2 Bull. Hist. Chem. 19 (1996)
C. K. INGOLD AT UNIVERSITY COLLEGE LONDON: EDUCATOR AND DEPARTMENT HEAD
G rr l nn K. b rt , h Op n Un v r t
The outstanding scientific work of Christopher Kelk young scientist) in 1923 and becoming a Fellow of the Ingold (1893-1970) was the focus of considerable dis- Institute of Chemistry in that year. While at Imperial, cussion, celebration and evaluation during the year of Ingold worked with Jocelyn Field Thorpe (1872- the centenary of his birth. In addition to understanding 1940)(4); his research thrived and, in 1924, he was made his prolific and highly original scientific output as a an FRS at the very young age of thirty. pioneer in the application of physical methods to or- In that same year, he became Professor of Organic ganic chemistry and, indeed, as a founder of physical Chemistry at the University of Leeds, a position which organic chemistry, it is also important to examine other he held for six years. In later years, Ingold would say aspects of Ingold's career, in particular his role in shap- that Leeds was where(5): ing the institutional context in which he developed his I did my chief personal p d research, finding work(1). From 1930 until his death, Ingold was attached out by trial and error how to present organic chemis- to a major international centre, the Chemistry Depart- try to students more rationally and less empirically ment of University College London. From 1937 to than was formally [ ] the custom - as a science rather 1961, as its Head and Director of Laboratories, con- than an art. (We have done a lot more since on the tinuing the policies of his predecessor on chemical edu- integration of the branches of chemistry, but that is cation and the organisation of research, he developed a another story.) very distinctive chemistry department. It is that 'other' story with which this paper is concerned. Ingold arrived at University College London to take up its second Chair of Chemistry with his reputation E rl Y r t UC already firmly established. The outline of his educa- tion and career is well known(2). He began his tertiary The UCL chair which Ingold took up had recently been education at the Hartley University College in retitled from 'Organic Chemistry' to simply 'Chemis- Southampton where he took an external BSc of the try'. Apparently innocuous, the change is actually quite University of London in I913. This was followed by a significant for understanding the outlook of the depart- period at Imperial College London (Associate of the ment which had the famous physical chemist, Frederick Royal College of Science, 1914), three years working George Donnan (I870-1956) (6), as its head. From the under the War Office for the Cassell Cyanide Company, time of the reconstitution of the University of London and then three years as a research chemist for them in in the early years of the century, the UCL Department Glasgow. He qualified as an Associate of the Institute of Chemistry had had two chairs: one of General Chem- of Chemistry in I919 and also gained a University of istry and one of Organic Chemistry. It was known late London MSc in that year. Ingold was keen to resume in 1929 that the organic chair would fall vacant in the academic life and, in 1920, he returned to Imperial Col- autumn of 1930 and Donnan took the opportunity to lege as a demonstrator and subsequently a lecturer(3), restructure, proposing that both Chairs be retitled sim- gaining his DSc in I921 as well as the first-ever Meldola ply 'Chair of Chemistry' (7). Because they were techni- Medal of the Institute of Chemistry (for a promising cally chairs of the University of London, of which Uni- Bull. Hist. Chem. ( 996)
versity College London was one of the federated mem- divisions of chemical science. The new professor bers, such a change had to be approved by the Univer- will be bound to do his utmost to further the progress sity Senate as well as the College authorities. Speaking of organic chemistry. In order to give University as the representative of Imperial College, Ingold's former College the necessary freedom for progress and ad- collaborator, Thorpe, objected strongly, arguing that vance, both as regards teaching and research in all branches of chemistry, it is desirable that the two Pro- teaching and research in organic chemistry would be fessors be styled simply 'Professors of Chemistry'. undermined in the University just at a time when the subject It was an internationally fa- was of increasing importance mous department that to industry. Donnan was Ingold joined, built up par- straight with the relevant Uni- ticularly on the inorganic versity Subcommittee; its min- and physical side by Sir utes noted that he proposed the William Ramsay and by change even if it might mean a Dorman who had suc- temporary diminution in teach- ceeded Ramsay as Profes- ing and research in organic sor in 1913 and become chemistry(8): Head of Department in suc- cession to J. N. Collie in ... so that the new Professor 1928. Donnan had been may develop the application of physico-chemical concepts to largely responsible for re- Organic Chemistry. He establishing the department [Donnan] considered that after the First World War, twenty-five years hence wave and, perhaps as a conse- mechanics and the electronic quence, by 1930, he had ideas will displace what is now more or less ceased to be known as Organic Chemistry; an active researcher him- he [Donnan] states that no self, though he remained chemist exists at present who active as an editor and mas- has done such work but that one man may be capable of be- terly author and his repu- ginning to work on these lines. tation continued to attract students. He was at the Donnan himself had promoted height of his powers as an or- this view of chemistry for some ganizer of science, an inter- years and it would seem that he C. K. Ingold, DSc., 1921 national figure who enjoyed clearly had Ingold in mind (9). close relations with industry. The full Senate did not receive that part of the Ingold's first task at UCL was to build up an inde- Subcommittee's minutes, but the extract it did receive pendent research presence; only one student had moved clarified Donnan's departmental orientation more gen- with him from Leeds(11). Apparently Ingold made it erally. It was an orientation which Ingold was to share clear to Donnan almost immediately that he wished to and further(10). deal with the College administration on his own behalf University College has every intention of furthering rather than through the head of department(12). Ingold in every possible way the study of Organic Chemis- received a start-up grant of £1000 from the College, at a try, and ... it is not intended to replace the Chair by a time when the departmental grant was only about £3000 Chair of Physical Chemistry. The wish of the Col- p.a., on the grounds that the organic laboratories had lege is to bring organic chemistry, like chemistry, been rather allowed to run down(13). By 1932, an as- into a homogeneous science, which may, and it is sistant lecturer post in organic chemistry was authorized hoped will, advance on a broad front, making as much though, in a move that was to become characteristic of use as possible of the results, methods and theories his later administration as head, Ingold extracted a quart of physical and chemical science. In the past there of staffing from his pint of resource by appointing his has been too much subdivision and too much spe- two star researchers (C. L. Wilson and E. D. Hughes) to cialization, and there is now urgent need for bring- ing together in close relation of all these arbitrary senior demonstratorships instead, arguing that there was
La. 4 ll. t. Ch . (I 6
v r r tr t d f ld t th t , nd t ld b b tt r tr f r r h v t r h br ht th r n f nd t t f r th r ht p r n t f ll th l t r h p( 4 . It n (22 . th h rdl rpr n th t In ld f l n hr h t In ld h d h p, h tr h d th t bl h n p r t d nt t t Un v r t C ll h h t nt rn l r nt n th C ll , n r n fr nd n nd b th ddl 0 , t d nt r n z d £ ,800 t £ 2 , 00(2 , l n h d f ll th r t v r d f n t d t th d p rt nt( . At th d p rt nt . Alth h b I 60 6 ph b tt r t , t l r b r d h v n b n r f nd d v r ll n t h h h r xt rn l r nt . r bl h r n , p n nd t ll pp rt v d Int r t n l , d p t th f t th t In ld ppl d f rl p rt nt( 6 . bl t n fl d t d l . In ld, b t d l f r f nd t ICI, th Ch l S t , th l ntr t th nn n, n xtr l t v r S t , th Un v r t f nd n nd, n l t r r , t r h r n nd v d l, nd n t l n d n th th p rt nt f S nt f nd Ind tr l r h, nd tr n th nt t . In t r f r r h xt rn l r nt n n t p rt l rl h h f r th t l , In ld t d nt r d r r p th t , d p rt nt(24 . In tr nt t n th n f f v r l f th t l d p rt l r pr j t f d n b d n £ 800 r nt r v d f r n nfr r d n n v r ll l t rd h h In ld r n , tr nt n 8, h l th v l nt f r n r d ntr t th nn n laissez-faire t l ( . 60 6 £24. f r p tr t r. Wh l n At th t , In ld pl nn d h r r h l pr v nt n th b n f f nd n n 8, th l n t r tr t p n , dv n n r v r nt f r xt rn ll f nd d t ff n 60 6 n br d fr nt. v r, In ld p r n l t l f t v r l ttl d ff r nt fr th t n 6 h n th p rv r pp r ntl l r t nn n ( 8 . d p rt nt h d nj d ICI f nd n nd r nn n. h A d n f r t h h tr n th p r d, p r d r d b n l t n n t d p rtl nn n n pl h d f nd r r, p ll b h n n h tr t lf t b r d p n fr I p r l Ch l Ind tr nd fr th G v d nt n xp n v n tr nt , h l p h fr v rn nt, nd h b f r th l r r f th t r p rn nt f r xp n n n t d nt n b r , th n t UC f r n r r r h r r n rn d. t n r t f nd n , l ff t d t . hr h t th nn n ppr h d r t r nt, th d p rt nt n 0 , th d p rt nt xp r n d nt n l f n n l t r d p r d f n t b l t . C n d r bl f nd n h h d ff lt , d d th C ll h l (2 . th d p rt nt h d nj d fr th ICI r h C n Alth h n t n v d tt p r n, n dd l t n br pt nd n 0 n 6 h n ICI t n t th tt n h h h rv d ex officio, l d d n t UC l b r t r ( . S h n In ld In ld t r t p rt p t n th d n b d f p rt nt nd r t r f th b n nd f nd n tt n th C ll (26 nd n r t r b pr f n t r l n n O t b r th Un v r t . S h In ld d n tr t v t l , , h t v r d p rt nt n h r d d r th t ll r h ld d fr f n n l n rn . t n (20 . A n d p rt nt b r p t t, th n pl t rn d p(2 . In ld ntr t n d n tr t n, An Overview of Ingold's Headship t n t j r d n h lf, th h E. . h ( 06 6 (28 d d n f th r t n t . Sn p h t f th d p rt nt t ff n , f nd n , t d nt A n p r n th f r t nd f n l r f In ld n b r nd n b r f p bl t n t th b nn n h d h p nd n d r n th r th h v d n t ff nd nd f th p r d 8 t 60 6I pr v d n n nd f nd n , th nt n t n t d nt n b r (2 , v rv f th n t t t n l p t f In ld b th nd r r d t nd p t r d t , r r bl . In h d h p. h n b r f d t ff n r d r 8, t d nt rn d S , h n I h. . r dl nd t d l fr f ft n t t nt v n f ll t rd d. h f r f r 60 6 r 8 nd , r b r , n l d n f v pr f r nd f v r d r , pl p t v l . h nt n t n th n b r f p bl f rt n h n r r b r f t ff n th l tt r t n b d p rt nt b r l tr n . h d n(2 . rth r r , th d t ff r h p rt nt, h l , p bl h d 4 p p r n 8, b tt r pp rt d b t hn l t ff n 60 6 , th f h h r b In ld. In I 60 6I th d p r nt th rd f th t ff n b d t d v t d t th l tt r n th t p bl h d 00 p p r , th b In ld( 0 . A r d r. h z f th t bl h nt d n t d t l d n p t n f th nt rv n n p r d h , h pr v d f ll nt, p rt l rl f th r r h v r, th t th pp r nt nt n t t ll j r pl nt, UC h r t r z d b t d h v nt b f th xtr d r pt n d ll. t. Ch . ( 6
by the war which began only two years after Ingold as- bus did not allow scope for the emergence of local ap- sumed the headship. proaches. In keeping with Donnan's view of the pri- The UCL chemistry department continued to oper- mary importance of physical chemistry, the overall thrust ate throughout the war, but it was evacuated in two parts of the UCL campaign was to emphasize the importance to Wales causing numerous administrative difficulties, of physics for the student of chemistry. After two years not least in liaising with the host institutions. The BSc of debate, the Colleges were finally permitted in 1928 General Degree students went to Bangor while the BSc to set for a pilot four-year period two out of the six ex- Special Degree students and the post-graduates went to amination papers themselves, one in physical and one Aberystwyth, where Ingold also went. Both parts had in organic chemistry(34). In 1931, six years after UCL's skeletal staffing because several academics undertook initial suggestion that all practical examinations be Col- war work elsewhere. A hope of moving back to London lege-based, it was finally agreed that this could be per- after the first year was thwarted when the College was mitted in the case of organic chemistry(35). bombed, the department sustaining serious damage. In October 1932, Donnan, Ingold and 0. L. Thus, after the war, Ingold faced the major task of re- Brady(36) became members of a subcommittee of the building the department physically, as well as replacing University's Board of Chemical Studies to consider the a number of well-established staff who, having de- revision of the BSc. It reported a year later that the parted for war work, found other employment after- London Special BSc, which was a two-year degree, af- wards. Although it arose out of adversity, and may not ter an initial foundation year known as the Intermediate have been seen as such at the time, this in fact gave BSc year for which an increasing number of school fi- Ingold an opportunity to develop his own staff team, nal examinations gave exemption anyway, was far too since a number of Donnan's senior people were among overloaded to cover both the fundamentals of chemis- those who left(3I). To rebuild the staffing complement try and contemporary developments. Students often rapidly, Ingold recruited heavily from students of his concentrated on the latter at the expense of the class of own research school, sometimes in a rather informal their degree. The proposal was that the Intermediate manner(32). Of seventy new members of the teaching BSc year be dropped from the degree to allow the teach- staff who joined the department during Ingold's headship ing for the Special BSc degree to be lengthened to three from 1937 to 1961, forty-eight (68%) were former stu- years(37). This change was rejected by the Academic dents of the department and thirty of those had done Council of Senate to which the Board of Chemical Stud- both their BSc and their PhD there. Even discounting ies reported (38). Five years later in March 1939 (such thirty-two (22 UCL PhDs) of the seventy who were on was the speed with which the Colleges reached agree- the staff for only a single year as temporary assistant ment), some modest changes in the distribution of pa- lecturers, internal recruitment was a marked feature of pers among the subjects were agreed(39). Ingold im- the department under Ingold's headship(33). mediately used the changes as an argument to win some funding for a modest expansion of the UCL chemistry In ld l - f r f th nd n S buildings(40), but implementation was soon suspended owing to the war(41). During his tenure as Head, except for distancing him- This suspension gave an opportunity for those who self from industry, Ingold to a large extent carried on favoured the change to three years to reopen the issue, Donnan's policies. In particular, Ingold brought to frui- and it was hotly debated during the war; Ingold was ac- tion the reform of the London BSc in Chemistry long tive in the debate throughout. His influence on the new advocated by Donnan and he also worked on the expan- degree and the continuity with Donnan's emphasis is sion of the Department in both the undergraduate and clear. Explaining the new rationale, Ingold said(42): the postgraduate areas. With regard to the BSc, the UCL Department had A revolution has occurred in chemistry in my life- been from the 1920s in almost constant negotiation with time; and it is continuing and cannot be resisted. the University of London. Under the regulations in force When I began, chemistry was almost wholly a mass when Ingold took over, the syllabus and most examina- of empirical observation with a little regularity, but without either reason or coherence.... Today, how- tions were t by the University, while the teaching was ever, the outlook is quite changed. The whole of done in the federated schools and colleges. UCL sought chemistry is bound together and rationalised by physi- greater autonomy at the College level. Donnan had cal principles;...Thus the hit-or-miss empiricism is pressed for the Colleges to set their own papers for the being limited, and a scientific method built by which degree examination arguing that the University sylla- 6 Bull. Hist. Chem. 19 (1996)
results can he achieved more quickly and with less ics, statistical mechanics, thermodynamics, the theory wasted effort than before. of spectra, of solutions and of reactions. Actually the representation of quantum mechanics needs im- It is part of this development that the barriers between provement, but the Department is rather well pro- the conventional divisions of chemistry are breaking vided in all the other subjects at the present time. down to the point at which while many problems can- The branches of technique at present practised in- not be assigned to one division only, there are hardly clude infra-red, Raman and ultraviolet spectroscopy any problems assignable to one division which can- and electron and X-ray interferometry. not be assisted by the ideas associated with another. The regulations that were to stay in force until after his So at the very start of his headship, Ingold stated his retirement were put in place. The BSc Special Degree vision of the Department as an intellectual unity, but became a three-year course with students being required also as a wide-ranging collection not only of knowledge, to take four course-years worth of ancillary subjects but of techniques on which all individuals should be which had to include at least one year of mathematics able to draw (48). And the recruiting that Ingold did was and two years of physics(43). Thus physics and math- to continue to follow this pattern of balancing fields with ematics became central. The fourth course-year could techniques in order to make sure that new developments be either botany or geology. To Ingold, the aim of the in chemistry were available to the research effort as well BSc was to prepare students to undertake research, pref- as to spread the expertise for teaching. He also tended erably his own students in his own department(44). A to seek out specific individuals, as was the practice at number of chemists expressed considerable scepticism the time. about the value of the new degree for training chemists For example, in 1945, he wanted to add an X-ray for industry. Indeed, Ingold saw the chemistry degree crystallographer to the staff and invited G. A Jeffrey to as a 'foundation' for future study and resisted collabo- consider the post. Although Jeffrey, feeling .that Ingold ration with either Chemical Engineering or Biochemis- wanted him to provide a service rather than work on the try at the undergraduate level(45). development of X-ray crystallography(49), preferred to take an appointment at Leeds, he expressed himself will- The Unity of Chemistry ing to assist in the post-war re-establishment of X-ray work at UCL(50). Ingold was very consistent in developing the educational principles outlined above. They applied to research as On the other hand, if you intend to wait until crystal- well as to undergraduate teaching and their implemen- lographers are a little more plentiful and there are tation can be seen in his staffing policy. On the eve of problems such as the one you mentioned which you would particularly like tackled in relation to your own taking up the headship, he made this policy very clear work, then I am quite free, in fact encouraged, to when making the case for his choice of Donnan's suc- consider some form of cooperation between us. cessor(46). Ingold argued that the Chemistry Depart- ment should be run as a whole, not in three separate Shortly afterwards, in a change of tack, instead of branches of inorganic, organic and physical chemistry. seeking someone in the early stages of an academic ca- Most members of the department were specialists, but reer, Ingold recruited an established scholar who would their specialisms crossed the three branches and 'there have independent research interests but might be ex- is frequent transgression of boundaries' . The incumbent pected to contribute to the training of a new pool of ex- would be expected to give a considerable number of lec- pertise. In 1947, Kathleen Lonsdale, already an FRS, tures to post-graduate students, to participate in semi- joined the Department as Reader in Crystallography. nars, give private information and advice to indepen- Ingold very much admired her early work on the struc- dent research workers and expert assistance to col- ture of hexamethylbenzene and hexachlorobenzene leagues. Therefore it was necessary to have a spread of which was done while they were both at Leeds. That expertise in the department, both in terms of fields and seemingly anomalous appointment, anomalous because in terms of techniques. Despite his view of the unity of she was a physicist not a chemical crystallographer, is the three branches, an inorganic chemist with a theo- explained by Ingold's policy of recruiting to have a bal- retical emphasis was sought, because organic chemists ance of expertise to draw on, including for his own re- currently there, he argued, were actually very physical search(5I). in their outlook(47). It is considered that a general chemical research in- The most important branches of theory which require stitute, having the balance and coherence at which to be represented in this way are quantum mechan- the Department of Chemistry aims, should carry a ll. t. Ch . ( 6
tr n r t ll r ph h l,... h t bl h d r th r lt r r l r d, nd th t d nt l ttl r h t v t [h r ] r h t ll n t , nd r th n p r f h nd . r t pl d ld th lv b nr h d b , n f th nt r f th th d f r n z n r r h n b t h h ht b xp t d t d v l p n tr n j t ( . . h th r p : t r l f lt th t t d r t ll r ph t n. n t pr v d th b t tr n n f r t d nt . h [h r ] h r r h t d nt n p l, t n rth r r , t xp t d th t r t ll r ph n , th ht p n pr bl f r b r t n, h th t nt pl t d, ld l d v l p f t ff, h h p r n ll t t th n b rd n t h n n t, d r t d t th pr d t n f tr n d f rr n t th p rt f h t d nt r r h r t ll r ph r , f r h h th d nd n d r h h d nd n d r bl xp r n ( . . th d bl , h l t tr n n f l t r n d t ( 2 . v l p nt f n t hn , r th r d t n f d t , t r, h n n ld h l ( n t bl h d nd n b d d n th r r t n r f d l dv nd p rv n. h r l t r ll n nd, x pt th t n v t v n r n h t, r r t d b t th f xh t n, t th r , h h h h v d p rt nt r f r t b t r r h n n r n d nd n th t nd tr n th f th t ff th t t h tr nd t r f r th t h n f th bj t, f lt nt l, n t nl t n r th r t f r d d r t h h h d b n n ll d t th t f th r h t d nt t t ff, b t r th r t pr v d f r n r f r f th nd n S ( 4 ,In ld h lf n n r n r r h t d nt h h pr p rt n t l t p r th h r n n r n r t n ll r th n th n r f t ff r nd d. h n , b n l th r n r t n h A n th p f r t f r xp n n r : th n ( . An th r tr t f r br n n n t hn l nt r l b r d b f r th r, f l t f r b t th d p rt nt t nd b r f t ff t d t n f v nd ht n l t r nd pr t l r , p rt nt l h r t l rn th . r x pl , pl f l t f r r r h tr n n f r t nt r p t Cl ff rd nt n nt t C l b n I 48 t l rn r d . In dd t n, h ll d f r th n t t t n f th rd b t th l t t d v l p nt n p tr p ( 6 . h r n h tr , r n th t d p t th d n In ld, h v r, v ll p t p r t th t f th f ll n f th l t pr f r l v n , th r n nt r t v n h n th d v r d fr th r t ll n th r t n n th t ff [th h, n h ( . l t r t nt r t n th r lf r t h r t r t p f In ld d n tr t v r nt, p r n l l v l. In 6, f r x pl , h n f h r r t bl h d, h ld t f r th r ht rn d b t th f n n l r t n f j n p r n t pp r nd n t n r l pp nt th r t r t ff th n f l nd h f r d th r l t n( ]. r th p nt f v f t ff n , th rd n t t t n l h r r t d lt th r. Q t t bl h d h r n d d, h r d, t v pr p r n US pr d nt , In ld rr n d th S r S dn l d t r r h b h f th t f th h d, rr tt, r t r f Albr ht W l n nd f r r t l t %, t n p th d n tr t n, pl b r f th UC t ff n nn n t , f r r nt n nt ll nd xt rn l r l , th t r r h t f £400 p r r v r thr r t b d d r t l v r l z d. In dd t n, f v r f ll t t ppl nt th l r f rt n t ff( 8 . t ff n th r r d , d t f nd n f r t d nt In ld l xp nd d h d t n l tl n d n tr t r h p nd th n nt v f nt rn l pr r p n t r t b th C ll t h p rt t n , pl t lv xtr n n d t ff r r r d nt rl n 44 f r p t r r n tr t n pl n . In t t d rn t hn l d nd (62 . ntr t t th d t ff rt f th r b l r d h d , In ld b tt d t nt p t t nt n th rth r r , lth h d v r nt v h v b n ` t r d f th Ch tr p rt nt ( . h ld th th r l t n f d n t nd r tt n th t, b f r th r, th ld nl t b t tr , th v f th Ch tr p rt nt t b 0% f th r n S Sp l n t d r r h, h t r rd d th t, n t nl f r th f t t d nt , h ll d f r n xp n n n t d nt , t ff nd b t l f r th d f th ntr , t t nt n nd v n tr n th n, t nn x n th h l d t n(60 . h r nt nt n d n nd tr , bj t nl t th pr n pl th t t n r p rt nt t t nt f d t n l pr n pl r rd r t ff h ld n rn th lv nl th th tr t r h tr n n (6 : f r r h, th t t b n pr r l th b n f th p rt nt r bl ld t d nt . ... t h n v r b n th pr t n th p rt l r Ch tr p rt nt t f t r pr d d r r dl , th pl n r f lf ll d. h th rd h r r h ( h r l r n b r f t d nt ntr b t f n ll t bl h d n th C ll t t f r th t n l pr bl , n h h th d r t nd rd, 8 Bull. Hist. Chem. 19 (1996)
1948-53 quinqucnnium as part of a balanced expansion can provide'. Ingold retired formally from his Chair of of the chemistry department to cope with the govern- Chemistry and Directorship of the Laboratories in the ment-instigated lengthening of the curriculum and the summer of 1961, becoming Professor Emeritus but he addition of specialist courses with a view to greater re- retained a role as a special lecturer 'to keep the chair search productivity and a higher output of trained sci- warm for a successor' as he put it(68). entific personnel. It was noted as part of the case that After retirement, Ingold continued to expound his all other major departments in the country had three educational philosophy as an advisor to new universi- chairs, so UCL had in fact been behind. (Of course, in ties abroad and in Britain(69). In the early years of his most departments, the three chairs would have been as- retirement, on the occasion of his visiting the about to signed to the three different branches and been run al- be independent University of Ibadan in Nigeria, he de- most as separate fiefdoms.) Ingold nominated to the livered a lecture called 'The Education of a Scien- post his long-time collaborator who then held a Chair at tist'(70). Citing a world transforming scientific revo- Bangor, E. D. Hughes, to cover organic chemistry so lution over the preceding twenty-five years, he argued that Ingold could be free to concentrate on physical that there were consequences for scientific education. chemistry. Such was the coverage of theoretical chem- Some scientific understanding would be necessary for istry which the chair had been pencilled in to secure(63). all and thus reform would have to start in the schools Thinking that he would be retiring in I958, Ingold where science and the study of modern languages should took steps early in 1957 to create more time for re- be fundamental. Thus schools would have to be less search by easing himself away from some of the admin- specialized. And he also argued for a year between istrative burdens of the headship, transferring them to school and university, a sort of foundation university Hughes(64), and thus recognizing formally a situation year, where students could be weaned from exam coach- that existed de facto(65). Ingold was still very much in ing to truly independent study. charge, however, and carried on with certain aspects of At university level, Ingold argued for what he administrative work. Early in 1958, he fronted a case called, in a phrase that will find resonance in the current for a completely new chemistry building(66), that which university climate, 'live' science teaching, that would was eventually opened in 1970 as the Christopher Ingold be done by active research workers who could convey Laboratories. Again the context was one of desired ex- the excitement and wonder of science's continual un- pansion. Accommodation limits, he argued, meant that folding and dynamic development. The best research- a maximum of 144 undergraduate chemistry special stu- ers were the best teachers, he declared. Furthermore, a dents plus 96 ancillary students and 122 research work- student had to have technique, which meant studying ers could be accommodated in their very outdated build- with a master for several years of research under per- ing which was unsuitable for running modern equipment sonal guidance. To be really effective, the mature sci- in an instrument- dependent science. In the heady days entist had to work as part of a group pooling expertise of science expansion, he wanted to increase the under- as no one could expect to master individually an ad- graduate numbers to 240 specials with 375 ancillaries equately wide field given the complexities of modern and a research complement of 200 (150 of whom would science. It was a case of cross-fertilization. be postgraduates). Although, in this talk he argued that educational Here again was an opportunity for a re-statement changes were necessary, the educational views he es- of educational principles, which had remained remark- poused in terms of departmental organization showed a ably constant. The UCL system, which had been in place remarkable continuity with those he articulated at the since Donnan's time, was that all researchers attended very start of his headship. The UCL chemistry depart- the advanced lectures given by senior colleagues, plus ment in Ingold's period was unique in Britain in being the colloquia given by students and visitors at various organized around the concept of the unity of chemis- stages of research. There were several concurrent se- try(71). And the reason for its uniqueness is perhaps ries. (Ingold's pointed and precise interventions at col- best understood through some advice which Ingold gave loquia were keenly anticipated by students, who both to the then fledgling University of East Anglia in feared and admired them(67),) There was, he argued, 1962(72). research going on in all the main areas of chemistry and As a purely personal opinion on this subject, I would this policy of mutual support encouraged much cross- suggest that, while the Departments of Mathematics, fertilization. 'Massively organized research teams are Physics and Chemistry are young, each should be avoided as lacking educative features which diversity built up with a sense of unity by and around one pro- ll. t. Ch . 19 ( 6
l r, h h ld b n p th t t rd nd 2. C. W. Sh pp , "Chr t ph r K l In ld, 8 0," nt r t d n th h l f h pr f d bj t, v n Biogr. Mem. Fellows R. Soc. 1972, 18, 4 4 . f h h lf r n nl n n rn r f t. [ ] . . . h rp t Mr. G , S pt b r 24, . h n A th d p rt nt nd t ff r nl r d, t ll t l rr n nt th t In ld ld b v n thr r l b n r t br n nt f th r l v fr C ll, . . h rp t th t r, nd nd p rh p th rd pr f r: b t th h ld O t b r , . [ r f r . . h rp , C rr p n n t b d n nt l th r n l pr f r f l th n d d n , I p r l C ll nd n Ar h v , f ll f l t t r nd h n t d n , KC ]. In ld nth xt nd d t xpr n th b p rt nt t lf h ld r n n l nd ll n n t pt £ 00 (2 % t n nn l l r n t d, th n f t pr f r d n t d th ( . . r t Mr. G , S pt b r 2 , . [ r f d n tr t v h d. h r n f r th r r r, C rr p nd n , 2 2, I p r l C l nd t n r , ( th t th f r th fr nt r , th l nd n Ar h v , KC 6]. r fr tf ll nd n ll n th v l bl 4. G. A. K n nd . . n t d, "S r l n ld h rp , r r n p , p nt, nd n b d 8 2 40," J. Chem. Soc., 1941, 444 464 C. K. In ld, nd (b th t, v n h d, th f r th fr n l n ld h rp 8 2 ," Obit. Not. Fellows t r , th tr n r nd r nt f ll ff t v . S ., 4 , , 4 . th ll b r t v p r t th t n b d v l p d. . Q t d n . C. Ch ll n r, "S h l f Ch tr n Gr t r t n nd Ir l nd I h Ch tr p rt W th h tr l t n h n br dth nd d pth f n nt f th Un v r t f d ," IC, , , 6 t f nd r t nd n nd tr n p r n l t , In ld , n p. 66. n h h d. 6. . A. r th, " r d r G r nn n, 8 0 6," Biogr. Mem. Fellows R. Soc., 1957, 3, 2 . ACK OW E GME S . Un v r t C ll nd n, M n t f th r f r l rd, v b r 26, 2 , t 8 nd 28 n r I ld l t th n th Ch tr p rt nt f Un 0, t 06 Un v r t C ll nd n rd v r t C ll nd n f r t t n nd p t n Off . nd p ll th rr nt nd p t b r h h v 8. Un v r t f nd n, p rt f M t n f th A b n n r th th r t n r nt n nt rv d C n l f S n t S b tt n S n , b nd r rr p nd n t l n th. I l r t f l t r r 24, 0 n Un v r t f nd n,A d C n th th r t f th Un v r t f E t An l nd th l f S n t M n t , M r h , 0 Un v r t f n d n Ar h v , AC 0. Un v r t f nd n br r f r p r n t t . C. W. Sh pp , f. 2, , nt n r r th t fr t r l n th r p n . In p rt l r, I h ld nn n ld h v pr f rr d n th r th n l t xpr ppr t n t Un v r t C ll In ld, b t th d ff lt t r n l th nn n nd n f r th r p r t n n n r rd v l p r n p f t n. bl t nd th r p r n t t fr th . 0. Un v r t f nd n, p rt f M t n f th A d C n l f S n t S b tt n S n , 2 E E E CES A O ES 0, br r 24, 0 n S n t M n t , 2 0, M r h 26, 0 Un v r t f nd n Ar h v , S 2 2 46. . h p p r h t br d d v r n f n h h . r f r . . Sh n [UC : S 4 ], x h pp r d n h r t h rn l f r th t r f S Un v r t , r n l C n t n, Apr l , 6, r n , 6, 2 , 6 82. I r t f l t th r t h S p rt d nv r t n n h h C. . W l n nd t d t f r th t r f S n f r p r n t r pr nt. th t nl h h d d th v . It t th t th t E rl r v r n r pr nt d t th l S t f É. . h j n d In ld fr W l . Ch tr , Ann l Ch l C n r , t r l Gr p 2. C. K. In ld t r v t, O t b r 22, Un v r t S p l "C. K. In ld ( 8 0 : A p t f C ll nd n rd Off , Ch tr M ll f W r ," Un v r t f S th pt n, Apr l 6, n l , l 6. nd t th A r n Ch l S t , t n l . UC n n S r t r t . G. nn n, b r 2, M t n , t r l v n S p , "Chr t ph r 0 Un v r t C ll nd n rd Off , Ch K. In ld, M t r nd M nd r n f h l Or n tr App nt nt , l 4 4. ( h f r h v Ch tr ," Ch , A t 24, . I l rn d r t b n r l b r n n pl t ld b d ff lt t d l fr p rt p nt n th p ll fr n l d fr t n th n b t th t t f th l b r p rt p nt n th l S t f Ch tr , r n t r d r n C ll f n l r nd b n n br f v n, "In ld C nt n r S p ," h h t n r . UC S r t r t C K. In ld, b r 2, h ld n th Chr t ph r In ld b r t r f Un v r 0 ibid. t C ll nd n n th d t f th nt n r f In ld b rth, O t b r 28, .
0 Bull. Hist. Chem. (1996) -
14. C. K. Ingold to the Provost [Allen Mawer], September held by University College London, Chemistry Depart- 27, 1932; University College London Records Office, ment. Data compiled by Janet Garrod at the Open Uni- Chemistry Appointments Files, File 31. versity for Gerrylynn K. Roberts, "Chemists 15. Dr. D. W. Gillings, formerly of ICI Central Research Prosopography Project." There were also numerous Instruments Laboratory [UCL: BSc 1936, PhD 1938], unrecorded very short-term visitors. Interview, March 30, 1993; Dr. T. P. Nevell, formerly 23. Compiled from University College London Records of UMIST [UCL: BSc 1936, PhD 1939, DSc London Office; University College London, Minutes of the 1967] and Mrs. V. Nevell, formerly a school Head of College Committee, Appendices, 1937-38. For 1960- Science [UCL: BSc 1938], Interview, April 17, 1993. 61, see University College London, Minutes of the Stand- 16. For example, Dr. Catherine [Tideman] Le Fevre, for- ing Committee of Professorial Board on Departmental merly of the University of Sydney [UCL: BSc 1931, MSc Grants, May 25, 1960 and April 27, 1961. As an indi- 1952, DSc], private communication, July 21, 1994. cator of relative monetary values over theperiod, pro- 17. Dr. D. W. Gillings, Interview, Ref.15. Dr. J. H. S. Green, fessorial salaries roughly trebled during these 31 years. formerly of the National Chemical Laboratory [UCL: 24. Kathleen Lonsdale, from 1947, and Ronald Nyholm, BSc 1950, PhD 1953], Interview, June 7,1993. from 1955, had a marked effect on grant income as they 18. Dr. G. S. Hartley, formerly Director of Research at Pest were both active in applying for external grants to sup- Control Ltd (Fison's) [UCL: BSc 1927, DSc 1937], Pri- port students and post-doctoral researchers as well as vate Communications, April l,1993 and September 26, for the expensive equipment required by their respec- 1994. A Dorman researcher from 1927 to 1932, Hartley tive researches. See University College London Records feels in retrospect that he was left very much to his own Office, Miscellaneous Grants Files, passim. devices and would have appreciated more active super- 25. University College London Records Office, University vision. Dr. J. L. Moilliet, formerly of ICI Dyestuffs Di- College London, Minutes of the Standing Committee of vision [UCL: PhD 1932], Interview, April 22, 1993, felt Professorial Board on Departmental Grants, passim. For the same. Ingold's similar style was noted by students a specific example, see C. K. Ingold to Provost, Febru- from the 1940s and 1950s; Prof. Alwyn Davies of UCL ary 11, 1955; University College London Records Of- [UCL: BSc 1946, PhD 1949, DSc], Interview, 1990; fice, Chemistry Miscellaneous Files, Chemistry Depart- Prof. D. J. Millen of UCL [UCL: BSc 1943, PhD 1947] mental Grant, File 31/3/37. and Prof. J. H. Ridd of UCL [UCL: BSc 1948, PhD 26. 1934-61, Academic Staff Appointments and Promotions 1951], Interviews, May 18, 1993; Dr. D. Davenport of Committee; 1934-37, Grants and Loans Committee; Purdue University [UCL: BSc 1947, PhD 1950], " 1937-40, College Committee; 1943-59, Planning and Gradus ad Parnassus: The Faraday Society Discussions Building Committee; 1950-60, Finance Committee; of 1923, 1937 and 1941," ACS National Meeting, Ref. 1952-61, Departmental Grants Committee; 1943-50 and 1, August 24, 1993. This should of course not be taken 1952-61, Technicians Committee. University College to imply that Ingold was not aware of students' work. London Records Office, Staff Record Card for Sir Chris- See J. H. Ridd, "Sir Christopher Ingold," J. Chemical & topher Kelk Ingold. Physical Society (UCL), 1973, 4, No. 2, 15. Certainly 27. Prof. D. 3. Millen, Ref .18. from the 1940s, É. D. Hughes acted in some instances 28. C. K. Ingold, "Edward David Hughes 1906-1963," Bio- as a kind of "gatekeeper" for Ingold as, in effect, did gr. Mem. Fellows R. Soc . 1964, 10, 147-182. Ingold's wife, Édith Hilda Ingold; Prof. H. J. Shine, In- 29. BScs compiled from Pass Lists published annually by terview, August 24, 1993; Dr. J. H. S. Green, Ref.17; the University of London, and PhDs from annual issues Prof. B. Challis formerly of The Open University [UCL: of University of London, List of Higher Degrees BSc 1957, PhD 1961], Interview, May 24, 1993. Awarded. The BSc figures include only those taking 19. R. E. Slade, Proposals Re University College, March the Special Degree, not the General Degree. Ignoring 11, 1936, ICI Millbank Archives, Box 96, ICHO/RES/ three aberrant years during the change-over in London 0075. See Gerrylynn K. Roberts, "Dealing with Issues regulations, the UC department's graduates amounted at the Academic-Industrial Interface in Interwar Britain: to roughly 18% of the total number of Special Chemis- University College London and Imperial Chemical In- try BScs of the University of London, with the later 1930s dustries," Science and Public Policy, 1997, 24, forth- and later 1950s having figures on the higher side of the coming. average. The PhD figures fluctuated rather more from 20. University College London, Minutes of the College the average of 17%, with generally larger numbers over- Committee, June 1, 1937; University College London all from the 1950s onwards; "Chemists Prosopography Records Office. Project," Ref. 22). 21. Compiled from University College London, College 30. Compiled from University College London, Calendar Calendar, 1937 and 1960. or Annual Report, depending on the year. Ingold pre- 22. During the period of Ingold's headship, 191 'registered' ferred to publish papers in blocks which tackled a prob- research visitors came for various periods; Record Cards lem from a number of different angles. See C. K. Ingold to R. E. Slade, October 6, 1941; lCI Millbank Archives, Bull. Hist, Chem. 19 (1996)
Box 447, ICHO/CFD/4472(ii); and "Report on Grant for fessor B. E. C. Banks of UCL Department of Physiol- Apparatus and Chemicals Session 1942-43," C. K. ogy [UCL: MSc(Biochem) 1956, PhD 1959], Interview, Ingold to R. E. Slade, September 13, 1943; ICI Millbank June 14, 1993. Archives, Box 447, ICHO/CFD/4472(iii). This caused 46. The College's View on the New Chair, late 1936- early occasional frustration among research students who 1937, University College London Records Office, Chem- might have a considerable wait before seeing their work istry Miscellaneous Files, File 31/3/5. in print; Ridd, Interview, Ref. 18. This policy also al- 47. University College London Records Office, Chemistry lowed Ingold to minimise and dodge criticism by pub- Miscellaneous Files, File 31/3/5. As regards quantum lishing fairly comprehensively on topics. mechanics, Ingold expressed disappointment that Ed- 31. C, F. Goodeve, G. S. Hartley, R. J. Le Fevre, O, J. Walker, ward Teller had left after only a short spell in the depart- and C. L. Wilson all went elsewhere. Of these, Wilson ment as a refugee in the 1930s. See Édward Teller, "A was the only "Ingold" appointment. Some had already Word of Thanks," J. Chemical and Physical Society been looking for other posts before the war. (UCL), 6, 4, No. 3, 16. 32. R. J. Gillespie of MacMaster University [UCL: BSc 48. In constructing his ICI-funded research programme, 1944, PhD 1949], "One Hundred Years of Superacid Donnan had similarly sought to build a team of varied Chemistry," ACS, National Meeting, Ref. l, August 25, expertise across fields and techniques which could be 1993 and RSC Perkin Division, "Ingold Centenary Sym- shared. Among the principal researchers were experts posium," Ref. l, October 28, 1993; Ridd, Interview, in X-ray crystallography, electron diffraction, the reac- Ref.18. tions of active nitrogen, high energy discharges, colloids 33. J. H. Ridd, "Sir Christopher Ingold," Ref.18 and "Chem- and surface phenomena. A current member of staff's ists Prosopography Project," Ref. 22. spectroscopic expertise was also cited. "Proposed 34. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- Organisation of Scientific Work at University College cal Studies, March 25, May 6, June 8, 1926; January 27 Chemical Department by Members of the Research Staff and June 8, 1928. University of London Archive, AC 8/ at Imperial Chemical Industries, October 1928, ICI 11/l/2. Millbank Archives, Box 321, ICHO/CFD/0395. 35. The UC initiative is recorded in University of London, 49. Professor G. A. Jeffrey of the University of Pittsburgh, Minutes of the Minutes of the Academic Council of Sen- Private Communication, August 13, 1993. Jeffrey was ate, October 13, 1924. University of London Archive, at the start of his career. He had done post-graduate AC 1/1/25. For the final decision, see University of work in the late 1930s and worked during the war for London, Minutes of the Board of Chemical Studies, June the British Rubber Research Association. 5, 1931. University of London Archive, AC 8/11/l/2. 50. G .A. Jeffrey to C. K. Ingold, August 27, 1945, Univer- 36. "Oscar Lisle Brady (1890-1968)," Chem. Brit. 68, 4, sity College London Records Office, Chemistry Appoint- 554, was then reader in Organic Chemistry at UCL. ments Files, File 31/3/9. The offer of collaboration was 37. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- not, in the event taken up, see Ref. 49. cal Studies, October 21, 1932; December 15, 1933. Uni- 51. Prof. H. J. Milledge of UCL Department of Geology versity of London Archive, AC 8/11/l/2. [UCL: PhD 1951], Interview, November 17, 1993. Prof. 38. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- Milledge notes that Lonsdale certainly did no service cal Studies, July 22, 1942. University of London Archive, work for the department and, except for some joint re- AC 8/11/1/3. search with Professor Craig, her interests were quite 39. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- separate. cal Studies, March 17, 1939. University of London 52. "Statement of the Case for the Establishment of a Read- Archive, AC 8/11/l/3, ership in Crystallography in the Department of Chemis- 40. University College London Records Office, Minutes of try," University College London Records Office, Min- College Committee, July 4, 1939, Appendix X. utes of the College Committee, June 4, 1946, Appendix 41. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- X. cal Studies, January 26, 1940. University of London 53. "Sir Ronald Sydney Nyholm, 1917-1971," Chem. Brit., Archive, AC 8/Il/l/3. 2, 8, 341. 42. C. K. Ingold, "Education in Chemistry: The Aim of the 54. C. K. Ingold, "Education in Chemistry," Ref. 42, p. 4. Revised Regulations in Science Degrees," Brit. Chem- 55. Margaret É. Farago [Baldwin, UCL: h 1959], "Ingold ist, , 35, No 3, 2-4, on p. 3. and Inorganic Reaction Mechanisms," RSC, ACC, Ref. 43. University of London, Minutes of the Board of Chemi- 1, April 6, 1993 and Fred Basolo, "Base Hydrolysis of cal Studies, l 22, 1942; July 14, September 21, and Cobalt(III) Amines," ACS National Meeting, Ref. l, November 4, 4 May 4, 1944. University of London August 25, 1993. Nyholm received a UCL PhD in 1950. Archive, AC 8/11/1/3. See also, C. W. Shoppee, Ref. 2, pp. 368-9. 44. C. K. Ingold, "Education in Chemistry," Ref. 42. 56. "Professor Ingold's Application to the DSIR for equip- 45. See Brit. Chemist., , 35, passim; Professor M. ment for the development of a special research," en- MeGlashan of UCL, Interview, November 14, 1993; Pro- 12 Bull. Hist. Chem. (1996)
closed with C. K. Ingold to Provost, October 15, 1948, 64. Correspondence between C. K. Ingold and B. !for Evans University College London Records Office, Chemistry [Provost], January 28, 1957 - February 15, 1957. Uni- Miscellaneous Files, File 31/3/24, Professor C. A. versity College London Records Office, Ingold File, File Bunton [UCL: BSc 1941, PhD 1945], now at the Uni- 31/l/27. In the event, the retirement age for professors versity of California, Santa Barbara, Interview, August was raised to 67, so Ingold stayed on until 1961. [Pro- 25, 1993. vost to C. K. Ingold, June 17, 1957. ibid.] 57. Millen, Ridd and Davies, Interviews, Ref. 18. 65. C. K. Ingold to B. Evans [Provost], March 29, 1956. 58. University College London Records Office, Chemistry University College London Records Office, Ingold File, Miscellaneous Files, Chemistry Staff and Consultancy file 31/l/27. Work 31/3/61, correspondence in October and Novem- 66. Professor Ingold's Memorandum on Rebuilding the ber 1956. Department of Chemistry, February 1958. University 59. The Future Needs of the Chemistry Department, Janu- College London Records Office, Chemistry Files, File ary 31, 1944. University College London Records Of- 31/3/76. fice, Post-war and Finance, 1939-1945, ff. 277-297. 67. Most of my interviewees have made this point. 60. Of the 259 members of the 1929 to 1937 cohort of BSc 68. C. K. Ingold to Provost, May 31, 1961. University Col- Specials, 72 (28%) went on to UCL PhD's. Another 15 lege London Records office, Ingold File, File 31/l/27. students, did an MSc or DSc. In addition, during that 69. With regard to the new University of Lancaster, see "Lec- period, some 32 students who had done BScs elsewhere ture to the Lancastrian Frankland Society, October 19, did a PhD at UCL. Thus during the period overall, the 1962," Churchill College Archives Centre, Cambridge, postgraduate cohort was about 40% of the size of the Todd Collection, 11/18. undergraduate cohort while UCL graduates comprised 70. C. K. Ingold, The Éducation of a Scientist, Ibadan, 1963. two-thirds of the PhD cohort. In fact, during Ingold's UCL had a formal relationship on behalf of the Univer- headship, the percentage of UC undergraduates staying sity of London with Ibadan to help it make the transi- on remained remarkably similar, although they were a tion from an institution whose students took London de- smaller segment of the total postgraduate cohort. Of grees to an independent university. Ingold wished to the 661 students who completed BSc Special Degrees accept the invitation, he said, because the Department in Chemistry at UCL between 1938 and 1961, 173 (26%) there had been largely built up by old students of UCL. went on to take PhDs there by 1964; that is 46% of the Four Englishmen who did UCL BScs and received UCL 370 UCL Chemistry PhDs awarded between 1938 and PhDs in 1950 made careers at the then University Col- 1964. [Chemistry has been taken to include Crystallog- lege of Ibadan, as did a Nigerian who received a PhD in raphy.] "Chemists Prosopography Project," Ref. 22. 1959; "Chemists Prosopography Project," Ref. 22. 61. The Future Needs of the Chemistry Department, Ref. 71. It was also unique in its lack of preparative organic and 59, f. 282. Interestingly, as mentioned above, Ingold's bioorganic chemistry, which made it very different from own approach to post-graduate tasks, though not one of other departments. "mass-production", was to organize students to work on 72. C. K. Ingold, "University of Éast Anglia: First Thoughts different angles of a particular problem in which he was on a Plan for a Faculty of Science," September 12, 1960; interested. Some of the work would be quite routine The Registry, University of East Anglia. Emphasis in and, on occasion, might repeat that of previous students. the original. Several of my interviewees made this point. 62. Ibid., f. 292. This was rather a contrast to Donnan's A OU E AU O integrationist model. 63. Proposal for a Third Chair of Chemistry, n.d. [c. De- Gerrylynn K. Roberts is a Senior Lecturer in the De- cember 1947]; and D. B. Pye [Provost], File note of con- partment of History of Science and Technology, Fac- versation with Professor Ingold, n.d. [c. December 1947]. ulty of Arts, The Open University, Milton Keynes MK7 University College London Records Office, Chairs of 6AA, UK. She is Hon. Editor of Ambix, the Journal of Chemistry Files, File 31/2/2. Still using the need for a the Society for the History of Alchemy and Chemistry, theoretician as an argument, in 1954, Ingold negotiated and is interested in the social history of nineteenth the institution of a fourth chair in chemistry with special and twentieth century chemistry, especially attention to theoretical chemistry. The "theoretical" qualifier was attached for tactical reasons within the professionalization, institutionalization, and education. University and was soon dropped from the title once the chair was taken up by D. P. Craig [UCL: PhD 1949], who was indeed a theoretician. Kathleen Lonsdale was awarded a personal chair, so there were five chairs in the department.