Vol. 80 Tuesday, No. 197 October 13, 2015

Part II

Department of the Interior

Fish and Wildlife Service 50 CFR Part 17 Endangered and Threatened Wildlife and Plants; Proposed Endangered Status for Five Species From American Samoa; Proposed Rule

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DEPARTMENT OF THE INTERIOR www.regulations.gov. This generally commercial, recreational, scientific, or means that we will post any personal educational purposes; (C) Disease or Fish and Wildlife Service information you provide us (see Public predation; (D) The inadequacy of Comments below for more information). existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) 50 CFR Part 17 FOR FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT: Other natural or manmade factors [Docket No. FWS–R1–ES–2015–0128; Mary Abrams, Field Supervisor, Pacific affecting its continued existence. One or 4500030113] Islands Fish and Wildlife Office, 300 more of the five candidate species face Ala Moana Boulevard, Honolulu, HI one or more of the following threats: RIN 1018–AZ97 96850, by telephone 808–792–9400 or • Habitat loss and fragmentation or Endangered and Threatened Wildlife by facsimile 808–792–9581. Persons degradation due to agriculture and and Plants; Proposed Endangered who use a telecommunications device urban development, nonnative for the deaf (TDD) may call the Federal ungulates, and nonnative plants. Status for Five Species From American • Samoa Information Relay Service (FIRS) at Collection for commercial purposes 800–877–8339. (snails only). • AGENCY: Fish and Wildlife Service, SUPPLEMENTARY INFORMATION: Predation by feral cats, rats, Interior. nonnative snails, and nonnative ACTION: Proposed rule. Executive Summary flatworms. Why we need to publish a rule. Under • Inadequate existing regulatory SUMMARY: We, the U.S. Fish and the Act, if a species is determined to be mechanisms. Wildlife Service (Service), propose to an endangered or threatened species • Small numbers of individuals and list as endangered species two endemic throughout all or a significant portion of populations. American Samoan land snails, the its range, we are required to promptly American Samoa distinct population Environmental effects from climate publish a proposal in the Federal change are likely to exacerbate these segment of the friendly ground-dove, Register and make a determination on the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, (South threats, and may become a threat to all our proposal within 1 year. Critical five species in the future. Pacific subspecies), and the mao, under habitat shall be designated, to the We will seek peer review. We will seek the Endangered Species Act (Act). If we maximum extent prudent and comments from independent specialists finalize this rule as proposed, it would determinable, for any species to ensure that our designation is based extend the Act’s protections to these determined to be an endangered or on scientifically sound data, species. The effect of this regulation will threatened species under the Act. assumptions, and analyses in be to add these species to the List of Listing a species as an endangered or accordance with our joint policy on peer Endangered and Threatened Wildlife. threatened species and designations and review published in the Federal DATES: We will accept comments revisions of critical habitat can only be Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR 34270). received or postmarked on or before completed by issuing a rule. We intend We will invite these peer reviewers to December 14, 2015. Comments to publish a separate rule addressing comment on our listing proposal. submitted electronically using the designation of critical habitat for the Because we will consider all comments Federal eRulemaking Portal (see five species in American Samoa. and information received during the ADDRESSES below) must be received by This rule proposes the listing of the comment period, our final 11:59 p.m. Eastern Time on the closing two American Samoa land snails, Eua determinations may differ from this date. We must receive requests for zebrina (no common name) and Ostodes proposal. public hearings, in writing, at the strigatus (no common name), the address shown in FOR FURTHER American Samoa distinct population Information Requested INFORMATION CONTACT by November 27, segment (DPS) of the friendly ground- Public Comments 2015. dove (Gallicolumba stairi), and two ADDRESSES: You may submit comments species from American Samoa We intend that any final action by one of the following methods: (extirpated), Western Polynesia, and resulting from this proposed rule will be (1) Electronically: Go to the Federal Melanesia, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat based on the best scientific and eRulemaking Portal: http:// (South Pacific subspecies) (Emballonura commercial data available and be as www.regulations.gov. In the Search box, semicaudata semicaudata) and the mao accurate and as effective as possible. enter FWS–R1–ES–2015–0128, which is (Gymnomyza samoensis) as endangered Therefore, we request comments or the docket number for this rulemaking. species. These five species are candidate information from the public, other Then, in the Search panel on the left species for which we have on file concerned governmental agencies, the side of the screen, under the Document sufficient information on biological American Samoa Government (ASG), Type heading, click on the Proposed vulnerability and threats to support the scientific community, industry, or Rules link to locate this document. You preparation of a listing proposal, but for any other interested parties concerning may submit a comment by clicking on which development of a listing this proposed rule. For the Pacific ‘‘Comment Now!’’ regulation has been precluded by other sheath-tailed bat and the mao, we also (2) By hard copy: Submit by U.S. mail higher priority listing activities. This request comments or information from or hand-delivery to: Public Comments rule reassesses all available information the CITES (Convention on International Processing, Attn: FWS–R1–ES–2015– regarding status of and threats to these Trade in Endangered Species of Wild 0128; Division of Policy, Performance, five species. Fauna and Flora) management and and Management Programs; U.S. Fish The basis for our action. Under the scientific authorities or authority and Wildlife Service; 5275 Leesburg Act, we can determine that a species is competent to issue comparable Pike, MS: BPHC; Falls Church, VA an endangered or threatened species documentation in the countries of 22041. based on any of five factors: (A) The Samoa, Fiji, Tonga, and Vanuatu. We We request that you send comments present or threatened destruction, particularly seek comments concerning: only by the methods described above. modification, or curtailment of its (1) The species’ biology, range, and We will post all comments on http:// habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for population trends, including:

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(a) Biological or ecological protected from disturbance or are Service, Pacific Islands Fish and requirements of the species, including representative of the historical, Wildlife Office (see FOR FURTHER habitat requirements for feeding, geographical, and ecological INFORMATION CONTACT). breeding, and sheltering; distributions of the species (50 CFR Public Hearing (b) Genetics and taxonomy; 424.12(b)). Areas outside the (c) Historical and current range geographical area occupied by the Section 4(b)(5) of the Act provides for including distribution patterns; species at the time of listing should also one or more public hearings on this (d) Historical and current population be identified, if such areas are essential proposal, if requested. Requests must be levels, and current and projected trends; for the conservation of the species (16 received within 45 days after the date of and U.S.C. 1532(5)(A)(ii)). Unlike for publication of this proposed rule in the (e) Past and ongoing conservation occupied habitat, such areas are not Federal Register. Such requests must be measures for these species, their required to contain physical or sent to the address shown in FOR habitats, or both. biological features essential to the FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT. We will (2) Factors that that may affect the conservation of the species. ESA schedule public hearings on this continued existence of these species, implementing regulations at 50 CFR proposal, if any are requested, and which may include habitat modification 424.12(h) specify that critical habitat announce the dates, times, and places of or destruction, overutilization, disease, shall not be designated within foreign those hearings, as well as how to obtain predation, the inadequacy of existing countries or in other areas outside of reasonable accommodations, in the regulatory mechanisms, or other natural U.S. jurisdiction. Therefore, we request Federal Register and local newspapers or manmade factors. information only on potential areas of at least 15 days before the hearing. (3) Biological, commercial trade, or critical habitat within locations under Previous Federal Action other relevant data concerning any U.S. jurisdiction. threats (or lack thereof) to these species Please include sufficient information All five species proposed for listing and existing regulations that may be with your submission (such as scientific are candidate species. Candidate species addressing those threats. journal articles or other publications) to are those taxa for which the Service has (4) Empirical data or other scientific allow us to verify any scientific or sufficient information on their information describing the specific commercial information you include. biological status and threats to propose impacts of climate change on the Please note that submissions merely them for listing under the Act, but for habitat, life history, and/or ecology of stating support for or opposition to the which the development of a listing these species, for example, the species’ action under consideration without regulation has been precluded to date by biological response, or likely response, providing supporting information, other higher priority listing activities. to changes in habitat resulting from although noted, will not be considered The species addressed in this proposed climate-change related changes in in making a determination, as section rule are the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, the ambient temperature, precipitation, 4(b)(1)(A) of the Act directs that mao, the American Samoa DPS of the drought, or storm severity. determinations as to whether any friendly ground-dove, and two (5) Additional information concerning species is a threatened or endangered American Samoa land snails, Eua the historical and current status, ranges, species must be made ‘‘solely on the zebrina and Ostodes strigatus. The distributions, and population sizes of basis of the best scientific and candidate status of all of these species these species, including the locations of commercial data available.’’ was most recently assessed and any additional populations of these You may submit your comments and reaffirmed in the December 4, 2014, species. materials concerning this proposed rule Review of Native Species That Are (6) Although we are not proposing to by one of the methods listed in the Candidates for Listing as Endangered or designate critical habitat at this time, we ADDRESSES section. We request that you Threatened (CNOR) (79 FR 72450). request information about the quality send comments only by the methods On May 4, 2004, the Center for and extent of areas within U.S. described in the ADDRESSES section. Biological Diversity petitioned the jurisdiction (i.e., in American Samoa) If you submit information via http:// Secretary of the Interior to list 225 that may qualify as critical habitat for www.regulations.gov, your entire species of plants and animals, including the proposed species. Specifically, we submission—including any personal four of the five candidate species listed are soliciting the identification of identifying information—will be posted above, as endangered or threatened particular areas within the geographical on the Web site. If your submission is under the provisions of the Act. Since area occupied by these species in made via a hardcopy that includes then, we have published our annual American Samoa that include physical personal identifying information, you findings on the May 4, 2004, petition or biological features that are essential may request at the top of your document (including our findings on the candidate to the conservation of these species and that we withhold this information from species listed above) in the CNORs that may require special management public review. However, we cannot dated May 11, 2005 (70 FR 24870), considerations or protection (16 U.S.C. guarantee that we will be able to do so. September 12, 2006 (71 FR 53756), 1532(5)(A)(i)). Essential features may We will post all hardcopy submissions December 6, 2007 (72 FR 69034), include, but are not limited to, features on http://www.regulations.gov. Please December 10, 2008 (73 FR 75176), specific to individual species’ ranges, include sufficient information with your November 9, 2009 (74 FR 57804), habitats, and life history characteristics comments to allow us to verify any November 10, 2010 (75 FR 69222), within the following general categories scientific or commercial information October 26, 2011 (76 FR 66370), of habitat features: (1) Space for you include. November 21, 2012 (77 FR 69994), individual growth and for normal Comments and materials we receive, November 22, 2013 (78 FR 70104), and behavior; (2) food, water, air, light, as well as supporting documentation we December 4, 2014 (79 FR 72450). This minerals, or other nutritional or used in preparing this proposed rule, proposed rule constitutes a further physiological requirements; (3) cover or will be available for public inspection response to the 2004 petition. shelter; (4) sites for breeding, on http://www.regulations.gov, or by In 2014, the Service evaluated the reproduction and development of appointment, during normal business status and threats for the fifth candidate offspring; and (5) habitats that are hours, at the U.S. Fish and Wildlife species, the mao. We determined that

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this species warranted listing as an Background priority, and range for the species that endangered or threatened species under are the subjects of this proposed rule. Species Addressed in This Proposed the Act and assigned a Listing Priority Rule Number of 2 for this species (79 FR 72450, December 4, 2014). The table below (Table 1) provides the common name, scientific name, listing

TABLE 1—SPECIES ADDRESSED IN THIS PROPOSED RULE

Common name Listing priority Samoan name or other local name Scientific name number Range evaluated for listing

MAMMALS

Pacific sheath-tailed bat (South Pacific subspecies), Beka Emballonura, semicaudata, 3 American Samoa, Fiji, Samoa, beka, Peapea vai, Tagiti. semicaudata. Tonga, Vanuatu.

BIRDS

Mao ...... Gymnomyza samoensis ...... 2 American Samoa, Samoa. Friendly (shy) ground-dove, Tuaimeo ...... Gallicolumba stairi ...... 9 American Samoa DPS.

SNAILS

No common name ...... Eua zebrina ...... 2 American Samoa. No common name ...... Ostodes strigatus ...... 2 American Samoa.

The Samoan Archipelago from October to May, with a slightly (1,820 sq km)), and 8 small offshore The Samoan Archipelago consists of a cooler and drier season from June islets, several of which are inhabited. remote chain of 13 islands and 2 atolls through September. Temperatures Samoa lies between 13 to 14 degrees in the Pacific Ocean south of the average about 81.5 degrees Fahrenheit south latitude and 170 to 173 degrees equator. These islands extend more than (F) (27 degrees Celsius (C)). Rainfall west longitude and has a total land area 298 miles (mi) (480 kilometers (km)) in averages 125 inches (in) (318 of approximately 1,133 sq mi (2,934 sq an east-west orientation between 13 and centimeters (cm)) annually at lower km)) (Watling 2001, p. 26). The highest 15 degrees south latitude, and 168 to elevations, but can vary greatly point in Samoa is Mt. Silisili on Savaii depending upon topography, reaching 172 degrees west longitude (Goldin at 6,093 ft (1,857 m) asl. As discussed 300 in (750 cm) or greater annually in 2002, p. 4). The islands date to the early above, the Samoan archipelago is the mountain areas. Hurricanes are a Pleistocene and were formed as hot-spot volcanic in origin with the islands common natural disturbance in the shield volcanoes, with the older islands sequentially formed in a generally Samoan Archipelago, and occur at located on the western end of the chain eastern direction by a series of ‘‘hot intervals of 1 to 13 years (Goldin 2002, (Thornberry-Ehrlich 2008, pp. 16, 28). spot’’ eruptions, starting with Savaii p. 7). The archipelago is divided into two In 2010, the population of American approximately at 2 million years of age political entities, American Samoa, an Samoa totaled 55,519 individuals (U.S. (Keating 1992, p. 131). unincorporated territory of the United Census 2011, in litt.). Because of the Kingdom of Tonga States, and the independent nation of steep topography, most areas of the Samoa (Craig 2009, p. 5). American northern coastline of Tutuila are The Kingdom of Tonga (Tonga) is Samoa consists of five high islands and uninhabited, and most people live on located in the western South Pacific two atolls: Tutuila (the largest island; 54 the narrow coastal plain on the southern Ocean, approximately 560 mi (900 km) square (sq) mi (140 sq km)); Aunuu (1 shore, within several hundred yards of southwest of the Tutuila Island, sq mi (2 sq km)) off the southeast end the shoreline. The islanders practice American Samoa. The archipelago is of Tutuila; Ofu and Olosega (3.5 sq mi extensive small-scale agriculture on spread over 500 mi (800 km) in a north- (9 sq km)) separated by a narrow plots inland of villages and in lowland channel now spanned by a bridge; Tau south direction between 15 to 23.5 rainforest on slopes that sometimes degrees south latitude and 173 to 177 (15 sq mi (39 sq km)); Rose Atoll (1.5 sq exceed 45 degrees (Atkinson and mi (4 sq km)), a National Wildlife west degrees longitude (Australian Medeiros 2006, p. 4). Before the arrival Bureau of Meteorology (BOM) and Refuge) with two uninhabited islands, of Polynesians approximately 3,000 Rose and Sand; and Swains Island (0.6 Commonwealth Scientific and years ago, the whole archipelago, except Industrial Research Organization sq mi (1.5 sq km)), which is politically for recent lava flows or poorly drained (CSIRO) Australian BOM and CSIRO part of American Samoa, but areas, was likely covered by rain forest 2011, Vol. 2, p. 217). Tonga consists of geologically and biologically part of the or cloud forest (Mueller-Dombois and Tokelau archipelago (Goldin 2002, pp. Fosberg 1998, p. 360). four groups of islands: Tongatapu and 5–6). These islands and atolls range in Eua in the south, Haapai in the middle, elevation from the high peak of Mt. Lata Samoa Vavau in the north, and Niaufoou and on Tau at 3,170 ft (966 meters (m)) to The independent nation of Samoa Niua Toputapu in the far north. The 172 4 to 6 ft (1 to 2 m) above sea level (asl) (Samoa) is located less than 100 mi (160 named islands have an area of 289 sq mi at Rose Atoll. km) west of Tutuila Island, American (748 sq km). The islands include high American Samoa lies within the Samoa, and consists of two large volcanic islands (maximum elevation tropics, where it is hot, humid, and inhabited islands, Upolu (424 sq mi 3,389 ft (1,033 m) asl), elevated rainy year-round. The wet season is (1,100 sq km)) and Savaii (703 sq mi limestone islands and low-lying

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coralline islands (Australian BOM and p. 36). The islands have experienced 2014 (79 FR 59363, October 1, 2014)), CSIRO 2011, Vol. 2, p. 217). extensive deforestation due to the and referred to here as the Mariana continued use of wood as the main fuel subspecies); E. s. sulcata in Chuuk and Republic of Fiji source (CIA 2009). Pohnpei; E. s. palauensis in Palau; and The Republic of Fiji (Fiji) is located in E. s. semicaudata in American Samoa, Pacific Sheath-Tailed Bat (South Pacific the western South Pacific Ocean Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, and Vanuatu approximately 777 mi (1250 km) west of Subspecies), Emballonura semicaudata ssp. semicaudata, (Koopman 1997, pp. 358–360; Oyler- Tutuila Island, American Samoa, McCance et al. 2013, pp. 1,030–1,036), between 16 to 20 degrees south latitude Peapea Vai (American Samoa), Tagiti (Samoa), Beka Beka (Fiji) referred to here as the South Pacific and 177 degrees east to 178 degrees west subspecies. Recent analysis found longitude. Fiji consists of 322 islands The Pacific sheath-tailed bat is a notable genetic differences between E. s. (105 inhabited) and a total land area of member of the Emballonuridae, an Old rotensis, E. s. palauensis, and E. s. 7,078 sq mi (18,333 sq km) (Watling World bat family that has an extensive semicaudata, indeed greater differences 2001, p. 22). The two largest islands, distribution primarily in the tropics than typically reported between Viti Levu (4,026 sq mi (10,429 sq km)) (Nowak 1994, pp. 90–91). A Samoan mammalian subspecies (Oyler-McCance and Vanua Levu (2,145 sq mi (5,556 sq specimen was first described by Peale in et al. 2013, p. 1,030). Hereafter, ‘‘bat’’ or km)), account for 87 percent of the total 1848 as Vespertilio semicaudatus (Lyon ‘‘Pacific sheath-tailed bat’’ refers to the land area and are mountainous and of and Osgood 1909, p. 259). The species South Pacific subspecies unless volcanic origin with peaks up to 4,265 was later included in the genus otherwise noted. ft (1,300 m) asl (Australian BOM and Emballonura (Temminck 1838; cited in CSIRO 2011, Vol. 2, p. 77). The other the Integrated Taxonomic Information All subspecies of the Pacific sheath- islands consist of small volcanic System (ITIS) 2014) and is now known tailed bat appear to be cave-dependent, islands, low-lying atolls, and elevated as Emballonura semicaudata roosting during the day in a wide range reefs in the Northern and Southern Lau (Smithsonian Institution 1909; Tate and of cave types, including overhanging groups in the east, the centrally located Archbold 1939, p. 8). This species is a cliffs, crevices, lava tubes, and Lomaiviti group, and the Yasawa group small bat. Males have a forearm length limestone caves (Grant 1993, p. 51; in the northwest (Watling 2001, p. 23). of about 1.8 in (45 millimeters (mm)), Grant et al. 1994, pp. 134–135; Hutson and weigh approximately 0.2 ounces et al. 2001, p. 139; Palmeirim et al. Republic of Vanuatu (oz) (5.5 grams (g)), and females are 2005, p. 28). Large roosting colonies The Republic of Vanuatu (Vanuatu) is slightly larger in size and weight (Lemke appear fairly common in the Palau an archipelago located in the western 1986, p. 744; Nowak 1994, p. 91; subspecies, but smaller aggregations South Pacific Ocean, approximately Flannery 1995, p. 326; Uyehara and may be more typical of at least the 1,500 mi (2,400 km) west of Tutuila Wiles 2009, p. 5). The Pacific sheath- Mariana subspecies and perhaps other Island, American Samoa. Vanuatu lies tailed bat was once common and species of Emballonura (Wiles et al. between 13 to 21 south degrees latitude widespread in Polynesia, eastern 1997, pp. 221–222; Wiles and and 166 to 171 degrees east longitude Melanesia, and Micronesia and is the Worthington 2002, pp. 15, 17). The and includes over 80 islands (about 65 only insectivorous bat recorded from a Mariana subspecies, which persists only of which are inhabited) with a total land large part of this area (Hutson et al. on the island of Aguiguan area of 4,707 sq mi (12,190 sq km) 2001, p. 138). Sheath-tailed bats are rich (Commonwealth of the Northern (Central Intelligence Agency (CIA) brown to dark brown above and paler Mariana Islands (CNMI)), appears to 2013). Larger islands in general are below (Walker and Paradiso 1983, p. prefer relatively large caves (Wiles et al. characterized by rugged volcanic peaks 211). The common name ‘‘sheath-tailed 2009, p. 15 in O’Shea and Valdez 2009). and tropical rainforests. The largest bat’’ refers to the nature of the tail The limestone cave ecosystem of the island is Espiritu Santo (1,527 sq mi attachment: The tail pierces the tail Mariana subspecies on Aguiguan is (3,955 sq km)), which also contains the membrane, and its tip appears characterized by constant temperature, highest peak, Mount Tabwemasana completely free on the upper surface of high relative humidity, and no major air (6,158 ft (1,877 m) asl) (Australia BOM the membrane (Walker and Paradiso movement (O’Shea and Valdez 2009, and CSIRO 2011, Vol. 2, p. 245). 1983, p. 209). The Pacific sheath-tailed pp. 77–78). Such basic habitat data are bat (all subspecies) is listed as lacking for the South Pacific subspecies Territory of the Wallis and Futuna Endangered in the 2015 IUCN of Pacific sheath-tailed bat, but may be Islands (International Union for Conservation of important because the alteration of The Territory of the Wallis and Nature) Red List (Bonaccorso and climate conditions has been implicated Futuna Islands (Wallis and Futuna) is Allison 2008). Endangered is IUCN’s in the abandonment of roost caves by an overseas territory of France located second most severe category of other bat species (Hutson et al. 2001, p. approximately 496 mi (799 km) west of extinction assessment, which equates to 101). All subspecies of the Pacific Tutuila Island, American Samoa. Wallis a very high risk of extinction in the sheath-tailed bat are nocturnal and and Futuna consists of three main wild. IUCN criteria include the rate of typically emerge around dusk to forage islands (Wallis or Uvea, Futuna, and decline, population size, area of on flying insects (Hutson et al. 2001, p. Alofi) and more than 20 smaller islands, geographic distribution, and degree of 138; Craig et al. 1993, p. 51). The which lie between 13 to 14 south population and distribution Mariana Islands subspecies forages degrees latitude and 176 to 178 west fragmentation; however, IUCN rankings almost entirely in forests (native and degrees longitude (Watling 2001, pp. do not confer any actual protection or nonnative) near their roosting caves 36–37). The land area totals management. (Esselstyn et al. 2004, p. 307). Other approximately 98 sq mi (255 sq km). Four subspecies of Pacific sheath- subspecies in Micronesia have been Uvea is a low volcanic island with tailed bats are currently recognized: E. observed foraging beneath the canopy of gentle relief, while Futuna and Alofi s. rotensis, endemic to the Mariana dense native forest (on Pohnpei) and (uninhabited) are rugged mountainous Islands (Guam and the Commonwealth over town streets (Palau and Chuuk) islands with uplifted coral tiers (Dupon of the Northern Mariana Islands; (Bruner and Pratt 1979, p. 3). Bats and and Beaudou 1986, p. 1; Watling 2001, proposed for listing as endangered in swiftlets (Aerodramus spp.) are

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commonly found sharing caves (Lemke which had declined to 2 individuals where it still occurs (Flannery 1995, p. 1986, p. 744; Hutson et al. 2001, p. 139; total by the end of the survey (Hutson 327; Palmeirim et al. 2005, p. 31). In Tarburton 2002, p. 106; Wiles and 2001, p. 139; Tarburton 2002, pp. 105– 2000 to 2001 bats were absent or present Worthington 2002, p. 7, Palmeirim et al. 108, Tarburton 2011, p. 38). In Samoa, in diminished numbers in many of the 2005, p. 28). the Pacific sheath-tailed bat occupies caves known previously to be occupied In American Samoa, Amerson et al. sea caves and lava tubes located from on 30 Fijian islands, and villagers (1982, p. 74) estimated a total the coast up to elevations of 2,500 ft reported that small bats, presumably population of approximately 11,000 (762 m) that range from 49 ft (15 m) to Pacific sheath-tailed bats, were no Pacific sheath-tailed bats in 1975 and over 2,130 ft (650 m) in length; vary in longer commonly seen (Palmeirim et al. 1976. A precipitous decline of the bat height and width, number of openings, 2005, p. 31). on the island of Tutuila has been and degree of branching; and may be The species is predicted to be documented since 1990 (Grant et al. subject to rockfalls and flooding during extirpated or nearly so on Kadavu, 1994, p. 134; Koopman and Steadman high rain events (Tarburton 2011, pp. Vanua Levu, and Fiji’s largest island, 1995, pp. 9–10; Helgen and Flannery 40–49). Viti Levu, where it was known to be 2002, pp. 4–5). Knowles (1988, p. 65) In Tonga, the distribution of the widespread until the 1970s (Palmeirim recorded about 200 in 1988, and in Pacific sheath-tailed bat is not well et al. 2005, p. 31; Scanlon et al. 2013, 1993, observers caught one bat and saw known. It has been recorded on the p. 453). Field observations during the only three more (Grant et al. 1994, p. island of Eua and Niaufoou (Rinke 1991, 2000 to 2001 surveys documented a 134). A single bat was also observed on p. 134; Koopman and Steadman 1995, p. single large colony of several hundred two occasions in a small cave north of 7), and is probably absent from Ata and individuals on Yaqeta Island in the Alao (Grant et al. 1994, pp. 134–135). Late (Rinke 1991, pp. 132–133). In 2007, Yasawa group and a large colony on Additional small caves and lava tubes ten nights of acoustic surveys on Vatu Vara Island in the Lau group, but have been checked for bats and Tongatapu and Eua failed to record any otherwise only a few to dozens of swiftlets, however, Tutuila is entirely detections of this species (M. Pennay individuals scattered among caves on volcanic and does not have the pers. comm. in Scanlon et al. 2013, p. small and remote islands in the Lau extensive limestone cave systems that 456). Pennay describes Eua as the place group (Palmeirim et al. 2005, pp. 55– provide bat roosting habitat in the most likely to support the Pacific 62). Scanlon et al. 2013 (p. 453) Mariana Islands and other Pacific island sheath-tailed bat because of the island’s revisited the large cave colony on groups (Grant et al. 1994, p. 135). Two large tracts of primary forest and many Yaqeta between 2007 and 2011 and individuals were last observed in the rocky outcrops and caves, but he described it as without any evidence of cave at Anapeapea Cove on the north considers the bat to be extremely rare or any recent use by bats (e.g., odor, fresh shore of Tutuila in 1998 (Hutson et al. extirpated from both islands (M. Pennay guano) and probably abandoned. The 2001, p. 138). Surveys conducted by the pers. comm. in Scanlon et al. 2013, p. loss of the Yaqeta colony and the DMWR in 2006 failed to detect the 456). species’ overall declining trend across presence of this species (DMWR 2006, In Fiji, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat is the archipelago led Scanlon et al. 2013 p. 53). In an attempt to ascertain distributed throughout the archipelago, (p. 456) to infer a reduction in whether the species is still extant, on large islands such as Vanua Levu and population size of greater than 80 DMWR conducted surveys consisting of Taveuni, medium-sized islands in the percent over the last 10 years. The most acoustic sweeps and cave checks on all Lau group (Lakeba, Nayau, Cicia, Vanua important remaining sites for the main islands in 2008 and 2012, and no Balavu), and small islets such as Yaqeta protection of this species are likely bats were detected (Fraser et al. 2009, p. in the Yasawa group and Vatu Vara and those on small and mid-sized islands in 9; U.R. Tulafono 2011, in litt.; DMWR Aiwa in the Lau group (Palmeirim et al. Lau where bats still occur (Palmeirim et 2013, in litt.). Based on its decline and 2005, pp. 31–32). Pacific sheath-tailed al. 2007, p. 512). the lack of detections since it was last bats in Fiji roost in lava tubes and In Vanuatu, the Pacific sheath-tailed seen in 1998, this species is thought to limestone caves of varying length and bat is known from two museum be nearly extirpated (if not already width, beneath rock outcrops, and in specimens, one collected in 1929 and extirpated) in American Samoa (DMWR cave-like areas formed by irregularly- one collected before 1878, both on the 2006, p. 54; Uyehara and Wiles 2009, p. shaped boulders located in areas along main island of Espiritu Santo (Helgen 5). DMWR continues to conduct the coast and up to 6.2 mi (10 km) and Flannery 2002, pp. 210–211). No acoustic surveys in search of the Pacific inland (Palmierim et al. 2007, pp. 1–13). subsequent expeditions have recorded sheath-tailed bat in American Samoa Running water or pools of water are a sheath-tailed bats, suggesting that this (Miles 2015a, in litt.). common occurrence in inland caves species was either extirpated or perhaps In Samoa, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat with streams running through or coastal never actually occurred in Vanuatu is known from the two main islands of caves that are tidally influenced (Medway and Marshall 1975, pp. 32–33; Upolu and Savaii, but the species has (Palmierim et al. 2007, pp. 1–13). Hill 1983, pp. 140–142; Flannery 1995, experienced a severe decline over the Habitat surrounding roost sites includes p. 326; Helgen and Flannery 2002, pp. last several decades, and has been undisturbed forest, secondary forest, 210–211; Palmeirim et al. 2007, p. 517). observed only rarely since Cyclones Ofa cultivated areas, and forested cliffs For example, Medway and Marshall (1990) and Val (1991) (Lovegrove et al. (Palmierim et al. 2007, pp. 1–13). The (1975, p. 453) detected seven other 1992, p. 30; Park et al. 1992, p. 47; species was reported as common some small, insectivorous bats (family Tarburton 2002, pp. 105–108). This decades ago on the small, volcanic Microchiroptera) in Vanuatu, but failed species was previously abundant on island of Rotuma, a Fijian dependency, to observe the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, Upolu with an individual cave approximately 372 mi (600 km) from the possibly as a result of survey sites and estimated to support several thousand Fiji archipelago (Clunie 1985, pp. 154– methods. However, the Vanuatu individuals (Ollier et al. 1979, pp. 22, 155). Although widely distributed, the provenance of the two specimens is not 39). A survey of 41 lava tube caves and species clearly has suffered a serious in question (Helgen and Flannery 2002, other locations on Upolu and Savaii decline since the 1950s as evidenced by p. 211). The current disjunct conducted from 1994 to 1997 detected a contraction of its range and a decline distribution of the Pacific sheath-tailed a total of 5 individuals at two sites, in density and abundance on the islands bat (all subspecies) is suggestive of

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extinctions (Flannery 1995, p. 45), and Mariana archipelago may be a principal preferred foraging habitat of the Pacific the possible extirpation of the South factor in limiting their current sheath-tailed bat, and deforestation is Pacific subspecies from Vanuatu could population to the island of Aguiguan, occurring in Fiji (where the last be an example of this (Helgen and which has healthy native forest. relatively large population occurs), and Flannery 2002, p. 211). The bat’s status Similarly, in Fiji, most sheath-tailed bat in Samoa, and has occurred in in Vanuatu is unknown, and a basic colonies are found roosting in caves in American Samoa. Therefore we inventory of Vanuatu’s bat fauna is or near good forest (e.g., closed canopy, conclude that habitat destruction and lacking (Helgen and Flannery 2002, p. native forest) (Palmeirim et al. 2005, pp. modification by deforestation is a 211). 36, 44); however, much of it has been current threat to the species in at least In summary, the Pacific sheath-tailed lost on the large Fijian islands Fiji and Samoa, which comprise roughly bat, once widely distributed across the (Palmeirim et al. 2007, p. 515). 62 percent of the land area, and occupy southwest Pacific islands of American Deforestation has been extensive and the center, of the bat’s range. Samoa, Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji, has is ongoing across the range of the Pacific undergone a significant decline in Habitat Destruction and Modification by sheath-tailed bat. On the island of the Effects of Climate Change numbers and contraction of its range. Tutuila, American Samoa, agriculture Climate change may have impacts to Reports of possible extirpation or and development cover approximately the habitat of the Pacific sheath-tailed extremely low numbers in American 24 percent of the island and are Samoa and Samoa, steep population bat. Discussion of these impacts is concentrated in the coastal plain and included in our complete discussion of declines in Fiji, and the lack of low-elevation areas where loss of forest detections in Tonga and Vanuatu, climate change in the section ‘‘E. Other is likely to have modified foraging suggest that the Pacific sheath-tailed bat Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting habitat for sheath-tailed bats (American is vulnerable to extinction throughout Their Continued Existence,’’ below. Samoa Community College (ASCC) its range. The remaining populations of 2010, p. 13). In Samoa, the amount of Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat the Pacific sheath-tailed bat continue to forested area declined from 74 to 46 Destruction, Modification, or experience habitat loss from percent of total land area between 1954 Curtailment of Its Range deforestation and development, and 1990 (Food and Agricultural predation by introduced mammals, and American Samoa Organization (FAO) 2005 in litt.). human disturbance of roosting caves, all Between 1978 and 1990, 20 percent of The National Park of American Samoa of which are likely to be exacerbated in (NPSA) was established to preserve and the future by the effects of climate all forest losses in Samoa were attributable to logging, with 97 percent protect the tropical forest and change (see Summary of Factors archaeological and cultural resources, to of the logging having occurred on Savaii Affecting the Species discussion below). maintain the habitat of flying foxes, to (Government of Samoa 1998 in Whistler In addition, low population numbers preserve the ecological balance of the 2002, p. 132). Forested land area in and the breakdown of the Samoan tropical forest, and, consistent Samoa continued to decline at a rate of metapopulation equilibrium across its with the preservation of these resources, roughly 2.1 percent or 7,400 ac (3,000 range render the remaining populations to provide for the enjoyment of the ha) annually from 1990 to 2000 (FAO of Pacific sheath-tailed bat more unique resources of the Samoan tropical 2005 in litt.). As a result, there is very vulnerable to chance occurrences such forest by visitors from around the world little undisturbed, mature forest left in as hurricanes. (Pub. L. 100–571, Pub. L. 100–336). Samoa (Watling 2001, p. 175; FAO 2005 Under a 50-year lease agreement Summary of Factors Affecting the in litt.). Today, only 360 ac (146 ha) of Pacific Sheath-Tailed Bat between local villages, the American native lowland rainforests (below 2,000 Samoa Government, and the Federal A. The Present or Threatened ft or 600 m) remain on Savaii and Upolu Government, approximately 8,000 ac Destruction, Modification, or as a result of logging, agricultural (3,240 ha) of forested habitat on the Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range clearing, residential clearing (including islands of Tutuila, Tau, and Ofu are relocation due to tsunami), and natural protected and managed, including Habitat Destruction and Modification by causes such as rising sea level and Deforestation suitable foraging habitat for the Pacific hurricanes (Ministry of Natural sheath-tailed bat (NPSA Lease Deforestation can cause the Resources and Environment (MNRE) Agreement 1993). destruction and modification of foraging 2013, p. 47). On Upolu, direct or habitat of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat as indirect human influence has caused Samoa a result of the loss of cover and extensive damage to native forest habitat As of 2014, a total of approximately reduction of available insect prey. The (above 2,000 ft or 600 m) (MNRE 2013, 58,176 ac (23,543 ha), roughly 8 percent loss of native plant diversity associated p. 13). Although forested, almost all of the total land area of Samoa (285,000 with the conversion of native forests to upland forests on Upolu are largely ha) was enlisted in terrestrial protected agriculture and other uses can result in dominated by introduced species today. areas, with the majority located in five a corresponding reduction in the Savaii still has extensive upland forests, national parks covering a total of 50,629 diversity and number of flying insects which are for the most part undisturbed ac (20,489 ha), overlapping several sites (Hespenheide 1975, pp. 84, 96; Waugh and composed of native species (MNRE known to be previously occupied by the and Hails 1983, p. 212; Tarburton 2002, 2013, p. 40). Although the large Fijian bat (Tarburton 2002, pp. 105–107; p. 107). Deforestation results from islands still have some areas of native Tarburton 2011, pp. 43–46). logging, agriculture, and development forest, much of it has been lost (e.g., 17 (Government of Samoa 2001, p. 59; percent between 1990 and 2000; FAO Fiji Wiles and Worthington 2002, p. 18) and 2005 in litt.), and commercial logging Fiji currently has 23 terrestrial from hurricanes. Based on the continues (Palmeirim et al. 2007, p. protected areas covering 188 sq mi (488 preference of the Mariana subspecies for 515). The best available information sq km) or 2.7 percent of the nation’s foraging in forested habitats near their does not provide the current status of land area (Fiji Department of roost caves, Wiles et al. (2011, p. 307) native forests and rates of forest loss in Environment 2014, pp. 20–21). Most predict that past deforestation in the Tonga or Vanuatu. Native forests are notably, on Taveuni Island, the Bouma

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National Heritage Park (3,500 ac (1,417 a cat next to the entrance of a cave information about the impact of rats on ha)), Taveuni Forest Reserve (27,577 ac where Pacific sheath-tailed bats roosted, this species, based on information from (11,160 ha)), and Ravilevu Reserve far from any human settlement. On other bat species, we consider rats to be (9.934 ac (4,020 ha)) may contain caves Lakeba (Lau), a cave that once harbored predators of this species. and could provide important foraging a large colony of Pacific sheath-tailed In summary, nonnative mammalian habitat for the Pacific sheath-tailed bat bats is now empty and called Qara ni predators such as rats and feral cats are (Fiji Department of Environment 2011; Pusi (cave of the cat; (Palmeirim et al. present throughout the range of the Naikatini 2015, in litt.; Scanlon 2015a, 2005, p. 34)). Feral cats are also present Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Predation of in litt.). Additional areas of remnant on Tutuila and on the Manua Islands in related subspecies and other cave- forest and important bat habitat are also American Samoa, (Freifeld 2007, pers. roosting bats by rats and feral cats managed informally under traditional comm.; Arcilla 2015, in litt.). Feral cats strongly suggests a high probability of custodial management systems (Scanlon have also been documented in Samoa, predation of the Pacific sheath-tailed 2015a, in litt.). Tonga, and are likely present in bat. Based on the above information, we Vanuatu (Atkinson and Atkinson 2000, conclude that predation by rats and feral Summary of Factor A p. 32; Freifeld 2007, pers. comm.; cats is a current and future threat to the Based on our review of the best Arcilla 2015, in litt.). Pacific sheath-tailed bat throughout its available scientific and commercial Rats may also prey on the Pacific range. information, habitat destruction and sheath-tailed bat. Rats are omnivores Disease degradation by deforestation, as a result and opportunistic feeders and have a Disease may contribute to the decline of logging and land-clearing for widely varied diet consisting of nuts, of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, agriculture and other land-uses, is seeds, grains, vegetables, fruits, insects, especially because of the bat’s occurring throughout the range of the worms, snails, eggs, frogs, fish, reptiles, communal roosting habit (Wiles and Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Habitat birds, and mammals (Fellers 2000, p. Worthington 2002, p. 13). destruction and modification and range 525; Global Invasive Species Database Microchiropterans have been severely curtailment are current threats to the (GISD) 2011). Rats are known to prey on affected by certain diseases, such as Pacific sheath-tailed bat that are likely non-volant (young that have not white nose syndrome in North America; to persist in the future. developed the ability to fly) bats at therefore, the possibility exists that an roosting sites and can be a major threat B. Overutilization for Commercial, undetected disease has led or to bat colonies (Wiles et al. 2011, p. Recreational, Scientific, or Educational contributed to the extirpation of this 306). Of several nonnative rats (Rattus Purposes species on several islands (Malotaux spp.) found on islands in the Pacific, 2012a in litt.). However, disease has not The best available information does black rats (R. rattus) likely pose the been observed either in the Mariana or not indicate that the Pacific sheath- greatest threat to Pacific sheath-tailed South Pacific subspecies of Pacific tailed bat is used for any commercial, bats because of their excellent climbing sheath-tailed bat (Palmeirim et al. 2007, recreational, scientific, or educational abilities (Palmeirim 2015, in litt.). p. 517; Wiles et al. 2011, p. 306). The purpose. As a result, we do not find Although we lack direct evidence of best available information does not overutilization for commercial, black rats preying on Pacific sheath- indicate that disease is a threat to this recreational, scientific, or educational tailed bats, this rat species has had species; therefore, we conclude that purposes to be a threat to the Pacific documented, adverse impacts to other disease is not a current threat the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. colonial species of small bats, such as sheath-tailed bat or likely to become a Townsend’s big-eared bat (Corynorhinus C. Disease or Predation threat in the future. townsendii) in California (Fellers 2000, Predation by Nonnative Mammals pp. 524–525), and several species Conservation Efforts To Reduce Disease Predation by nonnative mammals (Mystacina spp.) in New Zealand or Predation (mammals that occur as a result of (Daniel and Williams 1984, p. 20). We are unaware of any conservation introduction by humans) is a factor in Based on observations of swiftlets, cave- actions planned or implemented at this the decline of the Pacific sheath-tailed nesting birds that often share bats’ time to abate the threats of predation by bat throughout its range. Terrestrial roosting caves, smooth rock overhangs feral cats or rats to the Pacific sheath- predators may be able to take the bat in tall caverns can provide nesting tailed bat. directly from its roosts, which are often surfaces safe from rats, cats, and other in exposed sites such as shallow caves, predators (Tarburton 2011, p. 38). Summary of Factor C rock overhangs or cave entrances. However, bats roosting in caves with In summary, based on the best Domestic and feral cats (Felis catus) can low ledges or those that are filled with available scientific and commercial capture low-flying bats; cats have been debris as a result of rockfalls or severe information, we consider predation by documented to wait for bats as they weather events are likely to either nonnative mammals to be an ongoing emerge from caves and capture them in abandon such caves or become more threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat flight (Tuttle 1977 in Palmeirim et al. accessible to predators such as rats. Rats that will continue into the future. We do 2005, p. 33; Ransome 1990 in Palmeirim have been postulated as a problem for not find that disease is a threat to the et al. 2005, p. 33; Woods et al. 2003, pp. the Mariana subspecies of the Pacific Pacific sheath-tailed bat, or that it is 178, 188). Consequently, even a few cats sheath-tailed bat (Wiles et al. 2011, p. likely to become one in the future. can have a major impact on a 306); their remaining roost sites on population of cave-dwelling bats Aguiguan appear to be those that are D. The Inadequacy of Existing (Palmeirim et al. 2005, p. 34). inaccessible to rodents (Wiles and Regulatory Mechanisms Of the predators introduced to Fiji, Worthington 2002, p. 18; Berger et al. The Act requires that the Secretary cats are the most likely to prey on bats 2005, p. 144). Nonnative rats are present assess available regulatory mechanisms (Palmeirim et al. 2005, pp. 33–34). On throughout the range of Pacific sheath- in order to determine whether existing Cicia Island in the Lau group in Fiji, tailed bats (Atkinson and Atkinson regulatory mechanisms may be Palmeirim et al. (2005, p. 34) observed 2000, p. 32), and although we lack inadequate as designed to address

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threats to the species being evaluated Commercial hunting and exportation Similarly, under ASCA, title 24, (Factor D). Under this factor, we of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat is chapter 06 (Quarantine), the director of examine whether existing regulatory prohibited under ASCA, title 24, DOA has the authority to promulgate mechanisms are inadequate to address chapter 23, ‘‘Conservation of Flying agriculture quarantine restrictions the potential threats to the Pacific Foxes),’’ which also authorizes and concerning animals. Using this sheath-tailed bat discussed under other directs the ASG DMWR to monitor authority, the DOA has restricted the factors. In determining whether the flying fox populations, protect roosting importation of insects, farm animals, inadequacy of regulatory mechanisms areas from disturbance, and conduct and ‘‘domestic pets,’’ including exotic constitutes a threat to the Pacific sheath- other activities to manage and protect animals, to entry by permit only (See tailed bat, we analyzed the existing the species. This law identifies the ASAC § 24.0305 et. seq.). Yet these Federal, Territorial, and international Pacific sheath-tailed bat as a ‘‘flying fox restrictions do not expressly extend to laws and regulations that may address species’’ (ASCA § 24.2302), but it has all non-domesticated animals, nor does the threats to this species or contain not led to measures implemented to the DMWR have any consultative role in relevant protective measures. Regulatory protect the Pacific sheath-tailed bat or restricting entry of animals (or plants) mechanisms, if they exist, may preclude its habitat from known threats. The sale harmful to wildlife or native flora. the need for listing if we determine that and purchase of all native bats is Accordingly, existing statutes and such mechanisms adequately address prohibited, and the take, attempt to take, regulations leave a great deal of the threats to the species such that and hunting of all native bats are discretion to the DOA, which may not listing is not warranted. prohibited unless explicitly allowed block the entry of animals harmful to during an officially proclaimed hunting native species or their habitats (DMWR American Samoa season (ASAC § 24.1106); take is 2006, p. 80). These regulations do not In American Samoa no existing defined as harass, harm, pursue, hunt, require any measures to control Federal laws, treaties, or regulations shoot, wound, kill, trap, capture, or nonnative animals, such as mammalian specify protection of the Pacific sheath- collect or to attempt to engage in such predators, that already are established tailed bat’s foraging habitat from the conduct (ASAC § 24.1101 (f)). However, and proving harmful to native species threats of agriculture and development, we do not consider hunting or other and their habitats. protect its known roosting caves from forms of utilization to be a threat to the The Territorial Coastal Management disturbance, or address the threat of Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Act establishes a land use permit (LUP) predation by nonnative mammals such Under a 50-year lease agreement system for development projects and a as rats and feral cats. However, some between local villages, the American Project Notification Review System existing Territorial laws and regulations Samoa Government, and the Federal (PNRS) for multi-agency review and have the potential to afford the species Government, approximately 8,000 ac approval of LUP applications (ASAC some protection but their (3,240 ha) of forested habitat on the § 26.0206). The standards and criteria implementation does not achieve that islands of Tutuila, Tau, and Ofu are for review of LUP applications includes result. The DMWR is given statutory protected and managed in the National requirements to protect Special authority to ‘‘manage, protect, preserve, Park of American Samoa (NPSA Lease Management Areas (SMA), Unique and perpetuate marine and wildlife Agreement 1993). There is the potential Areas, and ‘‘critical habitats’’ where resources’’ and to promulgate rules and for development surrounding park in- ‘‘sustaining the natural characteristics is regulations to this end (American holdings, but such forest clearing would important or essential to the Samoa Code Annotated (ASCA), title 24, be isolated and small in scale compared productivity of plant and animal chapter 3). This agency conducts to the large tracts of forested areas species, especially those that are monitoring surveys, conservation protected. threatened or endangered’’ on all lands activities, and community outreach and Under ASCA, title 24, chapter 08 and in coastal waters in the territory not education about conservation concerns. (Noxious Weeds), the Territorial DOA under federal management authority However, to our knowledge, DMWR has has the authority to ban, confiscate, and (ASCA § 24.0501 et. seq.). To date, three not used this authority to undertake destroy species of plants harmful to the SMAs have been designated (Pago Pago conservation efforts for the Pacific agricultural economy. This authority Harbor, Leone Pala, and Nuuuli Pala; sheath-tailed bat such as habitat was expanded by executive regulation ASAC § 26.0221), and all are in coastal protection and control of nonnative so that the governor can ban the use or and mangrove habitats on the south predators (DMWR 2006, pp. 79–80). importation of any plant (ASCA shore of Tutuila that likely provide little The Territorial Endangered Species § 24.0801). A permit from the director of foraging habitat and no roosting habitat Act provides for appointment of a the DOA is likewise required before for the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. The Commission with the authority to plants may be imported to American only Unique Area designated to date is nominate species as either endangered Samoa (ASAC § 24.0328). These the Ottoville Rainforest (American or threatened (ASCA, title 24, chapter regulations are promulgated without Samoa Coastal Management Program 7). Regulations adopted under the consultation with the DMWR (DMWR 2011, p. 52), also on Tutuila’s south Coastal Management Act (ASCA 2006, p. 80). Although these regulations shore, which hypothetically may § 24.0501 et seq.) also prohibit the provide some protection against the provide some foraging habitat for Pacific taking of threatened or endangered introduction of nonnative plant species, sheath-tailed bats, but it is a relatively species listed as threatened or some imports permitted by the DOA, or small island of native forest in the endangered by the American Samoa that escape detection, could prove middle of the heavily developed Tafuna Government (ASG) (American Samoa harmful to native species and their Plain (Trail 1993, p. 4), far from the last Administrative Code (ASAC) habitats in American Samoa. These known roost sites of this species. To the § 26.0220.I.c). However, the ASG has regulations do not require any measures best of our knowledge, no critical not listed the bat as threatened or to control invasive nonnative plants that habitats, as defined in the ASCA, have endangered so these regulatory already are established and proving been designated. Nonetheless, these mechanisms do not provide protection harmful to native species and their laws and regulations are designed to for this species. habitats. ensure that ‘‘environmental concerns

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are given appropriate consideration,’’ is not protected by the current law, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat is and include provisions and regulations. recognized as an ‘‘indigenous species requirements that could address to some The Planning and Urban Management not listed under CITES.’’ Its recognition degree threats to native forests and other Act 2004 (PUMA) and PUMA under the law can garner public habitats important to the Pacific sheath- Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) recognition of the importance of tailed bat, even though individual Regulation (2007) were enacted to conserving the bat and its habitat species are not named (ASAC § 26.0202 ensure all development initiatives are (Tuiwawa 2015, in litt.); however, et seq.). Because the implementation of properly evaluated for adverse because the focus of the legislation is these regulations has been minimal, and environmental impacts (MNRE 2013, p. the regulation of foreign and domestic because review of permits is not 93). The information required under trade, and the bat is not a species in rigorous and does not reliably include PUMA for Sustainable Management trade, this law is not intended to the members of the PNRS Board Plans (Para. 18, Consultation) and provide protection for the bat or its responsible for management of wildlife Environmental Impact Assessments habitat within Fiji. The best available and natural resources (ASCA (Para. 46, Matters the Agency shall information does not identify any laws § 26.026.C), issuance of permits may not consider) does not include specific or regulations protecting the habitat of provide the habitat protection necessary consideration for species or their habitat the Pacific sheath-tailed bat in Fiji. for the conservation of the species and (PUMA 2004, as amended). Other Tonga instead may result in loss of native similar approval frameworks mandated habitat important to the Pacific sheath- under other legislation address specific In Tonga, the Birds and Fish tailed bat and other species as a result stressors and activities. These include Preservation (Amendment) Act 1989, is of land clearing for agriculture and the permit system under the Lands a law to ‘‘make provision for the development (DMWR 2006, p. 71). We Surveys and Environment Act 1989 for preservation of wild birds and fish.’’ conclude that the implementation of the sand mining and coastal reclamation, The law protects birds and fish, and Coastal Management Act and its PNRS and ground water exploration and provides for the establishment of is inadequate to address the threat of abstraction permits under the Water protected areas, but it does not habitat destruction and degradation to Resources Act 2008 (MNRE 2013, p. 93). specifically protect the Pacific sheath- the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. The PUMA process has been gaining in tailed bat or its habitat (Kingdom of In summary, some existing Territorial acceptance and use; however, Tonga 1988, 1989). laws and regulatory mechanisms have information is lacking on its Vanuatu the potential to offer some level of effectiveness in preventing adverse protection for the Pacific sheath-tailed impacts to species or their habitats In Vanuatu, the Environment bat and its habitat but are not currently (MNRE 2013, p. 93). Management and Conservation Act implemented in a manner that would do The Forestry Management Act 2011 (2002) provides for conservation, so. The DMWR has not has not aims to provide for the effective and sustainable development, and exercised its statutory authority to sustainable management and utilization management of the environment of address threats to the bat such has of forest resources. This law creates the Vanuatu. Areas of the law that may nonnative species. The bat is not listed requirement for a permit or license for apply to species protection are the pursuant to the Territorial Endangered commercial logging or harvesting of Environmental Impact Assessment Species Act. The Coastal Management native, agro-forestry, or plantation forest process, which includes an assessment Act and its implementing regulations resources (MNRE and SPREP 2012, p. of protected, rare, threatened, or have the potential to address this threat 18). Permitted and licensed activities endangered species or their habitats in more substantively, but are inadequately must follow approved Codes of Practice, project areas, laws on bioprospecting, implemented. Therefore, we conclude forestry harvesting plans, and other and the creation of Community that regulatory mechanisms in requirements set by the Ministry of Conservation Areas for the management American Samoa do not address threats Natural Resources and Environment. of unique genetic, cultural, geological, to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Certain restrictions apply to actions on or biological resources (Environmental protected lands such as national parks Management and Conservation Act, Part Samoa and reserves. Permits or licenses may 3, Environmental Impact Assessment). In Samoa, the Animals Ordinance designate certain areas for the protection The Wild Bird Protection law (Republic 1960 and the Protection of Wildlife of the biodiversity, endangered species, of Vanuatu 2006) is limited to birds and Regulations 2004 regulate the implementation of international does not offer protection to the Pacific protection, conservation, and utilization conventions, water resources, or area sheath-tailed bat or its habitat. of terrestrial or land-dwelling species determined to be of significance on Summary of Factor D (MNRE and the Secretariat of the Pacific which no forestry activities may be Regional Environment Programme undertaken (Forestry Management Act Based on the best available (SPREP) 2012, p. 5). These laws and 2011, Para. 57). Although this law information, some existing regulatory regulations prohibit, and establish includes these general considerations mechanisms have the potential to offer penalties for committing, the following for managing forest resources, it does protection, but their implementation activities: (1) The take, keep, or kill of not specifically provide protection to does not reduce or remove threats to the protected and partially protected animal habitat for the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Pacific sheath-tailed bat. In American species; (2) harm of flying species Samoa the DMWR has not exercised its endemic to Samoa; and (3) the export of Fiji statutory authority to address threats to any bird from Samoa (MNRE and SPREP In Fiji, the Endangered and Protected the bat such as predation by nonnative 2012, pp. 5–6). As described above, the Species Act (2002) regulates the species, the bat is not listed pursuant to Pacific sheath-tailed bat is neither international trade, domestic trade, the Territorial Endangered Species Act, endemic to the Samoan archipelago, nor possession, and transportation of and the Coastal Management Act’s land is it listed as a ‘‘flying species endemic species protected under CITES and use permitting process is implemented to Samoa’’ under the Protection of other species identified as threatened or inadequately to reduce or remove the Wildlife Regulations 2004. Therefore, it endangered under this act. Under the threat of habitat destruction or

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modification to the Pacific sheath-tailed Goats are certain to enter caves for decline of the bat in American Samoa bat. Therefore, we conclude that shelter from the sun and consequently based on the absence of a similar existing regulatory mechanisms do not can disturb roosting bats, although the population crash in the insectivorous address the threats to the Pacific sheath- extent of this disturbance is unknown white-rumped swiftlet (Aerodramus tailed bat. (Scanlon 2015b, in litt.). Feral goats spodiopygius) and the limited use of have been observed entering caves on agricultural and mosquito-control E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors Aguiguan Island for shelter, which pesticides. On the island of Taveuni in Affecting Its Continued Existence disrupts colonies of the endangered Fiji, where bat populations have Roost Disturbance swiftlet and is believed to disturb the persisted at low levels over the last 10 Disturbance of roosting caves has Mariana subspecies of the Pacific years (Palmeirim et al. 2005, p. 62, contributed to the decline of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat (Wiles and Malotaux 2012, in litt.), several locals sheath-tailed bat throughout its range. Worthington 2002, p. 17; Cruz et al. reported that pesticide use was quite Disturbance of roost caves by humans is 2008, p. 243; Scanlon 2015b, in litt.). widespread, and their use may be likely to have occurred as a result of Researchers found that if caves that similar on other Fijian islands recreation, harvesting of co-occurring were otherwise suitable for bats were (Malotaux 2012, in litt.). We do not have bat species, and, more commonly, guano occupied by goats, there were no bats information about pesticide use in mining (Grant et al. 1994, p. 135; present in the caves (Guam Division of Tonga or Vanuatu. The best available Aquatic and Wildlife Resources 1995, p. information does not lead us to Tarburton 2002, p. 106; Wiles and 95). On Yaqeta Island, Fiji, a cave once conclude that the use of pesticides is a Worthington 2002, p. 17; Palmeirim et known to support several hundred current threat to the Pacific sheath- al. 2005, pp. 63, 66; Malotaux 2012a in Pacific sheath-tailed bats but now tailed bat or that it is likely to become litt.; Malotaux 2012b in litt.). Roost abandoned, is located within a small one in the future. disturbance is a well-known problem for forest fragment frequented by goats many cave-dwelling species (Palmeirim Hurricanes (Scanlon et al. 2013, p. 453). et al. 2005, p. 3). Roosts are important Populations of the Pacific sheath- Although severe storms are a natural sites for bats for mating, rearing young, tailed bat are concentrated in the caves disturbance with which the Pacific and hibernating (in mid- and high- where they roost, and chronic sheath-tailed bat has coexisted for latitude species). Roosts often facilitate disturbance of these sites can result in millennia, such storms exacerbate other complex social interactions, offer the loss of populations, as described threats to the species by adversely protection from inclement weather, help above. Because so few populations of affecting habitat and food resources and bats conserve energy, and minimize this bat remain, loss of additional pose a particular threat to its small and some predation risk (Kunz and populations to roost disturbance further isolated remaining populations. Lumsden 2003, p. 3); therefore, erodes its diminished abundance and American Samoa, Samoa, Fiji, Tonga, disturbance at caves and being distribution. Based on the above and Vanuatu are irregularly affected by repeatedly flushed from their roosts may information, roost disturbance at caves hurricanes (Australian BOM and CSIRO cause bats to incur elevated energetic accessible to humans and animals such 2011 Vol. 1, p. 41). Located in the costs and other physiological stress and as feral goats is a current threat and will Southern Hemisphere, these countries potentially increased risk of predation likely continue to be a threat into the experience most hurricanes during the while in flight. Roost disturbance thus future. November to April wet season, with the would negatively affect the survival and maximum occurrence between January reproduction of the Pacific sheath-tailed Pesticides and March (Australian BOM and CSIRO bat. The use of pesticides may negatively 2011 Vol. 1, p. 47). In the 41-year period In American Samoa, human affect the Pacific sheath-tailed bat as a ending in 2010, more than 280 disturbance at the two caves known to result of direct toxicity and a reduction hurricanes passed within 250 mi (400 be historical roost sites for the bat is in the availability of insect prey. km) of Samoa (52 storms), Tonga (71), likely to be minimal. Guano mining Pesticides are known to adversely affect Fiji (70), and Vanuatu (94) (Australian occurred in the Anapeapea caves in the bat populations, either by secondary BOM and CSIRO 2011, pp. 76, 186, 216, 1960s (Amerson et al. 1982, p. 74), but poisoning when bats consume 244). In recent decades, several major ceased due to the high salt content as a contaminated insects or by reducing the (named) storms have hit American result of flooding with seawater during availability of insect prey (Hutson et al., Samoa and Samoa (Tusi in 1987, Ofa in cyclones (Grant et al. 1994, p. 135). On 2001, p. 138; Mickleburgh et al. 2002, p. 1990, Val in 1991, Heta in 2004, and Taveuni, Fiji, a cave known to be used 19). Pesticides may have contributed to Olaf in 2005 (MNRE 2013, pp. 31–32; as a roosting cave for the Pacific sheath- declines and loss of the Mariana Federal Emergency Management Agency tailed bat is under more immediate subspecies of Pacific sheath-tailed bat 2015, in litt.)); Tonga (Waka in 2001 and threat by humans, as the cave is situated on islands where pesticides were once Ian in 2014 (Tonga Meteorological close to farmland, and is often used by applied in great quantities (Guam, Service 2006, in litt.; World Bank 2014, locals (Malotaux 2012a, p. 3). On Upolu, Saipan, and Tinian) (Wiles and in litt.)); Fiji (Tomas in 2010 (Digital Samoa, caves previously known to Worthington 2002, p. 17). Journal 2010, in litt.)); and, most support bats are well-known and often In American Samoa and Samoa, recently, Vanuatu (Pam in 2015 (BBC visited by tourists; one within O le Pupu current levels of pesticide use are likely 2015, in litt.)). Pue National Park and others on village lower than several decades ago when The high winds, waves, strong storm land (Tarburton 2011, pp. 40, 44). their use, particularly during the years surges, high rainfall, and flooding Swiftlets (Aerodramus spp.) are still in which taro was grown on large scales associated with hurricanes, particularly observed in significant numbers in these for export (1975–1985), coincided with severe hurricanes (with sustained winds caves (Tarburton 2011, p. 40), but these the decline of bats in both places and of at least 150 mi per hour or 65 m per birds may be more tolerant than bats of has been implicated as the cause second) cause direct mortality of the human disturbance. We do not have (Tarburton 2002, p. 107). However, Pacific sheath-tailed bat. Cyclones Ofa information on human disturbance of Grant et al. (1994, pp. 135–136) (1990) and Val (1991) removed the roosts in Tonga or Vanuatu. dismissed the role of insecticides in the dense vegetation that had obscured the

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entrance to the larger cave at Anapeapea Pacific sheath-tailed bat has the capacity Breakdown of the Metapopulation Cove, inundated the cave with water, to forage in a variety of habitats, a study Equilibrium filled it with coral and fallen trees, and of habitat use by the Mariana subspecies The Pacific sheath-tailed bat is washed the cave walls clean (Craig et al. showed a clear preference for forested thought to have a metapopulation 1993, p. 52; Grant et al. 1994, p. 135). habitats (Esselstyn et al. 2004, p. 307). structure (Palmeirim et al. 2005, p. 29), The majority of sheath-tailed bats in the Finally, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat’s and will only persist in an archipelago cave likely were killed when the severely diminished abundance and if the island colonization rate is hurricane hit (Grant et al. 1994, p. 135). distribution increase the likelihood that sufficiently high to compensate for the Hurricanes also cause direct mortality mortality events will cause population- rate of extirpation caused by stochastic of the Pacific sheath-tailed bat as a level impacts and increase the factors on individual islands (Palmeirim result of the bats’ inability to forage vulnerability of populations and of the et al. 2005, p. 36). However, the during extended periods of high wind or species to environmental catastrophes. colonization rate is obviously rain, during which they may starve. Based on the information described proportional to the availability of source Cyclone Val (December 1991) remained above, we consider hurricanes to be a stationary over the Samoan archipelago populations; immigration of bats to factor that exacerbates other threats to recolonize sites or islands where the for four days, and Pacific sheath-tailed the Pacific sheath-tailed bat. bats likely were unable to feed during species was extirpated is dependent on this time (Grant et al. 1994, p. 135). Low Numbers of Individuals and sufficient numbers of animals existing Despite the ability of Pacific sheath- Populations in multiple other sites or islands within tailed bats to enter torpor to survive dispersal distance (Hanski and Gilpin The low numbers of individuals and 1991, pp. 4–14). Consequently, the episodes of inclement weather, the high populations of this subspecies place the ambient temperatures in Samoa may extirpation of the Pacific sheath-tailed Pacific sheath-tailed bat at great risk of bat from some islands, particularly from preclude the energy savings necessary to extinction from inbreeding and sustain a small (4–7-g) torpid bat for an the largest islands, may in the long term stochastic events such as storms. The result in the permanent regional extended period (Grant et al. 1994, p. threat is significant for cave-dwelling 135). extinction of the species, even if species whose populations are often suitable environmental conditions Hurricanes may also cause highly localized with few numbers of modification of the roosting habitat of persist on some islands (Palmeirim et al. animals that can easily be lost in a the Pacific sheath-tailed bat by 2005, p. 36). For example, the continued severe storm, disease outbreak, or modifying vegetation in and around decline of the only significant source disturbance to the roost caves (Wiles cave entrances and altering climate population of Pacific sheath-tailed bat and Worthington 2002, p. 20). conditions within roosting caves as a in the Fijian archipelago greatly result. Microchiropterans, such as the Species that undergo significant diminishes the probability of Pacific sheath-tailed bat, can spend over habitat loss and degradation and face recolonization and persistence half their lives in their roosts; other threats resulting in decline in throughout the remainder of its range in consequently, the microclimate of these numbers and range reduction are Fiji, where it is currently considered to habitats can exert a strong influence inherently highly vulnerable to be extirpated or nearly extirpated. The over their heat-energy balance extinction resulting from localized loss of a functioning metapopulation is (Campbell et al. 2011, p. 174). The catastrophes such as severe storms or a current threat and will continue to be presence of nearby forest cover and a disease outbreaks, climate change a threat in the future. effects, and demographic stochasticity well-developed tree canopy at cave Climate Change entrances is likely to be important in (Shaffer 1981, p. 131; Gilpin and Soule´ maintaining temperature and relative 1986, pp. 24–34; Pimm et al. 1988, p. Our analyses under the Act include humidity, and minimizing air 757; Mangel and Tier 1994, p. 607). consideration of ongoing and projected movement in bat roosts, while allowing Conditions leading to this level of changes in climate. The terms ‘‘climate’’ for passage. O’Shea and Valdez (2009, vulnerability are easily reached by and ‘‘climate change’’ are defined by the pp. 77–78) characterized the limestone island species that face numerous Intergovernmental Panel on Climate cave ecosystem of the Mariana threats such as those described above. Change (IPCC). ‘‘Climate’’ refers to the subspecies on Aguiguan as having Small populations persisting in mean and variability of different types constant temperature, high relative fragmented habitat face increased risk of weather conditions over time, with 30 humidity, and no major air movement. from environmental catastrophes, such years being a typical period for such Although such data are lacking for the as hurricanes, which could immediately measurements, although shorter or Pacific sheath-tailed bat, alteration of extinguish some or all of the remaining longer periods also may be used (IPCC climate conditions has been implicated populations; demographic stochasticity 2013, p. 1,450). The term ‘‘climate in the abandonment of roost caves by that could leave the species without change’’ thus refers to a change in the other bat species (Hutson et al. 2001, p. sufficient males or females to be viable; mean or variability of one or more 101). or inbreeding depression or loss of measures of climate (e.g., temperature or Loss of forest cover and associated adaptive potential that can be associated precipitation) that persists for an insect prey for bats as a result of with loss of genetic diversity and result extended period, typically decades or hurricanes can reduce foraging in eventual extinction (Shaffer 1981, p. longer, whether the change is due to opportunities. Following Cyclones Ofa 131; Lacy 2000, pp. 40, 44–46). The natural variability, human activity, or (1990) and Val (1991), about 90 percent problems associated with small both (IPCC 2013, p. 1,450). Various of the forests on Upolu and Savaii were population size and vulnerability to types of changes in climate can have blown over or defoliated (Park et al. natural catastrophes or random direct or indirect effects on species. 1992, p. 4; Elmqvist et al. 2002, pp. 385, demographic or genetic fluctuations are These effects may be positive, neutral, 388). Tarburton (2002, p. 107) noted that further magnified by synergistic or negative and they may change over the abundance of flying insects interactions with ongoing threats such time, depending on the species and remained low for weeks after cyclones as those discussed above under Factors other relevant considerations, such as had defoliated trees. Although the A and C (Lacy 2000, pp. 45–47). the effects of interactions of climate

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with other variables (e.g., habitat 2007, p. 48; Emanuel et al. 2008, p. 365; habitat requirements are restricted, its fragmentation) (IPCC 2007, pp. 8–14, U.S. Global Change Research Program habitat decreases, and its numbers and 18). Climate change will be a particular (US–GCRP) 2009, pp. 145–149, 153; number of populations decline (IPCC challenge for the conservation of Keener et al. 2010, pp. 25–28; Sturrock 2007, pp. 8–11). In addition, the biodiversity because the introduction et al. 2011, p. 144; Townsend et al. fragmented range, diminished number and interaction of additional stressors 2011, pp. 14–15; Warren 2011, pp. 221– of populations, and low total number of may push species beyond their ability to 226; Finucane et al. 2012, pp. 23–26; individuals have caused the Pacific survive (Lovejoy 2005, pp. 325–326). Keener et al. 2012, pp. 47–51). sheath-tailed bat to lose redundancy and The synergistic effects of climate change In the western Pacific region, resilience rangewide. Therefore, we and habitat fragmentation are the most increased ambient temperatures is would expect the Pacific sheath-tailed menacing facet of climate change for projected to lead to increases in annual bat to be particularly vulnerable to the biodiversity (Hannah et al. 2005, p. 4). mean rainfall, the number of heavy rain habitat impacts of projected Currently, there are no climate change days (20–50 mm), and extreme rainfall environmental effects of climate change studies that address impacts to the events in American Samoa, Samoa Fiji, (Loope and Giambelluca 1998, pp. 504– specific habitat of the Pacific sheath- Tonga, and Vanuatu (Australian BOM 505; Pounds et al. 1999, pp. 611–612; tailed bat. There are, however, climate and CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1, p. 178; Still et al. 1999, p. 610; Benning et al. change studies that address potential Australian BOM and CSIRO 2011 Vol. 2, 2002, pp. 14,246–14,248; Giambelluca changes in the tropical Pacific on a pp. 87–88, 194–195, 224–225, 254–255). and Luke 2007, pp. 13–15). Based on the broader scale. Impacts of increased precipitation on above information, we conclude that In our analyses, we reference the the Pacific sheath-tailed bat are habitat impacts resulting from the scientific assessment and climate unknown. effects of climate change are not a change predictions for the western Hurricanes are projected to decrease current threat but are likely to become Pacific region prepared by the Pacific in frequency in this part of the Pacific a threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat Climate Change Science Program but increase in severity as a result of in the future. (PCCSP), a collaborative research global warming (Australian BOM and partnership between the Australian CSIRO 2011 Vol. 2, pp. 88, 195, 225, Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other Government and 14 Pacific Island 255). The high winds, waves, strong Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting countries, including Samoa, Tonga, Fiji, storm surges, high rainfall, and flooding Its Continued Existence and Vanuatu (Australian BOM and associated with hurricanes, particularly We are unaware of any conservation CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1, p. 15). The severe hurricanes (with sustained winds actions planned or implemented at this assessment builds on the Fourth of 150 mi (240 km) per hour), have time to abate the threats of roost Assessment Report of the periodically caused great damage to disturbance, low numbers, hurricanes, Intergovernmental Panel on Climate roosting habitat of Pacific sheath-tailed or breakdown of the metapopulation Change (IPCC), and presents regional bats and to native forests that provide equilibrium that negatively impact the predictions for the area roughly between their foraging habitat (Craig et al. 1993, Pacific sheath-tailed bat. 25° S. to 20° N. and 120° E. to 150° W. p. 52; Grant et al. 1994, p. 135; Summary of Factor E (excluding the Australian region south Tarburton 2002, pp. 105–108; Palmeirim of 10° S. and west of 155° E.) (Australian et al. 2005, p. 35), as described in the In summary, based on the best BOM and CSIRO 2011 Vol. 1, pp. 14, ‘‘Hurricanes’’ section, above. scientific and commercial information 20). The findings for Samoa (13° S. and In the western Pacific region, sea level available, we consider other natural and 171° E.) may be used as a proxy for is projected to rise 1.18 to 6.3 in (30 to manmade factors to be current and American Samoa (14° S. and 170° W.). 160 mm) by 2030, 2.6 to 12.2 in (70 to ongoing threats to the Pacific sheath- The annual average air temperatures 310 mm) by 2055, and 8.3 in to 2 ft (210 tailed bat. Roost disturbance, small and sea surface temperatures are to 620 mm) by 2090 under the high- population size, and breakdown of the projected to increase in American emissions scenario (Australian BOM metapopulation dynamic are threats to Samoa, Samoa, Fiji, Tonga, and and CSIRO 2011 Vol. 2, pp. 91, 198, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat and are Vanuatu, as well as throughout the 228, 258). The Pacific sheath-tailed bat likely to continue in the future. The western Pacific region (Australian BOM is known to roost in areas close to the bat’s small and isolated remaining and CSIRO 2011 Vol. 2, pp. 91, 198, coast and forage in the adjacent forested populations are vulnerable to natural 228, 258). The projected regional areas at or near sea-level, as well as environmental catastrophes such as warming is around 0.5–1.0 °C by 2030, inland and at elevations up to 2,500 ft hurricanes, and the threats of small regardless of the emissions scenario. By (762 m). The impacts of projected sea- population size and hurricanes are 2055, the warming is generally 1.0–1.5 level rise on low-elevation and coastal likely to continue into the future. Due °C with regional differences depending roosting and foraging habitat are likely to reduced levels of pesticide use and on the emissions scenario. Projected to reduce and fragment the bat’s habitat the uncertainty regarding impacts to this changes associated with increases in on individual high islands. species, we do not consider the use of temperature include, but are not limited In summary, although we lack pesticides to be a threat to the Pacific to, changes in mean precipitation with information about the specific effects of sheath-tailed bat. Although we do not unpredictable effects on local projected climate change on the Pacific consider climate change to be a current environments (including ecosystem sheath-tailed bat, we anticipate that threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, processes such as nutrient cycling), increased ambient temperature, we anticipate that climate change is increased occurrence of drought cycles, precipitation, hurricane intensity, and likely to exacerbate other threats to the increases in the intensity and number of sea-level rise and inundation would species and to become a threat in the severe storms, sea-level rise, a shift in create additional stresses on the bat and future. vegetation zones upslope, and shifts in on its roosting and foraging habitat in the ranges and lifecycles of because it is vulnerable to these Synergistic Effects individual species (Loope and disturbances. The risk of extinction as a In our analysis of the five factors, we Giambelluca 1998, pp. 514–515; Pounds result of the effects of climate change found that the Pacific sheath-tailed bat et al. 1999, pp. 611–612; IPCC AR4 increases when a species’ range and is likely to be affected by loss of forest

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habitat, predation by nonnative isolated remaining populations and available scientific and commercial mammals, roost disturbance, and small probable low total abundance information, we propose listing Pacific population size. We also identify several throughout its range, render the Pacific sheath-tailed bat as endangered in potential sources of risk to the species sheath-tailed bat in its entirety highly accordance with sections 3(6) and (e.g., disease, pesticides, climate susceptible to extinction as a 4(a)(1) of the Act. change) that we do not currently consequence of these imminent threats. Under the Act and our implementing consider to be significantly affecting the The vulnerability of the species and its regulations, a species may warrant Pacific sheath-tailed bat because of their cave habitat to the impacts of predation listing if it is in danger of extinction or low occurrence today or apparently and human disturbance is exacerbated likely to become so throughout all or a minimal overall impact on the species. by hurricanes and likely to be further significant portion of its range. Because Multiple stressors acting in combination exacerbated in the future by the effects we have determined that the Pacific have greater potential to affect the of climate change, such as sea level rise, sheath-tailed bat is endangered Pacific sheath-tailed bat than each factor extreme rain events, and increased throughout all of its range, no portion of alone. The combined effects of storm severity. The breakdown of the its range can be ‘‘significant’’ for environmental, demographic, and Pacific sheath-tailed bat’s purposes of the definitions of catastrophic-event stressors, especially metapopulation structure is expected to ‘‘endangered species’’ and ‘‘threatened on a small population can lead to a reduce opportunities for repopulation species.’’ See the Final Policy on decline that is unrecoverable and results following local extirpations of Interpretation of the Phrase ‘‘Significant in extinction (Brook et al. 2008, pp. dwindling populations due to stochastic Portion of Its Range’’ in the Endangered 457–458). The impacts of the stressors events. In addition, the continued Species Act’s Definitions of described above, which might be decline of the last relatively large ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened sustained by a larger, more resilient population of this species in Fiji further Species’’ (79 FR 37577, July 1, 2014). population, have the potential in diminishes the probability of Mao, Gymnomyza samoensis combination to rapidly affect the size, persistence throughout the remainder of growth rate, and genetic integrity of a its range where it is currently The genus Gymnomyza refers to birds species that persists as small, disjunct considered to be extirpated or nearly in the honeyeater family Meliphagidae, populations. Thus, factors that, by extirpated. In addition, the continued which are restricted to a few islands in themselves, may not have a significant decline of the last relatively large the southwestern Pacific Ocean. The effect on the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, population of this species in Fiji further mao (Gymnomyza samoensis), also may affect the subspecies when diminishes the probability of called maomao, is one of three considered in combination. persistence throughout the remainder of honeyeater species in the genus (Mayr its range where it is currently 1945, p. 100). We have carefully Proposed Determination for the Pacific considered to be extirpated or nearly reviewed the available taxonomic Sheath-Tailed Bat extirpated. information (Watling 2001, p. 174; Section 4 of the Act (16 U.S.C. 1533), In summary, habitat destruction and BirdLife International 2013; Gill and and its implementing regulations at 50 modification from deforestation is a Donsker 2015; ITIS 2015a) and have CFR part 424, set forth the procedures threat to the Pacific sheath-tailed bat concluded the species is a valid taxon. for adding species to the Federal Lists that is occurring throughout its range The mao is a large (approximately 11 of Endangered and Threatened Wildlife (Factor A). The threat of predation by in (28 cm)), ‘‘very dark-looking and Plants. Under section 4(a)(1) of the nonnative predators such as rats and honeyeater . . . uniformly olive-black Act, we may list a species based on (A) feral cats is ongoing (Factor C). Existing with a brown suffusion, except for an The present or threatened destruction, regulatory mechanisms do not address olive stripe beneath the eye. The modification, or curtailment of its the threats to the Pacific sheath-tailed ‘‘slender, down-curved bill and feet are habitat or range; (B) Overutilization for bat (Factor D). Human disturbance of black’’ (Watling 2001, p. 174). Butler commercial, recreational, scientific, or roost caves, low numbers of individuals and Stirnemann (2013, p. 25) report that educational purposes; (C) Disease or and populations and their concomitant male mao have blue eyes and are larger, predation; (D) The inadequacy of vulnerability to catastrophic events such while females are smaller with brown existing regulatory mechanisms; or (E) as hurricanes, and the breakdown of the eyes. Juveniles have a shorter bill than Other natural or manmade factors metapopulation structure all are current adults, and eye color changes 2 months affecting its continued existence. Listing threats to the bat as well (Factor E). All post-fledging (Butler and Stirnemann actions may be warranted based on any of these factors pose threats to the 2013, p. 25). The mao is a very vocal of the above threat factors, singly or in Pacific sheath-tailed bat, whether we species and makes a variety of loud combination. consider their effects individually or distinctive calls with bouts of calling We have carefully assessed the best cumulatively, and all of these threats lasting up to a minute (Watling 2001, p. scientific and commercial information will continue in the future. 174). Calls differ between sexes (Butler available regarding the past, present, The Act defines an endangered and Stirnemann 2013, p. 25). and future threats to the Pacific sheath- species as any species that is ‘‘in danger The mao is endemic to the Samoan tailed bat. We find that the Pacific of extinction throughout all or a archipelago. The species was thought to sheath-tailed bat is presently in danger significant portion of its range’’ and a be primarily restricted to mature, well- of extinction throughout its entire range threatened species as any species ‘‘that developed, moist, mossy forests at based on the severity and immediacy of is likely to become endangered upper elevations (Watling 2001, p. 175; the ongoing and projected threats throughout all or a significant portion of Engbring and Ramsey 1989, p. 68), but described above. Habitat loss and its range within the foreseeable future.’’ has recently been observed at elevations degradation due to deforestation, We find that the Pacific sheath-tailed ranging from 932 to 5,075 ft (284 to predation by nonnative mammals, bat is presently in danger of extinction 1,547 m) and in ecosystems including human disturbance of roost caves, and throughout its entire range based on the lowland rainforest, disturbed secondary stochastic events such as hurricanes, severity and immediacy of threats forest, and montane rainforest (MNRE floods, or disease outbreaks, which all currently impacting the species. 2006, pp. 9–10). The birds use the mid- pose a particular threat to the small and Therefore, On the basis of the best to upper-canopy levels of the forest and

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will also forage along forest edges and The mao was once found throughout Freifeld 2015 in litt.). Given that the brushy forest openings (Engbring and Savaii and Upolu (Samoa) likely in species is noisy and conspicuous, it is Ramsey 1989, p. 68). The mao has also forests ranging from the coast to unlikely that a population on Tutuila been recorded visiting coconut trees mountain tops (MNRE 2006, p. 2). It is was missed during the surveys near the coast (Watling 2001, p. 175). endemic to the islands of Savaii and (Engbring and Ramsey 1989; p. 68). Butler and Stirnemann (2013, p. 30) Upolu, Samoa, and Tutuila Island, More recent surveys conducted by provide the following information about American Samoa (Engbring and Ramsey DMWR in forested habitats likely to the mao’s habitat use. The birds only 1989, p. 68; Watling 2001, p. 174). The support mao failed to detect their occur in forested areas with a canopy mao was observed during an 1839 presence, further indicating the layer, including modified habitat such expedition on Tutuila (Amerson et al. likelihood that the species no longer as plantations where large trees also are 1982, p. 72), two male specimens were occurs on Tutuila (MacDonald 2015 in present. They do not occur in logged collected there in 1924, and an litt.). areas with no large trees or canopy. Mao unconfirmed observation of the mao on The mao is listed as Endangered in are primarily found in the high canopy Tutuila was reported in 1977 (Engbring the 2014 IUCN Red List (Birdlife layer, but also spend considerable time and Ramsey 1989, p. 68; Watling 2001, International 2012). Endangered is foraging on the trunks of trees and p. 174). IUCN’s second most severe category of feeding on nectar sources near the The mao is currently found only on extinction assessment, which equates to ground (such as ginger (family the islands of Savaii and Upolu in a very high risk of extinction in the Zingiberaceae)) and in low bushes (such Samoa (Amerson et al. 1982, p. 72; wild. IUCN criteria include the rate of as Heliconia spp.). The mao selects Engbring and Ramsey 1989, p. 68; decline, population size, area of territories with high tree species Watling 2001, p. 74; MNRE 2006, p. 2). geographic distribution, and degree of diversity and with appropriate nectar In 1984, the mao was reported as population and distribution sources and a large tree from which the common in undisturbed upland forests fragmentation; however, IUCN rankings male sings. Trees near a commonly used (foothill, montane, and cloud forests do not confer any actual protection or singing tree are selected for nesting. No above 1,970 ft (600 m)) of Upolu and management. Savaii (Bellingham and Davis 1988, p. particular tree species is used for Summary of Factors Affecting the Mao nesting, but all nests are built more than 124). A decline in distribution was 5 meters above the ground. observed in the 1990s following a A. The Present or Threatened period in which several powerful Destruction, Modification, or Butler and Stirnemann (2013, pp. 19– hurricanes hit Samoa: Tusi (1987), Ofa Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range 32) provide the following information (1990), and Val (1991) (Lovegrove 1992, about mao life history and breeding Habitat Destruction and Modification by p. 26; MNRE 2006, pp. 2, 4). Otherwise, behavior. Based on a study of 15 nests, Deforestation no detailed surveys of the mao were the mao nests once a year, between June conducted before 2005, and little Several thousand years of subsistence and October, and produces one egg per information exists regarding changes in agriculture and more recent commercial clutch (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, pp. abundance and distribution (MNRE agriculture has resulted in the alteration 19–32). The nest consists of young 2006, p. 2). Surveys conducted in 2005– and great reduction in area of forests at branches of various trees and contains 2006 found mao at seven sites on Upolu lower elevations in the Samoan little lining (Butler and Stirnemann and Savaii in upland forested habitat, archipelago (Whistler 1994, p. 40; 2013, p. 25). Incubation lasts 19 days, yielded a rough estimate of 500 Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. and chicks fledge 21–22 days after individuals and indicated that numbers 361; Whistler 2002, pp. 130–131). In hatching. Juveniles are dependent on are declining (MNRE 2006, p. 4; American Samoa, forest clearing for adults for approximately 8 to 10 weeks Tipamaa 2007, in litt., cited in Birdlife agriculture has contributed to habitat post-fledging. The female is almost International 2012). The Rapid loss and degradation of forests in the exclusively responsible for incubation Biodiversity Assessment of Upland lowland areas on Tutuila, and has the and feeding the chick, and both adults Savaii, Samoa conducted in 2012 potential to spread into higher defend the nest. The mao will re-nest if detected small numbers of the mao at elevations and previously undisturbed the first nest fails, but not if the first two sites on the island (Atherton and forest; however, owing to limits on the nesting attempt produces a chick. Pairs Jefferies 2012, p. 14), and it is possible feasibility of land-clearing imposed by are highly territorial with high site that the species has particular habitat the island’s extreme topography, large fidelity. requirements that have become limited areas of mature native rainforest have The mao’s diet consists primarily of in Samoa (MNRE 2013, p. 12). Neither persisted. Deforestation, therefore, is nectar, and also includes some the 2012 surveys nor a study of the unlikely to have been a cause of the invertebrates and fruit (MNRE 2006, p. species’ biology and movements (Butler mao’s extirpation on this island in 11). Nectar is an especially important and Stirnemann 2013) yielded an American Samoa. food source during the breeding season, updated population estimate. However, The loss of forested habitat in Samoa and the mao will defend nectar patches researchers observed that the species is is a primary threat to the mao (MNRE (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 30). rarer than previously thought and 2006, p. 5). Between 1954 and 1990, the The mao eats invertebrates by probing recommended that comprehensive amount of forested area declined from dead material and moss, and by surveys be conducted to generate a new 74 to 46 percent of total land area in gleaning from emerging leaves (Butler population estimate (Stirnemann 2015, Samoa (Food and Agricultural and Stirnemann 2013, p. 30). Females in litt). Organization (FAO) 2005 in litt.). forage for invertebrates under dead The mao is likely extirpated from Between 1978 and 1990, 20 percent of leaves on the forest floor to feed their Tutuila Island in American Samoa all forest losses in Samoa were fledglings (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, (Freifeld 1999, p. 1,208). Surveys attributable to logging, with 97 percent p. 30). Fledglings solicit food from the conducted on Tutuila Island in 1982 of the logging having occurred on Savaii female by begging continually from the and 1986 and from 1992 to 1996 did not (Government of Samoa 1998 in Whistler forest floor (Butler and Stirnemann detect the mao (Amerson et al. 1982, p. 2002, p. 132). Forested land area in 2013, p. 28). 72; Engbring and Ramsey 1989; p. 68; Samoa continued to decline at a rate of

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roughly 2.1 percent or 7,400 ac (3,000 damage from Cyclones Ofa and Val agriculture and development, and feral ha) annually from 1990 to 2000 (FAO (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 22). An ungulates. 2005 in litt.). As a result, there is very additional 24 percent of the forest cover The native flora of the Samoan little undisturbed, mature forest left in is classified as secondary re-growth archipelago (plant species that were Samoa (Watling 2001, p. 175; FAO 2005 forest. As a result, the montane forest in present before humans arrived) in litt.). Samoa is now extremely open and consisted of approximately 550 taxa, 30 The clearing of land for commercial patchy with fewer food resources for percent of which were endemic (species agriculture has been the leading cause of birds, including the mao (Butler and that occur only in the American Samoa deforestation in Samoa—more so than Stirnemann 2013, p. 22). The montane and Samoa) (Whistler 2002, p. 8). An plantations or logging (Whistler 2002, p. forests are also increasingly vulnerable additional 250 plant species have been 131). The transition from subsistence to invasion by nonnative trees and other intentionally or accidentally introduced agriculture to developing cash crops for plants (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. and have become naturalized with 20 or export (e.g., taro, bananas, cacao) 22), which adversely affect native more of these considered invasive or coupled with rapid population growth forests through competition for light, potentially invasive in American Samoa and new technologies, led to increased nutrients, and water; chemical (Whistler 2002, p. 8; Space and Flynn forest clearing in Samoa (Paulson 1994, inhibition; and prevention of 2000, pp. 23–24). Of these pp. 326–332; Whistler 2002, pp. 130– reproduction. Loss of forest is likely to approximately 20 or more nonnative 131). Today, only 360 ac (146 ha) of affect the mao by reducing breeding, pest plant species, at least 10 have native lowland rainforests (below 2,000 nesting, and foraging habitat, increasing altered or have the potential to alter the ft or 600 m) remain on Savaii and Upolu forest fragmentation, and increasing the habitat of the mao and the other four as a result of logging, agricultural abundance and diversity of invasive species proposed for listing (Atkinson clearing, residential clearing (including species (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. and Medeiros 2006, p. 18; Craig 2009, relocation due to tsunami), and natural 22). pp. 94, 97–98; ASCC 2010, p. 15). Nonnative plants can degrade native causes such as rising sea level and On the island of Tutuila, American habitat in Pacific island environments hurricanes (MNRE 2013, p. 47). On Samoa, agriculture and urban by: (1) Modifying the availability of light Upolu, direct or indirect human development covers approximately 24 through alterations of the canopy influence has caused extensive damage percent of the island, and up to 60 structure; (2) altering soil–water to native forest habitat above 2,000 ft percent of the island contains slopes of regimes; (3) modifying nutrient cycling; (600 m) (MNRE 2013, p. 13). Although less than 30 percent where additional forested, almost all upland forests on (4) ultimately converting native- land clearing is feasible (ASCC 2010, p. Upolu are largely dominated by dominated plant communities to 13; DWMR 2006, p. 25). Farmers are introduced species today (MNRE 2013, nonnative plant communities; and (5) increasingly encroaching into some of p. 12). Savaii still has extensive upland increasing the frequency of landslides the steep forested areas as a result of forests which are for the most part and erosion (Smith 1985, pp. 217–218; suitable flat lands already being undisturbed and composed of native Cuddihy and Stone, 1990, p. 74; Matson occupied with urban development and species (MNRE 2013, p. 40). However, 1990, p. 245; D’Antonio and Vitousek agriculture (ASCC 2010, p. 13). forest clearance remains an ongoing 1992, p. 73; Vitousek et al. 1997, pp. 6– Consequently, agricultural plots have threat to the mao (MNRE 2006, p. 5). 9; Atkinson and Medeiros 2006, p. 16). spread from low elevations up to middle Logging is slowing down because the Nonnative plant species often exploit most accessible forest has largely been and some high elevations on Tutuila. the disturbance caused by other factors removed, but is an ongoing problem on In summary, deforestation by land- such as hurricanes, agriculture and Savaii despite years of effort to phase it clearing for agriculture has been the development, and feral ungulates, and out (MNRE 2006, p. 5; Atherton and major contributing factor in the loss and thus, in combination reinforce or Jeffries 2012, p. 17). Shifting or slash- degradation of forested habitat for the exacerbate their negative impacts to and-burn cultivation is an increasing mao throughout its range in Samoa and native habitats. Although the areas concern in upland forest that provides American Samoa, and logging has been within the National Park of American important refuges for the mao because an additional major factor in loss and Samoa (NPSA, on the islands of Tutuila, farmers use forestry roads from heavily degradation of forest habitat in Samoa. Ofu, and Tau) contain many areas that logged lowland forests to gain access to The majority of the lowland forests have are relatively free of human disturbance formerly inaccessible land (MNRE 2006, either been lost or fragmented by land- and alien invasion and largely represent p. 5). For example, there is much clearing for agriculture. Upland areas in pre-contact vegetation, the threat of concern about potential forest loss Samoa have suffered extensive invasion and further spread by because of road that has been bulldozed deforestation from logging and are nonnative plant species poses immense into the cloud forest (above 3,280 ft increasingly at risk as agriculture and cause for concern (Atkinson and (1,000 m)) on Savaii, apparently development expand into these areas. Medeiros 2006, p. 17; ASCC 2010, p. illegally (Atherton and Jeffries 2012, p. Based on the above information, we 22). 16). Such roads provide vectors for conclude that the threat of habitat The invasive vines Merremia peltata invasive nonnative plant and animal destruction and modification by and Mikania micrantha have serious species as well, thus exacerbating those agriculture and development is a impacts in forested areas and prevent threats to the mao and its habitat current threat to the mao and will reforestation of former agriculture areas (Atherton and Jeffries 2012, p. 108). continue into the future. in Samoa and American Samoa; they are prolific invaders of forest gaps and Habitat quality has also degraded with Habitat Destruction and Modification by the loss of closed forest space (MNRE disturbed sites, and can have a Nonnative Plants 2006, p. 5; Butler and Stirnemann 2013, smothering effect on growing trees, p. 22). An analysis in 1999 identified 32 Nonnative plant species can degrade blocking sunlight to sub-canopy and percent of the total forest cover as the habitat of native species and their undergrowth vegetation (MNRE 2013, p. ‘‘open’’ forest (less than 40 percent tree impacts to native forest often are 29). Similarly, several invasive trees cover) and less than 0.05 percent as facilitated or exacerbated by the impacts also negatively affect native forests in ‘‘closed’’ forest, largely as a result of of other threats such as hurricanes, Samoa by outcompeting native species

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in forest gaps, getting established and species (NPSA 2012, in litt.). It has resprouts vigorously after cutting, and moving further into old secondary displaced significant areas of lowland seeds can remain viable for 10 to 20 regrowth and primary forests. A forest in Samoa, and is now considered years (Craig 2009, p. 98). significant portion of Samoa’s forest are to be an important threat to native Merremia peltata (Merremia, fue now classified as secondary re-growth forests in American Samoa (Atkinson lautetele), is an indigenous, sprawling, dominated by invasive tree species such and Medeiros 2006, p. 18). or high-climbing vine that can invade as Falcataria moluccana (albizia, Cinnamomum verum (cinnamon, areas following disturbances such as tamaligi), Castilla elastica (Mexican tinamoni), native to south Asia, is a fast- land-clearing and hurricanes. This fast- rubber tree, pulu mamoe), Spathodea growing, medium-sized tree up to 30 ft growing vine can smother plantation campanulata (African tulip, faapasi), (9 m) high with aromatic bark and and forest trees (Craig 2009, p. 98). and Funtumia elastica (African rubber leaves. It forms dense root mats that Mikania micrantha (mile-a-minute tree, pulu vao) (MNRE 2013, p. 29). In inhibit establishment of other plants, vine, fue saina), native to tropical addition, the invasive shrub Clidemia and can shade out other tree species and America, is a scrambling or climbing hirta is found in remote areas of upland thus create monotypic stands. On herbaceous vine, that retards forest forests in Savaii (Atherton and Jeffries Tutuila, it is actively spreading in the regeneration with its smothering growth 2012, p. 103). Although the mao forage ridge forests of Mt. Matafao, Matuu, and (Whistler 1994, p. 42). This sun-loving, and occasionally nest in modified Maloata (Space and Flynn 2000, p. 4; shade-intolerant vine is a major pest of habitat such as plantation areas where NPSA 2012, in litt.). plantations and forests on all major nonnative trees that provide nectar and The shrub Clidemia hirta (Koster’s American Samoa islands (Space and nesting habitat (e.g., Falcataria curse), native to the New World from Flynn 2000, p. 5; Craig 2009, p. 94). moluccana) may occur, these habitats Mexico to Argentina, grows to be 6.6 ft Psidium cattleianum (strawberry lack the high tree-species diversity (2 m) in height, forms a dense guava, kuava) is a tall shrub or small preferred by the mao and also place the understory, shades out native plants, tree that forms dense stands in which species at a greater risk of predation by and prevents their regeneration (Wagner few other plants can grow, displacing nonnative predators (see Factor C et al. 1985, p. 41; Smith 1989, p. 64). On native vegetation through competition. below) (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. Tau, it has become a serious problem in The fruit is eaten by feral pigs and birds 30). In summary, while the best the unique summit scrub community that disperse the seeds throughout the available information does not provide (Whistler 1992, p. 22). forest (Smith 1985, p. 200; Wagner et al. the exact distribution of nonnative plant Falcataria moluccana (albizia, 1985, p. 24). It is thought to have been species, the habitat-modifying impacts tamaligi), native to Moluccas, New cultivated in American Samoa for more of nonnative species are expected to Guinea, New Britain, and the Solomon than 40 years and has become continue and are not likely to be Islands, is a tree that can reach 131 ft naturalized in lowland rainforest on reduced in the future. Based on the (40 m) in height and has a wide- western Tutuila. above information, we conclude that the spreading canopy. It grows rapidly and Spathodea campanulata (African threat of habitat destruction and outcompetes slow-growing native trees tulip, faapasi), native to tropical Africa, modification by nonnative plant species by reducing light availability, and its is a large tree up to 80 ft (24 m) or more is a current threat to the mao and will abundant, high-nutrient litter alters soil in height with showy red-orange tulip- continue into the future. chemistry (GISD 2008). Its shallow root like flowers and pods containing The following list provides a brief system may lead to soil instability and hundreds of wind-dispersed seeds description of the nonnative plants that landslides (Atkinson and Medeiros (Pacific Islands Ecosystems at Risk have the greatest negative impacts to the 2006, p. 17). (PIER) 2013). It is particularly invasive native forest habitat for the mao in Funtumia elastica (African rubber in low- to mid-elevation forests, and can American Samoa (Space and Flynn tree, pulu vao), is a medium-sized tree spread in open agricultural land, waste 2000, pp. 23–24; Craig 2009, pp. 94, 96– up to 100 ft (30 m) tall native to tropical areas, and intact native forest, forming 98; ASCC 2010, p. 15): Africa (U.S. Department of dense stands that shade out other Adenanthera pavonina (red bean tree, Agriculture—Agricultural Research vegetation (GISD 2010). coral bean tree, lopa), native to India Service (USDA) 2006). This tree is and Malaysia, is a medium-sized tree up invasive because of its ‘‘parachute Habitat Destruction and Modification by to 50 ft (15 m) high that invades intact seeds’’ that can disperse long distances Nonnative Ungulates forests as well as disturbed sites, and and germinate in sunny or shady Feral pigs (Sus scrofa) cause multiple can quickly form large stands (GISD conditions (Whistler 2002, p. 122). negative impacts to island ecosystems 2006). In American Samoa, it is invasive Funtumia has become a dominant including the destruction of vegetation, in secondary forests, but also has the subcanopy and understory tree in the spread of invasive nonnative plant ability to become more widely western half of Upolu where it can form species, and increased soil erosion. In established on Tutuila and the Manua monotypic forests (Pearsall and Whistler addition, feral cattle (Bos taurus) Islands (Space and Flynn 2000, p. 4). It 1991, p. 30). It is also established and consume tree seedlings and browse is considered to have negative impacts becoming dominant on eastern Savaii saplings, and combined with on the native forests in American Samoa (Whistler 2002, p. 122). This species has undergrowth disturbance, prevent forest because the trees produce large the potential to become a major problem regeneration, subsequently opening the quantities of seed, grow on a variety of in American Samoa due to its proximity forest to invasion by nonnative species soils, and can overtop many native trees and the volume of traffic with Samoa (Cuddihy 1984, p. 16). and eventually form monotypic stands (Space and Flynn 2000, p. 12). Feral pigs are known to cause (Space and Flynn 2002, p. 5). Leucaena leucocephala (wild deleterious impacts to ecosystem Castilla elastica (Mexican rubber tree, tamarind, lusina, fua pepe), a shrub processes and functions throughout pulu mamoe), native to tropical native to the neotropics, is a nitrogen- their worldwide distribution (Aplet et America, is a medium-sized tree 15 to fixer and an aggressive competitor that al. 1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone 30 ft (5 to 10 m) high that can invade often forms the dominant element of the 1993, p. 201; Campbell and Long 2009, intact forest where it reproduces vegetation (Geesink et al. 1999, pp. 679– p. 2,319). Feral pigs are extremely prolifically and can crowd out native 680). It crowds out native species and destructive and have both direct and

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indirect impacts on native plant some areas by snaring and hunting, but removal include the following: communities. Pigs are a major vector for remain high in other areas (ASCC 2010, Adenanthera pavonina or lopa, Castilla the establishment and spread of p. 15). elastica or pulu mamoe, Falcataria invasive, nonnative plant species by In Samoa, feral pigs are present moluccana or tamaligi, Leucaena dispersing plant seeds on their hooves throughout lowland and upland areas leucocephala or lusina, and Psidium and fur, and in their feces (Diong 1982, on Savaii, and are considered to have a cattleianum or strawberry guava (Togia pp. 169–170, 196–197), which also serve negative impact on the ecological 2015, in litt.). In particular, efforts have to fertilize disturbed soil (Siemann et al. integrity of upland forests of Savaii, an been focused on the removal of the 2009, p. 547). In addition, pig rooting important conservation area for the mao tamiligi from within the boundaries of and wallowing contributes to erosion by and other rare species (Atherton and the NPSA as well as in adjacent areas clearing vegetation and creating large Jeffries 2012, p. 17). During recent (Hughes et al. 2012). areas of disturbed soil, especially on surveys, feral pig activity was common The thrip Liothrips urichi is an insect slopes (Smith 1985, pp. 190, 192, 196, at most sites in upland forests on Savaii, that was introduced to American Samoa 200, 204, 230–231; Stone 1985, pp. 254– and was even detected at the upper in the 1970s as a biocontrol for the weed 255, 262–264; Tomich 1986, pp. 120– range of the mao at an elevation of 4,921 Clidemia hirta (Tauiliili and Vargo 126; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64– ft (1,500 m) (Atherton and Jefferies 1993, p. 59). This thrip has been 65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et al. 2012, pp. 103, 146). Significant numbers successful at controlling Clidemia on 1991, pp. 18–19; Gagne and Cuddihy of feral cattle were present in an upland Tutuila. Though Clidemia is still 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, site where their trampling had kept common and widespread throughout p. 3,681; CNMI–Statewide Assessment open grassy areas within forested flats, Tutuila, thrips inhibit its growth and and Resource Strategy (SWARS) 2010, and where mao had previously been vigor, preventing it from achieving p. 15; Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. 175–177; observed (Atherton and Jeffries 2012, ecological dominance (Cook 2001, Kessler 2011, pp. 320, 323). Erosion pp. 103–105). Trampling in forested p. 143). resulting from rooting and trampling by areas damages understory vegetation In 2004, the American Samoa Invasive pigs impacts native plant communities and is likely to reduce foraging Species Team (ASIST) was established by contributing to watershed opportunities for mao as well as provide as an inter-agency team of nine local degradation and alteration of plant vectors for invasion by nonnative government and Federal agencies. The nutrient status, and increasing the plants. In summary, the widespread mission of ASIST is to reduce the rate likelihood of landslides (Vitousek et al. disturbance caused by feral ungulates is of invasion and impact of invasive 2009, pp. 3,074–3,086; Chan-Halbrendt likely to continue to negatively impact species in American Samoa with the goals of promoting education and et al. 2010, p. 251; Kessler 2011, pp. the habitat of the mao. Based on the awareness on invasive species and 320¥324). In the Hawaiian Islands, pigs above information, we conclude that preventing, controlling, and eradicating have been described as the most habitat destruction and modification by invasive species. In 2010, the U.S. pervasive and disruptive nonnative feral ungulates is a threat to the mao. Forest Service conducted an invasive influence on the unique native forests, Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat plant management workshop for and are widely recognized as one of the Destruction, Modification, or Territorial and Federal agencies, and greatest current threats to Hawaii’s Curtailment of Its Range local partners (Nagle 2010 in litt.). More forest ecosystems (Aplet et al. 1991, p. recently, the NPSA produced a field 56; Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 195). American Samoa guide of 15 invasive plants that the park In American Samoa, feral pigs The National Park of American Samoa and its partners target for early detection continue to negatively affect forested (NPSA) was established to preserve and and response (NPSA 2012, in litt.). habitats. Feral pigs have been present in protect the tropical forest and In 1996, the NPSA initiated a feral pig American Samoa since antiquity archaeological and cultural resources, to control program that includes fencing (American Samoa Historic Preservation maintain the habitat of flying foxes, to and removal of pigs using snares in the Office 2015, in litt.). In the past, hunting preserve the ecological balance of the Tutuila Island and Tau Island Units. pressure kept their numbers down, Samoan tropical forest, and, consistent Two fences have been constructed and however, increasing urbanization and with the preservation of these resources, several hundred pigs have been increasing availability of material goods to provide for the enjoyment of the removed since 2007 (Togia 2015, in has resulted in the decline in the unique resources of the Samoan tropical litt.). The program is ongoing and practice of pig hunting to almost forest by visitors from around the world includes monitoring feral pig activity nothing (Whistler 1992, p. 21; 1994, p. (Public Law 100–571, Public Law 100– twice per year and additional removal 41). Feral pigs are moderately common 336). Under a 50-year lease agreement actions as needed (Togia 2015, in litt.). to abundant in many forested areas, between local villages, the American where they spread invasive plants, Samoa Government, and the Federal Samoa damage understory vegetation, and Government, approximately 8,000 ac In 2006, the Government of Samoa destroy riparian areas by their feeding (3,240 ha) of forested habitat on the developed a recovery plan for the mao. and wallowing behavior (DMWR 2006, islands of Tutuila, Tau, and Ofu are The recovery plan identifies goals of p. 23; ASCC 2010, p. 15). Feral pigs are protected and managed (NPSA Lease securing the mao, maintaining its a serious problem in the NPSA because Agreement 1993). existing populations on Upolu and of the damage they cause to native Several programs and partnerships to Savaii, and reestablishing populations at vegetation through their rooting and address the threat of nonnative plant former sites (MNRE 2006). The plan has wallowing (Whistler 1992, p. 21; 1994, species have been established and are eight objectives: (1) Manage key forest p. 41; Hoshide 1996, p. 2; Cowie and ongoing in American Samoa. Since areas on Upolu and Savaii where Cook 1999, p. 48; Togia pers. comm. in 2000, the NPSA has implemented an significant populations of the mao Loope et al. 2013, p. 321). Such damage invasive plant management program remain; (2) carry out detailed surveys to to understory vegetation is likely to that has focused on monitoring and identify the numbers of pairs and reduce foraging opportunities for the removal of nonnative plant threats. The establish monitoring; (3) increase mao. Pig densities have been reduced in nonnative plant species prioritized for understanding of the breeding and

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feeding ecology; (4) establish destruction, modification, and depredation event by a black rat, which populations on rat-free islands or new curtailment of the mao’s habitat and took a mao egg. The rat gained access to mainland sites (including feasibility of range are ongoing threats and these the egg by jumping on the incubating reintroduction to American Samoa); (5) threats will continue into the future. female’s back from the branch above, evaluate development of a captive- The destruction and modification of driving the female off the nest. management program; (6) develop a habitat for the mao is caused by Combined with the disappearance of public awareness and education agriculture, logging, feral ungulates, and two females during the breeding season, program; (7) develop partnerships to nonnative plant species, the impacts of this footage suggests that adult females assist in the mao recovery; and (8) all of which are exacerbated by are potentially vulnerable to predation establish a threatened bird recovery hurricanes (see Factor E). The most on the nest at night, while they are group to oversee the implementation serious threat identified has been the incubating (Butler and Stirnemann and review of this plan and other loss of forested habitat caused by forest 2013, p. 31), a phenomenon priority bird species. In 2012, a detailed clearing for agriculture, and logging. All documented or suspected in other study provided information on the of the above threats are ongoing and island bird species, which lack innate mao’s diet, habitat use, reproductive interact to exacerbate the negative behavioral defenses against nonnative success, and survival; important life- impacts and increase the vulnerability mammalian predators (see for example history requirements that can be used to of extinction of the mao. Robertson et al. 1994, p. 1,084; implement recovery efforts (Butler and Armstrong et al. 2006, p. 1,034; Stirnemann 2013). B. Overutilization for Commercial, VanderWerf 2009, p. 741). This The Mt. Vaea Ecological Restoration Recreational, Scientific, or Educational potential bias toward predation of Project surveyed and mapped the Purposes females has the potential to create a presence of native bird and plant In Samoa, there is anecdotal skewed sex ratio in mao populations species and invasive plant species information suggesting that the mao has (Robertson et al. pp. 1,083–1,084). within lowland forest habitat of the 454- been shot by people who were afraid of The location of mao nests affects their ac (183-ha) Mt. Vaea Scenic Reserve on their calls (MNRE 2006, p. 8). In vulnerability to predation by rats; nests Upolu, Samoa (Bonin 2008, pp. 2–5). addition, one individual reported that in close proximity to plantation The project was envisioned as the first mao are eaten, or were eaten in the past, habitats, where rats are most abundant, demonstration project of invasive but it seems more likely these birds are particularly susceptible and species management and forest were shot accidentally by hunters who experience low reproductive success restoration in Samoa. Phase I of the were targeting pigeons (MNRE 2006, p. (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 31). project resulted in the development of a 8). The mao has been protected under Nests within 50 meters of a plantation restoration plan recommending removal regulations enacted by the Government are 40 percent more likely to be of five priority invasive plant species of Samoa in 1993 and revised in 2004 depredated than nests in forested areas and planting of native tree species (MNRE 2006, p. 8). The best available farther from plantations (Butler and (Bonin 2008, pp. viii, 24). Phase 2 of the information does not indicate Stirnemann 2013, p. 31). Because good- project resulted in identifying overutilization for commercial, quality, closed-canopy forest habitat techniques for treatment of two recreation, scientific, or educational remains in American Samoa, factors in problematic rubber species (Castilla purposes in American Samoa. Based on addition to deforestation are likely elastica or pulu mamoe and Funtumia the above information, we conclude that responsible for the extirpation of the elastica or pulu vao) and replanting hunting of the mao is unintentional or mao from American Samoa (MNRE areas with native tree species (Bonin accidental; therefore, we do not 2006, p. 8), including predation by rats 2010, pp. 20–21). consider the overutilization for (Stirnemann 2015, in litt.). Habitat loss The Two Samoas Environmental commercial, recreational, scientific, or from clearing of native forest combined Collaboration Initiative brings together educational purposes to be a threat to with an expansion of plantations in government agencies, nongovernmental the mao. Samoa may lead to an increase in rat organizations and institutions from populations (which find ample food in American Samoa and Samoa and C. Disease or Predation plantation habitats) and a potential for provides a platform for a single Predation an increase in the mao nest predation concerted effort to manage threats to rate. In addition, the mao’s low environmental resources such as the Nest predation by rats has negative reproductive rate (one juvenile per year) management of fisheries, land-based impacts on many island birds, including and extended breeding season increase sources of pollution, climate change, the mao (Atkinson 1977, p. 129; 1985, the likelihood of population-level invasive species, and key or endangered pp. 55–70; Butler and Stirnemann 2013, effects of predation (Butler and species (MNRE 2014, p. 67). In 2010, a p. 29; O’Donnell et al. 2015, pp. 24–26). Stirnemann 2013, p. 22). Memorandum of Understanding Rats have been identified as the main Predation by feral cats has been establishing the collaborative effort cause of decline in the closely related directly responsible for the extinction of between the two countries was signed Gymnomyza aubryana in New numerous birds on oceanic islands by the two agencies responsible for Caledonia (MNRE 2006, p. 8). Juveniles (Medina et al. 2011, p. 6). Native conservation of species and their spending time on the forest floor are mammalian carnivores are absent from habitats, MNRE (Samoa) and DMWR also at risk from predation by feral cats oceanic islands because of their low (American Samoa). This initiative (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 31). dispersal ability, but once introduced by establishes a framework for efforts to Other potential predators include the humans, they become significant recover the mao in American Samoa and native barn owl (Tyto alba) and wattled predators on native animals such as Samoa. honeyeater (Foulehaio carunculatus); seabirds and landbirds that are not however, adults can potentially drive adapted to predation by terrestrial Summary of Factor A these species away from the nest (Butler carnivores (Nogales et al. 2013, p. 804; In summary, based on the best and Stirnemann 2013, p. 31). Scott et al. 1986, p. 363; Ainley et al. available scientific and commercial Butler and Stirnemann (2013, p. 29) 1997, p. 24; Hess and Banko 2006, in information, we conclude that the captured footage of one nest litt.). The considerable amount of time

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spent on the ground (up to 7 days) and in order to determine whether existing Environment Act 1989 for sand mining poor flight ability of mao chicks post- regulatory mechanisms may be and coastal reclamation, and ground fledging increases the risk of predation inadequate as designed to address water exploration and abstraction by feral cats (Butler and Stirnemann threats to the species being evaluated permits under the Water Resources Act 2013, p. 28). Evidence of feral cat (Factor D). Under this factor, we 2008 (MNRE 2013, p. 93). The PUMA presence exists in montane forests and examine whether existing regulatory process has been gaining in acceptance along an elevational gradient on Savaii, mechanisms are inadequate to address and use, however, information on its including numerous scats (feces) the potential threats to the mao effectiveness in preventing adverse containing rodent hairs and bird bones discussed under other factors. In impacts to species or their habitats is and feathers (Atherton and Jeffries 2012, determining whether the inadequacy of lacking (MNRE 2013, p. 93). pp. 76, 103), and predation by feral cats regulatory mechanisms constitutes a The Forestry Management Act 2011 has been posited as a contributing factor threat to the mao, we analyzed the regulates the effective and sustainable in the mao’s extirpation from Tutuila existing Federal, Territorial, and management and utilization of forest (Stirnemann 2015 in litt.). Based on the international laws and regulations that resources. This law creates the above information, we conclude that may address the threats to this species requirement for a permit or license for predation by rats and cats is a threat to or contain relevant protective measures. commercial logging or harvesting of the mao that is likely to continue in the Regulatory mechanisms, if they exist, native, agro-forestry, or plantation forest future. may preclude the need for listing if we resources (MNRE and SPREP 2012, p. determine that such mechanisms 18). Permitted and licensed activities Disease adequately address the threats to the must follow approved Codes of Practice, Recent investigations suggest that species such that listing is not forestry harvesting plans, and other avian malaria may be indigenous and warranted. requirements set by the Ministry of non-pathogenic in American Samoa Natural Resources and Environment. Samoa and, therefore, is unlikely to affect bird License or permit holders must also populations (Jarvi et al. 2003, p. 636; The Government of Samoa has follow laws relating to national parks Seamon 2004a, in litt.). The best enacted numerous laws and regulations and reserves, and all provisions of available information does not indicate and has signed on to various management plans for any national park there are other diseases affecting the international agreements that address a or reserve. Under this act, lands mao populations in Samoa (MNRE 2006, wide range of activities such as land designated as protected areas for the p. 8). tenure and development, biodiversity, purposes of the protection of wildlife protection, forestry biodiversity and endangered species Conservation Efforts To Reduce Disease management, national parks, prohibit any clearing for cultivation or or Predation biosecurity, and the extraction of water removal of forest items from protected A project to restore habitat for the resources (MNRE 2013, pp. 148–149; areas without prior consent of the mao and other priority species by MNRE 2014, p. 57). MNRE (Forestry Management Act 2011, removing the threat of predation by the The Protection of Wildlife Regulations Para. 57). Although this law includes Polynesian rat (R. exulans) was 2004 regulates the protection, these general considerations for attempted on the uninhabited islands of conservation, and utilization of managing forest resources, it does not Nuutele (267 ac (108 ha)) and Nuulua terrestrial or land-dwelling species specifically provide protection to (62 ac (25 ha)) off the eastern end of (MNRE and SPREP 2012, p. 5). These habitat for the mao. Upolu, Samoa (Tye 2012, in litt). The regulations prohibit, and establish The Quarantine (Biosecurity) Act demonstration project aimed to penalties for committing, the following 2005 forms part of the system to combat eradicate the Polynesian rat from both activities: (1) The take, keep, or kill of the introduction of invasive species and islands through aerial delivery of baits. protected and partially protected animal manage existing invasions. It is the main Post-project monitoring detected rats on species; (2) harm of flying species legal instrument to manage the Nuutele, suggesting that rats survived endemic to Samoa; and (3) the export of deliberate or accidental importation of the initial eradication effort or were able any bird from Samoa (MNRE and SPREP invasive species, pests, and pathogens to recolonize the island (Tye 2012, in 2012, pp. 5–6). The mao is endemic to and also to deal with such species litt.). the Samoan archipelago, but it is not should they be found in Samoa (MNRE listed as a ‘‘flying species endemic to and SPREP 2012, p. 38). This legislation Summary of Factor C Samoa’’ under these regulations. also provides a risk assessment In summary, based on the best The Planning and Urban Management procedure for imported animals, plants available scientific and commercial Act 2004 (PUMA) and PUMA and living modified organisms. information, we conclude that disease is Environmental Impact Assessment (EIA) Although this law provides for not a current threat to the mao, nor is Regulation (2007) were enacted to management of invasive species, it likely to become a threat in the future. ensure all development initiatives are including those that degrade or destroy Because of its low reproductive rate (1 properly evaluated for adverse native forest habitat for the mao, we do egg per clutch) and vulnerability to environmental impacts (MNRE 2013, not have information indicating the predation at multiple life-history stages p. 93). The information required for degree to which it has been (eggs, chicks, fledglings, and adults), we Sustainable Management Plans and implemented or effectiveness of such conclude that the threat of predation by Environmental Impact Assessments efforts. rats and feral cats is an ongoing threat does not include specific consideration In Samoa, there are several regulatory to the mao that will continue into the for species or their habitat (Planning and nonregulatory protected area future. and Urban Management Act 2004, as systems currently in place that protect amended). Other similar approval and manage terrestrial species and their D. The Inadequacy of Existing frameworks mandated under other habitats; these include national parks, Regulatory Mechanisms legislation address specific threats and nature reserves, conservation areas, and The Act requires that the Secretary activities. These include the permit village agreements. The National Parks assess available regulatory mechanisms system under the Lands Surveys and and Reserves Act (1974) created the

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statutory authority for the protection former sites (MNRE 2006). This plan is animals that already are established and and management of national parks and nonregulatory in nature. proving harmful to native species and nature reserves. Conservation areas, In summary, existing regulatory their habitats (DMWR 2006, p. 80) (see unlike national parks and nature mechanisms have the potential to Factor D for the Pacific sheath-tailed reserves, emphasize the importance of address the threat of habitat destruction bat, above). conservation, but at the same time and degradation to the mao in Samoa. As described above, the Territorial address the need for sustainable However, these policies and legislation Coastal Management Act establishes a development activities within the may not provide the protection land use permit (LUP) system for conservation area. Village agreements necessary for the conservation of the development projects and a Project are voluntary agreements or covenants mao in Samoa. Notification Review System (PNRS) for multi-agency review and approval of developed and signed by local villages American Samoa and conservation organizations that LUP applications (ASAC § 26.0206). The stipulate specific conservation measures In American Samoa no existing standards and criteria for review of LUP or land use prohibitions in exchange for Federal laws, treaties, or regulations applications include requirements to significant development aid. As of 2014, specify protection of the mao’s habitat protect Special Management Areas a total of approximately 58,176 ac from the threat of deforestation, or (SMA), Unique Areas, and ‘‘critical (23,543 ha), roughly 8 percent of the address the threat of predation by habitats’’ (ASCA § 24.0501 et. seq.). To total land area of Samoa (285,000 ha) nonnative mammals such as rats and date, the SMAs that have been were enlisted in terrestrial protected feral cats. However, some existing designated (Pago Pago Harbor, Leone areas, with the majority located in five Territorial laws and regulations have the Pala, and Nuuuli Pala; ASAC § 26.0221), national parks covering a total of 50,629 potential to afford the species some do not provide habitat for the mao. The ac (20,489 ha) overlapping several key protection but their implementation only Unique Area designated to date, conservation areas identified for the does not achieve that result. The DMWR the Ottoville Rainforest (American mao (MNRE 2006, p. 14; MNRE 2014, is given statutory authority to ‘‘manage, Samoa Coastal Management Program p. 57). protect, preserve, and perpetuate marine 2011, p. 52), hypothetically may provide Conservation International (CI) and and wildlife resources’’ and to some foraging habitat for the mao, but the Secretariat of the Pacific Regional promulgate rules and regulations to that it is a small (20-ac (8-ha)) island of Environment Programme (SPREP) in end (American Samoa Code Annotated native forest in the middle of the collaboration with the Ministry of (ASCA), title 24, chapter 3). This agency heavily developed Tafuna Plain (Trail Natural Resources Environment conducts monitoring surveys, 1993, pp. 1, 4), far from large areas of identified eight terrestrial Key conservation activities, and community native forest. These laws and Biodiversity Areas (KBAs) intended to outreach and education about regulations are designed to ensure that ensure representative coverage of all conservation concerns. However, to our ‘‘environmental concerns are given native ecosystems with high knowledge, the DMWR has not used this appropriate consideration,’’ and include biodiversity values, five of which are authority to undertake conservation provisions and requirements that could targeted to benefit the conservation of efforts for the mao such as habitat address to some degree threats to native the mao (CI et al. 2010, p. 12): Eastern protection and control of nonnative forest habitat required by the mao, even Upolu Craters, Uafato-Tiavea Coastal predators such as rats and cats (DMWR though individual species are not Forest, O le Pupu Pue National Park, 2006, pp. 79–80). named (ASAC § 26.0202 et seq.). Apia Catchments, and Central Savaii The Territorial Endangered Species Because the implementation of these Rainforest. All five KBAs also overlap Act provides for appointment of a regulations has been minimal and with Important Bird Areas designated Commission with the authority to review of permits is not rigorous, by BirdLife International (Schuster nominate species as either endangered issuance of permits may not provide the 2010, pp. 16–43). Currently, these five or threatened (ASCA, title 24, chapter habitat protection necessary to provide KBAs, which are nonregulatory, are 7). Regulations adopted under the for the conservation of the mao and under various degrees of protection and Coastal Management Act (ASCA instead result in loss of native forest conservation management including § 24.0501 et seq.) also prohibit the habitat important to the mao and other national parks, Community taking of threatened or endangered species as a result of land clearing for Conservation Areas, and areas with no species (ASAC § 26.0220.I.c). However, agriculture and development (DMWR official protective status (CI et al. 2010, the ASG has not listed the mao as 2006, p. 71). We conclude that the p. 12). Many of the KBAs and protected threatened or endangered so these implementation of the Coastal areas mentioned above are still faced regulatory mechanisms do not provide Management Act and its PNRS is with increasing pressures in large part protection for this species. inadequate to address the threat of due to difficulties of their location on Under ASCA, title 24, chapter 08 habitat destruction and degradation to customary lands (traditional village (Noxious Weeds), the Territorial DOA the mao (see Factor D for the Pacific system) and the ongoing threats of has the authority to ban, confiscate, and sheath-tailed bat for further details). development, invasive species, and destroy species of plants harmful to the Summary of Factor D logging (MNRE 2009, p. 1; CI et al. 2010, agricultural economy. Similarly, under p. 12). The decline of closed forest ASCA, title 24, chapter 06 (Quarantine), In summary, existing Territorial laws habitat has been a result of logging on the director of DOA has the authority to and regulatory mechanisms have the Savaii and agricultural clearing on the promulgate agriculture quarantine potential to offer some level of edges of National Parks and Reserves restrictions concerning animals. These protection for the mao and its habitat if (MNRE 2006, p. 5). laws may provide some protection it were to be reintroduced to American In 2006, the Government of Samoa against the introduction of new Samoa but are not currently developed a recovery plan for the mao. nonnative species that may have implemented in a manner that would do The recovery plan identifies goals of negative effects on the mao’s habitat or so. The DMWR has not exercised its securing the mao, maintaining its become predators of the mao, but these statutory authority to address threats to existing populations on Upolu and regulations do not require any measures the mao such as predation by nonnative Savaii, and reestablishing populations at to control invasive nonnative plants or predators, the mao is not listed pursuant

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to the Territorial Endangered Species distributed, had ample habitat and there are no climate change studies that Act, and the Coastal Management Act sufficient numbers, and were not under address impacts to the specific habitats and its implementing regulations have chronic pressure from anthropogenic of the mao. The scientific assessment the potential to address the threat of threats such as introduced predators, it completed by the Pacific Science habitat loss to deforestation more might recover from hurricane-related Climate Science Program provides substantively, but this law is mortality and the temporary loss or general projections or trends for inadequately implemented. redistribution of resources in the wake predicted changes in climate and Based on the best available of severe storms. However, this species’ associated changes in ambient information, no existing Federal current status makes it highly temperature, precipitation, hurricanes, regulatory mechanisms address the vulnerable to catastrophic chance and sea level rise for countries in the threats to the mao. Some existing events, such as hurricanes, which occur western tropical Pacific region regulatory mechanisms in Samoa and frequently throughout its range in including Samoa (used also as a proxy American Samoa have the potential to Samoa and American Samoa. for American Samoa) (Australian BOM and CSIRO 2011, Vol. 1 & Vol. 2; see offer some protection of the mao and its Low Numbers of Individuals and Factor E discussion for the Pacific habitat, but their implementation does Populations not reduce or remove threats to the sheath-tailed bat for summary). species such as habitat destruction or Species with low numbers of Although we do not have specific modification or predation by nonnative individuals, restricted distributions, and information on the impacts of the effects species. For these reasons, we conclude small, isolated populations are often of climate change to the mao, increased that existing regulatory mechanisms do more susceptible to extinction as a ambient temperature and precipitation, not address the threats to the mao. result of natural catastrophes such as and increased severity of hurricanes, hurricanes or disease outbreaks, would likely exacerbate other threats to E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors demographic fluctuations, or inbreeding this species as well as provide Affecting Its Continued Existence depression (Shaffer 1981, p. 131; see additional stresses on its habitat. The Hurricanes Factor E discussion for the Pacific probability of species extinction as a sheath-tailed bat, above). These result of climate change impacts Hurricanes are a common natural problems associated with small increases when its range is restricted, disturbance in the tropical Pacific and population size are further magnified by habitat decreases, and numbers of have occurred in the Samoan interactions with each other and with populations decline (IPCC 2007, p. 48). archipelago with varying frequency and other threats, such as habitat loss and The mao is limited by its restricted intensity (see Factor E discussion for the predation (Lacy 2000, pp. 45–47; see range and low numbers of individuals. Pacific sheath-tailed bat). Catastrophic Factor A and Factor C, above). Therefore, we expect this species to be events such as hurricanes can be a major We consider the mao to be vulnerable particularly vulnerable to the threat to the persistence of species to extinction because of threats environmental effects of climate change already experiencing population-level associated with its low number of and subsequent impacts to its habitat, impacts of other stressors (MNRE 2006, individuals—perhaps not more than a even though the specific and cumulative p. 8). Two storms in the 1990s, Cyclones few hundred birds—and low numbers of effects of climate change on the mao are Ofa (1990) and Val (1991), severely populations. These threats include presently unknown and we are not able damaged much of the remaining environmental catastrophes, such as to determine the magnitude of this forested habitat in Samoa, reducing hurricanes, which could immediately future threat with confidence. Based on forest canopy cover by 73 percent extinguish some or all of the remaining the above information, we conclude that (MNRE 2006, pp. 5, 7). In addition, populations; demographic stochasticity habitat impacts resulting from the Cyclone Evan struck Samoa in 2012 that could leave the species without effects of climate change are not a causing severe and widespread forest sufficient males or females to be viable; current threat but are likely to become damage, including defoliation and and inbreeding depression or loss of a threat to the mao in the future. downed trees in 80 to 90 percent of the adaptive potential that can be associated Reserves and National Parks on Upolu with loss of genetic diversity and result Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 41). in eventual extinction (Shaffer 1981, p. Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting Secondary forests also were severely 131; Lacy 2000, pp. 40, 44–46). Its Continued Existence damaged by the storm, and most trees in Combined with ongoing habitat We are unaware of any conservation the known mao locations were stripped destruction and modification by logging, actions planned or implemented at this of their leaves, fruits, and flowers agriculture, development, nonnative time to abate the threats of hurricanes (Butler and Stirnemann 2013, p. 41). plant species, and feral ungulates and low numbers of individuals that Hurricanes thus exacerbate forest (Factor A) and predation by rats and negatively impact the mao. However, fragmentation and invasion of native feral cats (Factor C), the effects of these the completion of a recovery plan, basic forests by nonnative species, stressors threats to small populations further research on the mao’s life-history that reduce breeding, nesting, and increases the risk of extinction of the requirements, population monitoring, foraging habitat for the mao (see Factor mao. and cooperation between the A, above). Although severe storms are a governments of American Samoa and Climate Change natural disturbance with which the mao Samoa contribute to the conservation of has coexisted for millennia, such storms Our analyses under the Act include the mao. exacerbate the threats to its remaining consideration of ongoing and projected small, isolated populations by at least changes in climate (see Factor E Proposed Determination for the Mao temporarily damaging or redistributing discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed We have carefully assessed the best habitat and food resources for the birds bat). The magnitude and intensity of the scientific and commercial information and causing direct mortality of impacts of global climate change and available regarding the past, present, individuals (Wiley and Wunderle 1993, increasing temperatures on western and future threats to mao. This large pp. 340–341; Wunderle and Wiley 1996, tropical Pacific island ecosystems honeyeater endemic to the Samoan p. 261). If the mao was widely currently are unknown. In addition, archipelago is vulnerable to extinction

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because of the loss and degradation of endangered throughout all of its range, breast and head, which occur on Pacific its forested habitat, predation by no portion of its range can be Islands and New Guinea and are nonnative mammals, and the impact of ‘‘significant’’ for purposes of the recommended for placement in stochastic events to species that are definitions of ‘‘endangered species’’ and Alopecoenas (Jonsson et al. 2011, p. reduced to small population size and ‘‘threatened species.’’ See the Final 538). Nevertheless, at this time, there is limited distribution. Policy on Interpretation of the Phrase lack of consensus for the generic change The threat of habitat destruction and ‘‘Significant Portion of Its Range’’ in the from Gallicolumba to Alopecoenas, as modification from agriculture, logging, Endangered Species Act’s Definitions of well as the lack of evidence for and development, nonnative plants, and ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened validation of a subspecies, G. s.stairi, nonnative ungulates is occurring Species’’ (79 FR 37577, July 1, 2014). restricted to the Samoan archipelago. throughout the range of the mao, and is Therefore, we are evaluating the status American Samoa Population of the not likely to be reduced in the future of G. stairi in this proposed rule. (Factor A). The threat of predation from Friendly Ground-Dove, Gallicolumba The friendly ground-dove is a nonnative predators such as rats and stairi, Tuaimeo medium-sized dove, approximately 10 feral cats is ongoing and likely to The genus Gallicolumba is distributed in (26 cm) long. Males have rufous- continue in the future (Factor C). throughout the Pacific and Southeast brown upperparts with a bronze-green Existing regulatory mechanisms do not Asia and is represented in the oceanic iridescence, the crown and nape are address the threats to this species Pacific by six species. Three species are grey, the wings rufous with a purplish (Factor D). Additionally, the low endemic to Micronesian islands or luster, and the tail is dark brown. The numbers of individuals and populations archipelagos, two are endemic to island abdomen and belly are dark brown- of the mao render the species vulnerable groups in French Polynesia, and olive, while the breast shield is dark to environmental catastrophes such as Gallicolumba stairi is endemic to pink with a white border. Immature hurricanes, demographic stochasticity, Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji (Sibley and birds are similar to adults but are and inbreeding depression (Factor E). Monroe 1990, p. 206). The species name uniformly brown. Females are These factors pose threats to the mao used here, the friendly ground-dove, dimorphic in Fiji and Tonga, where a whether we consider their effects was derived from ‘‘Friendly Islands’’ brown phase (tawny underparts and no individually or cumulatively. All of (i.e., Tonga), where it is purported to breast shield) and pale phase (similar to these threats are likely to continue in have been first collected (Watling 2001, males but duller) occur. In Samoa and the future. p. 118). Because of its shy and secretive American Samoa, only the pale phase is The Act defines an endangered habits, this species is also often referred known to occur (Watling 2001, p. 117). species as any species that is ‘‘in danger to as the shy ground-dove (Pratt et al. In American Samoa, the friendly of extinction throughout all or a 1997, pp. 194–195). Some authors ground-dove is typically found on or significant portion of its range’’ and a recognize two subspecies of the friendly near steep, forested slopes, particularly threatened species as any species ‘‘that ground-dove: One, slightly smaller, in those with an open understory and fine is likely to become endangered the Samoan archipelago (G. s. stairi), scree or exposed soil (Tulafono 2006, in throughout all or a significant portion of and the other in Tonga and Fiji (G. s. litt.). Elsewhere the species is known to its range within the foreseeable future.’’ vitiensis) (Mayr 1945, pp. 131–132). inhabit brushy vegetation or native We find that the mao is presently in However, morphological differences forest on offshore islands, native danger of extinction throughout its between the two are slight (Watling limestone forest (Tonga), and forest entire range based on the severity and 2001, p. 117), and no genetic or other habitats on large, high islands immediacy of threats currently studies have validated the existence of (Steadman and Freifeld 1998, p. 617; impacting the species. separate subspecies. Clunie 1999, pp. 42–43; Freifeld et al. Therefore, on the basis of the best We accept the current taxonomic 2001, p. 79; Watling 2001, p. 118). This available scientific and commercial treatment of the friendly ground-dove as bird spends most of its time on the information, we propose listing mao as Gallicolumba stairi as described in the ground, and feeds on seeds, fruit, buds, endangered in accordance with sections IOC World Bird List Version 5.1 snails, and insects (Clunie 1999, p. 42; 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act. We find that compiled by the International Craig 2009, p. 125). The friendly the mao is presently in danger of Ornithologists Union Committee on ground-dove typically builds a nest of extinction throughout its entire range Nomenclature (Gill and Donsker 2015) twigs several feet from the ground or in based on the severity and immediacy of and ITIS (2015b). However, recent a tree fern crown, and lays one or two the ongoing and projected threats molecular analyses suggest that the white eggs (Clunie 1999, p. 43). described above. The loss and species ascribed to Gallicolumba are not The friendly ground-dove is degradation of its forested habitat, monophyletic, and recommend uncommon or rare throughout its range predation by nonnative mammals, reinstalling the name Alopecoenas for in Fiji, Tonga, Wallis and Futuna, limited distribution, the effects of small some Gallicolumba species, including Samoa, and American Samoa (Steadman population size, and stochastic events G. stairi, thus including it in a and Freifeld 1998, p. 626; Schuster et al. such as hurricanes render this species in monophyletic radiation of ten species 1999, pp. 13, 70; Freifeld et al. 2001, pp. its entirety highly susceptible to distributed in New Guinea, the Lesser 78–79; Watling 2001, p. 118; Steadman extinction as a consequence of these Sundas, and Oceania (Jonsson et al. 1997, pp. 745, 747), except for on some imminent threats; the species’ low 2011, pp. 541–542; Moyle et al. 2013, small islands in Fiji (Watling 2001, p. reproductive rate reduces its ability to pp. 1,064–1,065). This recommendation 118). The status of the species as a recover from impacts of multiple threats also parallels the natural divide based whole is not monitored closely and their cumulative effects. on plumage patterns of birds distributed throughout its range, but based on Under the Act and our implementing on either side of New Guinea: The available information, the friendly regulations, a species may warrant ‘‘bleeding hearts’’ with a red-orange ground-dove persists in very small listing if it is in danger of extinction or breast patch, which occur in the numbers in Samoa (Schuster et al. 1999, likely to become so throughout all or a Philippines and are recommended to pp. 13, 70; Freifeld et al. 2001, pp. 78– significant portion of its range. Because remain in Gallicolumba, and the other 79), and is considered to be among the we have determined that the mao is ground-doves with a white or gray most endangered of native Samoan bird

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species (Watling 2001, p. 118). In Tonga, under consideration for listing may be that separate the American Samoa the species occurs primarily on small, recognized as a DPS: (1) The population population on Ofu and Olosega islands uninhabited islands and in one small segment’s discreteness from the from the other populations in Samoa area of a larger island (Steadman and remainder of the species to which it (118 miles mi (190 km)), Tonga (430 mi Freifeld 1998, pp. 617–618; Watling belongs and (2) the significance of the (690 km)), and Fiji (more than 625 mi 2001, p. 118). In Fiji, the friendly population segment to the species to (1,000 km)). In addition, the American ground-dove is thought to be widely which it belongs. If we determine that Samoan island of Tutuila lies between distributed but uncommon on large a population segment being considered the American Samoa population and the islands and relatively common on some for listing is a DPS, then the population nearest population in Samoa, and no small islands (Watling 2001, p. 118). segment’s conservation status is Tutuila records of the friendly ground- In American Samoa, the species was evaluated based on the five listing dove exist. For these reasons, it is likely first reported on Ofu in 1976 (Amerson factors established by the Act to that populations of the friendly ground- et al. 1982, p. 69), and has been determine if listing it as either dove, which occur in three archipelagos, recorded infrequently on Ofu and more endangered or threatened is warranted. are ecologically isolated from each other commonly on Olosega since the mid- Below, we evaluate the American (i.e., the likelihood is low that a 1990s (Amerson et al. 1982, p. 69; Samoa population of the friendly population decimated or lost would be Seamon 2004a, in litt.; Tulafono 2006, ground-dove to determine whether it rebuilt by immigration from another in litt.). Amerson et al. (1982, p. 69) meets the definition of a DPS under our population), although some level of estimate a total population of about 100 Policy. exchange on an evolutionary timescale birds on Ofu and possibly Olosega. likely occurs. Engbring and Ramsey (1989, p. 57) Discreteness Based on the our review of the described the population on Ofu as Under our DPS Policy, a population available information, we have ‘‘very small,’’ but did not attempt a segment of a vertebrate taxon may be determined that the American Samoa population estimate. More than 10 considered discrete if it satisfies either population of the friendly ground-dove ground-doves were caught on Olosega one of the following conditions: (1) It is is markedly separate from other between 2001 and 2004, suggesting that markedly separated from other populations of the species due to numbers there are greater than on Ofu, populations of the same taxon as a geographic (physical) isolation from but birds may move between the two consequence of physical, physiological, friendly ground-dove populations in islands (Seamon 2004a, in litt.), which ecological, or behavioral factors. Samoa, Tonga, and Fiji (Fig. 1). The once were a single land mass and are Quantitative measures of genetic or geographic distance between the today connected by a causeway that is morphological discontinuity may American Samoa population and other roughly 490 feet (ft) (150 meters (m)) provide evidence of this separation; (2) populations coupled with the low long. No current population estimate is It is delimited by international likelihood of frequent long-distance available; the secretive habits of this governmental boundaries within which exchange between populations further species make monitoring difficult. differences in control of exploitation, separate the American Samoa Monitoring surveys over the last 10 management of habitat, conservation population from other populations of years do not, however, suggest any status, or regulatory mechanisms exist this species throughout its range. change in the relative abundance of the that are significant in light of section Therefore, we have determined that the friendly ground-dove (Seamon 2004a, in 4(a)(1)(D) of the Act. American Samoa population of friendly litt.). The DMWR biologists regularly The American Samoa population of ground-dove meets a condition of our observe this species at several locations the friendly ground-dove, a cryptic, DPS policy for discreteness. on Ofu and Olosega (DMWR 2013, in understory-dwelling dove not noted for Significance litt.), and have initiated a project to long-distance dispersal, is markedly color band the population in order to separate from other populations of the Under our DPS Policy, once we have better describe their distribution and species. The genus Gallicolumba is determined that a population segment is status on the two islands (Miles 2015b, widely distributed in the Pacific, but discrete, we consider its biological and in litt.). populations of the friendly ground-dove ecological significance to the larger are restricted to a subset of islands taxon to which it belongs. This Distinct Population Segment (DPS) (often small, offshore islets) in any consideration may include, but is not Analysis archipelago where they occur, or even to limited to: (1) Evidence of the Under the Act, we have the authority limited areas of single islands in persistence of the discrete population to consider for listing any species, Polynesia (Steadman and Freifeld 1998, segment in an ecological setting that is subspecies, or for vertebrates, any pp. 617–618; Freifeld et al. 2001, p. 79; unusual or unique for the taxon, (2) distinct population segment (DPS) of Watling 2001, p. 118). Unlike other evidence that loss of the population these taxa if there is sufficient Pacific Island columbids, this species segment would result in a significant information to indicate that such action does not fly high above the canopy; it gap in the range of the taxon, (3) may be warranted. To guide the is an understory species that forages evidence that the population segment implementation of the DPS provisions largely on the ground and nests near the represents the only surviving natural of the Act, we and the National Marine ground (Watling 2001, p. 118). occurrence of a taxon that may be more Fisheries Service (National Oceanic and Furthermore, members of the genus that abundant elsewhere as an introduced Atmospheric Administration— are restricted to individual archipelagos, population outside its historical range, Fisheries), published the Policy single islands, or offshore islets, are or (4) evidence that the discrete Regarding the Recognition of Distinct presumed to be relatively sedentary, population segment differs markedly Vertebrate Population Segments Under weak, or reluctant fliers, with inter- from other populations of the species in the Endangered Species Act (DPS island flights rarely observed (Baptista its genetic characteristics. One of these Policy) in the Federal Register on et al. 1997, pp. 95, 179–187, Freifeld et criteria is met. We have found February 7, 1996 (61 FR 4722). Under al. 2001, p. 79). Therefore, there is a low substantial evidence that loss of the our DPS Policy, we use two elements to likelihood of frequent dispersal or American Samoa population of the assess whether a population segment immigration over the large distances friendly ground-dove would constitute a

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significant gap in the range of this on the ground and nests near the ground Summary of DPS Analysis Regarding species, and thus this population meets (Watling 2001, p. 118). Because of its the American Samoa Population of the our criteria for significance under our flight limitations, the friendly ground- Friendly Ground-Dove Policy. dove is unlikely to disperse over the Given that both the discreteness and The American Samoa population of long distances between American the significance elements of the DPS the friendly ground-dove represents the Samoa and the nearest surrounding policy are met for the American Samoa easternmost distribution of this species. populations. Therefore, the loss of the population of the friendly ground-dove, The loss of this population would American Samoa population coupled we find that the American Samoa truncate the species’ range by with the low likelihood of population of the friendly ground-dove approximately 100 mi (161 km), or recolonization from the nearest source is a valid DPS. Therefore, the American approximately 15 percent of the linear populations in Samoa, Fiji, and Tonga, Samoa DPS of friendly ground-dove is a extent of its range, which trends would create a significant gap in the listable entity under the Act, and we southwest-to-northeast from Fiji to range of the friendly ground-dove. now assess this DPS’s conservation Tonga to Wallis and Futuna, Samoa, and status in relation to the Act’s standards American Samoa. Unlike other Pacific for listing, (i.e., whether this DPS meets Island columbids, this species does not the definition of an endangered or fly high above the canopy; it is an threatened species under the Act). understory species that forages largely BILLING CODE 4333–15–C

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Summary of Factors Affecting the maintain the habitat of flying foxes, to In addition, the use of firearms on the American Samoa DPS of the Friendly preserve the ecological balance of the islands of Ofu and Olosega has rarely, Ground-Dove Samoan tropical forest, and, consistent if ever, been observed (Caruso 2015a, in with the preservation of these resources, litt.). In summary, based on the best A. The Present or Threatened to provide for the enjoyment of the available scientific and commercial Destruction, Modification, or unique resources of the Samoan tropical information, we do not consider Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range forest by visitors from around the world overutilization for commercial, Habitat Destruction and Modification by (Public Law 100–571, Public Law 100– recreational, scientific, or educational Agriculture and Development 336). Under a 50-year lease agreement purposes to be a threat to the American The loss or modification of lowland between local villages, the American Samoa DPS of the friendly ground-dove. Samoa Government, and the Federal and coastal forests has been implicated Government, approximately 73 ac (30 C. Disease or Predation as a limiting factor for populations of ha) on Ofu Island are located within the friendly ground-dove and has likely Disease park boundaries (NPSA Lease pushed this species into more disturbed Research suggests that avian malaria Agreement 1993). While the majority of areas or forested habitat at higher may be indigenous and non-pathogenic the park’s land area on Ofu consists of elevations (Watling 2001, p. 118). in American Samoa, and, therefore, is coastal and beach habitat, Several thousand years of subsistence unlikely to limit populations of the approximately 30 ac (12 ha) in the agriculture and more recent, larger-scale friendly ground-dove (Jarvi et al. 2003, vicinity of Sunuitao Peak may provide agriculture has resulted in the alteration p. 636; Seamon 2004a, in litt.). Although forested habitat for the friendly ground- and great reduction in area of forests at dove. other blood parasites are common in lower elevations in American Samoa many bird species in American Samoa, (see Factor A discussion for the mao). Summary of Factor A none have been reported to date in On Ofu, the coastal forest where the Past clearing for agriculture and friendly ground-dove samples (Atkinson ground-dove has been recorded, and development has resulted in the et al. 2006, p. 232). The best available which may be the preferred habitat for significant destruction and modification information does not show there are this species range-wide (Watling 2001, of coastal forest habitat for the American other avian diseases that may be p. 118), largely has been converted to Samoa DPS of the friendly ground-dove. affecting this species. villages, grasslands, or coconut Land-clearing for agriculture is expected Predation plantations (Whistler 1994, p. 127). to continue in the future, but likely at However, none of the land-clearing or a low rate. However, the degraded and Depredation by introduced development projects proposed for Ofu fragmented status of the remaining mammalian predators is the likely cause or Olosega in recent years has been habitat for the ground-dove is likely to of widespread extirpation of the friendly approved or initiated in areas known to be exacerbated by hurricanes. Therefore, ground-dove throughout portions of its be frequented by friendly ground-doves we consider habitat destruction and range (Steadman and Freifeld 1998, p. (Tulafono 2006, in litt.; Stein et al. 2014, modification to be a threat to this DPS. 617; Watling 2001, p. 118). Three p. 25). Based on the above information, species of rats occur in American Samoa we find that agriculture and B. Overutilization for Commercial, and are likely to be present on the development have caused substantial Recreational, Scientific, or Educational islands of Ofu and Olosega: the destruction and modification of the Purposes Polynesian rat, Norway rat, and black habitat of the friendly ground-dove in Pigeon-catching was a traditional rat (Atkinson 1985, p. 38; DMWR 2006, American Samoa, potentially resulting practice in ancient Samoan society p. 22; Caruso 2015b, in litt.). Domestic in the curtailment of its range in (Craig 2009, p. 104). Hunting of cats are widespread on Ofu and have American Samoa. Habitat destruction terrestrial birds and bats in American been observed in the proximity of areas and modification by agriculture is Samoa primarily for subsistence where friendly ground-doves have been expected to continue into the future, but purposes continued until the detected (Arcilla 2015, in litt.). Feral probably at a low rate; the human documented decline of wildlife cats are likely to occur on Olosega population on Ofu and Olosega has been populations led to the enactment of a because of its physical connection to declining over recent decades and was hunting ban and formal hunting Ofu. estimated at 176 (Ofu) and 177 (Olosega) regulations (Craig et al. 1994, pp. 345– Predation by rats is well known to in 2010 (American Samoa Government 346). The bird species most commonly have caused population decline and 2013, p. 8). However, because any taken were the Pacific pigeon or lupe extirpation in many island bird species further loss of habitat to land-clearing (Ducula ducula) and the purple-capped (Atkinson 1977, p. 129; 1985, pp. 55–70; will further isolate the remaining fruit-dove or manutagi (Ptilinopus O’Donnell et al. 2015, pp. 24–26), populations of this species in American porphyraceus). Although the many- especially species that nest on or near Samoa, we conclude that habitat colored fruit dove or manuma the ground or in burrows (Bertram and destruction and modification by (Ptilinopus perousii) is too rare to be Nagorsen 1995, pp. 6–10; Flint 1999, p. agriculture is a current threat to the sought by hunters, a few may have been 200; Carlile et al. 2003, p. 186). For American Samoa DPS of the friendly killed each year by hunters in search of example, black rats were responsible for ground-dove that will continue in the the Pacific pigeon or purple-capped the near extirpation of the burrow- future. fruit-dove (Craig 2009, p. 106). The nesting Galapagos petrel on Floreana incidental shooting of the friendly Island (Cruz and Cruz 1987, pp. 3–13), Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat ground-dove by hunters in pursuit of and for the extinction of the ground- Destruction, Modification, or other bird species (during a sanctioned nesting Laysan rail (Porzana palmeri), Curtailment of Its Range hunting season; see Factor D) has the which had been translocated to Midway The National Park of American Samoa potential to occur. Poaching is not Atoll prior to the loss of the Laysan (NPSA) was established to preserve and considered a threat to the friendly population (Fisher and Baldwin 1946, p. protect the tropical forest and ground-dove in American Samoa 8). The best available information is not archaeological and cultural resources, to (Seamon 2004a, in litt.; 2004b, in litt.). specific to rat predation on the

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American Samoa DPS of the friendly adequately address the threats to the land use permit (LUP) system for ground-dove, but the pervasive presence species such that listing is not development projects and a Project of rats throughout American Samoa warranted. Notification Review System (PNRS) for makes it is likely that they play a role In American Samoa no existing multi-agency review and approval of in limiting populations of this species. Federal laws, treaties, or regulations LUP applications (ASAC § 26.0206). The Predation by cats has been directly specify protection of the friendly standards and criteria for review of LUP responsible for the extinction of ground-dove’s habitat from the threat of applications include requirements to numerous birds on oceanic islands deforestation, or address the threat of protect Special Management Areas (Medina et al. 2011, p. 6). Native predation by nonnative mammals such (SMA), Unique Areas, and ‘‘critical mammalian carnivores are absent from as rats and feral cats. However, some habitats’’ (ASCA § 24.0501 et. seq.). To oceanic islands because of their low existing Territorial laws and regulations date, the SMAs that have been dispersal ability, but once introduced by have the potential to afford the species designated (Pago Pago Harbor, Leone humans, they become significant some protection but their Pala, and Nuuuli Pala; ASAC § 26.0221), predators on native animals such as implementation does not achieve that are all on Tutuila and do not provide seabirds and landbirds that are not result. The DMWR is given statutory habitat for the friendly ground-dove, adapted to predation by terrestrial authority to ‘‘manage, protect, preserve, which occurs only on the islands of Ofu carnivores (Nogales et al. 2013, p. 804; and perpetuate marine and wildlife and Olosega. The only Unique Area Scott et al. 1986, p. 363; Ainley et al. resources’’ and to promulgate rules and designated to date, the Ottoville 1997, p. 24; Hess and Banko 2006, in regulations to that end (American Rainforest (American Samoa Coastal litt.). Domestic cats have been observed Samoa Code Annotated (ASCA), title 24, Management Program 2011, p. 52), also in remote areas known to be frequented chapter 3). This agency conducts is on Tutuila and does not provide by ground-doves and may prey on monitoring surveys, conservation habitat for the friendly ground-dove. friendly ground-doves and other species activities, and community outreach and These laws and regulations are designed that nest on or near the ground (Arcilla education about conservation concerns. to ensure that ‘‘environmental concerns 2015, in litt.). Therefore, the threat of However, to our knowledge, the DMWR are given appropriate consideration,’’ predation by feral cats could potentially has not used this authority to undertake and include provisions and have a significant influence on this conservation efforts for the friendly requirements that could address to some species, particularly given that the ground-dove such as habitat protection degree threats to native forest habitat American Samoa DPS of the friendly and control of nonnative predators such required by the friendly ground-dove, ground-dove population appears to be as rats and cats (DMWR 2006, pp. 79– even though individual species are not very small and limited to small areas on 80). named (ASAC § 26.0202 et seq.). the islands of Ofu and Olosega. The Territorial Endangered Species Because the implementation of these In summary, based on the best Act provides for appointment of a regulations has been minimal and available scientific and commercial Commission with the authority to review of permits is not rigorous, information, we conclude that disease is nominate species as either endangered issuance of permits may not provide the not a factor in the continued existence or threatened (ASCA, title 24, chapter habitat protection necessary to provide of the friendly ground-dove. Because 7). Regulations adopted under the for the conservation of the friendly island birds such as the friendly ground- Coastal Management Act (ASCA ground-dove and instead result in loss dove are extremely vulnerable to § 24.0501 et seq.) also prohibit the of native habitat important to this and predation by nonnative predators, the taking of threatened or endangered other species as a result of land clearing threat of predation by rats and feral cats species (ASAC § 26.0220.I.c). However, for agriculture and development is likely to continue and is considered the ASG has not listed the friendly (DMWR 2006, p. 71). We conclude that a threat to the continued existence of ground-dove as threatened or the implementation of the Coastal this DPS. endangered so these regulatory Management Act and its PNRS is mechanisms do not provide protection D. The Inadequacy of Existing inadequate to address the threat of for this species. Regulatory Mechanisms habitat destruction and degradation to Under ASCA, title 24, chapter 08 the friendly ground-dove (see Factor D The Act requires that the Secretary (Noxious Weeds), the Territorial DOA for the Pacific sheath-tailed bat for assess available regulatory mechanisms has the authority to ban, confiscate, and further details). in order to determine whether existing destroy species of plants harmful to the regulatory mechanisms may be agricultural economy. Similarly, under Summary of Factor D inadequate as designed to address ASCA, title 24, chapter 06 (Quarantine), In summary, existing Territorial laws threats to the species being evaluated the director of DOA has the authority to and regulatory mechanisms have the (Factor D). Under this factor, we promulgate agriculture quarantine potential to offer some level of examine whether existing regulatory restrictions concerning animals. These protection for the American Samoa DPS mechanisms are inadequate to address laws may provide some protection of the friendly ground-dove and its the potential threats to the American against the introduction of new habitat but are not currently Samoa DPS of the friendly ground-dove nonnative species that may have implemented in a manner that would do discussed under other factors. In negative effects on the friendly ground- so. The DMWR has not exercised its determining whether the inadequacy of dove’s habitat or become predators of statutory authority to address threats to regulatory mechanisms constitutes a the species, but these regulations do not the ground-dove such as predation by threat to the friendly ground-dove, we require any measures to control invasive nonnative predators, the species is not analyzed the existing Federal and nonnative plants or animals that already listed pursuant to the Territorial Territorial laws and regulations that are established and proving harmful to Endangered Species Act, and the may address the threats to this species native species and their habitats Coastal Management Act and its or contain relevant protective measures. (DMWR 2006, p. 80) (see Factor D for implementing regulations have the Regulatory mechanisms, if they exist, the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, above). potential to address the threat of habitat may preclude the need for listing if we As described above, the Territorial loss to deforestation more substantively, determine that such mechanisms Coastal Management Act establishes a but this law is inadequately

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implemented. Based on the best population stressors are a threat to the increases when a species’ range is available information, some existing American Samoa DPS of the friendly restricted, its habitat decreases, and its regulatory mechanisms have the ground-dove, and this threat is numbers are declining (IPCC 2007, p. 8). potential to offer some protection of the exacerbated by habitat loss and The friendly ground-dove is limited by friendly ground-dove and its habitat, but degradation (Factor A) and predation by its restricted range, diminished habitat, their implementation does not reduce or nonnative mammals (Factor C). and small population size. Therefore, we expect the friendly ground-dove to remove threats to the species such as Climate Change habitat destruction or modification or be particularly vulnerable to the predation by nonnative species. For Our analyses under the Act include environmental impacts of projected these reasons, we conclude that existing consideration of ongoing and projected changes in climate and subsequent regulatory mechanisms do not address changes in climate (see Factor E impacts to its habitat. Based on the the threats to the American Samoa DPS discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed above information, we conclude that of the friendly ground-dove. bat). The magnitude and intensity of the habitat impacts resulting from the impacts of global climate change and effects of climate change are not a E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors increasing temperatures on western current threat but are likely to become Affecting Its Continued Existence tropical Pacific island ecosystems are a threat to the American Samoa DPS of Hurricanes currently unknown. In addition, there the friendly ground-dove in the future. are no climate change studies that Hurricanes may cause the direct and address impacts to the specific habitats Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other indirect mortality of the friendly of the American Samoa DPS of the Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting ground-dove, as well as modify its friendly ground-dove. The scientific Its Continued Existence already limited habitat (see Factor A assessment completed by the Pacific We are unaware of any conservation above). This species has likely coexisted Science Climate Science Program actions planned or implemented at this with hurricanes for millennia in provides general projections or trends time to abate the threats of hurricanes American Samoa, and if the friendly for predicted changes in climate and and low numbers of individuals that ground-dove was widely distributed in associated changes in ambient negatively impact the American Samoa American Samoa, had ample habitat and temperature, precipitation, hurricanes, DPS of the friendly-ground-dove. sufficient numbers, and was not under and sea level rise for countries in the Proposed Determination for the chronic pressure from anthropogenic western tropical Pacific region American Samoa DPS of the Friendly threats such as habitat loss and including Samoa (Australian BOM and Ground-Dove introduced predators, it might recover CSIRO 2011, Vol. 1 and 2; used as a from hurricane-related mortality and the proxy for American Samoa) (see Factor We have carefully assessed the best temporary loss or redistribution of E discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed scientific and commercial information resources in the wake of severe storms. bat). available regarding the past, present, However, this species’ current status in Although we do not have specific and future threats to the American American Samoa makes it highly information on the impacts of climate Samoa DPS of the friendly ground-dove. vulnerable to chance events, such as change to the American Samoa DPS of The American Samoa DPS of the hurricanes. the friendly ground-dove, increased friendly ground-dove is vulnerable to ambient temperature and precipitation, extinction because of its reduced Low Numbers of Individuals and increased severity of hurricanes, and sea population size and distribution, habitat Populations level rise and inundation would likely loss, and probable depredation by Species with a low total number of exacerbate other threats to its habitat. nonnative mammals. individuals, restricted distributions, and Although hurricanes are part of the The habitat of the American Samoa small, isolated populations are often natural disturbance regime in the DPS of the friendly ground-dove more susceptible to extinction as a tropical Pacific, and the friendly remains degraded and destroyed by past result of natural catastrophes, ground-dove has evolved in presence of land-clearing for agriculture, and demographic fluctuations, or inbreeding this disturbance, the projected increase hurricanes exacerbate the poor status of depression (Shaffer 1981, p. 131; see in the severity of hurricanes resulting this habitat, a threat that is likely to Factor E discussion for the Pacific from climate change is expected to continue in the future (Factor A) and sheath-tailed bat, above). The American exacerbate the hurricane-related impacts worsen under the projected effects of Samoa DPS of the friendly ground-dove such as habitat destruction and climate change. The threat of predation is at risk of extinction because of its modification and availability of food by nonnative mammals such as rats and probable low remaining number of resources of the friendly ground-dove, cats is likely to continue in the future individuals and distribution restricted whose diet consists mainly of seeds, (Factor C). Current Territorial wildlife to small areas on the islands of Ofu and fruit, buds, and young leaves and shoots laws and regulations do not address the Olosega, conditions that render this DPS (Watling 2001, p. 118). For example, threats to this DPS (Factor D). The DPS vulnerable to the small-population Hurricanes Heta (in January 2004) and of the friendly ground-dove persists in stressors listed above. These stressors Olaf (in February 2005) virtually low numbers of individuals and in few include environmental catastrophes, destroyed suitable habitat for the and disjunct populations (Factor E), a such as hurricanes, which could friendly ground-dove at one of the areas threat that interacts synergistically with immediately extinguish some or all of on Olosega where this species was most other threats. These factors pose threats the remaining populations; frequently encountered; detections of to the American Samoa DPS of the demographic stochasticity that could ground-doves in other, less storm- friendly ground-dove, whether we leave the species without sufficient damaged areas subsequently increased, consider their effects individually or males or females to be viable; and suggesting they had moved from the cumulatively. These threats will inbreeding depression or loss of area affected by the storms (Seamon continue in the future. adaptive potential that can be associated 2005, in litt.; Tulafono 2006, in litt.). The Act defines an endangered with loss of genetic diversity and result The probability of species extinction as species as any species that is ‘‘in danger in eventual extinction. These small- a result of climate change impacts of extinction throughout all or a

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significant portion of its range’’ and a roughly 120 or more partulid species, branches, and Eua zebrina was threatened species as any species ‘‘that including Eua zebrina, are restricted to commonly found on leaves, but could is likely to become endangered single islands or isolated groups of also be found on trunks and branches, throughout all or a significant portion of islands (Kondo 1968, pp. 75–77; Cowie as well as on the ground in the leaf its range within the foreseeable future.’’ 1992, p. 169). The Samoan partulid tree litter. A similar partitioning of habitat We find that the friendly ground-dove is snails in the genera Eua and Samoana has been reported for the Partula of the presently in danger of extinction are a good example of this endemism. Society Islands (Murray et al. 1982, p. throughout its entire range based on the Cowie’s (1998) taxonomic work is the 316). The snails are typically found severity and immediacy of threats most recent and accepted taxonomic scattered on understory vegetation in currently impacting the species. treatment of this species. forest with intact canopy 33 to 66 ft (10 Therefore, on the basis of the best Eua zebrina varies in color ranging to 20 m) above the ground (Cowie and available scientific and commercial from almost white to pale-brown, to Cook 1999, pp. 47–49; Cowie 2001, p. information, we propose listing the dark brown or purplish; with or without 219). The importance of native forest American Samoa DPS of the friendly a zebra-like pattern of flecks and lines canopy and understory for Samoan land ground-dove as endangered in (Cowie and Cooke 1999, pp. 29–30). snails cannot be underestimated; all live accordance with sections 3(6) and Most E. zebrina shells have transverse snails were found on understory 4(a)(1) of the Act. We find that the patterning (distinct coloration vegetation beneath intact forest canopy American Samoa DPS of the friendly perpendicular to whorls) with a more (Miller 1993, p. 16). ground-dove is presently in danger of flared aperture (i.e., tapered or wide- Review of long-term changes in the rimmed shell lip) than species of the extinction throughout its entire range American Samoa land snail fauna based related genus Samoana (Cowie et al. in based on the severity and immediacy of on surveys from 1975 to 1998 and pre- prep.). Adult Tutuila snail shells the ongoing and projected threats 1975 collections characterized 3 of 12 usually fall between 0.7 and 0.8 in (18 described above. The friendly ground- species as being stable in numbers, with to 21 mm) in height and between 0.4 dove is restricted to the islands of Ofu the rest described as declining in and Olosega, where it exists in low and 0.5 in (11 to 13 mm) in width. The biology of Samoan partulid snails numbers, including E. zebrina (Solem numbers and is subject to predation by 1975, as cited in Cowie 2001, pp. 214– nonnative animals. The ground-dove’s has not been extensively studied, but there is considerable information on the 216; Christensen 1980, p. 1; Miller 1993, remaining habitat is limited and at risk p. 13; Cowie 2001, p. 215). Eua zebrina from ongoing degradation by hurricanes. partulid snails of the Mariana Islands (Crampton 1925a, pp. 1–113; Cowie was historically known only from the Habitat loss and degradation and the island of Tutuila (Cowie and Cook 2001, imminent threats of predation, the 1992, pp. 167–191; Hopper and Smith 1992, pp. 77–85) and Society Islands p. 49), and until 1975, it was considered effects of small population size, and widespread and common (Cowie 2001, stochastic events such as hurricanes (Crampton 1925b, pp. 5–35; Crampton 1932, pp. 1–194; Murray et al. 1982, pp. p. 215). The large number of collections render the American Samoa DPS of the (927) of this species from Tutuila friendly ground-dove highly susceptible 316–325; Johnson et al. 1986a, pp. 167– 177; Johnson et al. 1986b, pp. 319–327). between the 1920s and 1960s indicate to extinction. this species was clearly widely Under the Act and our implementing Snails in the family Partulidae are predominantly nocturnal, arboreal distributed and abundant; some regulations, a species may warrant collections included hundreds of listing if it is in danger of extinction or herbivores that feed mainly on partially decayed and fresh plant material specimens (Cowie and Cook 2001, p. likely to become so throughout all or a 154). In addition, the enormous number significant portion of its range. Because (Murray 1972 cited in Cowie 1992, p. 175; Murray et al. 1982, p. 324; Cowie of shells of this species used in hotel we have determined that the DPS of the chandeliers also suggests its previous friendly ground-dove is endangered 1992, pp. 167, 175; Miller 2014, pers. comm.). Partulids are slow growing and abundance (Cowie 1993, p. 1). Then, in throughout all of its range, no portion of 1993, only 34 live individuals of E. its range can be ‘‘significant’’ for hermaphroditic (Cowie 1992, pp. 167, 174). Eggs develop within the maternal zebrina were found at 2 of 9 sites on purposes of the definitions of body and hatch within or immediately Tutuila, with only shells found at 4 ‘‘endangered species’’ and ‘‘threatened after extrusion; they may or may not other sites (Miller 1993, pp. 11–13). In species.’’ See the Final Policy on receive nourishment directly from the a 1998 survey, E. zebrina was seen alive Interpretation of the Phrase ‘‘Significant parent prior to extrusion (Cowie 1992, at 30 of 87 sites surveyed for land snails Portion of Its Range’’ in the Endangered p. 174). Some species in the family are on Tutuila, and at 1 of 58 sites surveyed Species Act’s Definitions of known to be self-fertile, but most in the Manua Islands (Ofu, Olosega, and ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened partulids rely predominantly on out- Tau), where it was observed for the first Species’’ (79 FR 37577, July 1, 2014). crossing (Cowie 1992, pp. 167, 174). time on Ofu (Cowie and Cook 1999, pp. Snails Adult partulids generally live about 5 13, 22; Cowie 2001, p. 215). During the years and give birth about every 20 1998 survey, 1,102 live E. zebrina were Eua zebrina days, producing about 18 offspring per recorded on Tutuila, and 88 live E. Eua zebrina, a tropical tree snail in year (Cowie 1992, pp. 174, 179–180). zebrina were recorded on Ofu (Cowie the family Partulidae, occurs solely on Partulids can have a single preferred and Cook 1999, p. 30). The uneven the islands of Tutuila and Ofu in host plant or multiple host plants, in distribution of the 1,102 live snails on American Samoa. Snails in this family addition to having preference toward Tutuila suggest an overall decline in (which includes three genera: Eua, anatomical parts of the plant (i.e., distribution and abundance; 479 live Partula, and Samoana) are widely leaves, branch, or trunk). Habitat snails were recorded at 3 survey sites in distributed throughout the high islands partitioning may occur among three one area, 165 live snails were recorded of Polynesia, Melanesia, and Micronesia partulids on Tutuila (Murray et al. 1982, at 7 survey sites, and fewer than 10 in the south- and west-Pacific basin pp. 317–318; Cooke 1928, p. 6). Cooke snails were recorded at each of the (Johnson et al. 1986a, pp. 161–177; (1928, p. 6) observed that Samoana remaining 20 sites (Cowie and Cook Goodacre and Wade 2001, p. 6; Lee et conica and S. abbreviata were 1999, p. 30). On Tutuila, the survey sites al. 2014, pp. 2, 6–8). Many of the commonly found on trunks and with the highest numbers of E. zebrina

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(except one site, Amalau) are ultimately converting native-dominated significantly reducing the forest area concentrated in the central area of the plant communities to nonnative plant and thus reducing the resilience of the National Park of American Samoa: Toa communities; and (5) increasing the native forest and populations of native Ridge, Faiga Ridge, and eastwards to the frequency of landslides and erosion snails. In addition, substantial housing Vatia powerline trail and along Alava (Smith 1985, pp. 217–218; Cuddihy and increases are also projected to occur in Ridge in these areas (Cowie and Cook Stone, 1990, p. 74; Matson 1990, p. 245; some rural forests along the northern 1999, p. 30). We are unaware of any D’Antonio and Vitousek 1992, p. 73; coastline of Tutuila, and in a few systematic surveys conducted for E. Vitousek et al. 1997, pp. 6–9; Atkinson scattered areas near existing population zebrina since 1998; however, E. zebrina and Medeiros 2006, p. 16). Nonnative bases with established roads (Stein et al. are still periodically observed by plant species often exploit the 2014, p. 24). These areas are outside of American Samoan field biologists (Miles disturbance caused by other factors such known snail locations within NPSA, but 2015c, in litt.). Because the island of as hurricanes, agriculture and they do include forested habitat where Ofu in the Manua Islands does not yet development, and feral ungulates, and snails may occur. have the predatory snail, Euglandina thus, in combination reinforce or The development of roads, trails, and rosea (see Factor C. Disease or exacerbate their negative impacts to utility corridors has also caused habitat Predation), the population of Eua native habitats. Although the areas destruction and modification in or zebrina on Ofu is of major conservation within the National Park of American adjacent to existing populations of Eua significance (Cowie 2001, p. 217). Samoa (NPSA) on the islands of Tutuila, zebrina on Tutuila (Cowie and Cook Ofu, and Tau contain many areas that 1999, pp. 3, 30). Development and Summary of Factors Affecting Eua are relatively free of human disturbance agriculture along the Alava Ridge road zebrina and alien invasion and largely represent and in the areas surrounding the A. The Present or Threatened pre-contact vegetation, the threat of Amalau inholding within NPSA pose a Destruction, Modification, or invasion and further spread by threat to populations of E. zebrina in Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range nonnative plant species poses immense these areas (Whistler 1994, p. 41; Cowie cause for concern (Atkinson and and Cook 1999, pp. 48–49). In addition, Habitat Destruction and Modification by Medeiros 2006, p. 17; ASCC 2010, construction activities, regular vehicular Nonnative Plant Species p. 22). and foot trail access, and road Nonnative plant species can seriously For brief descriptions of the nonnative maintenance activities cause erosion modify native habitat and render it plants that impose the greatest negative and the increased spread of nonnative unsuitable for native snail species impacts to the native habitats in plants resulting in further destruction or (Hadfield 1986, p. 325). Although some American Samoa, see the list provided modification of habitat (Cowie and Cook Hawaiian tree snails have been recorded in Habitat Destruction and Modification 1999, pp. 3, 47–48). However, in spite on nonnative vegetation, it is more by Nonnative Plants for the mao, above. of the incidence of encroachment by generally the case that native snails In summary, based on the potential development and agriculture in certain throughout the Pacific are specialized to invasion and habitat-modifying impacts areas, the NPSA provides approximately survive only on the native plants with of nonnative plant species, habitat 2,533 ac (1,025 ha) of forested habitat on which they have evolved (Cowie 2001, destruction and modification by Tutuila that is largely protected from p. 219). Cowie (2001, p. 219) reported nonnative plant species is and will clearing for agriculture and few observations of native snails, continue to be a threat to Eua zebrina. development and managed under a 50- including Eua zebrina, in disturbed Habitat Destruction and Modification by year lease agreement with the American habitats on Tutuila. Agriculture and Development Samoa Government and multiple The native flora of the Samoan villages (NPSA Lease Agreement 1993). archipelago (plant species that were Several thousand years of subsistence In addition, areas of continuous, present before humans arrived) agriculture and more recent plantation undisturbed native forest on consisted of approximately 550 taxa, 30 agriculture has resulted in the alteration northwestern Tutuila outside of the percent of which were endemic (species and great reduction in area of forests at NPSA boundaries may support that occur only in the American Samoa lower elevations (Whistler 1994, p. 40; additional populations of E. zebrina, and Samoa) (Whistler 2002, p. 8). An Mueller-Dombois and Fosberg 1998, p. however, survey data for these areas are additional 250 plant species have been 361). The threat of land conversion to lacking. In summary, agriculture and intentionally or accidentally introduced unsuitable habitat will accelerate if the development have contributed to habitat and have become naturalized with 20 or human population continues to grow or destruction and modification, and more of these considered invasive or if the changes in the economy shift continue to be a threat to E. zebrina on potentially invasive in American Samoa toward commercial agriculture (DMWR Tutuila. The available information does (Whistler 2002, p. 8; Space and Flynn 2006, p. 71). On the island of Tutuila, not indicate that agriculture and 2000, pp. 23–24). Of these agriculture and urban development development are a current threat to the approximately 20 or more nonnative covers approximately 24 percent of the single known population of E. zebrina pest plant species, at least 10 have island, and up to 60 percent of the on Ofu. However, because the vast altered or have the potential to alter the island contains slopes of less than 30 majority of individuals and populations habitat of the species proposed for percent where additional land-clearing of this species occur on Tutuila, we listing as endangered or threatened is feasible (ASCC 2010, p. 13; DWMR consider agriculture and development to species (Atkinson and Medeiros 2006, p. 2006, p. 25). Farmers are increasingly be a current and ongoing threat to E. 18; Craig 2009, pp. 94, 97–98; ASCC encroaching into some of the steep zebrina. 2010, p. 15). forested areas as a result of suitable flat Nonnative plants can degrade native lands already being occupied with Habitat Destruction or Modification by habitat in Pacific island environments urban development and agriculture Feral Pigs by: (1) Modifying the availability of light (ASCC 2010, p. 13). Consequently, Feral pigs are known to cause through alterations of the canopy agricultural plots on Tutuila have deleterious impacts to ecosystem structure; (2) altering soil-water regimes; spread from low elevations up to middle processes and functions throughout (3) modifying nutrient cycling; (4) and some high elevations on Tutuila, their worldwide distribution (Aplet et

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al. 1991, p. 56; Anderson and Stone methods that effectively reduce feral pig (Hadfield 1986, p. 322). During the 1993, p. 201; Campbell and Long 2009, populations, are likely to persist and 1800s, collectors sometimes took more p. 2,319). Feral pigs are extremely remain high in areas that provide than 4,000 snails in several hours destructive and have both direct and habitat for E. zebrina (Hess et al. 2006, (Hadfield 1986, p. 322). Repeated indirect impacts on native plant p. 53; ASCC 2010, p. 15). Based on the collections of hundreds to thousands of communities. Pigs are a major vector for reliance of E. zebrina on understory individuals may have contributed to the establishment and spread of vegetation under native forest canopy, decline in these species by reduction of invasive, nonnative plant species by as well as its potential to feed on the reproductive potential (removal of dispersing plant seeds on their hooves ground in the leaf litter, rooting, breeding adults) as well as by reduction and fur, and in their feces (Diong 1982, wallowing, and trampling, the of total numbers (Hadfield 1986, p. 327). pp. 169–170, 196–197), which also serve associated impacts to native vegetation In the Hawaiian genus Achatinella, to fertilize disturbed soil (Siemann et al. and soil caused by feral pigs will noted for its colorful variations, 22 2009, p. 547). In addition, pig rooting negatively impact the habitat of E. species are now extinct and the and wallowing contributes to erosion by zebrina and are a current threat to the remaining 19 species endangered clearing vegetation and creating large species. (Hadfield 1986, p. 320). In American areas of disturbed soil, especially on Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat Samoa, thousands of partulid tree snail slopes (Smith 1985, pp. 190, 192, 196, Destruction, Modification, or shells (mostly E. zebrina) have been 200, 204, 230–231; Stone 1985, pp. 254– Curtailment of Its Range collected and used for decorative 255, 262–264; Tomich 1986, pp. 120– purposes (e.g., chandeliers) (Cowie 126; Cuddihy and Stone 1990, pp. 64– Several programs and partnerships to 1993, pp. 1, 9). 65; Aplet et al. 1991, p. 56; Loope et al. address the threat of habitat In general, the collection of tree snails 1991, pp. 18–19; Gagne and Cuddihy modification by nonnative plant species persists to this day, and the market for 1999, p. 52; Nogueira-Filho et al. 2009, and feral pigs have been established and rare tree snails serves as an incentive to p. 3,681; CNMI–SWARS 2010, p. 15; are ongoing within areas that provide collect them. A recent search of the Dunkell et al. 2011, pp. 175–177; habitat for E. zebrina (see Factor A Internet found a Web site advertising Kessler 2011, pp. 320, 323). Erosion discussion for the mao). In addition, the sale of E. zebrina as well as three resulting from rooting and trampling by approximately 2,533 ac (1,025 ha) of other Partulid species (Conchology, Inc. pigs impacts native plant communities forested habitat within the Tutuila Unit 2015, in litt.). Based on the history of by contributing to watershed of the NPSA are protected and managed collection of E. zebrina, the evidence of degradation, alteration of plant nutrient under a 50-year lease agreement with its sale on the Internet, and the status, and increasing the likelihood of the American Samoa Government and vulnerability of the small remaining landslides (Vitousek et al. 2009, pp. multiple villages contributing to the populations of this species, we consider 3,074–3,086; Chan-Halbrendt et al. conservation of E. zebrina (NPSA Lease over-collection to be a threat to the 2010, p. 251; Kessler 2011, pp. Agreement 1993). continued existence of E. zebrina. ¥ 320 324). In the Hawaiian Islands, pigs Summary of Factor A C. Disease or Predation have been described as the most In summary, based on the best pervasive and disruptive nonnative available scientific and commercial Disease influence on the unique native forests, information, we consider the threats of We are not aware of any threats to Eua and are widely recognized as one of the destruction, modification, and zebrina that would be attributable to greatest current threats to Hawaii’s curtailment of the species habitat and disease. forest ecosystems (Aplet et al. 1991, p. range to be ongoing threats to Eua Predation by Nonnative Snails 56; Anderson and Stone 1993, p. 195). zebrina. The decline of the native land Feral pigs have been present in snails in American Samoa has resulted, At present, the major existing threat to American Samoa since antiquity in part, from the loss of native habitat long-term survival of the native snail (American Samoa Historic Preservation to agriculture and development, fauna in American Samoa is predation Office 2015, in litt.). In the past, hunting disturbance by feral pigs, and the by the nonnative rosy wolf snail pressure kept their numbers down, establishment of nonnative plant (Euglandina rosea), the most commonly however, increasing urbanization and species; these threats are ongoing and recommended biological control agent increasing availability of material goods are of moderate influence, and are likely of the giant African snail (Achatina has resulted in the decline in the exacerbated by impacts to native forest fulica), which also is an invasive practice of pig hunting to almost structure from hurricanes. All of the nonnative species in American Samoa. nothing (Whistler 1992, p. 21; 1994, p. above threats are ongoing and interact to In 1980, the rosy wolf snail was released 41). Feral pigs are moderately common exacerbate the negative impacts and on Tutuila to control the giant African to abundant in many forested areas, increase the vulnerability of extinction snail (Lai and Nakahara 1980 as cited in where they spread invasive plants, of E. zebrina. Miller 1993, p. 9). By 1984, the rosy damage understory vegetation, and wolf snail was considered to be well destroy riparian areas by their feeding B. Overutilization for Commercial, established on Tutuila, having reached and wallowing behavior (DMWR 2006, Recreational, Scientific, or Educational the mountains (Eldredge 1988, pp. 122, p. 23; ASCC 2010, p. 15). Feral pigs are Purposes 124–125), and by 2001 was reported as a serious problem in the NPSA because Tree snails can be found around the widespread within the National Park of of the damage they cause to native world in tropical and subtropical American Samoa on Tutuila (Cowie and vegetation through their rooting and regions and have been valued as Cook 2001, pp. 156–157). While there wallowing (Whistler 1992, p. 21; 1994, collectibles for centuries. For example, are no records of introduction of the p. 41; Hoshide 1996, p. 2; Cowie and the endemic Hawaiian tree snails within rosy wolf snail to the Manua Islands Cook 1999, p. 48; Togia pers. comm. in the family Achatinellidae were (Ofu, Olosega, and Tau), this species has Loope et al. 2013, p. 321). Pig densities extensively collected for scientific and been reported on Tau (Miller 1993, p. have been reduced in some areas (Togia recreational purposes by Europeans in 10). The absence of the rosy wolf snail 2015, in litt.), but without control the 18th to early 20th centuries on the islands of Ofu and Olosega is

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significant because E. zebrina is present during surveys (Cowie and Cook 1999, of Ofu and Olosega, predation by the on Ofu (Miller 1993, p. 10, Cowie and pp. 36–37, 46). However, Solem (1975 New Guinea flatworm is a current threat Cook 2001, p. 143; Cowie et al. 2003, as cited in Miller 1993, p. 16) to E. zebrina that will continue into the p. 39). speculated that S. musaecola might future. Numerous studies show that the rosy have a role in the further decline of Predation by Rats wolf snail feeds on endemic island native species, and Miller (1993, p. 16) snails and is a major agent in their considered that it ‘‘undoubtedly had a Rats are likely responsible for the declines and extinctions (Hadfield and negative impact.’’ Despite the lack of greatest number of animal extinctions Mountain 1981, p. 357; Howarth 1983, current information on the abundance of on islands throughout the world, p. 240, 1985, p. 161, 1991, p. 489; Clarke G. kibweziensis, but because of its including extinctions of various snail et al. 1984, pp. 101–103; Hadfield 1986, predatory nature and the declining species (Towns et al. 2006, p. 88). Rats p. 327; Murray et al. 1988, pp. 150–153; trend and small remaining populations are known to prey upon arboreal snails Hadfield et al. 1993, pp. 616–620; of E. zebrina, we consider this species endemic to Pacific islands and can Cowie 2001, p. 219). Live individuals of to be a threat to the continued existence devastate populations (Hadfield et al. the rosy wolf snail have been observed E. zebrina. However, because of their 1993, p. 621). Rat predation on tree within meters of partulids on Tutuila, previously observed low abundance and snails has been observed on the including E. zebrina and Samoana comparatively small size, and the lack Hawaiian Islands of Lanai (Hobdy 1993, conica (Miller 1993, p. 10). Shells of E. of specific information regarding their p. 208; Hadfield 2005, in litt, p. 4), zebrina and S. conica were found on the impacts to E. zebrina, we do not Molokai (Hadfield and Saufler 2009, p. ground at several of the locations consider predation by G. bicolor or S. 1,595), and Maui (Hadfield 2006, in surveyed on Tutuila, along with musaecola to be threats to the continued litt.). Three species of rats are present in numerous shells and an occasional live existence of E. zebrina. the American Samoa: The Polynesian individual of the rosy wolf snail (Miller In summary, predation by nonnative rat, probably introduced by early 1993, pp. 13, 23–28). The population of snails, especially the rosy wolf snail, is Polynesian colonizers, and Norway and E. zebrina on Nuusetoga Island, a small a current threat to E. zebrina and will black rats, both introduced subsequent islet off the north shore of Tutuila, was continue into the future. to western contact (Atkinson 1985, p. probably isolated from an ancestral 38; Cowie and Cook 1999, p. 47; DMWR Predation by the New Guinea or Snail- parent population on Tutuila in 2006, p. 22). Polynesian and Norway Eating Flatworm prehistoric time (Miller 1993, p, 13). No rats are considered abundant in live rosy wolf snails were found on this Predation by the nonnative New American Samoa but insufficient data offshore islet in 1992, and E. zebrina on Guinea or snail-eating flatworm exist on the populations of black rats the islet were deemed safe from (Platydemus manokwari) is a threat to E. (DMWR 2006, p. 22). predatory snails at that time (Miller zebrina. The extinction of native land Evidence of predation by rats on E. 1993, p. 13). Due to the widespread snails on several Pacific Islands has zebrina was observed at several presence of the rosy wolf snail on been attributed to this terrestrial locations on Tutuila (Miller 1993, pp. Tutuila and the high probability of its flatworm, native to western New Guinea 13, 16). Shells of E. zebrina were unintentional introduction into (Ohbayashi et al. 2007, p. 483; Sugiura damaged in a fashion that is typical of additional areas within the range of E. 2010, p. 1,499). The New Guinea rat predation; the shell is missing a large zebrina, predation by the rosy wolf snail flatworm was released in an piece of the body whorl or the apex is a current threat to E. zebrina that will unsanctioned effort to control the giant (Miller 1993, p. 13). Old shells may be continue into the future. African snail (Achatina fulica) in Samoa weathered in a similar fashion, except Predation by several other nonnative in the 1990s (Cowie and Cook 1999, p. that the fracture lines are not sharp and carnivorous snails, Gonaxis 47). In 2002, this species was likely angular. Frequent evidence of predation kibweziensis, Streptostele musaecola, present within the Samoan archipelago by rats was also observed on native land and Gulella bicolor, has been suggested but was not yet introduced to American snails during subsequent surveys as a potential threat to Eua zebrina and Samoa (Cowie 2002, p. 18). However, by (Cowie and Cook 1999, p. 47). In other native land snails. Species of 2004, this predatory flatworm had been summary, based on the presence of rats Gonaxis, also widely introduced in the found on the islands of Tutuila and Tau on Tutuila and Ofu, evidence of Pacific in attempts to control Achatina (Craig 2009, p. 84). predation, and the effects on rats on fulica, have been implicated, though The New Guinea flatworm has native land snail populations, predation less strongly, in contributing to the contributed to the decline of native tree by rats is a threat to E. zebrina that is decline of native snail species in the snails due to its ability to ascend into likely to continue in the future. region (Cowie and Cook 1999, p. 46). trees and bushes (Sugiura and Yamaura Gonaxis kibweziensis was introduced on 2009, p. 741). Although mostly ground- Conservation Efforts To Reduce Disease Tutuila in American Samoa in 1977 dwelling, the New Guinea flatworm has or Predation (Eldredge 1988, p. 122). This species has also been observed to climb trees and We are unaware of any conservation only been reported from Tutuila (Miller feed on partulid tree snails (Hopper and actions planned or implemented at this 1993, p. 9, Cowie and Cook 1999, p. 36), Smith 1992, p. 82). Areas with time to abate the threats of predation by and is not as common as the rosy wolf populations of the flatworm usually lack rats, nonnative snails or flatworms to E. snail (Miller 1993, p. 11). However, the partulid tree snails or have declining zebrina. two other predatory snails have been numbers of snails (Hopper and Smith recorded on the Manua Islands: S. 1992, p. 82). Because E. zebrina feeds on Summary of Factor C musaecola from Tutuila, Tau, and Ofu; the ground as well as in shrubs and In summary, based on the best and G. bicolor on Ofu (Cowie and Cook trees, it faces increased risk of predation available scientific and commercial 1999, pp. 36–37). The potential impacts by the New Guinea flatworm (Cooke information, we consider predation by of these two species on the native fauna 1928, p. 6). In summary, due to the the rosy wolf snail, Gonaxis are unknown; both are much smaller presence of the New Guinea flatworm kibweziensis, New Guinea flatworm, than the rosy wolf snail and G. on Tutuila, and the high probability of and rats to be a threat to E. zebrina that kibweziensis, and were rarely observed its accidental introduction to the islands will continue in the future.

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D. The Inadequacy of Existing Under ASCA, title 24, chapter 08 the Coastal Management Act and its Regulatory Mechanisms (Noxious Weeds), the Territorial DOA PNRS is inadequate to address the threat has the authority to ban, confiscate, and of habitat destruction and degradation The Act requires that the Secretary destroy species of plants harmful to the to E. zebrina (see Factor D for the Pacific assess available regulatory mechanisms agricultural economy. Similarly, under sheath-tailed bat for further details). in order to determine whether existing ASCA, title 24, chapter 06 (Quarantine), regulatory mechanisms may be the director of DOA has the authority to Summary of Factor D inadequate as designed to address promulgate agriculture quarantine In summary, existing Territorial laws threats to the species being evaluated restrictions concerning animals. These (Factor D). Under this factor, we and regulatory mechanisms have the laws may provide some protection potential to offer some level of examine whether existing regulatory against the introduction of new mechanisms are inadequate to address protection for E. zebrina and its habitat nonnative species that may have but are not currently implemented in a the potential threats to E. zebrina negative effects on E. zebrina’s habitat discussed under other factors. In manner that would do so. The DMWR or become predators of the species, but has not exercised its statutory authority determining whether the inadequacy of these regulations do not require any regulatory mechanisms constitutes a to address threats to the ground-dove measures to control invasive nonnative such as predation by nonnative threat to E. zebrina, we analyzed the plants or animals that already are existing Federal, Territorial, and predators, the species is not listed established and proving harmful to pursuant to the Territorial Endangered international laws and regulations that native species and their habitats may address the threats to this species Species Act, and the Coastal (DMWR 2006, p. 80) (see Factor D for Management Act and its implementing or contain relevant protective measures. the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, above). Regulatory mechanisms, if they exist, regulations have the potential to address As described above, the Territorial may preclude the need for listing if we the threat of habitat loss to deforestation Coastal Management Act establishes a determine that such mechanisms more substantively, but this law is land use permit (LUP) system for adequately address the threats to the inadequately implemented. Based on development projects and a Project species such that listing is not the best available information, some Notification Review System (PNRS) for warranted. existing regulatory mechanisms have multi-agency review and approval of the potential to offer some protection of No existing Federal laws, treaties, or LUP applications (ASAC § 26.0206). The E. zebrina and its habitat, but their regulations specify protection of E. standards and criteria for review of LUP implementation does not reduce or zebrina’s habitat from the threat of applications include requirements to remove threats to the species such as deforestation, or address the threat of protect Special Management Areas habitat destruction or modification or predation by nonnative species such as (SMA), Unique Areas, and ‘‘critical predation by nonnative species. For rats, the rosy wolf snail, and the New habitats’’ (ASCA § 24.0501 et seq.). To these reasons, we conclude that existing Guinea flatworm. Some existing date, the SMAs that have been regulatory mechanisms do not address Territorial laws and regulations have the designated (Pago Pago Harbor, Leone the threats to E. zebrina. potential to afford E. zebrina some Pala, and Nuuuli Pala; ASAC § 26.0221), protection but their implementation all are in coastal and mangrove habitats E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors does not achieve that result. The DMWR on the south shore of Tutuila that don’t Affecting Its Continued Existence is given statutory authority to ‘‘manage, provide habitat for E. zebrina. The only Hurricanes protect, preserve, and perpetuate marine Unique Area designated to date is the and wildlife resources’’ and to Ottoville Rainforest (American Samoa Hurricanes are a common natural promulgate rules and regulations to that Coastal Management Program 2011, p. disturbance in the tropical Pacific and end (American Samoa Code Annotated 52), also on Tutuila’s south shore, have occurred in American Samoa with (ASCA), title 24, chapter 3). This agency which hypothetically may provide varying frequency and intensity (see conducts monitoring surveys, habitat for E. zebrina, but it is a Factor E discussion for the Pacific conservation activities, and community relatively small island of native forest in sheath-tailed bat). Hurricanes may outreach and education about the middle of the heavily developed adversely impact the habitat of E. conservation concerns. However, to our Tafuna Plain (Trail 1993, p. 4). These zebrina by destroying vegetation, knowledge, the DMWR has not used this laws and regulations are designed to opening the canopy, and thus modifying authority to undertake conservation ensure that ‘‘environmental concerns the availability of light and moisture, efforts for E. zebrina such as habitat are given appropriate consideration,’’ and creating disturbed areas conducive protection and control of nonnative and include provisions and to invasion by nonnative plant species molluscs and rats (DMWR 2006, pp. 79– requirements that could address to some (Elmqvist et al. 1994, p. 387; Asner and 80). degree threats to native forest habitat Goldstein 1997, p. 148; Harrington et al. The Territorial Endangered Species required by E. zebrina on Tutuila and 1997, pp. 539–540; Lugo 2008, pp. 373– Act provides for appointment of a Ofu, even though individual species are 375, 386). Such impacts destroy or Commission with the authority to not named (ASAC § 26.0202 et seq.). modify habitat elements (e.g., stem, nominate species as either endangered Because the implementation of these branch, and leaf surfaces, undisturbed or threatened (ASCA, title 24, chapter regulations has been minimal and ground, and leaf litter) required to meet 7). Regulations adopted under the review of permits is not rigorous, the snails’ basic life-history Coastal Management Act (ASCA issuance of permits may not provide the requirements. In addition, high winds § 24.0501 et seq.) also prohibit the habitat protection necessary to provide and intense rains from hurricanes can taking of threatened or endangered for the conservation of E. zebrina and also dislodge individual snails from the species (ASAC § 26.0220.I.c). However, instead result in loss of native habitat leaves and branches of their host plants the ASG has not listed E. zebrina as important to this and other species as a and deposit them on the forest floor threatened or endangered so these result of land clearing for agriculture where they may be crushed by falling regulatory mechanisms do not provide and development (DMWR 2006, p. 71). vegetation or exposed to predation by protection for this species. We conclude that the implementation of nonnative rats and snails (see ‘‘Disease

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or Predation,’’ above) (Hadfield 2011, Mangel and Tier 1994, p. 607). discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed pers. comm.). Conditions leading to this level of bat for additional discussion). The negative impact on E. zebrina vulnerability are easily reached by Although we do not have specific caused by hurricanes was strongly island species that face numerous information on the impacts of the effects suggested by surveys that failed to threats such as those described above of climate change to E. zebrina, detect any snails in areas bordering for for E. zebrina. Small, isolated increased ambient temperature and agricultural plots or in forest areas that populations that are diminished by precipitation and increased severity of were severely damaged by three habitat loss, predation, and other threats hurricanes would likely exacerbate hurricanes (1987, 1990, and 1991) can exhibit reduced levels of genetic other threats to this species as well as (Miller 1993, p. 16). Under natural variability, which can diminish the provide additional stresses on its conditions, loss of forest canopy to species’ capacity to adapt to habitat. The probability of species hurricanes did not pose a great threat to environmental changes, thereby extinction as a result of climate change the long-term survival of these snails increasing the risk of inbreeding impacts increases when its range is because there was enough intact forest depression and reducing the probability restricted, habitat decreases, and with healthy populations of snails that of long-term persistence (Shaffer 1981, numbers of populations decline (IPCC would support dispersal back into p. 131; Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, pp. 24– 2007, p. 48). Eua zebrina is limited by newly regrown canopy forest. Similarly, 34; Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757). The its restricted range in small areas on two forest damage may only be temporary problems associated with small islands and small total population size. and limited to defoliation or minor occurrence size and vulnerability to Therefore, we expect this species to be canopy damage, and vary depending on random demographic fluctuations or particularly vulnerable to the aspect of forested areas in relation natural catastrophes are further environmental impacts of climate to the direction of approaching storms magnified by interactions with other change and subsequent impacts to its (Pierson et al. 1992, pp. 15–16). In threats, such as those discussed above habitat. Based on the above information, general, forests in American Samoa, (see Factor A, Factor B, and Factor C, we conclude that habitat impacts having evolved with the periodic above). resulting from the effects of climate disturbance regime of hurricanes, show We consider E. zebrina vulnerable to change are not a current threat but are remarkable abilities for regeneration and extinction because of threats associated likely to become a threat to E. zebrina recovery, apart from catastrophic events with low numbers of individuals and in the future. (Webb et al. 2011, pp. 1,248–1,249). low numbers of populations. This Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other Nevertheless, the destruction of native species has suffered a serious decline Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting vegetation and forest canopy, and and is limited by its slow reproduction Its Continued Existence modification of light and moisture and growth (Cowie and Cook 1999, p. conditions both during and in the 31). Threats to E. zebrina include: We are unaware of any conservation months and possibly years following Habitat destruction and modification by actions planned or implemented at this hurricanes can negatively impact the hurricanes, agriculture and time to abate the threats of hurricanes populations of E. zebrina. In addition, development, nonnative plant species and low numbers of individuals that today, the impacts of habitat loss and and feral pigs; collection and negatively impact E. zebrina. degradation caused by other factors overutilization; and predation by the Proposed Determination for Eua zebrina such as nonnative plant species (see rosy wolf snail, Gonaxis kibweziensis, ‘‘Habitat Destruction and Modification and the New Guinea flatworm. The We have carefully assessed the best by Nonnative Plant Species’’ above), effects of these threats are compounded scientific and commercial information agriculture and urban development (see by the current low number of available regarding the past, present, ‘‘Habitat Destruction and Modification individuals and populations of E. and future threats to E. zebrina. This by Agriculture and Development’’ zebrina. endemic partulid tree snail restricted to above) and feral pigs (see ‘‘Habitat the islands of Tutuila and Ofu in Destruction and Modification by Feral Climate Change American Samoa has declined Pigs’’), are exacerbated by hurricanes. Our analyses under the Act include dramatically in abundance and is As snail populations decline and consideration of ongoing and projected expected to continue along this become increasingly isolated, future changes in climate (see Factor E declining trend in the future. hurricanes are more likely to lead to the discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed The threat of habitat destruction and loss of populations or the extinction of bat). The magnitude and intensity of the modification from agriculture and species such as this one that rely on the impacts of global climate change and development, nonnative plant species, remaining canopy forest. Therefore, we increasing temperatures on western and feral pigs is occurring throughout consider the threat of hurricanes to be tropical Pacific island ecosystems the range of E. zebrina, and is not likely a factor in the continued existence of E. currently are unknown. In addition, to be reduced in the future (Factor A). zebrina. there are no climate change studies that The threat of overutilization for address impacts to the specific habitats scientific and commercial purposes has Low Numbers of Individuals and of E. zebrina. The scientific assessment likely contributed to the historical Populations completed by the Pacific Science decline of E. zebrina, is a current threat Species that undergo significant Climate Science Program (Australian to the species, and is likely to continue habitat loss and degradation and other BOM and CSIRO 2011, Vol. 1 and Vol. into the future (Factor B). The threat of threats resulting in decline and range 2) provides general projections or trends predation from nonnative snails, a reduction are inherently highly for predicted changes in climate and nonnative predatory flatworm, and rats vulnerable to extinction resulting from associated changes in ambient is of the highest magnitude, and likely localized catastrophes such as severe temperature, precipitation, hurricanes, to continue in the future (Factor C). storms or disease outbreaks, climate and sea level rise for countries in the Current Territorial wildlife laws do not change effects, and demographic western tropical Pacific region address the threats to the species (Factor stochasticity (Gilpin and Soule´ 1986, including Samoa (used as a proxy for D). Additionally, the low numbers of pp. 24–34; Pimm et al. 1988, p. 757; American Samoa) (see Factor E individuals and populations of E.

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zebrina are likely to continue (Factor E), 214; Miller 1993, p. 7). Ostodes strigatus sexual maturity is unknown (Girardi and these small isolated populations is a member of the superfamily 1978, p. 194). Once they reach maturity face increased risk of extinction from Cyclophoroidea and the family and can successfully reproduce, it is stochastic events such as hurricanes. Poteriidae (= Neocyclotidae) (Cowie likely adult snails deposit their eggs into Small population threats are 1998, p. 24; Girardi 1978, p. 192; Vaught leaf litter where they develop and hatch. compounded by the threats of habitat 1989, p. 16; ITIS 2015c). The family Ostodes strigatus is known only from destruction and modification, Poteriidae consists of tropical land the western portion of the island of overutilization, predation, and snails throughout Central America, the Tutuila in American Samoa, including regulatory mechanisms that do not northern end of South America, and the the center and southeast edge of the address the threats to the species. These South Pacific. The genus Ostodes is central plateau, and the extreme factors pose threats to E. zebrina endemic to the Samoan archipelago southern coast and mountain slope near whether we consider their effects (Girardi 1978, pp. 191, 242). The Pago Pago, with an elevation range of 60 individually or cumulatively. defining characteristics of species to 390 m (197 to 1,280 ft) (Girardi 1978, The Act defines an endangered within the family Poteriidae include a p. 224; B. P. Bishop Museum 2015, in species as any species that is ‘‘in danger pallium cavity (lung-like organ) and an litt.). Until 1975, O. strigatus was of extinction throughout all or a operculum (a shell lid or ‘‘trap door’’ considered widespread and common, significant portion of its range’’ and a used to close the shell aperture when but has since declined significantly threatened species as any species ‘‘that the snail withdraws inward, most (Miller 1993, p. 15; Cowie 2001, p. 215). is likely to become endangered commonly found in marine snails) In 1992, a survey of nine sites on throughout all or a significant portion of (Girardi 1978, pp. 214, 222–;224; Vaught Tutuila reported several live individuals its range within the foreseeable future.’’ 1989, p. 16; Barker 2001, pp. 15, 25). (and abundant empty shells) from a We find that Eua zebrina is presently in Ostodes strigatus has a white, single site on the western end of the danger of extinction throughout its turbinate (depressed conical) shell with island (Maloata Valley) and only shells entire range based on the severity and 4 to 5 whorls and distinctive parallel (no live individuals) at three sites in the immediacy of the ongoing and projected ridges, reaching a size of 0.3 to 0.4 in central part of the island (Miller 1993, threats described above. The loss and (7 to 11 mm) in height, 0.4 to 0.5 in (9 pp. 23–27). At each of the four sites degradation of its habitat, predation by to 12 mm) in diameter at maturity where live O. strigatus or empty shells nonnative snails and flatworms, small (Girardi 1978, pp. 222–223; Abbott were found, the predatory rosy wolf number of individuals, limited 1989, p. 43). Its operculum is acutely snail was common or abundant (Miller distribution, the effects of small concave to cone-shaped, with broad, 1993, p. 23). In 1998, surveys within the population size, and stochastic events irregular spirals from center to edge newly established National Park of such as hurricanes render this species in (Girardi 1978, pp. 198, 213, 222–224). American Samoa (NPAS) on northern its entirety highly susceptible to True radial patterning is seldom found Tutuila did not detect any live O. extinction as a consequence of these on the upper shell surface, and never on strigatus or shells (Cowie and Cook imminent threats. the ventral surface, which is usually 2001, pp. 143–159); however, Cowie Therefore, on the basis of the best entirely smooth (Girardi 1978, p. 223). and Cook (1999, p. 24) note that these available scientific and commercial Ostodes strigatus is found on the areas were likely outside the range of O. information, we propose listing Eua ground in rocky areas under relatively strigatus. We are unaware of any zebrina as endangered in accordance closed canopy with sparse understory surveys conducted since 1998; however, with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act. plant coverage at elevations below 1,280 local field biologists that frequent the ft (390 m) (Girardi 1978, p. 224; Miller We find that a threatened species status forest above Maloata Valley for other 1993, pp. 13, 15, 23, 24, 27). Moisture is not appropriate for Eua zebrina biological field work report they have supply is the principal environmental because the threats are occurring not seen O. strigatus (Miles 2015c, in influence on Ostodes land snails rangewide and are not localized, and litt.). because the threats are ongoing and (Girardi 1978, p. 245). The degree of expected to continue into the future. moisture retention is controlled Summary of Factors Affecting Ostodes Under the Act and our implementing primarily by vegetation cover, with strigatus regulations, a species may warrant heavy forest retaining moisture at A. The Present or Threatened listing if it is in danger of extinction or ground level longer than open forest or Destruction, Modification, or likely to become so throughout all or a cleared areas (Girardi 1978, p. 245). Curtailment of Its Habitat or Range significant portion of its range. Because Ostodes species were collected only in we have determined that the snail E. areas with heavy tree cover (Solem pers. The threats of nonnative plants, zebrina is endangered throughout all of comm. in Girardi 1978, p. 245), but the agriculture and development, and feral its range, no portion of its range can be relative importance of rainfall and soil pigs negatively impact the habitat of ‘‘significant’’ for purposes of the type in maintaining moisture supply Ostodes strigatus in a manner similar to definitions of ‘‘endangered species’’ and was not assessed in these areas (Girardi that described for Eua zebrina (see ‘‘threatened species.’’ See the Final 1978, p. 245). Nevertheless, relatively Factor A discussion for Eua zebrina Policy on Interpretation of the Phrase closed canopy or heavy tree cover and above). In summary, based on the best ‘‘Significant Portion of Its Range’’ in the their roles in maintaining moisture available, scientific and commercial Endangered Species Act’s Definitions of supply appears to be an important information, we consider the threats of ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened habitat factor for O. strigatus. destruction, modification, and Species’’ (79 FR 37577, July 1, 2014). Although the biology of the genus curtailment of the species habitat and Ostodes is not well studied, and, range to be significant ongoing threats to Ostodes strigatus therefore, the exact diet is unknown, it Ostodes strigatus. The decline of the Ostodes strigatus, a light tan- to is highly probable that O. strigatus feeds native land snails in American Samoa cream-colored tropical ground-dwelling at least in part on decaying leaf litter has resulted, in part, from the loss of snail in the family Poteriidae, is and fungus (Girardi 1978, p. 242; Miller native habitat to agriculture and endemic to the island of Tutuila in 2014, pers. comm.). The approximate development, impacts to native forest American Samoa (Girardi 1978, pp. 193, age at which these snails reach full structure from hurricanes, the

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establishment of nonnative plant Several live individuals and numerous Conservation Efforts To Reduce Disease species, and disturbance by feral pigs; shells of the rosy wolf snail were found or Predation these threats are ongoing and moderate in the same sites in which live We are unaware of any conservation in magnitude. All of the above threats individuals (one site) and numerous actions planned or implemented at this are ongoing and interact to exacerbate shells (three sites) of O. strigatus were time to abate the threats of predation by the negative impacts and increase the found (Miller 1993, pp. 23–27). Due to rats, nonnative snails, or flatworms to O. vulnerability of extinction of O. its widespread presence on Tutuila, strigatus. strigatus. predation by the rosy wolf snail is Summary of Factor C Conservation Efforts To Reduce Habitat considered a threat to O. strigatus. Destruction, Modification, or Predation by several other nonnative In summary, based on the best Curtailment of Its Range carnivorous snails, Gonaxis available scientific and commercial kibweziensis, Streptostele musaecola, information, we consider predation by Several programs and partnerships to and Gulella bicolor, has been suggested address the threat of habitat the rosy wolf snail, the New Guinea as a potential threat to O. strigatus and flatworm, and rats to be a threat to of O. modification by nonnative plant species other native land snails (see Factor C and feral pigs have been established and strigatus that will continue in the future. discussion for Eua zebrina). Despite the are ongoing within areas that provide lack of current information on the D. The Inadequacy of Existing habitat for O. strigatus (see Factor A abundance of G. kibweziensis, but Regulatory Mechanisms discussion for the mao). In addition, because of its predatory nature and the approximately 2,533 ac (1,025 ha) of The Act requires that the Secretary declining trend and small remaining forested habitat within the Tutuila Unit assess available regulatory mechanisms populations of O. strigatus, we consider of the NPSA are protected and managed in order to determine whether existing the predation by G. kibweziensis to be under a 50-year lease agreement with regulatory mechanisms may be a threat to O. strigatus. Because of their the American Samoa Government and inadequate as designed to address previously observed low abundance, multiple villages within a portion of the threats to the species being evaluated range of O. strigatus (NPSA Lease comparatively small size, and lack of (Factor D). Under this factor, we Agreement 1993). specific information regarding impacts examine whether existing regulatory to O. strigatus, we do not consider mechanisms are inadequate to address B. Overutilization for Commercial, predation by G. bicolor or S. musaecola the potential threats to O. strigatus Recreational, Scientific, or Educational as threats to O. strigatus that will discussed under other factors. In Purposes continue in the future. In summary, determining whether the inadequacy of Collection of land snail shells for predation by nonnative snails, regulatory mechanisms constitutes a commercial, scientific, recreational, or especially the rosy wolf snail, is a threat to O. strigatus, we analyzed the educational purposes has had a current threat to O. strigatus and will existing Federal and Territorial laws moderate influence in the decline of continue into the future. and regulations that may address the Ostodes strigatus (see Factor B Predation by New Guinea or Snail- threats to this species or contain discussion for Eua zebrina). In the past, Eating Flatworm relevant protective measures. Regulatory O. strigatus was collected for basic mechanisms, if they exist, may preclude scientific purposes such as The nonnative New Guinea or snail- the need for listing if we determine that identification and classification (Girardi eating flatworm has been the cause of such mechanisms adequately address 1978, pp. 193–194; B. P. Bishop decline and extinction of native land the threats to the species such that Museum 2015, in litt.). Currently, low snails (see Factor C discussion for Eua listing is not warranted. numbers and awareness of its decline zebrina). This predatory flatworm is No existing Federal laws, treaties, or make collection for scientific or found on Tutuila. The ground-dwelling regulations specify protection of the educational purposes unlikely, but the habit of O. strigatus and its occurrence habitat of O. strigatus from the threat of rarity of O. strigatus does not preclude in the leaf litter places O. strigatus at a deforestation, or address the threat of collection for commercial purposes. In greater risk of exposure to the threat of predation by nonnative species such as summary, based on the best available predation by this terrestrial predator. In rats, the rosy wolf snail, and the New scientific and commercial information, summary, predation by P. manokwari is Guinea flatworm. Some existing we do not consider the overutilization considered a threat to O. strigatus that Territorial laws and regulations have the for commercial, recreational, scientific, will continue in the future. potential to afford O. strigatus some or educational purposes to be a current protection but their implementation Predation by Rats threat to O. strigatus because, although does not achieve that result. The DMWR collection may occur, there is no Rats are known to prey upon endemic is given statutory authority to ‘‘manage, evidence of commercial trade in the land snails and can devastate protect, preserve, and perpetuate marine species at the present time. populations (see Factor C discussion for and wildlife resources’’ and to C. Disease or Predation Eua zebrina). Three rat species are promulgate rules and regulations to that present in American Samoa and end (American Samoa Code Annotated Disease frequent evidence of predation by rats (ASCA), title 24, chapter 3). This agency We are not aware of any threats to on the shells of native land snails was conducts monitoring surveys, Ostodes strigatus that would be reported during surveys (Miller 1993, p. conservation activities, and community attributable to disease. 16; Cowie and Cook 2001; p. 47). In outreach and education about summary, based on the presence of rats conservation concerns. However, to our Predation by Nonnative Snails on Tutuila and evidence that they prey knowledge, the DMWR has not used this The nonnative rosy wolf snail is on native snails, the threat of predation authority to undertake conservation widespread on Tutuila and has been by rats is likely to continue and is a efforts for O. strigatus such as habitat shown to contribute to the decline and significant factor in the continued protection and control of nonnative extinction of native land snails (see existence of Ostodes strigatus that will molluscs and rats (DMWR 2006, pp. 79– Factor C discussion for Eua zebrina). continue in the future. 80).

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The Territorial Endangered Species requirements that could address to some to random demographic fluctuations or Act provides for appointment of a degree threats to native forest habitat natural catastrophes such as severe Commission with the authority to required by O. strigatus, even though storms or hurricanes are further nominate species as either endangered individual species are not named magnified by interactions with other or threatened (ASCA, title 24, chapter (ASAC § 26.0202 et seq.). Because the threats, such as those discussed above 7). Regulations adopted under the implementation of these regulations has (see Factor A, Factor B, and Factor C, Coastal Management Act (ASCA been minimal and review of permits is above). § 24.0501 et seq.) also prohibit the not rigorous, issuance of permits may We consider O. strigatus to be taking of threatened or endangered not provide the habitat protection vulnerable to extinction due to impacts species (ASAC § 26.0220.I.c). However, necessary to provide for the the ASG has not listed O. strigatus as conservation of O. strigatus and instead associated with low numbers of threatened or endangered so these result in loss of native habitat important individuals and low numbers of regulatory mechanisms do not provide to this and other species as a result of populations because this species has protection for this species. land clearing for agriculture and suffered a serious decline in numbers Under ASCA, title 24, chapter 08 development (DMWR 2006, p. 71). We and has not been observed in recent (Noxious Weeds), the Territorial DOA conclude that the implementation of the years (Miller 1993, pp. 23–27). Threats has the authority to ban, confiscate, and Coastal Management Act and its PNRS to O. strigatus include: Habitat destroy species of plants harmful to the is inadequate to address the threat of destruction and modification by agricultural economy. Similarly, under habitat destruction and degradation to hurricanes, agriculture and ASCA, title 24, chapter 06 (Quarantine), O. strigatus (see Factor D for the Pacific development, nonnative plant species the director of DOA has the authority to sheath-tailed bat for further details). and feral pigs; and predation by the rosy promulgate agriculture quarantine wolf snail, Gonaxis kibweziensis, and restrictions concerning animals. These Summary of Factor D the New Guinea flatworm. The effects of laws may provide some protection In summary, existing Territorial laws these threats are compounded by the against the introduction of new and regulatory mechanisms have the current low number of individuals and nonnative species that may have potential to offer some level of populations of O. strigatus. negative effects on the habitat of O. protection for O. strigatus and its habitat strigatus or become predators of the but are not currently implemented in a Climate Change species, but these regulations do not manner that would do so. The DMWR We do not have specific information require any measures to control invasive has not exercised its statutory authority on the impacts of the effects of climate nonnative plants or animals that already to address threats to the ground-dove are established and proving harmful to change to O. strigatus, and our such as predation by nonnative evaluation of the impacts of climate native species and their habitats predators, the species is not listed (DMWR 2006, p. 80) (see Factor D for change to this species is the same as that pursuant to the Territorial Endangered for E. zebrina, above (and see Factor E the Pacific sheath-tailed bat, above). Species Act, and the Coastal discussion for the Pacific sheath-tailed As described above, The Territorial Management Act and its implementing bat). Increased ambient temperature and Coastal Management Act establishes a regulations have the potential to address precipitation and increased severity of land use permit (LUP) system for the threat of habitat loss to deforestation hurricanes would likely exacerbate development projects and a Project more substantively, but this law is other threats to this species as well as Notification Review System (PNRS) for inadequately implemented. Based on multi-agency review and approval of the best available information, some provide additional stresses on its LUP applications (ASAC § 26.0206). The existing regulatory mechanisms have habitat. The probability of species standards and criteria for review of LUP the potential to offer some protection of extinction as a result of climate change applications include requirements to O. strigatus and its habitat, but their impacts increases when its range is protect Special Management Areas implementation does not reduce or restricted, habitat decreases, and (SMA), Unique Areas, and ‘‘critical remove threats to the species such as numbers of populations decline (IPCC habitats’’ (ASCA § 24.0501 et. seq.). To habitat destruction or modification or 2007, p. 48). Ostodes strigatus is limited date, the SMAs that have been predation by nonnative species. For by its restricted range in one portion of designated (Pago Pago Harbor, Leone these reasons, we conclude that existing Tutuila and small population size. Pala, and Nuuuli Pala; ASAC § 26.0221), regulatory mechanisms do not address Therefore, we expect this species to be all are in coastal and mangrove habitats the threats to O. strigatus. particularly vulnerable to on the south shore of Tutuila that don’t environmental impacts of climate provide habitat for O. strigatus, which is E. Other Natural or Manmade Factors change and subsequent impacts to its known only from the interior western Affecting Its Continued Existence habitat. We conclude that habitat portion of the island. The only Unique Low Numbers of Individuals and impacts resulting from the effects of Area designated to date is the Ottoville Populations climate change are not a current threat Rainforest (American Samoa Coastal but are likely to become a threat to O. Species with low numbers of Management Program 2011, p. 52), also strigatus in the future (see Factor E on Tutuila’s south shore, which individuals, restricted distributions, and discussion for E. zebrina, above). hypothetically may provide habitat for small, isolated populations are often O. strigatus, but it is a relatively small more susceptible to extinction as a Conservation Efforts To Reduce Other island of native forest in the middle of result of reduced levels of genetic Natural or Manmade Factors Affecting the heavily developed Tafuna Plain variation, inbreeding depression, Its Continued Existence (Trail 1993, p. 4), far from the areas reproduced reproductive vigor, random where O. strigatus has been recorded. demographic fluctuations, and natural We are unaware of any conservation These laws and regulations are designed catastrophes such as hurricanes (see actions planned or implemented at this to ensure that ‘‘environmental concerns Factor E discussion for Eua zebrina, time to abate the threats of hurricanes are given appropriate consideration,’’ above). The problems associated with and low numbers of individuals that and include provisions and small occurrence size and vulnerability negatively impact O. strigatus.

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Proposed Determination for Ostodes because the threats are occurring to address continuing or new threats to strigatus rangewide and are not localized, and the species, as new substantive We have carefully assessed the best because the threats are ongoing and information becomes available. The scientific and commercial information expected to continue into the future. recovery plan identifies site-specific Under the Act and our implementing available regarding the past, present, management actions that set a trigger for regulations, a species may warrant and future threats to Ostodes strigatus. review of the five factors that control listing if it is endangered or threatened Observations of live individuals at a whether a species remains endangered throughout all or a significant portion of single location on western Tutuila more or may be downlisted or delisted, and its range. Because we have determined than 20 years ago suggest that this methods for monitoring recovery that the snail O. strigatus is endangered species has undergone a significant progress. Recovery plans also establish throughout all of its range, no portion of reduction in its range and numbers. a framework for agencies to coordinate its range can be ‘‘significant’’ for The threat of habitat destruction and their recovery efforts and provide purposes of the definitions of modification from agriculture and estimates of the cost of implementing ‘‘endangered species’’ and ‘‘threatened development, hurricanes, nonnative recovery tasks. Recovery teams species.’’ See the Final Policy on plant species, and feral pigs is occurring (composed of species experts, Federal Interpretation of the Phrase ‘‘Significant throughout the range of O. strigatus and and State agencies, nongovernmental Portion of Its Range’’ in the Endangered is not likely to be reduced in the future. organizations, and stakeholders) are Species Act’s Definitions of The impacts from these threats are often established to develop recovery ‘‘Endangered Species’’ and ‘‘Threatened plans. When completed, the recovery cumulatively of high magnitude (Factor Species’’ (79 FR 37577, July 1, 2014). A). The threat of predation from outline, draft recovery plan, and the nonnative snails, rats, and the nonnative Available Conservation Measures final recovery plan will be available on our Web site (http://www.fws.gov/ predatory flatworm is of the highest Conservation measures provided to endangered), or from our Pacific Islands magnitude, and likely to continue in the species listed as endangered or Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION future (Factor C). Current Territorial threatened under the Act include CONTACT). wildlife laws do not address the threats recognition, recovery actions, to the species (Factor D). Additionally, requirements for Federal protection, and Implementation of recovery actions the low numbers of individuals and prohibitions against certain practices. generally requires the participation of a populations of O. strigatus, i.e., the Recognition through listing results in broad range of partners, including other possible occurrence of this species public awareness and conservation by Federal agencies, States, Tribes, restricted to a single locality where it Federal, State, Territorial, and local nongovernmental organizations, was observed more than 20 years ago, is agencies, private organizations, and businesses, and private landowners. likely to continue (Factor E) and is individuals. The Act encourages Examples of recovery actions include compounded by the threats of habitat cooperation with the States and requires habitat restoration (e.g., restoration of destruction and modification and that recovery actions be carried out for native vegetation), research, captive predation. These factors pose threats to all listed species. The protection propagation and reintroduction, and O. strigatus whether we consider their required by Federal agencies and the outreach and education. The recovery of effects individually or cumulatively. prohibitions against certain activities many listed species cannot be These threats will continue in the are discussed, in part, below. accomplished solely on Federal lands future. The primary purpose of the Act is the because their range may occur primarily The Act defines an endangered conservation of endangered and or solely on non-Federal lands. To species as any species that is ‘‘in danger threatened species and the ecosystems achieve recovery of these species of extinction throughout all or a upon which they depend. The ultimate requires cooperative conservation efforts significant portion of its range’’ and a goal of such conservation efforts is the on all lands. threatened species as any species ‘‘that recovery of these listed species, so that If these species are listed, funding for is likely to become endangered they no longer need the protective recovery actions will be available from throughout all or a significant portion of measures of the Act. Subsection 4(f) of a variety of sources, including Federal its range within the foreseeable future.’’ the Act requires the Service to develop budgets, State programs, and cost share We find that Ostodes strigatus is and implement recovery plans for the grants for non-Federal landowners, the presently in danger of extinction conservation of endangered and academic community, and throughout its entire range based on the threatened species. The recovery nongovernmental organizations. In severity and immediacy of the ongoing planning process involves the addition, pursuant to section 6 of the and projected threats described above. identification of actions that are Act, U.S. Territory of American Samoa The loss and degradation of its habitat, necessary to halt or reverse the species’ would be eligible for Federal funds to predation by nonnative snails and decline by addressing the threats to its implement management actions that flatworms, small number of individuals, survival and recovery. The goal of this promote the protection or recovery of limited distribution, the effects of small process is to restore listed species to a these species. Information on our grant population size, and stochastic events point where they are secure, self- programs that are available to aid such as hurricanes render this species in sustaining, and functioning components species recovery can be found at: http:// its entirety highly susceptible to of their ecosystems. www.fws.gov/grants. extinction as a consequence of these Recovery planning includes the Although these species are only imminent threats. development of a recovery outline proposed for listing under the Act at Therefore, on the basis of the best shortly after a species is listed and this time, please let us know if you are available scientific and commercial preparation of a draft and final recovery interested in participating in recovery information, we propose listing Ostodes plan. The recovery outline guides the efforts for these species. Additionally, strigatus as endangered in accordance immediate implementation of urgent we invite you to submit any new with sections 3(6) and 4(a)(1) of the Act. recovery actions and describes the information on these species whenever We find that a threatened species status process to be used to develop a recovery it becomes available and any is not appropriate for O. strigatus plan. Revisions of the plan may be done information you may have for recovery

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planning purposes (see FOR FURTHER scientific purposes, to enhance the area occupied by the species at the time INFORMATION CONTACT). propagation or survival of the species, it is listed upon a determination by the or for incidental take in connection with Secretary that such areas are essential Regulatory Provisions otherwise lawful activities. Requests for for the conservation of the species. Section 7(a) of the Act requires copies of the regulations regarding listed Section 3(3) of the Act defines Federal agencies to evaluate their species and inquiries about prohibitions conservation as to use and the use of all actions with respect to any species that and permits may be addressed to U.S. methods and procedures which are is proposed or listed as an endangered Fish and Wildlife Service, Pacific necessary to bring any endangered or threatened species and with respect Region, Ecological Services, Eastside species or threatened species to the to its critical habitat, if any is Federal Complex, 911 NE. 11th Avenue, point at which the measures provided designated. Regulations implementing Portland, OR 97232–4181 (telephone pursuant to the Act are no longer this interagency cooperation provision 503–231–6131; facsimile 503–231– necessary. of the Act are codified at 50 CFR part 6243). Section 4(a)(3) of the Act, as 402. Section 7(a)(4) of the Act requires It is our policy, as published in the amended, and implementing regulations Federal agencies to confer with the Federal Register on July 1, 1994 (59 FR (50 CFR 424.12), require that, to the Service on any action that is likely to 34272), to identify to the maximum maximum extent prudent and jeopardize the continued existence of a extent practicable at the time a species determinable, the Secretary will species proposed for listing or result in is listed, those activities that would or designate critical habitat at the time the destruction or adverse modification of would not constitute a violation of species is determined to be an proposed critical habitat. If a species is section 9 of the Act. The intent of this endangered or threatened species. Our listed subsequently, section 7(a)(2) of policy is to increase public awareness of regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(1)) state the Act requires Federal agencies to the effect of a proposed listing on that the designation of critical habitat is ensure that activities they authorize, proposed and ongoing activities within not prudent when one or both of the fund, or carry out are not likely to the range of species proposed for listing. following situations exist: jeopardize the continued existence of The following activities could (1) The species is threatened by taking the species or destroy or adversely potentially result in a violation of or other human activity, and modify its critical habitat. If a Federal section 9 of the Act; this list is not identification of critical habitat can be action may affect a listed species or its comprehensive: expected to increase the degree of threat critical habitat, the responsible Federal Activities that result in take of any of to the species, or agency must enter into consultation the five species in American Samoa by (2) Such designation of critical habitat with the Service. causing significant habitat modification would not be beneficial to the species. The Act and its implementing or degradation such that it causes actual Besides the potential for unpermitted regulations set forth a series of general injury by significantly impairing collection of the snails Eua zebrina and prohibitions and exceptions that apply essential behaviors. This may include, Ostodes strigatus by hobbyists, we do to all endangered wildlife. The but is not limited to, introduction of not know of any imminent threat of take prohibitions of section 9(a)(1) of the Act, nonnative species in American Samoa attributed to collection or vandalism codified at 50 CFR 17.21 for endangered that compete with or prey upon the under Factor B for these plant and wildlife, in part, make it illegal for any species or the unauthorized release in animal species. The available person subject to the jurisdiction of the the territory of biological control agents information does not indicate that United States to take (includes harass, that attack any life-stage of these identification and mapping of critical harm, pursue, hunt, shoot, wound, kill, species. habitat is likely to increase the threat of trap, capture, or collect; or to attempt Questions regarding whether specific collection for the snails or initiate any any of these) any such species within activities would constitute a violation of threat of collection or vandalism for any the United States or the territorial sea of section 9 of the Act should be directed of the other four species proposed for the United States or upon the high seas; to the Pacific Islands Fish and Wildlife listing in this rule. Therefore, in the to import into or export from the United Office (see FOR FURTHER INFORMATION absence of finding that the designation States any such species; to deliver, CONTACT). Requests for copies of the of critical habitat would increase threats receive, carry, transport, or ship in regulations concerning listed animals to a species, if there are any benefits to interstate or foreign commerce, by any and general inquiries regarding a critical habitat designation, a finding means whatsoever and in the course of prohibitions and permits may be that designation is prudent is warranted. commercial activity any such species; or addressed to the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Here, the potential benefits of sell or offer for sale in interstate or Service, Pacific Region, Ecological designation include: (1) Triggering foreign commerce any such species. In Services, Endangered Species Permits, consultation under section 7 of the Act, addition, prohibitions of section 9(a)(1) Eastside Federal Complex, 911 NE. 11th in new areas for actions in which there of the Act make it unlawful to possess, Avenue, Portland, OR 97232–4181 may be a Federal nexus where it would sell, deliver, carry, transport, or ship, by (telephone 503–231–6131; facsimile not otherwise occur because, for any means whatsoever, any such species 503–231–6243). example, it is unoccupied; (2) focusing taken in violation of the Act. Certain conservation activities on the most exceptions apply to agents of the Critical Habitat essential features and areas; (3) Service and State conservation agencies. Section 3(5)(A) of the Act defines providing educational benefits to State We may issue permits to carry out critical habitat as (i) the specific areas or county governments or private otherwise prohibited activities within the geographical area occupied entities; and (4) preventing people from involving endangered and threatened by the species, at the time it is listed causing inadvertent harm to these wildlife species under certain . . . on which are found those physical species. circumstances. Regulations governing or biological features (I) essential to the Because we have determined that the permits are codified at 50 CFR 17.22 for conservation of the species and (II) designation of critical habitat will not endangered species. With regard to which may require special management likely increase the degree of threat to the endangered wildlife, a permit may be considerations or protection; and (ii) species and may provide some measure issued for the following purposes: for specific areas outside the geographical of benefit, we determine that

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designation of critical habitat is prudent (3) Use clear language rather than List of Subjects in 50 CFR Part 17 for all five species proposed for listing jargon; in this rule. (4) Be divided into short sections and Endangered and threatened species, Our regulations (50 CFR 424.12(a)(2)) sentences; and Exports, Imports, Reporting and further state that critical habitat is not (5) Use lists and tables wherever recordkeeping requirements, determinable when one or both of the possible. Transportation. If you feel that we have not met these following situations exists: (1) Proposed Regulation Promulgation Information sufficient to perform requirements, send us comments by one required analysis of the impacts of the of the methods listed in ADDRESSES. To Accordingly, we propose to amend designation is lacking; or (2) the better help us revise the rule, your part 17, subchapter B of chapter I, title biological needs of the species are not comments should be as specific as 50 of the Code of Federal Regulations, sufficiently well known to permit possible. For example, you should tell as set forth below: identification of an area as critical us the numbers of the sections or habitat. paragraphs that are unclearly written, PART 17—[AMENDED] which sections or sentences are too Delineation of critical habitat long, the sections where you feel lists or ■ 1. The authority citation for part 17 requires, within the geographical area tables would be useful, etc. occupied by the species, identification continues to read as follows: of the physical or biological features National Environmental Policy Act (42 Authority: 16 U.S.C. 1361–1407; 1531– essential to the species’ conservation. U.S.C. 4321 et seq.) 1544; 4201–4245 unless otherwise noted. Information regarding these five species’ We have determined that ■ 2. Amend § 17.11(h), the List of life functions is complex, and complete environmental assessments and Endangered and Threatened Wildlife, as data are lacking for most of them. We environmental impact statements, as follows: require additional time to analyze the defined under the authority of the ■ best available scientific data in order to National Environmental Policy Act a. By adding an entry for: ‘‘Bat, Pacific identify specific areas appropriate for (NEPA; 42 U.S.C. 4321 et seq.), need not sheath-tailed (South Pacific critical habitat designation and to be prepared in connection with listing subspecies)’’ (Emballonura semicaudata prepare and process a proposed rule. a species as an endangered or semicaudata), in alphabetical order Accordingly, we find designation of threatened species under the under MAMMALS, to read as set forth critical habitat for these species in Endangered Species Act. We published below; and accordance with section 4(3)(A) of the a notice outlining our reasons for this ■ b. By adding an entry for ‘‘Ground- Act to be ‘‘not determinable’’ at this determination in the Federal Register dove, Friendly (American Samoa DPS)’’ time. on October 25, 1983 (48 FR 49244). (Gallicolumba stairi), and ‘‘Mao Required Determinations References Cited (honeyeater)’’ (Gymnomyza samoensis), in alphabetical order under BIRDS, to Clarity of the Rule A complete list of references cited in read as set forth below; and this rulemaking is available on the ■ We are required by Executive Orders Internet at http://www.regulations.gov c. By adding an entry for Eua zebrina 12866 and 12988 and by the and upon request from the Pacific and Ostodes strigatus, in alphabetical Presidential Memorandum of June 1, Islands Fish and Wildlife Office (see FOR order under SNAILS, to read as set forth 1998, to write all rules in plain FURTHER INFORMATION CONTACT). below: language. This means that each rule we publish must: Authors § 17.11 Endangered and threatened wildlife (1) Be logically organized; The primary authors of this proposed (2) Use the active voice to address rule are the staff members of the Pacific * * * * * readers directly; Islands Fish and Wildlife Office. (h) * * *

Species Vertebrate population Historic range where endangered or Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name threatened listed habitat rules

******* MAMMALS

******* Bat, Pacific sheath- Emballonura U.S.A. (AS), Fiji, Entire ...... E NA NA tailed (South Pacific semicaudata Tonga, Vanuatu. subspecies) (= semicaudata. Peapea vai, American Samoa; =Tagiti, Samoa; = Bekabeka, Fiji).

******* BIRDS

******* Ground-dove, Friendly Gallicolumba stairi ...... U.S.A. (AS) ...... American Samoa ...... E NA NA (= Tuaimeo) (Amer- ican Samoa DPS).

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Species Vertebrate population Historic range where endangered or Status When Critical Special Common name Scientific name threatened listed habitat rules

******* Mao (= Maomao) Gymnomyza U.S.A. (AS), Samoa .... Entire ...... E NA NA (honeyeater). samoensis.

******* SNAILS

******* Snail [no common Eua zebrina ...... U.S.A. (AS) ...... Entire ...... E NA NA name]. Snail [no common Ostodes strigatus ...... U.S.A. (AS) ...... Entire ...... E NA NA name].

* * * * * Dated: Sept. 16, 2015. James W. Kurth, Acting Director, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service. [FR Doc. 2015–25298 Filed 10–9–15; 8:45 am] BILLING CODE 4333–15–P

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