Stuttgart, S. 168. Hartung, E., Martinec, M., Jungbluth, T. (1997). Reduzierung der Ammoniak- und Geruchsemissionen aus Tierhaltungsanlagen der Landwirtschaft durch biologische Abluftfi lter. Endbericht zum Forschungsvorhaben. Universität Hohenheim. Stuttgart, S. 97. Hartung, E. (2001). Konzeption. Realisierung und Evaluierung einer Versuchseinrichtung zur Entwicklung und differenzierten Beurteilung von Haltungssystemen fur Mastschweine. Habilitationsschrift. Universität Hohenheim. Stuttgart, S. 235. Hartung, E. (2003). Biofi lter. Landtechnik. 58(3), S. 218. Jungbluth, T., Hartung, E. (1997). Was leisten Biofi lter? Landtechnik. 53(5), S. 264-265. Kampschulte, J. (2007). Rinderzucht und Klimawandel. FleckviehWelt, Nr. 2, S. 10-14. Mannebeck, H. (1998). Geruchsemissionen aus der Rindviehhaltung. RKL. Rendsburg-Osterronfeld, S.22. Martinec, M., Hartung, E., Jungbluth, T. (1999). Vergleich unterschiedlicher Filtermaterialien fur Biofi lter. Landtechnik. 54(2), S. 106-107. Menden, B. (1993). Ammoniak-Emissionen in der Landwirtschaft mindern. KTBL. Hannover, S. 74. Nimmermark, S. (2004). Odour release, dispersion and infl uence on human well-being with specifi c focus on animal production. Doctoral thesis. Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences. Alnarp, p. 60. Ribikauskas V., Vaičionis G. (2001). Azoto nuostolių, susidarančių dėl amoniako emisijos gyvulių tvartuose, nustatymas. Veterinarija ir zootechnika, p. 96-99. Vaičionis G., Ribikauskas V. (2003). Azoto, fosforo ir kalio dinamika atviro tipo karvidėse, esant skirtingoms galvijų laikymo ir mėšlo kaupimo technologijoms. Gyvulininkystė. Nr. 42, p. 117-129. Schulz, L. (2000). Entwicklungs- und Einsatzmöglichkeiten von mikroelektronischen Sensoren (Elektronische Nasen) zur Erfassung von Emissionen aus der Tierhaltung. Forschungsberichte. Bonn, S. 79.

Zähner, M., Keck, M. (2005). Ammoniak-Emissionen von Rindviehställen. Minderung beim Bau und Management / FAT-Berichte. Ettenhausen, Nr. 641, S.12.

Rolandas BLEIZGYS. Dr., Assoc. Prof., Head of Dept. of Heat and Biotechnology Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Publications: author of over 30 research papers. Traineeship in Germany. Research interests: technologies and housing systems for animal husbandry. Address: Lithuanian University of Agriculture, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas r., Lithuania. E-mail: Rolandas. [email protected]. +370 37 752240. Indrė PRAKUPIMAITĖ. Dept. of Heat and Biotechnology Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Address: Lithuanian University of Agriculture, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas r., Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel. +370 37 752240.

293 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Research of Physical Properties of Osier Willow Chops

Nerijus Ciganas, Algirdas Raila, Egidijus Zvicevičius, Henrikas Novošinskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Research results of aerodynamic properties of wood – osier willow (Salix viminalis) chops at varying moisture content of a chop layer are presented in this article. Chopped just after hewing, osier willow chops are suffi ciently moist 40 to 55 %. In order to store chop safely in mound, it is purposeful to reduce its moisture content to 18 – 20%. For drying off wood chops in mound using active ventilation at the lowest possible costs, one must determine the relationship between air pressure losses and comparative intensity of ventilation in aired chop mound. Objectives of the research are to determine physical-mechanical properties of osier willow chop, having infl uence on drying process and fuel production; to examine characteristic of chop bulk’s aerodynamic resistance at variable moisture content of osier willow. Experimental research was carried out on two years grown osier willow. The wood was chopped with disc shredder AL-KO NEW TEC 2400 R or with the drum shredder AL-KO SILENT POWER 4000. Physical-mechanical properties of osier willow chop moisture content, its density were determined and fractions were assessed. It was determined that moisture content has not signifi cant infl uence on aerodynamic resistance of osier willow chop layer in a mound. Uneven distribution of air fl ow in an osier willow chops mound forms the barrier to air supply in a ventilated bulk. Aerodynamic resistance in a porous layer is caused by fl uttering phenomenon under air pressure in a layer and by constant or increasing velocity of air fi ltration. Key words: Aerodynamic properties, osier willow, chops, moisture content, physical-mechanical properties

Introduction

Wood is the local resource of biofuel. Fast-growing osier willow (Salix viminalis) is utilised for this purpose. Wood fuel is one of the most important sorts of biofuel. This was caused by extensive forest areas in Lithuania, which had increased in that country since mid-twentieth century. Development of energy production from indigenous and renewable resources is one of the most important objectives of energy usage policy in Lithuanian and the EU. Hewed out and chopped osier willow is suffi ciently moist 40 to 55 %. In order to store chops safely in a mound, it is purposeful to reduce its moisture content to 18 – 20 %. For drying wood chops in mound using active ventilation at the lowest possible cost, one must determine the relationship between static air pressure losses and comparative intensity of ventilation in aired mound. Biological processes taking place in a mound with dried chops and their control depend on aerodynamic resistance of a layer. This is a fundamental indicator for ventilation systems design. Aerodynamic resistance depends on thickness of the mound layer, porosity and air-fi ltration properties. (Jays et al., 1987) Different fractions of wood chip and boughs have been dried under natural environmental conditions and utilizing wind energy. It was determined that coarse fractions of wood dry out up to equilibrium moisture content in natural conditions. (Gislerud, 1990; Jirjis, 1995; Mivell, 1988; Nelist, 1997). During forced convection drying, air pressure drop in a mound of wood chops have decreased, whereas energy consumption for drying increased. (Mivell, 1988). Porosity of a layer increases when chops are coarser, though aerodynamic resistance of the layer and drying energy consumption decreases (Gislerud, 1990). Research of aerodynamic resistance properties in a product layer was initiated by the scientist (Stremen, 1931) and it was extended by other scientists (Tabil and Marshall, 1999; Reed et al., 2001). Shedd (1953) examined aerodynamic resistance of cereal crops and published equations of aerodynamic resistance and aerodynamic characteristics for different crops in a bulk. He proposed that extraneous admixtures in a layer, smaller than grain, increased aerodynamic resistance. Bakker-Arkema et al., (1969) examined aerodynamic resistance of cherry nutlets at varying moisture content. Parsons analysed and determined the relationship between pressure losses and conditional velocity of air in ventilated layer with nuts in 1971. Studies of aerodynamic resistance in potato layer were published by Abram and Fish (1982) and Novo inskas (1986), whereas Neale and Messer (1976) carried out research on root-crop products concerning the theme. Generalised Shedd’s (1953) expression was used for all above mentioned test objects (for product analysis); for determination of the comparative air pressure drop and conditional air velocity: ∆P = Rv n , (1) h where v – conditional air velocity ((m³/s)/m²); R – factor, evaluating aerodynamic resistance of product to air fl ow; ΔP/h – comparative aerodynamic resistance of a layer Pa/m; n – power degree, characterising aerodynamic properties of a product layer. Equation (2) published by Bakker-Arkema et al., (1969) is known as simplifi ed Ergun’s (1952) equation and is used for estimation of aerodynamic resistance to laminar and turbulent air fl ows. It is widely used in mathematical simulation of air resistance fl ows in mound of cereal crops or granulated bio-mass: ∆P = R v + R v 2 , (2) h 1 2

294 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

⋅ 4 where R1 – coeffi cient, evaluating aerodynamic resistance to laminar air fl ow (N s)/ m ; R2– coeffi cient, ⋅ 4 evaluating aerodynamic resistance to turbulent air fl ow (N s)/ m . Coeffi cients R1 and R2 are constant, they can be obtained using regression analysis and depend on type of a test sample and on the test conditions Formula by Hukill and Ives (1955) is accepted as a standard (ASAE1, 1999) and is used for analysis of air pressure losses and air fl ow ratio in a mound layer. The empiric equation was proposed for calculation of aerodynamic resistance of turbulent air fl ow: ∆P cv2 = . (3) h ln(1+ dQ) Here c and d are coeffi cients for evaluation of certain fraction of bio-mass. Formula (3) applies, when conditional air velocity Q rates from 0,01 to 2 ((m³/s)/m²). Usage of osier willow chop as bio-fuel is promoted and could have high potential after determination it’s the physical properties, i.e. its moisture content, actual density and aerodynamic resistance in a mound layer. These properties stand as a supporting mechanism to osier willow chop drying and airing systems design. Aerodynamic resistance of an osier willow chop impedes drying using active ventilation. Occurred pressure losses depend on the range of factors, though the most important ones are thickness of a mound layer, porosity and conditional air velocity. One of the fastest ways how to reduce aerodynamic resistance of wood chop layer is even porosity of a mound layer achieved (i.e. trash, soil content, size and shape of a chop) This means sifting through complex sieves in order to unify weight of chops in a fraction (Alakangas, 2005). Usage of standard sets of sieves and high quality chip fraction are the must (Macijewska et al. 2006). However, one of the most effective methods of chops fraction and its aerodynamic resistance quality control is expeditious determination of the bulk’s aerodynamic properties on a test stand using simulation. The objective of the study was to determine physical-mechanical properties of osier willow chops, conditioning drying process and fuel production process, and to examine characteristic of chop bulk’s aerodynamic resistance ∆ = p f (vs ) at variable moisture content.

Materials and methods

Research of aerodynamic properties of chopped osier willow

The study was carried out in November 2008, in plantation of growing osier willow, Marijampolė distr. Višakio Rūdos village, Lithuania. Cut out osier willow (48 – 49 % moisture content) was then chopped at the Laboratory of Agriculture Products Storage and Processing Technologies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, with disc shredder AL- KO NEW TEC 2400 R and with drum shredder AL-KO SILENT POWER 4000. Method of chopped fraction’s determination. Usage of the method, applied in the European Union for quality assessment of chips and chips fraction, was proposed (Alakangas, 2005). The study was carried out in accordance with this methodology. Set of sieves according to Standard CEN/TS 15149-1:2006 with round holes: 3,15 mm, 8 mm, 16mm, 45 mm and 63 mm was used. Fine-cut 3 kg test sample was periodically sieved manually for 1 min. Fractions of different coarseness, left on individual sieves was weighed and then its percentage was calculated (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Fractions of osier willow chops

1 American Society of Agricultural Engineers.

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In order to equalize porosity of bulked osier willow chops layer during the experiment, variation of actual density with regard to moisture content was evaluated. Porosity is determined by coarseness of osier willow chops, their shape and admixtures. Values of actual density of chopped osier willow and density of a mound layer are necessary for porosity calculations. Equation for porosity calculation of a layer is (Mohsenin, 1986):

Φ = 1− sl ; (4) t where Φ – porosity of chopped osier willow layer; sl – density of a layer in osier willow chop mound kg/m³; t – actual density of chopped osier willow kg/m³.

Density of a chop layer (bulk mass). Density of a layer in the chop mound was determined on the same aerodynamic test stand with hopper capacity of 0,13 m³ (Fig. 2). Hopper of the test stand 13 is fi lled with chops freely, without pressure. Fully loaded hopper of the test stand is weighed, then moisture content of osier willow is determined and the density of chops layer is calculated sl .

Moisture content of chop is determined using the method of drying in MEMMERT SFP600 oven at 105±2 °C for 24 hours period, up to its steady weight. Drying a sample in the oven for 16 hours is enough in most cases, when height of the chops layer is less than 30 cm. (Macijewska, et al. 2006).

The test methods of aerodynamic properties of osier willow chops

Intensity of air fl ow through chops layer is limited by fl uttering rate of a chop. This aerodynamic characteristic, when chops are treated by air fl ow, is described as critical velocity of air fl ow. Depending on the physical-mechanical properties (i.e. size, shape and density) of chopped osier willow, chops are persistently fl uttering in the air fl ow at its critical velocity. Aerodynamic characteristics were determined using the aerodynamic test stand (Fig. 2). Electric motor 1 drives a fan 3 VVD-8 via belt drive and blows air to the static pressure chamber 9 and then through Ø 100 mm air duct 11 to the hopper 13, loaded with osier willow chop. An air fl ow is adjusted with the fl ap 8 and the fl ow intensity is determined by a gas fl ow meter 7.

Figure 2. The draft scheme of a test stand for aerodynamic properties research of a chop mound: 1 – electric motor, 2 – base, 3 – centrifugal fan VVD-8, 4 – fl exible joint, 5 – chamber with constant static pressure, 6 – a fl ap, 7 – gas meters: RG-40, RG-600, RG-1000, 8 – fl aps, 9 – the second chamber with constant static pressure, 10 – a valve, 11 – an air duct, 12 – under-sieve chamber, 13 – chamber with constant cross-section for osier willow chops, 14 – micromanometer MMN-240, 15 – scale RP-200 13

The research was carried out by measuring static air pressure at various altitudes of a layer and at different intensity of air fl ow. Air fl ow, blown through the hopper loaded with osier willow chops, was gradually increased by opening one of the fl aps 8. Readings of the gas meter 7 and time were recorded as well. Static pressure was measured at each air fl ow rate through an osier willow chop layer. Six sensors were placed at 90 mm interval along full height of the hopper. The micromanometer MMN-240 was user for pressure measurements.

296 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Results of the research work

Physical-mechanical properties of osier willow chops

Values of different chop fractions are presented in Table 1. The largest fraction of osier willow chops, chopped with a disk shredder and collected on a sieve with 8 mm holes was (51,4 – 51,1) % and the smallest fraction – dust amounted (2,3 – 3,0) %, when chops moisture content rated from 47,1 % to 12,6 %. When a drum shredder was used, the biggest fraction of chopped osier willow was collected on a sieve with 16 mm holes (78,2 – 77,7) %, whereas dust amounted only to (0,8 – 0,1) % at varied moisture content from 48,4 % to 13,3 %.

Table 1. Coarseness fractions of osier willow chops and particles left on a sieve (%) Disc type shredder Drum type shredder Size of a hole, mm Chops moisture content Chops moisture content 47,17 % 12,64 % 48,44 % 13,30 % 63-100 0000 45-63 1,71 0,56 0 0 16-45 15,4 15,3 78,22 77,76 8-16 51,43 51,11 20,88 21,16 3,15-8 29,13 30,01 0,82 0,96 < 3,15 2,33 3,02 0,08 0,11

During quality assessment of osier willow chops and chip fractions, it was stated that uniform chop fraction was ensured, though moisture content of chopped osier willow was different. Porosity of a layer depended on fraction and type of a shredder and varied within the limits - 0,72 to 0,75 and 0,62 to 0,67. Actual density of wood depends on its moisture content. When wood is completely dry, i.e. its moisture content is equal to 0 %, actual density of osier willow is 589 kg/m³. With increase of osier willow bulk’s moisture content to 49, 45 %, actual density increased to 1081 kg/m³ (Fig. 3).

Figure 3. Dependence of actual density of osier willow on its moisture content

Aerodynamic properties of osier willow chops

Static pressure drop of air fl ow, blown through a layer of osier willow chops, is usually expressed with power equation, proposed by Shedd (1953): (Zvicevičius, 2003)

297 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

∆P = ∆ph = Rvnh , (5) or with two-terms polynomial: ∆ = ∆ = + 2 P ph (R1v R2v )h , (6)

where R, R1 , R2 – coeffi cients of aerodynamic resistance; h – thickness of a layer m; Δp – comparative aerodynamic resistance of a layer Pa/m; ΔP – aerodynamic resistance of a layer Pa; v – conditional air velocity m/s; n – power degree.

Experimental and theoretical characteristic of comparative aerodynamic resistance of an osier willow chop ∆ = p f (vs ) at its varying moisture content is presented below (Fig. 4, 5). Ventilated layer of osier willow chop resists an air fl ow. The resistance rate depends on thickness of the layer, porosity and conditional air velocity, thus there is a linear dependence on thickness (height) of a mound. It is diffi cult to distribute the air fl ow evenly in the whole bulk of chop mound, because of high porosity of the osier willow mound, i.e. – 0,75 to 0,62. Comparative resistance the air fl ow in a layer of osier willow chop mound depends on moisture content and porosity at conditional air velocity of 0,7 m/s, and rates from 425 to 516 Pa/m, plus 1438 to 1693 Pa/m. Moisture content has low infl uence on aerodynamic resistance of osier willow chops layer in a mound. Uneven distribution of air fl ow in the osier willow chops mound and fraction of fi ne particles restrict an air supply for the ventilated layer. Increased air velocity starts blowing chopped particles off. This fact limits comparative ventilation intensity of a wood chop layer.

Figure 4. Dependence of comparative aerodynamic resistance of osier willow chops on conditional velocity of an air fl ow. Disc type shredder, porosity of the layer – 0,72 to 0,75

Figure 5 Dependence of comparative aerodynamic resistance of osier willow chops on conditional velocity of an air fl ow. Drum type shredder, porosity of the layer – 0,62 to 0,67

298 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Conclusions

Actual density of osier willow wood depends on its moisture content; when the wood is completely dry – i.e. moisture content is 0 %, actual density is 589 kg/m³. At higher moisture content – 49,45 %, actual density increases to 1081 kg/m³. An empiric formula for actual density calculation was presented. Static pressure drop of air fl ow in ventilated mound with osier willow chop depends on porosity of a layer and on conditional air velocity in it. Theoretical equations for calculation of static air pressure losses in the osier willow chop mound were composed, that correlated with experimental dependencies.

References

Abram C.F., Fish J.D. (1982). Airfl ow Resistance of Bulk Piled Sweet Potato, Transaction ASAE, 25: 1103-1106 Alakangas E. (2005). Properties of Wood Fuels in Finland, Technical Research Centre of Finland, VTT Processes. Project report PRO2/P2030/05, Jyvaskyla Bakker-Arkema F. W., Patterson R. J., and Bickert W.B. (1969). Static Pressure. Airfl ow Relationship in Paced Beds of Granular Biological Materials Such as Cherry Pits, Transaction. ASAE, 12: 134-140. Bern C.J., and Charity L.F. (1975). Airfl ow Resistance Characteristics of Corn as Infl uenced by Bulk Density, ASAE Paper No. 75-3510. ASAE, St. Joseph, MI. Brooker D.B., Bakker-Arkema F.W. and Hall C.W. (1992). Drying and Storage of Grains and Oilseeds, Van Nostrand Reinhold, NY. Buggeln R. (1999). Outside Storage of Wood Chips, Biocycle, June, pp 32-34. Ergun S. (1952). Fluid Flow Trough Packed Columns. Chem. Eng. Progress, 48, 89-94. Gislerud O. (1990) Drying and Storage of Comminuted Wood Fuels, Biomass 22, pp. 229-244. Hukill W.V., Ives N.C. (1955) Radial Air Flow Resistance of Grain, Agricultural Engineering, 36(5), 222-225. Jayas D.S., Sokhansanj S., Moyese E.B. and Barber E.M. (1987). Airfl ow Resistance of Canola, Transaction ASAE, 30: 484-14880 Jekayinfa S. (2006). Effect of Airfl ow Rate, Moisture Content and Pressure Drop on the Airfl ow Resistance of Locust Bean Seed, Agricultural Engineering International: the CIGR Ejournal. Manuscript FP 06 010. Vol. VIII. May. Jirjis R. (1995). Storage and Drying of Wood fuel, Biomass and Bioenergy 9, pp. 181-190. Kofman P.D. and Spinelli R. (1997). Storage and Handling of Willow from Short Rotation Coppice, Research report, Elsamprojekt, Fredericia (Denmark). Macijewska A., Veringa H., Sanders J., Peteves S. (2006). Co-fi ring of Biomass with Coal: Constrains and Role of Biomass Pre-Treatment, European Commision, DG JRC, Luxembourg. Martinkus M., Greičius S. (2002). Aerodynamic Calculation of Ventilation System, Kaunas - Akademija . Mattei M. (1969). Donnees techniques sur la ventilation du grain, Centre National d’Etudes et d’Experimentation de Machinisme Agricole, Études du CNEEMA, no 329, mars. Mivell T. (1988). Comparisons of Storage’s of Chunkwood and Fuel Chips in Sweden, In: Production, storage and utilisation of wood fuels. Proceedings of IEA/BE Conference task III, 6-7 December, Uppsala Sweden, Volume II. Research note 134/1988, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Garpenberg, Sweden, pp 90-100. Mohsenin N.N. (1986). Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials, Second updated and revised edition, Gordon and Breach Science Publishers. New York. Page 818. Neale M. and Messer J. (1976). Resistance of Root and Bulb-Vegetables to Airfl ow, J. Agric. Eng. Res., 21: 221-231. Nellist M.E. (1997). Storage and Drying of Short Rotation Coppice, ETSU B/W2/00391/REP, ETSU, Harwell UK. Parsons R.A. (1971). Effect of Air Velocity on Drying of English Walnuts, ASAE Paper No. 71-18. ASAE, St. Joseph MI. Reed S.D., Armstrong P.R, Brusewitz G.H. and Stone M.L. (2001). Resistance of marigold fl owers to airfl ow, Transaction ASAE, 44, 639-642 . Siebenmorgen T.J., Jindal V.K. (1987). Air Flow Resistance of Rough as Affected By Moisture Content, Fines Concentration and Bulk Density, Transaction ASAE, 30(4), 1138-1143 Shedd C.K. (1953). Resistance of Grain and Seeds to Air Flow, Agricultural Engineering, 34(9), 616-619. Tabil L.G. and Marshall V. (1999). Airfl ow Resistance of Sugar Beets, ASAE Paper No.99-6059, ASAE, St. Joseph MI. Zvicevičius E. (2003). Processes of Grain Desiccation in the Mound of Alternate Cross-section, Doctoral dissertation, Kaunas: Lithuanian University of Agriculture, pp. 90.

Nerijus CIGANAS. Master, PhD student (technological sciences, environmental engineering and landscape management), Dept. of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Master of Science (mechanical engineering), 2005. Scientifi c Engineer, 2003. Bachelor of Science (mechanical engineering), Lithuanian University of Agriculture, 2001. Publications: author of 1 scientifi c publication. Research interests: renewable energy, post harvest technologies and their modelling. Studentu st. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr., e-mail: [email protected].

299 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Algirdas RAILA. Dr. Habil, Prof, Dept. of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture.Habilitated Doctor of Science (thermodynamic processes), 1995. Doctor of Science (thermodynamic processes), Lithuanian Academy of Agriculture, 1974. Employment: Professor (1996); Assoc. Prof (1978). Publications: author of 18 textbooks and educational books for students and published 110 scientifi c articles. Membership: a corresponding member-expert of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. Research interests: thermodynamic processes in biotechnologies, modelling of technological processes. Studentu st. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr., e-mail: [email protected]. Egidijus ZVICEVIČIUS. Assoc. Prof, Dept. of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Assoc. Prof (2005), Doctor of Science (Technology Sciences) Lithuanian University of Agriculture, 2002. Publications: author of 4 textbooks and educational book for students; with the co-scientifi c periodicals and newspapers published 30 scientifi c articles. Research interests: agricultural products storage technology, quality and retention of heat and mass exchange of plant products mound, renewable energy. Studentu st. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr., e-mail: [email protected] Henrikas NOVOŠINSKAS. Assoc. Prof, Dept. of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Assoc. Prof (1990), Doctor of Science (thermodynamic processes), Lithuanian Academy of Agriculture, 1979. Employment: Assoc. Prof (1990). Publications: author of 16 textbooks and educational books for students and published 100 scientifi c articles. Research interests: agricultural products storage technology, quality and retention of heat and mass exchange of plant products mound, modelling of technological processes. Studentu st. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr., e-mail: [email protected]

300 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

On the Infl uence of Mechanical and Chemical Input Preparation on the Effi ciency of Biogas Production from Organic Beach Wastes

H. Gerath, R. Böttcher, J. Köhn, L. Peter Technical University Wismar, Germany A. Sakalauskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Beach waste from freshwater sources is a harsh substrate to generate biogas from it. The tests showed that only high-pressure steam explosion pre-treatment can make the material suitable for biogas production on an economic feasible way. The method allows for an increase biogas yield from approximately 50 l/kgoTS to about 300 l/kgoTS using the high-pressure steam explosion technology. The technology allows therefore for almost similar biogas volume as generated from cattle waste or straw. The results strongly support the idea to use beach waste from freshwater as a co-substrate in biogas plants.

Introduction

Hydrolysis is often seen a limiting factor on the production of biogas. The structure and quality of the input material infl uences the velocity of degradation into a matrix that bacteria can use (fi g. 1). The velocity of the hydrolysis process is higher in sugar or starch whereas specifi c and complex compounds such as lignocelluloses (i.e. hemicelluloses and celluloses-lignin) demand a long degradation time. The prolongation of the hydrolysis process usually makes the use of those substances ineffective.

Figure 1. Velocity of hydrolysis processes with different input materials (Eder, B. et. al, von Felde, A.)

Because of increasing competition between the food- and nonfood-production of agricultural goods and commodities other then agricultural non-food products or also agricultural wastes are tested for the production of biogas. The main aspect is to avoid competition on agricultural land that should be used for the production of food. Biomass substrates that may serve as inputs for biogas production plants are for instance wastes from agricultural production such as straw of different cereal crops or rape seed. Other substrates can be generated in landscape management from lawns, beaches or greens along roads. Those materials contain a relatively high share of timber. The technical University in Wismar focus research on making those “woody” substrates more attractive fort he production of biogas and has developed and tested different technologies. Those technologies will allow increasing the velocity of degradation into substrates that can be used in biogas plants, to ease the processes and to increase the output with biogas in those plants. The idea is to infl uence with thermical, chemical and mechanical process technologies the process of hydrolysis directly.

Materials and methods

24 biogas reactors on laboratory scale 25 l volume each have been used for the study. Each reactor was fi lled with 18 l of substrate. The remaining volume served used as a chamber for gases. Each reactor was equipped with fi ll-in and take-out locks as well as locks for instruments to monitor for instance pH. Losses of gases could be avoided almost completely. Each reactor was also equipped with a heater to regulate temperature and a mixer that was regulated in certain intervals. Preheated water that fl ows within the double wall to keep the temperature of the reactor at the temperature

301 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment demanded by the tests. Two different temperature levels each for 12 reactors at similar temperature were used in the tests. 50 l gas containers collected the biogas from the tests. Twice a day the collected gas volume was measured with a revolving gas counter produced by Ritter Apparatebau GmbH. The gas composition was measured with the gas monitor BM 2000 of Ansyco once a day. The gas monitor collected data on methane, carbon dioxide, oxygen and hydrogen sulphide. A defi ned recyclate from a biogas plant was used to inject each and every reactor. Each and every test followed the regulations of VDI 4630. Beach waste containing algae, reed, timber residues and other organic components which is collected from fresh water harbours and locks were used in the tests. The material is waste collected in regular cleaning programs to keep the technical equipment in operation. The samples originated from two succeeding years (2008, 2009). Since the samples have not been shifted to the tests immediately some biomass might have been degraded before the tests could be facilitated. The main difference between the materials for the tests was that the one from 2008 was more degraded already before tested than the one from 2009. The 2009 material was in a quite better – visually not degraded – condition before used in the tests. The material collected and used in the tests can not by used in incineration plants because of the high water content and legal regulations in Germany. We see the generation of biogas from this material as a feasible option. However, the high content of timber like material and a high content of silicate the materials have to be treated mechanically or chemically before it can be used in a biogas plant. The following parameters were tested: - Impact of temperature on the biomass at 120°C for 60 minutes - Impact of maleine acid as a catalyst for biomass degradation - Impact of enzymes (cellulases) on biomass degradation - Impacts of high-pressure steam explosion on the biomass degradation. The chosen methods showed different impacts and results. Whereas enzymes crack the celluloses structure and make the degraded material suitable for bacteria, maleine acid catalyses the growth rate of micro-organisms [Madigan, M. T. et. al, Crueger, W. et. al]. In the later case the velocity of degradation increases because of the number of micro- organisms who will cope with the biomass. The high-pressure steam explosion and the thermical cracking at 120°C weaken the complex structure of the used material. In a high-pressure steam explosion the biomass is heated very fast. The pressure increases due the heating. In a sudden reduction of tension the cellular structure implodes. The technology allows for degradation of hemicelluloses and in part also celluloses to sugars. Lignin is solved in the suspension [Bobleter, O.]. The explosion increases the surface of the material substantially and offers a surface to the micro-organisms that they can settle on successfully. This effect makes subsequent biogas process much faster.

Results and discussion

The fi ve different impacts in the tests show different rates of degradation of on the substrate and the subsequent biogas generation (fi g. 2).

Figure 2. Biogas output generated from beach waste treated with different technologies (HDA – high digester autoclave)

Whereas the heating to 120oC and the enzymatic pretreating of the material had no remarkable infl uence on the rate of biogas generation, the use of maleine acid or high-pressure steam explosion allowed for a substantial increase of biogas produced. However, the differences in the tests with maleine acid show that the degradation of biomass may have a strong infl uence on the biogas generated in the process. If the storage period before the material is used in biogas plants is too long cellulosis will be degraded during the storage period und thus is no longer available for biogas production.

302 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The treatment of the beach waste with maleine acid increases the gas production by more than double. However, a minor part of the biogas results from the maleine acid itself. This part has been taken into account in fi g. 3. Hence the gas volume generated with the help of the maleine acid as an additive still is too low to set-up an economic feasible project. In addition prices for maleine acid are too high for making the technology economically sustain.

The high-pressure steam explosion is a more effi cient technology since circa biogas output 300 l/kgoTS are remarkable. It was the only method tested that could degrade a material that initially is non-degradable in an economic way. The resulting biogas volume is almost similar to reference tests in which cattle waste or straw were used [Eder, B.]. The attained values are still too low for biogas plants using a homogeneous substrate from one source only however, co- fermentation might be an option.

Figure 3. Contents of methane in dried biogas with beach Figure 4. Contents of methane in dried biogas with beach waste 2008 test waste 2009 test

The content of methane in the produced biogas is almost similar (Figure 3). The resulting content of methane was, however, signifi cantly smaller in the fi rst four days in the material treated with high-pressure steam explosion. “Overfeeding“ the biogas reactors due to a much shorter hydrolysis period might be a reason for these effects because of the advantages of this technology. Those effects can be avoided with a improved “feeding” strategy. In conclusion, high-pressure steam explosion is the best method in the test to pre-treat beach wastes from freshwater sources. The degraded soup can be used as a co-substrate in biogas plant. The yields of biogas generated from the degraded beach waste will generate almost similar biogas yields as other feedstocks.

References Bobleter, O. 1998. Hydrothermal degradation and fractionation of saccharides and polysaccharides. In Dimitriu, S. (ed.): Polysaccharides: structural diversity and functional versatility. Marcel Dekker, New York, pp. 775-833. Crueger, W., Crueger, A. 1989. Biotechnologie – Lehrbuch der angewandten Mikrobiologie. R. Oldenbourg Verlag, München, Wien, pp. 306-307 (in german). Eder, B.; Schulz, H. 2007. Biogas Praxis. Oekobuch Verlag, Staufen, pp. 19-34 (in german). von Felde, A. 2008. Trends und Innovationen in der Bereitstellung von Biogassubstraten in Deutschland. In 2. Rostocker Bioenergieforum. Tagungsband der Universität Rostock, pp. 306 (in german). Madigan, M. T., Martinko, J. M., Parker, J., Hrsg. von Goebel, W., 2003. Brock- Mikrobiologie. Spektrum-Akademischer Verlag, Heidelberg, pp. 693- 701 (in german).

Horst GERATH. Dr. Habil., scientifi c fi eld: biotechnologies, Technical University Wismar, Department of Engeneering, Section of Engine Construction / Processing and Environmental Technology, Chair of Processing of Biological Materials, Phillip-Müller Str. 14, D-23952 Wismar, Germany; e-mail: [email protected] Antanas SAKALAUSKAS. Dr., scientifi c fi eld: technologies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Machinery, Studentu 15A, LT-53361 Kaunas, Lithuania; e-mail: [email protected]

303 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Determination of Nutritional and Physical Properties of Sesame Seed (Sesamum Indicum L.)

Seyed Mohammad Taghi Gharib-Zahedi2, Seyed Mohammad Mousavi, Seyed Hadi Razavi University of Tehran, Karaj, Iran Mona Akhavan-Borna University of Orumia, Iran

Abstract

Design of the equipment for processing, sorting, sizing and other post-harvest equipment of agricultural products requires information about their physical and nutritional properties. In this study, some physical properties of sesame seed as a function of moisture content as well as the nutritional properties of the seed were evaluated. In the moisture range of 4.54–19.27% d.b., seed length, width, thickness, arithmetic mean diameter and geometric mean diameter increased linearly from 2.93 to 3.01 mm, 1.74 to 1.78 mm, 0.78 to 0.85 mm, 1.81 to 1.88 mm and 1.57 to 1.64 mm respectively with increase in moisture content. In the mentioned moisture range, the sphericity, surface area, volume, one thousand seed mass, true density and porosity increased from 53.58 to 54.48%, 17.23 to 21.02 mm2, 2.43 to 2.72 mm3, 2.43 to 2.75 g, 1207 to 1236.8 kg/m3 and 51.03 to 53.14%, respectively, while bulk density decreased from 591 to 579.5 kg/m3. The terminal velocity and angle of repose increased from 4.95 to 5.4 m/s and 31.5 to 32.8º, respectively. The highest static coeffi cient of friction was found on the plywood surface. The static coeffi cient of friction increased from 0.54 to 0.56, 0.50 to 0.54 and 0.41 to 0.45 for plywood, mild steel and galvanized iron sheet, respectively. The results showed that sesame seeds contained high amounts of oil (46.57%), crude protein (23.75%) and calcium (0.98%). In addition, the mineral contents of the seed for Phosphorus, Potassium, Magnesium and Iron were 508.3, 486.7, 288.2 and 10.7 mg/100g of dry matter, respectively. Key words: Sesame seed; Engineering properties; Chemical composition; Moisture content

Introduction

Sesame seeds (Sesamum Indicum L.) are one of the world’s most important and oldest oilseed crops known to man. Sesame plant grows in tropical and subtropical regions with a dry and a rainy season. It is grown in many parts of the world today for its important uses as edible oil, spice, insecticide, medicine, soap, green manure and ornament. India, China, Sudan and Burma are the major producers of sesame seeds by contributing to approximately 60% of its total world production. Sesame seed, also known as beniseed, is a rich source of oil (44%) and protein (19–25%) (Khazaei and Daneshmandi, 2007). To design equipment for aeration and storage there is a need to know various physical properties as a function of moisture content (Ramakrishna, 1986). In order to optimize the equipment design for harvesting, handling, storing, oil extraction processing and other processes of sesame seed, its physical properties must be known. Size and shape are important in designing of the separation, harvesting, sizing and grinding machines. Bulk density and porosity affect the structural loads. The angle of repose is important in designing of storage and transporting structures. The coeffi cient of friction of the seed against the various surfaces is also necessary in design of conveying, transporting and storing structures. To our knowledge, information on the moisture-dependence of such properties of sesame seeds is nonexistent in the literature. The objective of this work was to study the effects of moisture content on some physical properties of sesame seed including size, shape, one thousand seed mass (m1000), sphericity index, bulk density, true density, porosity, angle of repose, terminal velocity and coeffi cient of static friction and also some important nutrients and mineral contents of sesame seeds.

Materials and methods

Materials

The seeds were harvested in September 2008 from a research farm at the University of Tehran and kept in cooled bags during transportation to the laboratory. The seeds were cleaned manually to remove all foreign matter such as dust, dirt, stones and chaff as well as immature and broken seeds. The initial moisture content of the seeds was determined by oven drying at 105 ±1 °C for 24 h (Suthar and Das, 1996). The initial moisture content of the seeds was 4.54% d.b. The samples of the desired moisture contents were prepared by adding the amount of distilled water as calculated from the following equation (Balasubramanian, 2001; Dursun and Dursun, 2005)

W (M − M ) Q = i f i (1) − 100 M f

2 Corresponding author. E-mail: [email protected]

304 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Where Q is the mass of water to be added in kg; Wi is the initial mass of the sample in kg; M i is the initial moisture content of the sample in % d.b. and M f is the fi nal moisture content in % d.b. The samples were then poured in to separate polyethylene bags and the bags sealed tightly. The samples were kept at 5 °C in a refrigerator for a week to enable the moisture to distribute uniformly throughout the sample. Before starting a test, the required quantity of the seed was taken out of the refrigerator and allowed to warm up to the room temperature for about 2 h (Ozarslan, 2002). All the physical properties of the seeds were assessed at moisture levels of 4.54, 9.55, 15.17 and 19.27% d.b. with fi ve replications at each moisture content.

Determination of physical properties

To determine the average size of the seed, 100 seeds were randomly picked and their three linear dimensions namely, length (L), width (W) and thickness (T) were measured using a digital versnier caliper with an accuracy of 0.01 mm. The one thousand seed mass was determined by means of an electronic balance reading to 0.001 g. The average diameter of seeds was calculated by using the arithmetic mean and geometric mean of the three axial dimensions. The arithmetic mean diameter ( D , mm) and geometric mean diameter ( D , mm) of the seed were calculated using the a g following relationships (Mohsenin, 1986): L + W + T D = (2) a 3

D = (LWT)1/ 3 (3) g The sphericity of sesame seeds is calculated using the following formula (Mohesenin, 1986):

(LWT)1/ 3 = (4) L Where: is the sphericity; L is the length in mm; W is the width in mm; and T is the thickness in mm.

Jain and Bal (1997) have stated seed volume (V) and surface area (S) may be given by:    V = 0.25 L(W +T ) 2  (5)  6  

BL2 S = (6) ()2L − B where: = B WT (7)

The bulk density ( b ) of sesame seeds were measured by fi lling an empty glass container of predetermined volume and net weight with the seeds by pouring from a constant height, striking off the top level and weighing. The ratio of the mass and volume was expressed as bulk density (Varnamkhasti et al., 2008). During the experiment, care t was taken to avoid any compaction of the material in the container. The true density ( ) was determined using Toluene displacement method (Mohsenin, 1986). Toluene (C7H8) was used in place of water because seeds to lesser extent absorb it. In addition, its surface tension is low, so that it fi lls even shallow dips in a seed and its dissolution power is low (Kabas et al., 2007; Demir et al., 2002). The porosity of sesame seed at various moisture contents was calculated from bulk density and true density using the relationship given by (Mohsenin, 1986) as follows: ()− = t b ×100 (8) t where: b 3 3 is the porosity in %, is the bulk density in kg/m and t is the true density in kg/m . The angle of repose is the angle with respect to the horizontal at which the material will stand when piled. This was determined by using an apparatus consisting of a plywood box of 140×160×35 mm and two plates: fi xed and adjustable (Fig. 1). The box was fi lled with the sample, and then the adjustable plate was inclined gradually allowing the seeds to fl ow and assume a natural slope, this was measured as emptying angle of repose (Varnamkhasti et al., 2008; Tabatabaeefar, 2003). The static friction coeffi cients against plywood, galvanized iron sheet and mild steel were determined using a cylinder of diameter 75 mm and depth of 50 mm fi lled with seeds (Fig. 2). With the cylinder resting on the surface, the surface was raised gradually until the fi lled cylinder just started to slide down (Razavi and Milani, 2006).

Terminal velocity (Vt ) was measured by using an air column system. For each test, a sample was dropped into the air

305 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment stream from the top of the air column, up which air was blown to suspend the material in the air stream. The air velocity near the location of the seed suspension was measured by a hot wire anemometer having a least count of 0.01 m/s (Akinci et al., 2004).

Determination of nutritional properties

In the next step, seed samples were transported to the chemistry laboratory in closed polyethylene bags in order to reduce surface contamination and washed with deisonized water, and dried with sanitary blotting papers. Moisture content was determined by drying the samples at 105 ˚C to a constant weight. In order to determine total ash, samples were kept in an oven at 550 ˚C for 12h, until they became total ash and then, they were weighed (AOAC, 1990). Total protein content was calculated from total nitrogen by using N × 6.25 after the determination of the total nitrogen by micro-Kjeldahl method (AOAC, 1990). Fat content was determined by the Soxhlet method. fat content was obtained by exhaustively extracting 5.0 g of each sample in a Soxhlet apparatus with hexane for 8 h at boiling point of the solvent (68– 70 ˚C) (Abaza et al., 2002). Manirakiza et al. (2001) previously described the extraction procedure. Then, samples were wet digested in a mixture of nitric per chloride acids [(HNO3: HClO4 (4:1)]. Potassium (K), calcium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), iron (Fe), manganese (Mn), zinc (Zn) and copper (Cu) concentrations in the digest were determined by using atomic absorption spectrophotometer (Perkin-Elmer® Model 2380) (Kabas et al., 2007). The amounts of minerals were calculated with a standard curve. Phosphorus (P) was measured using an UV-visible spectrophotometer (Spectronic GenesysTM 10, GENEQ Inc., Montreal, Canada) at 430 nm wavelength and comparing the results to the standard curve (Kabas et al., 2007). All analytical determinations− were performed at least in triplicate. Values of different parameters were expressed as the mean ± standard deviation [x ± (S.D.)].

Results and discussion

Physical prosperities

The three axial dimensions increased with increase in moisture content from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. The dimensional increases in seed length, width and thickness were 2.73, 2.29 and 8.97%, respectively. The average diameters calculated by the arithmetic mean and geometric mean are also presented in Table 1. The average diameters increased with the increase in moisture content as axial dimensions. The arithmetic and geometric mean diameter ranged from 1.81 to 1.88 and 1.57 to 1.64 mm as the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b., respectively.

The thousand seed mass of sesame seed (m1000) increased linearly from 2.43 to 2.75 g when the moisture content was increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. A linear increase in thousand seed mass with increase in seed moisture content has been reported by Ozarslan (2002) for cotton seed, Sacilik et al. (2003) for hemp seed, Yalcin and Ozarslan (2004) for vetch, Cagatay Selvi (2006) for linseed, Coskuner and Karababa (2007) for fl axseed, Isik and Izli (2007) for sunfl ower seed and Cahsir et al. (2005) for rapeseed. The relationship between thousand seed mass and moisture content can be represented by the following regression equation:

2 m1000 = 2.337 + 0.021 Mc R = 0.991 (9) This factor is useful in determining the equivalent diameter which can be used in the theoretical estimation of seed volume and in cleaning using aerodynamic forces.

The values of sphericity ( ) were calculated individually with Eqn (4) by using the data on geometric mean diameter and the length of the sesame seed. The sphericity of the sesame seed increased from 53.58 to 54.48% when the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. Similar trends have been reported by Aydin et al. (2002) for Turkish Mahaleb, Sahoo and Srivastava (2002) for okra seed, Sacilik et al. (2003) for hemp seed, Coskuner and Karababa (2007) for fl axseed and Altuntas et al. (2005) for fenugreek seed. The relationship existing between moisture content and sphericity can be expressed as follows:

2 = 53.31 + 0.059 Mc R = 0.995 (10) The volume increases with moisture content from 2.43 mm3 at 4.54% moisture content to 2.72 mm3 at 19.27% moisture content. Ogut (1998) and Baryeh (2002) have reported a linear increase in seed volume with increasing moisture content for white lupin and millet, respectively. The linear equation for seed volume (V) can be formulated to be:

2 V = 2.320 + 0.020 Mc R = 0.967 (11) The surface area of sesame seed increased from 17.23 to 21.02 mm2 when the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. Similar trends have been reported by Sacilik et al. (2003) and Baryeh (2002) for hemp seed and millet, respectively. The relationship existing between moisture content and surface area (S) can be expressed as follows:

306 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

S = 15.68 + 0.262 Mc R2 = 0.949 (12)

The bulk density decreased from 591 to 579.5 kg/m3 as the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. The decrease in bulk density with increase in moisture content shows that the increase in mass resulting from the moisture gain of the sample is lower than the accompanying volumetric expansion of the bulk. The negative linear relationship of bulk density with moisture content was also observed by various research workers (Shepherd and Bhardwaj, 1986; Deshpande et al., 1993; Gupta and Das, 1997; Dutta et al., 1988; Bart-Plange and Baryeh, 2003). The relationship between bulk density ( b ) and moisture content can be represented by the following regression equation:

2 b = 594.1– 0.756 Mc R =0.992 (13)

The true density of the seed increased from 1207 to 1236.8 kg/m3 as the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. The increase in true density might be attributed to the relatively lower true volume as compared to the corresponding mass of the seed attained due to adsorption of water. A similar increasing trend in true density has been observed by Singh and Goswami (1996) for cumin seed and Ozarslan (2002) for cottonseed. The relationship between true density ( t ) and moisture content of the sesame seed can be expressed as follows:

2 t = 1198 + 1.992 Mc R =0.998 (14)

The porosity ( ) of sesame seed was found to increase linearly with the increase in moisture content. As the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b., the porosity increased from 51.03 to 53.14%. This could be attributed to the expansion and swelling of seeds that might have resulted in more voids space between the seeds and increased the bulk volume. This is also exhibited in the reduction of bulk density with increase in moisture content. Gupta and Das (1997) for sunfl ower, Carman (1996) for lentil and Singh and Goswami (1996) for cumin seeds stated that as the moisture content increased so the porosity value increased. The relationship existing between moisture content and porosity appears linear and can be formulated as follows:

= 50.43 + 0.140 Mc R2 =0.995 (15)

Terminal velocity increased linearly from 4.95 to 5.4 m/s as the moisture content increased from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. The increase in terminal velocity with increase in moisture content within the range studied can be attributed to the increase in mass of an individual seed per unit frontal area presented to the air stream. Singh and Goswami (1996), Suthar and Das (1996), Nimkar and Chattopadhyay (2001), Gezer et al. (2002), Konak et al. (2002) and Sacilik et al. (2003) have reported a linear increase in terminal velocity with increase in the moisture content for cumin seed, karingda seed, green gram, apricot kernel, chick pea seed and hemp seed, respectively. The relationship between terminal (Vt ) and moisture content for sesame seed derived from the data was:

2 Vt = 4.712 + 0.041 Mc R =0.998 (16)

The angle of repose increased from 31.5 to 32.8º in the moisture range of 4.54–19.27% d.b. At higher moisture content seeds might tend to stick together due to the plasticity effect (stickiness) over the surface of the seeds resulting in better stability and less fl owability thereby increasing the angle of repose (Irtwange and Igbeka, 2002). The results were similar to those reported by Singh and Goswami (1996), Nimkar and Chattopadhyay (2001), Baryeh (2002), Amin et al. (2004) and Altuntas et al. (2005) for cumin seed, green gram, millet, lentil and fenugreek, respectively. The relationship existing between moisture content and angle of repose (α) appears linear and can be formulated as follows:

= 31.07 + 0.090 Mc R2 =0.995 (17)

At higher moisture contents, the seed on various surfaces became rougher and its sliding characteristics were diminished, so that the coeffi cient of static friction increased. Also due to increasing the stickiness and adhesion between seeds and material surfaces at higher moisture contents, the resulting adhesive force plays an important role in increasing the value for the coeffi cient of static friction. At all moisture contents, the static coeffi cient of friction was greatest against plywood (0.54–0.56), followed by mild steel (0.50–0.54) and galvanized iron sheet (0.41-0.45). The least static coeffi cient of friction was on galvanized iron sheet. This may be owing to smoother and more polished surface of the stainless steel sheet than the other materials used. Tsang-Mui-Chung et al. (1984), Dutta et al. (1988), Joshi et al. (1993), Carman (1996), Ogut (1998), Peker (1996) and Aydin (2002) reported that as the moisture content increased so the coeffi cient of static friction increased. The relationship between moisture content and static coeffi cients of friction for three surfaces is presented in table 1.

307 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 1. The relationship between moisture content and static coeffi cients of friction for various surfaces Surface Equations R2

Plywood µp = 0.533 + 0.001MC 0.999

Mild steel µms = 0.485 +0.002 MC 0.988

Galvanized iron sheet µg = 0.396 + 0.002 MC 0.984

Nutritional properties

Sesame seed was analyzed for moisture, protein (N × 6.25), oil, ash contents were found to be 5.6%, 23.75%, 46.57% and 5.26%, respectively. Therefore, this seed is especially rich with oil and protein. Protein value of sesame seed was higher than black cumin seed (20.85%) and smaller than fuzzy cottonseed (40–43%) (Cheikh-Rouhou et al., 2007; Manimehalai and Viswanathan, 2006). Crude fat content was considerably higher than fuzzy cottonseed (12–20%) and black cumin seed (35.5–37.8%) (Manimehalai and Viswanathan, 2006; Nergiz and Otles, 1993). The mineral composition of sesame seed shows that calcium was the predominant mineral followed by phosphorus, potassium and magnesium. The mean of calcium content of the sesame seed was 0.98% in dry matter. The mineral contents of sesame seed for phosphorus, potassium, magnesium, iron, zinc, manganese and copper were 508.3, 486.7, 288.2, 10.7, 8.63, 5.11 and 2.47 mg /100g of dry matter, respectively. Minerals are unique nutrients because of their important role in metabolism. They are essential part of many important enzymes and they play roles as catalysts and antioxidants. For example, iron and copper are essential in blood formation and copper is involved in normal carbohydrate and lipid metabolism (Cheikh-Rouhou et al., 2007). Because of the high content, sesame seed paste could be used in the human diet for supplying these important minerals. Protein, phosphorus, and zinc content were found harmoniously with other research results (Elleuch et al., 2007).

Conclusions

The following conclusions are drawn from this investigation on physical and nutritional properties of sesame seeds for the moisture content range of 4.54–19.27% d.b. (1) The thousand seed mass increased from 2.43 to 2.75 g and the sphericity increased from 53.58 to 54.48% with the increase in moisture content from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. (2) The surface area increased from 17.23 to 21.02 mm2 and the porosity increased from 51.03 to 53.14%. (3) The bulk density decreased linearly from 591 to 579.5 kg/m3 whereas the true density increased from 1207 to 1236.8 kg/m3. (4) The terminal velocity increased from 4.95 to 5.4 m/s and angle of repose increased from 31.5 to 32.8º in the moisture range from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. (5) The static coeffi cient of friction increased on three structural surfaces namely, galvanized iron sheet (0.41- 0.45) mild steel (0.50–0.54) and plywood (0.54–0.56) in the moisture range from 4.54 to 19.27% d.b. (6) Nutritional properties showed that dry matter content, oil, protein, and nitrogen content were 94.4%, 46.57%, 23.75% and 3.8 %, respectively. (7) The mineral composition of sesame seed showed that calcium was the predominant mineral followed by phosphorus, potassium and magnesium.

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Baumler E., Cuniberti A. Nolasco S.M., Riccobene I.C. (2006). Moisture dependent physical and compression properties of saffl ower seed. Journal of Food Engineering 72, pp. 134–140. Cagatay Selvi K., Pinar Y., Yesiloglu E. (2006). Some Physical Properties of Linseed. Biosystems Engineering 95, pp. 607-612. Cahsir S., Marakoglu T., Ogut H., Ozturk O. (2005). Physical properties of rapeseed (Brassica napus oleifera L.). Journal of Food Engineering 69, pp. 61–66. Carman K. (1996). Some physical properties of lentil seeds. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 63, pp. 87–92. Cheikh-Rouhou S., Besbes S., Hentati B., Blecker C., Deroanne C., Attia H. (2007). ‎Nigella sativa L.: Chemical composition and physicochemical characteristics of lipid fraction. ‎Food Chemistry 101, pp. 673–681. ‎ Coskuner Y., Karababa E. (2007). Some physical properties of fl axseed (Linum usitatissimum L.). Journal of Food Engineering 78, pp. 1067–1073. Demir F., Dogan H., Ozcan H., Haciseferogullari H. (2002). Nutritional and physical properties of hackberry (Celtis australis L.). Journal of Food Engineering 54, pp. 241–247. Deshpande S.D., Bal S. Ojha T.P. (1993). Physical properties of soybean. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 56, pp. 89–98. Dursun E., Dursun I. (2005). Some physical properties of caper seed. Biosystems Engineering 92, pp. 237-245. Dutta S.K., Nema V.K., Bhardwaj R.K. (1988). Physical properties of gram. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 39, pp. 259–268. Elaskar S.A., Godoy L.A., Mateo D., Seeber, G. (2001). An experimental study of the gravity fl ow of sorghum. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 79, pp. 65–71. Elleuch M., Besbes S., Roiseux O., Blecker C., Attia H. (2007). Quality characteristics of ‎sesame seeds and by-products. Food Chemistry 103, pp. 641–650.‎ Gezer I., Haciseferogullari H., Demir F. (2002). Some physical properties of Hacihaliloglu apricot pit and its kernel. Journal of Food Engineering 56, pp. 49–57. Gupta R.K., Das S.K. (1997). Physical properties of sunfl ower seeds. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 61, pp. 1–8. Irtwange S.V., Igbeka J.C. (2002). Flow properties of African yam bean (Sphenostylis stenocarpa) as affected by accession and moisture content. Transaction of the ASAE 45, pp. 1063-1070. Isik E., Izli N. (2007). Physical properties of sunfl ower seeds. International Journal of Agriculture Research 2, pp. 677-686. Jain R.K., Bal S. (1997). Properties of pearl millet. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 66, pp. 85–91. Joshi D.C., Das S.K., Mukherjee R.K. (1993). Physical properties of pumpkin seeds. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 54, pp. 219–229. Kabas O., Yilmaz E., Ozmerzi A., Akinci I. (2007). Some physical and nutritional properties of cowpea seed (Vigna sinensis L.). Journal of Food Engineering 79, pp. 1405-1409. Khazaei J., Daneshmandi S. (2007). Modeling of thin-layer drying kinetics of sesame seeds: mathematical and neural networks modeling. International Agrophysics 21, pp. 335-348. Konak M., Carman K., Aydin C. (2002). Physical properties of chick pea seeds. Biosystems Engineering 82, pp. 73–78. Manimehalai N., Viswanathan R. (2006). Physical Properties of Fuzzy Cottonseeds. ‎Biosystems Engineering 95, pp. 207-217. ‎ Manirakiza P., Covaci A., Scepens P. (2001). Comparative study on total lipid ‎determination using Sohlet, Roese-Gottlieb, Bilgh and Dyer, and modifi ed Bilgh and Dyer ‎extraction methods. Journal of Food Composition and Analysis, 14, pp. 93–100.‎ Mohsenin N.N. (1986). Physical Properties of Plant and Animal Materials. Gordon and Breach Science Publications, New York. Nergiz, C., Otle S. (1993). Chemical composition of Nigella sativa L. seeds. Food Chemistry ‎‎48, pp. 259–261.‎ Nimkar P.M., Chattopadhyay P.K. (2001). Some physical properties of green gram. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 80, 183–189. Ogut H. (1998). Some physical properties of white lupin. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 69, pp. 273–277. Ozarslan C. (2002). PH – postharvest technology: physical properties of cotton seed. Biosystems Engineering 83, pp. 169–174. Peker A. (1996). The determination of some physical properties of corn kernel. Selcuk University The Journal of Agricultural Faculty10, pp. 22–65. Perez E.E., Crapiste G.H., Carelli A.A. (2007). Some physical and morphological properties of wild sunfl ower seeds. Biosystems Engineering 96, pp. 41–45. Ramakrishna P. (1986). Melon seeds-evaluation of the physical characteristics. Journal of Food Science and Technology 23, pp. 158–160. Razavi S., Milani E. (2006). Some physical properties of the watermelon seeds. Africian Journal of Agricultural Research 13, pp. 65–69. Sacilik K., Ozturk R. Keskin R. (2003). Some physical properties of hemp seed. Biosystems Engineering 86, pp. 191–198. Sahoo P.K., Srivastava A.P. (2002). Physical properties of okra seed. Biosystems Engineering 83, pp. 441–448. Shepherd H., Bhardwaj R.K. (1986). Moisture-dependent physical properties of pigeon pea. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 35, pp. 227–234. Singh K.K., Goswami T.K. (1996). Physical properties of Cumin seed. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 64, pp. 93–98. Suthar S.H., Das S.K. (1996). Some physical properties of karingda [Citrullus lanatus (Thumb) Mansf] seeds. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 65, pp. 15–22. Tabatabaeefar A. (2003). Moisture-dependent physical properties of wheat. International Agrophysics 17, pp. 207–211. Tsang-Mui-Chung M., Verma L.R., Wright M.E. (1984). Adevice for friction measurement of grains. Transaction of the ASAE 27, pp. 1938–1941. Varnamkhasti M.G., Mobli H., Jafari A., Keyhani A.R., Soltanabadi M.H., Rafi ee S., Kheiralipour K. (2008). Some physical properties of rough rice (Oryza Sativa L.) grain. Journal of Cereal Science 47, pp. 496-501. Yalcin I., Ozarslan C. (2004). Physical properties of vetch seed. Biosystems Engineering 88, pp. 507–512.

309 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Electromagnetic Effi ciency of Asynchronous Motor Windings and their Power Indexes

Voldemaras Girdvainis, Jonas Bukšnaitis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

In the paper the standard dimensioned 1,5 kW three-phase asynchronous motor with single-layer former winding and the same motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal winding was analyzed. Electromagnetic features of stator windings of the considered motors were evaluated on the base of harmonic analysis of rotating magnetomotive forces created by them and by calculating electromagnetic effi ciency factors on the base of the analysis results. It was determined that the electromagnetic effi ciency factor of the single-layer former three-phase winding kef1 = 0,9139, and for sinusoidal three-phase winding – kef2 = 0,9335, i. e. by 2,14 % higher than the factor of the fi rst winding. All power indexes of standard dimensioned asynchronous motor with single-layer winding and of motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three-phase winding were calculated after completing no-load and load tests of the motor and by applying the segregated-losses method. It was found that the phase current of the asynchronous motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three phase winding under indicated load decreased by 6,9 % , power taken from electric grid decreased by 5,0 %, power losses decreased by 11,7 %, effi ciency factor increased by 2,4 % and power factor increased by 3,4 % compare to the respective power indexes of the standard dimensioned asynchronous motor under the same load. It was determined that asynchronous motor with three- phase winding of higher electromagnetic effi ciency factor also has better power indexes.

Introduction

Large part of electrical energy used in agriculture and also in various biosystems is transformed into mechanical energy in the electric drives of various machines and devices. Asynchronous cage three-phase motors are used to transform the energy in these drives since their construction is simple, they are most reliable during exploitation, have the least relative weight and are least expensive. Three-phase stator winding is one of the most important construction parts of these engines. Main energy interchange processes take place in this winding therefore it essentially determined the operation of the motor. When electric currents forming the symmetric three-phase system of the currents fl ow through the three-phase winding of asynchronous motor they create non-sinusoidal magnetic fi elds which move in space and periodically change their shape in the course of time. Usually only odd space harmonics except for the multiples of three exist in the harmonic spectrum of these non-sinusoidal magnetic fi elds. There are many different constructions of the three-phase windings of asynchronous motors and each of them have distinctive parameters [1, 2]. Therefore harmonic spectrum of the magnetic fi elds created by these windings and at the same time the electromagnetic properties differ and they in turn determine the power indexes and operation quality of asynchronous motors. Electromagnetic effi ciency factor is used to evaluate electromagnetic properties of three-phase windings [3]. The aim of this paper is to perform a theoretical analysis of electromagnetic effi ciencies of two types of three- phase windings and to relate them theoretically and experimentally to the power indexes of particular asynchronous motors.

Object of research

Standard dimensioned 1.5 kW three-phase asynchronous motor with single-layer former winding and the same motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal winding is investigated in this work. Common parameters of stator for both motors are the following: number of phases m = 3; number of stator magnetic circuit slots Z = 24; number of poles 2p = 2; number of pole and phase slots q = Z/(2p m) = 24 /(2 . 3) = 4; pole pitch τ = Z / 2p = 24 / 2 = 12; slot span expressed in electrical degrees α = = 360°p /Z = = 360° .1/24 = 15°. The relative magnitude of number of turns of any ∗ = = = coil for the single-layer former winding sections with four coils is N1 1/ q 1/ 4 0,25. Relative magnitudes of number ∗ = of turns of any section in sinusoidal winding calculated according corresponding formulas [4] are obtained: N 21 0,114; ∗ = ∗ = ∗ = N 22 0,1862; N 23 0,13165; N 24 0,06815. Distribution of elements of the analyzed windings is given in Tables 1 and 2.

Table 1. Distribution of elements of single-layer former three-phase winding Phase alteration U1 W2 V1 U2 W1 V2 Number of coils in a section 4 4 4 4 4 4 Slot No. 1; 2; 3; 4 5; 6; 7; 8 9; 10; 11; 12 13; 14; 15; 16 17; 18; 19; 20 21; 22; 23; 24

310 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 2. Distribution of elements of sinusoidal three-phase winding Phase alteration U1 W2 V1 U2 W1 V2 Number of coils in a section 4 4 4 4 4 4 Z 1; 2; 3; 4 5; 6; 7; 8 9; 10; 11; 12 13; 14; 15; 16 17; 18; 19; 20 21; 22; 23; 24 Slot No. Z 10; 11; 12; 13 14; 15; 16; 17 18; 19; 20; 21 22; 23; 24; 1 2; 3; 4; 5 6; 7; 8; 9

Electric circuit layout of the single-layer former winding is drawn according to the data presented in Table 1 (Fig.1, a).

F

t = 0

−τ / 2 0 τ / 2 x

Figure 1. Electrical circuit layout of single-layer former three-phase winding, with q = 4, (a) and the distribution of their rotating magnetomotive force in time moment t = 0 (b)

Electric circuit layout of the sinusoidal three-phase winding is formed according to the data presented in Table 2 (Fig. 2, a).

Figure 2. Electrical circuit layout of sinusoidal three-phase winding, with q = 4, (a) and the distribution of their rotating magnetomotive force in time moment t = 0 (b)

Relative magnitudes of the instantaneous values of electric currents in both windings in time moment t = 0 are ∗ = o = ∗ = o = ∗ = o = − ∆ = ∗ ∗ iU sin 0 0 ; iV sin120 0,866; iW sin 240 0,866 . Conditional magnetomotive force changes F i N in the slots of magnetic circuit of the stator in time moment t = 0 (Tables 3 and 4) are calculated according to the determined number of coil turns and relative magnitudes of electric currents by using the layouts of electric circuits of the analyzed windings.

311 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 3.Conditional changes of magnetomotive force in slots of single-layer former three-phase winding in time moment t = 0 Slot No.123456789101112 ΔF 0 0 0 0 0,216 0,216 0,216 0,216 0,216 0,216 0,216 0,216

Table 4. Conditional changes of magnetomotive force in slots of sinusoidal three-phase winding in time moment t = 0 Slot No.123456789101112 ΔF 0 0,059 0,1140 0,1613 0,1975 0,220 0,228 0,220 0,1975 0,1613 0,1140 0,059

Space distributions of rotating magnetomotive force in the defi ned moment of time are determined according to the results from Tables 3 and 4 (Fig. 1., b and Fig. 2, b).

Research method

On the base of Fig. 1, b and Fig. 2, b, the amplitude value of rotating magnetomotive force of the υ-th harmonic

Fm is calculated using this analytical expression [5]: k = 4 () Fm ∑ Fis sin i / 2 ; (1) i=1

here k – number of rectangles forming the half-period of rotating magnetomotive force; Fis – height of the i-th rectangle of the stair-shaped magnetomotive force; i – width of the i-th rectangle of the stair-shaped magnetomotive force expressed in electrical degrees of the fundamental space harmonic; υ – number of harmonic. Then relative magnitudes of harmonics of rotating magnetomotive force are calculated on the base of results of harmonic analysis of rotating magnetomotive force functions (Fig. 1, b and Fig. 2, b) [5]: f = F / F m m1 ; (2)

here Fm1 – amplitude value of the fi rst (fundamental) harmonic of rotating magnetomotive force. Electromagnetic effi ciency factors of the considered three-phase windings are calculated according to this expression [3]: ∞ = − 2 − kef 1 ∑ f 1 . (3) =1 All power indexes of the standard dimensioned asynchronous motor with single-layer former winding and motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three-phase winding are calculated after completing their no-load and load tests of the motor by using the segregated-losses method. Respective power indexes of asynchronous motors are compared under the indicated load.

Research results According to the expression (1) and determined parameters of rotating magnetomotive force half-period (k = = − = − = − = − = o = o = o = o 4; F1s 0,2165; F2s 0,2165 ; F3s 0,2165; F4s 0,2165 ; 1 165 ; 2 135 ; 3 105 ; 4 75 ) the harmonic analysis of instantaneous rotating magnetomotive force function (Fig. 1, b) of single-layer former three-phase winding (Fig. 1, a) was completed and relative magnitudes of its space harmonics were calculated (Table 5).

Table 5. Results of harmonic analysis of the instantaneous rotating magnetomotive force function of the single-layer former three-phase winding with q = 4 and relative magnitudes of its space harmonics υ 1 5 7 111317192325

Fmυ –0,914 0,039 0,021 –0,011 –0,009 0,009 0,010 –0,040 0,037

fυ 1 0,0429 0,0235 0,01197 0,01013 0,00968 0,01129 0,0435 0,0400

According to expression (1) and determined parameters of rotating magnetomotive force half-period (k = 6; = − = − = − = − = − = − = o = o F1s 0,1140 ; F2s 0,2203; F3s 0,1975; F4s 0,1613; F5s 0,1140; F6s 0,0590; 1 180 ; 2 150 ; = o = o = o = o 3 120 ; 4 90 ; 5 60 ; 6 30 ) the harmonic analysis of the instantaneous rotating magnetomotive force function (Fig. 2, b) of the sinusoidal three-phase winding (Fig. 2, a) was performed and relative magnitudes of its space harmonics were calculated (Table 6).

312 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 6. Results of harmonic analysis of the instantaneous rotating magnetomotive force function of the sinusoidal three-phase winding with q = 4 and relative magnitudes of its space harmonics υ 1 5 7 111317192325

Fmυ –0,871 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,038 –0,035

fυ 1 0 0 0 0 0 0 0,0436 0,0402

According to expression (3) the respective electromagnetic effi ciency factors kef of the single layer former and sinusoidal three-phase windings with q = 4 are calculated: kef1 = 0,9139; kef2 = = 0,9335. Electromagnetic effi ciency factor of the sinusoidal three-phase winding is obtained by 2,14 % higher than in case of single-layer former winding. Experimental tests of the standard dimensioned asynchronous motor with the researched single-layer former winding and motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three-phase winding (under no-load and load conditions) were performed and power indexes of analyzed motors were calculated according to received results using the segregated- losses method (Tables 7 and 8).

Table 7. Experimental and calculation results of the standard dimensioned asynchronous motor with single-layer former winding

-1 No. I1 , A P1 , W n , min M , Nm ΣP , W P2 , W η cos φ 1 1,75 405 2983 0,586 315 90 0,222 0,351 2 2,03 840 2961 1,93 333 507 0,604 0,627 3 2,30 1110 2945 2,71 361 749 0,675 0,731 4 2,70 1410 2924 3,61 402 1008 0,715 0,791 5 3,13 1725 2899 4,50 457 1268 0,735 0,835 6 3,65 2100 2870 5,55 535 1565 0,745 0,872 7 4,13 2370 2851 6,23 610 1760 0,743 0,869 8 4,98 2805 2810 7,38 741 2064 0,736 0,853

Table 8. Experimental and calculation results of the asynchronous motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three- phase winding

-1 No. I1 , A P1 , W n , min M , Nm ΣP , W P2 , W η cos φ 1 1,80 385 2948 0,83 232 153 0,397 0,324 2 2,20 1215 2923 3,31 298 917 0,755 0,837 3 2,50 1440 2902 3,95 337 1103 0,766 0,873 4 2,87 1695 22882 4,65 387 1308 0,772 0,895 5 3,03 1800 2868 4,92 419 1381 0,767 0,900 6 3,35 1995 2847 5,45 472 1523 0,763 0,902 7 3,60 2145 2825 5,83 522 1623 0,757 0,903 8 3,95 2345 2798 6,33 596 1749 0,746 0,899 9 4,50 2655 2756 7,08 718 1937 0,730 0,894

In Tables 7 and 8 I1 – phase current of stator winding; P1 – consumed power; n – rotational speed of rotor; M – electromagnetic torque; ΣP – total power losses of motor; P2 – useful power; η – effi ciency; cos φ – power factor. After comparing experimental and calculation results under indicated load from Tables 7 and 8 it is received that in case of asynchronous motor with stator winding replaced with sinusoidal three-phase winding the phase current of the stator winding decreased by 6,9 %, power taken from electric grid decreased by 5,0 %, power losses decreased by 11,7 %, effi ciency factor increased by 2,4 % and power factor increased by 3,4 %.

Conclusions

1. Electromagnetic properties of the three-phase windings can be evaluated by performing harmonic analysis of the rotating magnetomotive force created by them and by calculating electromagnetic effi ciency factors based on the results of this analysis. 2. It was determined theoretically that electromagnetic effi ciency factor of the single-layer former three-phase winding kef1 = 0,9139 and of sinusoidal three-phase winding – kef2 = 0,9335, i.e. by 2,14 % higher than respective factor of the fi rst winding.

313 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

3. In case of asynchronous motor with sinusoidal three-phase winding under the indicated load the phase current of the stator winding decreased by 6,9 %, power taken from electric grid decreased by 5,0 %, power losses decreased by 11,7 %, effi ciency factor increased by 2,4 % and power factor increased by 3,4 % compare to the respective power indexes of the same motor with single-layer former winding obtained under the same load. 4. Asynchronous motors with the stator winding electromagnetic effi ciency factors closer to one have better power indexes.

References

Marazas S. Elektros ma inos. – Vilnius: Mokslas, 1989. – 303 p. Жерве Г.К. Обмотки электрических машин. – Ленинград: Энергоатомиздат, 1989. – 399 с. Bukšnaitis J. New Approach for Evaluation of Elektromagnetic Properties of Three-Phase Windings //Electronics and Electrical Engineering. – Kaunas: Technologija, 2007. – Nr. 3(75). – P.31-36. Bukšnaitis J. The Research of the Sinusoidal Three-Phase Windings // Electronics and Electrical Engineering. – Kaunas: Technologija, 2006. – Nr. 6(70). – P.23-28. Bukšnaitis J. Kintamosios srovės trifazių elektros mašinų apvijų elektromagnetinis efektyvumas: monografi ja. – ISBN 978-9955-25-290-0. – Kaunas: Technologija, 2007. – 196 p.

314 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Biodiesel Fuel Production Applying Biotechnological Method

Prutenis Petras Janulis, Irina Kazanceva, Milda Gumbytė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Taking into account the perspectives of manufacturing of biofuels and potential of raw materials, it was determined that the potential growing areas of rape in our country are not suffi cient for supply with raw materials. Thus it is necessary to start growing new cultures, such as Camelina sativa, as an undersowing in the areas of corn and leguminous plants, as well as to use waste fat and oil. The biocatalyst transesterifi cation is the most suitable for fatty waste of poor quality containing a lot of free fatty acids, when the immobilized lipases are used. The multistage transesterifi cation was investigated using lipases at various ratios of triglycerides and methanol. It was determined that the process lasts for more than 20 hours although the transesterifi cation degree of 96.5% specifi ed in the standard is not reached. Contrary to the popular opinion, the immobilized lipases are inactivated by glycerol; therefore the researches were done, how to eliminate glycerol with the help of adsorbents. The adsorption capacity of 5 adsorbents (TRISYL, ENGELHARD F-105 SF, TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF, silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd., JELTAR-100) was analyzed. It was determined that glycerol is best adsorbed by TRISYL in the following conditions: amount of adsorbent – 45 % of biodiesel fuel’s weight, temperature – 40 °C, time – 120 min. There was created the technology that allows supplying continuously methanol to the reaction mixture and eliminating glycerol with the help of adsorbents. It was determined that the 89.4 % transesterifi cation degree may be achieved when 10–12 % immobilized lipases in Lipozyme TL IM are used for 7 hours, although the transesterifi cation degree increases only by 7 % in the last 3 hours.

Introduction

When the Kyoto Protocol and other documents related to the changing climate were signed, the EU Member States started paying big attention to the production of energy from the renewable energy sources, especially in the sector of transport. As the changing climate is very important for humanity SNO organized the conference on the climate changes this December in Poznan (Poland), which will serve as the basis for Copenhagen Dialogue (planned in December 2009). At the same time the top meeting of the EU took place, where the expansion of manufacturing and usage of renewable energy sources, including the biofuels, were planned. As the demand for biofuels is growing, the EU encourages using other suitable raw materials, which are characterized by big potential, for the manufacturing of biofuels. In 2006 the European Commission adopted the communiqué that introduced new “EU Strategy for Biofuels” [COM (08/02/2006, 34 fi nal]. It stresses the necessity to create new effective technologies for making new sorts of biofuels. The expansion of manufacturing of bioenergetics, especially biofuels, and novelty of its decisions require thorough scientifi c researches and experimental development. The expansion of biofuels for diesel engines is becoming more and more topical every year, because usage of petrol in the world decreases by 3.5% per year, while the usage of diesel fuel grows by 1.5%. Although the oil processing companies can regulate slightly the production amounts of diesel and petrol, it is possible just until certain limit. Therefore the EC oil processing companies are exporting petrol and importing diesel. In order for our country to be able to withdraw completely fuels made from oil or other fossil raw materials in 2020, it is necessary to produce at least 320 thousand tons of biodiesel fuel from fatty waste per year. However, in the opinion of experts, the growing potential of rapeseed in our country cannot exceed 290 thousand ha. Taking into account the fertility fl uctuations of rapeseed, it is possible to state that it is possible to grow 522-812 thousand tons of seeds in this area and to produce 150-240 thousand tons of biodiesel fuel out of them. In such a way the amount of raw materials is not suffi cient to make the specifi ed amount of biodiesel fuel. It is necessary to search for new raw materials, and thus new manufacturing technologies, as well. The new raw materials in the manufacturing of biodiesel fuel could be the seeds of Camelina sativa, fi ber and oil-bearing linseed, waste fats of animal origin, oil and fats used for baking, etc. However the aforementioned raw materials are often of low quality, and contain more free fatty acids than it is allowed by traditional alkaline transesterifi cation technology. New technologies could provide the way out. The industrial or white biotechnology (usage of live organisms and principles of vital activity for industrial manufacturing of chemicals, biofuels, etc.) has appeared and been rapidly developing in the last years. The use of biotechnological methods in the production of biodiesel fuel can be characterised by the following advantages: it may take place at milder conditions (lower temperatures, lower pressure and pH); it makes less pollution to the environment [Deng et al, 2003], allows to control the progress of reaction, increases the production output [Radzi et al, 2005]. Bioprocesses related to the reaction accelerated by lipases have perspective future, but the process is quite slow because of relatively high prices of ferments as well as lack of ferments, which are characterized by selectivity as well as different properties necessary for various applications. In order to solve these problems it is necessary to fi nd new producents of lipases suitable for industrial application, also to improve the methods for practical usage of lipases for synthesis of new compounds (determination of optimal conditions for reactions, increase of ferment’s stability, etc.) – all this would expand the application possibilities of these ferments [Sharma et al, 2001; Buchholz et al, 2004; Cao, 2005]. The aim of this research is to investigate the possibilities of applying new environmental friendly biotechnological methods in biodiesel fuel production.

315 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Materials and methods

When the transesterifi cation (alcoholyse) reaction is conducted, 5 g of the tested oil (refi ned rapeseed oil purchased from market) are taken, and 0.5 ml distilled water is added together with 0.5 g ferment preparation. It is thermostated at 40 °C temperature and the mixture of methanol-hexane (1:1) is added every 1.5 hours for three times. The mixture of methanol-hexane is poured 20 % of oil’s volume in three equal parts. The samples are taken before the mixture of methanol-hexane is added and 1.5 hours after the last insertion. As biocatalyst ferment preparation Lipozyme TL IM (lipase from Thermomyces lanuginosa, immobilized on silica gel, from Novo Nordisk (Denmark)) was used. In order to determine the activeness of lipase, p-nitrophenyl butyrate (p-NPB) solution in 2-propanol is used as substratum. The catalyst activeness is determined at 30 °C temperature, in 0,1 M universal buffer (UB) of Bryton – Robson, which is composed from equal parts (1:1:1) of acetic, boron and ortho-phosphorus acid solutions, pH – 8,5, while measuring change of optic density for 3 minutes at wave length λ = 410 nm. The fi nal concentration of substratum is 0,1 mM [Janssen et al, 1994, Yadav et al, 1998; Surinėnaitė et al., 1997; 1998; 2002; Bendikienė et al., 2002; 2004 – 2006]. The composition of fatty acids of synthesized biodiesel fuel and ester content was determined using the method of gas chromatography, according to LST EN ISO 5508 and LST EN ISO 5509.The amounts of esters and linolenic acid methyl esters were determined using the methodology of the standard LST EN 14103. In order to carry out the quality analysis of biodiesel fuel the set of two gas chromatographs Perkin Elmer Clarus 500, were used, also performing analyzes of methanol content (LST EN 14110), monoglycerides, diglycerides, triglycerides, free glycerol, total glycerol (LST EN 14105, 14106) contents, besides the aforementioned analysis of amounts and composition of esters. Tests of glycerol removal form fatty acid methyl esters were performed applying adsorbtion method using different solid adsorbents: 1- TRISYL, 2- ENGELHARD F-105 SF, 3- TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF, 4- silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd., 5- JELTAR- 100. Glycerol concentration in fatty acid methyl esters were measured applying above mentioned standard method.

Results and discussion

Infl uence of the number of stages and amount of methanol on the yield of fatty acid methyl esters. The yield of methyl esters received in one stage transesterifi cation reaction of rapeseed oil using ferment preparation Lipozyme TL IM is relatively low – 40-44 % if compared with conventional transesterifi cation procedure using chemical catalysts – alkali metal alcoholates and hydroxides [Mittelbach and Trathnigg, 1990 Vicente et al, 2004; Freedman et al, 1984]. In order to increase the yield of fatty acid methyl esters, the experiments were done by changing the number of stages and ratio of methanol with fats or oil; while the catalyst was changed every time.

Figure 1. Dependency of the yield of rapeseed oil fatty acid methyl esters on the number of stages and duration of reaction

The dependency of the yield of rapeseed oil fatty acid methyl esters (FAME) on the number of stages and duration of reaction is presented in Figure 1. It is seen that when the maximum yield is achieved in each stage, the stability phase of the reaction yield follows. In the end of each stage glycerol and lipase are separated, and then new portions of methanol and lipase are added. The FAME yields are signifi cantly different in the fi rst stage depending on methanol and triglycerides molar ratio, while the yields of methyl esters in the second stage are practically the same. In the third stage, when the ratio of triglycerides-methanol is 1:1, the highest FAME yield is achieved (88.5 %). Elimination of glycerol from the products of transesterifi cation reaction by solid adsorbents. In order to be able to conduct the continuous transesterifi cation process by immobilized lipases, it is necessary to eliminate continuously glycerol generated during transesterifi cation from the reaction mixture. When glycerol precipitates on the surface of immobilized lipase, it inactivates the lipase and at the same time determines an immediate slowdown of the process.

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The 3-degree transesterifi cation process by lipase that we have analyzed is ineffective because it requires a lot of time to precipitate glycerol, i.e. it is not possible to apply such method in industry. The purpose of the following part of the work is to determine the best adsorbent and the optimal conditions of adsorption. The fi rst set of tests analyzed the adsorption of glycerol at 20 °C temperature using 10 % adsorbent of FAME’s mass. The testing results are presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on Figure 3. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on the sort of adsorbent and adsorption duration at 20 °C the sort of adsorbent and adsorption duration at 40 °C temperature: 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil- temperature: 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil- optimum 214 FF, 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100 optimum 214 FF, 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100

According to the presented data, it is possible to state that TRISYL is characterized by the best adsorption properties. After 100 min the achieved adsorption degree of glycerol is 188 mg/g of adsorbent, i.e. 13.6 % of glycerol is adsorbed. The next, according to the adsorption effectiveness, would be ENGELHARD F-105 SF, followed by TONSIL- OPTIMUM 214 FF, and silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd. Under the same conditions the silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd. in 120 min. reached the following adsorption effi ciency – 140 mg/g of sorbent. Such adsorption degree is not suffi cient to eliminate glycerol generated during transesterifi cation and to guarantee the continuous process, thus it is necessary to search for new conditions, which are necessary for more complete elimination of glycerol. The similar tests were done at 40 °C temperature. The received results (Fig. 3) allow stating that the elevation of temperature by 20°C does not have bigger infl uence on the adsorption effi ciency. It made the adsorption time shorter by 70-80 min. However it can be noted that the increased temperature had positive effect on the adsorbents made on the basis of bentonite clays: silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd. was overtaken by ENGELHARD F-105. But it is possible to say that 10% of adsorbent is not suffi cient for complete elimination of glycerol, thus the further researches were directed to the dependency of adsorption effectiveness on the amount of adsorbent. The adsorption experiment was carried out using 20, 30, 40 and 50 percent of adsorbent. As the elevation of temperature did not have bigger effect, all the tests were done at 20 °C temperature. The received results are presented in Figures 4-7.

Figure 4. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on Figure 5. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on the adsorption duration when 20 % of adsorbent is used the adsorption duration when 30 % of adsorbent is used 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil-optimum 214 FF, 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil-optimum 214 FF, 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100

317 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 6. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on Figure 7. Dependency of glycerol adsorption effi ciency on the adsorption duration when 40 % of adsorbent is used the adsorption duration when 50 % of adsorbent is used 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil-optimum 214 FF, 1- Trisyl, 2- Engelhard F-105 SF, 3- Tonsil-optimum 214 FF, 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100 4- silica gel of Lifosa Ltd., 5- Jeltar-100

The data show that adsorption effectiveness and duration are highly dependent on the amount of adsorbent. Optimal concentration is 40 % TRISYL and 50 % silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd. The remaining (ENGELHARD F-105 SF and TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF) should be between 40 and 50 percent. As the elevation of temperature accelerates adsorption process, it is possible to suggest carrying out adsorption with 45% TRISYL at 40 °C temperature. In this case about 100 min. would be suffi cient for the continuous transesterifi cation process. The data presented in Figure 8 confi rm this.

Figure 8. Glycerol (G) adsorption effi ciency using 45% TRISYL at 40 °C temperature

The adsorption process is important not only for elimination of glycerol, but also for removal of phospholipids and heavy metals from FAME. Phospholipids block further process of manufacturing (cleaning) of biodiesel fuel. Furthermore, their amount in biodiesel is restricted by the LST EN 14214 requirements: the amount of phosphorus should not exceed 20 mg/kg. This means that phospholipids also obstruct usage of biofuels for vehicles. Such amounts of Fe, Cu and other heavy metals that were encountered in the analyzed FAME, are not harmful for engines, but they stimulate oxidation of biodiesel fuel. The stability of FAME with regard to oxidation at 120 °C temperature should be very high and reach at least 6 hours, following the aforementioned standard. And this can not be achieved by all the manufacturers if they do not use special antioxidants, which are very expensive. Adsorption of phospholipids and heavy metals was performed with FAME containing 31 mg/kg P, 3.18 mg/kg Fe, and 0.16 mg/kg Cu. The aforementioned adsorbents and their mixtures were analyzed. The received data is presented in Table 1. According to the presented results, the best adsorbent is TRISYL, but its mixtures with cheaper components are also possible. In the nearest future, the technology of regeneration, drying and recycling of the selected adsorbent will be analyzed. Such method of “dry cleaning” to eliminate glycerol in the manufacturing of biodiesel fuel is not yet used in the industry, and it is little analyzed – we do not have any data on such research. Testing of semi-continuous transesterifi cation of oil by immobilized lipases. Semi-continues transesterifi cation process of rapeseed oil using immobilized lipases was investigated. The lipase was added to the upper reactor on the surface of Shoto fi lter, and the selected adsorbent Trisyl was put on the fi lter of the lower reactor. Two circulation methods of reaction mixture were analyzed: when the pump supplies oil, methanol, glycerol and FAME from the lower reactor to the upper reactor and when the reaction mixture is supplied by the pump from the top of upper reactor to the lower one. It was determined that when the mixture is delivered upwards, the suffi cient circulation can not be assured because of the resistance of immobilized lipase and adsorbent layer. In this case the present equipment could provide just 2-3 ml per min circulation speed. This did not satisfy the testing requirements, therefore the second circulation method of the

318 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment reaction mixture was chosen. However when the movement speed of the mixture is higher, part of lipase was taken from the upper reactor, clogged the pipes, therefore the suitable circulation speed should be chosen or the construction of the present equipment should be changed. The tests helped to determine that the optimal circulation speed is 7-8 ml/min at revolutions of the upper mixer of 30-40 min-1.

Table 1. Elimination of phosphorus, iron and copper from FAME using the selected adsorbents Sort and content of adsorbent % P mg/kg Fe mg/kg Cu mg/kg

20 % ENGELHARD F-105 SF 3.5 2.0 0.03 20 % JELTAR-100 3.6 1.9 0.04 20 % ENGELHARD F-105 3.7 2.2 0.04 20 % TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF 3.6 2.1 0.04 20 % JELTAR UNIVERSAL 4.8 2.4 0.05 40 % TRISYL 1.5 1.6 0.03 40 % JELTAR-100 1.6 1.5 0.03 40 % ENGELHARD F-105 1.7 1.8 0.04 40 % TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF 1.7 1.8 0.03 40 % JELTAR UNIVERSAL 2.1 2.1 0.04 10 % JELTAR-100 3.2 2.1 0.05 10 % SILICA GEL of LIFOSA Ltd. 10 % JELTAR-100 2.4 1.9 0.03 10 % TRISYL 30 % JELTAR-100 2.2 1.8 0.04 10 % SILICA GEL of LIFOSA Ltd. 30 % JELTAR-100 1.8 1.4 0.02 10 % TRISYL

The semi-continuous transesterifi cation process of FAME by methanol was investigated using 6, 8, 10 and 12 % immobilized lipases Lipozyme TL IM. In order to eliminate glycerol, phospholipids and other components inactivating lipase the silica gel TRISYL of 50% of oil mass was used.

Figure 9. Dependency of the amount of esters in the mixture on the reaction duration when 6, 8, 10 and 12% immobilized lipases Lipozyme TL IM are used

Following the data presented in Figure 9 it is possible to state that semi-continuous method is much more effective than the periodic one. In order to achieve the same transesterifi cation degree (70%) 4 hours are enough. However it has to be noted that the process becomes much slower with an increase of the amount of esters and FAME in the reaction mixture. When 12% immobilized lipase is used for 7 hours, the 89.4 % transesterifi cation effi ciency is achieved. The results show that biodiesel fuel produced applying biotechnological doesn’t meet the quality requirements of standard. For this reason it is necessary to search for some methods, how to accelerate the fi nal stage because the amount of esters in that case increases only by 7% in the last 3 hours (from 4 to 7 hours). Such experiments are planned in the nearest future.

319 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Conclusions and recommendations

- The biocatalyst transesterifi cation of rapeseed oil with methanol using ferment preparation Lipozyme TL IM was investigated. Results show that yield of methyl esters received in one stage is relatively low – 40-44 %. Seeking to produce biodiesel fuel of high transesterifi cation yield multistage transesterifi cation process has to be applied. - The multistage transesterifi cation was analyzed using lipases at various ratios of triglycerides and methanol. It was determined that the process lasts for more than 20 hours although the transesterifi cation degree of 96.5 % specifi ed in the standard is not reached. - Immobilized lipases are inactivated by glycerol; therefore glycerol has to be eliminated with the help of adsorbents. The adsorption capacity of 5 adsorbents (TRISYL, ENGELHARD F-105 SF, TONSIL-OPTIMUM 214 FF, silica gel of LIFOSA Ltd., JELTAR-100) was investigated. It was determined that glycerol is best adsorbed by TRISYL in the following conditions: amount of adsorbent – 45% of biodiesel mass, temperature – 40 °C, time – 120 min. - There was developed the technology that allows supplying continuously methanol to the reaction mixture and eliminating glycerol with the help of adsorbents. It was determined that the 89.4% transesterifi cation degree may be achieved when 10–12% immobilized lipases Lipozyme TL IM are used for 7 hours, although the transesterifi cation degree increases only by 7% in the last 3 hours.

Acknowledgments These experiments were carried out under the support of Lithuanian State Science and Studies Foundation. The authors are grateful for the provided support.

References

Bendikienė V., Juodka B. Pseudomonas mendocina 3121-1 lipase – catalysed reactions of oleic acid with glycerol. Biologija. 2006; 3: 21-24. Bendikienė V., Surinėnaitė B., Juodka B., Bachmatova I., Marcinkevičienė L. The specifi city of Pseudomonas mendocina 3121-1 lipase. Hydrolysis. Biologija. 2005; 1: 27-30. Bendikienė V., Surinėnaitė B., Juodka B., Safarikova M. Insights into catalytic action mechanism of Pseudomonas mendocina 3121-1 lipase. Enzyme Microb Technol. 2004; 34: 572-77. Bendikienė V., Žižytė M., Juodka B. The specifi city of Pseudomonas mendocina 3121-1 lipase. Esterifi cation. Biologija. 2004; 2 (1): 43-45. Choo Y.M. and Ong S.H. Transesterifi cation of fats and oils. British Patent GB 2 188 057 A, 2005. Deng L., Tan T., F. Wang F., Xu X. Enzymatic Production of fatty acid alkyl esters with a Lipase Preparation from Candida sp. 99-125. Eur. J. Lipid Sci. Technol. 2003; 105: 727–734. EU Strategy for Biofuels. 08/02/2006 COM (2006), 34 fi nal. Forres 2020: Analysis of the renewable energy sources evolution up to 2020, Karlsruhe, Germany, 2005. Freedman B., Pryde E.H., Mounts T.L. Variables affecting the yields of fatty esters from transesterifi ed vegetable oils. Journal of the American Oil Cheęmist’s Society. 1984; 61(10): 1638-1643. Janssen P.H., Monk C.R., Morgan H.W. A thermophilic, lipolytic Bacillus sp., and continuous assay of its p-nitrophenyl-palmitate esterase activity. 12. FEMS Microbiol Lett. 1994;120: 195-200. Mittelbach M., Trathnigg B. Kinetics of alcaline catalysed methanolysis of sunfl ower oil. Fat Science and technology. 1990; 92: 145-148. Radzi M. S., Basri M., Bakar Salleh A. Ariff A., Mohammad R., Abdul Rahman B., Raja Z. High performance enzymatic synthesis of oleyl oleate using immobilized lipase from Candida antartica. Electronic Journal of Biotechnology. 2005; 8 (3):292-298. Shah S., Sharma S. and Gupta M.N. Biodiesel preparation by Lipase-Catalyzed Transesterifi cation of Jatropha Oil. 2004, Vol. 18, pp. 154-159. Surinėnaitė B., Bendikienė V., Juodka B., Bachmatova I., Marcinkevičienė L. Characterization and physicochemical properties of a lipase from Ps. mendocina 3121-1. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 2002; 36: 47-55. Velička R. Rapsai. Kaunas, 2002, 319 p. Vicente G., Martinez M., Aracil J. Integrated biodiesel production: a comparison of different homogeneous catalyst systems. Bioresource Technology. 2004; 92: 297-305. www.vs.ag/ida/Jim Mc Candless EFI Yadav R.P., Saxena R.K., Gupta R., Davidson W.S. Purifi cation and characterization of regiospecifi c lipase from Aspergillus terpeus. Biotechnol Appl Biochem. 1998; 28: 243-9.

Prutenis Petras JANULIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Institute of Environment, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, doctor of technology science, professor, senior research fellow. Address: Studentų g. 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas distr. Tel. (+37037) 75 22 92, e-mail: [email protected] Irina KAZANCEVA. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Institute of Environment, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, PhD student. Address: Studentų g. 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas distr. Tel. (+37037) 75 22 92, e-mail: [email protected] Milda GUMBYTĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Institute of Environment, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, PhD student, junior research fellow. Address: Studentų g. 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas distr. Tel. (+37037) 75 22 92, e-mail: [email protected]

320 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Application of Sewage Sludge in the Production of Biogas and Biofertilizers

Prutenis Petras Janulis, Eglė Sendžikienė, Rūta Dainienė, Egidijus Šileikis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The experiment was carried out under the application of sewage sludge from wastewater treatment plants in Kaunas, Raseiniai and Anykščiai Cities and its mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake. A laboratory biogas reactor was used for biogas production. There was measured biogas volumetric yield from the recycled mass unit as well as biogas constitution estimated. Samples of sewage sludge and the obtained substratum were analyzed according to their agrochemical characteristics and content of heavy metals before and after anaerobic treatment. Due to the obtained outcomes, there were estimated application possibilities of the waste substratum in the production of biofertilizers. It was determined that the addition of meat-bone mass, rape seed cake and potassium sulphate into sewage sludge before anaerobic treatment signifi cantly increased the yield of biogas and betters the quality of substratum as a raw material of biofertilizers. Thus it is purposeful to use the substratum, left after the production of biogas for fertilizing of agriculture and energy crops as well as for the re-cultivation of damaged areas.

Introduction

The utilization issue of various wastes is constantly faced all over the world, as unutilized waste means lost of energy, wasted materials and caused damage to the environment and human health. Great quantities of organic waste generated in agriculture, food processing industry as well as thousands of tons of accumulated sewage sludge (SS) obliges to arrange means contributing towards more effi cient utilization of waste. Organic waste is more and more often applied as a source of energy all over the world, and its recycling into biogas has become one of the most popular fi elds of bioenergetics. Recycling of sewage wastewater is the most widely applied biological process in the treatment of domestic and industrial sewage. That allows the transformation of organic contaminants that are present in wastewater, into biomass, carbon dioxide and water [1]. The recycling of wastewater sludge into benefi cial products or energy is purposeful due to the fact that the widely spread method of waste utilization by incineration it is expensive, and as a result of high degree of moisture less energy is formed and great amount of carbon dioxide is emitted into the atmosphere as well. Anaerobic recycling is an ideal process in order to reduce the volume and weight of different organic waste before its fi nal utilization, and this method is applied all over the world as the oldest and most signifi cant process for big waste stabilization, because during the anaerobic processing methane is formed and energy is partially returned [2, 3]. During the production of biogas, organic matter is affected by different kinds of bacteria, some of which decompose complex organic compounds, and others transform simple compounds into biogas. They have methane (40- 75 %) in their constitution, as well as carbon dioxide (25-50 %), nitrogen (6-7 %), oxygen, hydrogen, hydrogen sulphide, ammonium, water vapour (up to 2 percent.) and other compounds [4]. Biogas can be applied as an organic fuel in the production of heat and electric power, for various technological needs as well as fuel for vehicles. Due to great energetic potential of the following waste, the anaerobic process of recycling has already been studied for many decades; however, it is still being searched for the ways seeking more rational utilization of organic waste [5, 6]. Assessing the real potential of biogas production in our country, it is necessary to investigate application possibilities of organic waste in municipal waste water treatment plants (WWTP) food processing industry and stock-raising farms [7], as well as to assess the application possibility of by-products of biogas production, such as rape seed cake and glycerol phase. Residual undigested organic matter – substrate, which is left after biogas production, can be treated using a range of conventional organic waste management options: incineration, land fi lling or composting. Alternatively such residues of an anaerobic biowaste treatment can be processed into biofertilisers. If replacing mineral fertilizers into organic, extra benefi t is obtained: there is reduced energy consumption during the production and transportation of fertilizers as well as the environment is less polluted and soil quality characteristics are better [8]. However, usage of sewage sludge for the production of biofertilisers or soil conditioners is limited by EU Sewage Sludge Directive 86/278/EEC which seeks to regulate its use in such a way as to prevent harmful effects on soil, vegetation, animals and man, restricting the heavy metal content of the substrate, as well as microbiological contamination. This problem can be solved by mixing sewage sludge with less contaminated waste materials, such as meat-bone mass, rapeseed cake, etc. Such additives will not only reduce substrate contamination with heavy metals and pathogens, but will also increase the biogas yield. Only few literature sources can be found in this fi eld [9, 10, 11], and in this paper preliminary results of our investigations in this fi eld are provided. Production of biogas from sewage sludge or its mixtures with other organic wastes means energy recovery. Moreover, processing of residual substrate into biofertilisers would further improve the overall resource recovery. The aim of this research is to investigate the yield of biogas from various organic wastes as well as to investigate the application possibilities of waste substratum in the production of biofertilizers. In order to achieve this aim composition

321 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment of substratum was analyzed, before and after the anaerobic processing, volumetric output of biogas from the recycled biomass unit was evaluated as well as composition of the obtained biogas. Agrochemical characteristics and concentration of heavy metals in the recycled waste were assessed.

Materials and methods

Investigation was carried out using different raw materials: SS samples from WWTP of ‘Anykščių vandenys’, ‘Kauno vandenys’ and ‘Raseinių vandenys’, as well as rape seed cake and meat-bone mass. The experiment was executed in a laboratory biogas reactor where fi xed 1,6 L volume of biomass charges under mesophylic regime (36-37°C) were digested. In order to assess the effect of other organic raw materials on the composition and quality of biogas and substratum, every experiment of anaerobic biomass processing was repeated while changing 30 % of the researched sludge charge into the processed meat-bone mass with potassium acid (20 percent) and rape seed cake (10 percent). The digestion experiment was carried out for 10 days for each substrate composition. Since the production of biogas was not the main objective of these investigations, the duration of the experiment has been chosen evaluating the most effective biogas production period. It was inexpedient to continue experiment for longer than 10 days, because the main aim of this study was to evaluate suitability of the remaining substrate for the production of biofertiliser, rather than to obtain more biogas. There have been determined following characteristics of the investigated samples: the amount (percentage) of dry matter (d.m.) – according to LST EN 14346:2007; the amount (percentage) of organic matter (OM) – according to LST EN ISO 12879:2002; concentrations of heavy metals (HM) (Cd, Cr, Ni, Pb, Cu, Zn and Hg) – using method of atomic absorption spectrometry with spectrophotometer ‘Perkin-Elmer’; biogenic elements (total nitrogen – Nt, total phosphorus – Pt, potassium – K) – applying standard methods: Nt – Kjehldal method (LST EN 13342:2002), Pt – using spectrometric method with ammonium molybdate (LAND 78-2006), K – by fl ame spectrometry. Biogas output from the recycled raw biomass was determined measuring the gas volume in a time unit, and biogas composition was defi ned by a gas analyzer GA2000 Plus ATEX Certifi ed Infrared. All biomass digestion experiment were carried out in 3 replicates the obtained products were executed and data of chemical analyses is presented by calculating 2-3 parallel measurements. The data are applied as averages of the following repeats. Further on-land application possibilities of the substratum after anaerobic processing were assessed according to concentrations of heavy metals under the requirements of normative document LAND 20:2005.

Results and discussion

The research outcomes were assessed applying several indexes: the speed of gas formation (l/h), the yield of biogas from the recycled raw biomass unit (l/kg) and from dry biomass unit (l/kg). The biogas yield was estimated according to the volumetric biomass charge of 1.6 L; therefore all values were recalculated on the basis of 1 kg recycled biomass charge. There was also investigated the potential of agrochemical application of the waste substratum. Results of digestion experiment using SS showed that the greatest biogas yield after 10 days was from Anykščiai SS (2.6 l/kg), and the least one – from Kaunas SS (1.7 l/kg). Such differences in biogas yield can be explained by different dry and organic matter content of the investigated SS samples (Table 1).

Table 1. Organic and dry matter content in the investigated SS samples Raseiniai WWTP Anykščiai WWTP Kaunas WWTP Indices before after before after before after d.m. (g/kg) 138.9 93.66 108.5 87.41 56.1 21.33 OM (g/kg) 37.07 23.4 71.7 55.8 12.3 4.1 d.m. (%) 13.89 9.37 10.85 8.74 5.61 2.13 OM (g/kg d.m.) 266.9 249.8 661.0 638.4 220.5 192.2

After having recalculated the biogas yield from 1 kg of dry biomass, it can be seen that the lowest gas output was from Raseiniai SS (16.9 l/kg), while the highest yield was from Kaunas SS (30.3 l/kg) (Fig. 1). The different gas output from 1 kg of dry biomass can be explained not only by different amount of OM in the SS samples but also by different amount of proteins, carbohydrates and fats, present in the sludge OM. It is known that during biodegradation of proteins, carbohydrates or fats, different amount biogas is generated – the highest biogas output is obtained from fats, and less from proteins and carbohydrates.

322 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Dry matter content in SS is also an important factor, because anaerobic bacteria assimilate organic compounds from diluted substrata (1-6 % d.m.) much easier, and as a result the amount of generated biogas from Kaunas SS recalculated on the basis of 1 kg of dry matter was the greatest (Fig. 1). It was determined that pH of SS before and after anaerobic processing changed only slightly, i.e. it remained weakly alkaline (>7). After the anaerobic digestion of SS samples, the experiment was continued by adding in to the substrate 20 percent of meat-bone mass and 10 percent of rape seed cake. Before loading into the reactor, the meat-bone mass was processed with phosphoric acid that protects this waste material against the biodegradation until anaerobic recycling. Furthermore, after meat-bone mass processing with phosphoric acid, the assimilation of the phosphates present in the processed biomass increases. Digestion experiment of SS mixtures with the meat-bone mass processed with phosphoric acid and rape seed cake additives, showed, that biogas yield (from dry biomass unit) increased by 6.2 times on the average (Fig. 2) in comparison with biogas output from SS samples free from additives (Fig. 1). Meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additives had the greatest impact on Raseiniai SS; the gas output increased from 16.9 (1/kg d.m.) up to 131.5 (1/kg d.m.), i.e. by 7.8 times. The insertion of additives had the least effect on the biogas separation for Kaunas SS, where the gas output from the SS increased from 30.3 l/kg d.m. without additives content, up to 139.5 l/kg, i.e. 4.6 times. Consequently, assessing biogas yield according to d.m. and biomass content, the highest gas output was achieved from Kaunas SS, and lowest – from Raseiniai SS. The obtained results reveal that the biogas output from SS increased signifi cantly when meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additives were used (Fig. 2). Accordingly it can be stated that meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additives increase intensify the process of anaerobic digest: on as well as increase biogas yield, because of the increased amounts of d.m. and OM in the processed substratum, also potassium sulphate that is added seeking to increase amount of potassium in the biomass substrate, stimulates the activity of enzymes and this causes better OM assimilation by microorganisms. Furthermore the increase and good ratio of macro elements: N, P, K in biomass also positively affects microbiological processes. As a result the composition and concentration of organic as well as inorganic matters in anaerobically digested biomass substrate of determines the rate of anaerobic process as well as generated biogas output.

Figure 1. Biogas yield from the investigated SS samples*: Figure 2. Biogas yield from the investigated SS samples mixed 1 – Raseiniai SS; 2 – Anykščiai SS; 3 – Kaunas SS with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake*: 1 – Raseiniai SS (70 %) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10 %); 2 – Anykščiai SS (70%) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10 %); 3 – Kaunas SS (70 %) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10 %)

Assessing biogas composition, amount (percentage) of methane (CH4), carbon dioxide (CO2) and oxygen (O2) in the obtained biogas was determined by gas analyzer.

As it can be seen from Figure 3, the greatest amount of CH4 was in biogas obtained from Raseiniai SS (61.8 percent.), and the least in the case of Anykščiai SS (58.2 percent.). Respectively higher CH4 percentage was in biogas obtained from SS samples with meat-bone additives (Fig. 4). Composition of biogas obtained from SS samples without additives was following: CH4 – 59-62 %; CO2 – 30-32 %; O2 – 2-3 %. The biogas composition that formed from SS mixtures with rape seed cake and meat-bone mass additives, respectively varied: CH4 – 64-69 %, CO2 – 25-28 %, and

O2 – about 1.5 % on the average.

Having summarized results, it can be seen that the greatest concentration of CH4 (both from SS with or without additive) was determined in biogas, obtained during the digestion of Raseiniai SS. It can be stated that the additive of meat-bone mass and rape seed cake increased the amount of CH4 in biogas by 5.2 percent on average, and that means that such mixing of waste positively affects qualitative indexes of an anaerobic process. Agrochemical properties of SS substratum before and after anaerobic biomass processing have been investigated.

323 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 3. Biogas composition (vol., %), obtained from SS Figure 4. Biogas composition (vol., %), obtained from SS samples*: 1 – Raseiniai SS; 2 – Anykščiai SS; 3 – Kaunas mixtures with meat-bone and rape seed cake additives*: 1 – SS Raseiniai SS (70 %) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10 %); 2 – Anykščiai SS (70 %) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10%); 3 – Kaunas SS (70%) + meat-bone mass (20 %) and rape seed cake (10 %)

It was found that Anykščiai SS before and after anaerobic processing had the higher amount of OM (Table 2) – 71.70 g/kg and 55.80 g/kg respectively, and the lowest Kaunas SS – 12.30 g/kg and 4.10 g/kg. The highest concentration of biogenic elements Nt, Pt, K was in Raseiniai SS, and the lowest in Kaunas SS samples (Table 2).

Table 2. Agrochemical characteristics of SS samples before and after anaerobic processing Raseiniai WWTP Anykščiai WWTP Kaunas WWTP Indexes before after before after before after OM (g/kg) 37.07 23.40 71.70 55.80 12.3 4.10 d.m. (g/kg) 138.9 93.66 108.5 87.41 56.1 21.33

Nb (%, d.m.) 3.98 4.06 4.19 4.29 2.89 2.96

Pb (%, d.m.) 4.43 4.67 2.11 2.22 2.76 2.97 K (%, d.m.) 1.05 1.16 0.96 1.05 1.08 1.18

This result showed that ratio of the biogenic elements in the obtained substratum is not appropriate for the production of fertilizers. The recommended N:P:K ratio is 1:1:1, and the proportion of these elements in substratum, obtained from Raseiniai SS is N4:P4:K1, from Anykščiai – N4:P2:K1, from Kaunas – N3:P3:K1. According to the provided data (Table 2.) it can be seen that in all SS samples there is very small amount of potassium, and in Anykščiai and Raseiniai substratum there is rather high amount of nitrogen. The best ratio of biogenic elements that is appropriate for the substratum to be applied in the production of fertilizers is in Kaunas SS; however, it has to be adjusted by inserting some mineral potassium fertilizers into the substratum. Having assessed that in SS samples, the amount of potassium was low, there was added 10 percent of potassium sulphate into SS mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake (52 % K2SO4 solution) from the amount of dry meat- bone mass and rape seed cake. Anykščiai substratum had the highest amount of OM (Table 3) in the SS mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake before and after processing – 97.21 g/kg and 65.54 g/kg respectively, and Kaunas substratum had the lowest – 55.63 g/kg and 27.10 g/kg. The highest concentrations of biogenic elements N, P, K, in comparison with other samples, were in Anykščiai substratum.

Table 3. Agrochemical characteristics of SS mixtures with processed meat-bone mass and rape seed cake before and after anaerobic processing Raseiniai WWTP Anykščiai WWTP Kaunas WWTP Indexes before after before after before after OM (g/kg) 72.92 43.82 97.21 65.54 55.63 27.1 d.m. (g/kg) 236.83 144.58 215.55 141.2 178.87 92.25

Nb (%, d.m.) 5.14 5.23 5.12 5.58 5.12 5.34

Pb (%, d.m.) 4.95 5.11 4.66 4.87 5.44 5.54 K (%, d.m.) 4.27 4.68 4.45 4.70 4.90 5.21

324 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

According to the obtained data, it was defi ned that the ratio of the biogenic elements in all samples is close to the recommended one (N:P:K – 1:1:1). Therefore, the additives of meat-bone mass, rape seed cake and potassium sulphate increased not only the amount of OM in substratum, but also changed the ratio of biogenic elements. According to the obtained ratio of biogenic elements, the waste substratum after anaerobic digestion is appropriate for the production of fertilizers. During the digestion experiment, before and after anaerobic processing, there were determined concentrations of heavy metals. According to the requirements of LAND 20:2005, dedicated to assess the application possibilities of SS for fertilizing of agricultural land or re-cultivation of quarries, the research outcomes reveal that the concentrations of heavy metals (Tables 4 and 5) do not exceed maximum permissible concentrations. Having assessed the amount of heavy metals in mg/kg of dry SS, the substratum can be divided into categories. Having assessed the substratum pollution with heavy metals, it was defi ned that Raseiniai SS had the lowest concentration of heavy metals; however, it should be attributed to the II sludge category because of the rather high concentration of Zn (425.52 mg/kg). Anykščiai and Kaunas sludge’s has to be attributed to the II category due to elevated concentrations of Zn and Cd. Consequently, according to the requirements of LAND 20:2005, it is not purposeful to apply the processed SS substratum for the production of fertilizers because of its limited on–land application (it is allowed to fertilize only frequently than every 3 years).

Table 4. Concentrations of heavy metals in SS samples before and after anaerobic processing Heavy metals Raseiniai WWTP Anykščiai WWTP Kaunas WWTP (mg/kg) before after before after before after Cd 0.94 1.11 1.00 1.72 1.30 1.60 Cr 12.00 14.18 23.00 36.80 62.60 119.20 Ni 10.00 11.82 16.40 26.24 10.90 14.80 Pb 21.00 24.82 33.20 53.12 19.10 41.80 Cu 54.00 63.82 56.00 89.60 125.50 190.40 Zn 360.00 425.52 794.00 1270.40 704.00 1024.00 Hg 0.17 0.20 0.21 0.34 0.98 1.31

According to the provided data, it is not diffi cult to notice that after SS anaerobic processing concentrations of heavy metals in the obtained substratum increased signifi cantly. Having analyzed SS mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additives (Table 5), it was defi ned that according to the requirements of Land 20:2005, Kaunas and Raseiniai SS substratum could be attributed to the category I. Meanwhile Anykščiai SS should be attributed to category II because of elevated concentration of Zn (428.90 mg/ kg).

Table 5. Concentrations of heavy metals in the SS mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additives before and after anaerobic processing Heavy metals Raseiniai WWTP Anykščiai WWTP Kaunas WWTP (mg/kg) before after before after before after Cd 0.40 0.64 0.36 0.55 0.29 0.56 Cr 4.92 8.11 8,12 12.43 13.77 26.70 Ni 4.17 6.83 5.69 8.68 2.43 4.76 Pb 8.59 14.03 11.70 17.75 4.46 8.74 Cu 22.24 36.24 19.81 30.13 27.71 53.89 Zn 146.61 238.07 280.76 428.90 154.08 298.09 Hg 0.07 0.10 0.07 0.10 0.19 0.32

Having assessed the obtained results (Tables 4 and 5), it can be stated that the additives of meat-bone mass and rape seed cake have signifi cantly reduced the concentration of heavy metals in the substratum; furthermore such mixing increased separation of CH4 from all the investigated SS samples. Results showed that it would be purposeful to apply Raseiniai and Kaunas SS mixtures with meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additive for the production of fertilizers, as according to the concentration of heavy metals, such substratum is attributed to the category I, and following requirements of Land 20:2005 it can be applied in the areas, allocated for the growth of vegetables, forage and meadows as fertilizer. Anykščiai SS substratum according to the restrictions for II

325 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment category could be applied for fertilization of energy crops as well as for the re-cultivation of damaged areas, because SS of II category can be applied on agricultural land not often than every 3 years. Anykščiai substratum will be also purposeful to apply to fertilize soils (after that having carried out the analysis of soil), where the amount of Zn is low, as Zn is a microelement that is essential for the growth of plants. Furthermore the amount of Zn can be reduced by inserting a greater amount of meat-bone mass and rape seed cake additive.

Conclusions

1. After 10 day anaerobical processing of different SS samples the highest biogas yield was obtained from Kaunas SS (30.3 l/kg d.m.) and the lowest – from Raseiniai SS (16.9 l/kg d.m.). 2. 30 % Meat-bone mass (processed with phosphoric acid) and rape seed cake, activated the anaerobic process signifi cantly and increased the formation of biogas by 6.2 times in comparison with SS samples without additives.

Potassium sulphate (K2SO4) that was added into sludge substratum improved the provision of bacteria with nutritional elements; therefore, the output of biogas increased by 10 %.

3. Amount of CH4 in obtained biogas varied from 58.2 to 68.5 %, and the greatest percentage of CH4 was indicated in the case of WWTP Raseiniai samples – 61.8 % from SS without additives and 68.5 % –from SS with additives.

4. Additives of processed meat-bone mass, rape seed cake and K2SO4 intensifi ed the anaerobic process, and increased CH4 percentage in biogas obtained from all samples by 5.2 % on the average. 5. Ratio of biogenic elements in sludge substratum without additive is inappropriate for the production of fertilizers (Raseiniai substratum N4:P4:K1, Anykščiai – N4:P2:K1, Kaunas – N3:P3:K1), but after SS mixing with meat- bone mass, K2SO4 and rape seed cake, the ratio of biogenic elements was close to the recommended one (N1:P1:K1). 6. Substratum of SS mixture with bone-mass and rape seed cake had lower heavy metal concentrations than the substratum without additives; therefore, it is purposeful to apply such waste digestate for the production of biofertilizers (according to LAND 20:2005 attributed to category I).

References

Matsumura, Y., Minowa, T., Potic, B., Kersten, S.R.A., Prins, W., Swaaij, W.P.M., Beld, B., Elliott, D.C., Neuenschwander, G.G., Kruse, A., Antal, M. Jr. Biomass gasifi cation in near- and super-critical water: status and prospects, Biomass Bioenerg. 29 (2005), P. 269–292. Xiao, B., Liu, J. Biological hydrogen production from sterilized sewage sludge by anaerobic self-fermentation. Journal of Hazardous Materials, Vol. 168, Issue 1, 30 August 2009, P. 163-167. Sekiguchi, Y., Kamagata, Y., Harada, H. Recent advances in methane fermentation technology, Environ. Biotechnol. 12 (2001), P. 277–282. Marcato, C.E., Mohtar, R., Revel, J.C., Pouech, P. et al. Impact of anaerobic digestion on organic matter quality in pig slurry // International Biodeterioration & Biodegradation. Vol. 63, Iss. 3, April 2009, P. 260-266. Drodždz, J. Atsinaujinantys energijos šaltiniai // Lietuvos žemės ūkis ir kaimo plėtra. – Vilnius, 2005, P.197–20. Peršakovaitė, A., Šakmanas, A. Biodujų panaudojimo galimybės Lietuvoje // Pastatų inžinerinės sistemos: respublikinės mokslinės konferencijos, įvykusios Vilniuje 2006 m. balandžio 27-28 d. d., medžiaga. Vilnius: Technika, 2006. ISBN 9986-05-971-2. P. 35-40. COM/2008/0811 galutinis. Žalioji knyga dėl biologinių atliekų tvarkymo ES. LAND 20:2005 „Nuotekų dumblo naudojimo tręšimui bei rekultivavimui reikalavimai“. Valstybės žinios, 2005, Nr. 142-5135. Dirvožemio gerinimo medžiagos ir auginimo terpės. Ženklinimas, techniniai reikalavimai, produktų sąrašas, PD CR 13456: 1999. (Anaerobinio pūdymo liekanos // Kokybiškos produkcijos, gautos anaerobiškai pūdant šaltinio atžvilgiu segreguotas biologiškai skaidžias atliekas, gamybos ir naudojimo kokybės protokolo projektas, 2009. Navickas, K., Zuperka, V., Venslauskas, K. Gyvūninės kilmės šalutinių produktų anaerobinis perdirbimas į biodujas, LŽŪU ŽŪI Instituto ir LŽŪ Universiteto mokslo darbai, 2007, 39(4), P.60-68, ISSN 1392-1134. Paulauskas, V., Sabienė, N., Janulis, P., Navickas, K., Makarevičienė, V., Lin, J. G., Chen, S.Y., Grube, M., Zarina, D., Dubova, L., Benzins, A. Biofertilizer Produktion from Renewable Organic Waste. Environmental Issue and Waste Managment in Energy and Mineral Production. Ankara, Tyrkey, 2004. P. 397-403.

Prutenis Petras JANULIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, doctor of sciences, professor, senior research fellow. Address: Studentų 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas district. Tel.: (8-37) 75 22 92, e.mail: [email protected] Eglė SENDŽIKIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, doctor of sciences, lector, senior research fellow. Address: Studentų 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas district. Tel.: (8-37) 75 22 92, e.mail: [email protected] Rūta DAINIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Laboratory of Chemical and Biochemical Research for Environmental Technology, PhD student, junior research fellow. Address: Studentų 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas district. Tel.: (8-37) 75 22 92, e.mail: [email protected] Egidijus ŠILEIKIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Ecology, Msc. Student. Address: Studentų 11, Akademija, LT-53361 Kaunas district. Tel.: (8-37) 75 22 92, e.mail: [email protected]

326 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Evaluation of Plant Biomass Potential and Technologies of Biomass Preparation and Utilization for Energy Purposes in Lithuania

Algirdas Jasinskas, Ignas Šateikis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Plant biomass used for power purposes is the most important energy source. At present plant biomass used for power makes up approximately 94 % of all the renewable energy used in Lithuania. The work aim is to determine the technical potential of plant biomass growing and usage for power purposes and to investigate the technologies for biomass use. Wood as a fuel is most widely used at present in Lithuania. Total energy value of Lithuania- produced wood fuel was 720 thousands toe. Wood fuel potential in the nearest decade will be 871 thousands toe. Straw is another source of biomass fuel. About 0.5 Mt (million tons), i.e. 12–15 % of the total straw yield can be used as a fuel in Lithuania. Potential of straw as a fuel makes about 167 thousands toe. The resources of plant energy biomass may be supplied by specially grown plants: willows, perennial grasses, rapes, cereals, sugar beets. 22 % of agricultural land can be attributed for this purpose. Biogas can be produced from plant biomass in anaerobic reactors. The total biogas potential from plant biomass in Lithuania would amount to 61 thousands toe. About 310 thousand ha can be used to grow plants for biofuel. The technologies of growing, harvesting and fuel production from traditional feed-type grasses, coarse-stemmed vegetative plants and willows were evaluated and rational technique was selected. After energetic evaluation of the technologies it was concluded that the total energy input of growing and harvesting of grasses and legumes was equal to 8.3 GJ ha-1, topinambour stems – 14.4 GJ ha-1, sunfl ower stems – 11.3 GJ ha-1 and willow stems – 15.0 GJ ha-1 respectively. Energy input calculations show, that the technology of fuel preparation from traditional grasses is more advantageous than the technologies of fuel preparation from coarse-stemmed vegetative plants and willows.

Introduction

Plant biomass used as a fuel is the most important source of renewable energy. Biomass makes up about half of the alternative energy in EU (Communication from the commission, 2005). In Lithuania plant biomass power is equal to approximately 790 thousand toe (oil equivalent), i.e. about 94 % of all renewable energy used. Plant biomass is the photosynthesis product. In the Northern part of Europe the average energetic yield of plant biomass is 200 GJ ha-1 (Renewable energy – power for a sustainable future, 1996). Biomass as a fuel of renewable sources allows us to reduce the carbon dioxide emission and fuel import and create new work places in the country. Wood and biofuel are two most perspective fuel of renewable energy potential (Katinas, Markevičius, 2006). But now Western Europe pays attention for specially grown “new” energetic biomass (Communication from the commission, 2005). Such biomass growth was investigated (Šateikis, 2003) on the document (Communication from the commission, 1997) basis predicting to increase the scope of biomass energy by 2.5 times in 2010. Quick changes of energetic situation in EU introduces some amendments, thus, the scope of biomass as a fuel may increase by 3-3.5 times in 2020, and by 3.5–4.5 times in 2030. The scope of growing and using biomass as a fuel should be estimated anew. The usage of renewable energy sources in EU in 2020 will be 20 % and the biomass will comprise 65 % of renewable energy (Integration of renewable energy sources…, 2004). In Lithuania the wind and hydro-power of potential is not big, the biomass use for energy purposes should be greater. There are large perspectives to grow biomass as a fuel in Lithuania. In 2007 the total area of agricultural land was 3362.8 thousand ha (Lietuvos žemės ūkis 2007). Nobody’s land equaled to 204.4 thousand ha of agricultural land. In Lithuania the area of low productivity lands is 19 % of agricultural land (610.2 thousand ha) (Malinauskas, Ubaitis, 2001). Artifi cially planted forests and perennial grasses can grow in these lands. The productiveness of such forests exceeds that of the natural forests from 7 to 40 %. Chemical material usage and erosion processes can be minimized by doing so. The objective of present study is to identify energy potential of vegetative biomass and to evaluate the technologies for biomass growing, preparation and usage in Lithuania.

Object and methods

Y. Tsur and A. Zemel (Tsur, Zemel, 2000) made long-term forecast model of renewable energy as a fuel in global proportion. Dynamic optimization methods are used for this purpose. According to this model the fossil fuel energy will be gradually replaced by the renewable energy as the fossil fuel resources decrease, expenses of fossil fuel usage due to the harmful poisonous emissions are signifi cant according to real estimation, and the minimization of renewable energy price due to technological advance of scientifi c investigations. As the mentioned amounts cannot be duly stated at present this model can be used for specifi c calculations. The potential growth and use of plant biomass as a fuel is estimated in this paper in accordance with the technically based utilization possibilities in 2015–2025. Today this technical potential is greater than economically reasoned one. Perspective plans for renewable energy utilization in EU are used to defi ne this potential. Energetic situation in our country and experience of growth and usage of energetic biomass in Lithuania was also taken into account. Of some value are the plant biomass sorts that can grow in our country as well as be tested here. This estimation comprises some test results. Investigations were made in the Institute of Agricultural Engineering Lithuanian University of Agriculture (IAE LUA).

327 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

In the experimental basis of IAE LUA the Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture energy plants – traditional grass plants used for forage (mixture of grasses and legumes), coarse-stemmed vegetative plants – topinambours (Helianthus tuberosus L.) and sunfl owers (Helianthus L.), and willows were analysed, harvesting, handling and preparation for fuel technologies were assessed and machinery selected. In evaluating technologies qualitatively fuel preparation losses suffered during handling, loading and transporting the plants were established (Sirvydis, 2001). Energetic evaluation of technologies was carried out according to the described standard methodology (Sirvydis, 2001; Методические рекомендации…, 1989; Jasinskas et al, 2008). In evaluating plant growing, harvesting and fuel preparation technological operations the following indicators of energetic evaluation were calculated: - Direct energy input; - Indirect energy input; - Machinery energy consuming; - Energy input of man labour. By summing up these indicators the total energy input of fuel preparation from one hectare (MJ ha-1) are found. According to these calculated total energy input individual technologies (of traditional grasses, coarse-stemmed grass plants and willows) were calculated and energy input percentage of plant growing and harvesting was assessed.

Results and discussion

Presently one of the major renewable energy sources in Lithuania is wood fuel (wood handling and processing waste and fi rewood timber). Annual rate of fi rewood is about 2 Mm3, sawmill and wood waste as a fuel is 1.5 Mm3. In the future the slashing and cutting wastes may be up to 1 Mm3. Total energy value of Lithuania-produced wood fuel was 730 thousand toe. Thus the potential of fi rewood is 4.5 Mm3, i.e. about 871 thousand toe. This number actually corresponds the values presented in sources (Katinas, Markevičius, 2006; Jaskelevičius, 2003). In 2007 3.7 Mm3 of fi rewood and timber waste was used (Kuro ir energijos balansas 2007). The fuel potential of unused timber will make up about 0.8 Mm3 (157 thousand toe). At the moment, wood fuel is successfully competing with other types of fuel. Straw is another source of biomass fuel. About 0.5 Mt (million tons), i.e. 12–15 % of the total straw yield can be used as a fuel in Lithuania (Žaltauskas, 2002). Thus, the total potential of straw fuel makes 167 thousand toe. In 2007 about 2.5 % of total straw potential was used (approximately 4.1 thousand toe). Straw thermal value at 15 % moisture content is approximately 14 GJ t-1. At the moment a few straw-fi red boiler houses with a total capacity of 7 MW and low- capacity boilers are operating in Lithuania and as little as 3 % of targeted straw fuel resources are used. Resources of plant biomass as a fuel can be markedly supplied by plants specially grown for energetic needs. 22 % of agricultural land is equal to 740 thousand ha. Short rotation plantations could cover about 40–50 % of this area. Total annual thermal value of solid fuel from quickly grown tree and bush plantations (osier willow, alder), the area of which is 302 thousand ha, the yield of wet biomass is 14 t ha-1 and the thermal value is 9 GJ t -1, will comprise 909 thousand toe. Today osier willow is grown in the area of 400 ha. Another plant that can be used to grow solid fuel is perennial grasses (e.g., reeds and legume grass mixture). When they are grown in the area of 70 thousand ha, their yield is 7 t ha-1 dry materials and thermal value of 14 GJ t-1 will make 164.4 thousand toe per annum. Experiments set up at Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture and IAE LUA suggests that tall-growing grasses and legumes and topinambours could be grown for energy purposes, i.e. for fuel production. At 10 t ha-1 yield level and 23 thousand hectares cultivation area energy grasses can produce 0.23 Mt of dry biomass (76.9 thousand toe value). The possibility to use conventional agricultural machinery for cultivation, management and handling of these crops makes their production very attractive. At present plant biomass is actually not used for the production of electric power in Lithuania. However, purchasing price of electric power produced using biomass is 0.33 Lt kWh-1 or 0.09 Euro kWh-1 in Lithuania. Co-fi ring power plants are best suited for this purpose. Perennial grasses as well as maize can be used for production of biogas. 26 thousand ha can be used for this purpose in Lithuania. When dry mass yield is 7 t ha-1 and 1 kg is converted into 0.6 m3 biogas the thermal value of which is 22.6 MJ m-3, the total thermal value is 61 thousand toe. As it is known, biogas can be produced from plant biomass in anaerobic reactors. Such trials were carried out at Lithuanian University of Agriculture. If we allocated a 14 thousand hectare area for this purpose, at 10 t ha-1 productivity (calculated in dry matter) and biogas output of 500 m3 t-1 we could produce about 70 million m3 of biogas. Biogas can be used for the production of electrical energy and heat. About 310 thousand ha can be used to grow plants for biofuel in Lithuania. The crop area of rapes as biofuel (rape methanol (ethanol) ester) production is 222 thousand ha. Keeping to the requirements of crop rotation the rape in Lithuania can be grown in the area of 230–290 thousand ha. If 50 thousand ha of rape for food is required then total area of rape crop will not exceed 240 thousand ha. (Now rape is grown in the area of 174.7 thousand ha). When rape crop yield is 2.9 t ha-1, 620 thousand tons of rape seeds will be harvested from 222 thousand ha of land. 33 % rape biofuel output is equal to 205 thousand tons rape methanol (ethanol) ester the thermal value of which is 37.1 GJ t -1. The total of 182 thousand tons of biodiesel fuel can be produced (in 2007 Lithuania produced about 21.9 thousand toe biodiesel).

328 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Bioethanol can be made from grain and sugar beet (Communication from the commission, 2005). If cereals (e.g., triticale) are grown in the area of 71 thousand ha and the yield is 5 t ha-1 then the output will be 355 thousand tons of grain. At present the cereals are grown in the area of 1003.3 thousand ha. When the output of absolute ethanol is 276 kg t -1, ten the produced bioethanol will be 98 thousand tons. When the thermal value of bioethanol is 30 GJ t-1 then the output will be 70 thousand toe. To produce bioethanol from 16 thousand ha of sugar beet when the yield is 40 t ha-1 makes 640 thousand tons of sugar beet. When ethanol output is 75 kg t -1, we can get 48 thousand tons of absolute bioethanol with the total thermal value of 34.4 thousand toe. The petrol-spirit fuel will make 104.6 thousand toe. In 2007 about 31.6 thousand toe of bioethanol and bio-ETBE was made in Lithuania. Potential of plant biomass utilization for energy purposes is presented in Fig. 1.

Figure 1. Potential of plant cultivation and use for energy purposes in Lithuania’s agriculture (the currently used amounts are presented in block)

The total potential of vegetative biomass use for energy needs amounts to 106 PJ. Vegetative biomass specially grown for energy purposes accounts for about 59 % of this potential. Only approximately 31 % of the total potential is being used at the moment. Around 26 PJ of fuel energy is used in rural areas (for agricultural operations and household needs). The potential of renewable energy from biomass of plants specially grown for energetic needs exceeds the current energy consumption in rural areas by 2.4 times. Thus, cultivation of energy plant biomass can become an alternative business in agriculture. Furthermore, agriculture can become a supplier of renewable energy raw material. The unused potential of solid biofuel and biogas is 1.52 Mtoe. If 70 % of this potential is used for heat and 30 % for the electricity production and the heat generation effi ciency were 0.8, and that of electricity 0.35, then the resulted heat and electricity would be 9.822 TWh and 1.812 TWh, accordingly. This gives the reduction of 2.6 Mt of CO2 equivalents when generating heat and 1.27 Mt of CO2 equivalent when generating electricity, i.e. the total 3.87 Mt of CO2 equivalent.

According to (Communication from the commission, 2005) when the biodiesel is used the rate of CO2 is minimized by 1.957 t CO2 equivalent/toe and when bioethanol is used the reduction is 1.859 t of CO2 equivalent/toe. The utilization of biofuel potential will reduce the emission of CO2 by 0.549 Mt of CO2 equivalents. The utilization of total bioenergy potential reduces 4.419 Mt of CO2 equivalents. The production of biomass as a fuel creates new work places. The estimation of following parameters was made: for biofuel 8100 work places/Mtoe can be created, for bioelectricity it will make 900 work places/TWh and for bioheat 245 work places/TWh. The total number of 6400 work places can be created after the mastering of plant biomass as a fuel production potential in Lithuania. The technologies of growing, harvesting and fuel production from traditional feed-type grasses (the mixture of cereal and legume grasses), coarse-stemmed vegetative plants (topinambours and sunfl owers) and willows were evaluated and rational technique was selected. During qualitative evaluation of the technology of fuel preparation from traditional grasses the losses of handling grass plants used for fuel in the fi eld (grass turning, collecting, pressing into round bales and transporting to storage) were established. These losses were equal to 10–12 % and they were taken into account during the energetic evaluation of the technology when selecting plant productivity. In making energetic evaluation of the technology the following fuel preparation technology and machinery are proposed. Indirect energy input (fertilizer, seed), machinery energy consuming and energy input of man labour were calculated too. The calculation results show, that the total energy input of growing traditional grasses and fuel preparation

329 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment reach 8334 MJ ha-1. The greatest percentage of energy input (over 80 %) is made of direct and indirect energy input. The energy accumulated in the production reaches up to 140 GJ ha-1 and it is about 16 times bigger than energy input for fuel preparation. In the calculations energy input of storing energy plants prepared for fuel are not taken into account as they are similar for all technologies compared. When making energetic evaluation of the technology of fuel preparation from topinambours, the machinery for individual technological operations is suggested and direct energy input of growing and harvesting of topinambours are calculated.too. Topinambour stems productivity – 10 t ha-1 DM. The following machinery is used to harvest and handle these plants: the stems are cut and chopped by self-propelled forage harvester, which loads the chopped mass to tractor trailer. The chaff is transported and unloaded in a storage (transporting distance up to 5-7 km). The mass is loaded into special containers or heaps by loader and stored until its burning. The calculation results show, that the total energy input of topinambour stems growing and harvesting is equal to 14378 MJ ha-1. The greatest percentage of energy input (about 85 %) is made of direct and indirect energy input (including indirect energy input for fertilizer and seed). The energy accumulated in the production reaches up to 170 GJ ha-1 and it is about 12 times bigger than energy input for fuel preparation. The achieved total energy input of growing topinambours and biofuel preparation are 1.72 times bigger than energy input required for fuel preparation from traditional grasses. When making energetic evaluation of the technology of fuel preparation from sunfl ower stems, harvest and handle their stems similar technology and machinery as for topinambours are used (instead of digging and sowing of topinambour tubers – sunfl ower drilling by drill). The calculation results show, that the total energy input of sunfl ower stems growing and harvesting are equal to 11324 MJ ha-1. The greatest percentage of energy input (about 88 %) is made of direct and indirect energy input (including indirect energy input for fertilizer and seed). The energy accumulated in the production reaches up to 150 GJ ha-1 and it is about 13 times bigger than energy input for fuel preparation. When making energetic evaluation of the technology of fuel preparation from willows, the individual technological operations is suggested in Table 1, in which direct energy input of growing and harvesting of willow stems are calculated.

Table 1. Direct energy input of growing and harvesting of willow stems Factual productivity, Fuel consumption, Energy input, Titles of technological operations ha h-1 kg ha-1 MJ ha-1 1. Soil ploughing 0.7 13.48 575.6 2. Continuous soil cultivation 1.94 5.1 217.8 3. Slip planting (Salix–4B) 0.8 9.2 392.8 4. Broadcasting of fertilizers (saltpetre) 4.0 1.4 59.8 5. Interlinear cultivation 0.9 6.0 256.2 Σ =1502,2 6. Stems cutting and chopping (Jaguar 870) 1.8 14.2 606.3 7. Chopped stems transporting 0.15 32.64 1393.7 8. Chopped stems loading into storage place 0.5 8.0 341.6 Σ =2341.6 Total: 3843.8

-1 Note: 1) recalculation of diesel into MJ coeffi cient: k = 42.7 MJ kg (Sirvydis, 2001); 2) willow stems productivity – 9 t ha-1 DM.

The following machinery is used to harvest and handle the plants: the stems are cut and chopped by self- propelled harvester Jaguar 870, which loads the chopped mass to tractor trailer. The chaff is transported and unloaded in a storage (transporting distance up to 5-7 km). The mass is loaded into special containers or heaps by loader and stored until its burning. Both direct energy input (Table 1) and indirect energy input for fertilizers and sowing material (slips) are assessed: Willows of fi rst year growing: - broadcasting of fertilizers (fertilizer-saltpetre) – 200 kg × 27.6 = 5520 MJ ha-1; - planting of slips: 280 kg × 3.0 = 840 MJ ha-1. Total: 6360 MJ ha-1. Willows of second year growing: - broadcasting of fertilizers (fertilizer-saltpetre) – 100 kg × 27.6 = 2760 MJ ha-1; Total of indirect energy input: 6360 + 2760 = 9120 MJ ha-1. Total energy costs – direct and indirect energy input: 3843.8+9120.0 =12963.8 MJ ha-1. Of which: growing + fertilizers and sowing material = 10622.2 MJ ha-1; harvesting = 2341.6 MJ ha-1.

330 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The summary of the total energy input for the proposed technology (after assessing of machinery energy consuming and man labour energy input) are given in Table 2.

Table 2. Energy input of growing and harvesting of willow stems (the summary of energetic indexes) Energy input of Energy input of Total energy Titles of indexes ant measuring units growing harvesting input Direct energy input, MJ ha-1 1502.25 2341.6 3843.85 Indirect energy input (fertilizer, sowing material), MJ ha-1 9120.0 - 9120.0 Machinery energy consuming, MJ ha-1 1010.7 1020.2 2030.9 Energy input of man labour, MJ ha-1 5.36 21.9 27.26 Total energy input, MJ ha-1 11638.31 3383.7 15022,01 The energy accumulated in the production, GJ ha-1 to 160

The total energy input of willow stems growing and harvesting is equal to 15022 MJ ha-1. The greatest percentage of energy input (about 86%) is made of direct and indirect energy input (including indirect energy input for fertilizer and sowing material). The energy accumulated in the production reaches up to 160 GJ ha-1 and it is about 11 times bigger than energy input for fuel preparation. The achieved total energy input of willows growing and biofuel preparation are 1.8 times bigger than energy input required to prepare the fuel from traditional grasses. By research results it was established that the total energy input of growing and harvesting traditional grasses are by 1.72 times lower than those of topinambour stems, by 1.36 times lower than those of sunfl ower stems and 1.8 times lower than energy input required for fuel preparation from willow stems. The energy input of growing and harvesting different kinds of plants used for fuel are presented in Fig. 2.

Figure 2. Energy input of energy plants growing and harvesting

We can see in the chart presented that the least difference of energy input for plant growing and harvesting is that of grasses (4.5 used for growing, 3.8 GJ ha-1 – for harvesting) and the biggest is that of willows (actually 11.6 GJ ha-1 are used for growing and 3.4 GJ ha-1 - for harvesting). Finally, it can be stated that energetic evaluation of the technology of fuel preparation from traditional grasses is more advantageous than the technologies of fuel preparation from willows and coarse-stemmed plants – topinambour and sunfl ower stems.

Conclusions

1. Technical potential of renewable energy from plant biomass is 2.5 million tons in Lithuania if calculated as oil equivalent. This amount of renewable energy from the plant biomass could satisfy 27 % of the gross inland energy consummation. At present only 31 % of the mentioned plant biomass potential is used. 2. Plants for the biomass as a fuel can be grown in the area of 740 thousand ha (i.e. 22 % of agricultural land 10 % of which were not used). 42 % of this area can be attributed to the growth of agricultural crops for motor biofuel production, and the residual area can be allocated for the plants as a solid fuel. 3. The utilization of the mentioned unused potential of biomass as a fuel the emission of greenhouse gases can be reduced by 4.4 million tons and 6400 new work places could be established. 4. After energetic evaluation of technologies it was concluded that the total energy input of growing and harvesting of traditional grasses was equal to 8.3 GJ ha-1, topinambour stems – 14.4 GJ ha-1, sunfl ower stems – 11.3 GJ ha-1 and willow stems – 15.0 GJ ha-1 respectively. The total energy input of growing and harvesting traditional grasses are by

331 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

1.72 times lower than those of topinambour stems, by 1.36 times lower than those of sunfl ower stems and 1.8 times lower than energy input required for fuel preparation from willow stems. 5. Calculations of energy input show, that the technology of fuel production from traditional grasses is more advantageous than the technologies of fuel preparation of willow stems and coarse-stemmed plants – topinambour and sunfl ower stems.

References

Communication from the commission. (2005). Biomass action plan. /Commission of the European Communities. Brussels, 7.12.2006 COM (2005) 628 fi nal, 58 p. Renewable energy – power for a sustainable future. (1996). Edited by G. Boyle, Oxford University, 479 p. Katinas, V., Markevičius, A. (2006). Promotional policy and perspectives of usage renewable energy in Lithuania. Energy policy, vol. 34, pp. 71–780. Communication from the commission. (1997). “Energy for the future: Renewable sources of energy”: white paper for a community strategy and action plan COM 599 fi nal (26/11/97), 53 p. Sateikis, I. (2003). Possibilities of plant biomass cultivation and use for energy purposes in Lithuanian‘s agriculture. New methods, means and technologies for application of agricultural products: proceed. the intern. conf. Raudondvaris, 18-19 September 2003, pp. 9–14. Integration of renewable energy sources targets and benefi ts of large-scale development of renewable energy sources. (2004). REC, Workshop-renewable energy market development status and prospects, Kaunas, LEI, 15 p. Lietuvos žemės ūkis 2007. (2008). Statistikos departamentas, Vilnius, 90 p. Malinauskas, A., Ubaitis, G. (2001). Miško želdinių ir žėlinių auginimo žemės ūkio naudmenose ekonominis įvertinimas. Žemės ūkio mokslai, nr. 2, pp. 94–101. Tsur, Y., Zemel, A. (2000). Long-term perspective on the development of solar energy. Solar energy, vol. 68, nr. 5, pp. 379–392. Jaskelevičius, B. (2003). Medienos kuro naudojimo aspektai. Mokslas ir technika, nr. 1, pp. 26–29. Kuro ir energijos balansas 2007. (2008). Statistikos departamentas, Vilnius, pp. 51. Žaltauskas, A. (2002). Šiaudų panaudojimas kurui Lietuvoje. VŠĮ „Energetikos agentūra“. Energijos taupymo programos direkcija. Kaunas: Milga, 42 p. Sirvydis, J. (2001). Žolinių pašarų gamyba: monografi ja. Raudondvaris, 186 p. Методические рекомендации по топливно-знергетической оценке сельскохозяйственной техники, технологических процессов и технологий в растениеводстве. (1989). ЦОПКБ; ВИМ, 60 с. Jasinskas, A., Rutkauskas, G., Kavolėlis, B., Sakalauskas, A., Šarauskis, E. (2008). The energetic evaluation of grass plants fuel preparation technologies. Agronomy Research, vol. 6, no. 1, pp. 37-46.

Algirdas JASINSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Agricultural Machinery, assoc. prof., doctor of technological sciences. Research fi elds: Research of grass plants growing, utilization and usage rational technologies and technique while preparing the biomass for forage and energy purposes. Address: Studentu 15A, LT-53362 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. 861204002, e-mail: [email protected] Ignas ŠATEIKIS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Department of Agroenergetics, prof., habil. dr. of technological sciences. Research fi elds: Renewable energy sources and technologies in agriculture. Address: Studentu 11, LT- 53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. (8-37) 548433, e-mail: [email protected]

332 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The Predicted and Observed Temperature and Humidity Regime of Uninsulated and Partly Insulated Cowsheds

Bronius Kavolėlis, Rolandas Bleizgys, Jonas Čėsna Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Prior to this work, predicted the optimal values of temperature humidity regime in cowsheds, which is necessary in designing and operating the ventilation systems. In addition, investigate the operation of ventilation systems in two cowsheds by observing the temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air, indoor air relative humidity, CO2 concentration. Having performed analytical research has been drawn an equation, which relates the temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air with the indoor air relative humidity, outdoor climate conditions and thermal factors of cowshed. Experimental research were carried out in two production cowshed with different thermal factors (one cowshed uninsulated, another with insulated roof - partly insulated) and different operation of ventilation systems. Both cowsheds dimensions of the ventilation system were designed suffi cient size. The difference between the predicted and observed temperature humidity regime of uninsulated cowshed was non- essential, and average relative humidity of the indoor air was in line with the minimum possible. But for partly insulated cowshed observed difference between indoor and outdoor temperature humidity was too much, and in winter the indoor air humidity usually exceed the minimum possible and sometime reached 100 %. That’s shows that ventilation system management was poor.

Introduction

In recent years, uninsulated or only roof-insulated (partly insulated) cowsheds are built, where the possibility of water vapor condensation is reduced, and in summer, the animals are protected from overheating (Hilty et al, 2002). The research of recent years showed that the most suitable temperature for a productive cow ranged from +5 oC to -10 oC. The milk yield decreases only when the temperature exceeds +24 oC or when it drops down to -27 oC. The relative humidity of indoor air should be no more than 95% in winter and does not exceed 60% in summer. Minimum relative humidity 50% and 40% respectively. High relative humidity increases the risk for condense and moisturizing of the building constructions. At low relative humidity the dust growth increases (Caenegem et al, 2000). An important indicator of ventilation adequacy is the difference between indoor and outdoor temperatures. When this difference is greater, there is a risk of high CO2 concentration and relative air humidity and the inner surface of outdoor partitions may sweat. Indoor air quality and environment of the large uninsulated loose housing cowsheds with natural ventilation were studied in the USA (Janni et al, 2001; Zhao et al, 2007), Estonia (Pajumagi et al, 2005; Pajumagi et al, 2007) Lithuania (Kavolelis et al, 2006), and other countries. It was experimentally established (Janni et al, 2001) that in summer, the cowshed temperature is 1.5–3 oC higher than the outdoor air. Furthermore, owing to insuffi cient ventilation, the relative humidity of a room in summer was found to rise up to 100% during night time, which is an actual increase of 20% of the relative humidity of the outdoor air (Pajumagi et al, 2005). It was established that after installing openings of suffi cient height in the upper parts of the side walls (in the loft), the circulation of fresh air improved and the room microclimate became normal (Langley, 2004). Having reviewed the research it can be stated that the temperature and humidity regime of naturally ventilated cowsheds has been studied experimentally under production conditions. Studies have found that due to inadequate ventilation the air relative humidity in wide cowsheds is often exceeds outdoor air relative humidity. Adaptive theory suggest that the temperature - humidity regime animal sheds, and their subsequent expectations for indoor air humidity will be dependent on outdoor climate conditions, intensity ventilation, construction and technological parameters of animal shed. Prior to this work, predicted the optimal values of temperature humidity regime in cowsheds, which is necessary in designing and operating the ventilation systems. In addition, investigate the operation of ventilation systems in two cowsheds by observing the temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air, indoor air relative humidity, CO2 concentration.

Objects and Methods

The research object addresses through: - the analytical research work out the equation which relates the temperature differences with the indoor air humidity, outdoor climate conditions and thermal factors of cowshed; - experimental research in two production cowshed with different thermal factors and different operation of ventilation systems. One cowshed uninsulated, another with insulated roof (partly insulated). Both cowsheds capacity of 200 cow boxes, and the width of cowsheds – 21 m. The average heat transfer coeffi cient of uninsulated cowshed outer partition was 4.5 W/(m2 K). And of partly insulated cowshed: the roof – 0.45 W/(m2 K), the walls (with doors, windows, curtains of air inlets) – 3,3 W/(m2 K). The ventilation system of uninsulated cowshed without adjusted. Fresh air came into the upper part of the cowshed through 15 mm wide gaps between longitudinal wall

333 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment planks and the polluted air was removed through 0.6 m wide ridge gap (outlet). The overall area of outlet was 0.21 m2 per one cow. The overall area of air inlets during cold season was 0.09 m2 per one cow. During warm season the cowshed’s door was opened. In that case the overall area of wall inlets is equal to the area of the rooftop inlet. The ventilation system of partly insulated cowshed is with adjusted. The area of inlet openings in walls is adjusted with the curtains, and area of outlet opening- with valves. Air inlet and outlet openings can be completely closed. The biggest area of inlet was 0.8 m2, and outlet – 0.17 m2 per one cow. During the experimental research the indoor and outdoor air temperature, the indoor and outdoor air relative humidity was registered every hour during one entire keeping in barn period from November to April. A computerized gear TRACER COX for temperature and humidity measuring – memory was used for that purpose. Was also measured

CO2 concentration in indoor and outdoor air (GasProbe IAQ measuring instrument was used). And according to carbon dioxide balance, the ventilation rate was calculated (Pedersen et al, 1998).

Results of research

Analytical results

The optimum temperature difference between indoor and outdoor air temperature is such, where the relative humidity of indoor air is lowest. In addition on there is needed to avoid water vapor condensation on the interior surface of the outer partition (particularly on the inner surface of roof) during the coldest season. The temperature difference depends on heat and water vapor fl ows indoor the shed, the building’s thermal characteristics and climatic conditions outdoor. Relation between the indoor and outdoor air temperature difference and indoor air relative humidity as well as other parameters is achieved by solving shed’s heat and vapor balance equations together. The fi nal expression is as follows: + Ix ∆=t opt e , (1) cx+ − o ddiimin oo

where: Δtopt - optimum indoor-outdoor temperature difference, i.e. value of temperature difference when indoor air relative humidity is minimum possible, oC ; ε – ratio of the sensible heat of animals and total heat; η – coeffi cient that evaluates solar irradiance, m2 K/W (about 0.022); I – density of solar energy fl ow towards the shed surface, W/m2; xo – total module of heat losses through shed partitions (walls, roof, fl oor and foundation), i.e. part of the total heat of animals lost through walls, roof and foundation, when the difference between indoor and outdoor air is 1oC, 1/K; x – partial module of heat losses through shed walls and roof, 1/K; c – specifi c heat capacity of air, kJ/kg K; e – specifi c water evaporation intensity in cowshed (amount of water vapor produced by animals and room per animal total heat unit), g/kJ; di, do – highest (φ = 100%) humidity of indoor and outdoor air, g/kg; φimin – minimum possible indoor air relative humidity, parts of unit; φo – outdoor air relative humidity, parts of unit. The ratio of the animal’s sensible heat with total heat can be given as =− 1 2.5e , (2)

where 2.5 – specifi c heat of water vapor, kJ/g. The specifi c water evaporation intensity for cowshed (Kavolelis et Jasinskas, 2008) can be given as

e =×0.085 100.02ti , (3)

o where ti - indoor air temperature, C.

When the ventilation system is adjusted correctly, the humidity of indoor air, i.e. φimin, becomes about 5% lower when compared with the relative humidity of outdoor air (Kavolelis et al., 2006). The relative humidity of outdoor air, %, is given as (Structural climatology, 1995)

=− − 2 ooo86.6 0.535tt 0.0368 , (4)

o where to – outdoor air temperature, C.

Partial module of heat losses is x = ΣUA/ ΣQo, and total module of heat losses – xo =( ΣUA+ψP)/ ΣQo (where U – 2 2 heat transfer coeffi cient of walls and roof, W/(m K); A – area of roof and walls, m ; ΣQo – total heat of the animals fl ow rate, W; ψ – specifi c heat losses through fl oors and foundations, W/(m K) (about 0.9-1.5 (Albright, 1990)); P – perimeter of foundations, m.

334 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Knowing the optimal temperature difference the required area of ventilation opening is calculated. For example, 2 area of outlet Ao, m , ΣQ + Ix Ax=−o  , (5) oo∆ cvi o t opt

3 where ρi – indoor air density, kg/m ; vo – air speed in outlet, m/s. For traditional animal shed air speed in outlet (Kavolelis et Bleizgys, 2008) is

vCHtv=∆+0.19 14 , (6) od w

where Cd – air discharge coeffi cient for outlet (about 0.5); H – height from midpoint air inlet and air outlet, m; vw - wind speed, m/s. In order to prevent condensation of water vapor on the internal surface of outer barriers the permissible temperature difference between the indoor and outdoor air can be established by the following equation (Kavolelis et al., 2004):

∆=−260 t pilg , (7) Una.

2 where: Un.a – heat transfer coeffi cient of partition on which vapor condensation is not allowed, W/(m K); φi - indoor air relative humidity, parts of unit.

Experimental results

Verifi ed of under equation 5 we found that both cowsheds ventilation systems parameters are suffi cient. Experimental studies aim to check whether the proper management of ventilation systems. A cowshed’s thermal characteristics are described by the module of heat losses. According to the calculations the total module of the uninsulated cowshed’s is xo = 0.060 1/K, and partial module – x = 0.059 1/K. The partly isolated cowshed’s - xo = 0.025 1/K, and x = 0.024 1/K respectively. Experimental research results (observed) and its comparison with analytical research (predicted) are presented in Fig. 1 and Fig. 2. The points correspond to average daily experimental values.

Figure 1. Observed and predicted temperature difference Δt between indoor and outdoor air temperature on outdoor temperature to for the uninsulated cowshed, when the dimensions of the ventilation system are suffi cient and not adjusted (φi, φo – indoor and outdoor air relative humidity; φimin – minimum possible indoor air relative humidity)

The ventilation system at uninsulated cowshed was not adjusted. But because the dimensions of the ventilation system were suffi cient, the intensity of ventilation was also suffi cient, and sometimes even higher than required. This is confi rmed by the low CO2 concentration (480-930 ppm) and is calculated in accordance with, the intensity of ventilation 450-760 m3/h per cow. Average relative humidity of the indoor air little different from the minimum possible.

335 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

20

C 16 o

12

8

4 Temperature difference ∆ t,

0 -25 -20 -15 -10 -5 0 5 10 15 20 o Outdoor temperature t o , C

Observed Predicted: φi = 100 % Predicted: φi = φo Predicted: φi min

Figure 2. Observed and predicted temperature difference Δt between indoor and outdoor air temperature on outdoor temperature to for the partly insulated cowshed and when too much are closed ventilation openings (φi, φo – indoor and outdoor air relative humidity; φimin - minimum possible indoor air relative humidity)

The partly insulated cowshed dimensions of the ventilation system were designed suffi cient size. But when the outdoor temperature falls below 0 oC , the area of ventilation openings was too much reduced. Sometime 3 the concentration of CO2 increased to 2430 ppm, and the ventilation intensity decreased to 60 m /h per one cow. 3 Recommendation for minimum ventilation intensity in winter is 80 m /h per one cow (Seedorf et al, 1998). In winter the indoor air humidity usually exceed the minimum possible and sometime reached 100 %. That’s shows that ventilation system management was poor. The average heat transfer coeffi cient of roof of the uninsulated cowshed U = 5.5 W/(m2 K), and total module of 2 heat losses through shed partitions xo = 0.060 1/K; of the partly insulated cowshed - U = 0.45 W/(m K), and xo = 0.025 o 1/K respectively. This is an insulated roof , the 2.4-fold decrease in xo, and indoor air temperature increased by 4 C in the o same room air relative humidity, where outdoor air temperature to < 0 C. The quality of microclimate conditions indoor that sheds is result of the complex infl uence of many factors: parameters of the ventilation system, thermal characteristics of building, outdoor climate, animal housing system and management

Conclusions

Having performed analytical research has been drawn an equation, which relates the temperature differences between indoor and outdoor air with the indoor air relative humidity, outdoor climate conditions and thermal factors of cowshed. This data are necessary for design and operation of ventilation systems. Experimental research was carried out in two production cowshed with different thermal factors (one cowshed uninsulated, another with insulated roof, i.e. partly insulated) and different operation of ventilation systems. Both cowsheds dimensions of the ventilation system were designed suffi cient size. The difference between the predicted and observed temperature humidity regime of uninsulated cowshed was non- essential, and average relative humidity of the indoor air was in line with the minimum possible. But for partly insulated cowshed observed difference between indoor and outdoor temperature humidity was too much, and in winter the indoor air humidity usually exceed the minimum possible and sometime reached 100 %. That’s shows that ventilation system management was poor.

References

Albright L. D. (1990). Environment Control for Animals and Plants, An ASAE Textbook, No 4, The American Society of Agricultural Engineers, Michigan. Caenegem L., Wechsler B. (2000). Stallklimawerte und ihre Berechnung. FAT–Schriftenreibe 51, 89 s. Hilty R., Kaufmann R., Caenegem L. (2002). Building for Cattle Husbandry. Yearbook Agricultural Engineering 14, pp.163-170. Janni K. A., Allen D. M. (2001). Thermal Environmental Conditions in Curtain Sided Naturally Ventilated Dairy Freestall Barns. Proceedings of the 6th International Symposium “Livestock Environment VI”, pp. 367-376. Louisville, Kentucky, USA. Kavolelis B., Bleizgys R. (2006). Optimum Temperature and Humidity of Uninsulated Cowsheds. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management 14 (2) , pp. 89-94. Kavolelis B., Bleizgys R. (2008). Natural Ventilation of Animal Sheds Due to Thermal Buoyancy and Wind. Journal of Environmental Engineering and Landscape Management , 16 (4), pp. 188-194.

336 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Kavolelis B., Jasinskas A. (2008. Water Vapour Production of Cowshed. Proceedings of the 36 Internal Symposium on Agricultural Engineering “Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering”, pp. 387-391. University of Zagreb. Kavolelis B., Sateikis I. (2004). Effective Cowshed Insulating and Ventilation System Parameters. Energy and Building 36 (9), pp. .969-973. Langley R W. (2004). Dairy Cow Housing System. Landwards 59 (6), pp. 13-16. Pajumagi A., Miljan J.(2005). Temperature and Humidity Regime in Summer in Large Uninsulated Loose Housing Cowshed with Non-asbestos Fiber- Cement Roof. Proceedings of the 33 International symposium on agricultural engineering “Actual Tasks on Agricultural Engineering”, pp. 543-550. University of Zagreb. Pajumagi A., Veermae J., Praks J., Poikalainen V., Miljan J. (2007).Spatial Microclimate Patterns in Reconstructed and New Large Uninsulated Loose Housing Cowsheds. Building and Environment, 42 (1), pp. 113-121. Seedorf J., Hartung J., Schroder M. et al. (1998). A Survey of Ventilation Rates in Livestock Buildings in Northern Europe. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 70, pp. 39-47. Pedersen S., Takai H. J, Johnsen J. O, et al.(1998) A Comparison of Three Balance Methods for Calculating Ventilation Rates in Livestock Buildings. Journal of Agricultural Engineering Research 70, pp..25-37. Structural Climatology. RSN 156-94.(1995) Vilnius: Ministry of Environment of the Republic of Lithuania. Zhao L. Y,, Bruger M. F., Manuzon R., B, Arnold G., Imerman E.(2007). Variations of Air Quality of New Ohio Dairy Facilities with Natural Ventilation Systems. Applied Engineering in Agriculture 23(3), pp. 339-346.

Bronius KAVOLĖLIS. Dr. Habil., Prof., Head of research Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Publications: author of over 135 research papers and 7 inventions, 12 books and booklets.. Research interests: investigation and development of animal housing technologies. Address: Institute Agricultural Engineering Lithuanian University of Agriculture, LT- 54132 Raudondvaris, Kaunas r., Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel. +370 37 549356. Rolandas BLEIZGYS. Dr., Assoc. Prof. Head of Dept. Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Publications: author of over 30 research papers. Probation in Germany. Research interests: technologies and housing systems for animal. Address: Lithuanian University of Agriculture, LT-53362 Akademija, Kaunas r., Lithuania. E-mail: Rolandas.Bleizgys@lzuu. lt. Tel. +370 37 752240. Jonas ČĖSNA. Dr., Assoc. Prof. of Dept Heat and Biotechnological Engineering and Vice- dean of Faculty Agricultural Engineering Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Publications: author of over 25 research papers. Probation in Germany. Research interests: technological processes of cattle rearing and their mechanization. Address: Lithuanian University of Agriculture, LT-53362 Akademija, Kaunas r., Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected]. Tel. +370 37 752240.

337 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Impact of Drying Modes on Preservation of Essential Oils in the Medicinal Raw Material of Hyssopus offi cinalis L.

Aurelija Kemzūraitė, Algirdas Raila, Egidijus Zvicevičius Lithuanian University of Agriculture Ona Ragažinskienė, Kristina Bimbiraitė, Olga Kornyšova, Audrius Maruška Vytautas Magnus University, Lithuania

Abstract

The impact of medicinal plants and spices on human organism and their fl avour as well as aromatic properties is determined by biologically active compounds accumulated by plants. Their preservation is one of the main technological stages for cultivation, harvesting and preparation for consumption of medicinal plants. It is most diffi cult to avoid loss of essential oils that are known as volatile substances. The amount and quality of essential oils of the medicinal plant is strongly infl uenced by the selected drying technologies and modes. A qualitative and quantitative analysis of essential oils accumulated in the medicinal raw material of Hyssopus offi cinalis L., dried by active ventilation, was performed. The β-phellandrene, β-pinene, germacrene-D, isopinocamphone, γ-elemene, β-mircene, pinocamphone, α-pinene, and α-caryophyllene were identifi ed as dominating components of essential oils in Hyssopi herba in 2007-2008. The research helped fi nd out the impact of ventilation intensity and temperature of drying agent on the loss and quality of essential oils. Although smaller amount of essential oils was identifi ed in Hyssopi herba ventilated using heated ambient air than in the herbs dried by unheated ambient air, larger amount of components dominating in medicinal raw material were preserved, namely β-phellandrene, β-pinene, izopinocamphone, β-mircene. The smallest loss of essential oils occurred while drying of medicinal plants at air fl ow of 4000-6000 m3·(t·h)-1.

Introduction

Medicinal plants comprise a special group of herbs. While growing they synthesize and accumulate secondary metabolites, so-called biologically active compounds featuring remedial properties. Alkaloids, glycosides, fl avonoids, enzymes, essential oils, mineral substances, vitamins, pectins, and organic acids are the most signifi cant active compounds of medicinal plants (Ragažinskienė et al., 2005). Their amount and composition depends on the species of a plant, location of growing place, time of harvesting, drying technologies as well as conditions of storage of raw material of medicinal plants. It is the most diffi cult to preserve highly volatile substances – essential oils. Essential oil of a medicinal plant may contain from several to one hundred or even more compounds (Iburg, 2007). The effect of various essential oils and plants accumulating them on human organism depends on the specifi c composition for the mixture of biologically active compounds. The majority of essential oils have desinfectant, deodorating, and antiseptic properties. In addition, they reduce infl ammation, create a sense of relief and make expectoration easier (Pfi ster-Hotz, 1998). Essential oils are synthesized by the umbellifers (Apiaceae), the sunfl ower (Asteraceae), the rose (Rosaceae), the myrtle (Myrtaceae), the pine (Pinaceae), the cypress (Cupressaceae), the cabbage (Brassicaceae) family plants (Gavrilova, 2005). The mint family (Lamiaceae) represents the most numerous group of plants accumulating essential oils, including even 187 species. Hyssop (Hyssopus offi cinalis L.), as a plant belonging to the above mentioned group, is attributed to one of the most important medicinal herbs and spices widely used in pharmaceutical as well in the food industries (Kazazi et al., 2007). Hyssop originates from the Mediterranean area and is native to southern Europe as well as wide regions of Asia. Hyssop is usually found on dry coasts and among rocks and ruins (Özer et al., 2005). Except for its spread in natural vegetation areas, in many countries this herb is introduced into collections of medicinal plants as well as industrial fi elds. The raw material of hyssop – Hyssopi herba accumulates up to 1% of essential oils (Ragažinskienė et al., 2005). Essential oil of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. cultivated in different locations, features a variety of chemical constituents, which is determined by genotype, chemotype, geographical region, climatic conditions, development stages, parts of a plant used for the medicinal raw material, technologies of growing, the time of harvest and post-harvest treatment (Fraternale et al., 2004). Not the essential oils themselves but their purifi ed active substances are often used for medical purposes. The main compounds of essential oil of hyssop are pinocamphone (30-50% of essential oils amount) and isopinocamphone (up to 45% of essential oils). Pinene, β-phellandrene, 1.8-cineole, limonene, methyleugenol are found in smaller amounts (Garg et al., 1999; Fraternale et al., 2004; Mitić & Đorđević, 2000; Ragažinskienė et al., 2005). Chemical composition of essential oils of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. is analysed in many countries, namely France (Ghfi r et al., 1994; Ghfi r et al., 1997), India (Garg et al., 1999), Serbia (Mitić & Đorđević, 2000), Scotland (Letessier et al., 2001), Spain (Langa et al., 2003), Italy (Fraternale et al., 2004), Turkey (Özer et al., 2005; Özer et al., 2006), Iran (Kazazi et al., 2007). A more thorough analysis of essential oil components of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. cultivated in Lithuania was carried out in 2007- 2008 at Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnologies of Vytautas Magnus University (Bimbiraitė, 2008). A majority of the above mentioned researchers claim that drying is one of the most signifi cant technological stages strongly affecting the amount and quality of essential oils in the medicinal raw material (Müller & Heindl, 2006). However, the impact of drying as well as the impact of the selected drying conditions are hardly ever analysed more thoroughly. More comprehensive research of drying technologies on essential oils compounds of hyssop cultivated in

338 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Lithuania was initiated in 2007 at Department of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering of Lithuanian University of Agriculture in cooperation with Vytautas Magnus University, the Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnologies as well as Kaunas Botanical Garden. Similar research of other scientists showed that smaller loss of active substances occurs when less intense convectional drying technologies such as application of convectional dryers, active ventilation and natural drying or curing are used (Asekun et al., 2007; Dambrauskienė & Viškelis, 2002; Díaz-Maroto et al., 2007; Mahapatra & Nguyen, 2007; Omidbaigi et al., 2004; Raila et al., 2009). The best results are achieved when active ventilation is used for drying of the medicinal raw material. On the other hand, deeper analysis concerning the impact of drying conditions on the quantitative and qualitative composition of essential oils of medicinal plants is missing. The aim of this work was to evaluate the impact of the drying modes on the quality of the medicinal raw material of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. as well as the relative amount of essential oils and their qualitative composition.

Materials and methods

The study was carried out at Lithuanian University of Agriculture in cooperation with Vytautas Magnus University. The medicinal raw material - Hyssopi herba grown in Kaunas Botanical Garden of Vytautas Magnus University, was investigated. In the collection of Medicinal, Spice and Melliferous plants of the Botanical Garden hyssop was introduced since 1980. The drying investigations were carried out at the Department of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering (Lithuanian University of Agriculture), quantitative and qualitative analysis of essential oils was performed at Department of Biochemistry and Biotechnologies of Vytautas Magnus University. Drying of the medicinal raw material. During the research Hyssopi herba was dried by active ventilation from the initial 72.0-72.5% moisture content to optimum dryness of 13%. The drying stand consisted of a ventilator, an electric heater, an airfl ow distribution collector and drying containers (Lugauskas et al., 2007). Simultaneously Hyssopi herba was being dried in four 1.15 m high and 0.18 m wide containers using different ventilation intensities. During preparation for the research Hyssopi herba was chopped into 4 cm long pieces and packed of 4 or 5 kg into drying containers with regard to the available amount of the medicinal raw material and the height of 50-60 cm layer was formed. The medicinal raw material was dried using two different modes: with unheated ambient air (22.9±0.12°C temperature and 51.3±0.32% relative humidity) as well with heated ambient air (32.4±0.03°C temperature and 30.6±0.22% relative humidity).

3 -1 Figure 1. The principle scheme of Hyssopi herba drying investigations: L0 – comparative air fl ow, m ·(t·h) ; 1 – airfl ow distribution collector; 2 – valve regulating ventilation intensity; 3 – medicinal raw material; 4 – drying container; 5 – temperature and humidity sensor

Hyssopi herba was ventilated using different intensity in each drying container. Prior to drying the ventilation intensity was adjusted by means of a valve at the bottom of each container and measured with anemometer OMEGAFLO HH-600. In the process of drying with unheated ambient air, the medicinal raw material was dried at four different ventilation intensities whereas during drying using heated ambient air, twelve different ventilation intensities were used. The device ALMEMO 3290 with sensors FH A646–21 (Ahlborn Mess- und Regelungstechnik GmbH, Germany) was used to measure and record temperature and relative humidity of drying agent at the ventilator intake opening, airfl ow distribution collector, bottom and top of the dried Hyssopi herba layer (10 cm from the bottom and top of the herb layer) every 10 minutes. Moreover, drying containers were weighed in order to record the volume of the dried medicinal raw material and calculate its average moisture content two or three times a day. Having Hyssopi herba dried to 13% relative humidity, air distribution to the corresponding container was stopped. The dried raw material was unloaded, mixed and average sample for chemical analysis of essential oils was taken.

339 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Extraction of essential oils. For determination of essential oils the dried medicinal raw material was chopped by food processor Model 4258 (Braun AG, Germany) to the 3 mm particles (stems were cut to 5 mm particles). Samples were prepared using supercritical fl uid extraction apparatus HP7680T (Hewlett Packard, USA). Extraction was carried out using following supercritical fl uid extraction conditions: CO2 density 0.3 g/ml, extraction time 17 min, pressure 91 bar, trap column adsorbent was ODS (octadecylsilica), desorption solvent was heptane, the amount of dried raw material sample – 0.5 g. The volume of the essential oils washed with heptane from the trap column was 0.7 ml. Such samples were used for gas chromatographic analysis of essential oils. Gas chromatographic analysis. Quantitative analysis of the obtained extracts under the described conditions was carried out applying gas chromatograph GC-2010 with mass spectrometric detector GC-QP2010 Shimadzu (Shimadzu, Japan), and RTX-5MS (30m×0.25mm×0.25μm) column. Injection volume was 1 μl. Temperature program was: from 50°C to 190°C increased at 2.5°C/min., from 190°C to 240°C increased at 50°C/min. The components of essential oils were identifi ed according the calculated retention indices, mass spectra (NIST Mass Spectral Database) and scientifi c literature. For calculation of retention indices a mixture of aliphatic hydrocarbons ranging from C8 through C32 (Sigma, USA) was used to calibrate the capillary column at certain thermal gradient conditions.

Results and Discussion

In order to preserve the quality of the medicinal raw material and avoid the loss of biologically active compounds, it is recommended to perform drying of raw material within 3–5 days (72-120 hours) to the optimum dryness of 13% (Dachler & Pelzmann, 1999; Müller & Heindl, 2006; Özgüven et al., 2007; Ragažinskienė et al., 2005). This requires the selection of such drying conditions and the blown air fl ow that herbs could be dried during the time recommended. In 2007-2008 drying process of Hyssopi herba various ambient air fl ow was used. Moisture content of hyssop was decreasing most slowly under ventilation using unheated ambient air. Although environmental conditions were favourable and relative humidity of air stream was lower than the equilibrium humidity (60-65%), the drying of Hyssopi herba was too slow. Only under ventilation intensity of 7330 m3·(t·h)-1 the drying of hyssop lasted less than 5 days, i.e. 90 hours. The herbs dried at less intensive air fl ow conditions, reached the 13% moisture level only in a week: ventilating at 4310 m3·(t·h)-1 and 2110 m3·(t·h)-1 air fl ow the drying process lasted 168 and 228 hours respectively. While drying at 650 m3·(t·h)-1 air fl ow intensity, the experiment had to be aborted since in 228 hours the moisture of medicinal raw material decreased only to 43.9%. When ambient air temperature increased by 9.5 °C, the moisture sorption ability of the air increased 1.9 times – -1 -1 from 2.8 g·(kgs.o.) to 5.4 g·(kgs.o.) . The drying time became shorter approximately 1.5-1.6 times. However, the nonlinear decrease of the drying time increasing the veltilation intensity was observed. Drying lasted longer than 5 days when ventilation intensity was lower than 2000-2500 m3·(t·h)-1, and it was shortened up to three days increasing the air fl ow to 4500 m3·(t·h)-1. The drying time was decreasing most intensely when air fl ow was within 6000-7000 m3·(t·h)-1 (Fig. 2). Afterwards the drying time reached a minimum value and ranged insignifi cantly. Regression equation of drying time dependence on ventilation intensity of hyssop was determined (determination coeffi cient R2=0.89) as follows: = ⋅ −0.688 23400 L0 , (1)

where τ – drying time, hours; 3 -1 L0 – comparative ventilation intensity, m ·(t·h) .

Figure 2. The dependence of drying time on comparative ventilation intensity of Hyssopi herba applying unheated (1) and heated (2) ambient air

340 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

A characteristic exponental dependence of drying time on comparative ventilation intensity was also obtained when Hyssopi herba was dried using unheated ambient air (determination coeffi cient R2=0.97):

= ⋅ −0.565 14200 L0 . (2) Meteorological conditions during drying of medicinal herbs were favourable while air temperature was 22.9±0.12°C and relative humidity 51.3±0.32%. Ventilating under such conditions applying air fl ow of 4350 m3·(t·h)-1 hyssop could be dried in 5 days to 13% moisture content. Furthermore, having increased air fl ow to 10700 m3·(t·h)-1 the drying time will shorten to 3 days. However, having increased relative humidity of ambient air, its sorption properties diminish (Raila et al., 2009). One will need to blow more air through the layer of herbs in order to eliminate the same amount of the moisture content. In such a case drying will last longer. Therefore, it is really complicated to dry medicinal raw material without additional air fl ow heating in recommended 3-5 days. The amount of essential oils in the dried raw material of hyssop (Hyssopus offi cinalis L.) using different drying modes and ventilation intensities were identifi ed by gas chromatography method. Larger amount of essential oils was found in the raw material dried by ambient air. Higher temperature governed bigger loss of essential oils. In addition, ventilation intensity had a considerable impact on the quality of the medicinal raw material. Herbs ventilated by 650 m3·(t·h)-1 and 2110 m3·(t·h)-1 with unheated as well as 1320 m3·(t·h)-1 and 1390 m3·(t·h)-1 heated air fl ow became darker. In other words, they lost their inherent colour. Moreover, smaller amount of essential oils was identifi ed in this raw than in the medicinal herbs ventilated at higher intensity. Ventilating by ambient air, the biggest amount of essential oils was determined in 4310 m3·(t·h)-1 intensity dried medicinal raw material (Fig. 3). Having increased air fl ow up to 7330 m3·(t·h)-1 relative amount of essential oils reduced 1,56 times.

a)

b) Figure 3. The relative amount of essential oils in Hyssopi herba: A – after drying with heated ambient air, B – after drying with unheated ambient air

Ventilation intensity had less infl uence on the relative amount of essential oils by drying with heated ambient air. Having increased ventilation intensity to 2000-2140 m3·(t·h)-1 relative amount of essential oils increased in 32.5 percentage points or, in other words, 1.74 times. However, having increased the air fl ow further, insignifi cant range in concentration of essential oils was noticeable, 7.1 percentage points in average. Generalizing the results of the conducted drying research, one can claim that the smallest amount of essential oils was lost in Hyssopi herba by drying at 4000-6000 m3·(t·h)-1 intensities. Additionally, chemical composition of essential oils accumulated in the medicinal raw material, was identifi ed, which could be characterized by abundance of chemical components. Essential oils of hyssop feature any single or several predominating components. The dominating component of hyssop that grows in southern Europe or Asian countries as traditional vegetation locations, can make up 30-50% of all accumulated amount of essential oils. Hyssopi herba cultivated at Kaunas Botanical Garden of Vytautas Magnus University, accumulates basic components up to 25%. Essential oils of Hyssopi herba dried under the described conditions in 2007-2008 had β-phellandrene, β-pinene,

341 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment germacrene-D, isopinocamphone, γ -elemene, β-myrcene, caryophyllene, pinocamphone and α -pinene as dominating components. The largest amount of the basic components was identifi ed in the substance dried by heated ambient air, namely, β-phellandrene – 23.96%, β-pinene – 15.49%, isopinocamphone – 7.06%, β-myrcene – 5.54% of the total amount of essential oils. In Hyssopi herba dried with unheated ambient air, these components made up 0.71%, 1.02%, 2.1% and 0.22% respectively.

Conclusions

The amount and quality of essential oils of Hyssopi herba depends on time of harvesting, selected drying technologies and modes. Exponental dependence of drying time on relative ventilation intensity of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. medicinal raw material was determined: increasing air fl ow, the drying time of Hyssopi herba decreased and, having reached the intensity of 6000-7000 m3·(t·h)-1, it stabilizes (insignifi cant changes). The recommended drying time of the fi ve-three days is reached ventilating the medicinal raw material by air fl ow of 2000-4500 m3·(t·h)-1 (32.4±0.03°C temperature and 30.6±0.22% relative humidity) or 4350-10700 m3·(t·h)-1 (22.9±0.12°C temperature and 51.3±0.32% relative humidity). Hyssopi herba by active ventilation, the lowest loss of essential oils was noticeable ventilating at intensity of 4000-6000 m3·(t·h)-1. Higher temperature of the drying agent governed higher loss of essential oils. On the other hand, it provided more favourable conditions to preserve larger amounts of dominating compounds in essential oil of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. medicinal raw material.

References

Asekun O.T., Grierson D.S., Afolayan A.J. (2007). Effect of Drying Methods on the Quality and Quantity of the Essential Oil of Mentha longifolia L. Subsp. Capensis. Food Chem 101, pp. 995-998. Bimbiraitė K. (2008). Vaistinės Juozažolės (Hyssopus offi cinalis L.) Eterinio Aliejaus Analizė. Magisto darbas, Gamtos Mokslų Fakultetas, Vytauto Didžiojo universitetas. Dachler M., Pelzmann H. (1999). Heil- und Gewürzpfl anzen. Anbau-Ernte-Aufbereitung. 2 Aktualisierte und Erweiterte Aufl age. Östereichischer Agrarverlag, Wien. Dambrauskienė E., Viškelis P. (2002). Įvairiais Būdais Išdžiovintos Vaistinės Melisos (Melissa offi cinalis L.) Kokybė. Sodininkystė ir Daržininkystė 21 (4), pp. 86-94. Díaz-Maroto M.C., Pérez-Coello M.S., Sánchez-Palomo E., González Viñas M.A. (2007). Impact of Drying and Storage Time on Sensory Characteristics of Rosemary (Rosmarinus offi cinalis L.). J Sens Stud 22, pp. 34-48. Fraternale D., Ricci D., Epifano F., Curini M. (2004). Composition and Antifungal Activity of Two Essential Oils of Hyssop (Hyssopus offi cinalis L.). J Essent Oil Res 16, pp. 617-622. Garg S.N., Naqvi A.A., Singh A., Ram M., Kumar S. (1999). Composition of Essential Oil from an Annual Crop of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. Grown in Indian Plants. Flavour Frag J 14, pp. 170-172. Gavrilova J. (2005). Žeimenos Upės Slėnio (Pabradės Apylinkės) Vaistinių Augalų Botaninė Įvairovė, Populiacijų Būklė ir Kai Kurių Rūšių Morfobiologinės Savybės bei Produktyvumas. Magistro darbas, Gamtos Mokslų Fakultetas, Vilniaus pedagoginis universitetas. Ghfi r B., Fonvieille J.L., Dargent R. (1997). Infl uence of Essential Oil of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. on the Chemical Composition of the Walls of Aspergillus fumigatus (Fresenius). Mycopathologia 138, pp. 7-12. Ghfi r B., Fonvieille J.L., Koulali Y., Ecalle R., Dargent R. (1994). Effect of Essential Oil of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. on the Lipid Composition of Aspergillus fumigatus. Mycopathologia 126, pp. 162-167. Iburg A. (2007). Vaistiniai Augalai: Sudedamosios Dalys, Gydomasis Poveikis, Pritaikymas. Mūsų knyga, Vilnius. Kazazi H., Rezaei K., Ghotb-Sharif S.J., Emam-Djomeh Z., Yamini Y. (2007). Supercritical Fluid Extraction of Flavors and Fragrances from Hyssopus offi cinalis L. Cultivated in Iran. Food Chem 2, vol. 105, pp. 805-811.

Langa E., Mainar A.M., Santafé J., Burillo J., Palavra J., Coelho J., Urieta J. (2003). Supercritical CO2 Extraction of Essential Oils from Hyssopus offi cinalis L. Proceeding of the 4th European Congress of Chemical Engineering, vol. 5.12.2.013, pp. 12-13, European Federation of Chemical Engineering, Germany. Letessier M.P., Svoboda K.P., Walters D.R. (2001). Antifungal Activity of the Essential Oil of Hyssop (Hyssopus offi cinalis L.). J Phytopathology 149, pp. 673-678. Lugauskas A., Raila A., Zvicevičius E., Railienė M., Novošinskas H. (2007). Factors determining accumulation of mycotoxin producers in cereal grain during harvesting. Ann Agric Environ Med 14, pp. 173-186. Mahapatra A.K., Nguyen C.N. (2007). Drying of Medicinal Plants. Acta Horticulturae 756, pp. 47-54. Mitić V., Đorđević S. (2000). Essential Oil Composition of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. Cultivated in Serbia. Physics, Chemistry and Technology 2, vol. 2, pp. 105-108. Müller J., Heindl A. (2006). Drying of medicinal plants. In: Bogers R.J., Craker L.E. (Eds). Medicinal and Aromatic Plants. Agricultural, Commercial, Ecological, Legal, Pharmacological and Social Aspects, pp. 237-252. Springer, The Netherlands.

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Omidbaigi R., Sefi dkon F., Kazemi F. (2004). Infl uence of Drying Methods on the Essential Oil Content and Composition of Roman chamomile. Flavour Frag J 19, pp. 196-198. Özer H., Şahin F., Kiliç H., Güllüce M. (2005). Essential Oil Composition of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. subsp. Angustifolius (Bieb.) Arcangeli from Turkey. Flavour Frag J 20, pp. 42-44. Özer H., Sökmen M., Güllüce M., Adigüzel A., Kilic H., Sahin F., Sökmen A., Baris Ö. (2006). In Vitro Antimicrobial and Antioxidant Activities of the Essential Oils and Methanol Extracts of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. ssp. Angustifolius. Ital J Food Sci 1, vol. 18, pp. 73-83. Özgüven M., Bux M., Koller W.D., Sekeroglu N., Kirpik M., Müller J. (2007). Einfl uss instationären Trocknungsbedingungen bei der Schatten-, Sonnen- und Solartrocknung auf die Qualität von Lavandula offi cinalis L., Origanum syriacum L. und Thymbra spicata L. Zeitschrift für Arznei- und Gewürzpfl anzen 12(2), pp. 80-87. Pfi ster-Hotz G. (1998). Ätherische Öle im Blickpunkt der Therapeutischen Anwendung. Zeitschrift für Phytotherapie 19, pp. 152-155. Ragažinskienė O., Rimkienė S., Sasnauskas V. (2005). Vaistinių Augalų Enciklopedija. Lututė, Kaunas. Raila A., Lugauskas A., Kemzūraitė A., Zvicevičius E., Ragažinskienė O., Railienė M. (2009). Different Drying Technologies and Alternation of Mycobiots in the Raw Material of Hyssopus offi cinalis L. Ann Agr Env Med 16, pp. 93-101.

Aurelija KEMZŪRAITĖ – PhD student; Algirdas RAILA – Dr. Habil., Prof.; Egidijus ZVICEVIČIUS – Dr. Assoc. Prof. Research fi elds: Post-harvest technologies, modelling of technological processes. Mailing address: Dept of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentų str. 15, LT-53362 Academy, Kaunas district, Lithuania. E-mails: algirdas. [email protected], [email protected], [email protected] Ona RAGAŽINSKIENĖ – Dr. (HP), Assoc. Prof. Research fi elds: Introduction of new medicinal (aromatic) plants from various geographical regions and local fl ora, phytochemical investigation, selecting most perspective species and varieties, helps to protect genetic resources and biodiversity in Lithuania. Mailing address: Sector of Medicinal Plants, Kaunas Botanical Garden of Vytautas Magnus University, Ž.E. Žilibero str. 6, LT-46324 Kaunas, Lithuania. E-mail: [email protected] Kristina BIMBIRAITĖ – PhD student; Olga KORNYŠOVA – Dr. Assoc. Prof.; Audrius MARUŠKA – Dr. Habil, Prof. Research fi elds: development and application of separation methods, synthesis and evaluation methodology of the chromatographic materials. Mailing address: Dept of Biochemistry and Biotechnologies, Vytautas Magnus University, Vileikos str. 8, LT-44404 Kaunas, Lithuania. E-mails: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

343 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Technological Aspects of Thermal Weed Control

Paulius Kerpauskas, Algimantas Sirvydas, Regina Vasinauskienė, Jūratė Nadzeikienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Weed thermal extermination investigations during the last decade gave good results. New technology equipment was created, refi ned and introduced. For newly introduced technological equipment Internet advertising motivation prevails over its scientifi c validation. Creation of a suitable device, producing heat and automation of the combustion process is a rather simple engineering task. Creation of agro-technology suitable for each type of plants grown with machines maximally satisfying its needs is the most complex task Laboratory and fi eld experiments on the agriculture plant and weed resistance to thermal impact enabled to substantiate one of the most important principles – weed thermal extermination should be carried out in the weed shooting stage. Later weed extermination is possible, however, it is not feasible economically while its agro-technological realization is more complex. For this reason creation on new machines must be directed at maximal satisfaction of agro-technological requirements. In this work analysis of processes of thermal extermination of weeds is presented with evaluation of the barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) and common lamb’s quarters (Chenopodium album L.).

Introduction

Thermal weed extermination as well as mechanical extermination belongs to ecological means of weed extermination and its action is based on principles of physics. In characteristics presented of thermal weed extermination methods and devices, of high temperature media, designation of equipment and the same data are evaluated in different ways. Sometimes, devices using the same work fl uid to create high temperature medium according to corresponding physical properties belong to different groups of devices, for example, a group of devices using wet water vapour (heat transfer coeffi cient ≅ 80000 −100000 W/(m2·K)) and ones using overheated water vapour ( ≅ 30− 50W/(m2·K)). These devices are classifi ed as belonging to different groups, as physical properties of overheated water vapour are closer to air as gas properties and not to the properties of wet water vapour. Therefore, in Table 1 classifi cation of weed extermination devices is presented. All weed extermination devices if they matched agro-technologic requirements and enabled to achieve the aim set, are good enough. Weed thermal extermination devices must during the shortest period of time (this is linked to device effi ciency) and with the least power (fuel) consumption heat tissue of plants to be exterminated to temperatures of 58°C and higher and enforce lethal end to plants selected. Investigations indicate, that weed thermal extermination use only about 1% of heat produced, while 99% of heat produced in a weed extermination device constitute losses: 44% of heat is consumed for unavoidable technological needs (to heat soil), 45% of heat losses occur because of incomplete heat utilization (being an issue for further perfection). 10% of losses are unavoidable heat losses to environment due to heat transfer through the device structure (Sirvydas et al. 2003).

Table 1. Classifi cation of thermal weed control ways work environment and devices

Temperature of Heat effect and Name of Investigation of recent Work agent Work environment work environment characteristic device year

W. Kurfess, 2000D. Water Hot water Hot water coolant Hot water Hansson, 2002R. M. Collins, 2000

Foam Foam Foam coolant Hot foam R.M Collins, 2002 100 °C A. Sirvydas Wet saturated Wet saturated Process of steam P. Kerpauskas Water steam steam steam condensation R. Vasinauskiene 1997-2009

Gas of combustion, Gas ant J. Ascard, 1995 100 – 1000 °C air, superheated superheated steam Gas coolant Gas, fl ame A. Bertram, 1996 steam mixture F. Tei, 2003

1000 – 1400 °C Infrared rays Heat radiation Heat radiation Infrared rays B Geier, 1989

Technical issues of producing heat locally are not complex and are dealt with easily. Agro-technological problems – their compatibility with biology of agricultural plants and weed plants, as well as with control of high temperature fl ow remain as the main problems in quest of creation of effi cient and ecological weed thermal extermination technology.

344 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Materials and methods

Temperatures were registered using the ALMEMO 2590-9 device, having the microprocessor data processing and accumulation system, which is able to carry out up to 100 measurements per second. Resolving power of ALMEMO 2590-9 is 0.1ºC. Following data storage device connection with the computer the AMR programs were used. Measurements of the temperature in the plant and its medium were carried out adhering to all requirements, which are usually imposed on physiological and microclimate plant investigations. We thoroughly considered them in separate research works (Sirvydas, 1993). The duration of the thermal weed extermination process is from one to two seconds. This process is dynamic one with sudden temperature changes. Sudden temperature changes were recorded employing very sensitive temperature sensors. We used home-produced thermocouples made of Cu-Cu Ni wires having diameters of 0.07 mm or 0.05 to 0.03 mm. Time lag of these thermocouples to sudden increase of temperature by 100°C was found to be equal to 0.0026 sec in water vapor medium. From the results obtained, it may be inferred that thermal sensitivity error caused by these thermocouples when applied is negligible. For this reason, temperature measurement data exactly describe temperature variation in the plant body and in its medium. With methodology errors excluded the error dispersion matches the device resolving power of ±0.1 ºC. The special experimental rig used for laboratory investigations enabled the exact control of the surrounding temperature and its infl uence Figure 1. Scheme of thermocouple positioning duration upon the plant (Kerpauskas, 2003; Vasinauskienė, 2004). For in the plant (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) and each growth stage and for each exposure duration (0.8; 1.2; ir 2.4 sec) surrounding medium: 1; 6 – thermocouples in we investigated groups of plants each including 5 (Echinochloa crus- surrounding medium; 2; 5 – thermocouples on the galli (L.)) and 5 Chenopodium album (L.)) plants (105+105 altogether). stem surface of the plant; 3; 4 – thermocouples in The diagram of the positioning of sensors for temperature measurements the plant branching node in the plant and in surrounding objects is presented in Fig. 1. Thermocouples 1 and 6 indicate the temperature of high temperature weed plant extermination medium (wet water vapour). Thermocouples 2 and 5 show temperature variation on the plant stem surface. Thermocouples 3 and 4 were placed in the central part of the plant branching node and show the temperature of the plant stem branching node tissues. Variation of the plant tissue temperature in the moment of thermal destruction follows certain pattern in the regular way. The biometric indicators of the branching node infl uence temperature variation features in plant tissues. Cases of temperature variation in the branching node specifi c to (Echinochloa crus-galli (L.)) are presented in Fig.2.

Figure 2. Temperature variation of the weed (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) in the branching node for different growth stages. Exposure to the thermal contact with hot water vapor lasted 1.2 sec. Duration interval of 60°C temperature is denoted by τ

The thermal weed extermination process is basically the same in all technologies (gas, water, vapor). Three periods may be marked out in this process. The fi rst period includes heating of plant surface tissues. In the second period heat propagates through plant tissues destroying them thermally. Therefore, the plant must be maintained in high temperature medium for certain time interval (duration of the second period). In the third (cooling) period plant tissues are cooled by heat transfer to surrounding medium. Effi ciency of weed thermal extermination in any of agro-technologies discussed can be infl uenced only by changing duration of exposure in high temperature medium or its temperature. In the technology of weed extermination by wet water vapor used and investigated by us the water vapor temperature is

345 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment constant − 100 °C. We varied thermal impact on the plant by adjusting exposure duration in high temperature medium to the values of 0.8; 1.2 and 2.4 seconds correspondingly. Evaluation of the temperature effect on the plant includes an assumption that plant tissues at temperatures exceeding 60°C undergo irreversible changes. Plant tissues are destructed thermally. Statistical analysis of data obtained was carried out taking into account the maximal temperature of the plant tissues and its duration while exceeding 60°C. Experiments were carried out in the Lithuanian Agriculture University.

Results and discussion

During work tests it was disclosed, that application of the uniform thermal impact on all weed plants lefts some weeds unaffected. It appears that weed biological features infl uence effi ciency of this process. Weeds, the growth cone of which is on the stem top over the soil surface can be exterminated easily in high temperature medium. Thermal extermination of the feed system is suffi cient to cause lethal outcome. Wet water vapour condenses while contacting colder surfaces and transfers heat to surface tissues of the plant. The growth cone of barnyard grass is in the near soil part, where the plant is affected by the soil surface and biological growth peculiarities of the plant itself. Thermal extermination of weeds is hampered if the plant has more than one stem because of disturbing homogeneity of high temperature fl ux. On the basis of data of laboratory investigations and fi eld experiments it may be safely suggested that weed plant growth stages have potent effect on weed extermination by wet water vapour. In different growth stages the same thermal exposure by wet water vapour causes different extermination. During one growth stage weeds are exterminated irreversibly while during other stage they maintain ability to grow again although general picture of the fi eld just several days after thermal impact illustrates total extermination of weeds (Figure 3). It manifested itself clearly in case of thermal extermination of barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.). In laboratory conditions with exact dosage of thermal exposure duration we exterminated common lambsquarters (Chenopodium album L.) and barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.). As thermal extermination of barnyard grass is problematic one, investigation results of its thermal Figure 3. Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) before and after extermination are worth of more detailed thermal extermination consideration. We exterminated barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) thermally using wet water vapour in different growth stages: the fi rst growth stage – the fi rst leaf opened from coleoptile; the second growth stage – the second leaf opened; the third growth stage – the third leaf opened, the side buds begin to form; the fourth growth stage – the fourth leaf opened and branching commences, he fi rst sprouts appear; the fi fth growth stage – the raceme top appears and the number of side sprouts depends upon number of side buds formed: the more side buds are formed, the more side sprouts appear. Biometric indicators of the investigated weed plant (Barnyard grass) are presented in Table 2.

Table 2. Biometric indicators of the branching node of Barnyard grass ± x t95S x Barnyard grass growth stages Width, mm Thickness, mm

First plant growth stage (1, 2 small leaves) 2.02±0.1 1.88±0.1

Second plant growth stage (3 small leaves) 2.52±0.3 1.96±0.1

Third plant growth stage (4 small leaves) 3.64±0.9 2.72±0.2

Fourth plant growth stage (5 small leaves) 4.02±0.1 2.98±0.2

Fifth plant growth stage (1 tiller) 4.38±0.4 3.5±0.4

Sixth plant growth stage (2 tillers) 5.12±0.5 3.7±0.5

Seventh plant growth stage (3 tillers) 5.94±0.5 4.42±0.7

346 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The agro-technological process analysis of thermal extermination of barnyard grass may be presented as follows. In the shooting growth stage the coleoptile protects the plant shoot from unfavourable environment effects. When barnyard grass is in one or two leaf growth stage, its anatomic structure is the same. In the growth stage of the fi rst and the second leaf the shoots of barnyard grass have only one growth cone and one main branch (Figure 4).

Figure 4. Barnyard grass in growth stage of the fi rst leaf – A, and of the second leaf - B: 1 – primary root; 2 – coleoptile; 3 – leaf; 4 – origin of the secondary root

When barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) is exterminated in the two leaf growth stage (Figure 4) with high temperature exposure duration equal to 1.2 s, the plant is exposed to 98-90oC high temperature medium. In the plant branching node (Figure 5, curves 3, 4) the temperature rises up to 71-69oC, the plant is thermally destroyed.

Figure 5. Temperature variation in the barnyard grass plant and its medium. 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 – temperature measurement points (Figure 1). High temperature fi eld is maintained for the period of 1.2 s. Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) in the growth stage of two leaves

In the third growth stage in the branching node side sprouts begin to form, branching node mass increases as well as the root system (Figure 6). As barnyard grass plant grows, forming sheath surrounds and covers the branching node, protecting it from sudden environmental changes. Sheath surface is amply covered by small hairs (Figure 7). Hairs and air gap improve sheath layer thermal insulation properties and constitute thermal protective shield.

Figure 6. The barnyard grass plant in Figure 7. Growth of barnyard grass in the three leaves stage: A-sheath closely the three leaf growth stage: 1 – main covers the branching node; B- hairiness of the sheath (enlarged X800) root; 2 – main stem; 3 – side sprouts; 4 – secondary roots forming

347 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

During extermination of barnyard grass in three leaves growth stage in plant branching node tissues when exposure in high temperature medium is 1.2 s (Figure 8, curves 3, 4), temperature increases to 50-49°C and the plant is not destroyed thermally. With further grow of barnyard grass the branching node increases, therefore, more heat is needed to heat tissues to increase the temperature over 60 ºC. The increased branching node enlarges contact area with cold soil and transfers to soil heat. The pores of cold soil contain air, density of which is greater than density of wet water vapour. Because of its physical properties wet water vapour is unable to push cold air out of soil. The air boundary layer on the soil surface reduces high temperature thermal impact on the branching node.

Figure 8. Temperature variation in the barnyard grass plant and its medium 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 – temperature measurement points (Fig. 1). High temperature fi eld is maintained for the period of 1.2 s. Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) in the growth stage of three leaves

High temperature medium impact in the branching node of barnyard grass may be examined also using the energy balance method. The energy balance method is often used for living plants (Sirvydas, 1993), however, on the basis of laboratory and fi eld experiments we conclude that barnyard grass in the growth stage of 3 and more leaves is not destroyed by the 1.2 s thermal impact and grows again after several days. With increased high temperature fi eld exposure duration up to 2.4 s we receive temperature variation in the plant, which is depicted in Figure 9. As we can see from the curves 3 and 4 the temperature in the plant branching node increases up to 78°C. The plant is thermally and lethally affected.

Figure 9. Temperature variation in the barnyard grass plant and its medium 1, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6 – temperature measurement points (Fig. 1). High temperature fi eld is maintained for the period of 2.4 s. Barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.) in the growth stage of three leaves

According to investigation results (Figure 10), effi ciency of thermal extermination of barnyard grass, rise only with thermal impact duration increased. With thermal impact duration prolonged heat consumption and expenses for weed extermination increase correspondingly. Consideration of thermal weed extermination potential in wet water vapor medium revealed clear differences between weeds having distinct biological development peculiarities. Plant growth biological peculiarities infl uence thermal weed removal technologies and their effi ciency in the process of thermal weed extermination. When exterminated in the same growth stage (Fig.11). White goose-foot is sensitive to thermal surrounding medium. Well-formed stem shape of White goose-foot creates favorable conditions for thermal extermination of the plant aboveground part.

348 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Thermal extermination of barnyard grass in high temperature medium is hampered by its growth particularities. Data presented in Figure 11 shows that technology parameters of weed thermal extermination should be matched to weeds most resistant to thermal extermination, as they determine effi ciency of weed thermal extermination.

Figure 10. The impact by wet water vapour medium during different growth stages of barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus-galli L.)

Figure 11. Comparison of the wet water vapour medium impact in different growth stages for barnyard grass (Echinochloa crus- galli L.) and common lambs quarters (Chenopodium album L.)

High temperature destroys all living organisms. Weed thermal extermination without environmental pollution has good prospects. Weed thermal extermination process can be created only on the basis of agro-technological and thermo- physical investigations. One must bear in mind that for every grown type of cultured plants a separate agro-technology of weed thermal extermination must be created. Only in continuum combining biological and thermo-physical factors good weed thermal extermination results can be achieved.

Conclusions 1. Weed thermal extermination problem may be solved only in continuum treating weed thermal extermination process from the biological and thermo-physical point of view. 2. Effi ciency of technological process of weed thermal extermination is determined by biological factors of weeds and cultured plants and by high temperature media correspondence to the agro-technological process. 3. Agro-technological process of weed thermal extermination should match properties of the most resistant to thermal extermination weeds present in the crop. 4. In cultured land crop areas weeds should be exterminated thermally in the shooting-growing stage.

References

Ascard J. (1995). Thermal weed control by fl aming: biological and technical aspect. Doctoral dissertation, Swedish University of Agricultural Sciences, Alnarp, Sweden. 37p. Bertram A. (1996). Geräte - und verfahrenstechnische Optimierung der thermischen Unkrautbekämfung. Weihenstephau, 196p. Collins R.M. (2000). Australian developments in thermal weed control. Proceedings of the 4th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control, pp.56-59, Elspeet, the Netherlands. Collins R.M., Bertram A., Roche J-A., Scott M. E. (2002). Preliminary studies in the comparison of hot water and hot foam for weed control. Proceedings of the 5th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control. European Weed Research Society; 2002 March 11-13, pp.207-215, Pisa, Italy. Geier B. (1989). System der Abfl ammtechnik und mogliche Arbeitsersparnis. Beikrautregulierung statt Unkrautbekamptung, pp.143-149. Hansson D, Ascard J. (2002). Infl uence of developmental stage and time of assessment on hot water weed control. Weed Research 42, pp.307-316. Kerpauskas P. (2003). Formation and investigation of localized environment for thermal weed control. Doctoral dissertation, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuania. 118p.

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Kurfess W. (2000). Untersuchungen zum Einsatz von Heißwasser zur thermischen Unkrautregulierung. Doctoral dissertation, Stuttgart, 126p. Lazauskas P., Sirvydas A. (2002). Weed control with water steam in barley. Zeitschrift für Pfl anzenkrankheiten und Pfanzenschutz. Journal of plant diseases and protection. Sonderheft XVIII, pp.633-638. Sirvydas A., Lazauskas P., Vasinauskienė R., Stepanas A., Kerpauskas P. (2004). Thermal weed control by water steam in bulb onions. Proceedings of the 6th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control. European Weed Research Society: 2004 March 8-10, pp. 170-173, Lillehammer, Norway. Sirvydas A. (1993). Thermal processes in plants and in their environment. Doctor habil. dissertation. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Lithuania, 296p. Sirvydas A., Kerpauskas P., Vasinauskienė R., Janulevičius A. (2003). Terminio piktžolių naikinimo įrenginių naudojančių drėgnąjį vandens garą energetinis įvertinimas. Vagos 60 (13), pp.59-65. Sirvydas A., Lazauskas P., Vasinauskienė R., Kerpauskas P. (2004). Weed control in onions by steam. Zeitschrift für Pfalanzenkrakheit und Pfl anzenschutz. Sonderheft XIX, pp.581-587. Sirvydas P.A., Lazauskas P., Vasinauskiene R., Kerpauskas P. (2002). Thermal weed control by water steam. Proceedings of the 5th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control. European Weed Research Society; 2002 March 11-13, pp.253-262, Pisa, Italy. Tei F., Stagnari F., Granier A. (2002). Preliminary results on physical weed control in spinach. Proceedings of the 5th EWRS Workshop on Physical and Cultural Weed Control. European Weed Research Society; 2002 March 11-13, pp.164-171, Pisa, Italy. Vasinauskienė, R. (2004). Investigation of a thermal environment impact on plants and its agrotechnological evaluation. Doctoral dissertation, : Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Lithuania, 99p.

Paulius KERPAUSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, doctor of technology sciences, Assoc. prof. Address: Studentų str. 15, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. (+370 37) 75 23 17, e-mail: [email protected]. Research interests: energy processes in plants and environment, thermal weed control equipment and theoretical validation, modelling energy processes in plants. Algimantas SIRVYDAS. Prof. dr. habil., doctor habil. of science (agriculture and environment engineering), Lithuanian University of Agriculture 1993, doctor of science, Vilnius University, 1961. Research interests: energy processes in plants and environment, thermal weed control equipment and theoretical validation, modelling energy processes in plants. Regina VASINAUSKIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, doctor of technology sciences, lecturer. Address: Studentų str. 15, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel. (+370 37) 75 23 17, e-mail: Regina. [email protected]. Research interests: energy processes in plants and environment, thermal weed control equipment and theoretical validation Jūratė NADZEIKIENĖ. Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Occupational Safety and Engineering Management, doctor of technology sciences, Assoc. prof.. Address: Studentų str. 15b, LT-53361 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Tel (+370 37) 75 23 76, e-mail: [email protected]. Research interests: environmental safety, environmental protection, modelling of heat transfer processes.

350 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Milking Capacity of Milking Robots

Armins Laurs, Juris Priekulis Latvia University of Agriculture

Abstract

The research has been carried out on the dairy farm „Līgotnes”of the Latvia University of Agriculture training and research farm „Vecauce”. On this farm animals are housed in four separate sections, in one of them the cows are milked with two company DeLaval robots VMS-2007. During the research there were 88 cows in this group. It was planned to state the milking capacity per milking robot a day and the milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day as well as the lactation phases of the cows, the milking frequency per day. The research results show that one robot milks in the average 129 cows per day, but every hour a day – 5,5 cows. The cows being in the fi rst third of lactation are milked averagely 3,7 times, in the second third – 3,0 times, but in the third – 2,1 times.

Introduction

The fi rst milking robots were introduced in Latvia in 2007 on three farms, including the Latvia University of Agriculture training and research farm „Vecauce” (Laurs, 2007). At the same time also research in such milking technologies was started that was related to introduction of robotic milking as till that time the cows were handled in the old stanchion barn and milked in the pipeline. Also research in peculiarities of machinery and technologies of robotic milking was started (Laurs et al., 2008; Laurs, 2008). The data obtained at that time showed that transferring to the new handling technology at the beginning the average milk yield decreased in the average by 50-70%. Nevertheless, during a month it stabilized up to the previous level. Therefore, the research in 2008 was carried out already with stable technological processes and it was possible to evaluate the actual effectiveness of robots. Milking technologies using robots are completely different from traditional milking when stand type equipment is used and the cows are driven for milking by people. Milking robots are completely automated milking devices, the cows can enter them at their choice any time of the day and get milked without participation of people. Therefore introduction of such technology rises many questions that were not encountered before, for instance, what the milking capacity of robots is, what the milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day is and how the milk yield is infl uenced by robotic milking etc. According to the available information such research has been carried out already in several countries where the experience of using robots is for ten and more years (Koning, 2000; Schőn, 2000; Fűbeker, 2005), but often differences can be observed between the obtained results. It could be related to the peculiarities of milk farming in different countries. Therefore, considering this above mentioned hypothesis we decided to research in the operation parameters of the milking robots used in Latvia in order to state: – the milking capacity per milking robot a day; – the milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day; – the milking frequency per day depending on the lactation phase.

Materials and methods

Research in milking robot operation was carried out in the newly built barn “Līgotnes” of the Latvia University of Agriculture training and research farm „Vecauce” where loose housing has been introduced using recreation boxes. The cows are housed there in four sections. The cows in one section were milked by two company DeLaval milking robots VMS-2007, in other three sections – by parallel parlour equipment. For driving the cows to the milking robots the feed fi rst cow traffi c is used on the farm. Its peculiarity is that the cows wishing to get to the milking robots from the recreation zone fi rst need to get to the feeding zone through the one- way gate that is opened by the cows themselves. But from the feeding zone the cows need to go through the segregation gate that directs them either to the waiting yard or to the feed concentrate feeding zone. If the cow has entered the feed concentrate feeding zone it can consume the ration planned for the defi nite moment delivered by the corresponding feed concentrate feeding station and after that get back to the recreation zone through another one-way gate. If the cow has entered the waiting yard where there is room for not more than 8 cows, it can enter one of the free milking robots. Here the cow receives a defi nite ration of feed concentrate, it is prepared for milking and automatically milked. The cows milked in the fi rst robot are let back into the feeding zone from where they can repeatedly go through the segregation gate and enter the feed concentrate feeding zone and recreation zone. In turn, the cows milked in the second robot get back into the waiting yard and further through a special one-way gate into the feeding zone at the feeding table.

351 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The milked cows can repeatedly enter the waiting yard only after defi nite time programmed in advance, for example, 6 hours as the segregation gate till ten is blocked. So the cows can according to the above described scheme rotate unlimited times during a day getting from one zone into another, including the milking robot. The experiment lasted for 15 days. During this period there were approximately 88 cows in the section. The cow herd management system data accumulated in the robot control computer and summarized every day and for every cow of the herd were used in the experiment.

Results and discussion

One of the main robotic load characteristics is the milking capacity per milking robot a day. It characterizes the robot traffi c capacity. Considering that robots have high costs following the economic considerations it is advisable to have as far as possible high traffi c capacity. The robotic frequency is infl uenced by several factors: - possibility for the cows to have comfortable access to the robot (direct access to the robot5 ar going through different gates and passages); - habits of cows and stimuli to visit the robot (formation of the conditioned refl ex, feed concentrate in the robot, forced driving of cows); - possibility to get to the robot only for the cows that are programmed for milking at that moment (free or selective access to the robot); - productivity of cows (the cows with higher milk yield have a tendency to visit the robot more often and get milked); - length of milking ( depends on the milk yield and milking speed) and technological operations that is necessary for preparation of cows for milking and fi nishing milking; - length of technological breaks that are necessary for emptying of the milk tank as well as for washing the pipeline and tanks. Therefore, it is possible to make a conclusion that the average robotic load can vary considerably on different farms. During the experiment every day the milking capacity per milking robot a day was registered marking separately the times when the management system has refused to milk a cow. The milking capacity per milking robot a day can be seen in Figure 1.

Figure 1. The average milking capacity per milking robot a day during the period of the experiment

Considering the information given in the fi gure the following conclusions can be drawn: - the robotic frequency is approximately the same for both robots (in the average 128 and 129 times a day); - the robots are located in the farm considering that leaving the fi rst robot the cows get into the feeding zone, but leaving the second robot – back to the waiting yard, although it does not eliminate the possibility that the cows can enter the robot repeatedly ( also when it is not planned to milk them); - the research to determine the average milking capacity per day of the fi rst and the second robot is done with comparatively high accuracy (accuracy index Sx% = 1,2%).

The total milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day for both robots is shown in Figure 2. Considering it, it can be stated that during the period of the experiment the average milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day varied in the range from 7,3 to 11,9. The deviation amplitude is small and the difference between both extreme values is not essential.

352 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

If a day is divided in three periods of time (according to hours per day) it can be seen that from 00 to 08 there are approximately 9,9 visits; from 09 to 16 – 10,6 but from 17 to 24 – 11,5 visits. So, a little higher activity of cows can be observed in the afternoon and in the evening.

Figure 2. The total milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day for both robots

Often the decrease of the frequency is related also to technological breaks in milking. So, for instance, from 01 to 02 and from 13 to 14 circular washing of the robotized milking equipment is done, but in the period of time from 11 to 12 milk is pumped from the cooling tank to the transportation cistern to transport it to the fi nal users. In order to obtain the maximal amount of milk due milking should be insured. This factor is especially important at the beginning of lactation. If the cows are not milked often enough it is possible to loose 5-10% of the amount of milk to be obtained. It is proved (Nickerson, 1992) that at the beginning of lactation depending on the productivity cows should be milked 3-5 times, in the middle of lactation 2-4 times but at the end of lactation 2-3 times a day. Based on this statement milking in robots the optimal length of time between milking should be set for every cow considering the productivity and lactation phase of the animal. Nevertheless, the question either the cows always fi t in it is left open. The research results related to the milking capacity per robot per day if the cows are at the beginning of the lactation period are summarised in Figure 3.

Figure 3. The milking capacity per robot per day at the beginning, middle and end of lactation

Considering these results the milking capacity per robot per day corresponds to the indices published in special literature (Nickerson, 1992). But the average indices do not completely refl ect the actual situation, therefore, additional experiments should be carried out to characterize the actual situation of separate animals.

353 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Conclusions

1. Both milking robots are loaded approximately equally. 2. Considering that the cows leaving the second robot get back to the waiting yard defi nite cases have been stated that some of the milked cows enter the robot for the second time, but such cases are not typical and it can not leave essential infl uence on robotic load. 3. The milking capacity per milking robot per hours a day is comparatively even, but the activity decreases during the night and increases in the evening. 4. Using robots the cows are milked approximately 2,9 times a day that corresponds to the zoo technical norms. References

Fübbeker A., Kowalewsky H. H. (2005). Praxiserfahrung mit automatischen Melksystemen, KTBL, Darmstadt. Koning K., Ouweltjes W. (2000). Maximising the Milking Capacity of an Automatic Milking System. Proceedings of the International Symposium on Rabotic Milking, , pp. 38-46, Wageningen Pers, Wageningen . Laurs A. (2007). Robotic Milking in Latvia: Situation and Perspective. Proceedings of the 6th International Scientifi c Conference „Engineering for Rural Development”, pp. 377-381, Latvia University of Agriculture. Laurs A., Priekulis J., Zujs V. Saliņš A. (2008). Milking Frequency in Milking Robots With Feed First Cow Traffi c. Proceedings of the 7th Conference „Engineering for Rural Development”, pp. 275-278, Latvia University of Agriculture. Laurs A., Priekulis J. (2008). Robotic Milking of Dairy Cows. Agronomy Research, Vol.6, Engineering of Agricultural Technologies (Special issue), pp. 241-247, Saku. Nickerson S. C. (1992). Anatomy and Physiology of the Udder. Book: Machine Milking and Lactation, ed. Bramley A. J., pp. 37-68, Insight Book, Verrmont. Schön H. (eds). (2000). Automatische Melksysteme, KTBL, Darmstadt.

Armins LAURS. Senior researcher, Dr. sc. ing., Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Latvia University of Agriculture, postal address: J. Čakstes bulv. 5, Jelgava, LV-3001, e-mail address: [email protected], phone: +371 29721709, fax: +371 63020762, interests of fi elds of research: machine milking. Juris PRIEKULIS. Prof., Dr. sc. ing., Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Latvia University of Agriculture, postal address: J. Čakstes bulv. 5, Jelgava, LV-3001, e-mail address: [email protected], phone: +371 63080691, fax: +371 63020762, interests of fi elds of research: animal husbandry mechanization.

354 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Calculation Methodology of Working Cycle Parameters of the Diesel Engine Operating on Multicomponent Mixture

Jonas Matijošius*, Marius Mažeika**, Saugirdas Pukalskas* * Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, Lithuania ** Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The article describes the calculation methodology of working cycle parameters of engines operating on multicomponent mixture. The calculation methodology of the state of the working substance is studied as an open thermodynamic system. It enables to develop the working cycle model as sub models of the following processes as gas exchange processes, compression process and combustion-expansion processes. The processes occurring in the diesel engine operating on multicomponent diesel-ethanol fuel mixture are modelled in this article. The mathematical models of gas exchange processes, compression process and combustion-expansion processes are shown in this article. Key words: Diesel engine, calculation methodology, mathematical models, multicomponent diesel-ethanol fuel mixture, alternative fuels

Introduction

Based on the fundamentals of the engine ejection system and traditional simulation model [1,2,3], the paper presents diesel working cycle calculation methodology which is oriented to the use of binary (compound) fuel, which is traditional diesel fuel with additional ethanol –air containing components. Based on the methodology mentioned above, its particularity is presented. Taking the parameters of diesel under investigation into account, the calculation methodology of the state of the working substance is studied as an open thermodynamic system [4,5,6], exchanging mass and energy with other engine systems. It enables to develop the working cycle model as submodels of the following processes: 1) Gas exchange processes; 2) Compression process; 3) Combustion-expansion processes.

Each submodel contains the following fundamental equations: Material balance equation:

dm dm dm =−in out (1) dd d Energy saving equation:

dmu() dm dmdV dQ =−++hhout in w (2) dddddout in

Ideal gas state equation:

dp=++− mR dT mT dR RT dm p dV (3) d V d V d V d V d

Where m, min, mout – total mass of the working substance and its masses in charged and discharged through gas circulation; u – boundary energy of working substance

Qw – heat transfer between the working substance and surface of inner combustion chamber parts;

hin, hout – relative fl ow enthalpies at the inlet and outlet of the cylinder, respectively; R, T, p, V – gas constant, temperature, pressure, working substance volume.

The calculation process is started from the moment of beginning to open an exhaust valve, where approximate temperature and gas pressure values are set. The obtained working substance parameters in the cylinder are used as the initial data for calculating the succeeding compression and combustion-expansion processes. The calculation is completed when absolute pressure value is calculated at the moment of closing the exhaust valve in the preceding and succeeding steps, and is less than the given error (1%).

355 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

At the beginning of each calculation step, the current cylinder volume, fuel change speed, current cylinder surface area are calculated, then the working substance properties (heat intake, adiabatic index, gas constant) and heat exchange parameters (heat release coeffi cient and the speed of heat exchange with walls) are estimated. Then gas pressure and combustion-expansion processes are simulated consistently.

Simulation of gas exchange process

The gas exchange period is characterized by the gas exchange between the suuroundings of the engine ejection system and the inlet and outlet. Considering the phenomena occurring near the walls of the cylinder, in dynamics (according to the crankshaft’s turning angle φ) the former charge of the engine cylinder is replaced by a portion of a new combustible mixture. Therefore, this model would enable to estimate the current mass of a new charge and combustion products at the beginning of calculation when the exhaust valve is opened; then pressure and gas composition at the inlet and outlet of the cylinder are set. The opening of the exhaust valve shall be considered as the beginning of the gas exchange process, and its end is determined by the moment of closing the inlet valve. According to the gas distribution phase diagram, this interval is divided into the following parts: 1) exhaust interval; 2) scavenging interval; 3) intake interval. Gas exchange processes in the cylinder are described by the equation system, which includes mass and energy non-initial differential equations and the equation of the state. When the differential equation is integrated by initial data, the working substance state parameters are calculated at the beginning of the estimated interval. When describing the internal processes of the gas exchange, the hypothesis on the movement the instantaneous exhaust mixture and the new charge in the cylinder [2] is accepted, i.e. the cylinder contains a homogeneous combustion product mixture through the synthesis of gas and ethanol-air. Moreover, gas mixture is studied as a homogeneous thermodynamic system, i.e. pressure and temperature are distributed evenly across the combustion chamber volume. When the working substance is transferred from the cylinder to the inlet, the hypothesis on the gradual displacement is accepted [2,6]. Therefore, fi rst there is gas cooling zone, then enthalpy, the composition of which is adequate to the respective parameters of the cylinder, occurs. When this zone is displaced, the enthalpy mixture, the composition and temperature of which corresponds with the state of a new fuel mixture, starts fl owing into the cylinder. To identify the current cylinder mass, gas expenditure through inlet and exhaust valves shall be determined, which depends on the valve lifting diagram, speed, gas density and gas fl ow. Taking recommendations [2, 6] into account, we will apply Bernoulli‘s equation on continuous isoenthropic gas fl ow to calculate the gas fl ow through the gap of the opened valve:

dm 1 in =∗Ψ()fp (4) dn6 in in in

Where: pin ir pout – working substance pressure fl owing on the tract sections from bases, respectively; Ψ –fl ow function; φ, n – turning angle and engine crankshaft rotation speed;

(μf)in , (μf)out – exhaust and inlet valves‘ effective transfer cross-section areas Value μf for each valve is calculated separately for its ascending and descending sections [3]:

(5)

(6)

Where φop , φcl – engine crankshaft turning angles, corresponding with the beginning of valve opening/ lifting and the beginning of valve closing/landing. Maximum valve transient cross-section area:

(6)

Where: dgap ir drod – valve gap (head) and its rod diameters

Flow rate coeffi cients Min ≈ Mout ≈ 0,65 correspond with the maximum valve transient cross-section values [3]

356 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Value Ψ of the calculated section‘s fl ow function for the critical pressure fall at the inlet and outlet is determined by the following ratio:

(7)

For critical pressure fall:

(8)

When the working substance is completed, critical pressure ratio is evaluated as:

(9)

And the value of adiabatic index is:

(10)

The fl owing direction is identifi ed by comparing gas enthalpies at the inlet and outlet. The fl ow is directed to the side of a smaller enthalpy [1]:

hin – hout < 0 (11)

Therefore, if the enthalpy at the inlet is larger than the gas enthalpy at the outlet, normal gas fl ow occurs. And if vice versa: hin – hout < 0, the fl ow inverts (inversion occurs, for example, the mixture is transferred from the cylinder to the inlet or from the outlet to the cylinder). When simulating the gas exchange process, it is considered that the working substance in the cylinder consists of air, ethanol and combustion products. In each ∆φ calculation step caloric parameters of the mixture are calculated, which consist of the following components: enthalpy, relative isobaric and isochoric heat recipience, according to recommendations [4,3,6].

Simulation of compression process

Mathematical compression process model describes the work of the engine in the interval, the beginning of which coincides with the moment of closing the inlet valve, and the end coincides with the moment when auto-ignition occurs. When simulating this process, it is considered that the chemical composition of residual gas is “frozen“ at the beginning of outlet temperature. Charge losses due to cylinder leakage are not taken into consideration. Therefore, mass balance equation for the closed system (gas exchange agents are closed) may be rejected during the investigation. Taking into account that the gas constant R in the absence of combustion process may be considered constant, i.e.:

(12)

energy saving (2) and state (3) equations can be presented as follows [2,3]:

(13)

(14)

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Working substance parameters at the moment of closing the inlet valve are considered as initial conditions.

Simulation of combustion – expansion process

The simulation of combustion process was based on the concept of traditional two-zone combustion chamber [2,3,4,5]. When simulating the combustion process, the working substance is divided into two zones [1,6]:

- Unburnt mixture zone, characterized by mass mu, temperature Tu, relative isochoric heat recipience cνu, isobaric

heat recipience cpu, enthalpy hu;

- Mixture combustion zone, characterized by mass mb, temperature Tb, relative isochoric heat recipience cb,

izobaric heat recipience cpb, enthalpy hb. Mixture fuel combustion law (heat release) X = f(φ) has been approximately identifi ed by I.I.Vibe equation [6]. According to the material balance law [2], mass and volume values for unburnt and burnt mixture are identifi ed by the following ratios:

(15)

(16)

Energy saving equations (2) for these zones are as follows:

(17)

(18)

Equations of the state in the differential form are as follows:

(20)

(21)

Where: Uu,Ub,hu,hb, Ru, Rb, Vu, Vb, ma, mb, Tu, Tb – volumes of internal energy, relative enthalpy, and gas constant, mass and working substance temperatures for the zones of unburnt and burnt mixtures;

Qwb, Qwu – quantity of heat transferred by the zones of burnt and unburnt charges to the combustion chamber walls;

Qxb – quantity of heat released from the burnt charge part, including losses to dissociation [2]; p –gas pressure in the cylinder;

Vh and D – cylinder splash volume and diameter; R – crank radius λ – crankshaft kinematic parameter known as R/L ratio. Initial calculation process indicators are calculated according to external parameters (air and ethanol, diesel expenditures). According to the composition of elementary and massive fuel, chemical-chematological parameters of the multicomponent fuel and its components transferred to the engine are calculated. The calculation procedure in each calculation step may be shown as follows. When burnt, heat ∆Q is transferred to the working substance, and therefore thermodynamic parameters as well as the working substance composition change. Let us assume that the given parameters at the beginning of calculation are known. Calculation of the working substance parameters was carried out consistently with calculation step ∆φ. To identify the working substance‘s gas constant in the mixture combustion zone conveniently, F. Zacharias state analytical ratio [3] was used:

Rb = f(p, T, α) (22)

358 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The given ratio enables to identify Rb current value as pressure, temperature and air excess coeffi cient function

αsum [3]:

Rb = Z * Ro (23)

Where (24)

(25)

(26)

(27)

(28)

(29)

(30)

Conclusions

1) To calculate the working cycle parameters of the engine operating on diesel multicomponent mixture and to develop the methodology of analysing them, gas change, pressure, combustion-expansion processes occurring in the diesel engine shall be investigated thoroughly. 2) When simulating the gas exchange process in each ∆φ calculation step, caloric parameters of the mixture are calculated, which consist of the following components: enthalpy, relative isobaric and isochoric heat recipience. 3) When simulating the compression process, it is considered that the chemical composition of residual gas is “frozen” at the beginning of outlet temperature. Charge losses due to cylinder leakage are not taken into consideration. 4) When simulating the combustion process, the working substance is divided into two zones: unburnt mixture and mixture combustion zone. The applied mixture fuel combustion law (heat release) X = f(φ) is approximately determined through the use of I.I.Vibe equation.

References

Charles E. Baukal, Jr. (2001) The John Zink Combustion Handbook, CRC Press, New York. Chung K. Law (2006) Combustion physics, Cambridge University Press, New York. Günter P. Merker , Christian Schwarz , Gunnar Stiesch , Frank Otto (2006) Simulating combustion, Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, Berlin. A. K. Oppenheim (2008) Dynamics of combustion systems, 2rd ed., Springer-Verlag Berlin Heidelberg, New York. Eugene L. Keating (2007) Applied combustion, 2rd ed., CRC Press, New York. J. Warnatz , U. Maas , R.W. Dibble (2006) Combustion, 4rd ed., Springer Berlin Heidelberg, New York.

Jonas MATIJOŠIUS. Master of Science,Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, J. Basanavičiaus g. 28, 03224 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected], interests of fi elds of research- alternative fuels, combustion. Marius MAŽEIKA. Master of Science, Lithuaninan Agricultural University, Studentų 15, 53362, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania, [email protected] , interests of fi elds of research- alternative fuels. Saugirdas PUKALSKAS. Doctor of Ph.,Vilnius Gediminas Technical University, J. Basanavičiaus g. 28, 03224 Vilnius, Lithuania, [email protected], interests of fi elds of research- alternative fuels, electrical vehicle.

359 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Acoustic Environment of Low Power Wind Turbines

Stanislovas Merkevičius, Eglė Jotautienė Lithuanian University of Agriculture Rimas Vaičaitis Columbia University, USA Saulius Tamokaitis JSC Ntechnologijos, Lithuania

Abstract

Small wind energy production (wing and rotor modular low-power wind turbines) in country side territories has steadily developed in order to diversify energy resources to meet various economic needs. With respect to environment impact the issue of sound pollution by such machinery is emphasized as well as its scale – boundaries of acoustic pollution. The boundaries can be estimated if knowing noise characteristics of the source (sound power, amplitude frequency characteristics of spread sounds), acoustic emission (directivity factor of sound emission) and conditions of terrain affecting it. Applying mathematical analogue methods of study of source-generated sound fi elds in the present research a mathematical model of a point source sound fi eld has been applied to defi ne acoustic emission of a source of a more complex geometrical form and size. Mathematical relationships between a noise source sound power and acoustic emission levels (Lp or LpA) have been identifi ed. Basing on patterns of geometrical acoustics the format of acoustic emission intensity has been defi ned at r distance from the sound source. The format is expressed by the pattern 10lg(1+(h/r)2)/r2, dBA. Higher-intensity sound zones of a wind turbine have been identifi ed, i.e., when directivity factor of sound emission is η>5 dBA. Using received analytical expressions of alteration of acoustic emission it is possible to calculate boundaries of areas of noise pollution generated by low-power wing wind turbines. Key words: wind turbine, noise, acoustic pollution

Introduction

Probability of a rapid development of wind energy production is high (in 2009 it has accounted for 1 % of energy produced in this country). The national energy strategy of Lithuania states that Lithuania should fulfi ll its obligations to the European Union (EU) in the area of use of renewable energy resources for production of electricity. For the next fi ve years construction of wind turbines (WT), small water-power plants and thermal power plants utilizing biofuel will allow to increase the share of renewable energy production in the total balance of energy production in 2010 up to 7 %, and at the end of the analyzed period (in 2025) their share should grow to 10 %. It has been more than a decade already from the fi rst feasibility study, formation of legal framework to implementation of fi rst projects. Researches into technical potential of wind energy in the country have had more than 10 years of experience. The European Wind Atlas was published in 1989 and its data have been used for construction of domestic low-power wind turbines in order to diversify energy resources for the economy (electricity and heat energy, etc.). In general, the effects of noise on people can be classifi ed into three general categories: 1. Subjective effects including annoyance, nuisance, dissatisfaction 2. Interference with activities such as speech, sleep, and learning 3. Physiological effects such as anxiety, tinnitus, or hearing loss. In almost all cases, the sound levels associated with wind turbines large&small produce effects only in the fi rst two categories, with modern turbines typically producing only the fast. Operating sound produced from wind turbines is considerably different in level and nature than most large scale power plants, which can be classifi ed as industrial sources. Wind turbines are often sited in rural or remote areas that have a corresponding ambient sound character. Furthermore, while noise may be a concern to the public living near wind turbines, much of the sound emitted from the turbines is masked by ambient or the background sounds of the wind itself [1]. The object of the research is a study of acoustic pollution of single low-power wind turbines applying a mathematical model of a sound fi eld generated by a point source of noise.

Methodology and its application

In a psycho-physiological aspect the human hearing system response to perception of monochromatic sounds is characterized by equal loudness curves. Similarly an attitude to “badness” of environment noise is formed, because energetically equivalent to high-frequency noise low-frequency noise for a human psychologically is less bearable (signifi cantly worse), [8]. And the more signifi cant deviation of such noise sound pressure level frequency spectrum is from neutral (commonly favorable for the human hearing system, [7]), the more “unbearable” the noise becomes. Different evaluation criteria (measures) are indicated by singular factors of such noise characteristics. In order to defi ne them (often – to calculate) amplitude frequency characteristics levels of sound fi eld intensity parameters of the researched acoustic environment (space) should be available, e.g. measured levels of sound pressure (Lp , dB) at medium geometrical frequency bands ( foct, Hz); A, C, LLin weighted sound levels and sound level statistical distribution at T- duration time span

360 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

(% of T) levels (L , dB) and other LST ISO 1996:2004, [6]. We use the relationship between a sound fi eld characteristic AN and that fi eld generating source sound power (L W , dBA) dependence defi ned acoustic pollution boundary (or acoustically ecological zone, [2]). For instance, see Fig.1., point and/or linear noise source for created acoustic environment can be defi ned as follows:

LpA =L W -20lg(r) –8, dBA (1a)

LpA = L W - 10lg(r) – 5, (1b) where r is the distance from the noise source to the observer (measurement point) in space above the ground x surface; L W is the level of the source sound power (W), dBA; L pA is the sound level at r x distance remote point, dBA. If the noise source is highly raised above the ground surface, see Fig. 1, then (1a) equation should be specifi ed by using geometrical acoustic laws [5]. Basing on the (1a) equation in conditions of a free sound fi eld the noise sound power (W) is 2 2 W = Ip (2 rx )=Ip (2 r0 ), W, (2)

or, expressing the sound power level L W :

2 LW = L pA + 10lg(2 rx )= L pA + 20lg r + 8, (3)

−2 where r x is sound fi eld intensity r 0 at a point from the source, Wm .

Figure 1. Examples of sources, receivers, and propagation paths, where PS is a point noise source, NS is a wind turbine noise source

While applying expression (3) for signifi cantly (h>>hp) raised above the ground surface sound fi eld generated in 2 2 2 2 space by a noise source r x =r MT , or r x =r MT =h +r M from (3) is received, thus

2 2 L W = L pA +10lg(h +r M )+8, (4)

where h is the noise source location (height) above the ground surface, m. Kai h<

2 IT =WT KT /(Ωrx) , (5)

where Ω is the sound emission spatial angle, rad; KT is the sound emission directivity factor, rad.

361 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The relation between I0 and Ip can be expressed by coeffi cient [3] that estimates sound fi eld intensity shift due to geometrical form of the noise source:

I0= Ki IT, (6) or

Lpx = Lp,T + 10lgKi = Lp,T + Ks, (7)

where Ks is the sound spreading factor, that defi nes the character of spreading emitted noise in space with respect to a point source generated sound fi eld. Not taking into account possible sound refl ections of the noise source in the environment and/or absorbance conditions [3] and having rearranged (4), (5) equations and used the received (6) dependence, we fi nd that at rx distance from the source, which sound power equation LW, at a point in space (MT) sound pressure (Lp) or sound (LpA.) level is expressed as follows:

2 2 L = LW -20lg(h + r ) + 10lg(ФΩ ) + 10lgKi (8)

where L is the sound pressure or sound level, correspondingly, Lp or LpA.

Values of coeffi cient Ki can be calculated mathematically for the described geometrical fi gures sources. It is signifi cant, if rM < 2lM, – where lmas is a geometrical dimension of the noise source (for instance, height, length, etc.) and is evaluated as the sound emission directivity factor (KR, see [4])

KR = Li -Lvid (9)

where Li, is Lvid at i reference point in direction and average at n point of arithmetical mean received pressure

(Lp,T ) and/or sound (LpA, dBA) level is not less than 3-5 dB [4].

Research results and their discussion

Preparatory acoustic measurements were taken on 55kW wind turbines, the generator of which is installed at 25 = = m height above the ground surface in environment in order to prove correctness of the received Lp f (rx ), LpA f (rx ) relationships applied to forecasting of the territory acoustic pollution. For measurements of acoustic sound pressure levels (Lp,ict ) and sound levels (LpA, Lpc , LLin ) vibro-acoustic measurement equipment of fi rm Brüel&Kjær was used (precision noise meter with octane frequencies fi lter Type 1616). For statistical distribution of noise levels (LAn;dB) noise level analyzer Type 4426 of the same manufacturer was used [9]. The IEA recommendation „Measurement of Noise Emission from Wind Turbines at Noise Receptor Locations“ recommends measurement techniques and methods which ill enable a characterisation of the noise emission from wind turbines at a noise reception location. In several countries standards or guidelines from industrial sources have been implemented. However, it is not possible to apply these procedures to wind turbine acoustic measurements since they must be carried out in windy conditions outside the scope of the standards dealing with noise from industrial plants. The ordinary values of wind velocity of Lithuanian climate were accepted for measurements. Other measurement conditions are mentioned in Fig. 1 and 2. Infl uence of locations of the noise source – wind turbine sound emission directivity and the observer’s point (measurement point MT, see Fig. 1) for the sound fi eld intensity at this point is defi ned by (5) equation components 10lg( / Ω) and 10lg(h2 + p2 ) . Since h ≠ 0 , hence 10lg(h2 + p2) > 20lgr and the sound fi eld intensity change as 2 + 2 − 2 + 2 = ∆ < ∆ = − rx doubles, however 10lg(h rx ) 10lg(h 2r ) Lms LT 20lgr 20lg2r approximately by 2dB. This ∆ difference can be seen in LpA shift diagram showed in Fig. 2. According to the noise source sound emission directivity diagram, see Fig.2, preliminary intensity and even sound emission zone directivity factor KR=57 dBA and KR = 49 dB. From (4) equation we receive that in case of r ≥ 2h = 50m the infl uence of the sound emission directivity is minimal. Thus at the territory point r>k for estimate acoustic noise calculation the expression of combinations of (8) equations can be used

= − 2 + 2 − LpA Lw 20lg(h r ) 6, dBA (10) = + where Lw is the wind turbine sound power equation (Lw 10lgW 120dBA) .

362 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 1. Average means of weighting sound levels distance from noise source rx, m

A,C,LLIN, levels, when distance from noise source rx, m Acoustical parameter 7,5 m 15 m 30 m 60 m 120 m

Lp,A, dBA 57 54 52 50 49

Lp,C, dBC 64 67 69 72 62

LLIN, dB 70 71 78 76 70

LLIN-LpA, dB 13 17 26 26 21

Figure 2. Acoustical emission levels (LpA,i) of wind turbine: 1 - LpA,=57 dBA, 2 - LpA,=49 dBA

Based on results of wind turbine acoustic inertia ( LpA, dBA ) with respect to location in the territory of main structural sound emission sources (the generator and the wings), see Figures 1b and 2, higher and lower intensity zones are distinguished: in the area of points between MP4 – MP6 the level of acoustic inertia is the highest, and between MP2 – MP7 is the lowest. According to the sound emission directivity factor (9) equation we receive that + + − = + + − = ≥ in the fi rst case Kl = LpA,4 l pA,5 LpA,6 )/3 LpA, n⋅ (59 62 64)/3 57 5,5 dB and at further n m points Kl = (51 + 53+ 54) / 3 − 47 = 3,7 dB. These circumstances should be estimated specifying the acoustic emission directivity factor d values, i. e. indicating three possible zones – areas, Fig. 2, where = 3⋅2 / = 3/ 4 and in (8) equation 10lg( /Ω) = 10lg(3 / 4⋅4Ω) = − 7,2 dB. This specifi cation of (8) equation is suitable for forecasting the ∈ − acoustic emission level, when rk 60m , because referring to the results in Table 1 L4 L A) , in more distant zones a more signifi cant infl uence of low and medium frequency noises is obtained, and the source emission directivity reduces. In such area points in order to identify intensity of a sound fi eld generated by a wind turbine the patterns of point noise source acoustic emission and spreading in the environment can be applied.

Conclusions

1. A mathematical model of a sound fi eld generated by a point noise source using geometrical acoustic patterns has been applied to research of acoustic emission of a single wind turbine in the environment. 2. Composed relationships between the source sound power and intensity of the sound fl ow can be used to forecast acoustic pollution of low-power wind turbines.

3. As distance doubles from the wind turbine generator installed at h height the level of acoustic emission (LpA, dBA) shifts with 10lg()1+ ()h / r 2 / r2 pattern.

363 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

References

Paulauskas A., Tamonis M.(2002). Specifi cation of technical and economical basic of energetical development. Energetika. 53, Nr.3, pp.24-32. Rogers A.L., Marwell J.F., Wright S. (2002) Wind Turbine Acoustic Noise. Available at http://www.ceere.org/rer. Turbine noise and the Enivironmental. (2003) Case study/Magazine. Brüel&Kjær, No2. Lowson M. V. (1996) Assessment and Prediction of wind turbine noise.- Spring Volag,. Заpaжная О. Н., Иванов Н. И. (1989). Определение звукового поля протяженных источников. Сборник научных трудов Строительно- акустические средства и методы. с.136-142. Москва. Klug H. (2002) Noise from Wind Turbine standards and Noise Reduction Procedures. Paper presented on the Forum Acousticum, pp.7-16, Sevilla, Spain. Lithuanian hygiene norm HN33:2007.Acoustical noise. Available at http://www.lrs.lt. Lithuanian standard LST ISO 1996:2004.Acoustic. Янг С., Эллисон А. (1998). Измерение шума. Москва: Энегоaтомиздат.

Stanislovas MERKEVIČIUS. Lithuanian university of Agriculture Department of Professional safety and management of engineering, Prof. Address: Studentų 15b, LT - 4324 Akademija, Kauno Dis. Tel. (8-37) 75 23 76, e-mail [email protected] . Eglė JOTAUTIENĖ. Lithuanian university of Agriculture Department of Mechanics, Assoc. prof. Address: Studentų g. 11, LT - 4324 Akademija, Kauno raj. Tel. (8 37) 75 22 04, e-mail [email protected]. Rimas VAIČAITIS. Columbia University, Dep. of Civil Engr.&Engr. Mechanics, Prof. Address: New York, N.Y 10027, USA, e-mail: [email protected] Saulius TAMOKAITIS. JSC Ntechnologijos, management. Address: Klaipeda. Tel. 864628958, e-mail: [email protected]

364 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Potential and Possibilities of Biogas Production from Agricultural Raw Materials in Lithuania

Kęstutis Navickas, Kęstutis Venslauskas, Vidmantas Župerka Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The analysis of energy potential and feasibilities of biogas production from agricultural raw materials in Lithuania is presented in the work. The possibilities of biogas production from manure of animal and poultry bred in large farms and energy plants, which presently are cultivated and used for feeding. Statistical data about the number of animal and poultry breeding in large farms of Lithuania together with the area of cultivated maize, perennial grasses and fodder beet have been used. It is determined that anaerobic digestion of manure obtained from large farms would give aprox. 72 mill. m3 of biogas that is equal to 430 GWh per year. Using 30 thous. ha of land for energy plants (maize, perennial grasses and fodder beet) in Lithuania the biogas production will be 90 mill. m3 and the energy value – 520 mill. kWh. The best possibilities for biogas production have Siauliai (aprox. 179 GWh), Kaunas (163 GWh), Panevezys (128 GWh) and Marijampole (120 GWh) counties where are quite high density of large animal and poultry farms and favourable conditions for cultivation of energy plants suitable for biogas production.

Introduction

Biogas is among the most ecologic and cheapest energy sources. In the ratifi ed report of European Parliament (EP) (Sustainable agriculture.., 2008) it is suggested to support biogas extraction in the way not affecting the production of food products. EP remarks benefi t of biogas in strengthening the European Union (EU) energetic independence, furthermore mitigating the emissions of global warming gasses. Biogas is attractive due to the variety of usage: biogas is used for electricity, heat production, cooling, as fuel for vehicles and other. There are many possibilities to increase considerably biogas production by estimating the amount of animal manure, sludge, wastes and unmarketable food and feed products. Secondary sources of feedstock are used for biogas production therefore there is no confl ict and increase of prices in food and feed markets. Biogas production from animal manure, organic wastes and energy plants contributes sustainable development of economics, agriculture and rural society. It also increases security of energy production and supply, competitivety and sustainability and in addition provides possibilities of new income for farmers. Development of biogas energy sector requires the estimation of feedstock resources. It is important to avoid competition with food and feed resources, to apply the best available production technologies, to reduce the risk of environmental pollution, to use the produced energy and by-products in a rational way. Only sustainable and deliberate development will help to avoid social and economic confl icts and will be long-term and attractive to the society. The aim of research was to determine the resources and energy potential of animal by-products and plant biomass. Tasks: to evaluate possible sources of feedstock as well as their potential and possibilities for biogas production. Subject of the research – animal by-products and wastes of vegetative biomass derived in agricultural production and energy plants.

Methods

Statistical data of animal and poultry number, the size and distribution of farms in Lithuania and the number of animal grown in farms and agricultural companies were used in the study (Gyvulių ir paukščių.., 2007). Similarly the statistical information about a suitable energy plants for biogas production in Lithuania, their yield and productivity was analysed (Lietuvos žemės .., 2007). The statistical energetic potential of biogas production from animal and poultry manure can be determined according to manure quantity of separate animal type and specifi c biogas yield of manure mass unit. The amount of manure excreted and accumulated in farms is determined accordingly to standards or results of experimental research (Pažangaus..., 2000, Burton and Turner, 2003). Biogas yield from animal manure is determined during experiments or can be adopted according to the practical experience of operating biogas plants (Navickas et al., 1999, Liubarskis and Navickas, 2008).

Annual energetic potential of biogas production from animal manure Em can be determined according to the equation: = ⋅ ⋅ Em S M BM eb , (1)

3 where SM – amount of manure t; BM – biogas yield from mass of manure m /t; eb – energetic value of biogas which depends on the concentration of methane in biogas kWh/m3.

Energetic potential of energy plants EM (MWh/ha) is calculated by biomass yield and its energy value which is determined in laboratory experiments or accordingly to biogas production rates of operating biogas plants. Due to the

365 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment statistical data of biomass yield and produced biogas energy value the energy potential of energetic plants is determined:

EM = DM · eM, (2)

where DM – yield of biomass of energy plants, kg/ha; eM – energy value of biomass digested to biogas kWh/kg.

Results and discussions

Animal manure is considered as the big source of feedstock for biogas production in Lithuania. Evaluation of tendencies of 2004–2008 years (Gyvulių ir paukščių skaičius, 2008) show rather stable growth of the number of pigs and livestock and a little growth of poultry in all types of farms (Table 1).

Table 1. Dynamics of changes in number of animal in 2004 – 2008, thous. units Year Type of animal 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Livestock 812,1 792,0 800,3 838,8 787,9 Pigs 1 057,4 1 073,3 1 114,7 1 127,1 923,2 Poultry 8 066,7 8 419,4 9 397,1 9 439,9 9 874,8

The reasonable perspectives for construction of biogas plants have large farms which use animal breeding technologies based without litter. As well as having high demand of thermal energy. It can be farms with 200 and above of livestock, 5000 and above of pigs and large poultry farms. Besides it is important that such farms according to EU Nitrate directive (Burton and Turner, 2003), can properly treat and use the digested manure for fertilisation of own or neighbourhood lands. Nearly half of pigs are bred in big pig farms and companies and the other half – in countryside farms (Navickas and Bučinskas, 2000). Evaluating the average quantity of manure produced by one animal, almost 14 mill. tons of manure is generating annually in Lithuania (Table 2).

Table 2. Statistical potential of organic wastes in animal husbandry Number of animal in 2008, Manure yield (from piece), Quantity of manure, thous. Type of animal thous. unit t/year t/year Livestock 787,9 14,8 11661 Pigs 923,2 1,7 1569 Poultry 9 874,8 0,025 247 Total 13477

Manure in pig farms causes some problems due to the small areas of land in which they could spread collected slurry. Therefore very often around these companies the liquid slurry is collected in lagoons or solid fraction of manure – on sites. In such way manure usually is hold up to few years. The concentration of some diseases and pathogens together with spreading of infection through the rats, mice and operating personnel are increasing in such environments. Likewise the large farms get reproaches from local inhabitants for the diffusive smells that appear due to the biological degradation of manure. After anaerobic digestion the concentration of proteins and sulphuric compounds are reduced. These compounds are the main sources of hydrogen sulphide and unacceptable smells. In addition digested wastes can be used for cultivation of energy plants which biomass would be used for biofuel, liquid biofuel or biogas production (Liubarskis and Navickas, 2008). Distribution of larger animal and poultry farms in Lithuania is unequal. The potential of biogas production is determined by the assumption that for biogas production will be used only manure from large farms companies. Using manure produced by 106 thousands units of livestock (Table 3) which will be generated 1,6 mill. tons annually, can be extracted up to 39 mill. cubic meters of biogas with an energy potential of 230 GWh. Digestion of manure from 565 thous. units of pigs (1,0 mill. tons.) will give 19 mill. m3 of biogas with energy potential of 115 GWh. Poultry in large farms are 7,9 millions and annually these farms collect up to 0,2 mill. tons of manure. From such amount of manure it is possible to produce 14 millions m3 biogas with energy value of 83 GWh. The best possibilities for development of biogas production are in Kaunas, Siauliai and Vilnius counties where are the highest concentration of large livestock, pigs and poultry farms. The county of Panevezys has a big perspectives as wel because there are many large livestock and pig farms. Overall Lithuanian biogas production potential of large animal and poultry farms reach 72 mill. m3 with energy potential of about 430 GWh. Similarly it is advisable to develop biogas production from animal by-products which derives in slaughterhouses, meat production and tannery companies. In such case it would be effectively to use produced heat – for companies usage and thermal treatment of wastes. The huge amount of organic wastes cumulates in sugar factories, alcohol, starch and

366 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment yeast production plants. Considerable amount of energy potential has stilage and whey, rape and sugar beet cake, beer production wastes, defective or bad quality fruits and vegetables, used cooking oil, conserves, vine, malt, jam, chocolate wastes, milk, cheese, ice-cream, fi sh production wastes and wastewater sludge. The high amount of by-products (stilage, cake and glycerol) can be expected in a newly built bioethanol and biodysel factories. Some of such factories are foreseen to install biogas plants for their waste treatment. But unfortunately there will be necessarily some wastes that might be used in farmer’s biogas plants and increase their capacities and economic indicators. Investigations and practical experience shows that mixtures of industrial organic wastes with agricultural production wastes or plant biomass improves the process of anaerobic digestion and digestate might be enriched with various compounds which itself have a better plant fertilisation properties. The biogas production increases and improves the biogas plant profi tability as well (Navickas et al., 2004; 2005).

Table 3. Biogas and energy production potential in various counties of Lithuania Livestock Pigs Poultry Total Quantity Energy Quantity Energy Quantity Energy Energy County Biogas quantity, of manure, value, of manure, value, of manure, value, value, mill. m3 thous.t GWh thous.t GWh thous.t GWh GWh Alytus 80,5 12,1 39,7 4,8 6,2 2,6 3,2 19,5 Kaunas 206,4 31,0 157,7 18,9 52,5 22,1 12,0 71,9 Klaipėda 153,0 22,9 71,3 8,6 10,8 4,5 6,0 36,0 Marijampolė 178,0 26,7 119,2 14,3 5,1 2,1 7,2 43,1 Panevėžys 197,5 29,6 133,5 16,0 18,0 7,6 8,9 53,2 Šiauliai 229,3 34,4 199,4 23,9 8,4 3,5 10,3 61,8 Tauragė 161,7 24,2 62,0 7,4 3,2 1,3 5,5 33,0 Telšiai 129,7 19,5 38,6 4,6 14,8 6,2 5,1 30,3 Utena 113,3 17,0 58,3 7,0 6,2 2,6 4,4 26,6 Vilnius 113,3 17,0 80,8 9,7 72,3 30,4 9,5 57,1 Total 1562,7 234,4 960,5 115,2 197,5 82,9 72,1 432,5

Plant biomass has a higher biogas yield compared with animal or poultry manure. For instance from 1 ton of maize silage is possible to get up to 200 m3 of biogas, from silage of perennial grasses – 110 m3 and from fodder beet – 75 m3. However for plant cultivation, harvesting, transportation and preparation for biogas production it is necessary signifi cant energy input. In case when poor soils are used for cultivation of energy plants or selected inappropriate species of plant together with poor cultivation technology, the obtained biomass yield is low. In such circumstances the energy input can exceed the energy output. In that way the energy production from plant biomass becomes nonsensical. The performed research in Lithuanian University of Agriculture and Lithuanian Institute of Agriculture (Navickas et al., 2004, 2005, 2006) shows that using a certain silage of perennial grasses for biogas production can be obtained 2,5 – 6 times more energy compared with energy input for overall energy conversion cycle. For biogas production it is worth using traditional plants that are cultivated in Lithuania and are suitable for digestion such as maize, perennial grasses, fodder beets. The data about areas of mentioned crops and their changes in all farms during 2004 – 2008 years are presented in Table 4 (Lietuvos žemės ūkis, 2008).

Table 4. The dynamic of changes in area of biomass suitable for biogas production in period of 2004 – 2008, thous. ha Years Type of crops 2004 2005 2006 2007 2008 Maize (green biomass and silage) 15,4 13,9 20,3 21,2 17,8 Perennial grasses 237,6 416,1 434,6 368,0 355,3 Fodder beet 13,7 12,5 7,7 5,6 4,5

Climate is suitable for perennial grasses in Lithuania. It is traditional feeding plant and besides the cultivation of perennial grasses does not require high energy and labour input. Therefore it is one of the cheapest species of energy plants. By cultivation of perennial grasses the structure of soil is changed the least and soil is surely protected from wind and water erosion. It seen from the table 3 that perennial grasses are cultivated in the Lithuanian areas are 20 times more compared with maize. In 2008 the areas of perennial grasses were highest and accounted for 355,5 thous. ha. We can state, that part of unused land in 2007 (which are about 300 thous. ha) can be utilised for cultivation of plants for biogas. It is possible to forecast that suitable plants for biogas production will be planted on 10 % of total

367 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment unused land (it might be 30 thous. ha) for the fi rst period. Evaluating present structural situation of crops and considering the experience of EU countries we can predict that maize for biogas production can be cultivated in 9 thous. ha, perennial grasses – 18 thous. ha and fodder beet – 3 thous. ha. According to the yield of plants the total yield of maize green mass would be 283,0 thous. t, perennial grasses – 43,2 thous t. of total solids or 216,0 thous. t of green biomass and fodder beet – 93,0 thous. t. The distribution of areas suitable for plants in various counties in 2007 – 2008 is shown in Table 5. As we can see from the given data the highest maize areas potentially are in Siauliai (2542 ha), Kaunas (1924 ha), Marijampole (1655 ha) and Panevezys (1465 ha) counties.

Table 5. Biogas and energy potential in various counties Maize for silage and green biomass Perennial grasses Fodder beet Total Biogas Biogas Biogas Energy County Yield, t Area, Area, ha Yield, t quantity, Area, ha quantity, Yield, t quantity, value, (TS) ha mill.m3 mill.m3 mill.m3 GWh Alytus 294 9252 1,7 526 1256 0,8 230 7130 0,6 80,7 Kaunas 1924 60493 11,2 2189 5232 3,2 259 8042 0,7 90,7 Klaipeda 217 6824 1,3 2735 6536 4,0 201 6239 0,5 35,0 Marijampolė 1655 52034 9,6 1544 3690 2,3 318 9845 0,9 76,6 Panevėžys 1465 46068 8,5 1848 4417 2,7 435 13493 1,2 74,6 Šiaulių 2542 79932 14,8 2351 5618 3,5 455 14094 1,2 116,9 Taurage 338 10632 2,0 2881 6886 4,2 168 5223 0,5 40,0 Telsiai 145 4554 0,8 2272 5429 3,3 215 6674 0,6 28,6 Utena 269 8442 1,6 817 1952 1,2 438 13576 1,2 23,7 Vilnius 150 4729 0,9 839 2005 1,2 280 8684 0,8 17,2 Total 8999 282960 52,4 18002 43021 26,4 2999 93000 8,2 522

There is a possibility to grow more perennial grasses in the mentioned counties. Grasses are feeding source for animals therefore the animal husbandry is developed well in these regions. All these factors give a favourable conditions for construction of co-digestion biogas plants based on manure and plant biomass. Using 30 thous. ha of land for maize, perennial grasses and fodder beet in Lithuania the biogas production will be 90 mill. m3 and the energy value – 520 mill. kWh. It should be noticed that the best possibilities for biogas production have Siauliai, Kaunas, Panevezys and Marijampole counties (Fig. 1).

Figure 1. Potential of energy production from animal manure and biomass in various counties

Energy potential in Siauliai county reaches 179 GWh, Kaunas – 163 GWh, Panevezys – 128 GWh and Marijampole – 120 GWh. In these counties could be developed the codigestion biogas plants in which mixtures of manure and energy plants could be used. Experience of other countries shows that such biogas plants are more successful because all potential feedstock are consumed and digested substrate is used for fertilisation of energy plants.

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Conclusions

1. Biogas production advisable to develop in large animal and poultry farms. By using 106 thous. livestock, 565 thous. pigs and 7,9 mill. poultry manure, it is possible to obtain 72 mill. m3 of biogas with energy value of 430 GWh per year. 2. The best suitable plants for biogas production are common feeding crops. Using 30 thous. ha of land for maize, perennial grasses and fodder beet in Lithuania the biogas production will be 90 mill.m3 and the energy value – 520 mill. kWh. 3. The best possibilities for biogas production have Siauliai (aprox. 179 GWh), Kaunas (163 GWh), Panevezys (128 GWh) and Marijampole (120 GWh) counties where are quite high density of large animal and poultry farms and favourable conditions for cultivation of energy plants suitable for biogas production. 4. The energetic effi ciency of biogas plants can be improved by additionally digesting by-products derived from agricultural production, food industry and biofuels production factories.

Acknowledgements The study was supported by the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Foundation (Grant No. N-08004) and Lithuanian Ministry of Agriculture.

References

Burton C.H., Turner C. (2003). Manure Management. Treatment strategies for Sustainable Agriculture. Silsoe Reasearch Institute, UK. Gyvulių skaičius 2008. (2008). Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės, Vilnius. Kryževičienė A., Navickas K., Župerka V. (2005). Daugiamečių žolių panaudojimas biodujoms gaminti. Vagos 69 (22), pp. 76-82. Lietuvos žemės ūkis 2007. (2007). Statistikos departamentas prie Lietuvos Respublikos Vyriausybės, Vilnius. Liubarskis, V., Navickas K. (2007). Biodujos – galimybės ir perspektyvos: studija. Raudondvaris. Navickas K., Bučinskas A. (2000). Organinių atliekų perdirbimas anaerobiniuose reaktoriuose. Žmogaus ir gamtos sauga: respublikinės mokslinės konferencijos medžiaga. LŽŪU, VDU, Lietuvos žemės ūkio darbuotojų profesinių sąjungų federacija. Akademija, pp. 67–69. Navickas K., Anciūnas A., Janušauskas R. (1999). Kiaulių mėšlo sudėties ir potencialios biodujų išeigos įvertinimas. Žemės ūkio inžinerija 31(1), pp.47-58. Navickas K., Venslauskas K., Župerka V., Kryževičienė A. (2006). Augalų biomasės, skirtos biodujų gamybai, energijos sąnaudos energijos sąnaudos. LŽUI instituto ir LŽU universiteto mokslo darbai 38 (3), pp. 51-58. Navickas K., Venslauskas K., Župerka V. (2005). Pieno produktų gamybos atliekų anaerobinis perdirbimas. Žmogaus ir gamtos sauga. LŽŪU, pp. 46- 48. Navickas K., Župerka V., Venslauskas K. (2004). Biodujų gamyba iš organinių atliekų ir kultūrinių augalų. Šilumos energetika ir technologijos, KTU, pp. 277-282. Pažangaus ūkininkavimo taisyklės ir patarimai. (2000). Kėdainiai, Vilainiai. Sustainable agriculture and biogas: review of EU legislation. European Parliament resolution of 12 March 2008 on sustainable agriculture and biogas. P6_TA(2008)0095 // www.europarl.europa.eu

Kęstutis NAVICKAS. PhD, associate professor, Department of Agroenergetics, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, LT-53356, Akademija, Kaunas, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Phone: +370 687 86826. Interests: Renewable Energy and Environmental Engineering. Kęstutis VENSLAUSKAS. Assistent, Department of Agroenergetics, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, LT-53356, Akademija, Kaunas, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Phone: +370 656 97642. Interests: Renewable Energy and Environmental Engineering. Vidmantas ŽUPERKA. Lecturer, Department of Agroenergetics, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Studentu 11, LT-53356, Akademija, Kaunas, Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Phone: +370 601 81534. Interests: Renewable Energy and Environmental Engineering.

369 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Surface Temperature Investigations of Semi-spherical Solar Collector

Ilze Pelece, Imants Ziemelis, Uldis Iljins Latvia University of Agriculture

Abstract

Align with others environment – friendly renewable energy sources the solar energy is widely used in the world. Also in Latvia solar collectors are used. However, in Latvia because of its geographical and climatic conditions are some features in comparison with traditional solar energy using countries. One of them is frequently great nebulosity, which decreases the direct radiation, but increases the diffused one. Therefore usual constructions of solar energy receivers are not effi cient enough in Latvia, and new constructions are required, which would be able to use the diffused radiation more effi ciently. One of such new constructions a semi-spherical solar collector can be. Such semi-spherical solar collector has many advantages in comparison with conventional fl at one. It receives more solar radiation at morning and at evening, it is more durable against wind impact, it has good look. A model of such semi-spherical solar collector has been made. This article considers the distribution and daily course of its surface temperature. The measured distribution of surface temperature of the semi-spherical solar collector corresponds to the calculated one. There are no spot on the semi-spherical surface which would never get warm. Maximal temperatures of surface vary from 45oC at northern side to 100oC at southern side at sunny day.

Introduction

Solar water heating and electricity production systems are used in many countries all over the world, mostly in southern ones, but the use of solar energy is possible also in Latvia (Ziemelis et al. 2004, Kancevica et al. 2006). However, in Latvia because of its geographical and climatic conditions are some features in comparison with traditional solar energy using countries (Pelece 2008). One of them is frequently great nebulosity, which decreases the direct radiation, but increases the diffused one. Therefore usual constructions of solar energy receivers are not effi cient enough in Latvia, and new constructions are required, which would be able to use the diffused radiation more effi ciently. One of such new constructions a semi-spherical solar collector can be. Such semi-spherical solar collector has many advantages in comparison with conventional fl at one (Pelece et al, 2008). It receives more solar radiation at morning and at evening, it is more durable against wind impact, it has good look. A model of such semi-spherical solar collector has been made. This article considers the distribution and daily course of its surface temperature. A semi-spherical solar collector (Fig.1) has been placed onto roof of Scientifi cal Institute of Agricultural Machinery at Riga district. Height of this building is approximately 15 m. The solar collector consists of a black coloured copper sheet (thickness 1mm), shaped as a half of the sphere, and similar spherical dome made from transparent PET (thickness 0.25 mm). The distance between the black sheet and the transparent dome varies from 3 to 10 cm. On surface of the absorber of the semi-spherical solar collector 24 thermocouples has been mounted. Measurements of temperatures have been carried out with Pico thermologers TC08. Disposition of thermocouples is shown at Fig. 2.

Figure 1. Semi-spherical solar collector Figure 2. Disposition of thermocouples on surface of the semi- spherical solar collector

370 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Theoretically the distribution of the temperature of the surface of the collector can be evaluated by modeling the distribution of the solar irradiance. Direct solar radiation has been measured using ISO 1 class pirheliometer from Kipp&Zonen equipped with tracking device. The diffused radiation can be calculated as difference between the global radiation and direct one. The global radiation has been measured using ISO 1 class piranometer CMP 6 from Kipp&Zonen.

Results and discussion

The distribution of the surface temperature of the solar collector must correspond to the distribution of solar radiation received bay it. This last one can be calculated theoretically from coordinates of sun (Pelece et al, 2007 and 2008). Direct radiation on some surface is E = S cos , (1)

where S – direct radiation on surface perpendicular to solar rays, W·m-2; β – angle between solar ray and surface normal, rad.

Diffused radiation is considered as equal from all sides. The normal of the surface in polar coordinates is the same as coordinates of the point (Fig. 3). Transforming to Cartesian coordinates we obtain , (2)

where θ and ϕ - polar coordinates of the surface point; - unit orts.

If the x axis is directed in the vertical plane where sun is (Fig. 3), vector of the solar radiation can be expressed as

(3)

where δ – declination of sun, degrees.

The declination of sun, as well as azimuth, from astronomical considerations (Zagars and Vilks, 2005) can be calculated. Then cosine of the angle between the surface normal and the vector of the solar radiation is scalar product of these two vectors (4)

Figure 3. Illustration for formulae (2) to (4)

371 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

These calculations give, for example, for 17 June at 13:00, when direct solar radiation has been measured 700 W m-2 and diffused one 100 W m-2, distribution of the received energy shown in Figure 4. In this case the measured solar radiation has been used, but in case it has not been measured, it can also be calculated (Pelece et al 2007; Younes S., Muneer T. 2006; Young 1994). The distribution of surface temperature of the spherical solar collector, measured at the same time (17 June 2009, 13:00) is shown at Fig. 5.

Figure 4. Theoretical distribution of received solar energy (W Figure 5. Distribution of surface temperature of the spherical m-2) of spherical solar collector at 17 June, 13:00 solar collector, measured at 17 June 2009 13:00

It can be seen that the measured distribution of surface temperature is similar to, but of course not equivalent to the theoretical distribution of the received energy. Measured temperatures, shown at Fig. 5., are from 47 oC to 84 oC. (Sometimes temperatures of hottest spots exceed 100oC). Distribution of temperature is more even as distribution of received radiation because of both thermal conductivity of the collector (made of copper sheet) and transparent protective dome diminishing cooling, including due to wind. Dissymmetry of the distribution of the surface temperature can be ascribed to unevenness of thermal conductivity of collector due to its construction, but must be studied more detailed. The daily course of the temperature distribution also corresponds to the theoretical one. For example, at Fig. 6 the surface temperature distributions at 8:00 and at 19:00 (the same 17 June 2009) have been shown. It is evident from this picture that, as it was expected, there no place on the spherical surface which would never get warm. Northern side of the collector gets warm at morning and at evening.

a) b) Figure 6. Distribution of surface temperature of the spherical solar collector at 8:00 (a) and at 19:00 (b) 17 June 200

372 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The same is evident from Fig. 7 and 8, showing daily course of temperature at four sides of the spherical solar collector. At Fig. 7. daily courses of surface temperature at northern and southern sides are shown. Of course, at the middle of the day southern side is considerably warmer than northern, but at early morning and late evening northern side is warmer. Daily courses of eastern and western sides (Fig. 8.) are rather symmetrical each other, small difference can be due to clouds or due to change of the ambient temperature or due to the wind.

Figure 7. Daily courses of surface temperatures at northern and southern sides of the semi-spherical solar collector, 17 June 2009

Figure 8. Daily courses of surface temperatures at eastern and western sides of the semi-spherical solar collector, 17 June 2009

It is interesting that when clouds appear, the surface temperature at short time can be higher than at clear day. Such increase of solar radiation due to refl ection from clouds appears also in measurements of solar radiation (Pelece 2008), but collector surface temperature reacts on changes in solar radiation slower than pyranometer.

Conclusions

1. The surface of the spherical solar collector gets warm up to 45oC (northern side) to 100oC (southern side). 2. The distribution of surface temperature of the semi-spherical solar collector and the daily course of it correspond to theoretical. 3. There is no spot on the semi-spherical surface which would never get warm.

References

Kancevica L., Navickas J., Ziemelis E., Ziemelis I. (2006). Increase of the Effi ciency of Solar Collectors. Proceedings of the Second International Scientifi c Conference “Biometrics and Information Technologies in Agriculture: Research and Development”, pp. 89-92, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Pelece I., Iljins U., Ziemelis I., Ziemelis E. (2007). Theoretical calculations of energy received by solar collectors. Proceedings of the 6th International Scientifi c Conference “Engineering for rural development”, pp 29-34, Latvia University of Agriculture. Pelece I. (2008). Infl uence of nebulosity on use of solar energy in Latvia. Proceedings of the International Scientifi c Conference “Engineering for rural development 2008”, pp. 28-33, Latvia University of Agriculture. Pelece I., Iljins U., Ziemelis I. (2008). Theoretical calculation of energy received by semi-spherical solar collector. Proceedings of the International Scientifi c Conference “Engineering of Agricultural Technologies 2008”, Vol. 6. pp. 263-269, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Younes S., Muneer T. (2006). Improvements in solar radiation models based on cloud data. Building Serv. Eng. Res. Technol. 27,1 pp. 41-54. Young, A. T. (1994). Air mass and refraction. Applied Optics. 33, pp. 1108–1110. Ziemelis I., Iljins U., Navickas J. (2004). Economical Comparison of Some Parameters of Flat-Plate Solar Collectors. Proceedings of the International Research Conference “The Role of Chemistry and Physics in the Development of Agricultural Technologies”, pp. 23 – 25, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Žagars J., Vilks I. 2005. Astronomija augstskolam. LU

373 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Analysis of Grain Air-drying Process Using Active Airing Method

Gediminas Pupinis, Algirdas Raila, Vytautas Steponaitis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Grain drying duration and blowing air comparative rate are analyzed in this article using air drying process which is dependable from initial grain content in Lithuanian climate. Tests’ results concluded that calculated grain air-drying duration by given 0,250–0,282 kg/kg (20–22 %) initial moisture content is from 105 to 160 hours and blowing air comparative rate – 400–700 m3/(t.h). Mostly serial ventilators are used to blow air through the layer of grain. Having variable aerodynamic resistance conditions, they are not suffi cient for the air drying process. Using active airing method, grains are poured step by step into a granary to the certain limit, therefore aerodynamic resistance increases gradually. The way as the new ventilators are designed and operate under variable aerodynamic resistance conditions, static pressure of 3050 and 3300 Pa can be achieved which allows to dry grains from 8340 to 25000 kg using new ventilators during a given drying. It is known that by decreasing the thickness of grain layer from 2 to 0,5 meters, due to increased siccative grain quantity rate, the total quantity of air-drying grains can be increased 1,3–2,3 times. Key words: Grain, drying, air velocity, aerodynamic resistance, fans, moisture

Introduction

To dry grain the discharge in fans has to vary little with the variation of aerodynamic resistance. Currently, the fans of general purpose are used to blow air through the dried product. Their characteristics are not fully suitable for that. Therefore, special fans were designed. In designing fans it is necessary to know dependence between the static pressure losses of air and relative velocity of air fl ow coming through a grain layer. Work objective – to establish the admissible duration of drying grain with active airing, required comparative air discharge and aerodynamic resistance of a grain layer; to design and test fans with required characteristics for drying grain of 20–22 % (0,250–0,282 kg/kg) moisture on this basis.

Review of Investigations Done and Their Evaluation

A lot of researchers and designers created and investigated devices distributing air fl ow. They are Wilkinson (1981), Kučinskas (1965), Aniskin (1968), Berzinš and Eglite (1971), Raila (1980), Morkus (1982), Petruševičius and Steponaitis (1999) and many others. There are different air distribution devices designed both for vertical and for radial air fl ow through dried material. The drying process when using these devices was investigated as well Petruševičius (2003), Steponaitis (2003). When using active airing for drying powders or granules it is important to establish the aerodynamic resistance of a dried material layer Hellevang et al (2001), Ray et al 2004. The grain intended for drying has to be dried before they start deteriorating. The reason for quality decrease of moist grain is airing and activities of microorganisms. In order to reduce losses the time of product preparation for storage has to be shortened. The strictest requirements are raised for grain designated as seeds or intended for brewing or food. Its germinating power cannot decrease during the period of preparation for storage and the amount of mould fungi cannot 3 exceed 10 ksv/gsm. Gedek (1973). Germinating power of grain intended for baking has to be at least 80 %, the amount of 4 mould fungi has to be lower than 10 ksv/gs.m. Schmidt (1981). Germinating power admissible for feeding grain is 65 %. Detailed research on the dependence of grain surviving duration on its moisture was carried out by Eimer (1989). It is presented in Figure 1.

Figure 1. Dependence of limitary and storage duration on temperature at different quality requirements

374 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

According to the research done by these authors we established the admissible grain drying duration and comparative air discharge, when blowing the air of 65 % relative humidity and 20°C temperature through a layer of grain. (Table 1).

Table 1. Duration of grain drying and comparative discharge of blown air Grain moisture kg/kg (%) Grain drying duration, h Comparative discharge, m3/(t·h) 0,25 (20,0) 200 286 0,26 (20,6) 163 395 0,27 (21,3) 135 451 0,28 (21,9) 114 602 0,29 (22,5) 102 680 0,30 (23,1) 100 738

Research Methods and Results

Having assessed the comparative air discharges given in Table 1 and established static pressure losses by Toftdahl Olesen equation fans of 5,5 and 7,5 kW capacity and 3000 min--1 revolution frequency were designed for grain drying in an immobile layer. Their characteristics were established according to the requirements of LST EN 13141-4 (2004) standard . For this purpose a special stand – an aerodynamic tube – of 0,4 m in diameter and 2,5 min length was designed. Its schematic diagram is presented in Figure 2.

Figure 2. Aerodynamic tube. 1 – fan; 2 – connection; 3 - aerodynamic tube; 4 – diaphragm; 5 – Pitot tube

The investigated fan 1 is connected to one end of aerodynamic tube 3 and a cartridge with 8 diaphragms 4 and air pressure sensor 5 are connected to the other end. By changing diaphragms and recording the created static pressure we established the characteristics of the designed fans. The aerodynamic resistance of a grain layer depends on the grain layer density and porous due to which the data of different authors separate. Variety, fertility, climatic conditions and other factors have infl uence on layer thickness. Maltry et al. (1975) indicate wheat layer density of 713 kg/m3, porous – 0,404, grain equivalent diameter – 0,0042. According to Ptycin (1966) geometric measurements of different wheat grain differ 2,0–2,5 times, layer density – from 730 to 859 kg/ m3 and porous – from 0,35 to 0,45. Aniskin (1968) also presents different data based on the data of Americans. Different geometric measurements of different grain and its layer, while air is blown through a grain layer, determine different aerodynamic resistance. Summarizing the research carried out in a layer of different plant seeds expresses the static pressure losses of a blown air fl ow by equations based on the diameter of a pellet equivalent to a seed

d d = r , (1) rekv. K here dr – pellet diameter m; K – form coeffi cient. It shows the ration between a seed (grain) surface area and the surface area of a pellet of the same volume.

Group 1. Seeds with diameter equivalent to the pellet, drekv.= 1–2 mm (rapeseed, clover, alfalfa, etc.).

−3 ; (2)

here ∆p – losses of air static pressure mm H2O ; – run covered by air fl ow m;

375 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

– velocity of air fl ow in short-run cross-section m/s.

Group 2. Seeds with diameter equivalent to the pellet drekv.= 3–5 mm (vetch, cereal seeds).

− 8,14 10 ns.. . (3) r .

Group 3. Seeds with diameter equivalent to the pellet drekv.= 6–10 mm.

− . (4) r

In dryers with radial air fl ow the fl ow velocity as well as losses of static pressure are function of the run covered. In this instance the losses of air static pressure can be expressed by equation Jouin (1964).

; (5)

k Here c = ; (2 36 )n

3 qv – air velocity of blow–off m /s; – thickness of grain layer m; riš – dryer radius m;

rvid – air duct radius m; n – factor of velocity degree of air fl ow; k – coeffi cient characterizing grain aerodynamic features, determine different aerodynamic resistance.

The majority of researchers assessed the losses of air static pressure when it fl ows through a grain layer by the factor of conditional air movement velocity. Its value is different in different works starting from 1,22 to 1,63. We used equation LST EN 13141-4 (2004), Maltry (1975) to establish the losses of air static pressure in our work

2, (6) p 2452VVns 9810 ns

here ∆p – static pressure losses Pa;

Vns – relative velocity of air fl ow in short-run cross-section m/s. The aerodynamic characteristics of the designed fans are presented in Figure 4. Their design, produced static pressure and blown air discharge are adapted to grain drying by active airing with changing resistance of a dried grain layer.

Figure 4. Aerodynamic characteristics of fans

The dependence of the grain amount dried by these fans on dried layer thickness at initial moisture of 20–22 % (0,250–0,282 kg/kg) is shown in Figure 5.

376 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 5. Dependence of grain amount on layer thickness at initial moisture of 20–22 % (0,250–0,282 kg/kg): 1, 2, 3 – when fan capacity is 7,5 kW; 4, 5, 6 – when 5,5 kW; 1, 4 – grain initial moisture 22 % (0,282 kg/kg); 2, 5 – 21 % (0,266 kg/kg); 3, 6 – 20 % (0,25 kg/kg)

We can see from Figure 5 that huge infl uence on the amount of dried grain is made by layer thickness. If a dried grain layer is reduced from 2,0 to 0,5 m, i.e. 4 times, aerodynamic resistance is reduced accordingly and at the same time we can increase the amount of dried grain 1,3–2,3 times without spoiling production. It is problematic to dry a thin layer of grain in bin type storages; it can be done using silo type dryers with radial air fl ow.

Conclusions

1. Having assessed the comparative air discharge required for grain drying in an immobile layer and static pressure losses radial fans of two sizes (5,5 and 7,5 kW capacity) were designed. 2. When drying grain in a 2 m layer, it is possible to dry from 25000 to 8340 kg using the designed fans. If a dried grain layer is reduced from 2 m to 0,5 m, i.e. 4 times, the amount of dried grain can be increased 1,3 – 2,3 times.

References

Анискин, В.И. Консервация влажного зерна. М., Колос, 1968, 288. Eimer, M. Konservierung und Lagerung von Getreide mit gesicherter Qualität. Proceedings of the 11 th Int. Congress on Agric. Engng., Dublin, 4–8 Sept. 1989, Bd.4: Power Processing and Syctems. A.A.Balkema, Rotterdam Brookfi eld 1989, 2267–2273. Gedek, B. Futtermittelverderb durch Bakterien und Pilze und seine nachteiligen Folgen. Übersicht Tierernährung (1973), 45–56. Hellevang, K., Osowski C., Lee,T. Henson R., Chang, S.K.C, Jou, H.,J. 2001. Storage environment effect on pinto bean quality and resistance to airfl owof pinto on navy beans. ASAE Paper No.016061. St. Joseph, Mich.: ASAE Jouin, C. Fundamental calculation for the ventilation of grain. Getreide und Mehl, 14, 6, 1964, 64–70. Kučinskas, V. Grūdų sandėlių mechanizavimas. Laikraščių ir žurnalų leidykla, 1965, 43. LST EN 13141-4: 2004. Pastatų vėdinimas. Gyvenamųjų pastatų ventiliatorių bandymai. 4 dalis. Gyvenamųjų pastatų vėdinimo sistemų bandymai 2004.07.15. Maltry, W., Pötke, E., Schneider, B. Landwirtschaftliche Trocknungstechnik, Technik, Berlin, 1975, 527. Matthies, H.J. Der Strömungswiderstand beim Belüften landwirtschaftlicher Erntegüter. VDI Forschungsheft 454, 1956, 126. Morkus, E., Palšauskas, M. Aerolatakai grūdų sandėliuose. Žemės ūkis, 1982, Nr. 1, 17–19. Petruševičius, V., Steponaitis, V. Energijos sąnaudos džiovinant grūdus aktyviąja ventiliacija. LŽŪI Instituto ir LŽŪU universiteto mokslo darbai, 1999, 31 (2), 19–30. Petruševičius, V. Pučiamo per grūdus oro lyginamasis debitas džiovinant aktyviąja ventiliacija. LŽŪI Instituto ir LŽŪU universiteto mokslo darbai, 2003, 35 (4), 22–29. Ray, S.J. Pordesimo, L. O., Wilhelm, L.R. Airfl ow resistance some pelleted feed. Transactions of ASAE 2004.vol. 47(2), 513-519. Raila, A. ir kt. Uždaro tipo aerolovių naudojimas bokštinio grūdų sandėlio iškrovimui. Ž.ū. gamybos ekonomika, mechanizacija ir automatizacija. LŽŪA mokslo darbų rink., 1980, 83–86. Schmidt, H.L. Die Mikrofl ora des Getreides als Qualitätsfaktor von Futtermitteln. Swiss Food 3 (1981) Nr.9a, 45–49. Steponaitis, V. Grūdų džiovinimas priėšpriesiniame oro sraute. LŽŪI Instituto ir LŽŪU universiteto mokslo darbai, 2003, 35 (4), 30–44. Shedd, C.K. Resistance of grain and seeds to air fl ow. Agric. Engn., 34, 1953, 616. Toftdahl Olesen H. Grain drying. Innovation Development Engineering Ap S, 1987. Wilkinson, J.M. Losses in the conservation and utilisation of grass and forage crops. Ann. appl. Biob., 1981, 98, 365–375.

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Берзиньш, Э.Р., Ю., Э.Эглите. Вентилириемый закром. Описание изобретения, 1971.

Птицын, С.Д. Зерносушилки. Машиностроение, 1966, 212.

Gediminas PUPINIS. Dr. (thermodynamical processes), 1992. Publications: author of 25 scientifi c publications. Lecturer faculty of Agricultural engineering. Lithuanian university of agriculture. Senior scientifi c worker. Biotechnological and engineering department. Lithuanian institute of agricultural engineering. Lithuanian university of agriculture.Studentų g. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas. e-mail: [email protected] Algirdas RAILA. Dr Habil, Prof, Dept of Heat and Biotechnological Engineering, Faculty of Agricultural Engineering, Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Doctor Habil of Science (thermodynamical processes), 1995. Doctor of Science (thermodynamical processes), Lithuanian Academy of Agriculture, 1974. Employment: Professor (1996); Assoc Prof (1978). Publications: author of 18 textbooks and educational books for students, over 110 scientifi c publications. Membership: a corresponding member-expert of the Lithuanian Academy of Sciences. Research interests: thermodynamical processes in biotechnologies, modelling of technological processes. Studentų g. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas e-mail: [email protected]. Vytautas STEPONAITIS. Dr. (thermodynamical processes), 1981, Lithuanian university of agriculture. Publications: author of 24 scientifi c publications. Lithuanian university of agriculture. Studentų g. 11, LT – 53361 Akademija, Kaunas.

378 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

A Modifi ed Gompertz-Function Used for Description of Postnatal Growth of Barrows

Mathias Schlegel, Norbert Kanswohl, Denny Wiedow University of Rostock, Germany Antanas Sakalauskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Pork has a high importance within alimentation in Germany. For the economic production of pork many factors play a role. Among other things, it is important that the pigs show preferably same growth processes. Nevertheless, one knows that the growth processes of pigs can be very different. Pigs with the same live weight are put together at the beginning of fattening, but, nevertheless, different weights are to be ascertained at the end of fattening. For the present study a mathematical growth function should be used. The aim is to interpret the different growth courses of pigs better. The study was executed in a barnstable with barrows. In the present study must be separated between results which were ascertained with a comparison by animal groups (I) on the one hand and a comparison of single animals (II), on the other hand. (I) Groups of barrows with high end weight have small growth intensity. Goups of barrows with small end weight show high growth intensity. Live weight curves of a barrow group with small end weight display a explicit curvature. By contrast a barrow group with high end weight and small growth intensity show a streched shape of curve. (II) Is the end weight of two barrows the same there are various growth intensities. At the same growth intensity various end weights appear. The application of the growth function can be recommended for breeding, for the verifi cation and coordination of dates during the period of husbandry as well as feeding. The statements which are mentioned above should be analyzed in further research in order to enhance the effi ciency of mathematical auxiliary means in meat production.

Introduction

The pork production is of importance in Germany (Figure 1). After pork production follows beef-, chicken-, turkey- and other poultry production. By reason of the work costs and other economic reasons can be observed nowadays partially a transition to larger production units. The use of large production units arises to problems concerning the effectiveness of meat production. It is known that there can be differences in the growth process of individual pigs, even if they have about the same live weight and age at the beginning of the fattening period. With increasing fattening time there will also be increases in differences of individual live weight, resulting in different nutrient needs for the individual animal. But individual feeding would be too expensive for some farmers. Therefore it is important to use homogeneously growing animal groups for group feeding. The task is to investigate the growth process of barrows under production conditions. To accomplish a study with mathematical functions it is necessary to select an appropriate of this type. There are important functions from Gompertz (1825), Robertson (1908), Winsor (1932), Brody (1945), von Bertalanffy (1957), Richards (1959), Nelder (1961), Laird et al (1966) and Lehmann (1975).

Figure 1. Distribution of meat consumption in Germany 2006/2007 (Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz , 2009)

Material and Methods

The study was executed in a production unit with 70,000 pigs, including about 6,000 sows and about 20,000 feeding pigs. 600 male feeding pigs (barrows) were registered for the study. They were used because they get a tattoo right after birth, making it possible to keep record of them even later on. The basis for the range of random sampling was the registration of the differences of the fi nal fattening mass of all feeding pigs. Between the animals there had been a range

379 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment of weight between 70 kg and 145 kg at the age of about 230 days. All the animals had about the same genetic design and the same environmental surroundings during the breeding process. It was aspired to weigh the animals fi ve times. Age and live weight had been recorded at the following stages:

1. day birth 31. - 33. day changeover pig rearing/ store pig rearing 109. - 111. day changeover store pig rearing/ fattening period I 169. - 171. day changeover fattening period I/ fattening period II 216. - 245. day barn leave

Due to different factors, such as death losses or the impossibility to recognise the tattoos and so on, at the end there remained 267 barrows for further research. There had been a difference between the calculated sampling range of 600 animals and the 267 animals that had been fi nally used. First of all it would like to point out that the differences between the growth progress of the 267 animals was big enough to enable scientifi c statements. The different growth progresses had been assorted. The assortment was carried out due to increasing asymptotic end weight. The asymptotic end weight (mass) xE = a/ k is the asymptotic value of live weight that will never be reached in reality. The 267 individuals had been divided into 11 groups counting about 25 animals each. The applied growth function, a modifi ed Gompertz- Function from Lehmann (Lehmann, 1975), contains three parameters: a, k, and c which can be used to interpret growth.

(Function 1)

The graph of the growth function, the curve of live weight (Figure 2.) shows a typical s-shaped growth process (Hafez,

1962). The curve subdivides into a progressively and a degressively increasing curve. The turning-point (tZmax) lies in between. Growth processes are also called self accelerating and self stopping phase. Furthermore, the fi gure also shows daily gain in live weight, it arises from the fi rst derivation of the growth function (Function 1). Besides that aspect, the fi gure also points out the turning-points and the point of time when maximum daily gain (point of infl ection) in live weight is reached. First of all, the turning-points and the maximum daily gain in live weight are prominent signs of visually checking the curve. Second, they are of help since they are means that can be calculated to determine the exact time when fundamental biological changes occur. This prominent signs should be called growth relevant point of time.

Results and Discussion

In Table 1 it can be shown that in group 1 are located animals with small asymptotic end weights and in group 10 animals with high asymptotic end weights. Also it can be seen that the parameter value of k at animals with small asymptotic end weights (group 1) is higher than at animals with high asymptotic end weights (group 10). The higher parameter value of k the higher is the growth intensity. Accordingly small asymptotic end weight associates with a high growth intensity and contrariwise. Perusing the values of growth relevant points of time in Table 1 it can be highlighted that the distances between tW1 and tW2 at group 10 are greater than at group 1. It can be traced back to the fact of lower growth intensity of group 10.

Table 1. Set of parameters (a, k, c), asymptotic end weight (xE) as well as the growth relevant points of time (tW1, tZmax, tW2) of the groups 1 and 10 Growth relevant points of time Parameter x E t tW1 tZmax W2 akcin kg in days Group 1 0,062 0,0125 -226 142 48 125 202 Group 10 0,04 0,0069 -503 322 81 221 361

380 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

This fact can be visualized in Figure 2. The curves are extrapolated over the end of fattening period (218 days) in order to show the different shapes. The curves and the growth relevant points of time of group 1 are gray colored. The smaller distances between the growth relevant points of time can be seen. The higher maximum of daily gain of live weight and the slow passing through the growth relevant points of time at group 10 causes in the end a higher asymptotic end weight.

Figure 2. Curves of live weight (lw) and daily gain in live weight (dilw) as well as growth relevant points of time of group 1 and 11

In Figure 3 are illustrated two individual barrows: barrow 59 and 117. Both individuals feature the same asymptotic end weight but show different parameter values of k. There are animals with the same asymptotic end weight but have different growth intensities. That means the barrow 117 with the higher parameter value of k passes through the growth relevant points of time faster than the barrow 59. This conclusion which should be considered for economic topics doesn´t contradict the conclusion asserted in the comparison of groups. It is an enlargement. With high plausibility it can be assumed that the coherences between growth intensities and asymptotic end weights can be carried forward to end weight. It should be analyzed in further research in order to enhance the effectiveness of meat production with mathematical auxiliary means.

Figure 3. Curves of live weight (lw) and daily gain in live weight (dilw) as well as growth relevant points of time of barrow 117 and 59

References

Bertalanffy, L. von (1957). Quantitive laws in metabolism and growth. Quart. Rev. Biol. 32, pp. 217-231. Brody, S. (1945). Bioenergetics and growth. Reinhold Publishing Corp., New York. p. 1033 Bundesministerium für Ernährung, Landwirtschaft und Verbraucherschutz (2009). Nahrungsmittelproduktion in Getreideeinheiten. Available at http:// www.bmelv-statistik.de/index.php?id=139 Gompertz B. (1825). On the nature of the function expressive of the law of human mortality, and on a new mode of determining the value of life contigencies. Philos. Trans. Roy. Soc.115, pp. 513-585. Hafez E.S.E. (1962). Symposium of growth: Physio-genetics of prenatal and postnatal growth. 54th Annnual Meeting of the American Society of Animal Science. pp. 779 – 791. Laird A.K., Tyler S.A., Barton A.D. (1965). Dynamics of normal growth. Growth, 29, pp. 233-248.

381 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Lehmann R. (1975). Mathematische Grundlagen zur Analyse des Wachstums von landwirtschaftlichen Nutztieren. Arch. f. Tierz. 18 (3). pp. 163-174 Nelder J.A. (1961). The fi tting of generalization of logistic curve. Biometrics 17, pp. 89-110. Richards F.J. (1959). A fl exible growth function for empirical use. J. Exp. Bot. 10, p. 290. Robertson T. B. (1908). Further remarks on the normal rate of growth of an individual, and its biochemical signifi cance. Arch. f. Entw.-Mech. XXIV, Univ. of Calif., pp.108-118.

Winsor C.P. (1932). The Gompertz curve as a growth curve. Proc. Nat. Acad. Sci.18, pp.1-8.

Mathias SCHLEGEL. Dr., Assoc. Prof., scientifi c fi eld: biotechnologies, University of Rostock, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Farm Animal Sciences and Technology, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg , 18059 Rostock, German, e-mail: [email protected] Norbert KANSWOHL. Dr.Habil., Prof., scientifi c fi eld: biotechnologies, University of Rostock, Faculty of Agricultural and Environmental Sciences, Institute of Farm Animal Sciences and Technology, Justus-von-Liebig-Weg , 18059 Rostock, German, e-mail: [email protected] Antanas SAKALAUSKAS. Dr., Assc. Prof., scientifi c fi eld: technologies, Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Machinery, Studentu 15A, LT-53361 Kaunas, Lithuania; e-mail: [email protected]

382 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Terrain Pollution by Electromagnetic Fields from High Voltage Aerial Power Lines

Alfredas Stašelis, Stanislovas Merkevičius, Virginijus Stašelis Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Analysis of literature, references to the experimental and theoretical research got possibility to disclose connections between health problems of population and long term expousure of low electromagnetic fi elds – electrosmog. The energy power of low frequency electromagnetic emission is quite small. But electromagnetic radiation of these frequencies has clearly expressed electric and magnetic fi elds infl uencing to the human body and individual organs. The most sensitive is central nervous and neuro endocrine systems. The main sources of electromagnetic fi elds in living and working environment are household appliance, electricity transmission, transformation and distribution devices. Electromagnetic fi elds emitted from electric devices propagating in the space under l/r3; l/r2 and l/r regulations. It is typical for variation of values of electric and magnetic fi elds. The value of electromagnetic fi eld parameters is defi ned by voltage of electric devices, current and positioning of studied point regarding devices. Taking into account country’s wide energetic network, high number of electric devices emitting electromagnetic fi elds to the environment, collected data becoming a signifi cant social meaning and the possibility appears in order to predict the impact values of these fi elds, providing measures to eliminate them. Due to the physical nature electromagnetic waves emitted by out-door industrial-frequency electric devices propagating quite long distances from their sources. This study examining the circumstances which are determining the extent and limits of electrosmog. Research results show that the area radius of electro pollution in the zone of three-phase 330 kV voltage industrial frequency aerial power line is 1.5 time higher than electric fi eld strength vector length generated by the same intensity of 110 kV power line and about 2 time longer than conventional limit of the sanitary protection zone. It is advisable to perform the assessment of impact of electromagnetic fi elds to environment in the living area near high voltage aerial power lines. In justice to increasing electricity consumption (kWh/person), number of electrical equipment and other changing indications of environment, performed research is estimated as a providence to continue deeper research on existing and new arising phenomena. Key words: high voltage electricity line (OL), electromagnetic fi elds (EML), electric fi eld strength, magnetic fi eld strength, electro pollution (electro smog), environment

Introduction

During the long-life practice people have experienced the impact both the low electromagnetic fi elds (EMF) and a strong electric potentials named as electro pollution. Electro pollution (in some cases “electrosmog” or “electric pollution”) is on of the main and signifi cant stressors of human being [1]. It is stated in the scientifi c publications, public educational editions aimed to developing “healthy home” environment, heard on the radio and television broadcasts. Recently more actual question is coming up concerning hazards to the human being caused by electromagnetic (and especially magnetic) fi elds of industrial frequency. Magnetic fi eld of 0,25 μT encourage the development of malignant tumours, while magnetic fi eld of 0,01 μT negatively effects the metabolism of calcium ions of nerve cells etc [2, 3]. The following provision is formulated in the motivation of the international scientifi c programme (1996 – 2005) of the World Health Organisation regarding biological impact from EMF: “It is believed that the medical consequences, such as the cancer, behaviour, memory loss, Parkinson’s and Alzheimer’s disease, AIDS, syndrome of sudden death of seemingly healthy child, and many other conditions, as well as an increase in the level of suicides, is the result of affect of EMF” [4, 5, 6]. These are the consequences of development and intensifi cation of technosphere: new technologies - new risks to human health”. There are more opportunities to detect risks in working environment, i.e. organizational and technical safety measures. In the living environment people have to rely on the safety measures implemented by manufacturers and suppliers of electrical equipment, personally fulfi l safety requirements, stay away from danger zones and avoid electro energetic effect. The condition of acceptability of electrical risks in EMF space is described as follows:

E 2 ⋅T H 2 ⋅T S ⋅T x x + norm x + x x ≤ 1,0 , (1) 2 ⋅ 2 ⋅ S ⋅T Enorm T0 H norm T0 norm 0

where: Ex, Hx, Sx – measured (determined) values of the parameters at Tx duration exposures of electromagnetic fi elds;

Enorm, Bnorm, Snorm – the maximum permissible values of the standardised parameters at T0 duration exposure presented in the existing standards [1].

When T=Tnorm, the dependence (1) defi nes the acceptability of intensity of EML parameter values in respect of the permissible ones, i.e. the condition of permissibility for the risks to human health. If there are more persons in the space of r radius vector from the EMF source, the common risk degree to their health shall specify the following:

383 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

n n R(r) = ∑∑R (r) = P ( > x ) , (2) i i i i i ==11i

where: Ri(r) - individual employee’s health and safety risks. Due to the specifi c character of electromagnetic radiation effect on live organisms, the limited values of electric and magnetic fi eld parameters in respect of the risks to human safety and health are based on the dependence (2).

≤ -1 P( Ex Enorm ) - Ex - strength of electric fi eld, V·m ;

≤ -1 R= P( H x H norm ) - H x - strength of magnetic fi eld, A·m ;

≤ 2 P( S x Snorm ) - S x - power fl ow density of electromagnetic fi eld, W/m .

Both safety and health criteria and ecological or human health friendly environment parameters can be set for standardised EMF intensity values [7]. In accordance to it the assessment of electro pollution of the environment, description of the pollution limits of living areas by electrical and magnetic fi elds could be carried out. Having EMF source characteristics the EMF pollution maps might be worked out.

Research aim and objectives

Theoretically and experimentally examine distribution of electromagnetic fi elds (EMF) of industrial frequency in the environment when receding from EMF sources and evaluate their behaviour and the potential effects of the fi elds to environment. The tasks of theoretical research are theoretically calculate parameters of electric and magnetic fi elds, their dependence on voltage, load current and the distance and compare the estimated parameters with the permissible values. Experimentally determine the electromagnetic fl ow densities, caused by 110 / 6 kV communication transformers, voltage and current transformers, 110 kV aerial power lines, 0.4 kV power and control cable lines. The hypothesis is raised – is electromagnetic fi elds generated by various electrical devices do not exceed the maximum permissable values, what interaction between them and what is their joint impact on the human being.

Methods and it application

The EMF intensity decreases in space when receding from EMR source. The intensity of EMF towards direction of the vector r vary under the law 1/r , 1/r2, sometimes 1/r3 , depending on the electrical characteristics of the EMR source and structural parameters [10]. Knowing values of the above given indicators and using mathematical-analogue research methods more comprehensive expressions of dependences of electric and magnetic fi elds on the distance are received. The strength of electric fi eld at point “M” in the case of layout of electricity grid of high voltage aerial power lines A, B, C (Fig 1) is calculated as: CU f E = (2k − k − k )2 + 3(k − k )2 + (2k − k − k )2 + 3(k − k )2 , (3) 4 Ax Bx Cx Bx Cx Ay By Cy By Cy 0

where: ki – factors describing the structural and geometric dimensions of investigated space; C – wiring capacity in respect of earth, F/m; U – voltage, kV.

After summarising theoretical and experimental results of research of electric fi eld strength (E) from three-phase

+ 2 (~3f, 50 Hz) 10 kV, 35 kV, 110 kV and 330 kV voltage power aerial lines the y = aebx cx equation is received. Having the meanings of a, b, c factors the electric fi eld strength of the environment (point „M“) might be calculated:

− + 2 E = ae (bx cx ) , (4) M where: a, b, c – factors describing the structural parameters of electric aerial power line; x – distance between marginal wires of electric aerial power line.

384 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 1. The scheme of magnetic fi eld fl ows from A, B, C wires of three-phase (~3f, 50 Hz) 110 kV power aerial lines A, B, C – measurement points under aerial line; A`, B`, C` - measurement points directed from aerial line

Research results and discussion

The safety zones are indicated in operation safety rules of electrical equipment. The safety zone of aerial line (AL) is the zone along alternating or direct current aerial line which consists of a stretch of land and air space limited by vertical planes from both sides of the line in the following distances: - up to 1 kV voltage AL - 2 m; - 6 ir 10 kV voltage AL - 10 m; - 35 kV voltage AL - 15 m; - 110 kV voltage AL - 20 m; - 330 - 400 kV voltage AL - 30 m. The numerical value of the permitted electric fi eld strength means the strength of fi eld which affecting on employee all his working time without causing medical problems or diseases and affecting the inheritance The space of these zones is the zone of the highest human health and safety risks posed by scroll currents. It is necessary to fulfi l the requirements of the ESR for this zone. The studied EMF intensity distribution nature regarding electro pollution is in the outer safety zones (Fig. 1). The sensibility of human body to EMF inducted scroll currents is higher for changes in horizontal distance than in EMR source [10].

The work performed using presented values of aE, bE, cE factors to determine ecological boundaries of zones based on Eek≤25 V/m and health-friendly electric fi eld strength E=10 V/m, under [10] research recommendations. The results of this investigation presented in Fig. 2. In the range of electro pollution (ri, m) of the terrain of aerial power line the equation (5) was used accepting that x=rx and solving in respect of this parameter:

cr 2 + br − ln( a / e ) = 0 , (5) x x

where: E=Enorm – permissible or recommended limits of electric fi eld strength in terrain of living houses;

- Enorm<1 kV/m - sanitary protection zone limit for 330 kV voltage electric aerial power line [10];

- Enorm≤25 V/m – ecologically unattached surrounding [10];

- Enorm≤10 V/m – electro energetically adverse electric fi eld to human health [10]. Calculations performed for variation of intensity of EMF emitted from 10 kV, 35 kV, 110 kV ir 330 kV voltage electric aerial power lines in respect of Enorm, determining rx boundaries under equation (5). Values of ae, be, ce factors are accepted according research data [10]. The results of calculations presented in Fig. 2.

385 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 2. The boundaries of protection zone, SPZ and calculated electro pollution zones for 10 kV, 35 kV, 110 kV ir 330 kV voltage electric aerial power lines

The results of intensity and variation of EMF emitted from high voltage electric aerial power lines indicate a rather wide boundaries, especially for 330 kV AL (Fig.2). It’s more than 1.5 times higher than the limit of SPZ. Theoretically rather smaller electrical pollution limits come from 110 kV AL tracks. Such environmental effects should be taken into account when designing aerial lines in the areas with the gardens, schools, or other more crowded places that fall into EMF zone. Magnetic fi eld is one of the components of electro pollution from EMF emitted to the environment by low and high voltage industrial frequency equipment. Distribution of intensity of parameters of this component in living and working environment becoming a signifi cant social meaning and the possibility appears in order to predict the impact values of these fi elds, providing measures to eliminate them. The scheme of magnetic fi eld fl ows emitted from A, B, C wires of three-phase (~ 3f, 50 Hz) 110 kV voltage power aerial lines presented in Fig.3. Theoretical calculations performed on the basis of magnetic fi elds calculation methodology for the fl ows emitted from A, B, C wires of three-phase (~3f, 50 Hz) 110 kV voltage power aerial line (receding from the source) [8, 9]. Magnetic fi eld emitted from three-phase aerial line at point “M” in the distance r (r=1,5 m from ground surface) calculated as following [8]:

I I I H = A , (6) H = B , (7) H = C . (8) A 2 ⋅ r B 2 ⋅ r C 2 ⋅ r A B C

The measurement equipment is sensing values of effective voltage, active and reactive power of three-phase (~

3f, 50 Hz) 110 kV voltage power aerial lines. When effective load current Ief=152 A, the amplitude current Im is equal: = ⋅ = ⋅ = I m Ief 2 152 2 214,96 A. (9)

Under equations presented in [8, 9] calculated as following:

214,96 − H = = 12,86A⋅ m 1, A ⋅ ⋅ 2 3,14 2,66

(−107,48) − H = = 6,43A⋅ m 1. C ⋅ ⋅ 2 3,14 2,66

(−107,48) − H = = −7,78A⋅ m 1, B ⋅ ⋅ 2 3,14 2,2

After calculation of angles α, formed between vectors e ,e ,e and y axis [8, 9] the received results are r A r B r C αA=34,3°, αB=0°, αC=34,3°. Projections H of vectors of magnetic fl ow from aerial line at point “M” to the axis of the coordinates at the initial instant current value will be equal:

386 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

o − o − H = (12,86) ⋅sin(34,3 ) = 7,25A⋅ m 1, H = (−7,78) ⋅sin(0 ) = 0A⋅ m 1, Ay By o − o − H = (12,86) ⋅ cos(34,3 ) = 10,62A⋅ m 1. H = (−7,78) ⋅ cos(0 ) = −7,78A⋅ m 1. Ax Bx

o − H = (−6,43) ⋅sin(34,3 ) = −3,62A⋅ m 1, Cy o − H = (−6,43) ⋅ cos(34,3 ) = −5,31A⋅ m 1. Cx

The strength of magnetic fi eld at „ M “ is calculated:

− H = H 2 + H 2 = (10,62 − 7,78 − 5,31)2 + (7,25 − 0 − 3,62)2 = 4,39A⋅ m 1. M Mx My

The fl ow density of magnetic fi eld emitted by instant current is calculated:

= = ⋅ ⋅ ⋅ 6 = BM r 0 H M 4,39 1,00000038 1,256 10 5,51 T .

The fl ow density of magnetic fi eld B (μT) emitted from 110 kV voltage communication transformers, voltage and current transformers, wires of aerial lines with current, 0,4 kV voltage power and control cables were measured during the experiments. The results of experimental research were compared with theoretical calculations (Fig 3).

Figure 3. Distribution of fl ow density of magnetic fi eld Figure 4. Distribution of joint (combined) theoretical and

at points in measurement track: Bc – calculated fl ow experimental fl ow density of magnetic fi eld at points in density of magnetic fi eld; Bm. - measured fl ow density of measurement track: Bc – calculated fl ow density of magnetic fi eld; magnetic fi eld Bm - measured fl ow density of magnetic fi eld

Evaluation of obtained data shows that theoretical and experimental results are differing slightly in beginning of measurement track. The theoretical and experimental model is defi ned to describe the dependence between the distance x and fl ow density of magnetic fi eld from 110 kV aerial line: y = 0,1143·x2-2,3008·x+11,753 allows calculate the impact of magnetic fi elds to the environment. Only on the end of measuring track the difference in the results raised signifi cantly due to the 0,4 kV power and control cables mounted in 2,1 m height. The mentioned installation creates its own magnetic fi elds and forms joint (combined) electromagnetic fi eld. Distribution of joint (combined) fl ow density of magnetic fi eld is presented in Fig.4. The evaluation of distribution of combined fl ow density of magnetic fi eld in measurement track observes the closeness of theoretical and experimental research results. The full estimation of electromagnetic fi elds requires deeper studies taking into account the infl uence of engineering networks (the pipelines of transformer oil and water), other aerial and cable lines. Joint (combined) strength of magnetic fi eld might be calculated as following:

H = (H + H + H )2 + (H + H + H )2 ; (10) xT − 101 xT − 103 x0,4kV yT − 101 yT − 103 y0,4kV comb.

where: T-101, T-103 – value of magnetic fi eld fl ow from 110/6 kV communication transformers, μT; 0,4 kV – value of magnetic fi eld fl ow from power cable, μT.

387 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Obtained theoretical and experimental results shows that calculated value of magnetic fi eld fl ow density B(μT) is less then the experimental. Experimental results indicate the decreasing value of magnetic fi eld fl ow density B in dependence of increasing of distance r between measurement point and source of electromagnetic fi eld. This dependence might be described bx with exponential equation y=ae . The results of theoretical calculations show that value of magnetic fi eld fl ow density Bsk. is anticipated by current of electrical device and position of investigated point regarding the source of electromagnetic

fi eld. At the distance of r=2,2 m, B=7,73 μT, at r=13,32 m, B=0,729 μT for 110 kV aerial line current Ief.=153 A. Although experimentally received values of magnetic fi eld fl ow density (B=8,14 - 29,8 μT) does not exceed permitted values for work places (under Lithuanian standard HN: 110: 2001 permitted and unlimited regarding working time value of magnetic fi eld strength is H=0,9 kA·m-1, B=1125 μT ), but western and Russian scientists argue that the value of magnetic fi eld fl ow density of B=0,2 μT encourages the development of malignant tumors for human being, B=1,25 μT stimulates disturbances of heart rhythm, stomach upsets, B=0,125 - 1,25 μT value affects the central nervous system.

Conclusions

1. The area radius of electro pollution in the zone of three-phase 330 kV voltage industrial frequency aerial power line is 1.5 time higher than electric fi eld strength vector length generated by the same intensity of 110 kV power line and about 2 time longer than conventional limit of the sanitary protection zone. 2. The experimental and theoretical results show that the value of parameters of industrial frequency electromagnetic fi elds generated from electrical equipment is determined by: voltage of electrical equipment, current and position of tested point regarding equipment. The strength of electromagnetic fi eld created by low voltage in the space decreasing under dependence (1/r) when receding from the source. 3. It is advisable to perform the assessment of impact of electromagnetic fi elds to environment in the living area near high voltage aerial power lines. 4. Defi ned theoretical models y = 0,1143·x2-2,3008·x+11,753 for magnetic fi eld fl ow density from 110 kV aerial power line in dependence on the distance x, and y = 44,677·x2-900,57·x+4508,2 for electric fi eld strength in dependence on the distance x, gives the possibility to calculate the impact of magnetic and electric fi elds to environment. 5. Using method of regression analysis the experimental and theoretical values of magnetic fl ow density bx B —f(r) from 110 kV aerial power line are described with exponential equation y=ae under condition Ia, = const. There is strong linear relation between experimental and theoretical densities of magnetic fi eld which proves adequacy of theoretical results to data obtained during the experimental research (equation correlation rate R2 = 0,86 - 0,92). 6. In justice to increasing electricity consumption (kWh/person), number of electrical equipment and other changing indications of environment, performed research is estimated as a providence to continue deeper research on existing and new arising phenomena.

References www.theheatlhyhome.com. Mickūnas P. (1997). Apsauga nuo elektromagnetinės spinduliuotės. Kaunas: Technologija, pp. 161. Григорьев Ю. Г., Васин А. Л. (2003). Электромагнитные поля и население. Москва: Изу-во РУДН, с. 116. Интер Мед. Новый подход к сохранению здоровья. http://www.who.int/pehemf/about/What is EMF/en/. Blasaas K. G., Tynes T., Lie R. T. (2003). Residence Near Power Lines and the Risk Birth Defecte. Epidemiology. Vol. 14. No 1, pp. 95-98. Интер Мед. Григорьев Ю. Г. Электромагнитные опухоли. http:/intermed.w3.comset.net/alpha. Кадомская К. П., Степанов Н .М. (2008). Влияние конструкций воздушных линий высокого напряжения на интенсивности магнитных полей по их трассам. Третья Росийская с международным участием научно - практическая конференция. Новосибирск. c. 81-91. Stašelis A. (2006). Aukštos įtampos oro linijų kuriamos elektromagnetinės taršos vertinimas. Aplinkos tyrimas, inžinerija ir vadyba. Nr 2 (36), pp. 31 - 36. Stašelis A., Merkevičius S., Stašelis V. (2005). Aukštos įtampos elektros tinklų oro linijų magnetinių laukų tyrimai. Žemės ūkio inžinerija. T.37 (1), pp. 144-154. Stašelis A., Merkevičius S., Stašelis V. (2003). Aukštos įtampos elektros oro linijų elektriniai laukai. Žemės ūkio inžinerija. T. 35 (1), pp.73-87.

Stanislovas MERKEVIČIUS. Dr., prof.; Department of Occupational Safety and Engineering Management; address: Studentų g. 15 LT–53361, Akademija, Kauno rajonas; e-mail: [email protected]; phone/fax: +370 37 752376; area of scientifi c interest - environmental engineering. Alfredas STAŠELIS. Dr. doc. (HP); Department of Agroenergetic; Studentų g. 11 LT–53361, Akademija, Kauno rajonas, e-mail: [email protected]; phone: +370 37 752219; area of scientifi c interest - biomedical sciences. Virginijus STAŠELIS. PhD student; JSC “Rytų energetikos tinklų projektai”; address: Kareivių g. 19, Vilnius; e-mail: virginijus.s@ retp.lt; phone: +370 5 2770263; area of scientifi c interest - environmental engineering.

388 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Investigation of Liquid Droplets Drift Affected by Side Airfl ow

Dainius Steponavičius, Remigijus Zinkevičius, Vidmantas Butkus, Mindaugas Martinkus Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

Three different types of nozzles were used during the tests: cone type nozzle, slotted nozzle and injecting nozzle. Tests showed that the side airfl ow adversely affects the quality of the sprayer operation, because the downwind increases the spread (drift) of droplets. It was defi ned that the area remote from the nozzles of wind direction from 0.5 m to 2 m, at the 30% and from 2 m to 4 m – about 7% of all droplets, when the airfl ow speed is 8.2 m·s-1. Injecting nozzles for liquid spraying are less sensitive to the infl uence of side airfl ow than the slotted nozzles. Using the injecting nozzles the amount of the drifted droplets can be reduced by about 30%.

Introduction

Plant protection product drift (mostly in leeward direction) is undesirable because of the preparation losses and environment pollution that has negative impact on people and crops. Droplet drift of plant protection product can be indirect when the droplets evaporate still while in motion or after they settle on the plant surface. It mostly depends on the physical-chemical properties of the plant protection preparations (e.g., evaporation pressure or evaporation intensity), sprayed surface qualities and weather conditions. The direct drift of the sprayed preparation droplets will be then when some part of the preparation active material is carried away from the sprayed plant or deposits on the soil because of horizontal or vertical wind. It also depends on the physical-chemical properties of the plant protection preparations (such as viscosity, additives increasing cohesiveness), but more often on the droplet size that in turn is determined by the nozzle type, the size and shape of the tip apertures, and working pressure (Kifferle and Stahli, 2001; Zinkevičius and Kazakevičius, 2001). Most researchers think that the liquid droplet drift in downwind direction can increase not only because of horizontal wind but also because of the spraying apparatus speed (more than 8 km·h-1), higher than 25ºC air temperature, and insuffi cient air moisture (Ripke, 1991; Schmidt, 1998; Wolf, 2002). The impact of the wind speed on the drift of the sprayed liquid droplets in the leeward direction is differently estimated by various authors (Kifferle and Stahli, 2001; Ripke and Warnecke-Busch, 1991, 1999). Research goal is to investigate the impact of the side airfl ow (wind) on the liquid droplet spread using nozzles of various types. Research object is three nozzles of various types: cone type nozzle, slotted nozzle and injecting nozzle.

Research method

The investigation has been fulfi lled in Machinery department of Lithuanian Agricultural University in 2008– 2009. Special test bench (Fig. 1) was used during the tests. The bench used for the investigation of the spread of sprayed droplets consists of: liquid reservoir 1, electric motor 7, pump 6, control panel 20, liquid supply hose and fi lters, and nozzle connection head 19 with nozzles. Three different types of nozzles were used during the tests: cone type nozzle, slotted nozzle and injecting nozzle. Corrugated steel sheet 18 of 0.5 m width and 5 m length was placed at 0.5 m distance from the nozzle. Tubs 26 the capacity of which was 500 ml were placed at 10 cm intervals at the end of the corrugated steel sheet. Tubs are used to collect the sprayed liquid droplets. Liquid volume measuring error is ±10 ml. During the tests the liquid was supplied into the nozzles at constant working pressure of 0.18 MPa. Wind impact has been investigated applying the side airfl ow on the sprayed liquid. The side airfl ows of various intensities has been created using the axial ventilator MKB-54 (0.37 kW), installed at the distance of 0.5 m from the tested nozzle. It is obvious that when the rotation frequency of the ventilator impeller is increased both the yield and the speed of the airfl ow maximizes. Thus the airfl ow speed was changed simultaneously varying rotation frequencies of ventilator electric motor and ventilator impeller. Voltage converter T-Verter E – 2P2-HIF was used to change the voltage frequency. Tachometer TC 10-R was used to measure revolution frequency of ventilator impeller. The airfl ow speed at various rotation frequencies of the impeller were measured by hot wire anemometer E+Elektronic EE 65-VB5, the measuring error of which was ±0.1 m·s-1. Fig 2 shows the speed variation relationships. The greatest airfl ow speed is at the close proximity with the ventilator impeller. Later the speed reduction has been noticed. The tendency of airfl ow speed reduction has been defi ned using hot wire anemometer by varying ventilator impeller rotation frequency (Fig. 2). Tests were fulfi lled when the airfl ow speed at the nozzle was 6.2 m·s-1, 6.7 m·s-1, 7.4 m·s-1, and 8.2 m·s-1.

389 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 1. The diagram of the bench for nozzle test: 1 – inlet; 2 – inlet fi lter; 3 – reservoir; 4 – outlet tap; 5 – suction line fi lter; 6 – pump; 7 – electric motor; 8 – three-way cock; 9 – fl owmeter; 10 – fi lter; 11 – pressure line fi lter; 12 – reducing valve; 13 – mixer on/ off cock; 14 – emergency stop valve; 15 – throttle; 18 – chutes; 19 – nozzle connection head with nozzles; 20 – control panel section taps; 21 – throttles; 22 – hydraulic mixer; 23 – liquid recovery line; 24 – voltage frequency converter and electric motor; 25 – axial ventilator; 26 – liquid collection tubs

Figure 2. Relationship of the variation of the airfl ow speed v with the distance l from ventilator and ventilator impeller rotation frequency n

Investigation procedure

Initially has been determined the spread of liquid sprayed with various different nozzles unaffected by side airfl ow. When the bench pump (Fig. 1) was switched on the liquid from the reservoir was supplied into the nozzle for 5 minutes. Ventilator was switched off thus the speed of the side airfl ow was 0 m·s-1. The sprayed liquid drained from the surface of the corrugated steel sheet via the chutes positioned in 10 cm intervals. Transparent tubs were graded every 10 ml. Later when the ventilator was switched on, the voltage frequency converter was used to determine the rotation frequency of the ventilator impeller that helped to create the corresponding speed of the side wind fl ow. Test duration was 10 minutes when the liquid supply pump was switched on. The liquid amount in the tubs has been measured. The impact of the side airfl ow speed on the droplet sweep away in the leeward direction has been estimated to be 100÷250 cm and 250÷500 cm from the close proximity of the nozzle depending on the nozzle type. The spraying zone of a nozzle is 50 cm in both directions from the nozzle. Every test has three replications. Measurement data has been estimated with the confi dence integral equal to 95%.

Results

Tests revealed that droplet spread in the area of 100 cm did not differ signifi cantly when three various nozzles – cone type nozzle, slotted nozzle, and injecting nozzle – were used and the side airfl ow speed was equal to 0 m·s-1 (Figs. 3, 6 and 9). The histograms of droplet spread when three various nozzle types were used for spraying approximated the law of normal distribution.

390 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 3. Spread of droplets sprayed with cone type nozzle when the airfl ow speed was v=0 m·s-1

When the ventilator was switched on the side airfl ow has been created that increased droplet spread in wind direction. Tests showed that when the liquid was sprayed with cone type nozzle 24.5% of droplets spread at the distance of 0.5 m to 2 m from the nozzle and 5.9% of droplets spread at the distance of 2 m to 5 m when the speed of side airfl ow was 6.2 m·s-1 (Fig. 4). When the airfl ow speed was increased to 8.2 m·s-1 (Fig. 5) the amount of droplets in the downwind direction increased to 34.8% and 13.4%, respectively.

Figure 4. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the cone type nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=6.2±0.3 m·s-1

Figure 5. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the cone type nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=8.2±0.3 m·s-1

Figure 6. Spread of droplets sprayed with slotted nozzle when the airfl ow speed was v=0 m·s-1

It was defi ned that the slotted nozzle was less sensitive to the impact of side airfl ow if compared with the cone type nozzles. It was especially obvious when the side airfl ow was insignifi cant (6.2 m·s-1) (Fig. 7). When the airfl ow speed

391 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment was increased to 8.2 m·s-1 (Fig. 8), 35% of droplets were carried away in the leeward direction behind the spraying zone of the nozzle.

Figure 7. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the slotted nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=6.2±0.3 m·s-1

Figure 8. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the slotted nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=8.2±0.3 m·s-1

Spread of the liquid sprayed with injecting nozzle showed that droplets are still less affected by the side airfl ow (Fig. 10). It was stated that these nozzles sprayed less small droplets that most often were carried away in the wind direction (Kifferle and Stahli, 2001). Besides inside the nozzles liquid was mixed with the air to form bubbles that burst into small droplets when they reached plant surface (Ripke and Warnecke-Busch, 1999).

Figure 9. Spread of droplets sprayed with injecting nozzle when the airfl ow speed was v=0 m·s-1

Figure 10. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the injecting nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=6.2±0.3 m·s-1

392 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Comparison of the investigation results of injecting nozzle and those of slotted nozzle enabled to state that some part of the droplets carried away in the downward direction could be reduced by 30% when injecting nozzle was used, if compared with 40% when slotted nozzle was used. Thus when the liquid was sprayed with injecting nozzle, the droplet spread was 25.4% in the area that was 1.5 m away from the nozzle spraying zone, and only 2.7% droplets in the area that was removed from 1.5 m to 4 m when the side airfl ow speed was 8.2±0.3 m·s-1 (Fig. 11). Correlation relationships (Fig. 12 a and b) were made after summarizing test results of all three nozzles at various side airfl ow speeds.

Figure 11. Spread of droplets carried away in the downwind direction when the injecting nozzle was used for liquid spraying and the airfl ow speed was v=8.2±0.3 m·s-1

a) b) Figure 12. Impact of the side airfl ow speed on the droplet removal in downwind direction at 1.5 m distance (a) and at 1.5÷4.0 m distance (b) from the nozzle spraying zone depending on the nozzle type: 1 – cone type nozzle a=5.19v–8.50, R2=0.95; a=3.72v–16.2, R2=0.89; 2 – slotted nozzle a=3.96v–4.14, R2=0.90; a=2.68v–14.7, R2=0.97; 3 – injecting nozzle a=9.35v–50.4, R2=0.94; a=1.78v–11.8, R2=0.98

Conclusions

1. Side wind fl ow has negative impact on the sprayer operation quality because it increases the spread of droplets removed in downwind direction. It has been determined that 30% of droplets spread in the area that is 2 m remote from the nozzle spraying zone in the wind direction, and about 7% of droplets spread in the area from 2 m to 4 m remote when the side airfl ow speed is 8.2±0.3 m·s-1. 2. Using the injecting nozzles the amount of the drifted droplets can be reduced by about 30%.

Reference

Kifferle G., Stahli W. (2001). Spritz- und Sprühverfahren im Pfl anzenschutz und Flüssigdüngung bei Flächenkulturen, Books on Demand GmbH, Norderstedt. Ripke O. F. (1991). Freilandmessungen der direkten Abtrift beim Einsatz zeitgemäßer Zerstäubungsverfahren im Feldbau. Technik, S. 83-86, VDI-Max- Eyth-Geselschaft. Ripke O. F., Warnecke-Busch G. (1991). Abtrift mit aufwendiger Technik vermindern? Pfl anzenschutz-Praxis Nr. 2, p 10–13. Ripke O. F., Warnecke-Busch G. (1999). Direckte Abtrift im Feldbau – mehrjährige Untersuchungsergebnisse inklusive Ableitung einer Minimierungsstrategie. Gesunde Pfl anzen, Band 51, Heft 2. Schmidt H. (1998). Beitrag zur Beurteilung der Verteilungsqualität von Feldspritzgeräten, VDI-Verlag, Düsseldorf. Wolf P. (2002). Verteilungsqualität von Feldspritzgeräten, Shaker, Aachen.

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Zinkevičius R., Kazakevičius V. (2001). Išpurkšto augalų apsaugos preparato lašelių nunešimo pavėjui mažinimo priemonės ir jų įvertinimas. Respublikinės mokslinės konferencijos „Žmogaus ir gamtos sauga“ medžiaga, p. 158–161, Lietuvos žemės ūkio universitetas.

Dainius STEPONAVIČIUS. Dr., docentas, LŽŪU Žemės ūkio mašinų katedra, Studentų 15A, Akademija, Kauno r., tel. +370 674 27721, el. paštas [email protected] Remigijus ZINKEVIČIUS. Dr., docentas, LŽŪU Žemės ūkio mašinų katedra, Studentų 15A, Akademija, Kauno r., tel. +370 698 18126, el. paštas [email protected] Vidmantas BUTKUS. Dr., docentas, LŽŪU Žemės ūkio mašinų katedra, Studentų 15A, Akademija, Kauno r., tel. +370 614 18020, el. paštas [email protected] Mindaugas MARTINKUS. Dr., docentas, LŽŪU Žemės ūkio mašinų katedra, Studentų 15A, Akademija, Kauno r., tel. +370 687 82275, el. paštas [email protected]

394 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Investigation of Soil Cultivation Impact on Winter Wheat Growth and Grain Yield

Egidijus Šarauskis, Edvardas Vaiciukevičius, Antanas Sakalauskas, Mindaugas Martinkus Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

The research of technological processes of winter wheat sowing using various agricultural systems were performed in Marijampolė and Pasvalys regions. The key research objective was to test winter wheat seed introduction with the help of disc coulters into ploughed and no-tillage hard clay loam soils of different regions, and their impact on plant development and yield structure indices. The impact of different soil cultivation methods and sowing technologies on soil characteristics, seed bed preparation and seed introduction, germination and yield structure indices were investigated. Seed bed preparation and seed introduction indices were determined by Sweden scientists using Kritz/Hakannson method. Soil cultivation and seed introduction depth evenness, and soil grading composition were estimated. Tests disclosed that in order to introduce winter wheat seed properly with disc drill coulters in no-tillage hard clay loam soil, the yield vegetative residues should be introduced into the soil before the sowing. In dry soil (less than 3 % moisture content) big hard lump structure is formed thus the seeds are not always duly introduced in proper depth with drill coulters. When the impact of different agricultural systems on the seed introduction of winter wheat, seed development and yield structure indices were estimated it became obvious that their infl uence was not signifi cant. Meteorological conditions, soil characteristics and other criteria have greater impact. Key words: soil cultivation and sowing technology, soil properties, seedbed, winter wheat, yield

Introduction

Special attention is paid for new sustainable soil tillage and sowing technologies in Europe. With application of these technologies crops have been sown with less fuel consumption and labour expenditures, less soil compaction and less soil erosion (Tebrügge F., 1994, Tebrügge F. and Böhrnsen A., 2000, Romaneckas et all 2009). F.Tebrugge (1994) states that soil tillage and fuel consumption while sowing into no-tillage soil may be reduced from 2 to 6 times if compared to the sowing into ploughed and cultivated or otherwise prepared soil. With favourable weather conditions the crop sowing may be advanced due to fewer soil cultivation operations. Tests showed that the grain yield suffered no losses because of longer crop vegetation and could even increase by 20 % when the weather was good (Tebrügge F., 1994). German scientists noticed during the investigations that the tractor wheels compress from 90 to 95 % of the soil area when it was ploughed and later cultivated with different cultivation implement. In no-tillage or minimal-tillage soil the compressed soil area was from 20 to 30 % (Spicher J. and Steide M., 1986). V.Gruber (1994) after measurement of soil density in spring stated that the tractor wheels (mass was 6,4 t, tyres 18,4 R34, pressure in tyres was 160 kPa) compacted non-cultivated soil in the depth of 200 and 400 mm by 20 % less than ploughed and cultivated soil. R. Haberland states that the soil structure improves, its biological activity increases and the soil density minimizes when the crops are sown into no-tillage soil (Haberland R., 1997). J.Epperlein and R.Metz (1998) have stated that in two years time the earthworm number in no-tillage soil was 2,3 times greater and the amount of humus by 0,2 % greater than in ploughed soil. When advanced soil cultivation and sowing technologies were used it was diffi cult to introduce plant seeds into the soil covered with yield residues (Romaneckas et all., 2009), especially when the soil surface was much harder. Most scientists state that seed germination is the best when the seeds were introduced with coulters of conventional drills. But these coulters are good when they have to introduce seeds into loose soil. Their operation indices depend on soil loosening evenness. When some obstacles were met the drill coulters were pushed upwards into the soil surface thus the seeds were introduced in various depths (Steinert K., 1994). Other types of coulters swoop into the soil making oblique angle. Thus they can be used in hard soils but they bung up with yield residues and the seeds are introduced in different depth (Steinert K., 1994, arauskis E. et all., 2002, arauskis et all., 2005). Disc coulters are the best to sow into no-tillage soils. They easily cut the upper layer of the soil and form the furrow for seed introduction. Drills with disc coulters are most widely used for sowing into no-tillage soils in Baltic States. The diameter of such disc coulters is from 350 to 500 mm. Discs with special blades are mounted on the drills to improve the engagement of disc coulters with the soil and to better cut the yield residues. Most often there are from 8 to 22 notches in the disc. Only in the last decade the crop sowing into the no-tillage soil was started to introduce in Lithuania. Until now the technological processes of crop sowing operation in differently cultivated soils were not suffi ciently investigated, especially their impact on seed bed formation, seed germination, seed development and yield. In 2005 – 2006 tests were fulfi lled with the view to investigate winter wheat sowing into ploughed and no-tillage soils in various regions of Lithuania as well as the technological processes and their impact on grain yield. The main research objective was to investigate the winter wheat seed introduction with disc coulters of the drills in cultivated and no-tillage hard clay loam soils of different regions and their impact on plant development and yield indices. The most important issues to reach this objective is to investigate the impact of various soil cultivations and sowing technologies on soil characteristics, seed bed preparation and seed introduction, seed germination and yield indices.

395 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Methodology

In 2005 and 2006 winter wheat crops were sown into hard clay loam soils in Marijampolė and Pasvalys regions. The soil was cultivated in two different ways before the sowing of winter wheat. In the fi rst instance the soil was shaved with the stubble breaker “Kverneland” or the plough “Kverneland” and cultivated with the cultivator “Carrier”. On the second occasion the soil was cultivated twice before the sowing. Winter wheat “ADA” (sowing norm 250 kg ha-1) was sown with the drill “Vadestad” “Rapid A 600C” disc coulters the diameter of which was 410 mm. There were 20 notches in the disc coulter blades. Seed introduction depth, ridges above the seeds in the soil surface, lump composition in the seed bed, soil moisture content and seed introduction evenness in various soil layers were determined using Kritz/Hakannson method (Sweden) (Håkanson I. and Polgál J., 1984). The frame (400 x 400 mm, 100 mm height) with the tip-up frame (250 x 400 mm, 100 mm height) was used in the tests. The frame was pressed into the soil and its horizontal position was checked with the help of the level. The tip-up frame was pressed into the soil above the sowing row and three 15 mm soil layers were dug off with the shovel. Excavated soil layer was separated with 5 mm (upper) and 2 mm (bottom) sieves. Three soil lump fractions were separated from the soil layer: > 5mm, 2 – 5 mm and < 2 mm soil lumps. The volumetric fl ask of 2 litres was used to determine the percent composition of the volumetric lump fractions of different layers. The grains found in the individual separated layers were calculated and the seed distribution evenness in the seed bed was determined. Soil moisture content in various layers and their hardness in differently cultivated soils were determined with electronic hardness tester (Eijkelkamp). Seed germination was estimated calculating all the winter wheat sprouts in the test plots (0,5 x 0,5 m). Crop density was determined calculating stems in the test plots before the crop harvesting. Plant height from the soil surface till top of the ears was measured with a ruler. 10 random plants were measured in the test plots. Plants were cut and ear length was measured in the laboratory. The total grain number and that of the undeveloped grains in the ear was estimated after ear threshing. The grains from various ears were mixed and fi ve replications of randomly taken 1000 grains were taken. The grains were weighted, the mass of 1000 grains was determined at the moisture content of 15 %. Ear productivity was defi ned dividing the grain mass collected from a square metre from the number of productive stems. Grain moisture content. The grains from every sample are placed into 3 weighing bottles. The weighing bottles were numbered prematurely and weighed together with the grains. Weighing bottles without tops were positioned into the drying oven preheated up to 105 oC. After the grains reached the constant mass the drying oven was opened and covered weighing bottles were left in the drying oven. After the weighing bottles with the grains reached the laboratory room temperature they were weighted. The grain moisture content was calculated comparing the grain mass of wet and dry grains. The percent of laying crops was estimated by visual inspection of the laying crop area and the total crop area. The intensity of laying crops was estimated in points. The average grain yield was determined in the laboratory after threshing of the grains from the test plots.

Results

It has been noticed that after the sowing of winter wheat and determining of the moisture content in various layers of seed bed, the moisture evaporated very quickly during dry weather. The least soil moisture content was in Marijampolė region where the moisture of the ploughed soil in the depth of seed introduction was below 2 per cent. In 2006 the soil moisture content in different layers of seed bed were several times greater than in 2005 but it was insuffi cient to ensure good conditions of seed germination (recommended norm was 18 – 22 %). Tests disclosed that it is possible to minimize moisture losses in no-tillage soils when the yield vegetation residues are introduced into the upper soil surface with the help of cultivator. In 2005 after sowing into no-tillage soil with insuffi cient moisture content because of dry weather and lack of precipitation, the soil moisture content in Marijampolė region was about 3,0 – 4,0 times and in Pasvalys region 1,5 – 2,0 times greater than in ploughed soil. In 2006 in no-tillage soil only in the upper layer of the seed bed (< 15 mm) was determined the soil moisture content that was by 30 % greater than that in the ploughed soil. The soil hardness is very important factor for the quality of seed introduction. The method of soil preparation, soil moisture content, amount of yield residues etc. has signifi cant impact on the soil hardness. The performed tests showed that the hardness of the upper layer (up to 50 mm) of ploughed soil (Fig.1) from that of no-tillage soil (Fig.2) in various regions varied insignifi cantly. Only in deeper layers the hardness of the ploughed soil increased more evenly than in no-tillage soil. More impetuous increase of soil hardness in no-tillage soil was noticed in the depth where soil loosening ended. In 2005 due to lack of moisture in the depth of seed introduction (30 - 45 mm) the soil hardness was about 200 kPa greater than in 2006.

396 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Figure 1. The soil hardness in different depth

Figure 2. The hardness of unploughed soil in different depth

Seed introduction in the same depth has the greatest impact on even seed germination, plant development and maturity. In 2005 the winter wheat seeds were introduced unevenly due to greater soil hardness in the dry ploughed soil in Marijampolė region. Seed distribution in various seed bed layers varied from 20 to 41 % (Fig.3). About 5 % of seeds were not introduced into the soil. In some soil places the coulters cut the hard soil surface and formed the furrow but seed remained on the furrow bottom uncovered because of the lack of tiny fraction of soil lumps. IN other ploughed soils the seeds were introduced rather evenly (from 72 to 82 %) in the depth of 30 - 45 mm, and the rest part of seeds was in the depth of 15 - 30 mm. In no-tillage soils the winter wheat seeds were mostly introduced in the depth of 15 - 30 mm. In 2005 in Pasvalys region only 78 % of seeds were introduced into the soil because of the increased seed introduction depth of 30 - 45 mm.

Figure 3. Uniform introduction of winter wheat seeds in ploughed soil

The composition of the soil clods is very important factor that infl uences seed germination. The bigger factions of soil clods should prevail in top soil surface. This better protects the soil surface fro wind erosion and crust formation. In the depth of seed introduction more fi ne clods (< 2 mm) should be in the soil. Small clods should more evenly burry seeds as this improves soil and seed contact, the seeds swell and germinate more quickly. In 2005 in Marijampolė region 88 % of the clods in the ploughed soil surface layer (< 15 mm depth) were greater than 5 mm diameter (Table 1). This could be one of the reasons why the clod structure on the soil surface had negative infl uence to the seed introduction. In 2006 in unploughed soil in the depth of 10 – 30 and 30 – 45 mm the number of fi ne clods was by 20% less. In Pasvalys region both in unploughed and ploughed soils the ratio of clod distribution was better. The amount of fi ne clods (< 2 mm) in the depth of seedbed was by 30 – 40 % less. The clods which were bigger than 5 mm on soil surface were from 40 to 60 %.

397 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 1. Clod composition in various seedbed layers of ploughed and unploughed soil Soil aggregates % Seedbed Soil tillage system Years layers mm 2005 2006 Pasvalys region < 2 mm 2-5 mm > 5 mm < 2 mm 2-5 mm > 5 mm <15 27,5 13,5 59,0 36,6 21,5 41,9 Ploughed 15-30 32,1 19,4 48,5 39,2 24,8 36,0 30-45 39,8 17,3 42,9 42,5 21,7 35,8 <15 16,5 21,9 61,6 11,2 18,7 70,1 Not-ploughed 15-30 32,3 25,6 42,1 28,6 27,9 43,5 30-45 34,4 24,2 41,4 37,9 28,1 34,0 Marijampole region <15 5,6 6,4 88,0 20,3 14,6 65,1 Ploughed 15-30 24,4 19,9 55,7 30,0 22,5 47,5 30-45 28,1 18,9 53,0 18,2 25,4 56,4 <15 12,1 21,4 66,5 13,8 15,7 70,5 Not-ploughed 15-30 17,4 14,2 68,4 19,3 21,6 59,1 30-45 15,2 19,3 65,5 11,8 16,8 71,4

Seed germination is one of the most important results showing the quality of seed introduction. In 2005 having in mind the fact of moisture lack and greater soil hardness, and imbalance of the soil lump ratio, the seed introduction both in ploughed and no-tillage soils was more complicated. This meant different germination of winter wheat seeds (Fig.4). The reasons mentioned above governed that in 2005 seed germination was two times less than in 2006 despite the method of soil cultivation or sowing technology.

Figure 4. The infl uence of various soil preparation methods for the winter wheat seed germination

Winter wheat in Pasvalys and Marijampolė regions was grown both in ploughed and no-tillage soils. The height of winter wheat grown in no-tillage soil in Pasvalys region was 0,66 m (Table 2) and that of winter wheat grown in Marijampolė was 0,78 m.

Table 2. Winter wheat yield structure parameters in Pasvalys region Years Average values of indices 2006 2007 Ploughed Not-ploughed Ploughed Not-ploughed Stem number units · (m2)-1 320 289 - 549 Number of productive stems units · (m2)-1 311 274 - 543 Plant height m 0,69 0,63 - 0,68 Ear length mm 66,5 77 - 73,9 Grain number in an ear units 35,7 35,5 - 38,7 Number of undeveloped grains in an ear units 0,4 0,03 - 0,83 Mass of 1000 grains at standard moisture content g 35,53 36,82 - 45,55 Average ear productivity at standard moisture 1,27 1,32 - 1,76 content g Crop laying % 2-3 2-3 - 2-3 Biological grain yield t·ha-1 3,94 3,64 - 7,36

398 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

The number of grains in an ear was approximately 37,1 grains. The grains in ears were big – the mass of 1000 grains was about 42 g. The crop density of winter wheat and average grain number in an ear in Pasvalys region was less thus the biological grain yield in Marijampolė region was about 0,2 t·ha-1 greater. The greatest yield of winter wheat grown in no-tillage soil was in Marijampolė region. Winter wheat plant height was 0,85 m (Table 3). There were about 553 productive stems in a square metre, and the mass of 1000 grains was 45,45 g.

Table 3. Winter wheat yield structure parameters in Marijampole region Years Average values of indices 2006 2007 Ploughed Not-ploughed Ploughed Not-ploughed Stem number units · (m2)-1 440 297 506 554 Number of productive stems units · (m2)-1 436 289 555 551 Plant height m 0,67 0,66 0,85 0,89 Ear length mm 89,3 74,6 76,11 85,38 Grain number in an ear units 41,4 35,5 41,1 43,3 Number of undeveloped grains in an ear units 0,29 1,61 0,79 0,6 Mass of 1000 grains at standard moisture content g 38,18 37,6 45,45 44,16 Average ear productivity at standard moisture content g 1,58 1,26 1,87 1,92 Crop laying % 4-5 4-6 8-10 8-10 Biological grain yield t·ha-1 6,96 3,85 7,81 7,53

Biological grain yield was 7,81 t·ha-1. Winter wheat crops both in Pasvalys and Marijampolė regions were laid in some places.

Conclusions

1. Soil moisture content, soil hardness, lump composition in the soil, the method of yield residue introduction into the soil has the greatest impact on the evenness of winter wheat seed introduction when disc drill coulters are used. 2. When sowing into no-tillage soil the moisture content in the upper soil surface is 30 % greater if compared with the sowing into ploughed soil. During dry years the soil moisture evaporation can be reduced even to 4 times. 3. The method of soil cultivation and sowing technology had no signifi cant impact on winter wheat seed germination, development and grain yield. Meteorological conditions had greater infl uence to yield structure parameters.

Acknowledgement The research was supported by the Lithuanian State Science and Studies Foundation.

References

Epperlein J., Metz R. (1998) Unverzichbare Helfer im Boden. Landwirtschaft ohne Pfl ug Nr.4, S.13-15. Gruber W. (1994) Der Einfl uss der Bodenbearbeitung auf die Gefügestabilität von Ackerböden. Beurteilung von Bodenbearbeitungssystemen hinsichtlich ihrer Arbeitseffekte und deren langfristige Auswirkungen auf den Boden. Wiss. Fachverlag, Giessen, S.17-40. Haberland R. (1997) Vereinfachte Bestellung verlangt gutes Management. Neue Landwirtschaft Nr.6, S.1-4. Håkanson I., von Polgál J. (1984) Experiments on the effects of seedbed characteristics on seedling emergence in dry weather situation. Soil and Tillage Research Nr. 4, p.35-115. Romaneckas K., Romaneckienė R., Pilipavičius V., Šarauskis E. (2009). Impact of sowing depth and seedbed rolling on sugar beet. Zemdirbyste- Agriculture Vol.96 Nr.1, p.39-52. Romaneckas K., Pilipavičius V., Šarauskis E., Sakalauskas A. (2009). Effect of sowing depth on emergence and crop establishment of sugar beet (Beta vulgaris L.). Journal of Food, Agriculture & Environment Vol. 7 (2), p.571-575. Spicher J., Steide M. (1986) Einschränkung schädlicher Bodenverdichtungen im Verfahren der Zuckerrübenproduktion. Feldwirtschaft Nr.9, S.398- 400. Steinert K. (1994) Untersuchungen zur Einbettung des Saatkornes in die Saatrille. Dissertation. Halle/Saale, S100. arauskis E., Köller K., Butkus V. (2005). Research on technological parameters to determine the design factors of direct drilling coulters for sugar beets. Landbauforschung Völkenrode 3 (55), p.171-180. arauskis E., pokas L. (2002). Substantiation of technological parameters of complex coulters in sugar beet direct seeding. Conference: Agricultural Engineering 2002. VDI BERICHTE Vol. 1716, p. 377-382.

399 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Tebrügge F. (1994) Beurteilug von Bodenbearbeitungssystemen unter den Aspekten von Bodenschutz und Ökonomie. Beurteilung von Bodenbearbeitungssystemen hinsichtlich ihrer Arbeitseffekte und deren langfristige Auswirkungen auf den Boden. Wissenschaftlicher Fachverlag. Giessen, S.5-16.

Tebrügge F., Böhrnsen A. (2000) Direktsaat. Beurteilung durch Landwirte und Experten in der EU und Nebraska. Landtechnik Nr1, S.17-19.

Egidijus ŠARAUSKIS. Doctor of Technological Sciences, Associated professor, Department of Agricultural Machinery of the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Field research: Soil tillage and sowing machinery, sustainable tillage. Address: Studentu str. 15A, LT-53361, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Tel. 8-37-752377. Edvardas VAICIUKEVIČIUS. Doctor of Technological Sciences, Associated professor, Department of Agricultural Machinery of the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Field research: Harvesting technologies and machinery construction. Address: Studentu str. 15A, LT-53361, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Tel. 8-37-752357. Antanas SAKALAUSKAS. Doctor of Technological Sciences, Associated professor, Department of Agricultural Machinery of the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Field research: Soil tillage and sowing machinery. Address: Studentu str. 15A, LT-53361, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Tel. 8-37-752357. Mindaugas MARTINKUS. Doctor of Technological Sciences, Associated professor, Department of Agricultural Machinery of the Lithuanian University of Agriculture. Field research: Soil tillage and sowing machinery. Address: Studentu str. 15A, LT-53361, Akademija, Kauno r., Lithuania, E-mail: [email protected], Tel. 8-37-752357.

400 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Fuel Consumption While Harvesting of Crops with Axial Flow Combine- harvester

Liudvikas Špokas, Dainius Steponavičius Lithuanian University of Agriculture Saulius Sagatys Joint-stock company Dotnuvos projektai, Lithuania

Abstract

Hourly and per ton fuel consumption of combine harvester with axial threshing-separation drum is determined for idle running conditions and for conditions of cutting winter wheat ‛Zentos’, summer wheat ‘Estrad and winter barley ‘Kruiser’. At zero combine harvester speed and at engine speed of rotation equal to 2100 rpm and the gears of cutter bar, threshing device and straw chopper is turned off fuel consumption reaches 24.0±0.28 l h-1. If the rotation speed of the engine crankshaft was reduced to 1600 rpm, the hourly fuel consumption was 14.1±0.31 l. When combine-harvester does not operate, the gears of cutter bar and threshing apparatus should be switched off and the rotation speed should be minimized to at least 1600 rpm. When the rational crop fl ow of 12 kg s-1 is supplied into combine-harvester, the hourly fuel consumption of winter wheat harvesting is 70.0 l, that of summer wheat is 79.2 l, that of winter barley is 52.1 l. Variation in fuel consumption depends on operation conditions, yield, the ratio of grains and all the crop mass, and the combine-harvester running speed. Hourly fuel consumption of grain unloading from the grain tank is 7.8 l.

Introduction

Combine-harvesters with axial fl ow threshing-separation drum comprise about 5% of all presently manufactured combine-harvesters. In 1977 the fi rst combines of such a type were started to sell by the company Case (Busse, 1988) in North America. They were designed to harvest dry crops thus were of no interest in Europe for rather a long time. Since 2003 the production of medium capacity combine-harvesters with newly designed threshing-separation drum Case AFX 8010 was initiated. These combine-harvesters equally as combine-harvesters with straw walkers were able to harvest crops during bad weather conditions. Now combine-harvesters with one axial drum (Case, John Deere, Fend, Massey Ferguson, Deutz Fahr) and with two drums New Holland CR are produced. It has been anticipated that in the future every third manufactured combine-harvester would have axial threshing-separation drum. Combine-harvesters with axial threshing-separation drum are more effi cient if compared with those having tangential threshing drum because the axial threshing drum is about 1.5 times longer, its diameter is greater, concaves surround the drum at the angle of 180º, the movement speed of the drum beaters is about 10 m s-1 greater (Rademacher, 2003). Axial threshing-separation drum moves the crop in the direction of drum axis, rotates and grinds the crop in the gap between the drum beaters and concave cross bars. For this reason the crop moisture content has the greatest impact on the operation qualitative indices (Kutzbach, 1989, Byg and Hall, 1968). Wacker (1988) determined that the throughput of the axial threshing-separation apparatus is closely connected with moisture content of the threshed crop mass. When the wet weed moisture in wheat crop was 20%, the throughput of the threshing apparatus decreased by 60%, and the energy consumption to separate a ton of straw mass increased for approximately 1.1 kWh. When mature crops of average moisture content were threshed, the threshing grain losses and grain kernel damage were less if compared with the indices of tangential threshing apparatus (Arnoldus et al., 1979). Parallel testing of combine-harvesters with axial threshing-separation drum and those with tangential threshing apparatus fulfi lled in Hungary validated the laboratory test data (Zsolt et al., 2005). Combine-harvester with one axial threshing-separation drum consumed more fuel for the separation of a ton of winter wheat grain if compared with combine-harvester with tangential threshing apparatus. Weather conditions during crop harvesting, construction of combine-harvester, and operator qualifi cation together with other factors infl uences the fuel consumption during crop harvesting (Nielsen and Luoma, 2000; Safa and Tabatabaeerfar, 2008). Under favorable terms the fuel consumption to harvest a crop hectare is from 17 to 20 liters of diesel fuel. Under less favorable conditions the fuel consumption increases up to 25 liters (Vitlox and Michot, 2000). Many authors presented average hourly or calculated fuel consumption expenditures for the harvesting of a ton of grain, but their behavior or the character change, reasons and minimization methods were not disclosed. Research goal is to defi ne hourly fuel consumption of combine-harvester and that of the harvesting of a ton of grain and to suggest the methods and means for fuel consumption reduction. Research object is the axial fl ow combine-harvester with one threshing-separation drum.

Investigation methods

Field tests of combine-harvester Case IH 8010 operation were fulfi lled and hourly fuel consumption and that for threshing of a ton of grain were determined. The width of the cutter bar of combine harvester was 7.32 m, threshing drum diameter was 0.762 m, length was 2.623 m, concave surrounding angle was 180º, total concave area was 2.8 m2, area of cleaner sieves was 6.5 m2, grain tank capacity was 1050 l, and motor capacity was 298/405 kW/AG.

401 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Atmospheric conditions. They were estimated in accordance with the data of Meteorological Station of Kaunas region. Biometrical indices. Winter wheat ‘Zentos’, wheat ‘Estrad’ and winter barley ‘Kruizer’ were fi eld tested to determine biometrical indices. Five test replications were made in fi eld plots of 0.25 m2 area. Plants were cut and weighed (data accuracy was 0.01 g), and the average height was determined after measuring stems. Threshed grains were weighed and their moisture content was measured, as well as the mass of 1000 grains and biological yield of grains with 14% moisture content. Fuel consumption. They were measured with Swiss company Automotive Information and Control Systems AG instrument AIC-888 Instructor, the calibration of which corresponded to Euro-Norm 95/54/CE. Throughput of the measuring instrument was from 4 to 200 l h-1, and measuring error was ±1%. One tip of the instrument was connected with the fuel tank via the hose, another tip was connected with fuel supply pump, and the third one was connected with fuel recovery line. Measuring instrument via the cable was connected with a monitor mounted in the cabin of combine- harvester. When combine-harvester Case AFX 8010 harvested crop in 100 m strip of the fi eld, the following computer indices were recorded: stubble height, combine-harvester speed, technological parameters of the combine separators and the change of fuel consumption. During the tests combine-harvester speed, crop fl ow supplied into the threshing-separation device and technological parameters of combine separators were varied. The change of fuel consumption was also recorded when it did not operate and when grain was discharged from the grain tank. Fuel consumption of 1ha-1 and l t-1 were calculated. Investigation data were estimated after calculation of average confi dence integral for 95% probability level.

Investigation results

Combine-harvester working conditions. Weather conditions in the third decade of July 2007 were very unfavorable for harvesting of winter rape and grain crops with the rainfall of 41.9 mm. Wind gusts fl attened the crop. Thus the harvest time began only in August. The fi rst and second decades had 20.6 mm of rainfall and the third had 58.4 mm of rainfall. Grain crops and rape were fi nished to harvest at the beginning of September. Crop biometrical indices. Fuel consumption of combine-harvester Case IH 8010 was determined while harvesting winter wheat ‘Zentos’, wheat ‘Estrad’ and winter barley ‘Kruizer’ (Table 1). After three tanks of winter barley grains were threshed and the harvested area was measured, it was defi ned that actual yield was about 0.2 t ha-1 less than biological yield. Wheat of ‘Estrad’ variety was the highest thus the ratio of grains and all the mass was 0.5 and grain yield was only 4.3 t ha-1.

Table 1. Crop biometrical indices Measurement Wheat Barley Indices units ‛Zentos’ ‛Estrad’ ‛Kruizer’ Number of productive stems stems m-2 505.33±28.70 386.67±33.30 586.67±58.96 Stem length till ears m 0.58±0.01 0.74±0.02 0.57±0.01 Grain number in an ear units 37.10±1.57 30.10±2.11 22.62±0.73 Grain mass of an ear (14% moisture content) g 1.31±0.07 1.12±0.09 1.21±0.06 Straw mass (18% moisture content) g m-2 507.67±37.10 434.60±22.42 417.12±17.49 Grain mass (14% moisture content) g m-2 633.23±14.70 430.40±14.58 700.39±65.12 1000 grain mass (14% moisture content) g 33.94±4.68 38.80±0.49 52.51±2.07 Biological yield (14% moisture content) t ha-1 5.68±2.66 4.30±0.15 7.00±0.65

Fuel consumption. Fuel consumption can be reduced when combine-harvester does not operate, runs idle, harvests crops and unloads grain from the grain tank. During the crop harvest the engine works on its maximum speed because its rotation frequency is related with all technological gears. But when the combine-harvester does not operate, runs idle or discharges grain from the grain tank the engine can work on slower speed and consume less fuel. Combine- harvester speed and crop fl ow supplied into threshing-separation apparatus are limited by the permissible engine load and the grain losses during chaff and straw separation (permissible limit 0.5%). Computer records engine load and the change of grain losses. Fuel consumption at idle engine running. When combine-harvester was not operating the rotation speed of the engine crankshaft was varied (Fig. 1). When the crankshaft rotated at 2100 rpm, hourly fuel consumption was 24.0±0.28 l. Extra 10.4 l h-1 fuel was used to rotate all the combine-harvester gears – 7.3 l h-1 of fuel were used to rotate gear of threshing apparatus, 1.8 l h-1 of fuel was used to rotate the gear of cutting device, and 1.3 l h-1 of fuel was used to rotate grain discharge auger. When the rotation speed of the engine crankshaft was reduced to 1600 rpm, the hourly fuel

402 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment consumption was 14.1±0.31 l, and 5 l h-1 of fuel was used to rotate all technological gears. When combine-harvester does not operate, the gears of cutting device and threshing apparatus should be switched off and the rotation speed should be minimized to at least 1600 rpm.

Figure 1. Impact of the engine crankshaft rotation frequency (n) on the hourly fuel consumption (B) when combine-harvester

Case AFX 8010 does not operate: rotation speed of threshing-separation drum was n=1100 rpm, ventilator rotation speed was n1=800 rpm, straw chopper rotation speed was n2=3000 rpm, and concave position was a=2 -5 1.636 2 1 – idle motor running, B1= 9·10 n , R =0.99; -5 1.87 2 2 – gears of cutting device and threshing apparatus were switched on, B2= 2·10 n , R =0.99

Fuel consumption when combine-harvester is on idle running. Combine-harvester is on idle running when it drives into the fi eld, turns at the end of the fi eld and drives to the next bar. Fuel consumption mostly depends on the road pavement, soil moisture content, tire width, air pressure in tires, and combine-harvester speed. In order to save fuel on idle running technological gears should be switched off and engine rotation speed should be reduced. Tests showed (Fig.2) that when the combine-harvester speed on the graveled road was 8 km h-1, the fuel consumption was about 8.4±0.3 l h-1 less than when running on the wet stubble. When the running speed is decreased the fuel consumption difference minimizes and when the speed is decreased to 1 km h-1 the difference of fuel consumption is negligible. With technological gears of combine-harvester switched on the hourly fuel consumption maximized by -1 11.9±0.38 l and was 47.0±0.3 l at vm=8 km h . Combine-harvester on idle running should drive as quickly as possible with technological gears switched off.

Figure 2. Impact of running speed (v) of combine-harvester Case AFX 8010 on the hourly fuel consumption (B): 1 – on graveled road, B=0.0333v2+0.317v+21.873, R2=0.99; 2 – on wet wheat stubble (soil moisture content 20.83%) with switched off gears of cutting device and threshing apparatus, B=0.1144v2+0.8526v+21.417, R2=0.99;

3 – on wet wheat stubble with switched on gears of cutting device and threshing apparatus, n=1100 rpm, n1=800 rpm, n2=3000 rpm, B=31.39e0.0486v, R2=0.98

Fuel consumption during crop harvesting. Winter barley ‘Kruizer’ the yield of which was 6.8 t ha-1 was harvested. Increasing the running speed of combine-harvester (Fig.3) the greater crop fl ow was supplied into the threshing- separation apparatus thus more fuel was used to thresh and chop the straw. More fuel was used for combine-harvester running. The comparison of the test results showed that at idle running of combine-harvester when the running speed through the wheat stubble with technological gears switched on was 7 km h-1, the hourly fuel consumption was 44.6±0.37 l (Fig.2). When barley ‘Kruizer’ was supplied into combine-harvester with the crop fl ow of 14.91 kg s-1, fuel consumption

403 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment was 62.2±0.25 l (Fig.3). To thresh a ton of grains 1.79±0.01 l of fuel was used. Hourly fuel consumption of technological process of barley harvesting was about 18 l h-1 (when the supplied crop fl ow was 14.9 kg s-1), and comprised about one third of engine fuel consumption. When the barley fl ow supplied into combine-harvester was increased by 1 kg s-1, the hourly fuel consumption increased by 2.12 l, and to thresh a ton of grains it decreased by 0.2 l. Hourly fuel consumption and that to harvest a ton of grains of summer wheat ‘Estrad’ and winter wheat ‘Zentos’ were compared (Fig.4). Wheat ‘Zentos’ was fl attened in some places, wheat ‘Estrad’ was harvested on the 3rd of September when the soil was wet (22.3%). When the crop fl ow of 12 kg s-1 was supplied into threshing-separation apparatus, the hourly fuel consumption to harvest wheat ‘Estrad’ was by 7.3 l greater than that of wheat ‘Zentos’. Yield of wheat ‘Zentos’ was by 1.3 t ha-1 greater than yield of wheat ‘Estrad’ thus the running speed of combine-harvester was by 2 km h-1 slower and less fuel was used. Soil moisture had some impact on fuel consumption.

Figure 3. Impact of running speed of combine harvester (vm) and the supply of the barley ‘Kruiser’ fl ow (m) into threshing- -1 separation apparatus on hourly fuel consumption (B) and fuel consumption to thresh a ton of grains (Bt): n=800 min , n1=860 -1 -1 min , n2=3000 min , gaps between the upper sieve scales were b=18 mm, bottom sieve – b1=12 mm, grain moisture content was -1 U1=12.7%, straw moisture content was U2=17.8%, yield Ag=6.8 t ha ; 1 – B=32.65e0.0846v, R2=0.85; B=32.65e0.0397m , R2=0.96; -0.221v 2 -0.1036m 2 2 – Bt=6.579e , R =0.86; Bt=6.579e , R =0.86

Comparison of hourly fuel consumption to harvest winter barley ‘Kruiser’ and winter wheat ‘Zentos’ (Figs. 3 and 4) when combine-harvester running speed was 5.5 km h-1 and the crop fl ow supplied into the combine-harvester was 12 kg s-1 the fuel consumption to harvest winter barley ‘Kruiser’ was by 21.5 l less than that to harvest wheat ‘Zentos’ because the ratio of barley grains and all the crop mass was 0.7 and that of wheat was 0.5. More power was used to rumple and chop the straw than to thresh the ears.

Figure 4. Impact of wheat fl ow (m) supplied by combine-harvester Case AFX 8010 on hourly fuel consumption (B) and that to thresh a ton of grains (Bt): -1 -1 -1 1 and 3 – summer wheat ‛Estrad’, n=1100 min , n1=800 min , n2=3000 min , b=15 mm, b1=12 mm, U1=13.6%, U2=15.9%, -1 0.063m 2 –0.0507m 2 Ag=4.3 t ha ; B=36.74e , R =0.97; Bt=6.405e , R =0.99; -1 -1 -1 2 and 4 – winter wheat ‛Zentos’, n = 900 min , n1 = 800 min , n2 = 3000 min , b=22 mm, b1=16 mm, U1=16.5%, U2=19.5%, -1 0.054m 2 –0.0338m 2 Ag=5.6 t ha ; B=36.22e , R =0.96; Bt=4.903e , R =0.99

Hourly fuel consumption of wheat ‘Zentos’ grains unload from the grain tank were determined. This depended on grain amount in the grain tank, i.e., the loading degree of the auger. When the grain tank was full of wheat grains the

404 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment hourly fuel consumption was 42.8±0.73 l, when half of the grain tank was unloaded it was 39.0±0.77 l, and at the end of the unloading it was 33.1±0.67 l. Hourly fuel consumption of grain unloading alone was 7.8 l.

Conclusions

1. When combine-harvester does not operate and the engine runs at the speed of 1600 rpm, and the technological gears are switched off 19.1 l of diesel fuel are saved. At the running speed of 8 km h-1 when combine-harvester runs through the stubble, the hourly fuel consumption is by 8.4±0.3 l greater than when it runs through the graveled road. After the technological gears are switched on the fuel consumption increased for 11.9±0.38 l. Thus combine-harvester should run idle with switched off technological rears and as quickly as possible. 2. When the rational crop fl ow of 12 kg s-1 is supplied into combine-harvester, the hourly fuel consumption of winter wheat harvesting is 70.0 l, that of summer wheat is 79.2 l, that of winter barley is 52.1 l. Variation in fuel consumption depends on operation conditions, yield, the ratio of grains and all the crop mass, and the combine-harvester running speed. When the rational crop fl ow has been supplied into combine-harvester, fuel consumption to thresh a ton of grains is from 2.0 l t-1 to 3.5 l t-1. 3. Hourly fuel consumption of grain unloading from the grain tank is 7.8 l.

Reference

Arnoldus Lo., Seitz W., Stroppel A. (1979). Vergleichende Untersuchungen eines Tangential- und eines Axialdreschwerkes für Körnermais. Grundlagen der Landtechnik. Bd. 29, Nr. 4, S. 119–124. Busse W. (1988). Separationssysteme – Erntekosten. Mähdrescher. Verein deutscher Ingenieure, Heft 6, S. 15–29. Rademacher T. (2003). Mähdrescher. Die Qual der richtigen Wahl. Getreide Magazin. Heft 3, S.186–191. Kutzbach H.-D. (1989). Einfl uss der Stoffeingenschaften auf die Leistungsfähigkeit landwirtschaftlicher Maschinen. Agricultural Engineering: Agricultural Mechanization. Rotterdam: Balkema, Bd. 3, S. 1973–1980. Byg, D.M., Hall, G.E. (1968). Corn losses and kernel damage in fi eld shelling of corn. Transactions of ASAE. Bd. 11, Nr. 2, S. 51–55. Wacker P. (1988). Einfl uss eines erhöhten Grüngut anteils auf die Arbeitsqualität von Dreschwerken. Mähdrescher. Verein deutscher Ingenieure. Heft 6. S. 59–72. Zsolt K., Komlodi I., Petö V. (2005). Der Verlauf der Durchsatzleistung, der Kornverluste und des Treibstoffverbrauches bei Mähdreschern unterschiedlicher Konstruktion in der Weizenernte. Mähdrescher. Verein deutscher Ingenieure. Heft 38. S.117–124. Nielsen V., Luoma T. (2000). Energy consumption: overview of data foundation and extract of results. Agricultural data for Life Cycle Assessments. B.P. Weidema and M.J.G. Meeusen (eds.). Agricultural Economics Research Institute (LEI), The Hague, Vol. 1, 51–69. Safa M., Tabatabaeerfar A. (2008). Fuel consumption in wheat production in irrigated and dry land farming. World journal of agricultural science, 4 (1), 86–90.

Liudvikas ŠPOKAS. Habil. dr. prof., Pilėnų 9–25, Akademija, tel. + 370 612 56120, el. paštas [email protected] Dainius STEPONAVIČIUS. Dr., docentas, LŽŪU Žemės ūkio mašinų katedra, Studentų 15A, Akademija, Kauno r., tel. +370 674 27721, el. paštas [email protected] Saulius SAGATYS. Inž., UAB Dotnuvos projektai. Parko 6, Akademija, Kėdainių r., tel. + 370 615 29352, el. paštas [email protected]

405 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Bioenergy Plants Harvesting and Evaluation of Physical-mechanical Properties of Stems Chaff

Inga Ulozevičiūtė, Algirdas Jasinskas Lithuanian University of Agriculture

Abstract

This paper provides the technique for chopping the bioenergy plants – topinambours and willows, which are usable for solid fuel. It is presented characteristics of plants chaff, which is chopped by different choppers. As well you will fi nd methodology of evaluation of energy plants stems chaff physical-mechanical properties and discussion of experimental investigation results. Experimental investigations were made on manual way cut, in experimentation friend grown up, energy plants stems, which were chopped up by choppers of E-281C and PZ Zweegers, by drum chopper of Maral-125 combine, timber chopper 25 DH-E, drum type forage chopper SPP-1,. There are stated these energy plants stems chaff physical-mechanical properties: moisture content, density, natural crumble and fall angle and evaluated thinness of chaff.

Introduction

The necessity in reduction of electricity, natural gas and other energy carriers consumption is one of the most topical tasks of Lithuanian energy sectors. Continual price rising for additional fuels and decommission a nuclear power plant enforces the country forced to search immediate for alternative energy sources and implement energy saving technologies. Utilization of easily accessible and cheap local fuels for energy production will lead to strengthening of energy independence of Lithuania. Also it will help to prevent ecological problems such as greenhouse effect increasing gases or acid rains. Biomass is a renewable, pollution-free fuel, which utilization does not contribute to global greenhouse effect. It is the fourth by value fuel in the world, providing nearly 2 billion tce/yr, witch amounts to about 14 % of the total world primary energy consumption (in developing countries - more than 30 %, and sometimes up to 50-80 %). The information analysis of the utilisation of energy plants abroad show, that various kinds of grassy plants, such as fl ax, hemp, topinambours, sunfl owers are used for the energy purposes abroad (Strasil at al., 1994; Juska at al., 1994; Production at elefantgras, 1992; Jasinskas, Kryževičienė, 1998). Non-traditional grasses, such as miscantus sinensis and sorgo are grown in Scandinavian countries, Germany, Czech Republic and other countries (Strasil at al., 1994; Hadders, Olsson, 1997; Hadders, 1997). For energy purposes can be used and woody plants, such as willows, poplars. Willows (Salix viminalis) can grow in the different land, in the poor land too. Farmers of the Sweden began to grow willows for solid fuel about 15 years ago. Area of willows plantations now inclusive about 16 500 ha of arable land in Sweden (Hadders, 1997; Birger Danfors at al.,1998). For harvesting and chopping of willows can be used mobile harvesters, such as ”Yaguar”, and stationary choppers, produced of different fi rms (Hadders, 1997). While preparation of willows and other energy plants for fuel, it is important to cut stems of plants into small chaffs (length – 15–20 mm), and other physical-mechanical properties of these plants – moisture content, density, angles of fall and natural crumble, are important too. Topinambours are popular in many countries, their roots can be used as food or in pharmaceutics, and the stems can be utilised for the energy purposes (Production at elefantgras, 1992). The stems of these plants are similar to the stems of the sunfl owers, but the yield is bigger. The topinambours are widely used in Austria, France and USA. They are grown in the area of 2.5 million ha all over the world (Production at elefantgras, 1992). The problem of the growing of energy plants and their use as a fuel is unexpended in Lithuania. There are vast areas of unused land in Lithuania, there is also infertile land and unsuitable for agriculture lands, where the plantations of energy plants could be established. For this purpose could be used about 10–15 % area of the agricultural land. The investigation in this fi eld was recently started in Lithuanian University of Agriculture Institute of Agricultural Engineering (Production at elefantgras, 1992; Jasinskas, Kryževičienė, 1998). The results of tests show, that the yield of topinambours was 14.8 t/ha of the dry matter in October, the sunfl owers gave 11.1t/ha of the dry matter (Production at elefantgras, 1992). Exploratory research on large-stalked energy plants cultivation and preparation for fuels is carried out to identify effective large-stalked grassy plants suitable to be used for energy purposes under Lithuania’s climate conditions. Promising energy plants are willows (Salix viminalis). This undemanding plant can be grown by the roadsides, on slopes, etc. Growing common osier presents new possibilities of having an alternative source for heat production, moreover, there are about 500 000 ha of unused soils in Lithuania (Žemės ūkio ir kaimo plėtros.... 2002; Pramoninės biotechnologijos plėtros..., 2006). One hectare well cared plants can give yearly yield up to 20 tons of dry mass, witch energy equivalent is about 5000 liters petroleum. Approximately, 1 kWh electricity is received from one kilogram willows (Žaltauskas, Ramoška, 2002). Willows for energy purpose are grown in coppice. Plant is harvested by intervals almost on the ground level. That allow for the plant grow more than one tiller. Bush of willow might be cut up to 6 times usually every 3-5 years.

406 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

After the last harvesting (after 25 years) stumps might be removed and the land could be used for agricultural purposes or plant with willows coppice again (Basalykas, 2005). The results of tests show, that the yearly yield of willows was 14 t/ha (about 50 % moisture) ( ateikis, 2006). Willows of different species can also be used for energy need; they can make a great potential of energy plants which cannot be related with materials used for producing the greenhouse effect increasing gases or acid rains. Willows are used for ecological fuel to reduce pollution as well. As plants are not grown for food, they can be sprayed with polluted water and fertilized with liquid materials (e.g. slurry sludge). Willows can be used to purify waters polluted with waste, reduce alkalis from waste burying sites; it can be used to improve the contaminated land (Jasinskas,2006; 14 Handbook for energy forestry..., 1986; 15 Christersson L., Ledin, 1998). Willows leaves that fall down on the soil are liable to neutralize acidity (in contrast to pine or blue spruce (Hadders, Olsson, 1997). The aim of investigation is to evaluate main physical-mechanical properties of stems chaff and to estimate chopping quality of bioenergy plants chopped by different choppers.

Objects and Methods

Experimental test were accomplished by using topinombours stems grown in farm of K.Ulozevičius in 2004- 2005 year. Stems dried under the natural conditions (moisture 15-16%) were chopped by choppers E-281C and PZ Zweegers. The test was repeated with topinombuors (moisture 16%) and willows (moisture 25%) grown in experimental fi eld of Lithuanian Institute of Agricultural Engineering. For the fi rst experiment to chop stems were used choppers 25 DH-E and Maral – 125. The tests of chopping quality and physical - mechanical properties of energy plants were fulfi lled in the test basis of Lithuanian Institute of Agricultural Engineering. Physical mechanical characteristics – moisture, density, the angle of fall and natural crumble (Fig. 1), fi neness of chopping – of chopped large-stalked plant stems were established.

Figure 1. Scheme of equipment for establishing the angle of fall αgr and natural crumble αn: 1 – horizontal surfer; 2 – valve; 3 – revolving ruler; 4 – protractor; 5 – ruler underneath with spirit-level

Physical-mechanical properties of plant stems – moisture, mass dimensions, stem density etc. are determined according to the standard methodology. The density of stems is defi ned by cutting them into 1 m length parts, by weighing them and measuring the moisture content. The density of chopped plant stems was determined in the special cylinder (capacity 5.7 dm3). Stems were chopped by the fodder and timber choppers. The quality of stems chopping is defi ned by the Danish methodology (Jasinskas, Kryževičienė, 1998; Jasinskas, 2006). For this purpose we used four sieves with the different diameters of holes: round, diameter 45 mm, 7 mm, 5 mm, and oblong (width 8 mm ) Table 1. The samples of the chopped mass (2–3 kg) we sifted through the sieves and determined the mass of the chopped stems on the sieves. We compared quality of the stems chopping and the other physical - mechanical properties of the different energy plants. Chaff fi neness of bionergy plants stems used for fuel is determined on the basis of the requirements for combustion chambers, storages and chaff transportation implements used in boiler-houses.

Results and Discussion

The main physical mechanical characteristics (fi neness of stem chaff) of bioenergy plants, chopped by chopper of E-281C and PZ Zweegers. were established. The results of this research, presented in the Table 2 show, that after chopping the topinambour by E-281C and PZ Zweegers the largest part of chaff fraction is left on sieve, which has oblong 8 mm width perforation (45-67 %), and dust compounds (6-12 %). Large amount of dust was conditioned by the fact, that stems were chopped dry (15-16%). From the data, given in Table 2, we see that chopping quality of plants is suffi cient high, and we can recommend the fodder chopper E-281C to chop the bioenergy plants, such as topinambours. With the chopper PZ Zweegers chopped stems are too fi ne and dust amount (12,1%). Transcendent boundaries of chaff chopping quality Table 1.

407 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Table 1. Estimation of chaff chopping quality Quality of the stems chopping (portion of the chopped stems on the sieve, %) Chaff ø 45 mm oblong, 8 mm ø 7 mm ø 5 mm Dust Fine < 5 %< 25 %> 40 %< 20 %< 10 % Large < 15 %< 40 %> 23 %< 15 %< 7 %

Table 2. Estimation of chopping quality of topinambours stems chaff (theoretical chaff length lt = 25 mm) Portion of the chopped stems on the sieve, % Chopper Ø 45 mm oblong, 8 mm Ø 7 mm Ø 5 mm Dust E-281C 6,7±0,5 67,3±3,6 12,7±2,1 7,3±0,8 6,0±1,0 PZ Zweegers 15,2±1,8 45,4±3,2 12,6±1,2 15,7±1,4 12,1±2,2

The main physical mechanical characteristics (fi neness of stem chaff) of bioenergy plants, chopped by chopper of Maral-125 combine and stationary forage choppers SPP-1 and timber chopper 25 DH-E were established. The results of this research, presented in the Table 3 show, that after chopping the topinambour by SPP-1, the largest part of chaff fraction is left on sieve, which has oblong 8 mm width perforation (63–41 %), and dust compounds only 2 %. Small amount of dust was conditioned by the fact, that leafs from stems were removed. From the data, given in Table 3, we see that chopping quality of plants is suffi cient high, and we can recommend the fodder chopper SPP-1 to chop the bioenergy plants, such as topinambours .

Table 3. Quality of large-stalked energy plants chaffs, chopped by combine Maral-125 and stationary forage chopper SPP-1 (Jasinskas at al., 2007) Quality of the stems chopping (portion of the chopped stems on the sieve, %) Plant Chopper ø 45 mm oblong, 8 mm ø 7 mm ø 5 mm Dust SPP-1 3632752 Topinambour Maral - 125 10 54.8 14.0 9.5 11.7 25 DH-E 15 41 25 16 3 Willows Maral - 125 48 43 6 2 1

Results of evaluating the quality of chopping stems of willows show, that when usage the timber chopper 25 DH-E, the largest part of fraction (41 %) is left on the sieve, which has oblong 8 mm width perforation, and when usage the chopper of Maral-125 combine, the largest part of fraction (48 %) is left on the sieve, which has round holes, diameter 45 mm (Table 3). Dust compounds only 1–3 %. According to the fi neness requirements for fuel-chaff, stems of willows were chopped in good quality when usage the timber chopper 25 DH-E. When usage the chopper of Maral-125 combine, too big part of fraction (48 %) is left on the sieve with round holes (diameter 45 mm). Physical mechanical characteristics – moisture content, density, the angle of fall and natural crumble of large- stalk energy plant chaffs, chopped by forage combines Maral-125 and Krone-Big, and timber chopper 25 DH-E are presented in Table 4.

Table 4. Physical-mechanical characteristics of large-stalked plants chaffs, chopped by combines Maral-125 and Krone-Big Period of harvesting, Moisture content, Weight, Density, Angle of fall, Angle of natural Plant Combine % g kg/m3 degrees crumble, degrees 145.3 Krone Big 60.6 842.9 80 47 (57.2 D.M.) Topinambour 64.9 Maral-125 13.5 376.3 82 45 (56.1 D.M.) 308.0 25 DH-E 61.0 1760 71 42 (120 D.M.) Willows 258.3 Maral-125 54.2 1476 82 40 (118 D.M.)

From the data, presented in Table 4, it could be concluded, that the dry material density of topinambours chaff from, chopped by forage combines Maral-125 and Krone-Big varied marginally – from 56 to 57 kg/m3 of dry mass, angle of fall – from 80° to 82°, angle of natural crumble – from 45° to 47°. The dry material density of willows chaff from, chopped by forage combine Maral-125 and timber chopper 25 DH-E varied marginally – from 118 to 120 kg/m3 of dry mass, angle of fall – from 71° to 82°, angle of natural crumble – from 40° to 42°. Physical-mechanical characteristics of chopped stems - material density and angles of fall and natural crumble, is important for construction of stores of chopped mass.

408 Rural Development 2009 Biosystem Engineering and Environment

Conclusions

1. In estimating the fi neness of topinambours stems chaff chopped by choppers E-281C and PZ Zweegers it was established, the largest fraction part (from 45-67 %) remains on sieve, which has oblong 8 mm diameter perforation. The amount of dust was large enough (from 6-12 %). Chopping quality was suffi cient low, and we do not recommend PZ Zweegers to chop the bioenergy plants with big stems. According to the fi neness requirements for fuel chaff, stems were chopped by E-281C were good quality despite large amount of dust. 2. There were investigated main physical-mechanical characteristics of chopping quality of bioenergy plants, chopped by the stationary drum chopper of Maral-125 combine, timber chopper 25 DH-E and drum type forage chopper SPP-1. Chopping quality of topinambours, chopped by the stationary fodder chopper SPP-1 was suffi cient high, and we recommend this chopper to chop the bioenergy plants with big stems. 3. According to the fi neness requirements for fuel-chaff, stems of willows were chopped in good quality when usage the timber chopper 25 DH-E. When usage the chopper of Maral-125 combine, too big part of fraction (48 %) is left on the sieve with round holes (diameter 45 mm). 4. From the experimental data it could be concluded, that dry material density of topinambours chaff from, chopped by forage combines Maral-125 and Krone-Big varied marginally – from 56 to 57 kg/m3 of dry mass, angle of fall – from 80° to 82°, angle of natural crumble – from 45° to 47°. 5. The test result of the dry material density of willows chaff from chopped by forage combine Maral-125 and timber chopper 25 DH-E varied marginally – from 118 to 120 kg/m3 of dry mass, angle of fall – from 71° to 82°, angle of natural crumble – from 40° to 42°.

References

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Inga ULOZEVIČIŪTĖ. PhD student of Lithuanian University of Agriculture, Department of Agricultural Machinery, Address: Studentų st. 15A, LT-4324 Akademija, Kaunas distr. Lithuania. Tel. 8682 11802, e-mail: inga_ulo @yahoo.com Algirdas JASINSKAS. Lithuanian University of Agriculture Institute of Agricultural Engineering, Biotechnological Engineering Department, assoc. prof., doctor of technological sciences. Research fi elds: Research of grass plants growing, utilization and usage rational technologies and technique while preparing the biomass for forage and energy purposes. Address: Instituto str. 20, LT-54132 Raudondvaris, Kaunas distr., Lithuania. Tel. 861204002, e-mail: [email protected]

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